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THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
FIRST
SECOND
THIRD
FOURTH
FIFTH
SIXTH
SEVENTH
EIGHTH
NINTH
TENTH
ELEVENTH
edition, published in three volumes,. 17681771.
ten 17771)84.
eighteen 1788 1797.
twenty 1801 1810.
twenty 1815 1817.
twenty 1823 1824.
twenty-one 1830 1842.
twenty-two 1853 1860.
twenty-five 1875 1889.
ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes, 1902 1903.
published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 1911.
COPYRIGHT
in all countries subscribing to the
Bern Convention
by
THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
A II rights reserved
THE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XXIII
REFECTORY to SAINTE-BEUVE
Cambridge, England:
at the University Press
New York, 35 West 32nd Street
191 1
E3
Copyright, in the United States of America, 1911,
by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company
A. G.*
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXIII. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL
CONTRIBUTORS, 1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE
ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
A. B. Ch. A. B. CHATWOOD, Ass.M.lNST.C.E., M.INST.ELEC.E. \ Safes, Strong-rooms and Vaults.
A. C. G. ALBERT CHARLES LEWIS GOTTHILF GUENTHER, M.A., M.D., PH.D., F.R.S. f
Keeper of Zoological Department, British Museum, 1875-1895. Gold Medallist,] D O _:IC. wt~,, t;~
Royal Society, 1878. Author of Catalogue cf Colubrine Snakes, Batrachia, Salientia, 1 Ke P tlles - History (in part)
and Fishes in the British Museum ; &c.
A. D. HENRY AUSTIN DOBSON, LL.D. / D . .
See the biographical article: DOBSON, HENRY AUSTIN. \ Richardson, Samuel.
A. D. Mo. ANSON DANIEL MORSE, M.A., LL.D. r
Emeritus Professor of History at Amherst College, Mass. Professor at Amherst -< Republican Party.
College, 1877-1908.
ARTHUR GAMGEE, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.P., LL.D., D.Sc. (1841-1000). f ..
Formerly Fullerian Professor of Physiology, Royal Institution of Great Britain, and I Res Piratory System: Move-
Professor of Physiology in the University of Manchester. Author of Text-Book of] ments of Respiration.
the Physiological Chemistry of the Animal Body; &c.
A. Go.* REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A. / D lhad p npira Ppdro A
Lecturer in Church History in the University of Manchester.
A. H.* ALBERT HAUCK, D.Tn., D.Pn.
Professor of Church History in the University of Leipzig, and Director of the
Museum of Ecclesiastical Archaeology. Geheimer Kirchenrat of Saxony. Member
of the Royal Saxon Academy of Sciences and Corresponding Member of the 4 Relics.
Academies of Berlin and Munich. Author of Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands; &c. '
Editor of the new edition of Herzog's Realencyklopddie fur protestantische Theologie
und Kirche.
t
A. Ha. ADOLF HARNACK, D.Pn. f _ . ...
See the biographical article: HARNACK, ADOLF. \ 9
A. H.-S. SlR A. HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, C.I.E. f p . ,
General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak.
A. H. Sm. ARTHUR HAMILTON SMITH, M.A., F.S.A.
Keeper of the Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities in the British Museum. I Ring (in part).
Member of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of Catalogue of 1
Greek Sculpture in the British Museum ; &c.
A. M. C. AGNES MARY CLERKE. f R p ? i omonta nus
See the biographical article: CLERKE, A. M. \ Keg101
A. M. F. D. AGNES MARY FRANCES DUCLAUX. J
See the biographical article: DUCLAUX, A. M. F. \
A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. f Rhea; Rifleman-bird;
See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. \ Roller (Bird) ; Ruff.
A. P. H. ALFRED PETER HILLIER, M.D., M.P. <
Author of South African Studies; The Commonweal; &c. Served in Kaffir War,
1878-1879. Partner with Dr L. S. Jameson in medical practice in South Africa till -j Rhodesia: History (in part).
1896. Member of Reform Committee, Johannesburg, and Political Prisoner at
Pretoria, 1895-1896. M.P. for Hitchin division of Herts, 1910.
A. S. P.-P. ANDREW SETH PRINGLE-PATTISON, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. r
Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Gifford J DoM Thmnoc <;~ j>.i\
Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen, 1911. Fellow of the British Academy. \ Reld Tnomas (>n part).
Author of Man's Place in the Cosmos; The Philosophical Radicals; &c.
A. S. Wo. ARTHUR SMITH WOODWARD, LL.D., F.R.S. f D eD tii es . TJiitnrv (in barh and
Keeper of Geology, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. Secretary of \ *
the Geological Society, London. I General Characters.
1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume.
V
1992
vi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
A. W. H.* ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. / _
Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. \ KeglClue, Rienzi, Cola di.
A. W. R. ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B.
Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Laws "i Rent.
of England.
Fellow, Tutor and Librarian of Balliol College, Oxford. Author of The Religion of\ Roman Religion.
Ancient Rome; &c.
C. B. P. CATHERINE BEATRICE PHILLIPS, B.A. (Mrs W. ALISON PHILLIPS). /Robes.
Associate of Bedford College, London.
C. E.* CHARLES EVERITT, M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S.,-F.R.A.S. /Refraction: Refraction of
Sometime Scholar of Magdalen College, Oxford. \ Light.
C. F. A. CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. f Rjfl e f{ n p an \ .
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal { D-. CC K O .,V,
Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour. ( " oss
C. H. Ha. CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M.,. PH.D. f
Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. Members Rosary.
of the American Historical Association.
C. H. W. J. REV. CLAUDE HERMANN WALTER JOHNS, M.A., Lrrr.D. f Sabbath- Babylonian and
Master of St Catharine's College, Cambridge. Canon of Norwich. Author of \ . Da y l
Assyrian Deeds and Documents. I Assyrian.
C. L. K. CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.HiST.S.
Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. Editor
Richard II.; Richard III.;
Rivers, Richard Woodville,
Earl*
of Chronicles of London and Stow's Survey of London.
Russell, Bishop.
C. Mi P. CHARLES MURRAY PITMAN. ("
Sometime Scholar of New College, Oxford. Formerly Stroke of the Oxford Uni- \ Rowing.
versity Eight.
C. R. B. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HiST.S.
Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow Rubruquis, William of
of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. \ i^ n t> ar i\
Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of
Henry the Navigator; The Dawn of Modern Geography; &c.
C. We. CECIL WEATHERLY. f Saddlprv and
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. \
D. B. Ma. DUNCAN BLACK MACDONALD, M.A., D.D. i
Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, Hartford, Conn. J Rum Or Roum.
Author of Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional ]
Theory; Selections from Ibn Khaldun; Religious Attitude and Life in Islam; &c.
D. C. T. DAVID CROAL THOMSON. ("
Formerly Editor of the Art Journal. Author of The Brothers Maris; The Barbizon \ Rousseau, Pierre E. T.
School of Painters ; Life of " Phiz " ; Life of Bewick ; &c.
D. F. T. DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. . f R nv thm- in music-
Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The \ D j
Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. )nuO.
D. H. DAVID HANNAY. f
Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Royal \ Rigging.
Navy ; Life of Emilia Castelar ; &c.
D. H. M. DAVID HEINRICH MULLER, D.Pn.
Professor of Semitic Languages in the University of Vienna. Hofrat of the Austrian < Sabaeans.
Empire. Knight of the Order of Leopold. Author of Die Gesetze Hammurabi; &c. [
D. LI. T. DANIEL LLEUFER THOMAS.
Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Stipendiary Magistrate at Pontypridd and ] Rhondda.
Rhondda.
D. M. W. SIR DONALD MACKENZIE WALLACE, K.C.I.E., K.C.V.O.
Extra Groom of the Bedchamber to H.M. King George V. Director of the Foreign
Department of The Times, 1891-1899. Member of Institut de Droit International
and Officier de 1'Instruction Publique of France. Joint-editor of New Volumes
(loth ed.) of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Author of Russia; Egypt and Egyptian
Question ; The Web of Empire ; &c.
Russia: History (in part).
D. R.-M. DAVID RANDALL- MACIVER, M.A., D.Sc. r
Curator of Egyptian Department, LTniversity of Pennsylvania. Formerly Worcester \ Rhodesia: Archaeology.
Reader in Egyptology, University of Oxford. Author of Medieval Rhodesia ; &c. [
E. B. EDWARD BRECK, M.A., PH.D. r
Formerly Foreign Correspondent of the New York Herald and the New York Times. \ Sabre-fencing.
Author of Fencing; Wilderness Pets; Sporting in Nova Scotia; &c.
f Robert Guiscard;
E. Cu. EDMUND CURTIS, M.A. J Roppr T of S! =,'.
Keble College, Oxford. Lecturer on History in the University of Sheffield. [ !| {j of Sicily
E. C. B. RIGHT REV, EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, M.A., O.S.B., D.LITT. f
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius," ~\ Sabas, St.
in Cambridge Texts and Studies.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Vll
E. F. S.
E.G.
E. Gr.
E. Ha.
E.He.
E. H. B.
E. H. M.
E. L. B.
E.G.*
E. Pr.
F. C. C.
F. G. P.
F. G. S.
F. Ha.
F. J. H.
F. J. S.
F. LI. G.
F. L. L.
F. P.
F. R. C.
F.We.
EDWARD FAIRBROTHER STRANGE. f
Assistant Keeper, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. Member of J
Council, Japan Society. Author of numerous works on art subjects. Joint-editor 1
of Bell's " Cathedral Series.
EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D., D.C.L.
See the biographical article: GOSSE, EDMUND.
ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER, M.A.
See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY.
REV. EDWIN HATCH, M.A., D.D.
See the biographical article: HATCH, EDWIN.
EDWARD HEAWOOD, M.A.
Gonville and Cains College, Cambridge.
Society, London.
Librarian of the Royal Geographical -j
L
Repin, Ilja.
Rhyme; Rhythm (in verse);
Rimbaud, Jean;
Rivers, Anthony Woodville,
Earl;
Rossetti, Christina;
Runes, Runic Language
and Inscriptions;
Rydberg, Abraham; Saga.
Rhodes (in part).
Sacrifice: In the Christian
Church.
Rudolf (Lake);
Ruwenzori;
Sahara (in part).
SIR EDWARD HERBERT BUNBURY, Bart., M.A., F.R.G.S. (d. 1895).
M.P. for Bury St Edmunds, 1847-1852. Author of A History of Ancient Geography; \ Rhodes (in part).
&c. t
ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A. f
University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant Librarian \ Russian Language,
at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College.
EDWARD LIVERMORE BURLINGAME, A.M., PH.D. /_
Editor of Scribner's Magazine. Formerly on the Staff of New York Tribune. \ '"P 16 *' George.
EDMUND OWEN, F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. [
Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital,
Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Late Ex- -I Respiratory System: Surgery.
aminer in Surgery at the Universities of Cambridge, London and Durham. Author
of A Manual of A natomy for Senior Students.
EDGAR PRESTAGE.
Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Ex-
aminer in Portuguese in the Universities of London, Manchester, &c. Com-
mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal '
Academy of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society; &c. Editor of Letters of a
Portuguese Nun ; Azurara's Chronicles of Guinea ; &c.
Resende, Andre de;
Resende, Garcia de;
Ribeiro, Bernardim;
Sa de Miranda, Francisco de.
FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.Tn. r
Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. I _
Editor of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle. Author of Myth, Magic and] Sacrament.
Morals; &c.
FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S. r
Vice- President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on J Reproductive System;
Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women, 1 Respiratory System: Anatomy.
London. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons.
F.
Formerly Art Critic of the Athenaeum. Author of Artists at Home ; George Cruik- J Rossetti ' Dante Gabriel (in
shank ;_ Memorial s_of W. Mulready; French and Flemish Pictures; Sir E. Land-~\ part).
seer; T. C. Hook, R.A.; &c.
FREDERIC HARRISON.
See the biographical article: HARRISON, FREDERIC.
FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A.
Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of
Brasenose College. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Censor, Student,
Tutor and Librarian of Christ Church, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1906-1907.
Author of Monographs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain; &c.
FREDERICK JOHN SNELL, M.A.
Balliol College, Oxford. Author of The Age of Chaucer; &c.
J Ruskin, John.
Roman Army.
J Robin Hood (in part).
FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. c
Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey J Rosetta.
and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial 1
German Archaeological Institute.
LADY LUGARD.
See the biographical article: LUGARD, SIR F. J. D.
FRANK PODMORE, M.A. (1856-1910).
Sometime Scholar of Pembroke College, Oxford.
Mesmerism and Christian Science; &c.
J Rhodes, Cecil.
Author of Modern Spiritualism ; J Retro-cognition.
FRANK R. CANA. f Rhodesia: History (in part);
Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. \ Sahara (in part).
FREDERICK WEDMORE.
See the biographical article: WEDMORE, FREDERICK.
! Ribot, Theoduie
viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. [ Rock-Crystal;
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. | p. ,,-,:,!
President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. lle >
G. A.* GERTRUDE FRANKLIN ATHERTON. f
Author of Rezdnov ; A ncestors ; The Tower of Ivory ; &c. \
G. Ch. GEORGE CHRYSTAL, M.A., LL.D.
Professor of Mathematics and Dean of the Faculty of Arts, Edinburgh University, -j Riemann, Georg.
Hon. Fellow and formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. I
G. C. W. GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON, LITT.D.
Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Miniatures ; Life of Richard I . i-i,_
Cosway, R.A.; George Englekeart; Portrait Drawings; &c. Editor of the New] eu > Jonn
Edition of Bryan's Dictionary of Painters and Engravers.
G. Du. GEORGE DUTHIE, M.A., F.R.S. (Edin.). /Rhodesia: Geography and
Director of Education, Southern Rhodesia. I Statistics.
G. J. T. GEORGE JAMES TURNER. f
Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Editor of Select Pleas of the Forests for the Sclden -j Ridings.
Society.
G. R. P. GEORGE ROBERT PARKIN, LL.D., C.M.G. / Rhodes, Cecil: Rhodes
See the biographical article: PARKIN, G. R. I Scholarships.
_ f Retz, Cardinal de;
G. Sa. GEORGE SAINTSBURY, LL.D., D.C.L. I Rom , ni> _. Rnll<;ar H.
See the biographical article: SAINTSBURY, GEORGE E. B.
( Rousseau, Jean Jacques.
G. Sn. GRANT SHOWERMAN, A.M., Pii.D.
Professor of Latin at the University of Wisconsin. Member of the Archaeological j
Institute of America. Member of the American Philological Association. Author of 1 Rhea (Mythology).
With the Professor; The Great Mother of the Gods; &c.
H. B. HILARY BAUERMANN, F.G.S. (d. 1909).
Formerly Lecturer on Metallurgy at the Ordnance College, Woolwich. Author of ^ Safety-Lamp.
A Treatise on the Metallurgy of Iron. {
H. Br. HENRY BRADLEY, M.A., PH.D. f
Joint-editor of the New English Dictionary (Oxford). Fellow of the British ] Riddles.
Academy. Author of The Story of the Goths; The Making. of English; &c.
H. B. M. THE VERY REV. CANON H. B. MACKEY, O.S.B. f ,;.,.,_.., Hooi
Author of Four Essays on St Francis de Sales. \ *
H. Ch. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A. f Ron.--.,-*..*!,.,,.
Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the 1 1 th edition of 1 "' I. ,
the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Co-editor of the loth edition. ' Rosebery, Earl Of.
H. De. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S.J. r p oc j, g*.
Assistant in the compilation of the Bollandist publications: Analecla Bollandiana <
and Ada. Sanctorum. [ Rupert, St; Saint.
H. E. KARL HERMANN ETHE, M.A., PH.D.
Professor of Oriental Languages, University College, Aberystwyth (University of
Wales). Author of Catalogue of Persian Manuscripts in the India Office Library, 1 Sa'di.
London (Clarendon Press) ; &c.
H. F. G. HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, F.R.S. , PH.D. f_ ...
Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge.-! Reptiles: Anatomy and
Author of " Amphibia and Reptiles," in the Cambridge Natural History. [ Distribution.
H. F. P. HENRY FRANCIS PELHAM, LL.D., D.C.L. f Rome: Ancient History
See the biographical article: PELHAM, H. F. ^ (f n p ar t)
H. Go. HENRY GOUDY, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. r
Regius Professor of Civil Law, Oxford, and Fellow of All Souls' College. Author -< Roman Law.
of The Law of Bankruptcy in Scotland ; &c.
H. H. HENRI SIMON HYMANS, PH.D.
Keeper of the Bibliotheque Royale de Belgique, Brussels. Author of Rubens: sa { Rubens (in part),
vie et son ceuvre.
I Respiratory System:
H. L. H. HARRIET L. HENNESSY, M.D. (Brux.), L.R.C.P.I., L.R.C.S.I. Pathology (in part);
( Rheumatoid Arthritis.
H. M. V. HERBERT M. VAUGHAN, F.S.A.
Keble College, Oxford. Author of Tlie Last of the Royal Stuarts; The Medici Popes; \ St Davids.
The Last Stuart Queen.
H. R. T. HENRY RICHARD TEDDER, F.S.A. f
Secretary and Librarian of the Athenaeum Club, London. \ Rymer, Thomas.
H. St. HENRY STURT, M.A. /
Author of Idola Theatri; The Idea of a Free Church; Personal Idealism. \ Relativity Of Knowledge.
H. S. J. HENRY STUART JONES, M.A. [ Roman Art;
Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Oxford, and Director of the British J Rome: Ancient City (in part),
School at Rome. Member of the German Imperial Archaeological Institute. Author 1 Christian Rome (in part) and
of The Roman Empire ; &c. Ancient History (in part).
H. S.-K. SIR HENRY SETON-KARR, C.M.G., M.A. f
M.P. for St Helen's, 1885-1906. Author of My Sporting Holidays; &c. \ Rlfle '
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
IX
H. Tr. SIR HENRY TROTTER, K.C.M.G., C.B.
Lieutenant-Colonel, Royal Engineers. H.B.M. Consul-General for Roumania, J Rumania* Historv (in Dart)
1894-1906, and British Delegate on the European Commission of the Danube.
Victoria Medallist, Royal Geographical Society, 1878.
Richard, Earl of Cornwall;
H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A.
Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, -
1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne.
H. W. S. H. WICKHAM STEED.
Richard I.;
Richard of Devizes;
Robert of Gloucester;
Roger of Hoveden;
Roger of Wendover.
ICKHAM STEED.
Correspondent of The Times at Vienna. Correspondent of The Times at Rome, 4 Ricasoli Baron.
^
H. Y. SIR HENRY YULE, K.C.S.I., C.B. j? 1 ^ 1 ' M ? tte '. 11 .
See the biographical article: YULE, SIR HENRY. 'I Rubruquis, William of
I (in part).
1. A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. f Ritual Murder;
Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. I Sabbalai Sebi;
Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short I Sabbatiorr
History of Jewish Literature; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages; Judaism; &c. I S h M'' h 1
J. A. H. JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.Sc.
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Author of
The Geology of Building Stones.
J. A. S. JOHN ADDINGTON SYMONDS, LL.D.
See the biograph'
J. Bra. JOSEPH BRAUN, S.J.
See the biographical article: SYMONDS, J. A. { Renaissance.
;PH BRAUN, S.J. f
Author of Die Lilurgische Gewandung; &c. 1 KOChet.
J. Bt. JAMES BARTLETT.
Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c., at King's J Roofs
College, London. Member of Society of Architects. Member of Institute of Junior 1
Engineers.
J. B. B. JOHN BAGNALL BURY, D.Lrrr., D.C.L. f _ _
See the biographical article: BURY, J. B. \ Roman Empire, Later.
J. B. M. JAMES BASS MULLINGER, M.A. r
Lecturer in History, St John's College, Cambridge. Formerly University Lecturer
in History and President of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society. Birkbeck Lecturer < Richard of Cirencester.
in Ecclesiastical History at Trinity College, Cambridge, 1890-1894. Author of
History of the University of Cambridge ; The Schools of Charles the Great ; &c.
J. D. B. JAMES DAVID BOURCHIER, M.A., F.R.G.S.
King's College, Cambridge. ; Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe. J R . rt h T
Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of Montenegro and of the Saviour of 1 ' " ovan -
Greece, and Officer of the Order of St Alexander of Bulgaria.
J. E. C. REV. JOSEPH ESTLIN CARPENTER, M.A., D.Lrrr:, D.D., D.Tn. r
Principal of Manchester College, Oxford. Author of The First Three Gospels, their -! Religion.
Origin and Relations ; The Bible in the Nineteenth Century ; &c.
J. F. H. B. SIR JOHN FRANCIS HARPIN BROADBENT, BART., M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P., M.R.C.S. r
Physician to Out- Patients, St Mary's Hospital, London ; Physician to the Hamp- J _.
stead General Hospital ; Assistant Physician to the London Fever Hospital. ] Rheumatism.
Author of Heart Disease and Aneurysm; &c.
J. F.-K. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, Lrrr.D., F.R.HiST.S. f
Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University.
Norman McCoIl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. < Ruiz, Juan.
Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of
Alphonso XII. Author of A" History of Spanish Literature; &c.
J. F. M. JAMES FULLARTON MUIRHEAD, LL.D.
Editor of many of Baedeker's Guide Books. Author of America, the Land /! Rhine (in part).
Contrasts. I
J. F. W. JOHN FORBES WHITE, M.A., LL.D. (d. 1004). f Rembrandt (In toarfi
Joint-author of the Life and Art of G. P. Chalmers, R.S.A. ; &c. t
*& J. G. His EMINENCE CARDINAL TAMES GIBBONS. f Roman Catholic Church:
See the biographical article : GIBBONS, JAMES. \ United States.
J. G. H. JOSEPH G. HORNER, A.M.I.MECH.E. f Rolling-mill
Author of Plating and Boiler Making; Practical Metal Turning; &c. I
J. H. A. H. JOHN HENRY ARTHUR HART, M.A. I gadducees
Fellow, Theological Lecturer and Librarian, St John's College, Cambridge.
Rietschel, Ernst;
J. H. M. JOHN HENRY MIDDLETON, M.A., Lrrr.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1896).
Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1886-1895. Director
of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 1889-1892. Art Director of the South'
Kensington Museum, 1892-1896. Author of The Engraved Gems of Classical Times;
Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediaeval Times.
Ring (in part) ;
Rome: The Ancient City (in
part) ; and Christian Rome
(in part);
Round Towers.
J. H. R. JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D.
Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family -! Register.
History; Peerage and Pedigree.
x INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
J. H. R.* JAMES HARVEY ROBINSON, A.M., PH.D. [
Professor of History, Columbia University, New York. Author of Petrarch, lhe~\ Reformation, The.
First Modern Scholar ; History of Western Europe ; &c.
J. HI. R. JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., Lin.D.
Christ's College, Cambridge. Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge J Reichstadt, Duke of.
University Local Lectures Syndicate. Author of Life of Napoleon I.; Napoleonic
Studies ; The Development of the European Na'ions ; The Life of Pitt ; &c.
J. H. V. C. JOHN HENRY VERRINDER CROWE. f
Lieut.-Colonel, Royal Artillery. Commandant of the Royal Military College of I Russo-Turkish War-
Canada. Formerly Chief Instructor in Military Topography and Military History -j , K \
and Tactics at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. Author of Epitome of the
Russo-Turkish War, 1877-78; &c.
J. J. L.* REV. JOHN JAMES LIAS, M.A. f
Chancellor of Llandaff Cathedral. Formerly Hulsean Lecturer in Divinity and I R euscn franz H
Lady Margaret Preacher, University of Cambridge. Author of Miracles, Science |
and Prayer ; &c.
J. J. T. SIR JOSEPH JOHN THOMSON, D.Sc., LL.D., PH.D., F.R.S.
Cavendish Professor of Experimental Physics and Fellow of Trinity College, Cam-
bridge. President of the British Association, 1909-1910. Author of A Treatise on J \ Rontgen Rays.
the Motion of Vortex Rings; Application of Dynamics to Physics and Chemistry;
Recent Researches in Electricity and Magnetism ; &c.
J. L. W. JESSIE LAIDLAY WESTON. f Round Tahla Th*
Author of Arthurian Romances unrepresented in Malory. \ " 3le>
J. Mt. JAMES MOFFATT, M.A., D.D. f
Minister of the United Free Church of Scotland. Jowett Lecturer, London, 1907. -< Romans, Epistle to the.
Author of Historical New Testament; &c.
J. S. F. JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S. f
Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in Edin- J Rhyolite
burgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby ]
Medallist of the Geological Society of London.
J. S. H. JOHN SCOTT HALDANE, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. r
Fellow of New College, Oxford, and University Reader in Physiology. Metro- Respiratory System: Physio-
politan Gas Referee to the Board of Trade. Joint-editor and founder of the Journal <
of Hygiene. Author of Blue-books on " The Causes of Death in Colliery Explo-
sions ' ; &c. L
J. S. R. JAMES SMITH REID, M.A., LL.M., LITT.D., LL.D. f Jj 11 ? 01 } 1 ' Friedrich W.;
Professor of Ancient History and Fellow and Tutor of Gonville and Caius College, I Kuhl ken > David;
Cambridge. Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Lecturer, of Christ's College. | RutiliUS, Claudius
Editor of Cicero's Academica; De Amicitia; &c. Namatianus.
J. T. Be. JOHN THOMAS BEALBY. r Riga (in part) ;
Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical J Russia: Geography and
Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c. {_ Statistics (in part).
J. T. S.* JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, Pn.D. f Richelieu, Cardinal;
Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. 1 Sacrilege.
J. W. JAMES WILLIAMS, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. f R oman catholi<
All Souls' Reader in Roman Law in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Lincoln 4 , .
College. Barrister-at-Law of Lincoln's Inn. Author of Law of the Universities; &c. L English Law.
J. Wai.* JAMES WALKER, M.A. r
Christ Church, Oxford. Demonstrator in the Clarendon Laboratory. Formerly J Rotmntmn- n u
Vice- President of the Physical Society. Author of The Analytical Theory of Light; 1 *
&c. [
J.We. JULIUS WELLHAUSEN, D.D. Juoi.vo T,,*,,,
See the biographical article: WELLHAUSEN, JULIUS. \ * 15Ke > Jonann Jacol) -
J. W. H. JOHN WESLEY HALES, M.A.
Emeritus Professor of English Literature at King's College, London. Hon. Fellow,
formerly Fellow and Tutor, of Christ's College, Cambridge. Clark Lecturer in \ Robin Hood (in part).
English Literature at Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of Shakespeare Essays
and Notes ; Folia Litteraria ; &c. I
K. S. KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. r p eea j. p
Editor of the Portfolio of Musical Archaeology. Author of The Instruments of the \ ,, .. '
Orchestra. [ aaCKDUl.
L. F. A. LAWRENCE F. ABBOTT. f
President of The Outlook Company, New York. \ Roosevelt, Theodore.
L. F. V.-H. LEVESON FRANCIS VERNON-HARCOURT, M.A., M.lNST.C.E. (1839-1907).
Professor of Civil Engineering at University College, London, 1882-1905. Author j HJ VPI . Ensineerin?
of Rivers and Canals; Harbours and Docks; Civil Engineering as applied in Con-] Engineering.
struction ; &c. [
L. J. S. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. r
Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of J Rutile
Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor okthe Mineral- }
ogtcal Magazine.
L. L. S. LIONEL LANCELOT SHADWELL, M.A. J _
Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. One of H.M. Commissioners in Lunacy. \ Ke 8 istratlon -
M. A. MATTHEW ARNOLD. f Q . , _
See the biographical article: ARNOLD, MATTHEW.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
xi
M. Cr.
M. G.
M. Ha.
M. H. S.
M. 0. B. C.
M. P.*
N. W. T.
0. A.
0. Ba.
0. M.*
P. A. A.
P. A. K.
P. C. M.
P. Gi.
P. G. K.
P. V.
R. A. N.
R. C. J.
R* H* C.
FRANCIS MARION CRAWFORD.
See the biographical article : CRAWFORD, F. MARION.
MOSES CASTER, PH.D.
Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic Communities of England.
J _ , .
"
Vice- President, Zionist
Congress, 1898, 1899, 1900. Ilchester Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and Byzantine J .....
Literature, 1886 and 1891. President, Folk-lore Society of England. Vice-] iumalu a: Literature.
President, Anglo-Jewish Association. Author of History of Rumanian Popular
Literature ; &c.
MARCUS HARTOG, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S.
Professor of Zoology, University College, Cork.
bridge Natural History; and papers for various scientific journals.
Author of " Protozoa," in Cam-
fRhizoDoda-
<
tera -
MARION H. SPIELMANN, F.S.A.
Formerly Editor of the Magazine of Art. Member of Fine Art Committee of Inter- Relief;
national Exhibitions of Brussels, Paris, Buenos Aires, Rome and the Franco-British J R Rn niiB-
Exhibition, London. Author of History of " Punch " ; British Portrait Painting ]
to the Opening of the Nineteenth Century; Works of G. F. Watts, R.A.; British "OUblliac, LOUIS
Sculpture and Sculptors of To-day; Henriette Ronner; &c.
MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A.
Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birmingham
University, 1905-1908.
LEON JACQUES MAXIME PRINET.
Formerly Archivist to the French National Archives.
Rhodes (in part) ;
Romanus I.-IV. (Eastern
Emperors).
Auxiliary of the Institute I Retz, Seigneurs and Dukes of;
of France (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences). Author of L'Industrie du sel\ Rouault Joachim.
en Frenche-Comte; Francois I et le comte de Bourgogne; &c. I
NORTHCOTE WHITRIDGE THOMAS, M.A.
Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the
Socidte d'Anthropologie de Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and
Marriage in A ustralia ; &c.
OSMUND AIRY, M.A., LL.D.
e
H.M. Divisional Inspector of Schools and Inspector of Training Colleges, Board of J n ...
Author of Louis XIV. and the English Restoration; Charles II.; &c. 1 Russell > Lo William.
Education.
Editor of the Lauderdale Papers ; &c.
.
OSWALD BARRON, F.S.A. f
Editor of The Ancestor, 1902-1905. Hon. Genealogist to Standing Council of the -I Russell (Family).
Honourable Society of the Baronetage. I
OCTAVE MAUS, LL.D.
Advocate of the Court of Appeal at Brussels. Director of L'Art Moderne and of I
the Libre Esthetique. President of the Association of Belgian writers. Officer of the -s Rops, Felicien.
Legion of Honour. Author of Le Thedtre de Bayreuth; Aux Ambassadeurs ; Malta,
Constantinople et la Crimee; &c.
PHILIP A. ASHWORTH, M.A., Doc. JURIS.
New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law.
of the English Constitution.
Translator of H. R. von Gneist's History*, Rhine (in part).
PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN.
See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, PRINCE P. A.
and
.
Statistics (in part).
PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc., LL.D. r
Secretary of the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in Com- J Regeneration of Lost Parts;
parative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891. Author | Reproduction: of Animals.
of Outlines of Biology ; &c.
PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., Lirr.D. f
Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University J c
Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philological j
Society.
PAUL GEORGE KONODY. fi>. m h, n ^t <
Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of The Artist. -{ *
Author of The Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez: Life and Work- &c. ( Rubens (in part)
PASQUALE VILLARI.
See the biographical article: VILLARI, PASQUALE.
J Rimini; Rome: Roman Re-
public in the Middle Ages.
REYNOLD ALLEYNE NICHOLSON, M.A., Lnr.D.
Lecturer in Persian in the University of Cambridge. Sometime Fellow of Trinity
College, Cambridge, and Professor of Persian at University College, London. J Sabians.
Author of Selected Poems from the Divani Shamsi Tabriz; A Literary History of I
the Arabs ; &c. {
SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE JEBB, LL.D., D.C.L.
See the biographical article: JEBB, SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE.
REV. ROBERT HENRY CHARLES, M.A., D.D., D.LITT.
Grinfield Lecturer, and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Oxford. Fellow of Merton
College. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Professor of Biblical Greek, .
Trinity College, Dublin. Author of Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life;
Book of Jubilees ; &c.
Revelation, Book of.
Xll
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
R. J. M
R. L.*
R. N. B.
R. R. M.
R. S. C.
R. W. F. H.
S. A. C.
stc.
S. H. V.*
S. N.
T. As.
T. A. I.
T. Ba.
T. B. L.
T. H.*
T. Wo.
T. W.-D.
W. A. B. C.
W. A. P.
RONALD JOHN McNEiLL, M.A.
r Richmond, Earls and
Dukes of;
Christ Church, Oxford.
Gazette, London.
Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the St James's - Richmond and Lennox,
RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.Z.S., F.p.S.
Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of
Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum ; The Deer
of all Lands ; &c.
ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909).
Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: the
Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1000; The First Romanovs,
1613-1725: Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1460
to 1706 ; &c.
ROBERT RANULPH MARF.TT, M.A.
Reader in Social Anthropology, Oxford University, and Fellow and Tutor of
Exeter College. Formerly Dean and Sub-Rector of Exeter College. Author of "
The Threshold of Religion.
ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A:, D.Lrrr.
Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester
Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff, and Fellow of Gonville 1
and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects.
Duchess of;
Sacheverell, William.
Reindeer; Rhinoceros(j part}-,
Rhytina; River-hog;
Rocky Mountain Goat;
Rodentia; Roe-buck;
Rorqual.
Repnin;
Reuterholm, Baron;
Sadolin, Jorgen.
Religion: Primitive Religion;
Ritual.
r Rome: Ancient History (in
i part);
ROBERT WILLIAM FREDERICK HARRISON.
. _ .
Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Assistant Secretary of the Royal Society, London. | no " dl Iel "> lne<
f
STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A C
Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College,
Rnnlr nf t;*, h, r i\-
parl) '
*
Cambridge. Editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Author of Glossary of \ T . "'
Aramaic Inscriptions; The Law of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes aDDatn (t* part).
on Old Testament History ; Religion of A ncient Palestine ; &c.
f Roman Catholic Church (in.
\ part).
VISCOUNT ST CYRES.
See the biographical article: IDDESLEIGH, 1st EARL OF.
SYDNEY HOWARD VINES, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Sherardian Professor of Botany, Oxford University, and Fellow of Magdalen i r,. T , D ,
College. Fellow of the University of London. Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and J " el
Lecturer, of Christ's College, Cambridge. President of the Linnean Society, 1900 I Sachs, Julius VOD.
1904. Author of A Student's Text-Book of Botany; &c.
SIMON NEWCOMB, D.Sc., L.L.D.
See the biographical article: NEWCOMB, SIMON.
Refraction: Astronomical
Refraction.
Regillus;
Regium; Rovigo;
THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LiTT. (Oxon.).
Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ
Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member of .
the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of The Classical Topography I Rusellae; Ruvo;
of the Roman Campagna. [ st Bernard Passes (in part).
THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D.
Trinity College, Dublin. | Sacrilege: English Law.
SIR THOMAS BARCLAY. r
Member of the Institute of International Law. Officer of the Legion of Honour.
Author of Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy; &c. M.P. for Black- '
burn, 1910.
THOMAS BELL LIGHTFOOT, M.lNST.C.E., M.INST.MECH.E.
Author of Preservation of Foods by Cold; &c.
1 Refrigerating.
THOMAS HARRIS, M.D., F.R.C.P. r
Formerly Hon. Physician to Manchester Royal Infirmary, and Lecturer on Diseases I Respiratory System: Pathology
of the Respiratory Organs at Owens College, Manchester. Author of numerous] (in part).
articles on diseases of the respiratory organs.
r Rope and Rope-making;
THOMAS WOODHOUSE. J gac^jng and Sack Manu-
Head of the Weaving and Textile Designing Department, Technical College, Dundee. 1 f ac ture' Sailcloth
WALTER THEODORE WATTS-DUNTON.
See the biographical article: WATTS-DUNTON, WALTER THEODORE.
REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D.
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxtord. Professor of English History, St David's
College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haul Dauphine; The Range of
the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and
in History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1881 ; &c.
WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A.
Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College,
Oxford. Author of Modern Europe ; &c.
-: Rossetti, Dante Gabriel.
f Referendum and Initiative;
Reschen Scheideck;
Rhine: Swiss Portion;
Rhone; Rorschach;
Rosa, Monte; Rovereto;
St Bernard Passes (in part).
r Rochet: Church of England;
Roman Catholic Church (in
part);
Russia: Government and Ad-
* ministration.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
xm
W. E. A. A.
W. H. F.
W. J. H.*
W. M.-L.
W. M. R.
W. P. C.
W. P. P. L.
W. R. D.
W. R. K.
W. R. M.
W. R. S.
WILLIAM EDMUND ARMYTAGE AXON, LL.D.
Formerly Deputy Chief Librarian of the Manchester Free Libraries. On Literary
Staff of Manchester Guardian, 1874-1905. Member of the Gorsedd, with the
bardic name of Manceinion. Author of Annals of Manchester; &c.
SIR WILLIAM H. FLOWER, F.R.S.
See the biographical article: FLOWER, SIR W. H.
WILLIAM JAMES HUGHAN.
Past S.G.D. of the Grand Lodge of England.
of Freemasonry.
4 Roscoe, William.
| Rhinoceros (in part).
Author of Origin of the English Rite -I Rosicrucianism.
WlLHELM MEYER-LUBKE, PH.D.
H of rat of the Austrian Empire. Professor of Romance Philology in the University
of Vienna. Author of Grammalik der Romanischen Sprachen; c.
WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI.
See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE G.
WILLIAM PRIDEAUX COURTNEY.
See the biographical article: COURTNEY, BARON.
WILLIAM PITT PREBLE LONGFELLOW.
Fellow of the American Institute of Architects. Editor of the American Architect.
Author of Cyclopaedia of Architecture in Italy, Greece and the Levant; &c.
WYNDHAM ROLAND DUNSTAN, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.
Director of the Imperial Institute, London. Formerly Lecturer on Chemistry in
its Relations to Medicine in the University of Oxford. Professor of Chemistry to -
the Pharmaceutical Society and Lecturer on Chemistry at St Thomas's Hospital,
London. Author of British Cotton Cultivation ; &c.
RT. HON. SIR WILLIAM RANN KENNEDY, LL.D. r
Lord of Appeal. Hon. Fellow of Pembroke College, Cambridge. Fellow of the ]
British Academy. Judge of King's Bench Division of High Court of Justice, 1892-"! Russell Of Klllowen, Lord.
1907.
WILLIAM RICHARD MORFILL, M.A. (d. 1910). f
Formerly Professor of Russian and the other Slavonic Languages in the University J
of Oxford. Curator of the Taylorian Institution, Oxford. Author of Russia; \
Slavonic Literature ; &c.
-' Romance Languages.
J Ribera, Giuseppe;
I Rosa, Salvator.
/ Rosslyn, Earl of;
I Russell, 1st Earl.
f
Richardson, Henry Hobson.
Rubber.
Russian Literature.
WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D.
See the biographical article: SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON.
I* Reuchlin;
Ruth, Book of (in part)-*
[ Sabbath (in part).
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
Reflection of Light.
Regensburg.
Regent.
Reims.
Renfrewshire.
Rennes.
Reporting.
Republic.
Resorcin.
Retainer.
Reunion.
Reuss.
Reynard the Fox.
Rhine Province.
Rhode Island.
Rhodium.
Rhubarb.
Rice.
Richmond (Surrey).
Richmond (Va.).
Rickets.
Riding.
Riesengebirge.
Rinderpest.
Rio de Janeiro.
Rio Grande do Sul (State).
Riot.
Ripon.
Roads and Streets.
Rochester (Kent).
Rochester (N.Y.).
Rodney.
Rodriguez.
Roland, Legend of.
Rome (N.Y.).
Romulus.
Root.
Rosaceae.
Roscommon, Co.
Rose.
Roses, Wars of the.
Ross and Cromarty.
Rostock.
Rothschild.
Rotterdam.
Rouen.
Roulette.
Roussillon.
Roxburghshire.
Rubidium.
Rubinstein.
Rugen.
Running.
Russo-Japanese War.
Rutebeuf.
Ruthenium,
Rutland.
Ryazan.
Sacramento (Cal.).
Saffron.
Saint Albans.
Saint Andrews.
St Augustine (Fla.)>
St Denis.
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XXIII
REFECTORY (med. Lat. refectorium, from reficere, to refresh),
the hall of a monastery, convent, &c., where the religious took
their chief meals together. There frequently was a sort of
ambo, approached by steps, from which to read the legenda
sanctorum, &c., during meals. The refectory was generally
situated by the side of the S. cloister, so as to be removed from
the church but contiguous to the kitchen; sometimes it was
divided down the centre into two aisles, as at Fountains Abbey
in England, Mont St Michel in France and at Villiers in
Belgium, and into three aisles as in St Mary's, York, and the
Bernardines, Paris. The refectory of St Martin-des-Champs
in Paris is in two aisles, and is now utilized as the library
of the Ecole des Arts et Metiers. Its wall pulpit, with an
arcaded staircase in the thickness of the wall, is still in perfect
preservation.
REFEREE, a person to whom anything is referred ; an
arbitrator. The court of referees in England was a court to
which the House of Commons committed the decision of all
questions as to the right of petitioners to be heard in opposition
to private bills. As originally constituted the referees consisted
of the chairman of ways and means, and other members, the
Speaker's counsel and several official referees not members of
the House of Commons. In 1903 the appointment of official
referees was discontinued. The court now consists of the
chairman of ways and means, the deputy chairman and not
less than seven other members of the House appointed by the
Speaker, and its duty, as defined by a standing order, is to decide
upon all petitions against private bills, or against provisional
orders or provisional certificates, as to the rights of the
petitioners to be heard upon such petitions. In the high court
of justice, under the Judicature Act 1873, cases may be sub-
mitted to three official referees, for trial, inquiry and report, or
assessment of damages. Inquiry and report may be directed
in any case, trial only by consent of the parties, or in any matter
requiring any prolonged examination of documents or accounts,
or any scientific or local investigation which cannot be tried in
the ordinary way.
REFERENDUM and INITIATIVE, two methods by which
the wishes of the general body of electors in a constitutional
xxiii. i
state may be expressed with regard to proposed legislation.
They are developed to the highest extent in Switzerland, and
are best exemplified -in the Swiss federal and cantonal constitu-
tions. By these two methods the sovereign people in Switzerland
(whether in the confederation or in one of its cantons) approve
or reject the bills and resolutions agreed upon by the legislative
authority (Referendum), or compel that authority to introduce
bills on certain specified subjects (Initiative) in other words,
exercise the rights of the people as regards their elected repre-
sentatives at times other than general elections. The Referendum
means " that which is referred " to the sovereign people, and
prevailed (up to 1848) in the federal diet, the members of which
were bound by instructions, all matters outside which being
taken " ad referendum." A similar system obtained previously
in the formerly independent confederations of the Grisons and
of the Valais, in the former case not merely as between the
Three Leagues, and even the bailiwicks of each within its
respective league, but also (so far as regards the upper Engadine)
the communes making up a bailiwick, though in the Valais the
plan prevailed only as between the seven Zehnten or bailiwicks.
The Initiative, on the other hand, is the means by which the
sovereign people can compel its elected representatives to take
into consideration either some specified object or a draft bill
relating thereto, the final result of the deliberations of the
legislature being subject by a referendum vote to the approval
or rejection of the people. These two institutions therefore
enable the sovereign people to control the decisions of the
legislature, without having recourse to a dissolution, or waiting
for the expiration of its natural term of office.
As might have been expected, both had been adopted by
different cantons before they found their way into the federal
constitution, which naturally has to take account of the sovereign
rights of the cantons of which it is composed. Further, they (at
any rate the referendum) were employed in the case of con-
stitutional matters relating to cantonal constitutions before being
applied to all or certain specified laws and resolutions. Finally,
the action of both has been distinctly conservative in the case
of the confederation, though to a less marked degree in the case of
the cantons.
REFLECTION OF LIGHT
Two forms of the Referendum should be carefully distin-
guished: the facultative or optional (brought into play only on
the demand of a fixed number of citizens), and the obligatory
or compulsory (which obtains in all cases that lie within its
sphere as defined in the constitution). The Initiative exists
only in the facultative form, being exercised when a certain
number of citizens demand it. Both came into common use
during the Liberal reaction in Switzerland after the Paris
revolution of July 1830. In 1831 St Gall first adopted the
" facultative referendum " (then and for some time after called
the " Veto "), and its example was followed by several cantons
before 1848. The "obligatory referendum " appears first in
1852 and 1854 respectively in the Valais and the Grisons, when
the older system was reformed, but in its modern form it was
first adopted in 1863 by the canton of rural Basel. The
Initiative was first adopted in 1845 by Vaud. Of course the
cantons with Landsgemeinden, Uri, Unterwalden, Appenzell
and Glarus (where the citizens appear in person) possessed both
from time immemorial. Excluding these there were at the end
of 1907 9$ cantons, which had the " obligatory referendum "
(Aargau, rural Basel, Bern, the Grisons, Schaflhausen, Schwyz,
Soleure, Thurgau, the Valais and Zurich), while 7^ cantons
possess only the " facultative referendum " (Basel town, Geneva,
Lucerne, Neuchatel, St Gall, Ticino, Vaud and Zug). Fribourg
alone had neither, save an obligatory referendum (like all the
rest) as to the revision of the cantonal constitution. As regards
the Initiative, all the cantons have it as to the revision of the
cantonal constitution; while all but Fribourg have it also as
to bills or legislative projects. In the case both of the facultative
referendum and of the Initiative each canton fixes the number
of citizens who have a right to exercise this power. The con-
stitution of the Swiss confederation lags behind those of the
cantons. It is true that both in 1848 (art. 113) and in 1874
(art. 120) it is provided that a vote on the question whether the
constitution shall be revised must take place if either house of
the federal legislature or 50,000 qualified voters demand it
of course a popular vote (obligatory referendum) must take
place on the finally elaborated project of revision. But as
regards bills the case is quite different. The " facultative
referendum " was not introduced till 1874 (art. 89) and then
only as regards all bills and resolutions not being of a pressing
nature, 8 cantons or 30,000 qualified voters being entitled to
ask for such a popular vote. But the Initiative did not appear
in the federal constitution till it was inserted in 1891 (art. 121),
and then merely in the case of a partial (not a total) revision of
the constitution, if 50,000 qualified voters require it, whether as
regards a subject in general or a draft bill, of course the federal
legislature had an Initiative in this matter in 1848 already.
The results of the working of these two institutions in federal
matters up to the end of 1908 are as follows. Excluding the
votes by which the two federal constitutions of 1848 and 1874
were adopted, there have been 30 (10 of them between 1848 and
1874) votes (obligatory referendum) as to amendments of the
federal constitution; in 15 cases only (of which only one was
before 1874) did the people accept the amendment proposed.
In the case of bills there have been 30 votes (very many bills
have not been attacked at all), all of course since the facultative
referendum was introduced in 1874; in n cases only have the
people voted in the affirmative. Finally, with regard to the
Initiative, there have been 7 votes, of which two only were in the
affirmative. Thus, between 1874 and 1907, of 57 votes 27 only
were in the affirmative, while if we include the 10 votes
between 1848 and 1874 the figures are respectively 67 and
28, one only having been favourable during that period.
The result is to show that the people, voting after mature
reflection, are far less radically disposed than has sometimes
been imagined.
The method of referendum by itself is also in use in some
of the states of the American Union (see UNITED STATES)
and in Australia, and under the name of plebiscite has been
employed in France; but it is best studied in the Swiss con-
stitution.
M
FIG. i.
AUTHORITIES. W. A. B. Coolidge, "The Early History of the
Referendum " (article in the English Historical Review tor October
1891); T. Curti, Die schweizerischen Volksrechte, 1848 bis 1900
(Bern, 1900) (Fr. trans, by J. Roniat with additions by the author,
Paris, 1905) -Curti's earlier work, Geschichte d. schiveiz. Volks-
gesetzgebung (Bern, 1882), is not entirely superseded by his later
one; S. Dcploige, The Referendum in Switzerland, Engl. trans, with
additional notes (London, 1898); N. Droz, "The Referendum
in Switzerland " (article in the Contemporary Review, March 1895);
1. M. Vincent, Government in Switzerland, chaps, v. and xiv. (New
York and London, 1900). See also, for the United States and
generally, the American works on the Referendum by E. P. Ober-
holtzer (1893 and 1900). (W. A. B. C.)
REFLECTION OF LIGHT. When a ray of light in a homo-
geneous medium falls upon the bounding surface of another
medium, part of it is usually turned back or reflected and part
is scattered, the remainder traversing or being absorbed by the
second medium. The scattered rays (also termed the irregu-
larly or diffusely reflected rays) play an important part in
rendering objects visible in fact, without diffuse reflection
non-luminous objects would be invisible; they are occasioned
by irregularities in the surface, but are governed by the same
law as holds for regular reflection. This law is: the incident
and reflected rays make equal angles with the normal to the
reflecting surface at the point of incidence, and are coplanar
with the normal. This is equivalent to saying that the path
of the ray is a minimum. 1 In fig. i , MN represents the section
of a plane mirror; OR is the in-
cident ray, RP the reflected ray,
and TR the normal at R. Then
the law states that the angle of
incidence ORT equals the angle
of reflection PRT, and that
OR, RT and RP are in the same
plane.
This natural law is capable of
ready experimental proof (a simple
one is to take the altitude of a
star with a meridian circle, its depression in a horizontal re-
flecting surface of mercury and the direction of the nadir),
and the most delicate instruments have failed to detect
any divergence from it. Its explanation by the Newtonian
corpuscular theory is very simple, for we have only to
assume that at the point of impact the perpendicular velocity
of a corpuscle is reversed, whilst the horizontal velocity
is unchanged (the mirror being assumed horizontal). The
wave-theory explanation is more complicated, and in the
simple form given by Huygens incomplete. The theory as
developed by Fresnel shows that regular reflection is due
to a small zone in the neighbourhood of the point R (above),
there being destructive interference at all other points on
the mirror; this theory also accounts for the polarization
of the reflected light when incident at a certain angle (see
POLARIZATION OF LIGHT). The smoothness or polish of the sur-
face largely controls the reflecting power, for, obviously, crests
and furrows, if of sufficient magnitude, disturb the phase
relations. The permissible deviation from smoothness depends
on the wave-length of the light employed: it appears that
surfaces smooth to within |th of a wave-length reflect regularly;
hence long waves may be regularly reflected by a surface
which diffuses short waves. Also the obliquity of the incidence
would diminish the effect of any irregularities; this is experi-
mentally confirmed by observing the images produced by
matt surfaces or by smoked glass at grazing incidence.
We now give some elementary constructions of reflected
rays, or, what comes to the same thing, of images formed
by mirrors.
I. If O be a luminous point and OR a ray incident at R on the
plane mirror MN (fig. i) to determine the reflected ray and the
"image of O. If RP be the reflected ray and RT perpendicular
1 This principle of the minimum path, however, only holds for
plane and convex surfaces; with concave surfaces it may be a
maximum in certain cases.
REFLECTION OF LIGHT
to MN, then, by the law of reflection, angle ORT=TRP
or ORM = PRN. Hence draw OQ perpendicular to MN, and
produce it to S,
making QS = OQ;
join SR and produce
to P. It is easily
seen that PR and
OR are equally in-
clined to RT (or M N ).
A point-eye at P
would see a point
object O at S, i.e. at
a distance below the
mirror equal to its
height above. If the
object be a solid, then
the images of its cor-
ners are formed by
taking points at the
same distances below
as the corners are
above the mirror, and
joining these points.
The eye, however,
sees the image per-
verted, i.e., in the
same relation as the
left hand to the
right. Fig. 2 shows
is viewed in a mirror by a natural
FIG. 2.
how an extended object
eye.
O" O:, 0'
A B
O
0, 0" 0,,,
P <?
2. If A, B be two parallel plane mirrors and O a luminous point
between them (fig. 3) to determine the images of O all the
images must lie
on the line (pro-
duced) PQ passing
through O and
perpendicular to
the mirrors. Let
in A, OO' = 2p;
OO=OQ+QO"
FIG. 3.
now O' has an image O"
2p = 2p-\-2q; similarly
Then if O' be
the image of O
in B, such that
O" has an image
O'" in A, such that OO'" = 4/>+2<7. In the same way O forms an
image Oi in B such that OO L = 2q; Oi has an image On in A, such that
OOn =2^+25; On has an image Om in B, such that OOm = 2p+4g,
and so on. Hence there are an infinite number of images at
definite distances from the mirrors. This explains the vistas as
seen, for example, between two parallel mirrors at the ends of a
room.
3. If A, B be two plane mirrors inclined at an angle 8, and inter-
secting at C, and O a luminous point between them, determine the
position and number of images.
Call arc OA = a, OB=/3. The image of O in A, i.e. a', is such
that Oa' is perpendicular to CA, and Oa' = 2a. Also Co' = CO;
and it is easily seen that all the images lie on a circle of centre C
and radius CO. The image a' forms an image a" in B such that Oa"
= OB + Ba"=|8+Ba'=/3+OB4-Oa'=2/3+2a = 20. Also a" forms an
image a'" in A such that Oa"' = OA+A<i' = 2a+20. And gener-
ally Oo 2 " = 2n0, Oa 2n+l = 2n0+2a. In the same way it can be
shown that the image first formed in B gives foci of the general
distances: O6 2 " = 2n0, Ob- n+l = 2nd+2fi. The number, of images is
limited, for when any one falls on the arc ab between the mirrors
produced, it lies behind both mirrors, and hence no further image
is possible. Suppose a' n be the first image to fall on this arc, then
arc Oa 2 ">OBo, i.e. 2n8>ir a or 2n> (v-al/e. Similarly if p 2 " +v be
the first to fall on ab, we obtain 2n + i> (T o)/0. Hence in both
cases the number of images is the integer next greater than
(ir a)/0. In the same way it can be shown that the number of
images of the b series is the integer next greater than (IT /3)/0.
If ir/8 be an integer, then the number ot images of each series is
ir/9, for 0/0 and 0/0 are proper fractions. But an image of each
series coincides; for if ir/0=2n, we have Oa 2n +O6 2n = 2n0-|-2n0 = 27r
i.e. o 2 " and 6 2n coincide; and if 7r/0 = 2n-t-i, we have Oo 2 " +1 +
Oi 2 "~ H = 4tt0+2(a+/3) = (4+2) = 2ir, i.e. a 2n+l and fc 2n+1 coincide.
Hence the number of images, including the luminous point, is 27T/0.
This principle is utilized in the kaleidoscope (q.v.), which produces
five images by means of its mirrors inclined at 60 (fig. 4). Fig. 5
shows the seven images formed by mirrors inclined at 45.
4. To determine the reflection at a spherical surface. Let APB
(fig. 6) be a section of a concave spherical mirror through its
centre O and luminous point U. If a ray, say UP, meet the surface,
it will be reflected along PV, which is coplanar with UP and the
normal PO at P, and makes the angle VPO = UPO. Hence
VO/VP=OU/UP. This expression may be simplified if we assume
P to be very close to A, i.e. that the ray UP is very slightly inclined
to the axis. Writing A for P, we have VO/AV = OU/AU; and
calling AU=w, AV= and AO = r, this reduces to u~ l +v- l = 2r~ l .
This formula connects the distances of the object and image formed
by a spherical concave mirror with the radius of the mirror. Points
satisfying this relation are called " conjugate foci," for obviously
they are reciprocal, i.e. u and v can be interchanged in the formula.
FIG. 4,
FIG. 5.
If u be infinite, as, for example, if the luminous source be a star,
then v~ l = 2r- l t i.e. v = &. This value is called the focal length of
FIG. 6.
the mirror, and the corresponding point, usually denoted by F,
is called the " principal focus." This formula requires modifica-
tion for a convex mirror. If M be always considered as positive (r
may be either positive or negative), r must be regarded as positive
with concave mirrors and negative with convex. Similarly the
focal length, having the same sign as r, has different signs in the
two cases.
In this formula all distances are measured from the mirror;
but it is sometimes more convenient to measure from the principal
focus. If the distances of the object and image from the principal
focus be x and y, then u = x+f and v = y+f (remembering that /
is positive for concave and negative for convex mirrors). Sub-
stituting these values in u~ l +v~ l =f~ l and reducing we obtain xy=f l .
Since /" is always positive, x and y must have the same sign, i.e.
the object and image must lie on the same side of the principal
focus.
We now consider the production of the image of a small object
placed symmetrically and perpendicular to the axis of a concave
(fig. 7) and a convex mirror (fig. 8). Let PQ be the object and A
FIG. 7.
\M
k P
c- v^f-f
A
tt.
Q '.-"
^*.j
Q
/ N
FIG. 8.
the vertex of the mirror. Consider the point P. Now a ray through
P and parallel to the axis after meeting the mirror at M is reflected
through the focus F. The line MF must therefore contain the image
of P. Also a ray through P and also through the centre of curva-
ture C of the mirror is reflected along the same path ; this also con-
tains the image of P. Hence the image is at P, the intersection
of the lines MF and PC. Similarly the image of any other point
can be found, and the final image deduced. We notice that in
fig. 6 the image is inverted and real, and in fig. 7 erect and virtual.
The " magnification " or ratio of the size of the image to the object'
can be deduced from the figures by elementary geometry ; it equals
the ratio of the distances of the image and object from the mirror
or from the centre of curvature of the mirror.
The positions and characters of the images for objects at varying
REFORMATION, THE
distances are shown in the table (F is the principal focus and C the
centre of curvature of the mirror MA).
CONCAVE MIRROR
Position of Object.
Position of Image.
Character of Image.
00
Between and C
C
Between C and F
Between F and A
A
F
Between F and C
c
Between C and
Between A and
A
Real.
Real,inverted,diminished
same size
magnified
Virtual, erect, magnified
Erect, same size
CONVEX MIRROR
Position of Object.
Position of Image.
Character of Image.
00
Between and A
A
F
Between F and A
A
Virtual
Virtual, erect, diminished
Erect, same size
The above discussion of spherical mirrors assumes that the
mirror has such a small aperture that the reflected rays from any
point unite in a point. This, however, no longer holds when the
mirror has a wide aperture, and in general the reflected rays envelop
a caustic (q.v., see also ABERRATION). The only mirror which can
sharply reproduce an object-point as an image-point has for its
section an ellipse, which is so placed that the object and image are
at its foci. This follows from a property of the curve, viz. the sum
of the focal distances is constant, and that the focal vectores are
equally inclined to the normal at the point. More important than
the elliptical mirror, however, is the parabolic, which has the pro-
perty of converting rays parallel to the axis into a pencil through its
focus; or, inversely, rays from a source placed at the focus are con-
verted into a parallel beam; hence the use of this mirror in search-
lights and similar devices.
REFORMATION, THE. The Reformation, as commonly
understood, means the religious and political revolution of the
1 6th century, of which the immediate result was the partial dis-
ruption of the Western Catholic Church and the establishment
of various national and territorial churches. These agreed
in repudiating certain of the doctrines, rites and practices
of the medieval Church, especially the sacrifice of the Mass
and the headship of the bishop of Rome, and, whatever their
official designations, came generally to be known as " Pro-
testant." In some cases they introduced new systems of
ecclesiastical organization, and in all they sought to justify
their innovations by an appeal from the Church's tradition
to the Scriptures. The conflicts between Catholics and Pro-
testants speedily merged into the chronic political rivalries,
domestic and foreign, which distracted the European states;
and religious considerations played a very important part in
diplomacy and war for at least a century and a half, from the
diet of Augsburg in 1530 to the English revolution and the
league of Augsburg, 1688-89. The terms " Reformation "
and " Protestantism " are inherited by the modern historian;
they are not of his devising, and come to him laden with re-
miniscences of all the exalted enthusiasms and bitter anti-
pathies engendered by a period of fervid religious dissension.
The unmeasured invective of Luther and Aleander has not
ceased to re-echo, and the old issues are by no means dead.
The heat of controversy is, however, abating, and during
the past thirty or forty years both Catholic and Protestant
The Re- investigators have been vying with one another in
formation adding to our knowledge and in rectifying old mis-
cus**eiya ta ^ es ! while an ever-increasing number of writers
Religious pledged to neither party are aiding in developing an
Revoiu- idea of the scope and nature of the Reformation which
Hon. differs radically from the traditional one. We now
appreciate too thoroughly the intricacy of the medieval Church;
its vast range of activity, secular as well as religious; the
inextricable interweaving of the civil and ecclesiastical govern-
ments; the slow and painful process of their divorce as the old
ideas of the proper functions of the two institutions have changed
in both Protestant and Catholic lands: we perceive all"-oo
clearly the limitations of the reformers, their distrust of reason
and criticism in short, we know too much about medieval
institutions and the process of their disintegration longer to
see in the Reformation an abrupt break in the general history
of Europe. No one will, of course, question the importance
of the schism which created the distinction between Protestants
and Catholics, but it must always be remembered that the
religious questions at issue comprised a relatively small part
of the whole compass of human aspirations and conduct, even
to those to whom religion was especially vital, while a large
majority of the leaders in literature, art, science and public
affairs went their way seemingly almost wholly unaffected by
theological problems.
That the religious elements in the Reformation have been
greatly overestimated from a modern point of view can hardly
be questioned, and one of the most distinguished students
of Church history has ventured the assertion that " The motives,
both remote and proximate, which led to the Lutheran revolt
were largely secular rather than spiritual." " We may,"
continues Mr H. C. Lea, " dismiss the religious changes incident
to the Reformation with the remark that they were not the
object sought, but the means for attaining the object. The
existing ecclesiastical system was the practical evolution of
dogma, and the overthrow of dogma was the only way to obtain
permanent reh'ef from the intolerable abuses of that system "
(Cambridge Modern History, i. 653). It would perhaps be nearer
the truth to say that the secular and spiritual interests inter-
mingled and so permeated one another that it is almost im-
possible to distinguish them clearly even in thought, while in
practice they were so bewilderingly confused that they were
never separated, and were constantly mistaken for one another.
The first step in clarifying the situation is to come to a full
realization that the medieval Church was essentially an inter-
national state, and that the character of the Protestant
secession from it was largely determined by this fact.
As Maitland suggests: " We could frame no ac- O fthe
ceptable definition of a State which would not com- medieval
prehend the Church. What has it not that a State *"*
should have ? It has laws, law givers, law courts, state.
lawyers. It uses physical force to compel men to obey
the laws. It keeps prisons. In the i3th century, though with
squeamish phrases, it pronounced sentence of death. It is
no voluntary society; if people are not born into it
they are baptized into it when they cannot help them-
selves. If they attempt to leave they are guilty of crimen
laesae majestatis, and are likely to be burned. It is supported
by involuntary contributions, by tithe and tax " (Canon Law
in the Church of England, p. 100). The Church was not only
organized like a modern bureaucracy, but performed many of
the functions of a modern State. It dominated the intellectual
and profoundly affected the social interests of western Europe.
Its economic influence was multiform and incalculable, owing
to its vast property, its system of taxation and its encourage-
ment of monasticism. When Luther made his first great
appeal to the German people in his Address to the German
Nobility, he scarcely adverts to religious matters at all. He
deals, on the contrary, almost exclusively with the social,
financial, educational, industrial and general moral problems
of the day. If Luther, who above all others had the religious
issue ever before him, attacks the Church as a source of worldly
disorder, it is not surprising that his contemporary Ulrich von
Hutten should take a purely secular view of the issues involved.
Moreover, in the fascinating collection of popular satires and
ephemeral pamphlets made by Schade, one is constantly im-
pressed with the absence of religious fervour, and the highly
secular nature of the matters discussed. The same may be said
of the various Gravamina, or lists of grievances against the
papacy drafted from time to time by German diets.
But not only is the character of the Reformation differently
conceived from whaUit once was; our notions of the process
of change are being greatly altered. Formerly, Historic
writers accounted for the Lutheran movement by so coatiau-
magnifying the horrors of the pre-existing regime ity of the
that it appeared intolerable, and its abolition con- R tormfm
sequently inevitable. Protestant writers once con-
tented themselves with a brief caricature of the Church,
REFORMATION, THE
a superficial account of the traffic in indulgences, and a
rough and ready assumption, which even Kostlin makes,
that the darkness was greatest just before the dawn.
Unfortunately this crude solution of the problem proved
too much; for conditions were no worse immediately
before the revolt than they had been for centuries, and
German complaints of papal tyranny go back to Hildegard
of Bingen and Walther von der Vogelweide, who antedated
Luther by more than three centuries. So a new theory is
logically demanded to explain why these conditions, which were
chronic, failed to produce a change long before it actually
occurred. Singularly enough it is the modern Catholic scholars,
Johannes Janssen above all, who, in their efforts further to
discredit the Protestant revolt by rehabilitating the institutions
which the reformers attacked, have done most to explain the
success of the Reformation. A humble, patient Bohemian
priest, Hasak, set to work toward half a century ago to bring
together the devotional works published during the seventy
years immediately succeeding the invention of printing. Every
one knows that one at least of these older books, The German
Theology, was a great favourite of Luther's; but there are
many more in Hasak's collection which breathe the same spirit
of piety and spiritual emulation. Building upon the founda-
tions laid by Hasak and other Catholic writers who have been
too much neglected by Protestant historians, Janssen pro-
duced a monumental work in defence of the German Church
before Luther's defection. He exhibits the great achievements
of the latter part of the i$th and the early portion of the i6th
centuries; the art and literature, the material prosperity of
the towns and the fostering of the spiritual life of the people.
It may well be that his picture is too bright, and that in his
obvious anxiety to prove the needlessness of an ecclesiastical
revolution he has gone to the opposite extreme from the Pro-
testants. Yet this rehabilitation of pre-Reformation Germany
cannot but make a strong appeal to the unbiased historical
student who looks to a conscientious study of the antecedents
of the revolt as furnishing the true key to the movement.
Outwardly the Reformation would seem to have begun when,
on the loth of December 1520, a professor in the university
Revolt ^ Wittenberg invited all the friends of evangelical
of the truth among his students to assemble outside the
various wall at the ninth hour to witness a pious spectacle
B "vera- a the burnin g of the " godless book of the papal
meats decrees." He committed to the flames the whole
from the body of the canon law, together with an edict of
papal the head of the Church which had recently been
"" y ' issued against his teachings. In this manner Martin
Luther, with the hearty sympathy of a considerable number
of his countrymen, publicly proclaimed and illustrated his
repudiation of the papal government under which western
Europe had lived for centuries. Within a genera-
tion after this event the states of north Germany and
Scandinavia, England, Scotland, the Dutch Netherlands and
portions of Switzerland, had each in its particular manner
permanently seceded from the papal monarchy. France, after
a long period of uncertainty and disorder, remained faithful to
the bishop of Rome. Poland, after a defection of years, was
ultimately recovered for the papacy by the zeal and devo-
tion of the Jesuit missionaries. In the Habsburg hereditary
dominions the traditional policy and Catholic fervour of the
ruling house resulted, after a long struggle, in the restoration of
the supremacy of Rome; while in Hungary the national spirit
of independence kept Calvinism alive to divide the religious
allegiance of the people. In Italy and Spain, on the other
hand, the rulers, who continued loyal to the pope, found
little difficulty in suppressing any tendencies of revolt on the
part of the few converts to the new doctrines. Individuals,
often large groups, and even whole districts, had indeed earlier
rejected some portions of the Roman Catholic faith, or refused
obedience to the ecclesiastical government; but previously to
the burning of the canon law by Luther no prince had openly
and permanently cast off his allegiance to the international
ecclesiastical state of which the bishop of Rome was head. Now,
a prince or legislative assembly that accepted the doctrine of
Luther, that the temporal power had been " ordained by God
for the chastisement of the wicked and the protection of the
good " and must be permitted to exercise its functions " un-
hampered throughout the whole Christian body, without respect
to persons, whether it strikes popes, bishops, priests, monks,
nuns, or whoever else " such a government could proceed to
ratify such modifications of the Christian faith as appealed to
it in a particular religious confession; it could order its subject
to conform to the innovations, and could expel, persecute or
tolerate dissenters, as seemed good to it. A " reformed "
prince could seize the property of the monasteries, and appro-
priate such ecclesiastical foundations as he desired. He could
make rules for the selection of the clergy, disregarding the
ancient canons of the Church and the claims of the pope to the
right of ratification. He could cut off entirely all forms of
papal taxation and put an end to papal jurisdiction. The
personnel, revenue, jurisdiction, ritual, even the faith of the
Church, were in this way placed under the complete control
of the territorial governments. This is the central and sig-
nificant fact of the so-called Reformation. Wholly novel and
distinctive it is not, for the rulers of Catholic countries, like
Spain and France, and of England (before the publication of the
Act of Supremacy) could and did limit the pope's claims to
unlimited jurisdiction, patronage and taxation, and they
introduced the placet forbidding the publication within their
realms of papal edicts, decisions and orders, without the express
sanction of the government in short, in many ways tended
to approach the conditions in Protestant lands. The Reforma-
tion was thus essentially a stage in the disengaging of the
modern state from that medieval, international ecclesiastical
state which had its beginning in the ecclesia of the Acts of the
Apostles. An appreciation of the issues of the Reformation
or Protestant revolt, as it might be more exactly called depends
therefore upon an understanding of the development of the papal
monarchy, the nature of its claims, the relations it established
with the civil powers, the abuses which developed in it and the
attempts to rectify them, the sources of friction between the
Church and the government, and finally the process by which
certain of the European states threw off their allegiance to
the Christian commonwealth, of which they had so long formed
a part.
It is surprising to observe how early the Christian Church
assumed the form of a state, and how speedily upon entering
into its momentous alliance with the Roman imperial Character
government under Constantino it acquired the chief fthe
privileges and prerogatives it was so long to retain. Monarchy
In the twelfth book of the Theodosian Code we see and its
the foundations of the medieval Church already laid; claims.
for it was the 4th, not the I3th century that established the
principle that defection from the Church was a crime in the
eyes of the State, and raised the clergy to a privileged class,
exempted from the ordinary taxes, permitted under restrictions
to try its own members and to administer the wealth which
flowed into its coffers from the gifts of the faithful. The
bishop of Rome, who had from the first probably enjoyed a
leading position in the Church as " the successor of the two
most glorious of the apostles," elaborated his claims to be the
divinely appointed head of the ecclesiastical organization.
Siricius (384-389), Leo the Great (440-461), and Gelasius I.
(492-496) left little for their successors to add to the arguments
in favour of the papal supremacy. In short, if we recall the
characteristics of the Church in the West from the times of Con-
stantine to those of Theodoric its reliance upon the civil power
for favours and protection, combined with its assumption of a
natural superiority over the civil power and its innate tendency
to monarchical unity it becomes clear that Gregory VII.
in his effort in the latter half of the nth century to establish
the papacy as the great central power of western Europe was
in the main only reaffirming and developing old claims in a
new world. His brief statement of the papal powers as he
REFORMATION, THE
conceived them is found in his Diclatus. The bishop of Rome,
who enjoys a unique title, that of " pope," may annul the
decrees of all other powers, since he judges all but is judged by
none. He may depose emperors and absolve the subjects of
the unjust from their allegiance. Gregory's position was almost
inexpugnable at a time when it was conceded by practically all
that spiritual concerns were incalculably more momentous than
secular, that the Church was rightly one and indivisible, with
one divinely revealed faith and a system of sacraments abso-
lutely essential to salvation.. No one called in question the
claim of the clergy to control completely all " spiritual " matters.
Moreover, the mightiest secular ruler was but a poor sinner
dependent for his eternal welfare en the Church and its head,
the pope, who in this way necessarily exercised an indirect
control over the civil government, which even the emperor
Henry IV. and William the Conqueror would not have been
disposed to deny. They would also have conceded the pope
the right to play the role of a secular ruler in his own lands, as
did the German bishops, and to dispose of such fiefs as reverted
to him. This class of prerogatives, as well as the right which
the pope claimed to ratify the election of the emperor, need not
detain us, although they doubtless served in the long run to
weaken the papal power. But the pope laid claim to a direct
power over the civil governments. Nicholas II. (1058-1061)
declared that Jesus had conferred on Peter the control (jura)
of an earthly as well as of a heavenly empire; and this phrase
was embodied in the canon law. Innocent III., a century and
a half later, taught that James the brother of the Lord left to
Peter not only the government of the whole Church, but that
of the whole world (totum seculum gubernandum) .' So the
power of the pope no longer rested upon his headship of the
Church or his authority as a secular prince, but on a far more
comprehensive claim to universal dominion. There was no
reason why the bishop of Rome should justify such acts as
Innocent himself performed in deposing King John of England
and later in annulling Magna Carta; or Gregory IV. when he
struck out fourteen articles from the Sachsenspiegel; or
Nicholas V. when he invested Portugal with the right to sub-
jugate all peoples on the Atlantic coast; or Julius II. when
he threatened to transfer the kingdom of France to England;
or the conduct of those later pontiffs who condemned the
treaties of Westphalia, the Austrian constitution of 1867 and
the establishment of the kingdom of Italy. The theory and
practice of papal absolutism was successfully promulgated
by Gratian in his Decrelum, completed at Bologna about 1142.
This was supplemented by later collections composed mainly
of papal decretals. (See CANON LAW and DECRETALS, FALSE.)
As every fully equipped university had its faculty of canon
law in which the Corpus juris canonici was studied, Rashdall
is hardly guilty of exaggeration when he says: " By means
of the happy thought of the Bolognese monk the popes were
enabled to convert the new-born universities the offspring
of that intellectual new birth of Europe which might have
been so formidable an enemy to the papal pretensions into
so many engines for the propagation of Ultramontane ideas."
Thomas Aquinas was the first theologian to describe the Church
as a divinely organized absolute monarchy, whose head con-
centrated in his person the entire authority of the Church, and
was the source of all the ecclesiastical law (conditor juris),
issuing the decrees of general councils in his own name, and
claiming the right to revoke or modify the decrees of former
councils indeed, to make exceptions or to set aside altogether
anything which did not rest upon the dictates of divine or
natural law. In practice the whole of western Europe was
subject to the jurisdiction of one tribunal of last resort, the
Roman Curia. The pope claimed the right to tax church
property throughout Christendom. He was able to exact an
oath of fidelity from the archbishops, named many of the
bishops, and asserted the right to transfer and dispose them.
The organs of this vast monarchy were the papal Curia, which
first appears distinctly in the nth century (see CURIA ROMAN A),
'See further, Innocent III.
and the legates, who visited the courts of Europe as haughty
representatives of the central government of Christendom.
It should always be remembered that the law of the Church
was regarded by all lawyers in the later middle ages as the law
common to all Europe (jus commune). The laws of Relations
the Carolingian empire provided that one excom- ol the
municated by the Church who did not make his peace ^^aT^nd
within a year and a day should be outlawed, and this civil gov-
general principle was not lost sight of. It was a capital eminent*.
offence in the eyes of the State to disagree with the teachings
of the Church, and these, it must be remembered, included
a recognition of the papal supremacy. The civil authorities
burnt an obstinate heretic, condemned by the Church, without a
thought of a new trial. The emperor Frederick II. 's edicts and
the so-called iloklissements of St Louis provide that the civil
officers should search out suspected heretics and deliver them
to the ecclesiastical judges. The civil government recognized
monastic vows by regarding a professed monk as civilly dead and
by pursuing him and returning him to his monastery if he
violated his pledges of obedience and ran away. The State
recognized the ecclesiastical tribunals and accorded them a
wide jurisdiction that we should now deem essentially secular
in its nature. The State also admitted that large classes of
its citizens the clergy, students, crusaders, widows and the
miserable and helpless in general were justiceable only by
Church tribunals. By the middle of the i3th century many
lawyers took the degree of doctor of both laws (J.U.D.), civil
and canon, and practised both. As is well known, temporal
rulers constantly selected clergymen as their most trusted
advisers. The existence of this theocratic international state
was of course conditioned by the weakness of the civil govern-
ment. So long as feudal monarchy continued, the Church
supplied to some extent the deficiencies of the turbulent and
ignorant princes by endeavouring to maintain order, administer
justice, p r otect the weak and encourage learning. So soon as
the modern national state began to gain strength, the issue
between secular rulers and the bishops of Rome took a new form.
The clergy naturally stoutly defended the powers which they
had long enjoyed and believed to be rightly theirs. On the
other hand, the State, which could count upon the support of an
ever-increasing number of prosperous and loyal subjects, sought
to protect its own interests and showed itself less and less
inclined to tolerate the extreme claims of the pope. Moreover,
owing to the spread of education, the king was no longer obliged
to rely mainly upon the assistance of the clergy in conducting
his government.
The chief sources of friction between Church and State were
four in number. First, the growth of the practice of " reserva-
tion " and " provision," by which the popes assumed the right
to appoint their own nominees to vacant sees and other benefices,
in defiance of the claims of the crown, the chapters and private
patrons. In the case of wealthy bishoprics or abbacies this
involved a serious menace to the secular authority. Both pope
and king were naturally anxious to place their own friends and
supporters in these influential positions. The pope, moreover,
had come to depend to a considerable extent for his revenue
upon the payments made by his nominees, which represented
a corresponding drain on the resources of the secular states.
Secondly, there was the great question, how far the lands and
other property of the clergy should be subject to taxation. Was
this vast amount of property to increase indefinitely without
contribution to the maintenance of the secular government?
A decretal of Innocent III. permitted the clergy to make
voluntary contributions to the king when there was urgent
necessity, and the resources of the laity had proved inadequate.
But the pope maintained that, except in the most critical cases,
his consent must be obtained for such grants. Thirdly, there
was the inevitable jealousy between the secular and ecclesiastical
courts and the serious problem of the exact extent of the original
and appellate jurisdiction of the Roman Curia. Fourthly, and
lastly, there was the most fundamental difficulty of all, the
extent to which the pope, as the universally acknowledged head
REFORMATION, THE
of the Church, was justified in interfering in the internal affairs
of particular states. Unfortunately, most matters could be
viewed from both a secular and religious standpoint; and even
in purely secular affairs the claims of the pope to at least indirect
control were practically unlimited. The specific nature of the
abuses which flourished in the papal monarchy, the unsuccessful
attempts to remedy them, and the measures taken by the chief
European states to protect themselves will become apparent as
we hastily review the principal events of the I4th and isth
centuries.
As one traces the vicissitudes of the papacy during the two
centuries from Boniface VIII. to Leo X. one cannot fail to be
The impressed with the almost incredible strength of the
papacy la ecclesiastical state which had been organized and
the 14th fortified by Gregory VII., Alexander III., Innocent III.
iry ' and Gregory IX. In spite of the perpetuation of
all the old abuses and the continual appearance of new
devices for increasing the papal revenue; in spite of
the jealousy of kings and princes, the attacks of legists
and the preaching of the heretics; in spite of seventy
years of exile from the holy city, forty years of distract-
ing schism and discord, and thirty years of conflict with
stately cecumenical councils deliberating in the name of the
Holy Spirit and intent upon permanently limiting the papal
prerogatives; in spite of the unworthy conduct of some of those
who ascended the papal throne, their flagrant political ambitions,
and their greed; in spite of the spread of knowledge, old and
new, the development of historical criticism, and philosophical
speculation; in spite, in short, of every danger which could
threaten the papal monarchy, it was still intact when Leo X.
died in 1521. Nevertheless, permanent if partial dissolution
was at hand, for no one of the perils which the popes had
seemingly so successfully overcome had failed to weaken the
constitution of their empire; and it is impossible to comprehend
its comparatively sudden disintegration without reckoning with
the varied hostile forces which were accumulating and com-
bining strength during the I4th and i5th centuries. The first
serious conflict that arose between the developing modern state
and the papacy centred about the pope's claim that the property
of the clergy was normally exempt from royal taxation.
Boniface VIII. was forced to permit Edward I. and Philip the
Fair to continue to demand and receive subsidies granted by the
clergy of their realms. Shortly after the bitter humiliation of
Boniface by the French government and his death in 1303, the
bishop of Bordeaux was elected pope as Clement V. (1305). He
preferred to remain in France, and as the Italian cardinals died
they were replaced by Frenchmen. The papal court was
presently established at Avignon, on the confines of France,
where it remained until 1377. While the successors of Clement V.
were not so completely under the control of the French kings
as has often been alleged, the very proximity of the curia to
France served inevitably to intensify national jealousies. The
claims of John XXII. (1316-1334) to control the election of the
emperor called forth the first fundamental and critical attack
on the papal monarchy, by Marsiglio of Padua, who declared in
his Defensor pads (1324) that the assumed supremacy of the
bishop of Rome was without basis, since it was very doubtful
if Peter was ever in Rome, and in any case there was no evidence
that he had transmitted any exceptional prerogatives to
succeeding bishops. But Marsiglio's logical and elaborate
justification for a revolt against the medieval Church produced
no perceptible effects. The removal of the papal court from
Rome to Avignon, however, not only reduced its prestige but
increased the pope's chronic financial embarrassments, by
cutting off the income from his own dominions, which he could
no longer control, while the unsuccessful wars waged by John
XXII., the palace building and the notorious luxury of some
of his successors, served enormously to augment the expenses.
Various devices were resorted to, old and new, to fill the treasury.
The fees of the Curia were raised for the numberless favours,
dispensations, absolutions, and exemptions of all kinds which
were sought by clerics and laymen. The right claimed by the
pope to fill benefices of all kinds was extended, and the amount
contributed to the pope by his nominees amounted to from a
third to a half of the first year's revenue (see ANNATES). Boni-
face VIII. had discovered a rich source of revenue in the jubilee,
and in the jubilee indulgences extended to those who could not
come to Rome. Clement VI. reduced the period between these
lucrative occasions from one hundred to fifty years, and Urban
VI. determined in 1389 that they should recur at least once in a
generation (every thirty-three years). Church offices, high and
low, were regarded as investments from which the pope had his
commission.
England showed itself better able than other countries to
defend itself against the papal control of church preferment.
From 1343 onward, statutes were passed by parliament England
forbidding any one to accept a papal provision, and and the
cutting off all appeals to the papal curia or ecclesias- papacy la
tical courts in cases involving benefices. Neverthe- '
less, as a statute of 1379 complains, benefices
continued to be given " to divers people of another language
and of strange lands and nations, and sometimes to actual
enemies of the king and of his realm, which never made
residence in this same, nor cannot, may not, nor will not
in any wise bear and perform the charges of the same
benefice in hearing confessions, preaching or teaching the
people." When, in 1365, Innocent VI. demanded that the
arrears of the tribute promised by King John to the pope should
be paid up, parliament abrogated the whole contract on the
ground that John had no right to enter into it. A species of
anti-clerical movement, which found an unworthy leader in
John of Gaunt, developed at this time. The Good Parliament of
1376 declared that, in spite of the laws restricting papal pro-
visions, the popes at Avignon received five times as much
revenue from England as the English kings themselves.
Secularization was mentioned in parliament. Wycliffe began
his public career in 1366 by proving that England was not
bound to pay tribute to the pope. Twelve years later he was,
like Marsiglio, attacking the very foundations of the papacy
itself, as lacking all scriptural sanction. He denounced the
papal government as utterly degraded, and urged that the vast
property of the Church, which he held to be the chief cause of
its degradation, should be secularized and that the clergy should
consist of " poor priests," supported only by tithes and alms.
They should preach the gospel and encourage the people to seek
the truth in the Scriptures themselves, of which a translation
into English was completed in 1382. During the later years
of his life he attacked the doctrine of transubstantiation, and
all the most popular institutions of the Church indulgences,
pilgrimages, invocation of the saints, relics, celibacy of the clergy,
auricular confession, &c. His opinions were spread abroad by
the hundreds of sermons and popular pamphlets written in
English for the people (see WYCLITFE). For some years after
Wycliffe's death his followers, the Lollards, continued to carry
on his work; but they roused the effective opposition of the
conservative clergy, and were subjected to a persecution which
put an end to their public agitation. They rapidly disappeared
and, except in Bohemia, Wycliffe's teachings left no clearly
traceable impressions. Yet the discussions he aroused, the
attacks he made upon the institutions of the medieval Church,
and especially the position he assigned to the Scriptures as the
exclusive source of revealed truth, serve to make the develop-
ment of Protestantism under Henry VIII. more explicable than
it would otherwise be.
Wycliffe's later attacks upon the papacy had been given
point by the return of the popes to Rome in 1377 and the
opening of the Great Schism which was to endure Ttle Qreai
for forty years. There had been many anti-popes in schism
the past, but never before had there been such pro- (1377-
longed and genuine doubt as to which of two lines '
of popes was legitimate, since in this case each was supported
by a college of cardinals, the one at Rome, the other at Avignon.
Italy, except Naples, took the side of the Italian pope; France,
of the Avignon pope; England, in its hostility to France,
8
REFORMATION, THE
sided with Urban VI. in Rome, Scotland with Clement VII.,
his rival; Flanders followed England; Urban secured Germany,
Hungary and the northern kingdoms; while Spain, after re-
maining neutral for a time, went over to Clement. Western
Christendom had now two papal courts to support. The schism
extended down to the bishoprics, and even to the monasteries
and parishes, where partisans of the rival popes struggled to
obtain possession of sees and benefices. The urgent necessity
for healing the schism, the difficulty of uniting the colleges
of cardinals, and the prolonged and futile negotiations carried
on between the rival popes inevitably raised the whole question
of the papal supremacy, and led to the search for a still higher
ecclesiastical authority, which, when the normal system of
choosing the head of the Church broke down, might re-establish
that ecclesiastical unity to which all Europe as yet clung.
The idea of the supreme power on earth of a general council
of Christendom, deliberating in the name of the Holy Spirit,
convoked, if necessary, independently of the popes, was de-
fended by many, and advocated by the university of Paris.
The futile council of Pisa in 1409, however, only served to
increase to three the number of rival representatives of God
on earth. The considerable pamphlet literature of the time
substantiates the conclusion of an eminent modern Catholic
historian, Ludwig Pastor, who declares that the crisis through
which the church passed in this terrible period of the schism
was the most serious in all its history. It was at just this
period, when the rival popes were engaged in a life-and-death
struggle, that heretical movements appeared in England,
France, Italy, Germany, and especially in Bohemia, which
threatened the whole ecclesiastical order.
The council of Constance assembled in 1414 under auspices
hopeful not only for the extinction of the schism but for the
The general reform of the Church. Its members showed
councils no patience with doctrinal innovations, even such
of Con- moderate ones as John Huss represented. They
turnec ^ him over to the secular arm for execution,
although they did not thereby succeed in check-
ing the growth of heresy in Bohemia (see Huss). The
healing of the schism proved no very difficult matter;
but the council hoped not only to restore unity and
suppress heresy, but to re-establish general councils as
a regular element in the legislation of the Church. The
decree Sacrosancla (April 1415) proclaimed that a general
council assembled in the Holy Spirit and representing the
Catholic Church militant had its power immediately from
Christ, and was supreme over every one in the Church,
not excluding the pope, in all matters pertaining to the faith
and reformation of the Church of God in head and members.
The decree Frequens (October 1417) provided for the regular
convocation of councils in the future. As to ecclesiastical
abuses the council could do very little, and finally satisfied
itself with making out a list of those which the new pope was
required to remedy in co-operation with the deputies chosen
by the council. The list serves as an excellent summary of
the evils of the papal monarchy as recognized by the unim-
peachably orthodox. It included: the number, character
and nationality of the cardinals, the abuse of the " reserva-
tions " made by the apostolic see, the annates, the collation
to benefices, expectative favours, cases to be brought before
the papal Curia (including appeals), functions of the papal
chancery and penitentiary, benefices in commendam, con-
firmation of elections, income during vacancies, indulgences,
tenths, for what reasons and how is a pope to be corrected or
deposed. The pope and the representatives of the council
made no serious effort to remedy the abuses suggested under
these several captions; but the idea of the superiority of a
council over the pope, and the right of those who felt aggrieved
by papal decisions to appeal to a future council, remained a
serious menace to the theory of papal absolutism. The decree
Frequens was not wholly neglected; though the next council,
at Siena, came to naught, the council at Basel, whose chief
business was to put an end to the terrible religious war that
had been raging between the Bohemians and Germans, was
destined to cause Eugenius IV. much anxiety. It reaffirmed
the decree Sacrosancla, and refused to recognize the validity
of a bull Eugenius issued in December 1431 dissolving it.
Two years later political reverses forced the pope to sanction
the existence of the council, which not only concluded a treaty
with the Bohemian heretics but abolished the papal fees for
appointments, confirmation and consecration above all, the
annates and greatly reduced papal reservations; it issued
indulgences, imposed tenths, and established rules for the
government of the papal states. France, however, withdrew
its support from the council, and in 1438, under purely national
auspices, by the famous Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, ad-
justed the relations of the Gallican Church to the papacy; and
Eugenius soon found himself in a position to repudiate the
council and summoned a new one to assemble in 1438 at Ferrara
under his control to take up the important question of the
pending union with the Greek Church. The higher clergy
deserted the council of Basel, and left matters in the hands of
the lower clergy, who chose an anti-pope; but the rump council
gradually lost credit and its lingering members were finally
dispersed. The various nations were left to make terms with
a reviving papacy. England had already taken measures to
check the papal claims. France in the Pragmatic Sanction
reformulated the claim of the councils to be superior to the
pope, as well as the decision of the council of Basel in regard
to elections, annates and other dues, limitations on ecclesi-
astical jurisdiction, and appeals to the pope. While the
canonical elections were re-established, the prerogatives of the
crown were greatly increased, as in England. In short, the
national ecclesiastical independence of the French Church was
established. The German diet of Regensburg (1439) ratified
in the main the decrees of the council of Basel, which clearly
gratified the electors, princes and prelates; and Germany for
the first time joined the ranks of the countries which subjected
the decrees of the highest ecclesiastical instance to the placet
or approval of the civil authorities. But there was no strong
power, as in England and France, to attend to the execution
of the provisions.
In 1448 Eugenius's successor, Nicholas V., concluded a con-
cordat with the emperor Frederick III. as representative
of the German nation. This confined itself to papal
appointments and the annates. In practice it restored
the former range of papal reservations, and extended papacy la
the papal right of appointment to all benefices (except ^j^f' h
the higher offices in cathedrals and collegiate churches)
which fell vacant during the odd months. It also accorded him
the right to confirm all newly elected prelates and to receive
the annates. Nothing was said in the concordat of a great
part of the chief subjects of complaint. This gave the princes
an excuse for the theory that the decrees of Constance and
Basel were still in force, limiting the papal prerogatives in all
respects not noticed in the concordat. It was Germany which
gave the restored papacy the greatest amount of anxiety during
the generation following the dissolution of the council of Basel.
In the " recesses " or formal statements issued at the con-
clusion of the sessions of the diet one can follow the trend of
opinion among the German princes, secular and ecclesiastical.
The pope is constantly accused of violating the concordat, and
constant demands are made for a general council, or at least
a national one, which should undertake to remedy the abuses.
The capture of Constantinople by the Turks afforded a new
excuse for papal taxation. In 1453 a crusading bull was issued
imposing a tenth on all benefices of the earth to equip an
expedition against the infidel. The diet held at Frankfort in
1456 recalled the fac that the council of Constance had for-
bjdden the pope to impose tenths without the consent of the
clergy in the region affected, and that it was clear that he
proposed to " pull the German sheep's fleece over its ears."
A German correspondent of Aeneas Sylvius assures him in
1457 that " thousands of tricks are devised by the Roman
see which enables it to extract the money from our pockets very
REFORMATION, THE
neatly, as if we were mere barbarians. Our nation, once so
famous, is a slave now, who must pay tribute, and has lain in the
dust these many years bemoaning her fate." Aeneas Sylvius
issued, immediately after his accession to the papacy as Pius II.
the bull Execrabilis forbidding all appeals to a future council.
This seemed to Germany to cut off its last hope. It found a
spokesman in the vigorous Gregory of Heimburg, who accused
the pope of issuing the bull so that he and his cardinals might
conveniently pillage Germany unhampered by the threat of
a council. " By forbidding appeals to a council the pope
treats us like slaves, and wishes to take for his own pleasures
all that we and our ancestors have accumulated by honest
labour. He calls me a chatterer, although he himself is more
talkative than a magpie." Heimburg's denunciations of the
pope were widely circulated, and in spite of the major excom-
munication he was taken into the service of the archbishop of
Mainz and was his representative at the diet of Nuremberg in
1462. It is thus clear that motives which might ultimately
lead to the withdrawal of a certain number of German
princes from the papal ecclesiastical state were accumulat-
ing and intensifying during the latter half of the isth
century.
It is impossible to review here the complicated political
history ot the opening years of the i6th century. The
Con- names of Charles VIII. and Louis XII. of France, oi
ditions la Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, of Henry VII. and
aie" y Henrv VIIL of England, of Maximilian the German
"opening ot king, of Popes Alexander VI., Julius II. and Leo X.,
theioia stand for better organized civil governments, with
century. growing powerful despotic heads; for a perfectly
worldly papacy absorbed in the interests of an Italian prin-
cipality, engaged in constant political negotiations with the
European powers which are beginning to regard Italy as their
chief field of rivalry, and are using its little states as convenient
counters in their game of diplomacy and war. It was in Ger-
many, however, seemingly the weakest and least aggressive of the
European states, that the first permanent and successful revolts
against the papal monarchy occurred. Nothing came of the lists
of German gravamina, or of the demands for a council, so long
as the incompetent Frederick III. continued to reign. His
successor, Maximilian, who was elected emperor in 1493, was
mainly preoccupied with his wars and attempts to reform the
constitution of the empire; but the diet gave some attention
to ecclesiastical reform. For instance, in 1501 it took measures
to prevent money raised by the grantirig of a papal indulgence
from leaving the country. After the disruption of the league of
Cambray, Maximilian, like Louis XII., was thrown into a violent
anti-curial reaction, and in 1510 he sent to the well-known
humanist, Joseph Wimpheling, a copy of the French Pragmatic
Sanction, asking his advice and stating that he had determined
to free Germany from the yoke of the Curia and prevent the
great sums of money from going to Rome. Wimpheling in his
reply rehearsed the old grievances and complained that the
contributions made to the pope by the archbishops on receiving
the pallium was a great burden on the people. He stated that
that of the' archbishop of Mainz had been raised from ten to
twenty-five thousand gulden, and that there had been seven
vacancies within a generation, and consequently the subjects
of the elector had been forced to pay that amount seven times.
But Wimpheling had only some timid suggestions to make, and,
since Maximilian was once more on happy terms with the pope,
political considerations served to cool completely his momentary
ardour for ecclesiastical reform. In 1514 the archbishopric
of Mainz fell vacant again, and Albert of Brandenburg, already
archbishop of Magdeburg and administrator of Halberstadt,
longing to add it to his possessions, was elected. After some
scandalous negotiations with Leo X. it was arranged that
Albert should pay 14,000 ducats for the papal confirmation and
10,000 as a " composition " for permission to continue to hold,
against the rules of the Church, his two former archbishoprics.
Moreover, in order to permit him to pay the sums, he was to
have half the proceeds in his provinces from an indulgence
granted to forward the rebuilding of St Peter's. A Dominican
monk, Johann Tetzel, was selected to proclaim the indulgence
(together with certain supplementary graces) in the three
provinces of the elector. This suggestion came from the curia,
not the elector, whose representatives could not suppress the
fear that the plan would arouse opposition and perhaps worse.
Tetzel's preaching and the exaggerated claims that he was re-
ported to be making for the indulgences attracted the attention
of an Augustinian friar, Martin Luther, who had for some
years been lecturing on theology at the university of Wittenberg.
He found it impossible to reconcile Tetzel's views of indulgences
with his own fundamental theory ol salvation. He accordingly
hastily drafted ninety-five propositions relating to indulgences,
and posted an invitation to those who wished to attend a
disputation in Wittenberg on the matter, under his presidency.
He points out the equivocal character of the word poenitentia,
which meant both "penance" and "penitence": he declared
that " true contrition seeks punishment, while the ampleness
of pardons relaxes it and causes men to hate it." Christians
ought to be taught that he who gives to a poor man or lends to
the needy does better than if he bought pardons. He concludes
with certain " keen questionings of the laity," as, Why does
not the pope empty purgatory forthwith for charity's sake,
instead of cautiously for money ? Why does he not, since he
is rich as Croesus, build St Peter's with his own money instead
of taking that of poor believers ? It was probably these closing
reflections which led to the translation of the theses from Latin
into German, and their surprising circulation. It must not be
assumed that Luther's ninety-five theses produced any con-
siderable direct results. They awakened the author himself
to a consciousness that his doctrines were after all incompatible
with some of the Church's teachings, and led him to consider
the nature of the papal power which issued the indulgence.
Two or three years elapsed betore Luther began to be
generally known and to exercise a perceptible influence upon
aftairs.
In July 1518 a diet assembled in Augsburg to consider the
new danger from the Turks, who were making rapid conquests
under Sultan Selim I. The pope's representative, fhe diet ot
Cardinal Cajetan, made it clear that the only safety Augsburg
lay in the collection of a tenth from the clergy iisi8.
and a twentieth from laymen; but the diet appointed a
committee to consider the matter and explain why they pro-
posed to refuse the pope's demands. Protests urging the diet
not to weaken came in from all sides. There was an especially
bitter denunciation of the Curia by some unknown writer. He
claims that " the pope bids his collectors go into the whole
world, saying, ' He that believeth, and payeth the tenths, shall
be saved.' But it is not necessary to stand in such fear of the
thunder of Christ's vicar, but rather to fear Christ Himself,
for it is the Florentine's business, not Christ's, that is at issue."
The report of the committee of the diet was completed on the
27th of August 1518. It reviews all the abuses, declares that
the German people are the victims of war, devastation and
dearth, and that the common man is beginning to comment
on the vast amount of wealth that is collected for expeditions
against the Turk through indulgences or otherwise, and yet no
expedition takes place. This is the first recognition in the
official gravamina of the importance of the people. Shortly
after the committee submitted its report the clergy of Liege
presented a memorial which, as the ambassador from Frankfort
observed, set forth in the best Latin all the various forms of
rascality of which the curlizanen (i.e. curiales, officials of the
curia) were guilty. From this time on three new streams begin
to reinforce the rather feeble current of official efforts for reform.
The common man, to whom the diet of Augsburg alludes, had
long been raising his voice against the "parsons" (Pfaffen);
the men of letters, Brand, Erasmus, Reuchlin, and above all
Ulrich von Hutten, contributed, each in their way, to discredit
the Roman Curia; and lastly, a new type of theology, repre-
sented chiefly by Martin Luther, threatened to sweep away
the very foundations of the papal monarchy.
10
REFORMATION, THE
The growing discontent of the poor people, whether in country
or town, is clearly traceable in Germany during the isth century,
and revolutionary agitation was chronic in southern
"fth" ty Germany at least during the first two decades of the
masses 1 6th. The clergy were satirized and denounced in
to the popular pamphlets and songs. The tithe was an
C Qc7man oppressive form of taxation, as were the various fees
demanded for the performance of the sacraments. The
so-called " Reformation of Sigismund," drawn up in 1438, had
demanded that the celibacy of the clergy should be abandoned
and their excessive wealth reduced. " It is a shame which
cries to heaven, this oppression by tithes, dues, penalties,
excommunication, and tolls of the peasant, on whose labour
all men depend for their existence." In 1476 a poor young
shepherd drew thousands to Nicklashausen to hear him denounce
the emperor as a rascal and the pope as a worthless fellow, and
urge the division of the Church's property among the members
of the community. The " parsons " must be killed, and the
lords reduced to earn their bread by daily labour. An apoca-
lyptic pamphlet of 1508 shows on its cover the Church upside
down, with the peasant performing the services, while the
priest guides the plough outside and a monk drives the horses.
Doubtless the free peasants of Switzerland contributed to
stimulate disorder and discontent, especially in southern
Germany. The conspiracies were repeatedly betrayed and the
guilty parties terribly punished. That discovered in 1517 made
a deep impression on the authorities by reason of its vast
extent, and doubtless led the diet of Augsburg to allude to
the danger which lay in the refusal of the common man to
pay the ecclesiastical taxes. " It was into this mass of seething
discontent that the spark of religious protest fell the one
thing needed to fire the train and kindle the social conflagration.
This was the society to which Luther spoke, and its discontent
was the sounding board which made his words reverberate." '
On turning from the attitude of the peasants and poorer
townspeople to that of the scholars, we find in their writings
Attitude a good deal of harsh criticism of the scholastic theology,
of the satirical allusions to the friars, and, in Germany, sharp
human- denunciations of the practices of the Curia. But there
lsts ' are many reasons for believing that the older estimate
of the influence of the so-called Renaissance, or " new learning,"
in promoting the Protestant revolt was an exaggerated one.
The class of humanists which had grown up in Italy during the
1 5th century, and whose influence had been spreading into
Germany, France and England during the generation immedi-
ately preceding the opening of the Protestant revolt, repre-
sented every phase of religious feeling from mystic piety to
cynical indifference, but there were very few anti-clericals
among them. The revival of Greek from the time of Chryso-
loras onward, instead of begetting a Hellenistic spirit, trans-
ported the more serious-minded to the nebulous shores of Neo-
Platonism, while the less devout became absorbed in scholarly
or literary ambitions, translations, elegantly phrased letters,
clever epigrams or indiscriminate invective. It is true that
Lorenzo Valla (d. 1457) showed the Donation of Constantine
to be a forgery, denied that Dionysius the Areopagite wrote
the works ascribed to him, and refuted the commonly accepted
notion that each of the apostles had contributed a sentence
to the Apostles' Creed. But such attacks were rare and isolated
and were not intended to effect a breach in the solid ramparts
of the medieval Church, but rather to exhibit the ingenuity of
the critic. In the libraries collected under humanistic influences
the patristic writers, both Latin and Greek, and the scholastic
doctors are conspicuous. Then most of the humanists
were clerics, and in Italy they enjoyed the patronage of the
popes. They not unnaturally showed a tolerant spirit on the
whole toward existing institutions, including the ecclesiastical
abuses, and, in general, cared little how long the vulgar herd
was left in the superstitious darkness which befitted their estate,
so long as the superior man was permitted to hold discreetly
any views he pleased. Of this attitude Mutian (1471-1526),
1 Lindsay.
the German humanist who perhaps approached most nearly
the Italian type, furnishes a good illustration. He believed
that Christianity had existed from all eternity, and that the
Greeks and Romans, sharing in God's truth, would share also in
the celestial joys. Forms and ceremonies should only be
judged as they promoted the great object of life, a clean heart
and a right spirit, love to God and one's neighbour. He defined
faith as commonly understood to mean " not the conformity
of what we say with fact, but an opinion upon divine things
founded upon credulity which seeks after profit." " With
the cross," he declares, " we put our foes to flight, we extort
money, we consecrate God, we shake hell, we work miracles."
These reflections were, however, for his intimate friends, and
like him, his much greater contemporary, Erasmus, abhorred
anything suggesting open revolt or revolution. The Erasmus
extraordinary popularity of Erasmus is a sufficient (.1464*
indication that his attitude of mind was viewed with IS36 t-
sympathy by the learned, whether in France, England, Germany,
Spain or Italy. He was a firm believer in the efficacy of culture.
He maintained that old prejudices would disappear with the
progress of knowledge, and that superstition and mechanical
devices of salvation would be insensibly abandoned. The laity
should read their New Testament, and would in this way come
to feel the true significance of Christ's life and teachings, which,
rather than the Church, formed the centre of Erasmus's religion.
The dissidence of dissent, however, filled him with uneasiness, and
he abhorred Luther's denial of free will and his exaggerated notion
of man's utter depravity; in short, he did nothing whatever to
promote the Protestant revolt, except so far as his frank denuncia-
tion and his witty arraignment of clerical and monastic weaknesses
and soulless ceremonial, especially in his Praise of Folly and Col-
loquies, contributed to bring the faults of the Church into strong
relief, and in so far as his edition of the New Testament furnished
a simple escape from innumerable theological complications.
A peculiar literary feud in Germany served, about 1515, to
throw into sharp contrast the humanistic party, which had
been gradually developing during the previous fifty years, and
the conservative, monkish, scholastic group, who found their
leader among the Dominicans of the university of Cologne.
Johann Reuchlin, a well-known scholar, who had been charged
by the Dominicans with heresy, not only received the support
of the newer type of scholars, who wrote him encouraging
letters which he published under the title Epistolae darorum
airorum, but this collection suggested to Crotus Rubianus and
Ulrich von Hutten one of the most successful satires of the ages,
the Epistolae obscurorum virorum. As Creighton well said, the
chief importance of the " Letters of Obscure Men " lay in its
success in popularizing the conception of a stupid party which
was opposed to the party of progress. At the same time that
the Neo-Platonists, like Ficino and Pico de la Mirandola, and
the pantheists, whose God was little more than a reverential
conception of the universe at large, and the purely worldly
humanists, like Celtes and Bebel, were widely diverging each
by his own particular path from the ecclesiastical Weltanschauung
of the middle ages, Ulrich von Hutten was busy attacking the
Curia in his witty Dialogues, in the name of German patriotism.
He, at least, among the well-known scholars eagerly espoused
Luther's cause, as he understood it. A few of the humanists
became Protestants Melanchthon, Bucer, Oecolampadius and
others but the great majority of them, even if attracted for the
moment by Luther's denunciation of scholasticism, speedily
repudiated the movement. In Socinianism (see below) we have
perhaps the only instance of humanistic antecedents leading to
the formation of a religious sect.
A new type of theology made its appearance at the opening
of the i6th century , s in sharp contrast with the Aristotelian
scholasticism of the Thomists and Scotists. This was The new
due to the renewed enthusiasm for, and appreciation of, theology
St Paul with which Erasmus sympathized, and which
found an able exponent in England in John Colet and
in France in Lefevre of Etaples (Faber Stapulensis).
Luther was reaching somewhat similar views at the same time,
REFORMATION, THE
ii
although in a strikingly different manner and with far more
momentous results for the western world. Martin Luther was
beyond doubt the most important single figure in the Protestant
revolt. His influence was indeed by no means so decisive and so
pervasive as has commonly been supposed, and his attacks on the
evils in the Church were no bolder or more comprehensive than
those of Marsiglio and Wycliffe, or of several among his con-
temporaries who owed nothing to his example. Had the
German princes not found it to their interests to enforce his
principles, he might never have been more than the leader of an
obscure mystic sect. He was, moreover, no statesman. He
was recklessly impetuous in his temperament, coarse and grossly
superstitious according to modern standards. Yet in spite of
all these allowances he remains one of the great heroes of all
history. Few come in contact with his writings without feeling
his deep spiritual nature and an absolute genuineness and
marvellous individuality which seem never to sink into mere
routine or affectation. In his more important works almost
every sentence is alive with that autochthonic quality which
makes it unmistakably his. His fundamental religious con-
ception was his own hard-found answer to his own agonized
question as to the nature and assurance of salvation. Even if
others before him had reached the conviction that the Vulgate's
word justitia in Romans i. 16-17 meant "righteousness"
rather than " justice " in a juridical sense, Luther exhibited
supreme religious genius in his interpretation of " God's
righteousness " (Gerechligkeif) as over against the " good works "
of man, and in the overwhelming importance he attached to
the promise that the just shall live by faith. It was his anxiety
to remove everything that obscured this central idea which led
him to revolt against the ancient Church, and this conception
of faith served, when he became leader of the German Protestants,
as a touchstone to test the expediency of every innovation.
But only gradually did he come to realize that his source of
spiritual consolation might undermine altogether the artfully
constructed fabric of the medieval Church. As late as 1516 he
declared that the life of a monk was never a more enviable one
than at that day. He had, however, already begun to look
sourly upon Aristotle and the current scholastic theology, which
he believed hid the simple truth of the gospel and the desperate
state of mankind, who were taught a vain reliance upon outward
works and ceremonies, when the only safety lay in throwing
oneself on God's mercy. He was suddenly forced to take up the
consideration of some of the most fundamental points in the
orthodox theology by the appearance of Tetzel in 1517. In his
hastily drafted Ninety-five Theses he sought to limit the potency
of indulgences, and so indirectly raised the question as to the
power of the pope. He was astonished to observe the wide
circulation of the theses both in the Latin and German versions.
They soon reached Rome, and a Dominican monk, Prierius,
wrote a reply in defence of the papal power, in an insolent tone
which first served to rouse Luther's suspicion of the theology of
the papal Curia. He was summoned to Rome, but, out of
consideration for his patron, the important elector of Saxony,
he was permitted to appear before the papal legate during the
diet of Augsburg in 1518. He boldly contradicted the legate's
theological statements, refused to revoke anything and appealed
to a future council. On returning to Wittenberg, he turned to
the canon law, and was shocked to find it so completely at
variance with his notions of Christianity. He reached the
conclusion that the papacy was but four hundred years old.
Yet, although of human origin, it was established by common
consent and with God's sanction, so that no one might withdraw
his obedience without offence.
It was not, however, until 1520 that Luther became in a
sense the leader of the German people by issuing his three
great pamphlets, all of which were published in German as
well as in Latin his Address to the Christian Nobility of the
German Nation, his Babylonish Captivity of the Church, and his
Freedom of the Christian. In the first he urged that, since the
Church had failed to reform itself, the secular government
should come to the rescue. " The Romanists have with great
dexterity built themselves about with three walls, which have
hitherto protected them against reform; and thereby is
Christianity fearfully fallen. In the first place, when the
temporal power has pressed them hard, they have affirmed and
maintained that the temporal power has no jurisdiction over
them that, on the contrary, the spiritual is above the temporal.
Secondly, when it was proposed to admonish them from the
Holy Scriptures they said, ' It beseems no one but the pope
to interpret the Scriptures,' and, thirdly, when they were
threatened with a council, they invented the idea that no one
but the pope can call a council. Thus they have secretly
stolen our three rods that they may go unpunished, and have
entrenched themselves safely behind these three walls in order to
carry on all the rascality and wickedness that we now see."
He declares that the distinction between the " spiritual
estate," composed of pope, bishops, priests and monks, as
over against the " temporal estate " composed of princes, lords,
artisans and peasants, is a very fine hypocritical invention of
which no one should be afraid. " A cobbler, a smith, a peasant,
every man has his own calling and duty, just like the conse-
crated priests and bishops, and every one in his calling or office
must help and serve the rest, so that all may work together for
the common good." After overthrowing the other two walls,
Luther invites the attention of the German rulers to the old
theme of the pomp of the pope and cardinals, for which the
Germans must pay. " What the Romanists really mean to do,
the ' drunken Germans ' are not to see until they have lost
everything. ... If we rightly hang thieves a'nd behead robbers,
why do we leave the greed of Rome unpunished ? for Rome is
the greatest thief and robber that has ever appeared on earth,
or ever will; and all in the holy names of the Church and St
Peter." After proving that the secular rulers were free and in
duty bound to correct the evils of the Church, Luther sketches
a plan for preventing money from going to Italy, for reducing
the number of idle, begging monks, harmful pilgrimages and
excessive holidays. Luxury and drinking were to be sup-
pressed, the universities, especially the divinity schools, re-
organized, &c.
Apart from fundamental rejection of the papal supremacy,
there was little novel in Luther's appeal. It had all been said
before in the various protests of which we have spoken, and
very recently by Ulrich von Hutten in his Dialogues, but no
one had put the case so strongly, or so clearly, before. In
addressing the German nobility Luther had refrained from
taking up theological or religious doctrines; but in Sep-
tember 1520 he attacked the whole sacramental system ot
the medieval Church in his Babylonish Captivity of the Church.
Many reformers, like Glapion, the Franciscan confessor of
Charles V., who had read the Address with equanimity if not
approval, were shocked by Luther's audacity in rejecting the
prevailing fundamental religious conceptions. Luther says:
" I must begin by denying that there are seven sacraments, and
must lay down for the time being that there are only three
baptism, penance and the bread, and that by the court of Rome
all these have been brought into miserable bondage, and the
Church despoiled of her liberty." It is, however, in the Freedom
of the Christian that the essence of Luther's religion is to be
found. Man cannot save himself, but is saved then and there
so soon as he believes God's promises, and to doubt these is
the supreme crime. So salvation was to him not a painful
progress toward a goal to be reached by the sacraments and by
right conduct, but a stale in which man found himself so soon
as he despaired absolutely of his own efforts, and threw himself
on God's assurances. Man's utter incapacity to do anything
to please God, and his utter personal dependence on God's grace
seemed to render the whole system of the Church well-nigh
gratuitous even if it were purged of all the " sophistry " which
to Luther seemed to bury out of sight all that was essential in
religion. Luther's gospel was one of love and confidence, not
of fear and trembling, and came as an overwhelming revelation
to those who understood and accepted it.
The old question of Church reform inevitably reappeared
12
REFORMATION, THE
when the young emperor Charles V. opened his first imperial
diet at Worms early in 1521, and a committee of German
princes drafted a list of gravamina, longer and bitterer than
The edict any preceding one. While the resolute papal nuncio
of Worm*, Aleander was indefatigable in his efforts to induce the
ts21 ' diet to condemn Luther's teachings, his curious and
instructive despatches to the Roman Curia complain constantly
of the ill-treatment and insults he encountered, of the readiness
of the printers to issue innumerable copies of Luther's pamphlets
and of their reluctance to print anything in the pope's favour.
Charles apparently made up his mind immediately and once for
all. He approved the gravamina, for he believed a thorough
reform of the Church essential. This reform he thought should
be carried out by a council, even against the pope's will; and
he was destined to engage in many fruitless negotiations to this
end before the council of Trent at last assembled a score of years
later. But he had no patience with a single monk who, led
astray by his private judgment, set himself against the faith
held by all Christians for a thousand years. " What my fore-
fathers established at the council of Constance and other
councils it is my privilege to maintain," he exclaims. Although,
to Aleander's chagrin, the emperor consented to summon
Luther to Worms, where he received a species of ovation,
Charles readily approved the edict drafted by the papal nuncio,
in which Luther is accused of having " brought together all
previous heresies in one stinking mass," rejecting all law,
teaching a life wholly brutish, and urging the lay people to
bathe their hands in the blood of priests. He and his adherents
were outlawed; no one was to print, sell or read any of his
writings, " since they are foul, harmful, suspected, and come
from a notorious and stiff-necked heretic." The edict of
Worms was entirely in harmony with the laws of Western
Christendom, and there were few among the governing classes
in Germany at that time who really understood or approved
Luther's fundamental ideas; nevertheless if we except the
elector of Brandenburg, George of Saxony, the dukes of Bavaria,
and Charles V.'s brother Ferdinand the princes, including the
ecclesiastical rulers and the towns, commonly neglected to
publish the edict, much less to enforce it. They were glad to
leave Luther unmolested in order to spite the " Curtizanen,"
as the adherents of the papal Curia were called. The emperor
was forced to leave Germany immediately after the diet had
dissolved, and was prevented by a succession of wars from
returning for nearly ten years. The governing council, which
had been organized to represent him in Germany, fell rapidly
into disrepute, and exercised no restraining influence on those
princes who might desire to act on Luther's theory that the
civil government was supreme in matters of Church reform.
The records of printing indicate that religious, social and
economic betterment was the subject of an ever-increasing
number of pamphlets. The range of opinion was
wide. Men like Thomas Murner, for instance, heartily
denounced " the great Lutheran fool," but at the same
time bitterly attacked monks and priests, and popular-
ized the conception of the simple man with the hoe
(Karsthans). Hans Sachs, on the other hand, sang the praises
of the " Wittenberg Nightingale," and a considerable number
of prominent men of letters accepted Luther as their guide
Zell and Bucer, in Strassburg, Eberlin in Ulm, Oecolampadius
in Augsburg, Osiander and others in Nuremberg, Pellicanus
in Nordlingen. Moreover, there gradually developed a group
of radicals who were convinced that Luther had not the courage
of his convictions. They proposed to abolish the " idolatry "
of the Mass and all other outward signs of what they deemed
the old superstitions. Luther's colleague at Wittenberg,
Carlstadt (q.v.), began denouncing the monastic life, the celi-
bacy of the clergy, the veneration of images; and before the
end of 1521 we find the first characteristic outward symptoms
of Protestantism. Luther had meanwhile been concealed
by his friends in the Wartburg, near Eisenach, where he busied
himself with a new German translation of the New Testament,
to be followed in a few years by the Old Testament. The
Wide
diverg-
ence of
opinion In
Germany.
Bible had long been available in the language of the people,
and there are indications that the numerous early editions of
the Scriptures were widely read. Luther, however, possessed
resources of style which served to render his version far superior
to the older one, and to give it an important place in the develop-
ment of German literature, as well as in the history of the
Protestant churches. During his absence two priests from
parishes near Wittenberg married; while several monks,
throwing aside their cowls, left their cloisters. Melanchthon,
who was for a moment carried away by the movement, partook,
with several of his students, of the communion under both
kinds, and on Christmas Eve a crowd invaded the church of
All Saints, broke the lamps, threatened the priests and made
sport of the venerable ritual. Next day, Carlstadt, who had
laid aside his clerical robes, dispensed the Lord's Supper in
the " evangelical fashion." At this time three prophets arrived
from Zwickau, eager to hasten the movement of emancipation.
They were weavers who had been associated with Thomas
Miinzer, and like him looked forward to a very radical reform
of society. They rejected infant baptism, and were among the
forerunners of the Anabaptists.
In January 1522, Carlstadt induced the authorities of Witten-
berg to publish the first evangelical church ordinance. The
revenues from ecclesiastical foundations, as well as
those from the industrial gilds, were to be placed in a testant '
common chest, to be in charge of the townsmen and the Revolt
magistrates. The priests were to receive fixed salaries; begins in
begging, even by monks and poor students, was pro- ^22"^'
hibited; the poor, including the monks, were to be
supported from the common chest. The service of the Mass was
modified, and the laity were to receive the elements in both
kinds. Reminders of the old religious usages were to be done
away with, and fast days were to be no longer observed. These
measures, and the excitement which followed the arrival of
the radicals from Zwickau, led Luther to return to Wittenberg
in March 1522, where he preached a series of sermons attacking
the impatience of the radical party, and setting forth clearly
his own views of what the progress of the Reformation should
be. " The Word created heaven and earth and all things;
the same Word will also create now, and not we poor sinners.
Faith must be unconstrained and must be accepted without
compulsion. To marry, to do away with images, to become
monks and nuns, or for monks and nuns to leave their convent,
to eat meat on Friday or not to eat it, and other like things
all these are open questions, and should not be forbidden by
any man .... What we want is the heart, and to win that
we must preach the gospel. Then the Word will drop into
one heart to-day and to-morrow into another, and so will
work that each will forsake the Mass." Luther succeeded
in quieting the people both in Wittenberg and the neighbour-
ing towns, and in preventing the excesses which had threatened
to discredit the whole movement.
In January 1522, Leo X. had been succeeded by a new
pope, Adrian VI., a devout Dominican theologian, bent on
reforming the Church, in which, as he injudiciously Adrian VI.
confessed through his legate to the diet at Nuremberg, IS22-
the Roman Curia had perhaps been the chief source 1S23 '
of " that corruption which had spread from the head to the
members." The Lutheran heresy he held to be God's terrible
judgment on the sins of the clergy. The diet refused to accede
to the pope's demand that the edict of Worms should be
enforced, and recommended that a Christian council should
be summoned in January, to include not only ecclesiastics
but laymen, who should be permitted freely to express their
opinions. While the^ diet approved the list of abuses drawn
up at Worms, it ordered that Luther's books should no longer
be published, and that Luther himself should hold his peace,
while learned men were to admonish the erring preachers.
The decisions of this diet are noteworthy, since they probably
give a very fair idea of the prevailing opinion of the ruling
classes in Germany. They refused to regard Luther as in
any way their leader, or even to recognize him as a discreet
REFORMATION, THE
"
person. On the other hand, they did not wish to take the
risk of radical measures against the new doctrines, and were
glad of an excuse for refusing the demands of the pope.
Adrian soon died, worn out by his futile attempts to correct
the abuses at home, and was followed by Clement VII., a
Medici, less gifted but not less worldly in his instincts than
LeoX.
Clement sent one of his ablest Italian diplomatists, Cam-
peggio, to negotiate with the diet which met at Spires in 1524.
He induced the diet to promise to execute the edict of
Worms as far as that should be possible; but it was
then- generally understood that it was impossible. The
iigious diet renewed the demand for a general council to meet
deft be- j n a (j erman town to settle the affairs of the Church
German ' n Germany, and even proposed the convocation of
states of a national council at Spires in November, to effect
the north a temporary adjustment. In this precarious situation
Campeggio, realizing the hopelessness of his attempt to
induce all the members of the diet to co-operate with
him in re-establishing the pope's control, called together at
Regensburg a certain number of rulers whom he believed to
be rather more favourably disposed toward the pope than their
fellows. These included Ferdinand, duke of Austria, the two
dukes of Bavaria, the archbishops of Salzburg and Trent, the
bishops of Bamberg, Spires, Strassburg and others. He induced
these to unite in opposing the Lutheran heresy on condition
that the pope would issue a decree providing for some of the
.most needed reforms. There was to be no more financial oppres-
sion on the part of the clergy, and no unseemly payments
for performing the church services. Abuses arising from the
granting of indulgences were to be remedied, and the excessive
number of church holidays, which seriously interfered with the
industrial welfare of Germany, was to be reduced. The states
in the Catholic League were permitted to retain for their own
uses about one-fifth of the ecclesiastical revenue; the clergy
was to be subjected to careful discipline; and only authorized
preachers were to be tolerated, who based their teachings on
the works of the four Latin Church fathers. Thus the agree-
ment of Regensburg is of great moment in the development of
the Protestant revolt in Germany. For Austria, Bavaria and
the great ecclesiastical states in the south definitely sided
with the pope against Luther's heresies, and to this day they
still remain Roman Catholic. In the north, on the other hand,
it became more and more apparent that the princes were drift-
ing away from the Roman Catholic Church. Moreover, it
should be noted that Campeggio's diplomacy was really the
beginning of an effective betterment of the old Church, such
as had been discussed for two or three centuries. He met the
long-standing and general demand for reform without a revolu-
tion in doctrines or institutions. A new edition of the German
Bible was issued with the view of meeting the needs of
Catholics, a new religious literature grew up designed to sub-
stantiate the beliefs sanctioned by the Roman Church and
to carry out the movement begun long before toward spiritual-
izing its institutions and rites.
In 1525 the conservative party, which had from the first
feared that Luther's teaching would result in sedition, received
The a new and terrible proof, as it seemed to them, of the
Peasant noxious influence of the evangelical preachers. The
Revolt, peasant movements alluded to above, which had caused
B2S ' so much anxiety at the diet of Augsburg in 1518, cul-
minated in the fearful Peasant Revolt in which the common
man, both in country and town, rose in the name of " God's
justice " to avenge long-standing wrongs and establish his
rights. Luther was by no means directly responsible for the
civil war which followed, but he had certainly contributed
to stir up the ancient discontent. He had asserted that,
owing to the habit of foreclosing small mortgages, " any one
with a hundred gulden could gobble up a peasant a year." The
German feudal lords he pronounced hangmen, who knew only
how to swindle the poor man " such fellows were formerly
called scoundrels, but now we must call them ' Christians and
13
revered princes.'" Yet in spite of this harsh talk about
princes, Luther relied upon them to forward the reforms in
which he was interested, and he justly claimed that he had
greatly increased their powers by reducing the authority of
the pope and subjecting the clergy in all things to the civil
government.
The best known statement of the peasants' grievances is
to be found in the famous " Twelve Articles " drawn up in
1524. They certainly showed the unmistakable influence of
the evangelical teaching. The peasants demanded that the
gospel should be taught them as a guide in life, and that each
community should be permitted to choose its pastor and depose
him if he conducted himself improperly. " The pastor thus
chosen should teach us the gospel pure and simple, without
any addition, doctrine or ordinance of man." The old tithe
on grain shall continue to be paid, since that is established by
the Old Testament. It will serve to support the pastor, and
what is left over shall be given to the poor. Serfdom is against
God's word, "since Christ has delivered and redeemed us all
without exception, by the shedding of his precious blood, the
lowly as well as the great." Protests follow against hunting
and fishing rights, restrictions on wood-cutting, and ex-
cessive demands made on peasants. " In the twelfth place,"
the declaration characteristically concluded, " it is our con-
clusion and final resolution that if one or more of the articles
here set forth should not be in agreement with the word of God,
as we think they are, such articles will we willingly retract if
it be proved by a clear explanation of Scripture really to be
against the word of God." More radical demands came from
the working classes in the towns. The articles of Heilbronn
demanded that the property of the Church should be con-
fiscated and used for the community; clergy and nobility
alike were to be deprived of all their privileges, so that they
could no longer oppress the poor man. The more violent
leaders, like Miinzer, renewed the old cry that the parsons must
be slain. Hundreds of castles and monasteries were destroyed
by the frantic peasantry, and some of the nobles were murdered
with shocking cruelty. Luther, who believed that the peasants
were trying to cloak their dreadful sins with excuses from
the gospel, exhorted the government to put down the in-
surrection. " Have no pity on the poor folk; stab, smite,
throttle, who can!" To him the peasants' attempt to
abolish serfdom was wholly unchristian, since it was a
divinely sanctioned institution, and if they succeeded they
would " make God a liar." The German rulers took Luther's
advice with terrible literalness, and avenged themselves upon
the peasants, whose lot was apparently worse afterwards than
before.
The terror inspired by the Peasant War led to a new alliance,
the League of Dessau, formed by some of the leading rulers of
central and northern Germany, to stamp out the Apaear-
" accursed Lutheran sect." This included Luther's old ance O f
enemy, Duke George of Saxony, the electors of Bran- "" evaa-
denburg and Mainz, and two princes of Brunswick.
The rumour that the emperor was planning to return
to Germany in order to root out the growing heresy, led a few
princes who had openly favoured Luther to unite also. Among
these the chief were the new elector of Saxony, John (who,
unlike his brother, Frederick the Wise, had openly espoused
the new doctrines), and the energetic Philip, landgrave of
Hesse. The emperor did not return, and since there was no
one to settle the religious question in Germany, the diet of
Spires (1526) determined that, pending the meeting of the
proposed general council, each prince, and each knight and
town owing immediate allegiance to the emperor, should decide
individually what particular form of religion should prevail
within the limits of their territories. Each prince was "so
to live, reign and conduct himself as he would be willing to
answer before God and His Imperial Majesty." While the
evangelical party still hoped that some form of religion might
be agreed upon which would prevent the disruption of the
Church, the conservatives were confident that the heretics
REFORMATION, THE
would soon be suppressed, as they had so often been in the
past. The situation tended to become more, rather than less,
complicated, and there was every variety of reformer and
every degree of conservatism, for there were no standards
for those who had rejected the papal supremacy, and even
those who continued to accept it differed widely. For
example, George of Saxony viewed Aleander, the pope's
nuncio, with almost as much suspicion as he did Luther
himself.
The religious ideas in South Germany were affected by the de-
velopment of a reform party in Switzerland, under the influence
Zwia II ^ Zwingli, who claimed that at Einsiedeln, near the
and the ' a ^e of Zurich, he had begun to preach the gospel of
Reforms- Christ in the year 1516 " before any one in my locality
tit, n in had so muc h as heard the name of Luther." Three
land." years later he becamepreacherinthecathedralof Zurich.
Here he began to denounce the abuses in the Church,
as well as the traffic in mercenaries which had so long been a
blot upon his country's honour. From the first he combined
religious and political reform. In 1523 he prepared a complete
statement of his beliefs, in the form of sixty-seven theses. He
maintained that Christ was the only high priest and that the
gospel did not gain its sanction from the authority of the
Church. He denied the existence of purgatory, and rejected
those practices of the Church which Luther had already set
aside. Since no one presented himself to refute him, the town
council ratified his conclusions, so that the city of Zurich prac-
tically withdrew from the Roman Catholic Church. Next
year the Mass, processions and the images of saints were
abolished. The shrines were opened and the relics burned.
Some other towns, including Bern, followed Zurich's example,
but the Forest cantons refused to accept the innovations. In
1525 a religious and political league was arranged between
Zurich and Constance, which in the following year was joined
by St Gallen, Biel, Miihlhausen, Basel and Strassburg. Philip
of Hesse was attracted by Zwingli's energy, and was eager that
the northern reformers should be brought into closer relations
with the south. But the league arranged by Zwingli was
directed against the house of Habsburg, and Luther did not
deem it right to oppose a prince by force of arms.
Moreover, he did not believe that Zwingli, who con-
i.uthcr. ceived the eucharist to be merely symbolical in its
e character, " held the whole truth of God." Never-
' Articles! theless, Philip of Hesse finally arranged a religious
conference in the castle of Marburg (1529) where
Zwingli and Luther met. They were able to agree on fourteen
out of the fifteen " Marburg Articles," which stated the chief
points in the Christian faith as they were accepted by both.
A fundamental difference as to the doctrine of the eucharist,
however, stood in the way of the real union.
The diet of Spires (1529) had received a letter from the
emperor directing it to look to the enforcement of the edict of
The diet Worms against the heretics. No one was to preach
of Spires, against the Mass, and no one was to be prevented from
1529, ana attending it freely. This meant that the evangelical
'testants'" P rmces would be forced to restore the most character-
istic Catholic rite. As they formed only a minority in
the diet, they could only draw up a protest, which was signed by
John Frederick of Saxony, Philip of Hesse, and fourteen of the
three towns, including Strassburg, Nuremberg and Ulm. In
this they claimed that the majority had no right to abrogate the
stipulations of the former diet of Spires, which permitted each
prince to determine religious matters provisionally for him-
self, for all had unanimously pledged themselves to observe
that agreement. They therefore appealed to the emperor
and to a future council against the tyranny of the majority.
Those who signed this appeal were called Protestants, a name
which came to be generally applied to those who rejected the
supremacy of the pope, the Roman Catholic conceptions of
the clergy and of the Mass, and discarded sundry practices of
the older Church, without, however, repudiating the Catholic
creeds.
Zwingli
During the period which had elapsed since the diet of Worms,
the emperor had resided in Spain, busy with a series of wars,
waged mainly with the king of France. 1 In 1 530 the The dlet
emperor found himself in a position to visit Germany and con-
once more, and summoned the diet to meet at Augsburg, fessloa of
with the hope of settling the religious differences and Au x sl ""T[.
bringing about harmonious action against the Turk.
The Protestants were requested to submit a statement of their
opinions, and on June 25th the " Augsburg Confession " was
read to the diet. This was signed by the elector of Saxony
and his son and successor, John Frederick, by George, margrave
of Brandenburg, two dukes of Liineburg, Philip of Hesse and
Wolfgang of Anhalt, and by the representatives of Nuremberg
and Reutlingen. The confession was drafted by Melanchthon,
who sought consistently to minimize the breach which separated
the Lutherans from the old Church. In the first part of the
confession the Protestants seek to prove that there is nothing
in their doctrines at variance with those of the universal Church
" or even of the Roman Church so far as that appears in the
writings of the Fathers." They made it clear that they still
held a great part of the beliefs of the medieval Church, especially
as represented in Augustine's writings, and repudiated the
radical notions of the Anabaptists and of Zwingli. In the second
part, those practices of the Church are enumerated which the
evangelical party rejected; the celibacy of the clergy, the Mass,
as previously understood, auricular confession, and monastic
vows, the objections to which are stated with much vigour.
" Christian perfection is this: to fear God sincerely, to trust*
assuredly that we have, for Christ's sake, a gracious and merciful
God; to ask and look with confidence for help from him in all
our affairs, accordingly to our calling, and outwardly to do good
works diligently, and to attend to our vocation. In these
things doth true perfection and a true worship of God consist.
It doth not consist in going about begging, or in wearing a black
or a grey cowl." The Protestant princes declared that they had
no intention of depriving the bishops of their jurisdiction, but
this one thing only is requested of them, " that they would suffer
the gospel to be purely taught, and would relax a few observances
in which we cannot adhere without sin."
The confession was turned over to a committee of conserva-
tive theologians, including Eck, Faber and Cochlaeus. Their
refutation of the Protestant positions seemed needlessly Course ol
sharp to the emperor, and five drafts were made of it. events in
Charles finally reluctantly accepted it, although he Germany,
would gladly have had it milder, for it made reconcilia-
tion hopeless. The majority of the diet approved a
recess, allowing the Protestants a brief period of immunity until
the isth of April 1531, after which they were to be put down
by force. Meanwhile, they were to make no further innovations,
they were not to molest the conservatives, and were to aid the
emperor in suppressing the doctrines of Zwingli and of the
Anabaptists. The Lutheran princes protested, together with
fourteen cities, and left the diet. The diet thereupon decided
that the edict of Worms should at last be enforced. All Church
property was to be restored, and, perhaps most important of all,
the jurisdiction of the Imperial court (Reichskammergcricht),
which was naturally Catholic in its sympathies, was extended
to appeals involving the seizure of ecclesiastical benefices,
contempt of episcopal decisions and other matters deeply affect-
ing the Protestants. In November the Protestants formed the
Schmalkaldic League, which, after the death of Zwingli, in 1531,
was joined by a number of the South German towns. The
period of immunity assigned to the Protestants passed by;
but they were left unmolested, for the emperor was involved
in many difficulties, and the Turks were threatening Vienna.
Consequently, at the diet of Nuremberg (1532) a recess was
drafted indefinitely extending the religious truce and quashing
such cases in the Reichskammergericht as involved Protestant
1 In 1527 the pope's capital was sacked by Charles's army. This
was, of course, but an incident in the purely political relations of
the European powers with the pope, and really has no bearing upon
the progress of the Protestant revolt.
REFORMATION, THE
innovations. The conservatives refused to ratify the recess,
which was not published, but the Protestant states declared
that they would accept the emperor's word of honour, and
furnished him with troops for repelling the Mahommedans. The
fact that the conservative princes, especially the dukes of
Bavaria, were opposed to any strengthening of the emperor's
power, and were in some cases hereditary enemies of the house
of, Habsburg, served to protect the Protestant princes. In
1534 the Schmalkaldic League succeeded in restoring the
banished duke of Wiirttemberg, who declared himself in favour
of the Lutheran reformation, and thus added another to the
list of German Protestant states. In 1 539 George of Saxony died,
and was succeeded by his brother Henry, who also accepted the
new faith, and in the same year the new elector of Brandenburg
became a Protestant. Indeed, there was reason to believe at
this time that the archbishops of Mainz, Trier and Cologne, as
well as some other bishops, were planning the secularization of
their principalities.
To the north, Lutheran influence had spread into Denmark;
Sweden and Norway were also brought within its sphere.
Denmark, Christian II. of Denmark, a nephew of the elector of
an"* Saxony, came to the throne in 1513, bent on bringing
Sweden Sweden and Norway, over which he nominally ruled in
become accordance with the terms of the Union of Kalmar
Protest- (1397), completely under his control. In order to do
aat ' this it was necessary to reduce the power of the nobility
and clergy, privileged classes exempt from taxation and rivals
of the royal power. Denmark had suffered from all the abuses
of papal provisions, and the nuncio of Leo X. had been forced
in 1518 to flee from the king's wrath. Christian II. set up a
supreme court for ecclesiastical matters, and seemed about to
adopt a policy similar to that later pursued by Henry VIII. of
England, when his work was broken off by a revolt which
compelled him to leave the country. Lutheranism continued
to make rapid progress, and Christian's successor permitted
the clergy to marry, appropriated the annates and protected
the Lutherans. Finally Christian III., an ardent Lutheran,
ascended the throne in 1536; with the sanction of the diet he
Severed, in 1537, all connexion with the pope, introducing the
Lutheran system of Church government and accepting the
Augsburg Confession. 1 Norway was included in the changes,
but Sweden had won its independence of Denmark, under
Gustavus Vasa, who, in 1523, was proclaimed king. He used
the Lutheran theories as an excuse for overthrowing the ecclesi-
astical aristocracy, which had been insolently powerful in
Sweden. In 1527, supported by the diet, he carried his measures
for secularizing such portion's of the Church property as he
thought fit, and for subjecting the Church to the royal power
(Ordinances of Vesteras); but many of the old religious cere-
monies and practices were permitted to continue, and it was not
until 1592 that Lutheranism was officially sanctioned by the
Swedish synod. 2
Charles V., finding that his efforts to check the spread of the
religious schism were unsuccessful, resorted once more to
The conferences between Roman Catholic and Lutheran
Council theologians, but it became apparent that no permanent
of Trent, compromise was possible. The emperor then succeeded
in disrupting the Schmalkaldic League by winning over, on
purely political grounds, Philip of Hesse and young Maurice
of Saxony, whose father, Henry, had died after a very brief
reign. Charles V. had always exhibited the greatest confidence
in the proposed general council, the summoning of which had
hitherto been frustrated by the popes, and at last, in 1545,
the council was summoned to meet at Trent, which lay con-
veniently upon the confines of Italy and Germany (see TRENT,
COUNCIL OF). The Dominicans and, later, members of the
newly born Order of Jesus, were conspicuous, among the
1 The episcopal office was retained, but the " succession " broken,
the new Lutheran bishops being consecrated by Buggenhagen,
who was only in priest's orders.
* The episcopal system and succession were maintained, and the
" Mass vestments " (i.e. alb and chasuble) remain in use to this day.
Ing In the
religious
peace of
theological deputies, while the Protestants, though invited,
refused to attend. It was clear from the first that the decisions
of the council would be uncompromising in character, and that
the Protestants would certainly refuse to be bound by its decrees.
And so it fell out. The very first anathemas of the council were
directed against those innovations which the Protestants had
most at heart. The emperor had now tried threats, conferences
and a general council, and all had failed to unify the Church.
Maurice of Saxony, without surrendering his religious beliefs,
had become the political friend of the emperor, who had
promised him the neighbouring electorate of Saxony. Event*
John Frederick, the elector, was defeated at Muhlberg,
April 1547, and taken prisoner. Philip of Hesse
also surrendered, and Charles tried once more to
establish a basis of agreement. Three theologians, in- "Augsburg,
eluding a conservative Lutheran, were chosen to draft isss.
the so-called " Augsburg Interim." This reaffirmed the seven
sacraments, transubstantiation and the invocation of saints,
and declared the pope head of the Church, but adopted
Luther's doctrine of justification by faith in a conditional
way, as well as the marriage of priests, and considerably
modified the theory and practice of the Mass. For four
years Charles, backed by the Spanish troops, made efforts to
force the Protestant towns to observe the Interim, but with
little success. He rapidly grew extremely unpopular, and in
1552 Maurice of Saxony turned upon him and attempted to
capture him at Innsbruck. Charles escaped, but Maurice
became for the moment leader of the German princes who
gathered at Passau (August 1552) to discuss the situation. The
settlement, however, was deferred for the meeting of the diet,
which took place at Augsburg, 1555. There was a general
anxiety to conclude a peace " beslUndiger , behorrlicher, un-
bedingter, jilr und fiir ewig wahrender." There was no other
way but to legalize the new faith in Germany, but only those
were to be tolerated who accepted the Augsburg Confession.
This excluded, of course, not only the Zwinglians and Ana-
baptists, but the ever-increasing Calvinistic or " Reformed "
Church. The principle cujus regio ejus religio was adopted,
according to which each secular ruler might choose between the
old faith and the Lutheran. His decision was to bind all his sub-
jects, but a subject professing another religion from his prince
was to be permitted to leave the country. The ecclesiastical
rulers, however, were to lose their possessions if they abandoned
the old faith. 3 Freedom of conscience was thus established for
princes alone, and their power became supreme in religious as
well as secular matters. The Church and the civil government
had been closely associated with one another for centuries, and
the old system was perpetuated in the Protestant states.
Scarcely any one dreamed that individual subjects could safely be
left to believe what they would, and permitted, so long as they
did not violate the law of the land, freely to select and practise
such religious rites as afforded them help and comfort.
During the three or four years which followed the signing of
the Augsburg Confession in 1530 and the formation of the
Schmalkaldic League, England, while bitterly de- Religious
nouncing and burning Lutheran heretics in the name sft ""o"
of the Holy Catholic Church, was herself engaged in '^^ at the
severing the bonds which had for well-nigh a thousand open /agof
years bound her to the Apostolic See. An in- theKth
dependent national Church was formed in IS34, >* atuT y-
which continued, however, for a time to adhere to all
the characteristic beliefs of the medieval Catholic Church,
excepting alone the headship of the pope. The circum-
stances which led to the English schism are dealt with
elsewhere (see ENGLAND, CHURCH OF), and need be reviewed
here only in the briefest manner. There was som heresy
in England during the opening decades of the i6th century,
survivals of the Lollardy which now and then brought a victim
to the stake. There was also the old discontent among the
orthodox in regard to the Church's exactions, bad clerics and
3 This so-called " ecclesiastical reservation " was not included in
the main peace.
i6
REFORMATION, THE
dissolute and lazy monks. Scholars, like Colet, read the New
Testament in Greek and lectured on justification by faith before
they knew of Luther, and More included among the institutions
of Utopia a rather more liberal and enlightened religion than
that which he observed around him. Erasmus was read and
approved, and his notion of reform by culture no doubt attracted
many adherents among English scholars. Luther's works found
their way into England, and were read and studied at both
Oxford and Cambridge. In May 1521 Wolsey attended a pom-
pous burning of Lutheran tracts in St Paul's churchyard, where
Bishop Fisher preached ardently against the new German heresy.
Henry VIII. himself stoutly maintained the headship of the pope,
and, as is well known, after examining the arguments of Luther,
published his Defence of the Seven Sacraments in 1521, which won
for him from the pope the glorious title of " Defender of the Faith."
The government and the leading men of letters and prelates
appear therefore to have harboured no notions of revolt before
the matter of the king's divorce became prominent in 1527.
Henry's elder brother Arthur, a notoriously sickly youth of
scarce fifteen, had been married to Catherine, daughter of
Ferdinand and Isabella, but had died less than five
v///. months after the marriage (April 1502), leaving
and the doubts as to whether the union had ever been physi-
divorce cally consummated. Political reasons dictated an
case - alliance between the young widow and her brother-in-
law Henry, prince of Wales, nearly five years her junior; Julius II.
was induced reluctantly to grant the dispensation necessary on
account of the relationship, which, according to the canon law
and the current interpretation of Leviticus xviii. 16, stood in
the way of the union. The wedding took place some years
later (1509), and several children were born, none of whom
survived except the princess Mary. By 1527 the king had
become hopeless of having a male heir by Catherine. He was
tired of her, and in love with the black-eyed Anne Boleyn, who
refused to be his mistress. He alleged that he was beginning
to have a horrible misgiving that his marriage with Catherine
had been invalid, perhaps downright " incestuous. " The
negotiations with Clement VII. with the hope of obtaining a
divorce from Catherine, the reluctance of the pope to impeach
the dispensation of his predecessor Julius II., and at the same
time to alienate the English queen's nephew Charles V., the
futile policy of Wolsey and his final ruin in 1529 are described
elsewhere (see ENGLISH HISTORY; HENRY VIII.; CATHERINE
or ARAGON). The king's agents secured the opinion of a number
of prominent universities that his marriage was void, and an
assembly of notables, which he summoned in June 1530, warned
the pope of the dangers involved in leaving the royal succession
in uncertainty, since the heir was not only a woman, but, as it
seemed to many, of illegitimate birth.
Henry's next move was to bring a monstrous charge against
the clergy, accusing them of having violated the ancient laws
Beginning of praemunire in submitting to the authority of papal
of Eng- legates (although he himself had ratified the appoint-
revoit ment of Wolsey as legate a later e). The clergy of the
against province of Canterbury were fined 100,000 and com-
papacy. pelled to declare the king " their singular protector and
only supreme lord, and, as far as that is permitted by the law
of Christ, the supreme head of the Church and of the clergy."
This the king claimed, perhaps with truth, was only a clearer
statement of the provisions of earlier English laws. The
following year, 1532, parliament presented a petition to the king
(which had been most carefully elaborated by the monarch's
own advisers) containing twelve charges against the bishops,
relating to their courts, fees, injudicious appointments and
abusive treatment of heretics, which combined to cause an
unprecedented and " marvellous disorder of the godly quiet,
peace and tranquillity" of the realm. For the remedy of
these abuses parliament turned to the king, " in whom and by
whom the only and sole redress, reformation and remedy herein
absolutely rests and remains." The ordinaries met these
accusations with a lengthy and dignified answer; but this did
not satisfy the king, and convocation was compelled on the
15th of May 1532, further to clarify the ancient laws of the
land, as understood by the king, in the very brief, very humble
and very pertinent document known as the " Submission of
the Clergy." Herein the king's " most humble subjects daily
orators, and bedesmen " of the clergy of England, in view of
his goodness and fervent Christian zeal and his learning far
exceeding that of all other kings that they have read of, agree
never to assemble in convocation except at the king's summons,
and to enact and promulgate no constitution or ordinances
except they receive the royal assent and authority. Moreover,
the existing canons are to be subjected to the examination
of a commission appointed by the king, half its members from
parliament, half from the clergy, to abrogate with the king's
assent such provisions as the majority find do not stand with
God's laws and the laws of the realm. This appeared to place
the legislation of the clergy, whether old or new, entirely under
the monarch's control. A few months later Thomas Cranmer,
who had been one of those to discuss sympathetically Luther's
works in the little circle at Cambridge, and who believed the
royal supremacy would tend to the remedying of grave abuses
and that the pope had acted ultra vires in issuing a dispensation
for the king's marriage with Catherine, was induced by Henry
to succeed Warham as archbishop of Canterbury. About the
same time parliament passed an interesting and important
statute, forbidding, unless the king should wish to suspend the
operation of the law, the payment to the pope of the annates.
This item alone amounted during the previous forty-six years,
the parliament declared, " at the least to eight score thousand
pounds, besides other great and intolerable sums which have
yearly been conveyed to the said court of Rome by many other
ways and means to the great impoverishment of this realm."
The annates were thereafter to accrue to the king; and bishops
and archbishops were thenceforth, in case the pope refused
to confirm them, 1 to be consecrated and invested within the
realm, " in like manner as divers other archbishops and bishops
have been heretofore in ancient times by sundry the king's
most noble progenitors." No censures, excommunications or
interdicts with which the Holy Father might vex or grieve
the sovereign lord or his subjects, should be published or in
any way impede the usual performance of the sacraments and
the holding of the divine services. In February parliament
discovered that " by divers sundry old authentic histories
and chronicles " it was manifest that the realm of England
was an empire governed by one supreme head, the king, to
whom all sorts and degrees of people both clergy and laity
ought to bear next to God a natural and humble obedience,
and that to him God had given the authority finally to deter-
mine all causes and contentions in the realm, " without
restraint, or provocation to any foreign princes or potentates
of the world." The ancient statutes of the praemunire and
provisors are recalled and the penalties attached to their
violation re-enacted. All appeals were to be tried within the
realm, and suits begun before an archbishop were to be deter-
mined by him without further appeal. Acting on this, Cranmer
tried the divorce case before his court, which declared the
marriage with Catherine void and that with Anne Boleyn,
which had been solemnized privately in January, valid.
The pope replied by ordering Henry under pain of excommuni-
cation to put away Anne and restore Catherine, his legal wife,
within ten days. This sentence the emperor, all the Christian
princes and the king's own subjects were summoned to carry
out by force of arms if necessary.
As might have been anticipated, this caused no break in the
policy of the English king and his parliament, and a series of
famous acts passed in the year 1534 completed and Secession
confirmed the independence of the Church of England, of Eng-
which, except during five years under Queen Mary, ^"^J^
was thereafter as completely severed from the papal monarchy,
monarchy as the electorate of Saxony or the duchy #*<
of Hesse. The payment of annates and of Peter's pence
1 Cranmer himself had taken the oath of canonical obedience t
the Holy See and duly received the pallium.
REFORMATION, THE
was absolutely forbidden, as well as the application to the
bishop of Rome for dispensations. The bishops were
thereafter to be elected by the deans and chapters upon
receiving the king's conge d'eslire (q.v.). The Act of Succession
provided that, should the king have no sons, Elizabeth,
Anne's daughter, should succeed to the crown. The brief Act
of Supremacy confirmed the king's claim to be reputed the
" only supreme head in earth of the Church of England ";
he was to enjoy all the honours, dignities, jurisdictions
and profits thereunto appertaining, and to have full power
and authority to reform and amend all such errors, heresies
and abuses, as by any manner of spiritual authority might
lawfully be reformed, or amended, most to the pleasure of
Almighty God, and the increase of virtue in Christ's religion,
" foreign authority, prescription, or any other thing or things
to the contrary hereof, notwithstanding." The Treasons Act,
terrible in its operation, included among capital offences that
of declaring in words or writing the king to be " a heretic,
schismatic, tyrant, infidel or usurper." The convocations were
required to abjure the papal supremacy by declaring " that
the bishop of Rome has not in Scripture any greater
jurisdiction in the kingdom of England than any other
foreign bishop." The king had now clarified the ancient
laws of the realm to his satisfaction, and could proceed to
abolish superstitious rites, remedy abuses, and seize such por-
tions of the Church's possessions, especially pious and monastic
foundations, as he deemed superfluous for the maintenance of
religion.
In spite of the fact that the separation from Rome had been
carried out during the sessions of a single parliament, and
The that there had been no opportunity for a general
reform expression of opinion on the part of the nation, there
of the j s no reason to suppose that the majority of the
church people, thoughtful or thoughtless, were not ready to
under reconcile themselves to the abolition of the papal
Henry supremacy. It seems just as clear that there was
viu. no strong evangelical movement, and that Henry's
pretty consistent adherence to the fundamental doctrines
of the medieval Church was agreeable to the great mass of
his subjects. The ten " Articles devised by the Kyng's Highnes
Majestic to stablysh Christen quietness " (1536), together
with the " Injunctions " of 1536. and 1538, are chiefly
noteworthy for their affirmation of almost all the current
doctrines of the Catholic Church, except those relating to the
papal supremacy, purgatory, images, relics and pilgrimages,
and the old rooted distrust of the Bible in the vernacular.
The clergy were bidden to exhort their hearers to the
" works of charity, mercy and faith, specially prescribed and
commanded in Scripture, and not to repose their trust or
affiance in any other works devised by men's phantasies beside
Scripture; as in wandering to pilgrimages, offering of money,
candles or tapers to images or relics, or kissing or licking the
same, saying over a number of beads, not understood or minded
on, or in such-like superstition." To this end a copy of the
whole English Bible was to be set up in each parish church
where the people could read it. During the same years the
monasteries, lesser and greater, were dissolved, and the chief
shrines were despoiled, notably that of St Thomas of Canter-
bury. Thus one of the most important of all medieval ecclesi-
astical institutions, monasticism, came to an end in England.
Doubtless the king's sore financial needs had much to do with
the dissolution of the abbeys and the plundering of the shrines,
but there is no reason to suppose that he was not fully con-
vinced that the monks had long outlived their usefulness and
that the shrines were centres of abject superstition and ecclesi-
astical deceit. Henry, however, stoutly refused to go further
in the direction of German Protestantism, even with the
prospect of forwarding the proposed union between him and
the princes of the Schmalkaldic League. An insurrection of
the Yorkshire peasants, which is to be ascribed in part to the
distress caused by the enclosure of the commons on which
they had been wont to pasture their cattle, and in part to the
17
destruction of popular shrines, may have caused the king to
defend his orthodoxy by introducing into parliament in 1 539 the
six questions. These parliament enacted into the terrible statute
of " The Six Articles," in which a felon's death was prescribed
for those who obstinately denied transubstantiation, demanded
the communion under both kinds, questioned the binding
character of vows of chastity, or the lawfulness of private
Masses or the expediency of auricular confession. On the
3<3th of July 1540 three Lutheran clergymen were burned
and three Roman Catholics beheaded, the latter for denying
the king's spiritual supremacy. The king's ardent desire that
diversities of minds and opinions should be done away with
and unity be " charitably established " was further promoted
by publishing in 1543 A Necessary Doctrine and Erudition
for any Christian Man, set forth by the King's Majesty of England,
in which the tenets of medieval theology, except for denial
of the supremacy of the bishop of Rome and the unmistakable
assertion of the supremacy of the king, were once more
restated.
Henry VIII. died in January 1547, having chosen a council
of regency for his nine-year-old son Edward, the members
of which were favourable to further religious innova- England
tions. Somerset, the new Protector, strove to govern become*
on the basis of civil liberty and religious tolerance. ' 3 ro'*'"'
The first parliament of the reign swept away almost U p a " ara
all the species of treasons created during the previous V i.,
two centuries, the heresy acts, including the Six 1547-
Articles, all limitations on printing the Scriptures in &&
English and reading and expounding the 'same indeed " all
and every act or acts of parliament concerning doctrine
or matters of religion." These measures gave a great impetus
to religious discussion and local innovations. Representatives
of all the new creeds hastened from the Continent to
England, where they hoped to find a safe and fertile field
for the particular seed they had to plant. It is impossible
exactly to estimate the influence which these teachers
exerted on the general trend of religious opinion in England;
in any case, however, it was not unimportant, and the
Articles of Religion and official homilies of the Church of
England show unmistakably the influence of Calvin's doctrine.
There was, however, no such sudden breach with the traditions
of the past as characterized the Reformation in some con-
tinental countries. Under Edward VI. the changes were
continued on the lines laid down by Henry VIII. The old
hierarchy continued, but service books in English were sub-
stituted for those in Latin, and preaching was encouraged.
A royal visitation, beginning in 1547, discovered, however, such
a degree of ignorance and illiteracy among the parish clergy
that it became clear that preaching could only be gradually
given its due place in the services of the Church. Communion
under both kinds and the marriage of the clergy were
sanctioned, thus gravely modifying two of the fundamental
institutions of the medieval Church. A conservative Book
of Common Prayer and Administration of the Sacraments and
other Rites and Ceremonies after the Use of the Church of England
commonly called the First Prayer Book of Edward VI.
was issued in 1549. This was based upon ancient " uses,"
and represented no revolutionary change in the traditions of
the " old religion." It was followed, however, in 1552 by the
second Prayer Book, which was destined to be, with some
modifications, the permanent basis of the English service.
This made it clear that the communion was no longer to
be regarded as a propitiatory sacrifice, the names " Holy
Communion" and " Lord's Supper " being definitively sub-
stituted for " Mass " (?..), while the word " altar " was
replaced by " table." In the Forty-two Articles we have
the basis of Queen Elizabeth's Thirty-nine Articles. Thus
during the reign of Edward we have not only the founda-
tions of the Anglican Church laid, but there appears
the beginning of those evangelical and puritanical sects
which were to become the " dissenters " of the following
centuries.
i8
REFORMATION, THE
With the death of Edward there came a period of reaction
lasting for five years. Queen Mary, unshaken in her attach-
Cathoiic ment to the ancient faith and the papal monarchy,
reaction was a bi e w jtjj t ne sanction of a subservient parlia-
"wary ment to turn back the wheels of ecclesiastical legis-
1553- lation, to restore the old religion, and to reunite the
isss. English Church with the papal monarchy; the pope's
legate, Cardinal Pole, was primate of all England. Then, the
ancient heresy laws having been revived, came the burnings of
Rogers, Hooker, Latimer, Ridley, Cranmer and many a less
noteworthy champion of the new religion. It would seem as
if this sharp, uncompromising reaction was what was needed
to produce a popular realization of the contrast between the
Ecclesia anglicana of Henry VIII. and Edward VI., and the
alternative of " perfect obedience to the See Apostolic."
Elizabeth, who succeeded her sister Mary in 1558, was sus-
pected to be Protestant in her leanings, and her adviser, Cecil,
Settle- had received his training as secretary of the Protector
meat Somerset; but the general European situation as
under we n as th e young queen's own temperament pre-
EHzabeth. c [ u( j ec j anv abrupt or ostentatious change in religious
matters. The new sovereign's first proclamation was directed
against all such preaching as might lead to contention and the
breaking of the common quiet. In 1559 ten of Henry VIII. 's
acts were revived. On Easter Sunday the queen ventured
to display her personal preference for the Protestant conception
of the eucharist by forbidding the celebrant in her chapel to
elevate the host. The royal supremacy was reasserted, the
title being modified into " supreme governor "; and a new
edition of Edward VI. 's second Prayer Book, with a few
changes, was issued. The Marian bishops who refused to
recognize these changes were deposed -and imprisoned, but
care was taken to preserve the " succession " by consecrating
others in due form to take their places. 1 Four years later the
Thirty-nine Articles imposed an official creed upon the English
nation. This was Protestant in its general character: in its
appeal to the Scriptures as the sole rule of faith (Art. VI.), its
repudiation of the authority of Rome (Art. XXXVII.), its
definition of the Church (Art. XIX.), its insistence on justifica-
tion by faith only (Art. XI.) and repudiation of the sacrifice
of the Mass (Arts. XXVIII. and XXXI.). As supreme governor
of the Church of England the sovereign strictly controlled all
ecclesiastical legislation and appointed royal delegates to hear
appeals from the ecclesiastical courts, to be a " papist " or to
" hear Mass " (which was construed as the same thing) was to
risk incurring the terrible penalties of high treason. By the
Act of Uniformity (1559) a uniform ritual, the Book of Common
Prayer, was imposed upon clergy and laity alike, and no liberty
of public worship was permitted. Every subject was bound
under penalty of a fine to attend church on Sunday. While
there was in a certain sense freedom of opinion, all printers
had to seek a licence from the government for every manner of
book or paper, and heresy was so closely affiliated with treason
that the free expression of thought, whether reactionary or
revolutionary, was beset with grave danger.
Attempts to estimate the width of the gulf separating the
Church of England in Elizabeth's time from the corresponding
institution as it existed in the early years of her father's reign
are likely to be gravely affected by personal bias. There is a
theory that no sweeping revolution in dogma took place, but
that only a few medieval beliefs were modified or rejected owing
to the practical abuses to which they had given rise. To
Professor A. F. Pollard, for example, " The Reformation in
England was mainly a domestic affair, a national protest against
national grievances rather than part of a cosmopolitan move-
ment toward doctrinal change" (Camb. Mod. Hist.ii. 478-9).
This estimate appeals to persons of -widely different views and
temperaments. It is as grateful to those who, like many
" Anglo-Catholics," desire on religious grounds to establish the
doctrinal continuity of the Anglican Church with that of the
1 Only one of the Marian bishops, Kitchin of Llandaff, was found
willing to conform.
middle ages, as it is obvious to those who, like W. K. Clifford,
perceive in the ecclesiastical organization and its influence
nothing more than a perpetuation of demoralizing medieval
superstition. The nonconformists have, moreover, never
wearied of denouncing the " papistical " conservatism of the
Anglican establishment. On the other hand, the impartial
historical student cannot compare the Thirty-nine Articles
with the contemporaneous canons and decrees of the council of
Trent without being impressed by striking contrasts between the
two sets of dogmas. Their spirit is very different. The un-
mistakable rejection on the part of the English Church of the
conception of the eucharist as a sacrifice had alone many wide-
reaching implications. Even although the episcopal organiza-
tion was retained, the conception of " tradition," of the conciliar
powers, of the "characters" of the priest, of the celibate life,
of purgatory, of " good works," &c. all these serve clearly to
differentiate the teaching of the English Church before and after
the Reformation. From this standpoint it is obviously un-
historical to deny that England had a very important part in
the cosmopolitan movement toward doctrinal change.
The little backward kingdom of Scotland definitely accepted
the new faith two years after Elizabeth's accession, and after
having for centuries sided with France against England, Tne Ketor-
she was inevitably forced by the Reformation into an matioa la
alliance with her ancient enemy to the south when they Scotland,
both faced a confederation of Catholic powers. The I560 ~
first martyr of Luther's gospel had been Patrick Hamilton, who
had suffered in 1528; but in spite of a number of executions the
new ideas spread, even among the nobility. John Knox, who,
after a chequered career, had come under the influence of
Calvin at Geneva, returned to Scotland for a few months in
1555, and shortly after (1557) that part of the Scottish nobility
which had been won over to the new faith formed their first
" covenant " for mutual protection. These " Lords of the
Congregation " were able to force some concessions from the
queen regent. Knox appeared in Scotland again in 1559, and
became a sort of second Calvin. He opened negotiations with
Cecil, who induced the reluctant Elizabeth to form an alliance
with the Lords of the Congregation, and the English sent a fleet
to drive away the French, who were endeavouring to keep their
hold on Scotland. In 1560 a confession of faith was prepared
by John Knox and five companions. This was adopted by the
Scottish parliament, with the resolution " the bishops of Rome
have no jurisdiction nor authoritie in this Realme in tymes
cuming." The alliance of England and the Scottish Protestants
against the French, and the common secession from the papal
monarchy, was in a sense the foundation and beginning of
Great Britain. Scottish Calvinism was destined to exercise no
little influence, not only on the history of England, but on the
form that the Protestant faith was to take in lands beyond the
seas, at the time scarcely known to the Europeans.
While France was deeply affected during the i6th century
by the Protestant revolt, its government never undertook any
thoroughgoing reform of the Church. During the Begin-
latter part of the century its monarchs were en- "ings of
gaged in a bloody struggle with a powerful religious- **^J"
political party, the Huguenots, who finally won a movement
toleration which they continued to enjoy until the ' France.
revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685. It was not until 1789
that the French Church of the middle ages lost its vast possessions
and was subjected to a fundamental reconstruction by the
Civil Constitution of the Clergy (i79i). 2 Yet no summary of
2 In 1795 the National Convention gruffly declared that the
Republic would no longer subsidize any form of worship or furnish
buildings for religious services. " The law recognizes no minister
of religion, and no one is^to appear in public with costumes or orna-
ments used in religious ceremonies." Bonaparte, in the Concordat
which he forced upon the pope in 1801, did not provide for the return
of "any of the lands of the Church which had been sold, but agreed
that the government should pay the salaries of bishops and priests,
whose appointment it controlled. While the Roman Catholic re-
ligion was declared to be that accepted by the majority of French-
men, the state subsidized the Reformed Church, those adhering
to the Augsburg Confession and the Jewish community. Over a
REFORMATION, THE
the Protestant revolt would be complete without some allusion
to the contrast between the course of affairs in France and in
the neighbouring countries. The French monarchy, as we have
seen, had usually succeeded in holding its own against the
centralizing tendencies of the pope. By the Pragmatic Sanction
of Bourges (1438) it had secured the advantages of the conciliar
movement. In 1516, after Francis I. had won his victory at
Marignano, Leo X. concluded a new concordat with France,
in which, in view of the repudiation of the offensive Pragmatic
Sanction, the patronage of the French Church was turned over,
with scarce any restriction, to the French monarch, although
in another agreement the annates were reserved to the pope.
The encroachments which had begun in the time of Philip the
Fair of the king's lawyers on the ancient ecclesiastical juris-
diction, had reached a point where there was little cause for
jealousy on the part of the State. The placet had long prevailed,
so that the king had few of the reasons, so important in Germany
and England, for quarrelling with the existing system, unless
it were on religious grounds. France had been conspicuous in
the conciliar movement. It had also furnished its due quota
of heretics, although no one so conspicuous as Wycliffe or Huss.
Marsiglio of Padua had had Frenchmen among his sympathizers
and helpers. The first prominent French scholar to " preach
Christ from the sources " was Jacques Lefebvre of Etaples, who
in 1512 published a new Latin translation of the epistles of St
Paul. Later he revised an existing French translation of both
the New Testament (which appeared in 1523, almost con-
temporaneously with Luther's German version) and, two years
later, the Old Testament. He agreed with Luther in rejecting
transubstantiation, and in believing that works without the
grace of God could not make for salvation. The centre of
Lefebvre's followers was Meaux, and they found an ardent
adherent in Margaret of Angouleme, the king's sister, but had no
energetic leader who was willing to face the danger of disturb-
ances. Luther's works found a good many readers in France,
but were condemned (1521) by both the Sorbonneand the parle-
ment of Paris. The parlement appointed a commission to discover
and punish heretics; the preachers of Meaux fled to Strassburg,
and Lefebvre's translation of the Bible was publicly burned. A
council held at Sens, 1528-29, approved all those doctrines of the
old Church which the Protestants were attacking, and satisfied
itself with enumerating a list of necessary conservative reforms.
After a fierce attack on Protestants caused by the mutilation
of a statue of the Virgin, in 1528, the king, anxious to con-
Joha ciliate both the German Protestants and anti-papa)
Calvin England, invited some of the reformers of Meaux
and his [ O p re ach in the Louvre. An address written by
'tutel 'of a voun S man f twenty-four, Jean Cauvin (to
the become immortal under his Latin name of Calvinus)
Christian was read by the rector of the university. It was
Religion." a c[ e f ence o f the new evangelical views, and so
aroused the Sorbonne that Calvin was forced to flee from
Paris. In October 1534, the posting of placards in Paris
and other towns, containing brutal attacks on the Mass and
denouncing the pope and the " vermin " of bishops, priests
and monks as blasphemers and liars, produced an outburst of
persecution, in which thirty-five Lutherans were burned, while
many fled the country. The events called forth from Calvin,
who was in Basel, the famous letter to Francis which forms
the preface to his Institutes of the Christian Religion. In this
address he sought to vindicate the high aims of the Protestants,
and to put the king on his guard against those mad men who
were disturbing his kingdom with their measures of persecution. '
The Institutes, the first great textbook of Protestant theology,
was published in Latin in 1536, and soon (1541) in a French
version. The original work is much shorter than in its later
editions, for, as Calvin says, he wrote learning and learned
century elapsed before the Concordat was abrogated by the Separa-
tion Law of 1905 which suppressed all government appropriations
for religious purposes and vested the control of Church property
in " associations for public worship " (associations cultuelles) , to be
composed of from seven to twenty-five members according to the
size of the commune.
writing. His address had little effect on the king. The parle-
ments issued a series of edicts against the heretics, culminating
in the very harsh general edict of Fontainebleau, sanctioned
by the parlement of Paris in 1543. The Sorbonne issued
a concise series of twenty-five articles, refuting the Institutes of
Calvin. This statement, when approved by4he king and his
council , was published throughout France, and formed a clear test
of orthodoxy. The Sorbonne also drew up a list of prohibited
books, including those of Calvin, Luther and Melanchthon;
and the parlement issued a decree against all printing of Pro-
testant literature. The later years of Francis's reign were
noteworthy for the horrible massacre of the Waldenses and the
martyrdom of fourteen from the group of Meaux, who were
burnt alive in 1546. When Francis died little had been done, in
spite of the government's cruelty, to check Protestantism, while
a potent organ of evangelical propaganda had been developing
just beyond the confines of France in the town of Geneva.
In its long struggle with its bishops and with the dukes of
Savoy, Geneva had turned to her neighbours for aid, especi-
ally to Bern, with which an alliance was concluded Oeaeva
in 1526. Two years later Bern formally sanctioned become*
the innovations advocated by the Protestant preachers, centre
and although predominantly German assumed the '/'" > P-
role of protector of the reform party in the Pays *"
de Vaud and Geneva. William Farel, one of the group of
Meaux, who had fled to Switzerland and had been active in
the conversion of Bern, went to Geneva in 1531. With the
protection afforded him and his companions by Bern, and
the absence of well-organized opposition on the part of the
Roman Catholics, the new doctrines rapidly spread, and by
1535 Farel was preaching in St Pierre itself. After a public
disputation in which the Catholics were weakly represented,
and a popular demonstration in favour of the new doctrines,
the council of Geneva rather reluctantly sanctioned the
abolition of the Mass. Meanwhile Bern had declared war
on the duke of Savoy, and had not only conquered a great
part of the Pays de Vaud, including the important town of
Lausanne, but had enabled Geneva to win its complete inde-
pendence. In the same year (September 1536), as Calvin
was passing through the town on his way back to Strassburg
after a short visit in Italy, he was seized by Farel and induced
most reluctantly to remain and aid him in thoroughly carrying
out the Reformation in a city in which the conservative senti-
ment was still very strong. As there proved to be a large
number in the town councils who did not sympathize with the
plans of organization recommended by Calvin and his col-
leagues, the town preachers were, after a year and a half of
unsatisfactory labour, forced to leave Geneva. For three years
Calvin sojourned in Germany; he signed the Augsburg Con-
fession, gained the friendship of Melanchthon and other leading
reformers, and took part in the religious conferences of the
period. In 1541 he was induced with great difficulty to sur-
render once more his hopes of leading the quiet life of a scholar,
and to return again to Geneva (September 1541), where he
spent the remaining twenty-three years of his life. His ideal
was to restore the conditions which he supposed prevailed
during the first three centuries of the Church's existence; but
the celebrated Ecclesiastical Ordinances adopted by the town
in 1541 and revised in 1561 failed fully to realize his ideas, which
find a more complete exemplification in the regulations govern-
ing the French Church later. He wished for the complete
independence and self-government of the Church, with the
right of excommunication to be used against the ungodly. The
Genevan town councils were quite ready to re-enact all the old
police regulations common in that age in regard to excessive
display, dancing, obscene songs, &c. It was arranged too that
town government should listen to the " Consistory," made up of
the " Elders," but the Small Council was to choose the members
of the Consistory, two of whom should belong to the Small
Council, four to the Council of Sixty, and six to the Council of
Two Hundred. One of the four town syndics was to preside over
its sessions. The Consistory was thus a sort of committee of
20
REFORMATION, THE
the councils, and it had no power to inflict civil punishment on
offenders. Thus " we ought," as Lindsay says, " to see in the
disciplinary powers and punishments of the Consistory of
Geneva not an exhibition of the working of the Church organ-
ized on the principles of Calvin, but the ordinary procedure of
the town council of a medieval city. Their petty punishments
and their minute interferences with private life are only special
instances of what was common to all municipal rule in the i6th
century." This is true of the supreme crime of heresy, which
in the notorious case of Servetus was only an expression of rules
laid down over a thousand years earlier in the Theodosian Code.
Geneva, however, with its most distinguished of Protestant theo-
logians, became a school of Protestantism, which sent its trained
men into the Netherlands, England and Scotland, and especially
across the border into France. It served too as a place of refuge
for thousands of the persecuted adherents of its beliefs. Calvin's
book furnished the Protestants not only with a compact and
admirably written handbook of theology, vigorous and clear,
but with a system of Church government and a code of morals.
After the death of Francis I., his successor, Henry II., set
himself even more strenuously to extirpate heresy; a special
OH nn of branch of the parlement of Paris the so-called
Hifgueaot Chambre ardente (q.v.) for the trial of heresy cases
party was established, and the fierce edict of Chateaubriand
under (June 1551) explicitly adopted many of the expedients
eary ' of the papal inquisition. While hundreds were im-
prisoned or burned, Protestants seemed steadily to increase in
numbers, and finally only the expostulations of the parlement of
Paris prevented the king from introducing the Inquisition in
France in accordance with the wishes of the pope and the
cardinal of Lorraine. The civil tribunals, however, practically
assumed the functions of regular inquisitorial courts, in spite
of the objections urged by the ecclesiastical courts. Notwith-
standing these measures for their extermination, the French
Protestants were proceeding to organize a church in accordance
with the conceptions of the early Christian communities as
Calvin described them in his Institutes. Beginning with Paris,
some fifteen communities with their consistories were established
in French towns between 1555 and 1560. In spite of continued
persecution a national synod was assembled in Paris in 1559,
representing at least twelve Protestant churches in Normandy
and central France, which drew up a confession of faith and a
book of church discipline. It appears to have been from France
rather than from Geneva that the Presbyterian churches of
Holland, Scotland and the United States derived their form of
government. A reaction against the extreme severity of the
king's courts became apparent at this date. Du Bourg and
others ventured warmly to defend the Protestants in the parle-
ment of Paris in the very presence of the king and of the cardinal
of Lorraine. The higher aristocracy began now to be attracted
by the new doctrines, or at least repelled by the flagrant power
enjoyed by the Guises during the brief reign of Francis II.
(1550-1560). Protestantism was clearly becoming inextricably
associated with politics of a very intricate sort. The leading
members of the Bourbon branch of the royal family, and Gaspard
de Coligny, admiral of France, were conspicuous among the
converts to Calvinism. Persecution was revived by the Guises;
Du Bourg, the brave defender of the Protestants, was burned
as a heretic; yet Calvin could in the closing years of his life
form a cheerful estimate that some three hundred thousand of
his countrymen had been won over to his views. The death of
Francis II. enabled Catherine de' Medici, the queen mother, to
assert herself against the Guises, and become the regent of her
ten-year-old son Charles IX. A meeting of the States General
had already been summoned to consider the state of the realm.
Michel de PH6pital, the chancellor, who opened the assembly,
was an advocate of toleration; he deprecated the abusive use
of the terms " Lutherans," " Papists " and " Huguenots," and
advocated deferring all action until a council should have been
called. The deputies of the clergy were naturally conservative,
but advocated certain reforms, an abolition of the Concordat,
and a re-establishment of the older Pragmatic Sanction. The
noblesse were divided on the matter of toleration, but the
cahiers (lists of grievances and suggestions for reform) submitted
by the Third Estate demanded, besides regular meetings of the
estates every five years, complete toleration and a reform of the
Church. This grew a little later into the recommendation that
the revenues and possessions of the French Church should be
appropriated by the government, which, after properly sub-
sidizing the clergy, might hope, it was estimated, that a surplus
of twenty-two millions of livres would accrue to the State. Two
hundred and thirty years later this plan was realized in the
Civil Constitution of the Clergy. The deliberations of 1561
resulted in the various reforms, the suspension of persecution
and the liberation of Huguenot prisoners. These were not
accorded freedom of worship, but naturally took advantage of
the situation to carry on their services more publicly than ever
before. An unsuccessful effort was made at the conference of
Poissy to bring the two religious parties together; Beza had an
opportunity to defend the Calvinistic cause, and Lainez, the
general of the Order of Jesus, that of the bishop of Rome. The
government remained tolerant toward the movement, and in
January 1562 the Huguenots were given permission to hold
public services outside the walls of fortified towns and were not
forbidden to meet in private houses within the walls. Catherine,
who had promoted these measures, cared nothing for the
Protestants, but desired the support of the Bourbon princes.
The country was Catholic, and disturbances inevitably occurred,
culminating in the attack of the duke of Guise and his troops
.on the Protestants at Vassy, less than two months after the
issuing of the edict.
It is impossible to review here the Wars of Religion which
distracted France, from the " massacre of Vassy " to the
publication of the edict of Nantes, thirty-six years rfte
later. Religious issues became more and more domin- Preach
ated by purely political and dynastic ambitions, and Wars of
the whole situation was constantly affected by the ^'ifthe
policy of Philip II. and the struggle going on in the edict of
Netherlands. Henry IV. was admirably fitted to Nantes,
reunite France once more, and, after a superficial IS62 ~
conversion to the Catholic faith, to meet the needs of
his former co-religionists, the Huguenots. The edict of Nantes
recapitulated and codified the provisions of a series of earlier
edicts of toleration, which had come with each truce during the
previous generation. Liberty of conscience in religious matters
was secured and the right of private worship to those of the
" so-called Reformed religion." Public worship was permitted
everywhere where it had existed in 1596-1597, in two places
within each bailliage and senechauss&e, and in the chateaux of the
Protestant nobility, with slight restrictions in the case of lower
nobility. Protestants were placed upon a political equality and
made eligible to all public offices. To ensure these rights, they
were left in military control of two hundred towns, including
La Rochelle, Montauban and Montpellier. Jealous of their
" sharing the State with the king," Richelieu twenty-five years
later reduced the exceptional privileges of the Huguenots, and
with the advent of Louis XIV. they began to suffer renewed
persecution, which the king at last flattered himself had so far
reduced their number that in 1685 he revoked the edict of Nantes
and reduced the Protestants to the status of outlaws. It was
not until 1786 that they were restored to their civil rights,
and by the Declaration of the Rights of Man, in 1789, to their
religious freedom.
Contemporaneously with the Wars of Religion in France
a long and terrible struggle between the king of Spain and his
Dutch and Belgian provinces had resulted in the The
formation of a Protestant state the United Nether-
lands, which was destiited to play an important role
in the history of the Reformed religion. Open both their im-
to German and French influences, the Netherlands
had been the scene of the first executions of Lutherans;
lathe
history
they had been a centre of Anabaptist agitation; but Cal- oftoiera-
vinism finally triumphed in the Confession of Dordrecht , tioa.
1572, since Calvin's system of church government did not, like
REFORMATION, THE
21
Luther's, imply the sympathy of the civil authorities. Charles V.
had valiantly opposed the development of heresy in the Nether-
lands, and nowhere else had there been such numbers of martyrs,
for some thirty thousand are supposed to have been put to death
during his reign. Under Philip II. it soon became almost
impossible to distinguish clearly between the religious issues
and the resistance to the manifold tyranny of Philip and his
representatives. William of Orange, who had passed through
several phases of religious conviction, stood first and foremost
for toleration. Indeed, Holland became the home of modern
religious liberty, the haven of innumerable free spirits, and the
centre of activity of printers and publishers, who asked for no
other imprimatur than the prospect of intelligent readers.
It is impossible to offer any exhaustive classification of
those who, while they rejected the teachings of the old Church,
The Ana- refused at the same time to conform to the particular
baptists, types of Protestantism which had found favour in
the eyes of the princes and been imposed by them on their
subjects. This large class of " dissenters " found themselves
as little at home under a Protestant as under a Catholic
regime, and have until recently been treated with scant
sympathy by historians of the Church. Long before the
Protestant revolt, simple, obscure people, under the influence
of leaders whose names have been forgotten, lost confidence
in the official clergy and their sacraments and formed secret
organizations of which vague accounts are found in the reports
of the 13th-century inquisitors, Rainerus Sacchoni, Bernard
Gui, and the rest. Their anti-sacerdotalism appears to have
been their chief offence, for the inquisitors admit that they were
puritanically careful in word and conduct, and shunned all
levity. Similar groups are mentioned in the town chronicles
of the early i6th century, and there is reason to assume that
informal evangelical movements were no new things when
Luther first began to preach. His appeal to the Scriptures
against the traditions of the Church encouraged a more active
propaganda on the part of Balthasar Hubmaier, Carlstadt,
Miinzer, Johann Denk (d. 1527) and others, some of whom
were well-trained scholars capable of maintaining with vigour
and effect their ideas of an apostolic life as the high road to
salvation. Miinzer dreamed of an approaching millennium on
earth to be heralded by violence and suffering, but Hubmaier
and Denk were peaceful evangelists who believed that man's
will was free and that each had within him an inner light which
would, if he but followed it, guide him to God. To them
persecution was an outrage upon Jesus's teachings. Luther
and his sympathizers were blind to the reasonableness of the
fundamental teachings of these " brethren." The idea of
adult baptism, which had after 1525 become generally accepted
among them, roused a bitterness which it is rather hard to
understand nowadays. But it is easy to see that informal
preaching to the people at large, especially after the Peasant
Revolt, with which Miinzer had been identified, should have
led to a general condemnation, under the name " Anabaptist "
or " Catabaptist," of the heterogeneous dissenters who agreed
in rejecting the State religion and associated a condemnation
of infant baptism with schemes for social betterment. The
terrible events in Mtinster, which was controlled for a short
time (1533-34) by a group of Anabaptists under the leadership
of John of Leiden, the introduction of polygamy (which appears
to have been a peculiar accident rather than a general principle),
the speedy capture of the town by an alliance of Catholic and
Protestant princes, and the ruthless retribution inflicted by
the victors, have been cherished by ecclesiastical writers as
a choice and convincing instance of the natural fruits of a
rejection of infant baptism. Much truer than the common
estimate of the character of the Anabaptists is that given in
Sebastian Franck's Chronicle: " They taught nothing but love,
faith and the crucifixion of the flesh, manifesting patience
and humility under many sufferings, breaking bread with one
another in sign of unity and love, helping one another with
true helpfulness, lending, borrowing, giving, learning to 'have
all things in common, calling each other ' brother.' " Menno
'
Simons (b. circ. 1500) succeeded in bringing the scattered Ana-
baptist communities into a species of association; he dis-
couraged the earlier apocalyptic hopes, inculcated non-resist-
ance, denounced the evils of State control over religious matters,
and emphasized personal conversion, and adult baptism as its
appropriate seal. The English Independents and the modern
Baptists, as well as the Mennonites, may be regarded as the
historical continuation of lines of development going back
to the Waldensians and the Bohemian Brethren, and passing
down through the German, Dutch and Swiss Anabaptists.
The modern scholar as he reviews the period of the Pro-
testant Revolt looks naturally, but generally in vain, for those
rationalistic tendencies which become so clear in the socioiaa*
latter part of the 17th century. Luther found no in- orAnti-
tellectual difficulties in his acceptance and interpreta-
tion of the Scriptures as God's word, and in maintain-
ing against the Anabaptists the legitimacy of every old custom
that was not obviously contrary to the Scriptures. Indeed,
he gloried in the inherent and divine unreasonableness of
Christianity, and brutally denounced reason as a cunning fool,
" a pretty harlot." The number of questions which Calvin
failed to ask or eluded by absolutely irrational expedients frees
him from any taint of modern rationalism. But in Servetus,
whose execution he approved, we find an isolated, feeble revolt
against assumptions which both Catholics and Protestants of
all shades accepted without question. It is pretty clear that
the common accounts of the Renaissance and of the revival of
learning grossly exaggerate the influence of the writers of
Greece and Rome, for they produced no obvious rationalistic
movement, as would have been the case had Plato and Cicero,
Lucretius and Lucian, been taken really seriously. Neo-
Platonism, which is in some respects nearer the Christian
patristic than the Hellenic spirit, was as far as the radical
religious thinkers of the Italian Renaissance receded. The
only religious movement that can be regarded as even rather
vaguely the outcome of humanism is the Socinian. Faustus
Sozzini, a native of Sienna (1539-1603), much influenced by
his uncle Lelio Sozzini, after a wandering, questioning life,
found his way to Poland, where he succeeded in uniting the
various Anabaptist sects into a species of church, the doctrines
of which are set forth in the Confession of Rakow (near Minsk),
published in Polish in 1605 and speedily in German and Latin.
The Latin edition declares that although this new statement of
the elements of the Christian faith differs from the articles of
other Christian creeds it is not to be mistaken for a challenge.
It does not aim at binding the opinions of men or at condemn-
ing to the tortures of hell-ire those who refuse to accept it.
Absit a nobis ea mens, immo amentia. " We have, it is true,
ventured to prepare a catechism, but we force it on no one;
we express our opinions, but we coerce no one. It is free to
every one to form his own conclusions in religious matters;
and so we do no more than set forth the meaning of divine
things as they appear to our minds without, however, attacking
or insulting those who differ from us. This is the golden
freedom of preaching which the holy words of the New Testa-
ment so strictly enjoin upon us. ... Who art thou, miserable
man, who would smother and extinguish in others the fire of
God's Spirit which it has pleased him to kindle in them ? "
The Socinian creed sprang from intellectual rather than re-
ligious motives. Sufficient reasons could be assigned for
accepting the New Testament as God's word and Christ as the
Christian's guide. He was not God, but a divine prophet born
of a virgin and raised on the third day as the first-fruits of
them that slept. From the standpoint of the history of enlight-
enment, as Harnack has observed, " Socinianism with its sys-
tematic criticism (tentative and imperfect as it may now seem)
and its rejection of all the assumptions based upon mere
ecclesiastical tradition, can scarcely be rated too highly. That
modern Unitarianism is all to be traced back to Sozzini and
the Rakow Confession need not be assumed. The anti-Trini-
tarian path was one which opened invitingly before a consider-
able class of critical minds, seeming as it did to lead out into
22 REFORMATORY REFORMED CHURCH IN AMERICA
a sunny open, remote from the unfathomable depths of mystery
and clouds of religious emotion which beset the way of the
sincere Catholic and Protestant alike.
The effects of the Protestant secession on the doctrines,
organization and practices of the Roman Catholic Church are
The difficult to estimate, still more so to substantiate. It
Catholic is clear that the doctrinal conclusions of the council
Keforma- o f Trent were largely determined by the necessity
""' of condemning Protestant tenets, and that the result
of the council was to give the Roman Catholic faith a more
precise form than it would otherwise have had. It is much
less certain that the disciplinary reforms which the council,
following the example of its predecessors, re-enacted, owed
anything to Protestantism, unless indeed the council would have
shown itself less intolerant in respect to such innovations as the
use of the vernacular in the services had this not smacked of
evangelicalism. In the matter of the pope's supremacy, the
council followed the canon law and Thomas Aquinas, not
the decrees of the council of Constance. It prepared the way
for the dogmatic formulation of the plenitude of the papal
power three centuries later by the council of the Vatican. The
Protestants have sometimes taken credit to themselves for the
indubitable reforms in the Roman Catholic Church, which by
the end of the i6th century had done away with many of the
crying abuses against which councils and diets had so long been
protesting. But this conservative reformation had begun
before Luther's preaching, and might conceivably have followed
much the same course had his doctrine never found popular
favour or been ratified by the princes.
In conclusion, a word may be said of the place of the Re-
formation in the history of progress and enlightenment. A
The place "philosopher," as Gibbon long ago pointed out,
of the w ho asks from what articles of faith above and against
Keforma- reason (_ ne ear iy Reformers enfranchised their followers
history of will b fi surprised at their timidity rather than scandal-
progress. ized by their freedom. They remained severely
orthodox in the doctrines of the Fathers the Trinity, the
Incarnation, the plenary inspiration of the Bible and they
condemned those who rejected their teachings to a hell whose
fires they were not tempted to extenuate. Although they sur-
rendered transubstantiation, the loss of one mystery was amply
compensated by the stupendous doctrines of original sin,
redemption, faith, grace and predestination upon which they
founded their theory of salvation. They ceased to appeal to
the Virgin and saints, and to venerate images and relics, procure
indulgences and go on pilgrimages, they deprecated the monastic
life, and no longer nourished faith by the daily repetition of
miracles, but in the witch persecutions their demonology cost
the lives of thousands of innocent women. They broke the
chain of authority, without, however, recognizing the propriety
of toleration. In any attempt to determine the relative im-
portance of Protestant and Catholic countries in promoting
modern progress it must not be forgotten that religion is natur-
ally conservative, and that its avowed business has never been
to forward scientific research or political reform. Luther and
his contemporaries had not in any degree the modern idea of
progress, which first becomes conspicuous with Bacon and
Descartes, but believed, on the contrary, that the strangling
of reason was the most precious of offerings to God. " Free-
thinker " and " rationalist " have been terms of opprobrium
whether used by Protestants or Catholics. The pursuit of
salvation does not dominate by any means the whole life and
ambition of even ardent believers; statesmen, philosophers,
men of letters, scientific investigators and inventors have
commonly gone their way regardless of the particular form of
Christianity which prevailed in the land in which they lived.
The Reformation was, fundamentally, then, but one phase,
if the most conspicuous, in the gradual decline of the majestic
medieval ecclesiastical State, for this decline has gone on
in France, Austria, Spain and Italy, countries in which
the Protestant revolt against the ancient Church ended in
failure.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Reference is made here mainly to works dealing
with the Reformation as a whole. Only recent books are men-
tioned, since the older works have been largely superseded owing
to modern critical investigations: Thomas A. Lindsay, A History
of the Reformation, 2 vols. (1906-7), the best general treatment;
The Cambridge Modern History, vol. i. (1902), chaps, xviii. and xix.,
vol. ii. (190*1), " The Reformation," and vol. iii. (1905), " The Wars
of Religion, ' with very full bibliographies; M. Creighton, History
of the Papacy during the Reformation, 6 vols. (new ed. 1899-1901).
From a Catholic standpoint: L. Pastor, Geschichte der Papste
seit dem Ausgang des Mittelalters (1891 sqq., especially vol. iv. in
two parts, 1906-7, and vol. v., 1909). This is in course of publica-
tion and is being translated into English (8 vols. have appeared,
1891-1908, covering the period 1305-1521); I. Janssen, History
of the German People at the Close of the Middle Ages, 12 vols., 1896-
1907, corresponding to vols. i.-vi. of the German original, in 8 vols.,
edited by Pastor, 1897-1904. This is the standard Catholic treat-
ment of the Reformation, and is being supplemented by a series of
monographs, Ergdnzungen zu Janssens Geschichte des deutschen
Volkes, which have been appearing since 1898 and correspond
with the Protestant Schriften des Vereins fur Reformations-
geschichte (1883 sqq.). F. von Bezold, Geschichte der deutschen
Reformation (1890), an excellent illustrated account ; E. Troeltsch,
Protestantisches Christentum und Kirche der Neuzeit, in the series
" Kultur der Gegenwart," Teil i. Abt. 4, i. Halite, 1905; Charles
Beard, The Reformation of the Sixteenth Century in its Relation to
Modern Thought and Knowledge (The Hibbert Lectures for 1883),
and by the same, Martin Luther, vol. i. (no more published; 1889);
A. Harnack, History of Dogma (trans, from the 3rd German edition,
vol. vii., 1900) ; A. E. Berger, Die Kulturaufgaben der Reformation
(2nd ed., 1908); Thudichum, Papsttum und Reformation (1903);
" Janus," The Pope and the Council (1869), by Dollinger and others,
a suggestive if not wholly accurate sketch of the papal claims;
W. Maurenbrecher, Geschichte der Katholischen Reformation, vol. i.
(no more published) (1880); J. Haller, Papsttum und Kirchenreform,
vol. i. (1903) relates to the I4th century; J. Kostlin, Martin Luther,
sein Leben und seine Schriften, new edition by Kawerau, 2 vols.,
1903, the most useful life of Luther; H. Denifle, Luther und
Luthertum, 2 vols. (1904-6), a bitter but learned arraignment of
Luther by a distinguished Dominican scholar. H. Boehmer,
Luther im Lichte der neueren Forschungen (1906), brief and sug-
gestive. First Principles of the Reformation, the Three Primary
Works of Dr Martin Luther, edited, by Wace and Buchheim, an
English translation of the famous pamphlets of 1520. (J. H. R.*)
REFORMATORY SCHOOL, an institution for the industrial
training of juvenile offenders, in which they are lodged, clothed
and fed, as well as taught. They are to be distinguished from
" industrial schools," which are institutions for potential and
not actual delinquents. To reformatory schools in England
are sent juveniles up to the age of sixteen who have been con-
victed of an offence punishable with penal servitude or im-
prisonment. The order is made by the court before which
they are tried; the limit of detention is the age of nineteen.
Reformatory schools are regulated by the Children Act 1908,
which repealed the Reformatory Schools Act 1866, as amended
by acts of 1872, 1874, 1891, 1893, 1899 and 1901. See further
JUVENILE OFFENDERS.
REFORMED CHURCHES, the name assumed by those Pro-
testant bodies who adopted the tenets of Zwingli (and later of
Calvin), as distinguished from those of the Lutheran or Evangeli-
cal divines. They are accordingly often spoken of as the Calvin-
istic Churches, Protestant being sometimes used as a synonym
for Lutheran. The great difference is in the attitude towards
the Lord's Supper, the Reformed or Calvinistic Churches re-
pudiating not only transubstantiation but also the Lutheran
consubstantiation. They also reject the use of crucifixes and
other symbols and ceremonies retained by the Lutherans.
Full details of these divergences are given in M.Schneckenburger,
Vergleichende Darstellung des lutherischen und reformierten Lehrbe-
griffs (Stuttgart, 1855); G. B. Winer, Comparative Darstellung
(Berlin, 1866; Eng. tr., Edinburgh, 1873). See also REFORMATION;
PRESBYTERIANISM; CAMERONIANS.
REFORMED CHURCH IN AMERICA, until 1867 called offi-
cially " The Reformed Protestant Dutch Church in North
America," and still ^popularly called the Dutch Reformed
Church, an American Calvinist church, originating with the
settlers from Holland in New York, New Jersey and Delaware,
the first permanent settlers of the Reformed faith in the New
World. Their earliest settlements were at Manhattan, Walla-
bout and Fort Orange (now Albany), where the West India
Company formally established the Reformed Church of Holland.
REFORMED CHURCH IN AMERICA
Their first minister was Jonas Michaelius, pastor in New
Amsterdam of the " church in the fort " (now the Collegiate
Church of New York City). The second domine, Everardus
Bogardus (d. 1647), migrated to New York in 1633 with Gover-
nor Wouter van T wilier, with whom he quarrelled continually;
in the same year a wooden church " in the fort " was built; and
in 1642 it was succeeded by a stone building. A minister,
John van Mekelenburg (Johannes Megapolensis) migrated to
Rensselaerwyck manor in 1642, preached to the Indians
probably before any other Protestant minister and after 1649
was settled in New Amsterdam. With the access of English
and French settlers, Samuel Drisius, who preached in Dutch,
German, English and French, was summoned, and he laboured
in New Amsterdam and New York from 1652 to 1673. On Long
Island John T. Polhemus preached at Flatbush in 1654-76.
During Peter Stuy vesant 's governorship there was little toleration
of other denominations, but the West India Company reversed
his intolerant proclamations against Lutherans and Quakers.
About 1659 a French and Dutch church was organized in
Harlem. The first church in New Jersey, at Bergen, in 1661,
was quickly followed by others at Hackensack and Passaic.
After English rule in 1664 displaced Dutch in New York, the
relations of the Dutch churches there were much less close with
the state Church of Holland; and in 1679 (on the request of
the English governor of New York, to whom the people of
New Castle appealed) a classis was constituted for the ordination
of a pastor for the church in New Castle, Delaware. The Dutch
strongly opposed the establishment of the Church of England,
and contributed largely toward the adoption (in October 1683)
of the Charter of Liberties which confirmed in their privileges
all churches then " in practice " in the city of New York and
elsewhere in the province, but which was repealed by James II.
in 1686, when he established the Church of England in New
York but allowed religious liberty to the Dutch and others.
The Dutch ministers stood by James's government during
Leisler's rebellion. Under William III., Governors Sloughter
and Fletcher worked for a law (passed in 1693 and approved
in 1697) for the settling of a ministry in New York, Richmond,
Westchester and Queen's counties; but the Assembly foiled
Fletcher's purpose of establishing a Church of England clergy,
although he attempted to construe the act as applying only to
the English Church. In 1696 the first church charter in New
York was granted to the Reformed Protestant Dutch Church
(now the Collegiate Church) of New York City; at this time
there were Dutch ministers at Albany and Kingston, on Long
Island and in New Jersey; and for years the Dutch and English
(Episcopalian) churches alone received charters in New York
and New Jersey the Dutch church being treated practically
as an establishment and the church of the fort and Trinity
(Episcopalian; chartered 1697) were fraternally harmonious.
In 170x3 there were twenty-nine Reformed Dutch churches out
of a total of fifty in New York. During the administration
of Governor Edward Hyde, Lord Cornbury, many members
joined the Episcopal Church and others removed to New Jersey.
The Great Awakening crowned the efforts of Theodore J.
Frelinghuysen, who had come over as a Dutch pastor in 1720
and had opposed formalism and preached a revival. The
Church in America in 1738 asked the Classis of Amsterdam (to
whose care it had been transferred from the West India Com-
pany) for the privilege of forming a Coetus or Association with
power to ordain in America; the Classis, after trying to join
the Dutch with the English Presbyterian churches, granted
(1747) a Coetus first to the German and then to the Dutch
churches, which therefore in September 1754 organized them-
selves into a classis. This action was opposed by the church
of New York City, and partly through this difference and
partly because of quarrels over the denominational control
of King's College (now Columbia), five members of the Coetus
seceded, and as the president of the Coetus was one of them
they took the records with them; they were called the Con-
ferentie; they organized independently in 1764 and carried on
a bitter warfare with the Coetus (now more properly called
the American Classis), which in 1 766 (and again in 1 770) obtained
a charter for Queen's (now Rutgers) College at New Brunswick.
But in 1771-72 through the efforts of John H. Livingston
(1746-1825), who had become pastor of the New York City church
in 1770, on the basis of a plan drafted by the Classis of Amster-
dam Coetus and Conferentie were reunited with a substantial
independence of Amsterdam, which was made complete in
1792 when the Synod (the nomenclature of synod and classis
had been adopted upon the declaration of American Independ-
ence) adopted a translation of the eighty-four Articles of Dort
on Church Order with seventy-three "explanatory articles." 1
In 1800 there were about forty ministers and one hundred
churches. In 1819 the Church was incorporated as the Re-
formed Protestant Dutch Church; and in 1867 the name was
changed to the Reformed Church in America. Preaching in
Dutch had nearly ceased in 1820, but about 1846 a new Dutch
immigration began, especially in Michigan, and fifty years later
Dutch preaching was common in nearly one-third of the churches
of the country, only to disappear almost entirely in the next
decade. Union with other Reformed churches was planned
in 1743, in 1784, in 1816-20, 1873-78 and 1886, but unsuc-
cessfully; however, ministers go from one to another charge
in the Dutch and German Reformed, Presbyterian, and to a less
degree Congregational churches.
A conservative secession " on account of Hopkinsian errors "
in 1822 of six ministers (five then under suspension) organized
a General Synod and the classes of Hackensack and Union
(central New York) in 1824; it united with the Christian Re-
formed Church, established by immigrants from Holland after
1835, to which there was added a fresh American secession
in 1882 due to opposition (on the part of the seceders) to secret
societies.
The organization of the Church is: a General Synod (1794);
the (particular) synods of New York (1800), Albany (1800), Chicago
(1856) and New Brunswick (1869); classes, corresponding to the
presbyteries of other Calvinistic bodies; and the churches, num-
bering, in 1906, 659. The agencies of the Church are: the Board
of Education, privately organized in 1828 and adopted by the
General Synod in 1831 ; a Widows' Fund (1837) and a Disabled
Ministers' Fund; a Board of Publication (1855); a Board of
Domestic Missions (1831 ; reorganized 1849) with a Church Building
Fund and a Woman's Executive Committee; a Board of Foreign
Missions (1832) succeeding the United Missionary Society (1816),
which included Presbyterian, Dutch Reformed and Associate Re-
formed Churches, and which was merged (1826) in the American
Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, from which the
Dutch Church did not entirely separate itself until 1857; and a
Woman's Board of Foreign Missions (1875). The principal missions
are in India at Arcot (1854; transferred in 1902 to the Synod of
S. India) and at Amoy in China (1842) ; and the work of the Church
in Japan was very successful, especially under Guido Fridolin
Verbeck 2 (1830-1898), and 1877 native churches built up by Presby-
terian and Dutch Reformed missionaries wore organized as the
United Church of our Lord Jesus Christ in Japan. There is also
an Arabian mission, begun privately in 1888 and transferred to the
Board in 1894.
The colleges and institutions of learning connected with the Church
are: Rutgers, already mentioned; Union College (1795), the out-
growth ofSchenectady Academy, founded in 1785 by Dirck Romeyn,
a Dutch minister; Hope College (1866; coeducational) at Holland,
Michigan, originally a parochial school (1850) and then (1855)
Holland Academy; the Theological Seminary at New Brunswick
(q.v.); and the Western Theological Seminary (1869) at Holland,
Michigan.
In 1906 (according to Bulletin loj (1909) of the Bureau of the
U.S. Census) there were 659 organizations with 773 church edifices
reported and the total membership was 12^,938. More than one-
half of this total membership (63,350) was in New York state, the
'principal home of the first great Dutch immigration; more than
one-quarter (32,290) was in New Jersey; and the other states were:
Michigan (11,260), Illinois (4962), Iowa (4835), Wisconsin (2312),
and Pennsylvania ('979)- The Church wasalso represented in Minne-
sota, S. Dakota, Oklahoma, Nebraska, Indiana, Ohio, Kansas,
N. Dakota, S. Carolina, Washington and Maryland the order
being that of rank in number of communicants.
The Christian Reformed Church, an " old school " secession, had
in 1906, 174 organizations, 181 churches and a membership of 26,669,
1 In 1832 the articles of Church government were rearranged and
in 1872-74 they were amended.
' See W. E. Griffis, Verbeck of Japan (New York, 1900).
REFORMED CHURCH IN THE UNITED STATES
of which more than one-half (14,779) was in Michigan, where many
of the immigrants who came after 1835 belonged to the seces-
sion church in Holland. There were 2990 in Iowa, 2392 in New
Jersey, 2332 in Illinois, and smaller numbers in Wisconsin, Indiana,
Minnesota, S. Dakota, Ohio, New York, Washington, Kansas,
Massachusetts, Montana, N. Dakota, New Mexico, Nebraska and
Colorado.
See D. D. Demarest, The Reformed Church in America (New York,
1889) ; E. T. Corwin, The Manual of the Reformed Church in America
(ibid., 4th ed., 1902), his sketch of the history of the Church in vol.
viii. (ibid., 1895) of the American Church History Series, and his
Ecclesiastical Records of the State of New York (Albany, 1901 sqq.),
published by the State of New York.
REFORMED CHURCH IN THE UNITED STATES, a
German Calvinistic church in America, commonly called the
German Reformed Church. It traces its origin to the great
German immigration of the 17th century, especially to
Pennsylvania, where, although the German Lutherans afterwards
outnumbered them, the Reformed element was estimated in
1730 to be more than half the whole number of Germans in the
colony. In 1709 more than 2000 Palatines emigrated to New
York with their pastor, Johann Friedrich Hager (d. c. 1723), who
laboured in the Mohawk Valley. A church in Germantown,
Virginia, was founded about 1714. Johann Philip Boehm
(d. 1749), a school teacher from Worms, although not ordained,
preached after 1725 to congregations at Falckner's Swamp,
Skippack, and White Marsh, Pennsylvania, and in 1729 he was
ordained by Dutch Reformed ministers in New York. Georg
Michael Weiss (c. I7oo-c. 1762), a graduate of Heidelberg,
ordained and sent to America by the Upper Consistory of the
Palatinate in 1727, organized a church in Philadelphia; preached
at Skippack; worked in Dutchess and Schoharie counties, New
York, in 1731-46; and then returned to his old field in
Pennsylvania. Johann Heinrich Goetschius was pastor
(c. 1731-38) of ten churches in Pennsylvania, and was ordained
by the Presbyterian Synod of Philadelphia in 1737. A part of
his work was undertaken by Johann Conrad Wirtz, who
was ordained by the New Brunswick (New Jersey) Presbytery
in 1750, and in 1761-63 was pastor at York, Pennsylvania.
A church was built in 1736 at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, where
Johann Bartholomaeus Rieger (1707-1769), who came from
Germany with Weiss on his return in 1731, had preached for
several years. Michael Schlatter (1716-1790), a Swiss of St
Gall, sent to America in 1746 by the Synods (Dutch Reformed)
of Holland, immediately convened Boehm, Weiss and Rieger
in Philadelphia, and with them planned a Coetus, which first
met in September 1747; in 1751 he presented the cause of the
Coetus in Germany and Holland, where he gathered funds; in
1752 came back to America with six ministers, one of whom,
William Stoy (1726-1801), was an active opponent of the
Coetus and of clericalism after 1772. Thereafter Schlatter's
work was in the charity schools of Pennsylvania, which the
people thought were tinged with Episcopalianism. Many
churches and pastors were independent of the Coetus, notably
John Joachim Zubly (1724-1781), of St Gall, who migrated to
S. Carolina in 1726, and was a delegate to the Continenta
Congress from Georgia, but opposed independence and was
banished from Savannah in 1777. Within the Coetus there were
two parties. Of the Pietists of the second class one of the
leaders was Philip William Otterbein (1726-1813), born in
Dillenburg, Nassau, whose system of class-meetings was the
basis of a secession from which grew the United Brethren in
Christ, commonly called the "New Reformed Church," organize(
in 1800. During the War of Independence the Pennsylvania
members of the Church were mostly attached to the American
cause, and Nicholas Herkimer and Baron von Steuben were
both Reformed; but in New York and in the South there wen
many German Loyalists.
Franklin College was founded by Lutherans and Reformed
with much outside help, notably that of Benjamin Franklin
at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, in 1787.
The Coetus had actually assumed the power of ordinatior
in 1772 and formally assumed it in 1791; in 1792 a synodica
constitution was prepared; and in 1793 the first independen
ynod met in Lancaster and adopted the constitution, thus
ecoming independent of Holland. Its churches numbered
78, and there were about 15,000 communicants. The strongest
hurches were those of Philadelphia, Lancaster and Germantown
n Pennsylvania, and Frederick in Maryland. The German
Reformed churches in Lunenburg county, Nova Scotia, became
'resbyterian in 1837; a German church in Waldoboro, Maine,
fter a century, became Congregational in 1850. The New
York churches became Dutch Reformed. The New Jersey
hurches rapidly fell away, becoming Presbyterian, Dutch
leformed, or Lutheran. In Virginia many churches became
Episcopalian and others United Brethren. By 1825, 13 Re-
ormed ministers were settled W. of the Alleghanies. The
iynod in 1819 divided itself into eight Classes. In 1824 the
Classis of Northampton, Pennsylvania (13 ministers and 80
:ongregations), became the Synod of Ohio, the parent Synod
laving refused to allow the Classis to ordain. In 1825 there
were 87 ministers, and in the old Synod about 23,300 com-
municants.
A schism over the establishment of a theological seminary
resulted in the organization of a new synod of the " Free German
Reformed Congregations of Pennsylvania," which returned to
he parent synod in 1837.
John Winebrenner (q.v.), pastor in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania,
eft the Church in 1828, and in 1830 organized the " Church of
God "; his main doctrinal difference with the Reformed Church
was on infant baptism.
In 1825 the Church opened a theological seminary at Carlisle,
Pennsylvania, affiliated with Dickinson College. James Ross
X.eily (1788-1844) travelled in Holland and Germany, collecting
money and books for the seminary. It was removed in 1829
to York, where an academy was connected with it; in 1835
the academy (which in 1836 became Marshall College) and in
1837 the seminary removed to Mercersburg, where, in 1840,
John W. Nevin (q.v.) became its president, and with Philip
Schaff (q.v.) founded the Mercersburg theology, which lost to
the Church many who objected to Nevin's (and Schaff's)
Romanizing tendencies. The seminary was removed in 1871
from Mercersburg to Lancaster, whither the college had gone
in 1853 to form, with Franklin College, Franklin and Marshall
College.
In 1842 the Western Synod (i.e. the Synod of Ohio) adopted
the constitution of the Eastern, and divided into classes. It
founded in 1850 a theological school and Heidelberg University
at Tiffin, Ohio. The Synods organized a General Synod in
1863. New German Synods were: that of the North-West
(1867), organized at Fort Wayne, Ind.; that of the East (1875),
organized at Philadelphia; and the Central Synod (1881),
organized at Gallon, Ohio. New English Synods were: that of
Pittsburg (1870); that of the Potomac (1873); and that of the
Interior (1887), organized at Kansas City, Missouri. In 1894
there were eight district synods.
After a long controversy over a liturgy (connected in part
with the Mercersburg controversy) a Directory of Worship was
adopted in 1887.
The principal organizations of the Church are: the Board of
Publication (1844); the Society for the Relief of Ministers and their
Widows (founded in 1755 by the Pennsylvania Coetus; incorporated
in 1810; transferred to the Synod in 1833); a Board of Domestic
Missions (1826); a Board of Foreign Missions (1838; reorganized
in 1873), which planted a mission in Japan (1879), now a part of
the Union Church of Japan, and one in China (1900). The Church
has publishing houses in Philadelphia (replacing that of Chambers-
burg, Pa., founded in 1840 and destroyed in July 1864 by the
Confederate army) and in Cleveland, Ohio.
Colleges connected with the Church, besides the seminary at
Lancaster, Franklin and Marshall College and Heidelberg University,
are : Catawba College (1851) at Newton, North Carolina ; and Ursinus
College (1869), founded by the Low Church wing, at Collegeville,
Pennsylvania, which had, until 1908, a theological seminary, then
removed to Dayton, Ohio, where it united with Heidelberg
Theological Seminary (until 1908 at Tiffin) to form the Central
Theological Seminary.
In 1906, according to Bulletin 103 (1909) of the Bureau of the
United States Census, the Church had 1736 organizations in the
REFORMED EPISCOPAL CHURCH REFRACTION
United States, 1740 churches and 292,654 communicants, of whom
177,270 were in Pennsylvania, and about one-sixth (50,732) were
in Ohio. Other states in which the Church had communicants
were: Maryland (13,442), Wisconsin (8386), Indiana (8289), New
York (5700), North "Carolina (4718), Iowa (3692), Illinois (2652),
Virginia (2288), Kentucky (2101), Michigan (1666), Nebraska (1616),
and (less than 1500 in each of the following arranged in rank)
S. Dakota, Missouri, New Jersey, Connecticut, Kansas, W. Virginia
N. Dakota, Minnesota, District of Columbia, Oregon, Massachusetts,
Tennessee, California, Colorado, Arkansas and Oklahoma.
See James I. Good, History of the Reformed Church in the United
States, 1725-17^2 (Reading, Pa., 1899), and Historical Handbook
(Philadelphia, 1902); and the sketch by Joseph Henry Dubbs in
vol. viii. (New York, 1895) of the American Church History
Series.
REFORMED EPISCOPAL CHURCH, a Protestant community
in the United States of America, dating from December 1873.
The influence of the Tractarian movement began to be felt at
an early date in the Episcopal Church of the United States, and
the ordination of Arthur Carey in New York, July 1843, a
clergyman who denied that there was any difference in points of
faith between the Anglican and the Roman Churches and con-
sidered the Reformation an unjustifiable act, brought into
relief the antagonism between Low Church and High Church,
a struggle which went on for a generation with increasing
bitterness. The High Church party lost no opportunity of
arraigning any Low Churchman who conducted services in
non-episcopal churches, and as the Triennial Conference gave
no heed to remonstrances on the part of these ecclesiastical
offenders they came to the conclusion that they must either crush
their consciences or seek relief in separation. The climax was
reached when George D. Cummins (1822-1876), assistant bishop
of Kentucky, was angrily attacked for officiating at the united
communion service held at the meeting of the Sixth General
Conference of the Evangelical Alliance in New York, October
1873. This prelate resigned his charge in the Episcopal Church
on November nth, and a month later, with seven other clergy-
men and a score of laymen, constituted the Reformed Episcopal
Church. Cummins was chosen as presiding officer of the new
body, and consecrated Charles E. Cheney (b. 1836), rector of
Christ Church, Chicago, to be bishop. The following Declaration
of Principles (here abridged) was promulgated:
I. An. expression of belief in the Bible as the Word of God, and
the sole rule of faith and practice, in the Apostles' Creed, in the
divine institution of the two sacraments and in the doctrines of
grace substantially as set out in the 39 Articles.
II. The recognition of Episcopacy not as of divine right but
as a very ancient and desirable form of church polity.
III. An acceptance of the Prayer Book as revised by the General
Convention of the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1785, with
liberty to revise it as may seem most conducive to the edification
of the people.
IV. A condemnation of certain positions, viz. ,
(a) That the Church of God exists only in one form of ecclesi-
astical polity.
(b) That Christian ministers as distinct from all believers
have any special priesthood.
(c) That the Lord's Table is an altar on which the body and
blood of Christ are offered anew to the Father.
(d) That the presence of Christ is a material one.
(e) That Regeneration is inseparably connected with
Baptism.
The Church recognizes no orders of ministry, presbyters and
deacons; the Episcopate is an office, not an order, the bishop
being the chief presbyter, primus inter pares. There are some
7 bishops, 85 clergy and about 9500 communicants. 1600
annually is raised for foreign missionary work in India. The
Church was introduced into England in 1877, and has in
that country a presiding bishop and about 20 organized congrega-
tions. The Church has a theological seminary in Philadelphia.
REFRACTION (Lat. refringere, to break open or apart), in
physics, the change in the direction of a wave of light, heat or
sound which occurs when such a wave passes from one medium
into another of different density.
I. REFRACTION OF LIGHT
When a ray of light traversing a homogeneous medium falls
on the bounding surface of another transparent homogeneous
medium, it is found that the direction of the transmitted ray
in the second medium is different from that of the incident
ray; in other words, the ray is refracted or bent at the
point of incidence. The laws governing refraction are:
(i) the refracted and incident rays are coplanar with the
normal to the refracting surface at the point of incidence,
and (2) the ratio of the sines of the angles between the
normal and the incident and refracted rays is constant for the
two media, but depends on the nature of the light employed,
i.e. on its wave length. This constant is called the relative
refractive index of the second medium, and may be denoted
by fi a t, the suffix ab signifying that the light passes from
medium a to medium b; similarly fn a denotes the relative
refractive index of a with regard to b. The absolute refractive
index is the index when the first medium is a vacuum. Ele-
mentary phenomena in refraction, such as the apparent bending
of a stick when partially immersed in water, were observed in
very remote times, but the laws, as stated above, were first
grasped in the r/th century by W. Snell and published by
Descartes, the full importance of the dependence of the refractive
index on the nature of the light employed being first thoroughly
realized by Newton in his famous prismatic decomposition of
white light into a coloured spectrum. Newton gave a theor-
etical interpretation of these laws on the basis of his corpuscular
theory, as did also Huygens on the wave theory (see LIGHT, II.
Theory of). In this article we only consider refractions at
plane surfaces, refraction at spherical surfaces being treated
under LENS. The geometrical theory will, be followed, the
wave theory being treated in LIGHT, DIFFRACTION and DIS-
PERSION.
Refraction at a Plane Surface. Let LM (fig. i) be the surface
dividing two homogeneous media A and B; let IO be a ray in
the first medium incident on LM at O, and let OR be the refracted
ray. Draw the normal POQ. Then by Snell 's law we have
invariably sin lOP/sin QOR =#(,. Hence if two of these
quantities be given the third can be calculated. The commonest
question is: Given the incident ray and the refractive index to
construct the refracted ray. A simple construction is to take
along the incident ray OI, unit distance OC, and a distance OD
equal to the refractive index in the same units. Draw CE
perpendicular to LM, and draw an arc with centre O and radius
OD, cutting CE in E. Then EO produced downwards is the
refracted ray. The proof is left to the reader.
In the figure the given incident ray is assumed to be passing
from a less dense to a denser medium, and it is seen by the con-
struction or by examining the formula sin /9 = sin a/p that for all
values of a there is a corresponding value of 0. Consider the
case when the light passes from a denser to a less dense medium.
In the equation sin (3 = sin O//K we have in this case /z<l. Now
if sin a</i, we have sin a//*< i, and hence ft is real. If sin o = /u, then
sin jS=i, i.e. = 90; in other words, the refracted ray in the
second medium passes parallel to and grazes the bounding surface.
The angle of incidence, which is given by sin i = i/jj, is termed
the critical angle. For greater values it is obvious that sin o//j > I
and there is no refraction into the second medium, the rays being
totally reflected back into the first medium; this is called total
internal reflection.
Images produced by Refraction at Plane Surfaces. If a luminous
point be situated in a medium separated from one of less density
by a plane surface, the ray normal to this surface will be unre-
fracted, whilst the others will undergo_ refraction according to
their angles of emergence. If the rays in the less dense medium
be produced into the denser medium, they envelop a caustic, but
by restricting ourselves to a small area about the normal ray it
is seen that they intersect this ray in a point which is the geometrical
REFRACTION
image of the luminous source. The position of this point can be
easily determined. If / be the distance of the source below the
surface, /' the distance of the image, and n the refractive index,
then I' =t//i. This theory provides a convenient method for
determining the refractive index of a plate. A micrometer
microscope, with vertical motion, is focused on a scratch on the
surface of its stage; the plate, which has a fine scratch on its
upper surface, is now introduced, and the microscope is successively
focused on the scratch on the stage as viewed through the plate,
and on the scratch on the plate. The difference between the first
and third readings gives the thickness of the plate, corresponding
to / above, and between the second and third readings the depth
of the image, corresponding to /'.
Refraction by a Prism. In optics a prism is a piece of trans-
parent material bounded by two plane faces which meet at a
definite angle, called the refracting angle of the prism, in a straight
line called the edge of the prism; a section perpendicular to the
edge is called a principal section. Parallel rays, refracted succes-
sively at the two faces, emerge from the prism as a system of
parallel rays, but the direction is altered by an amount called
the deviation. The deviation depends on the angles of incidence
and emergence; but, since the course of a ray may always be
reversed, there must be a stationary value, either a maximum
or minimum, when the ray traverses the prism symmetrically,
i.e. when the angles of incidence and emergence are equal. As a
matter of fact, it is a minimum, and the position is called the
angle of minimum deviation. The relation between the minimum
deviation D, the angle of the prism i, and the refractive index
,u is found as follows. Let in fig. 2, PQRS be the course of the
ray through the prism; the internal angles <', $' each equal
Ji, and the angles of incidence and emergence <t>, $ are each equal
and connected with <j>' by Snell's law, i.e. sin 4> = n sin<f>'. Also the
deviation D is 2 (<t><j>'). Hence M = sin </sin <t>' = sin% (D+z')/sin|i.
Refractometers. Instruments for determining the refractive
indices of media are termed refractometers.
The simplest are really spectrometers, consisting of a glass
prism, usually hollow and fitted with accurately parallel glass
sides, mounted on a table which carries a fixed collimation tube
and a movable observing tube, the motion of the latter being
recorded on a graduated circle. The collimation tube has a
narrow adjustable flit at its outer end and a lens at the nearer
end, so that the light leaves the tube as a parallel beam. The
refracting angle of the prism, i in our previous notation, is deter-
mined by placing the prism with its refracting edge towards the
collimator, and observing when the reflections of the slit in the
two prism faces coincide with the cross-wires in the observing
telescope; half the angle between these two positions gives i.
To determine the position of minimum deviation, or D, the prism
is removed, and the observing telescope is brought into line with
the slit; in this position the graduation is read. The prism is
replaced, and the telescope moved until it catches the refracted
rays. The prism is now turned about a vertical axis until a
position is found when the telescope has to be moved towards the
collimator in order to catch the rays; this operation sets the prism
at the angle of minimum deviation. The refractive index /j. is
calculated from the formula given above.
More readily manipulated and of superior accuracy are refracto-
meters depending on total reflection. The Abbe refractometer
(fig. 3) essentially consists of a double Abbe prism AB to contain
the substance to be experimented with ; and a telescope F to ob-
serve the border line of the total reflection. The prisms, which are
right-angled and made of the same flint glass, are mounted in a
hinged frame such that the lower prism, which is used for purposes
of illumination, can be locked so that the hypothenuse faces are
distant by about 0-15 mm., or rotated away from the upper prism.
The double prism is used in examining liquids, a few drops being
placed between the prisms; the single prism is used when solids
or plastic bodies are employed. The mount is capable of rotation
about a horizontal axis by an alidade /. The telescope is provided
with a reticule, which can be brought into exact coincidence
with the observed border line, and is rigidly fastened to a sector
S graduated directly in refractive indices. The reading is effected
by a lens L. Beneath the prisms is a mirror for reflecting light
FIG. 3.
into the apparatus. To use the apparatus, the liquid having been
inserted between the prisms, or the solid attached by its own
adhesiveness or by a drop of monobromnaphthalene to the upper
prism, the prism case is rotated until the field of view consists of a
light and dark portion, and the border line is now brought into
coincidence with the reticule of the telescope. In using a lamp
or daylight this border is coloured, and hence a compensator,
consisting of two equal Amici prisms, is placed between the
objective and the prisms. These Amici prisms can be rotated,
in opposite directions, until they produce a dispersion opposite
in sign to that originally seen, and hence the border line now
appears perfectly sharp and colourless. When at zero the alidade
corresponds to a refractive index of 1-3, and any other reading
gives the corresponding index correct to about 2 units in the 4th
decimal place. Since temperature markedly affects the refractive
index, this apparatus is provided with a device for heating the prisms.
Figs. 4 and 5 show the course of the rays when a solid and liquid
FIG. 4-
FIG. 5-
are being experimented with. Dr R. Wollny's butter refracto-
meter, also made by Zeiss, is constructed similarly to Abbe's
form, with the exception that the prism casing is rigidly attached
to the telescope, and the observation made by noting the point where
the border line intersects an appropriately graduated scale in the
focal plane of the tele'scope objective, fractions being read by a
micrometer screw attached to the objective. This apparatus is
afso provided with an arrangement for heating.
This method of reading is also employed in Zeiss's " dipping
refractometer " (fig. 6). This instrument consists of a telescope R
having at its lower end a prism P with a refracting angle of 63,
above which and below the objective is a movable compensator A
for purposes of annulling the dispersion about the border line. In
REFRACTION
the focal plane of the objective O there is a scale Sc, exact reading
being made by a micrometer Z. If a large quantity of liquid be
FIG. 6. Zeiss's Dipping Refractometer.
available it is sufficient to dip the refractometer perpendicularly
into a beaker containing the liquid and to transmit light into the
instrument by means of a mirror. If only a smaller quantity be
available, it is enclosed in a metal beaker M, which forms an exten-
sion of the instrument, and the liquid is retained there by a plate D.
The instrument is now placed in a trough B, containing water and
having one side of ground glass G; light is reflected into the
refractometer by means of a mirror S outside this trough. An
accuracy of 3-7 units in the 5th decimal place is obtainable.
The Pulfrich refractometer is also largely used, especially for
liquids. It consists essentially of a right-angled glass prism placed
on a metal foundation with the faces at right angles horizontal
and vertical, the hypothenuse face being on the support. The
horizontal face is fitted with a small cylindrical vessel to hold the
liquid. Light is led to the prism at grazing incidence by means
of a collimator, and is refracted through the vertical face, the
deviation being observed by a telescope rotating about a graduated
circle. From this the refractive index is readily calculated if the
refractive index of the prism for the light used be known: a fact
supplied by the maker. The instrument is also available for
determining the refractive index of isotropic solids. A little of
the solid is placed in the vessel and a mixture of monobrpmnaph-
thalene and acetone (in which the solid must be insoluble) is added,
and adjustment made by adding either one or other liquid until
the border line appears sharp, i.e. until the liquid has the same
index as the solid.
The Herbert Smith refractometer (fig. 7) is especially suitable
for determining the refractive index of gems, a constant which is
= J.30
= 135
m i-w
= '"* s
= ISO
== 155
if ISO
If us
1 1-70
=1 I-TS
FIG.
most valuable in distinguishing the precious stones. It consists
of a hemisphere of very dense glass, having its plane surface fixed
at a certain angle to the axis of the instrument. Light is admitted
by a window on the under side, which is inclined at the same angle,
but in the opposite sense, to the axis. The light on emerging from
the hemisphere is received by a convex lens, in the focal plane of
which is a scale graduated to read directly in refractive indices.
The light then traverses a positive eye-piece. To use the instru-
ment for a gem, a few drops of methylene iodide (the refractive
index of which may be raised to 1-800 by dissolving sulphur in it)
are placed on the plane surface of the hemisphere and a facet of
the stone then brought into contact with the surface. If mono-
chromatic light be used (i.e. the D line of the sodium flame) the
field is sharply divided into a light and a dark portion, and the posi-
tion of the line of demarcation on the scale immediately gives the
refractive index. It is necessary for the liquid to have a higher
refractive index than the crystal, and also that there is close con-
tact between the facet and the lens. The range of the instrument
is between 1-400 and 1-760, the results being correct to two units
in the third decimal place if sodium light be used. (C. E.*)
II. DOUBLE REFRACTION
That a stream of light on entry into certain media can give
rise to two refracted pencils was discovered in the case of Iceland
spar by Erasmus Bartholinus, who found that one pencil had
a direction given by the ordinary law of refraction, but that the
other was bent in accordance with a new law that he was
unable to determine. This law was discovered about eight
years later by Christian Huygens. According to Huygens'
fundamental principle, the law of refraction is determined by
the form and orientation of the wave-surface in the crystal
the locus of points to which a disturbance emanating from a
luminous point travels in unit time. In the. case of a doubly
refracting medium the wave-surface must have two sheets,
one of which is spherical, if one of the pencils obey in all cases
the ordinary law of refraction. Now Huygens observed that a
natural crystal of spar behaves in precisely the same way which-
ever pair of faces the light passes through, and inferred from
this fact that the second sheet of the wave-surface must be a
surface of revolution round a line equally inclined to the faces
of the rhomb, i.e. round the axis of the crystal. He accordingly
assumed it to be a spheroid, and finding that refraction in the
direction of the axis was the same for both streams, he concluded
that the sphere and the spheroid touched one another in the axis.
So far as his experimental means permitted, Huygens veri-
fied the law of refraction deduced from this hypothesis, but its
correctness remained unrecognized until the measures of W. H.
Wollaston in 1802 and of E. T. Malus in 1810. More recently
its truth has been established with far more perfect optical
appliances by R. T. Glazebrook, Ch. S. Hastings and others.
In the case of Iceland spar and several other crystals the
extraordinarily refracted stream is refracted away from the
axis, but Jean Baptiste Biot in 1814 discovered that in many
cases the reverse occurs, and attributing the extraordinary
refractions to forces that act as if they emanated from the axis,
he called crystals of the latter kind " attractive," those of the
former " repulsive." They are now termed " positive " and
" negative " respectively: and Huygens' law applies to both
classes, the spheroid being prolate in the case of positive, and
oblate in the case of negative crystals. It was at first supposed
that Huygens' law applied to all doubly refracting media. Sir
David Brewster, however, in 1815, while examining the rings
that are seen round the optic axis in polarized light, discovered
a number of crystals that possess two optic axes. He showed,
moreover, that such crystals belong to the rhombic, monoclinic
and anorthic (triclinic) systems, those of the tetragonal and
hexagonal systems being uniaial, and those of the cubic system
being optically isotropic.
Huygens found in the course of his researches that the streams
that had traversed a rhomb of Iceland spar had acquired new
properties with respect to transmission through a second
crystal. This phenomenon is called polarization (g.v.), and the
waves are said to be polarized the ordinary in its principal
plane and the extraordinary in a plane perpendicular to its
principal plane, the principal plane of a wave being the plane
containing its normal and the axis of the crystal. From the
facts of polarization Augustin Jean Fresnel deduced that the
28
REFRACTION
vibrations in plane polarized light are rectilinear and in the
plane of the wave, and arguing from the symmetry of uniaxal
crystals that vibrations perpendicular to the axis are propa-
gated with the same speed in all directions, he pointed out that
this would explain the existence of an ordinary wave, and the
relation between its speed and that of the extraordinary wave.
From these ideas Fresnel was forced to the conclusion, that he
at once verified experimentally, that in biaxal crystals there is
no spherical wave, since there is no single direction round which
such crystals are symmetrical; and, recognizing the difficulty of
a direct determination of the wave-surface, he attempted to
represent the laws of double refraction by the aid of a simpler
surface.
The essential problem is the determination of the propaga-
tional speeds of plane waves as dependent upon the directions
of their normals. These being known, the deduction of the
wave-surface follows at once, since it is to be regarded as the
envelope at any subsequent time of all the plane waves that at
a given instant may be supposed to pass through a given point,
the ray corresponding to any tangent plane or the direction of
transport of energy being by Huygens' principle the radius-
vector from the centre to the point of contact. Now Fresnel
perceived that in uniaxal crystals the speeds of plane waves in
any direction are by Huygens' law the reciprocals of the semi-
axes of the central section, parallel to the wave-fronts, of a
spheroid, whose polar and equatorial axes are the reciprocals
of the equatorial and polar axes of the spheroidal sheet of
Huygens' wave-surface, and that the plane of polarization of a
wave is perpendicular to the axis that determines its speed.
Hence it occurred to him that similar relations with respect to
an ellipsoid with three unequal axes would give the speeds and
polarizations of the waves in a biaxal crystal, and the results
thus deduced he found to be in accordance with all known facts.
This ellipsoid is called the ellipsoid of polarization, the index
ellipsoid and the indicatrix. ,
We may go a step further; for by considering the intersection
of a wave-front with two waves, whose normals are indefinitely
near that of the first and lie in planes perpendicular and parallel
respectively to its plane of polarization, it is easy to show that
the ray corresponding to the wave is parallel to the line in which
the former of the two planes intersects the tangent plane to the
ellipsoid at the end of the semi-diameter that determines the
wave- velocity; and it follows by similar triangles that the
ray-velocity is the reciprocal of the length of the perpendicular
from the centre on this tangent plane. The laws of double
refraction are thus contained in the following proposition. The
propagational speed of a plane wave in any direction is given
by the reciprocal of one of the semi-axes of the central section
of the ellipsoid of polarization parallel to the wave; the plane
of polarization of the wave is perpendicular to this axis; the
corresponding ray is parallel to the line of intersection of the
tangent plane at the end of the axis and the plane containing
the axis and the wave-normal; the ray- velocity is the reciprocal
of the length of the perpendicular from the centre on the tangent
plane. By reciprocating with respect to a sphere of unit radius
concentric with the ellipsoid, we obtain a similar proposition in
which the ray takes the place of the wave-normal, the ray-
velocity that of the wave-slowness (the reciprocal of the velocity)
and vice versa. The wave-surface is thus the apsidal surface of
the reciprocal ellipsoid; this gives the simplest means of obtain-
ing its equation, and it is readily seen that its section by each
plane of optical symmetry consists of an ellipse and a circle,
and that in the plane of greatest and least wave-velocity these
curves intersect in four points. The radii-vectors to these
points are called the ray-axes.
When the wave-front is parallel to either system of circular
sections of the ellipsoid of polarization, the problem of finding
the axes of the parallel central section becomes indeterminate,
and all waves in this direction are propagated with the same
speed, whatever may be their polarization. The normals to
the circular sections are thus the optic axes. To determine the
rays corresponding to an optic axis, we may note that the ray
and the perpendiculars to it through the centre, in planes
perpendicular and parallel to that of the ray and the optic axis,
are three lines intersecting at right angles of which the two
latter are confined to given planes, viz. the central circular
section of the ellipsoid and the normal section of the cylinder
touching the ellipsoid along this section: whence by a known
proposition the ray describes a cone whose sections parallel to
the given planes are circles. Thus a plane perpendicular to the
optic axis touches the wave-surface along a circle. Similarly
the normals to the circular sections of the reciprocal ellipsoid, or
the axes of the tangent cylinders to the polarization-ellipsoid
that have circular normal sections, are directions of single-ray
velocity or ray-axes, and it may be shown as above that corre-
sponding to a ray-axis there is a cone of wave-normals with
circular sections parallel to the normal section of the corre-
sponding tangent cylinder, and its plane of contact with the
ellipsoid. Hence the extremities of the ray-axes are conical
points on the wave-surface. These peculiarities of the wave-
surface are the cause of the celebrated conical refractions
discovered by Sir William Rowan Hamilton and H. Lloyd,
which afford a decisive proof of the general correctness of
Fresnel's wave-surface, though they cannot, as Sir G. Gabriel
Stokes (Math, and Phys. Papers, iv. 184) has pointed out, be
employed to decide between theories that lead to this surface
as a near approximation.
In general, both the direction and the magnitude of the axes
of the polarization-ellipsoid depend upon the frequency of the
light and upon the temperature, but in many cases the possible
variations are limited by considerations of symmetry. Thus
the optic axis of a uniaxal crystal is invariable, being deter-
mined by the principal axis of the system to which it belongs:
most crystals are of the same sign for all colours, the refractive
indices and their difference both increasing with the frequency,
but a few crystals are of opposite sign for the extreme spectral
colours, becoming isotropic for some intermediate wave-length.
In crystals of the rhombic system the axes of the ellipsoid
coincide in all cases with the crystallographic axes, but in a few
cases their order of magnitude changes so that the plane of the
optic axes for red light is at right angles to that for blue light,
the crystal being uniaxal for an intermediate colour. In the
case of the monoclinic system one axis is in the direction of the
axis of the system, and this is generally, though there are notable
exceptions, either the' greatest, the least, or the intermediate
axis of the ellipsoid for all colours and temperatures. In the
latter case the optic axes are in the plane of symmetry, and a
variation of their acute bisectrix occasions the phenomenon
known as " inclined dispersion ": in the two former cases the
plane of the optic axes is perpendicular to the plane of symmetry,
and if it vary with the colour of the light, the crystals exhibit
" crossed " or " horizontal dispersion " according as it is the
acute or the obtuse bisectrix that is in the fixed direction.
The optical constants of a crystal may be determined either
with a prism or by observations of total reflection. In the
latter case the phenomenon is characterized by two angles the
critical angle and the angle between the plane of incidence and
the line limiting the region of total reflection in the field of view.
With any crystalline surface there are four cases in which this
latter angle is 90, and the principal refractive indices of the
crystal are obtained from those calculated from the correspond-
ing critical angles, by excluding that one of the mean values
for which the plane of polarization of the limiting rays is
perpendicular to the plane of incidence. A difficulty, however,
may arise when the crystalline surface is very nearly the plane
of the optic axes, as the plane of polarization in the second mean
case is then also very nearly perpendicular to the plane of
incidence; but since the two mean refractive indices will be very
different, the ambiguity can be removed by making, as may
easily be done, an approximate measure of the angle between the
optic axes and comparing it with the values calculated by using
in turn each of these indices (C. M. Viola, Zeit. fiir Kryst., 1002,
36, p. 245).
A substance originally isotropic can acquire the optical
REFRESHER
29
properties of a crystal under the influence of homogeneous
strain, the principal axes of the wave-surface being parallel to
those of the strain, and the medium being uniaxal, if the strain
be symmetrical. John Kerr also found that a dielectric under
electric stress behaves as an uniaxal crystal with its optic axis
parallel to the electric force, glass acting as a negative and
b''sulphide of carbon as a positive crystal (Phil. Mag., 1875 (4),
Not content with determining the laws of double refraction,
Fresnel also attempted to give their mechanical explanation.
He supposed that the aether consists of a system of distinct
material points symmetrically arranged and acting on one
another by forces that depend for a given pair only on their
distance. If in such a system a single molecule be displaced, the
projection of the force of restitution on the direction of dis-
placement is proportional to the inverse square of the parallel
radius- vector of an ellipsoid; and of all displacements that can
occur in a given plane, only those in the direction of the axes of
the parallel central section of the quadric develop forces whose
projection on the plane is along the displacement. In undula-
tions, however, we are concerned with the elastic forces due to
relative displacements, and, accordingly, Fresnel assumed that
the forces called into play during the propagation of a system of
plane waves (of rectilinear transverse vibrations) differ from
those developed by the parallel displacement of a single molecule
only by a constant factor, independent of the plane of the wave.
Next, regarding the aether as incompressible, he assumed that the
components of the elastic forces parallel to the wave-front are
alone operative, and finally, on the analogy of a stretched string,
that the propagational speed of a plane wave of permanent
type is proportional to the square root of the effective force
developed by the vibrations. With these hypotheses we
immediately obtain the laws of double refraction, as given by
the ellipsoid of polarization, with the result that the vibrations
are perpendicular to the plane of polarization.
In its dynamical foundations Fresnel's theory, though of
considerable historical interest, is clearly defective in rigour,
and a strict treatment of the aether as a crystalline elastic solid
does not lead naturally to Fresnel's laws of double refraction.
On the other hand, Lord Kelvin's rotational aether (Math, and
Phys. Papers, iii. 442) a medium that has no true rigidity
but possesses a quasi-rigidity due to elastic resistance to absolute
rotation gives these laws at once, if we abolish the resistance
to compression and, regarding it as gyrostatically isotropic,
attribute to it aeolotropic inertia. The equations then obtained
are the same as those deduced in the electro-magnetic theory from
the circuital laws of A. M. Ampere and Michael Faraday, when
the specific inductive capacity is supposed aeolotropic. In
order to account for dispersion, it is necessary to take into
account the interaction with the radiation oi tne intra-molecular
vibrations of the crystalline substance: thus the total current
on the electro-magnetic theory must be regarded as made up of
the current of displacement and that due to the osculations
of the electrons within the molecules of the crystal.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. An interesting and instructive account of
Fresnel's work on double refraction has been given by Emile
Verdet in his introduction to Fresnel's works: (Euvres d'Augustin
Fresnel, i. 75 (Paris, 1866); (Euvres de E. Verdet, i. 360 (Paris,
1872) For an account of theories of double refraction see the
reports of H. Lloyd, Sir G. G. Stokes and R. T. Glazebrook in
the Brit. Ass. Reports for 1834, 1862 and 1885, and Lord Kelvin's
Baltimore Lectures (1904). An exposition of the rotational theory
of the aether has been given by H. Chipart, Theorie gyrostatique
de la lumiere (Paris, 1904); and P. Drude's Lehrbuch der Optik,
2" Auf. (1906), the first German edition of which was translated
by C. Riborg Mann and R. A. Milliken in 1902, treats the subject
from the standpoint of the electro-magnetic theory. The methods
of determining the optical constants of crystals will be found in
Th. Liebisch's Physikalische Krystallographie (1891); F. Pocket's
Lehrbuch der Kristalloptik (1906); and J. Walker's Analytical
Theory of Light (1904). A detailed list of papers on the geometry
of the wave-surface has been published by E. Wollfing, Bibl
Math., 1902 (3), iii. 361; and a general account of the subject
will be found in the following treatises: L. Fletcher, The Optical
Indicatrix (1892); Th. Preston, The Theory of Light, 3rd ed. by
C. J. Joly (1901); A. Schuster, An Introduction to the Theory oj
Optics (1904); R. W. Wood, Physical Optics (1005); E. Mascart,
Traite d'optique (1889) ; A. Winkelmann, Handbuch der Physik.
(J. WAL.*)
III. ASTRONOMICAL REFRACTION
The refraction of a ray of light by the atmosphere as it passes
'rom a heavenly body to an observer on the earth's surface, is
called " astronomical." A knowledge of its amount is a necessary
datum in the exact determination of the direction of the body.
[n its investigation the fundamental hypothesis is that the strata
of the air are in equilibrium, which implies that the surfaces of
equal density are horizontal. But this condition is being
continually disturbed by aerial currents, which produce con-
tinual slight fluctuations in the actual refraction, and commonly
give to the image of a star a tremulous motion. Except for this
slight motion the refraction is always in the vertical direction;
that is, the actual zenith distance of the star is always greater
than its apparent distance. The refracting power of the air is
nearly proportional to its density. Consequently the amount
of the refraction varies with the temperature and barometric
pressure, being greater the higher the barometer and the lower
the temperature.
At moderate zenith distances, the amount of the refraction
varies nearly as the tangent of the zenith distance. Under
ordinary conditions of pressure and temperature it is, near the
zenith, about i " for each degree of zenith distance. As the tangent
increases at a greater rate than the angle, the increase of the
refraction soon exceeds i" for each degree. At 45 from the
zenith the tangent is i and the mean refraction is about 58*.
As the horizon is approached the tangent increases more and
more rapidly, becoming infinite at the horizon; but the re-
fraction now increases at a less rate, and, when the observed
ray is horizontal, or when the object appears on the horizon, the
refraction is about 34', or a little greater than the diameter of
the sun or moon. It follows that when either of these objects is
seen on the horizon their actual direction is entirely below it.
One result is that the length of the day is increased by refraction
to the extent of about five minutes in low latitudes, and still
more in higher latitudes. At 60 the increase is about nine
minutes.
The atmosphere, like every other transparent substance,
refracts the blue rays of the spectrum more than the red; conse-
quently, when the image of a star near the horizon is observed
with a telescope, it presents somewhat the appearance of a
spectrum. The edge which is really highest, but seems lowest
in the telescope, is blue, and the opposite one red. When the
atmosphere is steady this atmospheric spectrum is very marked
and renders an exact observation of the star difficult.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Refraction has been a favourite subject of
research. See Dr. C. Bruhns, Die astronomische Strahlenbrechung
(Leipzig, 1861), gives a resume of the various formulae of refraction
which had been developed by the leading investigators up to the
date 1861. Since then developments of the theory are found in:
W. Chauvenet, Spherical and Practical Astronomy, \. ; F. Brunnow,
Sphdrischen Astronomic; S. Newcomb, Spherical Astronomy; R.
Radau, "Recherches sur la the'orie des refractions astronomiques"
(Annales de I'observatoire de Paris, xvi., 1882), " Essai sur les r6frac-
tions astronomiques " (ibid., xix., 1889).
Among the tables of refraction which have been most used are
Bessel's, derived from the observations of Bradley in Bessel's
Fundamenta Astronomiae; and Bessel's revised tables in his Tabulae
Regiomontanae, in which, however, the constant is too large, but
which in an expanded form were mostly used at the observatories
until 1870. The constant use of the Poulkova tables, Tabulae re-
fraclionum, which is reduced to nearly its true value, has gradually
replaced that of Bessel. Later tables are those of L. de Ball,
published at Leipzig in 1906.
REFRESHER, in English legal phraseology, a further or
additional fee paid to counsel where a case is adjourned from
one term or sittings to another, or where it extends over more
than one day and occupies, either on the first day or partly on
the first and partly on a subsequent day or days, more than
five hours without being concluded. The refresher allowed
for every clear day subsequent to that on which the five hours
have expired is five to ten guineas for a leading counsel and
from three to seven guineas for other counsel, but the taxing
REFRIGERATING
master is at liberty to allow larger fees in special circumstances.
See Rules of the Supreme Court, O. 65, r. 48.
REFRIGERATING and ICE-MAKING. " Refrigeration "
(from Lat. frigus, frost) is the cooling of a body by the transfer
of a portion of its heat to another and therefore a cooler body.
For ordinary temperatures it is performed directly with water
as the cooling agent, especially when well water, which usually
has a temperature of from 52 to 55 F., can be obtained. There
are, however, an increasingly large number of cases in which
temperatures below that of any available natural cooling agent
are required, and in these it is necessary to resort to machines
which are capable of producing the required cooling effect by
taking in heat at low temperatures and rejecting it at tempera-
tures somewhat above that of the natural cooling agent, which
for obvious reasons is generally water. The function of a
refrigerating machine, therefore, is to take in heat at a low
temperature and reject it at a higher one.
This involves the expenditure of a quantity of work W, the
amount in any particular case being found by the equation
W = Qj Qi .where W is the work, expressed by its equivalent in British
thermal units; Q 2 the quantity of heat, also in B.Ther.U., given
out at the higher temperature T 2 ; and Qi the heat taken in at
the lower temperature TI. It is evident that the discharged heat
Q 2 is equal to the abstracted heat Qi, plus the work expended,
seeing that the work W, which causes the rise in temperature from
Ti to Tz, is the thermal equivalent of the energy actually expended
in raising the temperature to the level at which it is rejected. The
relation then between the work expended and the actual cooling
work performed denotes the efficiency of the process, and this is
expressed by QiKQt Qi); but as in a perfect refrigerating machine
it is understood that the whole of the heat Qi is taken in at the
absolute temperature TI, and the whole of the heat Q 2 , is rejected
at the absolute temperature T 2 , the heat quantities are proportional
to the temperatures, and the expression Ti/(T 2 Ti) gives the
ideal coefficient of performance for any stated temperature range,
whatever working substance is used. These coefficients for a number
of cases met with in practice are given in the following table. They
TABLE I.
Ti.
Temperature at
which Heat is extracted
in Degrees Fahr.
T,..
Temperature at which Heat is rejected in
Degrees Fahr.
5
60
7&
80
90
loo"
-10
7-5
6-4
5-6
5-o
4-5
4-1
9-2
7-7
6-6
5"
5-i
4-6
10
II-7
9'4
7-8
6-7
5'9
5-2
20
16-0
I2-O
9-6
8-0
6-8
6-0
30
24-5
16-3
12-2
9-8
8-2
7-0
40
50-0
25-0
16-7
12-5
IO-O
8-3
show that in all cases the heat abstracted exceeds by many times
the heat expended. As an instance, when heat is taken in at o
and rejected at 70, a perfect refrigerating machine would abstract
6-6 times as much heat as the equivalent of the energy to be applied.
If, however, the heat is to be rejected at 100, then the coefficient
is reduced to 4-6.
By examining Table I. it will be seen how important it is to
reduce the temperature range as much as possible, in order to obtain
the most economical results. No actual refrigerating machine
does, in fact, take in heat at the exact temperature of the body
to be cooled, and reject it at the exact temperature of the cooling
water, but, for economy in working, it is of great importance that
the differences should be as small as possible.
There are two distinct classes of machines used for refrigerat-
ing and ice-making. In the first refrigeration is produced by
the expansion of atmospheric air, and in the second by the
evaporation of a more or less volatile liquid.
Compressed-air Machines. A compressed-air refrigerating
machine consists in its simplest form of three essential parts
a compressor, a compressed-air cooler, and an expansion
cylinder. It is shown diagrammatically in fig. i in connexion
with a chamber which it is keeping cool. The compressor
draws in air from the room and compresses it, the work expended
in compression being almost entirely converted into heat. The
compressed air, leaving the compressor at the temperature T z ,
passes through the cooler, where it is cooled by means of water,
and is then admitted to the expansion cylinder, where it is
expanded to atmospheric pressure, performing work on the
piston. The heat equivalent of the mechanical work per-
formed on the piston is abstracted from the air, which is dis-
charged at the temperature Ti. This temperature Tj is neces-
Compression Cylinder Expansion Cylinder
FIG. i. Compressed-Air Refrigerating Machine.
sarily very much below the temperature to be maintained in
the room, because the cooling effect is produced by transferring
heat from the room or its contents to the air, which is thereby
heated. The rise in temperature of the air is, in fact, the measure
of the cooling effect produced. If such a machine could be
constructed with reasonable mechanical efficiency to compress
the air to a temperature but slightly above that of the cooling
water, and to expand the air to a temperature but slightly
below that required to be maintained in the room, we should of
course get a result approximating in efficiency somewhat nearly
to the figures given in Table I. Unfortunately, however, such
results cannot be obtained in practice, because the extreme
lightness of the air and its very small heat capacity (which at
constant pressure is -2379) would necessitate the employment
of a great volume, with extremely large and mechanically in-
efficient cylinders and apparatus. A pound of air, represent-
ing about 12 cub. ft., if raised 10 F. will only take up about
2-4 B.T.U. Consequently, to make such a machine mechani-
cally successful a comparatively small weight of air must be
used, and the temperature difference increased; in other
words, the air must be discharged at a temperature very much
below that to be maintained in the room.
This theory of working is founded on the Carnot cycle for a
perfect heat motor, a perfect refrigerating machine being simply
a reversed heat motor. Another theory involves the use of the
Stirling regenerator, which was proposed in connexion with the
Stirling heat engine (see AIR ENGINES). The air machine invented
by Dr. A. Kirk in 1862, and described by him in a paper on the
" Mechanical Production of Cold " (Proc. Inst. C.E., xxxyii.,
1874, 244), is simply a reversed Stirling air engine, the air working
in a closed cycle instead of being actually discharged into the room
to be copied, as is the usual practice with ordinary compressed-
air machines. Kirk's machine was used commercially with success
on a fairly large scale, chiefly for ice-making, and it is recorded that
it produced about 4 Ib of ice for I Ib of coal. In 1868 J. Davy
Postle read a paper before the Royal Society of Victoria, suggesting
the conveyance of meat on board ship in a frozen state by means
of refrigerated air, and in 1869 he showed by experiment how it
could be done; but his apparatus was not commercially developed.
In 1877 a compressed-air machine was designed by J. J. Coleman
of Glasgow, and in the early part of 1879 one of his machines was
fitted on board the Anchor liner " Circassia," which successfully
brought a cargo of chilled beef from America the first imported
by the aid of refrigerating machinery, ice having been previously
used. The first successful cargo of frozen mutton from Australia
was also brought by a Bell-Coleman machine in 1879. In the
Bell-Coleman machine the air was cooled during compression by
means of an injection of water, and further by being brought into
contact with a shower of water. Another, perhaps the principal,
feature was the interchanger, an apparatus whereby the compressed
air was further cooled before expansion by means of the com-
paratively cold air from the room in its passage to the compressor,
the same air being used over and over again. The object of this
interchanger was not only to cool the compressed air before
expansion, but to condense part of the moisture in it, so reducing
the quantity of ice or snow produced during expansion. A full
description of the machine may be found in a paper on " Air-
Refrigerating Machinery " by J. J. Coleman (Proc. Inst. C.E.
Ixviii., 1882). At the present time the Bell-Coleman machine
has practically ceased to exist. In such compressed-air machines
REFRIGERATING
as are now made there is no injection of water during compression,
and the compressed air is cooled in a surface cooler, not by actual
mixture with a shower of cold water. Further, though the inter-
changer is still used by some makers, it has been found by experience
that, with properly constructed valves and passages in the expansion
cylinder, tnere is no trouble from the formation of snow, when, as
is the general practice, the same air is used over and over again,
the compressor taking its supply from the insulated room. So
far as the air discharged from the expansion cylinder is concerned,
its humidity is precisely the same so long as its temperature and
pressure are the same, inasmuch as when discharged from the
expansion cylinder it is always in a saturated condition for that
temperature and pressure.
The ideal coefficient of performance is about i, but the actual
coefficient will be about f, after allowing for the losses incidental
to working. In practice the air is compressed to about 50 tb per
square inch above the atmosphere, its temperature rising to
about 300 F. The compressed air then passes through coolers
in which it is cooled to within about 5 of the initial temperature
of the cooling water, and is deprived of a portion of its moisture,
after which it is admitted into the expansion cylinder and
expanded nearly to atmospheric pressure. The thermal equi-
_valent of the power exerted on the piston is taken from the
air, which, with cooling water at 60 F. and after allowing for
friction and other losses, is discharged at a temperature of
60 to 80 below zero F. according to the size of the machine.
The pistons of the compression and expansion cylinders are
connected to the same crankshaft, and the difference between the
power expended in compression and that restored in expansion,
plus the friction of the machine, is supplied by means of a steam
engine coupled to the crankshaft, or by any other source of
power. For marine purposes two complete machines are
frequently mounted on one bed-plate and worked either together
or separately.
In some machines used in the United States the cold air is
not discharged into the rooms but is worked in a closed cycle,
the rooms being cooled by means of overhead pipes through
which the cold expanded air passes on its way back to the
compressor.
Liquid Machines. Machines of the second class may con-
veniently be divided into three types: (a) Those in which there
is no recovery of the refrigerating agent, water being the agent
employed; they will be dealt with as " Vacuum machines."
(b) Those in which the agent is recovered by means of mechan-
ical compression; they are termed " Compression machines."
(c) Those in which the agent is recovered by means of absorption
by a liquid; they are known as " Absorption machines."
In the first class, since the refrigerating liquid is itself rejected,
the only agent cheap enough to be employed is water. The
Vacuum boiling point of water varies with pressure; thus at
machines. one atmosphere or 14-7 Ib per square inch it is 212 F.,
whereas at a pressure of -085 Ib per square inch it is 32,
and at lower pressures there is a still further fall in temperature.
This property is made use of in vacuum machines. Water at
ordinary temperature, say 60, is placed in an air-tight glass or
insulated vessel, and when the pressure is reduced by means of
a vacuum pump it begins to boil, the heat necessary for evapor-
ation being taken from the water itself. The pressure being
still further reduced, the temperature is gradually lowered until
the freezing-point is reached and ice formed, when about one-sixth
of the original volume has been evaporated.
The earliest machine of this kind appears to have been made in
'755 by Dr. William Cullen, who produced the vacuum by means
of a pump alone. In 1810 Sir John Leslie combined with the air
pump a vessel containing strong sulphuric acid for absorbing the
vapour from the air, and is said to have succeeded in producing
I to l J tb of ice in a single operation. E. C. Carre later adopted the
same principle. In 1878 F. Windhausen patented a vacuum
machine for producing ice in large quantities, and in 1881 one of
these machines, said to be capable of making about 12 tons of ice
per day, was put to work in London. The installation was fully
described by Carl Pieper (Trans. Soc. of Engineers, 1882, p. 145)
and by Dr. John Hopkinson (Journal of Soc. of Arts, 1882, vol.
xxxi. p. 20). The process, however, not being successful from a
commercial point of view, was abandoned. At the present time
vacuum machines are only employed for domestic purposes. The
hand apparatus invented by H. A. Fleuss consists of a vacuum
pump capable of reducing the air pressure to a fraction of a milli-
metre, the suction pipe of which is connected first with a vessel
containing sulphuric acid, and second with the vessel containing
the water to be frozen. Both these vessels are mounted on a rocking
base, so that the acid can be thoroughly agitated while the machine
is being worked. As soon as the pump has sufficiently exhausted
the air from the vessel containing the water, vapour is rapidly
given off and is absorbed by the acid until sufficient heat has been
abstracted to bring about the desired reduction in temperature,
the acid becoming heated by the absorption of water vapour,
while the water freezes. The small Fleuss machine will produce
about ij Ib of ice in one operation of 20 minutes. Iced water
in a carafe for drinking purposes can be produced in about three
minutes. The acid vessel holds 9 Ib of acid, and nearly 3 Ib of ice
can be made for each I Ib of acid before the acid has become too weak
to do further duty. Another machine, which can be easily worked
by a boy, will produce 20 to 30 Ib of ice in one hour, and is perhaps
the largest size practicable with this method of freezing. The
temperature attainable depends on the strength and condition of
the sulphuric acid; ordinarily it can be reduced to zero F., and
temperatures 20 lower have frequently been obtained.
Though prior to 1834 several suggestions had been made with
regard to the production of ice and the cooling of liquids by the
evaporation of a more volatile liquid than water, the Compres-
first machine actually constructed and put to work *ia
was made by John Hague in that year from the designs macl>la "-
of Jacob Perkins (Journal of Soc. of Arts, 1882, vol. xxxi. p. 77).
This machine, though never used commercially, is the parent
of all modern compression machines. Perkins in his patent
specification states that the volatile fluid is by preference ether.
In 1856 and 1857 James Harrison of Geelong, Victoria, patented
a machine embodying the same principle as that of Perkins, but
worked out in a much more complete and practical manner. It
is stated that these machines were first made in New South
Wales in 1859, but the first Harrison machine adopted success-
fully for industrial purposes in England was applied in the year
1861 for cooling oil in order to extract the paraffin. In Harrison's
machine the agent used was ether (C2H 5 ) 2 O. Improvements
were made by Siebe & Company of London, and a considerable
number of ether machines both for ice-making and refrigerating
purposes were supplied by that firm and others up to the year
1880. In 1870 the subject of refrigeration was investigated by
Professor Carl Linde of Munich, who was the first to consider
the question from a thermodynamic point of view. He dealt
with the coefficient of performance as a common basis of com-
parison for all machines, and showed that the compression
vapour machine more nearly reached the theoretic maximum
than any other (Bayerisches Industrie und Gewerbeblatt, 1870 and
1871). Linde also examined the physical properties of various
liquids, and, after making trials with methylic ether in 1872,
built his first ammonia compression machine in 1873. Since
then the ammonia compression machine has been most widely
adopted, though the carbonic acid machine, also compression,
which was first made in 1880 from Linde's designs, is now used
to a considerable extent, especially on board ship.
Condenser
Refrigerator
Regulating Valve
FIG. 2. Vapour Compression Machine.
A diagram of a vapour compression machine is shown in tig. 2.
There are three principal parts, a refrigerator or evaporator, a
compression pump, and a condenser. The refrigerator, which
REFRIGERATING
consists of a coil or series of coils, is connected to the suction side
TABLE III. Ledoux's Table for Saturated Sulphur Dioxide
>f the pump, and the delivery from the pump is connected to the
Vapour (SO 2 ).
:ondenser, which is generally of somewhat similar construction to
he refrigerator. The condenser and refrigerator are connected by
i pipe in which is a valve named the regulator. Outside the re-
Temp, of
Vapour- tension
in Pounds per
Heat of Liquid
r
Latent Heat of
Volume of
one Pound
rigerator coils is the air, brine or other substance to be cooled, and
Ebullition.
sq. in.
from 32 Fahr.
Evaporation.
of Saturated
>utside the condenser is the cooling medium, which, as previously
Degs. Fahr.
Absolute.
B.T.U.
B.T.U.
Vapour.
Cub ft
.tated, is generally water. The refrigerating liquid (ether, sulphur
iioxide, anhydrous ammonia, or carbonic acid) passes from the
x>ttom of the condenser through the regulating valve into the
efrigerator in a continuous stream. The pressure in the refrigerator
aeing reduced by the pump and maintained at such a degree as to
jive the required boiling-point, which is of course always lower than
.he temperature outside the coils, heat passes from the substance
jutside, through the coil surfaces, and is taken up by the entering
iquid, which is converted into vapour at the temperature TI. The
/apours thus generated are drawn into the pump, compressed, and
discharged into the condenser at the temperature T 2 , which is some-
ivhat above that of the cooling water. Heat is transferred from the
:ompressed vapour to the cooling water and the vapour is converted
nto a liquid, which collects at the bottom and returns by the re-
gulating valve into the refrigerator. As heat is both taken in and
discharged at constant temperature during the change in physical
state of the agent, a vapour compression machine must approach
22
-13
- 4
5
H
23
32
5
59
68
77
86
95
104
5-546
7-252
9-303
11-803
14-789
18-544
22-468
27-445
33-275
39-958
47-637
56-3II
66-407
77-641
90-297
-19-55
-16-31
-I3-05
- 9-79
- 6-85
- 3-26
o-oo
3-27
6-55
9-83
13-10
16-38
19-69
22-99
26-28
176-98
174-94
I72-9I
170-82
168-75
166-63
164-47
162-39
160-24
158-08
I55-89
I53-67
I5I-49
149-27
147-02
13-168
10-268
8-122
6-504
5-254
4-293
3-540
2-931
2-451
2-O66
I-746
1-490
1-266
1-089
0-9I3
the ideal much more nearly than a compressed-air machine, in
which there is no such change.
TABLE IV. Mollier's Table for Saturated Anhydrous Ammonia ,
17 x /'XTU \
This will be seen by taking as an example a case in which the cold
Vapour (NHa).
room is to be kept at IO F., the cooling water being at 60. Under
:hese conditions, the actual evaporating temperature Ti, in a well-
t
Vapour- tension
V
r
Volume of
instructed ammonia compression machine, after allowing for the
Temp, of
in Pounds per
Heat of Liquid
Latent Heat of
one Pound
differences necessary for the exchange of heat, would be about 5
jelow zero, and the discharge temperature T would be about 75.
Ebullition.
Degs. Fahr.
sq. in.
Absolute.
from 32 Fahr.
B.T.U.
Evaporation.
B.T.U.
of Saturated
Vapour.
Cub. ft.
\n ideal machine workintr between S below zero and 7S above
las a coefficient of about 5-7, or nearly six times that of an ideal
:ompressed-air machine of usual construction performing the same
-40
-31
10-238
I3-324
60-048
-53-064
60O-00
597-24
25-630
2O- 1 2O
A vapour compression machine does not, however, work precisely
n the reversed Carnot cycle, inasmuch as the fall in temperature
22
-13
16-920
21-472
-45-918
-38-646
595-08
593-00
I5-97I
12-783
jetween the condenser and the refrigerator is not produced, nor is
4
27-OOO
3I-2I2
590-00
cQ^.Qo
10-316
8-1C\A
t attempted to be produced, by the adiabatic expansion of the
igent, but results from the evaporation of a portion of the liquid
tself. In other words, the liquid-refrigerating agent enters the
refrigerator at the condenser temperature and introduces heat
which has to be taken up by the evaporating liquid before any
useful refrigerating effect can be performed. The extent of this loss
s determined by the relation between the liquid heat and the latent
leat of vaporization at the refrigerator temperature. If r represents
the latent heat of the vapour, and q 2 and gi the amounts of heat
contained in the liquid at the respective temperatures of T 2 and Ti,
then the loss from the heat carried from the condenser into the
5
H
23
32
41
50
59
68
77
86
95
33"7 GI
41-522
50-908
61-857
74-5I3
89-159
105-939
124-994
146-908
170-782
197-800
-15-894
- 8-028
o-ooo
8-172
16-506
24-966
33-588
42-354
51-282
60-336
^OU O^
58I-OO
576-00
571-00
562-50
555-48
550-00
541-00
531-00
523-00
5I2-50
394
6-888
5-703
4-742
3-973
2-851
2-435
2-098
1-810
1-570
refrigerator is shown by (qi-q^/r and the useful refrigerating effect
104
227-662
69-552
5 OI -5
1-361
produced in the refrigerator is r (q? qi). Assuming, as in the
previous example, that T 2 is 75 F., and that TI is 5 below zero, the
results for various refrigerating agents are as follows:
TABLE V. Mollier's Table for Saturated Carbon Dioxide
Vapour (CO 2 ).
TABLE II.
1
Vapour- tension
t
r
Volume of
Temp, of
in Pounds per
Heat of Liquid
Latent Heat of
one Pound
Latent Liquid Net Proportion
Ebullition.
Degs. Fahr.
sq. in.
Absolute.
from 32 Fahr.
B.T.U.
Evaporation.
B.T.U.
of Saturated
Vapour.
C,iK ft
Heat. Heat. Refrigeration, of Loss.
UD. It.
-41 r-( n - gi ) ( 52 -,,)/r
22
213-345
24-80
126-72
4330
1 3
248-903
2 1 -06
123-25
367O
Anhydrous ammonia 590-33 72-556 517-774 0-1225
4
288-727
I7-I9
II9-43
3I3O
Sulphurous acid . 173-13 29-062 144-068 0-168
5
334-240
-I3-I7
II5-25
2680
Carbonic acid . 119-85 47'35 72-50 0-395
H
385-443
9-OO
110-65
2295
23
440-913
4-63
105-53
1955
32
5 3-497
0-00
99-81
I67O
The results show that the loss is least in the case of anhydrous
41
573-I87
4-93
93-35
1430
ammonia and greatest in the case of carbonic acid. At higher con-
5
649-991
10-28
85-93
1202
denser temperatures the results are even much more favourable to
59
733-906
16-22
77-40
IOIO
ammonia. As the critical temperature (88-4 F.) of carbonic acid
68
826-356
23-08
66-47
0833
is approached, the value of r becomes less and less and the refrigerat-
77
930-184
31-63
51-80
0673
ing effect is much reduced. When the critical point is reached
86
1039-70!
45-45
27-00
0481
the value of r disappears altogether, and a carbonic-acid machine is
87-8
1062-458
51-61
15-12
0416
then dependent for its refrigerating effect on the reduction in tem-
88-43
1070-99!
59-24
o-oo
0352
perature produced by the internal work performed in expanding
the gaseous carbonic acid from the condenser pressure to that in
The action of a vapour compression machine is shown in fig. 3-
the refrigerator. The abstraction of heat does not then take place
Liquid at the condenser temperature being introduced into the re-
at constant temperature. The expanded vapour enters the re-
frigerator at a temperature below that of the substance to be
frigerator through the regulating valve, a small portion evaporates
and reduces the remaining liquid to the temperature Ti. This is
cooled, and whatever cooling effect is produced is brought about
shown by the curve AB, and is the useless work represented by the
by the superheating of the vapour, the result being that above
expression (32 ?i)/r. v Evaporation then continues at the constant
the critical point of carbonic acid the difference T 2 T 2 is in-
temperature T, abstracting heat from the substance outside the
creased and the efficiency of the machine is reduced. The critical
temperature of anhydrous ammonia is about 266 F., which is
refrigerator as shoyn by the line BC. The vapour is then compressed
along the line CD to the temperature T 2 , when, by the action of the
never approached in the ordinary working of refrigerating machines.
cooling water in the condenser, heat is abstracted at constant
Some of the principal physical properties of sulphurous acid,
anhydrous ammonia, and carbonic acid are given in Tables III.,
temperature and the vapour condensed along the line DA.
In a compression machine the refrigerator is usually a series of
IV. and V.
iron or steel coils surrounded by the air, brine or other substance it
REFRIGERATING
33
is desired to cool. One end (generally the bottom) of the coils is
connected to the liquid pipe from the condenser and the other end
to the suction of the compressor.
Liquid from the condenser is ad-
mitted to the coils through an ad-
justable regulating valve, and by
taking heat from the substance out-
side is evaporated, the vapour being
continually drawn off by the com-
pressorand discharged under increased
pressure into the condenser. The
condenser is constructed of coils like
FIG. 3. Action of Vapour
Compression Machine.
the refrigerator, the cooling water being contained in a tank; fre-
quently, however, a series of open coils is employed, the cooling
water falling over the coils into a collecting tray below, and this
form is perhaps the most convenient for ordinary use as it affords
great facilities for inspection and painting. The compressor may
be driven by a steam engine or in any other convenient manner.
The pressure in the condenser varies according to the temperature
of the cooling water, and that in the refrigerator is dependent
upon the temperature to which the outside substance is cooled.
In an ammonia machine copper and copper alloys must be avoided,
but for carbonic acid they are not objectionable.
The compression of ammonia is sometimes carried out on what
is known as the Linde or " wet " system, and sometimes on the
" dry " system. When wet compression is used the regulating
valve is opened to such an extent that a little more liquid is passed
than can be evaporated in the refrigerator. This liquid enters the
compressor with the vapour, and is evaporated there, the heat
taken up preventing the rise in temperature during compression
which would otherwise take place. The compressed vapour is dis-
charged at a temperature but little above that of the cooling water.
With dry compression, vapour alone is drawn into the compressor,
and the temperature rises to as much as 180 or 200 degrees. Wet
compression theoretically is not quite so efficient as dry compression,
but it possesses practical advantages in keeping the working parts
of the compressor cool, and it also greatly facilitates the regulation
of the liquid, and ensures the full duty of the machine being continu-
ously performed. Very exact comparative trials have been made
by Professor M. Schroeter and others with compression machines
using sulphur dioxide and ammonia. The results are published in
Vergleichende Versuche an Kaltemaschinen, by Schroeter, Munich,
1890, and in Nos. 32 and 51 of Bayerisches Industrie und Gewerbeblatt,
1892. Some of the results obtained by Schroeter in 1893 with an
ordinary brine cooling machine on the Linde ammonia system are
given in Table VI. :
TABLE VI.
Temperature reduction in refriger-
14 to 8-6
I.H. P. in steam cylinder ....
IS'79
16-48
15-29
I4-2S
11*98
Pressure in refrigerator in pounds
per sq. in. above atmosphere . .
Pressure in condenser in pounds
per sq. in. above atmosphere .
Heat abstracted in refrigerator.
B.T.U. per hour
Heat rejected in condenser.
B.T.U. per hour
45-2
116-0
342192
377567
32 '6
II 5 'o
263400
301200
IQ'8
iio-o
171515
214347
0'9
108-0
121218
158504
The principle of the absorption process is chemical or physical
rather than mechanical; it depends on the fact that many
Absorp- vapours of low boiling-point are readily absorbed in
tion water, and can be separated again by the application
machines. o f h e at. j n ;t s simplest form an absorption machine
consists of two iron vessels connected together by a bent pipe.
One of these contains a mixture of ammonia and water, which
on the application of heat gives off a mixed vapour containing
a large proportion of ammonia, a liquid containing but little
ammonia being left behind. In the second vessel, which is
placed in cold water, the vapour rich in ammonia is condensed
under pressure. To produce refrigeration the operation is
reversed. On allowing the weak liquor to cool to normal
temperature, it becomes greedy of ammonia (at 60 F. at
atmospheric pressure water will absorb about 760 times its own
volume of ammonia vapour) , and this produces an evaporation
from the liquid in the vessel previously used as a condenser.
This liquid, containing a large proportion of ammonia, gives off
vapour at a low temperature, and therefore becomes a refrigerator
abstracting heat from water or any surrounding body. When
the ammonia is evaporated the operation as described must
be again commenced. Such an apparatus is not much used now.
Larger and more elaborate machines were made by F. P. E.
Carre in France; but no very high degree of perfection was
XXIII. 2
arrived at, owing to the impossibility of getting an anhydrous
product of distillation. In 1867 Rees Reece, taking advantage
of the fact that two vapours of different boiling-points, when
mixed, can be separated by means of fractional condensation,
brought out an absorption machine in which the distillate was
very nearly anhydrous. By means of vessels termed the
analyser and the rectifier, the bulk of the water was condensed
at a comparatively high temperature and run back to the
generator, while the ammonia passed into a condenser, and there
assumed the liquid form under the pressure produced by the
heat in the generator and the cooling action of water circulating
outside the condenser tubes.
Fig. 4 is a diagram of an absorption apparatus. The ammonia
vapour given off in the refrigerator is absorbed by a cold weak
solution of ammonia and
water in the absorber, and
the strong liquor is pumped
back into the generator <.., r
through an intorchanger
through which also the weak
hot liquor from the generator
passes on its way to the
absorber. In this way the
strong liquor is heated before
it enters the generator, and
the weak liquor is cooled cr,rir
before it enters the absorber. 8Utilr
The generator being heated
by means of a steam coil,
ammonia vapour is driven
off at such a pressure as to
cause its condensation in the FIG. 4.
condenser. From the con-
denser it passes into the refrigerator through a regulating valve in the
usual manner. The process is continuous, and is identical with that
of the compression machine, with the exception of the return from
the temperature T; to the temperature T 2 , which is brought about
by the direct application of heat instead of by means of mechan-
ical compression. With the same temperature range, however, the
same amount of heat has to be acquired in both cases, though from
the nature of the process the actual amount of heat demanded from
the steam is much greater in the absorption system than in the
compression. This is chiefly due to the fact that in the former
the neat of vaporization acquired in the refrigerator is rejected in
the absorber, so that the whole heat of vaporization has to be
supplied again by the steam in the generator. In the latter the
vapour passes direct from the refrigerator to the pump, and power
has to be expended merely in raising the temperature to a sufficient
degree to enable condensation to occur at the temperature of the
cooling water. On the other hand, a great advantage is gained in
the absorption machine by using the direct heat of the steam,
without first converting it into mechanical work, for in this way its
latent _heat of vaporization can be utilized by condensing the
steam in the coils and letting it escape in the form of water. Each
pound of steam can thus be made to give up some 950 units of
heat; while in a good steam engine only about 200 units are utilized
in the steam cylinder per pound of steam, and in addition allowance
has to be made for mechanical inefficiency. In the absorption
machine the cooling water has to take up about twice as much
heat as in the compression system, owing to the ammonia being
twice liquefied namely, once in the absorber and cnce in the
condenser. It is usual to pass the cooling water first through the
condenser and then through the absorber.
The absorption machine is not so economical as the compres-
sion ; but an actual comparison between the two systems is difficult
to make. Information on this head is given in papers read by Dr.
Linde and by Professor J. A. Ewing before the Society of Arts
(Journal of the Society of Arts, vol. xlu., 1894, p. 322, and Howard
Lectures, January, February and March 1897).
An absorption apparatus as_ applied to the cooling of liquids
consists of a generator containing coils to which steam is supplied
at suitable pressure, an analyser, a rectifier, a condenser either of
the submerged or open type, a refrigerator in which the nearly
anhydrous ammonia obtained in the condenser is allowed to eva-
porate, an absorber through which the weak liquor from the gener-
ator continually flows and absorbs the anhydrous vapour produced
in the refrigerator, and a pump for forcing the strong liquor produced
in the absorber back through an economizer into the analyser
where, meeting with steam from the generator, the ammonia gas
is again driven off, the process being uius carried on continuously.
Sometimes an additional vessel is employed for heating liquor by
means of the exhaust steam from the engine driving the ammonia
pump. Absorption machines are also made without a pump for
returning the strong liquor to the generator. In these cases they
work intermittently. In some machines the same vessel is used
alternately as a generator and absorber, while in others, in order
34
REFRIGERATING
to minimize the loss of time, two vessels are provided which can
be used alternately as generators and absorbers.
Applications. Apart from the economical working of the
machine itself, whatever system may be adopted, it is of
importance that cold once produced should not be wasted,
and it is therefore necessary to use some form of insulation to
protect the vessels in which liquids are being cooled, or the
rooms of ships' holds in which the freezing or storage processes
are being carried on. This insulation generally consists of
materials such as charcoal, silicate cotton, granulated cork,
small pumice, hair-felt, sawdust, &c., held between layers of
wood or brick, and forming a more or less heat-tight box. There
is no recognized standard of insulation. For a cold store to be
erected inside a brick or stone building, and to be maintained
at an internal temperature of from 18 to, 20 F., a usual plan is
snown in fig. 5. The same insulation is used for the floors and
FIG. 5. Insulation of a Cold Store.
ceilings, except that the wearing surface of the floor is generally
made thicker than the inside lining of the sides. Should the
walls or floor be damp, waterproof paper is added. Granulated
cork has practically the same insulating properties as silicate
cotton, and the same thicknesses may be used. About 10 in.
of flake charcoal and vegetable silica, or n of small pumice,
are required to give the same protection as 7 in. of good
silicate cotton. Cork bricks made of compressed granulated
cork are frequently used, a thickness of about 5 in. giving the
same protection as 7 in. of silicate cotton. The walls and
ceilings are finished off with a smooth coating of hard cement and
the floors are protected by cement or asphalt, according to the
nature of the traffic on them. For lager-beer cellars and
fermenting rooms, for bacon-curing cellars, and for similar
purposes, brick walls with single or double air spaces are used,
and sometimes a space filled with silicate cotton or other in-
sulating material. In Australia and New Zealand pumice,
jvhich is found in enormous quantities in the latter country,
takes the place of charcoal and silicate cotton. In Canada air
spaces are largely used either alone or in combination with
silicate cotton or planer shavings. The air spaces, two or three
in number, are formed between two layers of tongued and
grooved wood, and the total thickness of the insulation is about
the same as when silicate cotton alone is used. On board ship
charcoal has been almost entirely employed, but silicate cotton
and granulated cork are sometimes used. The material is either
placed directly up to the skin of the vessel, and kept in place by
a double lining of wood inside, in which case a thickness of
about 10 in. is used depending upon the depth of the frames,
or it is placed between two layers of wood, with an air space next
the skin, in which case about 6 in. of flake charcoal is generally
sufficient for the insulation of the holds, though for deck-houses
and other parts exposed to the sun the thickness must be greater.
A layer of sheet zinc or tin has frequently to be used as pro-
tection from rats. Given a certain allowable heat transmission,
the principal points to be considered in connexion with insulation
are, first cost, durability, weight and space occupied, the two
last named being specially important factors on board ship.
No exact rules can be laid down, as the conditions vary so
greatly; and though experiments have been made to determine
the actual heat conduction of various materials per unit of
surface, thickness and temperature difference, the experience
of actual practice is at present the only accepted guide.
With compressed-air machines which discharge the cold air
direct into the insulated room or hold, a snow box is provided close
to the outlet of the expansion cylinder to catch the snow and
congealed oil. The air is distributed by means of wood air trunks
with openings controlled bv slides, and similar trunks are pro-
vided in connexion with the suction of the compressor to conduct
the air back to the machine. With liquid machines of the compres-
sion and absorption system, the rooms are either cooled by means
of cold pipes or surfaces placed in them, or by a circulation of air
cooled in an apparatus separated from the rooms. The cold pipes
may be direct-expansion pipes in which the liquid evaporates,
or they may be pipes or walls through which circulates an un-
congealable brine previously copied to the desired temperature.
The pipes are placed on the ceilings or sides according to circum-
stances, but they must be arranged so as to induce a circulation
of air throughout the compartment and ensure every part being
cooled. With what is termed the air circulation system the air is
generally circulated by means of a fan, being drawn from the
rooms through ducts, passed over a cooler, and returned again to
the rooms by other ducts. In some coolers the cooling surfaces
consist of direct-expansion pipes placed in clusters of convenient
form ; in others brine pipes are used ; in others there is a shower of
cold brine, and in some cases combinations of cold pipes and brine
showers. Whether pipes in the rooms or air circulation give the
best results is to some extent a matter of opinion, but at the
present time the tendencyis decidedly in favour of air circulation,
at any rate for general cold storage purposes. Whichever system
be adopted, it is important for economical reasons that ample
cooling surface be allowed, and that all surfaces be kept clean and
active, to make the difference between the temperature of the
evaporating liquid and the rooms as small as possible. Small
surfaces reduce first cost, but involve higher working expenses by
decreasing the value of Tj/(Tj TI), and thus demanding more
energy, and consequently more fuel, to effect the given result than
if larger surfaces were employed.
The general arrangement of an ice factory for producing can ice
is shown in fig. 6. The water to be frozen is contained in galvanized
a. j
T^ .
FIG. 6. General Arrangement of an Ice Factory.
or terned steel moulds suspended in a tank filled to the proper
level with brine maintained at the desired temperature. The
moulds are frequently arranged in frames, so that by means of
an overhead crane one complete row is lifted at a time. When
the water is frozen the moulds are dipped in a tank containing
warm water, and on being tipped the blocks of ice fall out. Ordinary
water contains air, and ice made from it is generally opaque, due
to the inclusion of numerous small air-bubbles. To produce clear
ice the water must be agitated during the freezing process, or
previously boiled to get rid of the air. Distilled water is frequently
used, as well as^the water produced by the condensation of the
steam from the engine, which of course must be thoroughly purified
and filtered. It should be noted, however, that with an ice-
making plant of moderate size and a steam-engine of good con-
struction the weight of steam used will not nearly equal the weight
of ice produced, so that the difference must be made up either by
distillation, which is a costly process, or by ordinary water. Can
ice is usually made in blocks weighing 56, 1 12 of 224 ft, and from
4 to 8 in. thick. For cell ice ordinary water is used, agitated
REGAL
35
during freezing. The cells are flat and constructed of galvanized
iron, so as to form a hollow space of about 2 in. in width,
through which cold brine is circulated by a pump. They are
placed vertically in a tank, the distance between them being from
8 to 14 in., according to the thickness of the ice to be produced.
The tank is filled with water, which is kept in agitation by means
of a reciprocating paddle or piston; in this way the air escapes,
and with proper care a block of great transparency is produced.
To thaw it off, warm brine is circulated through the cells. A usual
size for cell ice is 4 ft. by 3 ft. by i ft. mean thickness, the
weight being about 6 cwt. If perfectly transparent ice is required,
the two sides of the block are not allowed to join up, and it is then
called plate ice, which is often made in very large blocks, afterwards
divided by saws or steam cutters. In such cases the evaporation
of the ammonia or other refrigerating liquid frequently takes place
in the cells themselves, brine being dispensed with. With a well-
constructed can ice-plant of say 25 tons capacity per day, from 15
to 16 tons of ice should be made in Great Britain to a ton of best
steam coal. For cell and plate ice the production is considerably
below this, and the first cost of the plant is much greater than that
for can ice.
Fig. 7 shows an arrangement of cold storage on land, refrigerated
on the air circulation system. The insulated rooms, on two floors,
FIG. 7. Cold Stores.
are approached by corridors, so as to exclude external air, which if
allowed to enter would deposit moisture upon the cold goods.
The air cooler is placed at the end, and the air is distributed by
means of wood ducts furnished with slides for regulating the
temperature of the rooms, which are insulated according to the
method shown in fig. 5. In some cases, instead of the entrance
being at the sides or ends, it is at the top, all goods being raised
to the top floor in lifts and lowered by lifts into the rooms. With
good machinery the cost of raising is not great, and is probably
equalled by the saving in refrigeration, since the rooms hold the
heavy cold air as a glass holds water.
Large passenger vessels and yachts are now generally Ptted with
refrigerating machinery for preserving provisions, cooling water
and wine, and making ice. Usually two insulated compartments
are provided, one for frozen meats at about 20 F., and one for
vegetables, &c., at about 40. They have a capacity of from
1500 to 3000 cub. ft. or more, according to the number of passen-
gers carried, and they are generally cooled by means of brine pipes,
though direct expansion and air circulation are sometimes adopted.
A passenger vessel requires from 2 to 4 cwt. of ice per day. On
battleships and cruisers the British Admiralty use small compressed-
air machines for ice-making, and larger machines, generally on the
carbonic-acid system, for cooling the magazines. A modern frozen-
meat-carrying vessel will accommodate as much as 120,000
carcases, partly sheep and partly lambs, requiring a hold capacity
of about 300,000 cub. ft. In some vessels both fore and aft
holds and 'tween decks are insulated. Lloyd's Committee now
issue certificates for refrigerating installations, if constructed
according to their rules, and most modern cargo-carrying vessels
have their refrigerating machinery classed at Lloyd's. In the
meat trade between the River Plate, the United States, Canada
and Great Britain, ammonia or carbonic acid machines are now
exclusively used, but for the Australian and New Zealand frozen-
meat trade compressed-air machines are still employed to a small
extent. The holds of meat-carrying vessels are refrigerated
eit/ier by cold air circulation or by brine pipes.
Though the adoption of refrigerating and ice-making machinery
for industrial purposes practically dates from the year 1880, the
manufacture of these machines has already assumed very great
proportions; indeed, in no branch of mechanical engineering,
with the exception of electrical machinery, has there been so re-
markable a development in recent years. The sphere of application
is extending year by year. The cooling of residential and public
buildings in hot countries, though attempted in a few cases in the
United States and elsewhere, is yet practically untouched, the
manufacture of ice and the preservation of perishable foods (apart
from the frozen and chilled meat trades) have in many countries
hardly received serious consideration, but in breweries, dairies,
margarine works and many other industries there is a large and
increasing field for refrigerating and ice-making machinery. A
recent application is in the cooling and drying 01 the air blast for
blast furnaces. Though this matter had been discussed for some
years, it was only in 1904 that the first plant was put to work at
Pittsburg.
For further information reference may be made to the following:
Siebel, Compend. of Mechanical Refrigeration (Chicago); Red-
wood, Theoretical and Practical Ammonia Refrigeration (New
York) ; Stephansky, Practical Running of an Ice and Refriger-
ating Plant (Boston) ; Lcdoux, Ice-Making Machines (New
York) ; Wallis-Taylor, Refrigerating and Ice-Making- Machines
(London) ; Ritchie Leask, Refrigerating Machinery (London) ; De
Volson Wood, Thermodynamics, Heat Motors and Refrigerating
Machinery (New York); Linde, Kalteerzeugungsmaschine Lexikon
der gesamten Technik; Behrend, Eis und Kdlteerzeugungs-
Maschinen (Halle); De Marchena, Kompressions Kdltemaschinen
(Halle) ; Theodore Roller, Die Kalteindustrie (Vienna) ; Voorhees,
Indicating the Refrigerating Machine (Chicago) ; Norman Selfe,
Machinery for Refrigeration (Chicago) ; Hans Lorenz, Modern Re-
frigerating Machinery (London); Lehnert, Moderne Kaltetechnik
(Leipzig) ; L. _ Marchis, Production et utilisation du froid
(Paris); C. Heinel, Bau und Betrieb von Kdltemaschinen Anlagen
(Oldenburg); R. Stetefeld, Eis und Kdlteerzeugungs-Maschinen
(Stuttgart). (T. B. L.)
REGAL, a small late-medieval portable organ, furnished with
beating-reeds and having two bellows like a positive organ;
also in Germany the name given to the reed-stops (beating-reeds)
of a large organ, and more especially the " vox humana " stop.
The name was not at first applied to the small table instrument,
but to certain small brass pipes in the organ, sounded by means
of beating-reeds, the longest of the 8-ft. tone being but sJ in.
long. Praetorius (1618) mentions a larger regal used in the
court orchestras of some of the German princes, more like a
positive, containing 4-ft., 8-ft. and even sometimes i6-ft. tone
reeds, and having behind the case two bellows. These regals
were used not only at banquets but often to replace positives
in small and large churches. The very small regal, sometimes
called Bible-regal, because -it can be taken to pieces and folded
up like a book, is also mentioned by the same writer, who states
that these little instruments, first made in Nuremberg and
Augsburg, have an unpleasantly harsh tone, due to their tiny
pipes, not quite an inch long. The pipes in this case were not
intended to reinforce the vibrations of the beating-reed or of its
overtones as in the reed pipes of the organ, but merely to form
an attachment for keeping the reed in its place without inter-
fering with its functions. The beating-reed itself in the older
organs of the early middle ages, many of which undoubtedly
were reed organs, was made of wood; those of the regal were
mostly of brass (hence their " brazen voices "). The length of
the vibrating portion of the beating-reed governed the pitch of
the pipe and was regulated by means of a wire passing through
the socket, the other end pressing on the reed at the proper
distance. Drawings of the reeds of regals and other reed-pipes,
as well as of the instrument itself, are given by Praetorius
(pi. iv., xxxviii.).
There is evidence to show that in England, and France also,
the word " regal " was applied to reed-stops on the organ;
Mersenne (1636) states that " now the word is applied to the
vox humana stop on the organ." In England, as late as the
reign of George III., there was the appointment of " tuner of
the regals " to the Chapel Royal.
The reed-stops required constant tuning, according to Prae-
torius, who lays special emphasis on the fact that the pitch
of the reed-pipes alone falls in summer and rises in winter.
During the i6th and 17th centuries the regal was a very great
favourite, and although, owing to the civil wars and the ravages
REGALIA REGENERATION OF LOST PARTS
of time, very few specimens now remain, the regals are often men-
tioned in old wills and inventories, such as the list of Henry VIII. 's
musical instruments made after his death by Sir Philip Wilder
(Brit. Mus. Harleian MS. 1415, fol. 200 seq.), in which no fewer than
thirteen pairs of single and five pairs of double regals are mentioned.
Monteverde scored for the regals in his operas, and the instrument is
described and figured by S. Virdung in 1511, Martin Agricola in
1528, and Ottmar Luscinius in 1536, as well as by Michael Praetorius
in 1618. (K. S.)
REQALIA (Lat. regalis, royal, from rex, king), the ensigns
of royalty. The crown (see CROWN and CORONET) and sceptre
(see SCEPTRE) are dealt with separately. Other ancient symbols
of royal authority are bracelets, the sword, a robe or mantle,
and, in Christian times, a ring. Bracelets, as royal emblems,
are mentioned in the Bible in connexion with Saul (2 Sam. i. 10),
and they have been commonly used by Eastern monarchs.
In Europe their later use seems to have been fitfully confined
to England, although they were a very ancient ornament for
kings among the Teutonic races. Two coronation bracelets
are mentioned among the articles of the regalia ordered to be
destroyed at the time of the Commonwealth, and two new
ones were made at the Restoration. These are of gold, i| in.
in width, and ornamented with the rose, thistle, harp and
fleur-de-lis in enamel round them. They have not been used
for modern coronations.
The sword is one of the usual regalia of most countries, and
is girded on to the sovereign during the coronation. In England
the one sword has been developed into five. The Sword of
State is borne before the sovereign on certain state occasions,
and at the coronation is exchanged for a smaller sword, with
which the king is ceremonially girded. The three other swords
of the regalia are the " Curtana," the Sword of Justice to the
Spirituality, and the Sword of Justice to the Temporality.
The Curtana has a blade cut off short and square, indicating
thereby the quality of mercy.
The mantle, as a symbol of royalty, is almost universal, but
in the middle ages other quasi-priestly robes were added to
it (see CORONATION). The English mantle was formerly made
of silk; latterly cloth of gold has been used. The ring, by
which the sovereign is wedded to his kingdom, is not of so wide
a range of usage. That of the English kings held a large ruby
with a cross engraved on it. Recently a sapphire has been
substituted for the ruby. Golden spurs, though included
among the regalia, are merely used to touch the king's feet,
and are not worn.
The orb and cross was not anciently placed in the king's
hands during the coronation ceremony, but was carried by
him in the left hand on leaving the church. It is emblematical
of monarchical rule, and is only used by a reigning sovereign.
The idea is undoubtedly derived from the globe with the figure
of Victory with which the Roman emperors are depicted. The
larger orb of the English regalia is a magnificent ball of gold,
6 in. in diameter, with a band round the centre edged with
gems and pearls. A similar band arches the globe, on the
top of which is a remarkably fine amethyst i| in. in height,
upon which rests the cross of gold outlined with diamonds.
There is a smaller orb made for Mary II., who reigned jointly
with King William III.
The English regalia, with one or two exceptions, were made
for the coronation of Charles II. by Sir Robert Vyner. The
Scottish regalia preserved at Edinburgh comprise the crown,
dating, in part, from Robert the Bruce, the sword of state
given to James IV. by Pope Julius II., and two sceptres.
Besides regalia proper, certain other articles are sometimes
included under the name, such as the ampulla for the holy oil, and
the coronation spoon. The ampulla is of solid gold in the form of
an eagle with outspread wings. It weighs 10 oz., and holds 6 oz.
of oil. The spoon was not originally used for its present purpose.
It is of the I2th or I3th century, with a long handle and egg-
shaped bowl. Its history is quite unknown.
See Cyril Davenport, The English Regalia, with illustrations in
colour of all the regalia; Leopold Wickham Legg, English Corona-
tion Records; The Ancestor, Nos. I and 2 (1902); Menin, The Form,
&c., of Coronations (translated from French, 1727).
REGENERATION OF LOST PARTS. A loss and renewal
of living material, either continual or periodical, is a familiar
occurrence in the tissues of higher animals. The surface of
the human skin, the inner lining of the mouth and respiratory
organs, the blood corpuscles, the ends of the nails, and many
other portions of tissues are continuously being destroyed and
replaced. The hair of many mammals, the feathers of birds,
the epidermis of reptiles, and the antlers of stags are shed and
replaced periodically. In these normal cases the regeneration
depends on the existence of special formative layers or groups
of cells, and must be regarded in each case as a special adapta-
tion, with individual limitations and peculiarities, rather than
as a mere exhibition of the fundamental power of growth and
reproduction displayed by living substance. Many tissues,
even in the highest animals, are capable of replacing an ab-
normal loss of substance. Thus in mammals, portions of
muscular tissue, of epithelium, of bone, and of nerve, after
accidental destruction or removal, may be renewed. The
characteristic feature of such cases appears to be, in the higher
animals at any rate, that lost cells are replaced only from cells
of the same morphological order epiblastic cells from the
epiblast, mesoblastic from the mesoblast, and so forth. It is
also becoming clear that, at least in the higher animals, regenera-
tion is in intimate relation with the central nervous system.
The process is in direct relation to the general power of growth
and reproduction possessed by protoplasm, and is regarded by
pathologists as the consequence of " removal of resistances to
growth." It is much less common in the tissues of higher
plants, in which the adult cells have usually lost the power of
reproduction, and in which the regeneration of lost parts is
replaced by a very extended capacity for budding. Still,
more complicated reproductions of lost parts occur in many
cases, and are more difficult to understand.
In Amphibia the entire epidermis, together with the slime-glands
and the integumentary sense-organs, is regenerated by the epidermic
cells in the vicinity of the defect. The whole limb of a Salamander
or a Triton will grow again and again after amputation. Similar
renewal is either rarer or more difficult in the case of Siren and Pro-
teus. In frogs regeneration of amputated limbs does not usually
take place, but instances have been recorded. Chelonians, croco-
diles and snakes are unable to regenerate lost parts to any extent,
while lizards and geckoes possess the capacity in a high degree.
The capacity is absent almost completely in birds and mammals.
In coelenterates, worms, and tunicates the power is exhibited in a
very varying extent. In Hydra, Nais, and Lumbriculus, after
transverse section, each part may complete the whole animal.
In most worms the greater, and in particular the anterior part,
will grow a new posterior part, but the separated posterior portion
dies. In Hydra, sagittal and horizontal amputations result in the
completion of the separated parts. In worms such operations
result in death, which no doubt may be a mere consequence of the
more severe wound. Extremely interesting instances of regenera-
tion are what are called " Heteromorphoses," where the removed
part is replaced by a dissimilar structure. The tail of a lizard,
grown after amputation, differs in structure from the normal tail:
the spinal cord is replaced by an epithelial tube which gives off no
nerves; the vertebrae are replaced by an unsegmented carti-
laginous tube; very frequently " super-regeneration " occurs, the
amputated limb or tail being replaced by double or multiple
new structures.
J. Loeb produced many heteromorphoses on lower animals.
He lopped off the polyp head and the pedal disc of a Tubularia,
and supported the lopped stem in an inverted position in the sand ;
the original pedal end, now superior, gave rise to a new po'VP head,
while the neck-end, on regeneration, formed a pedal disc. _In
Cerianthus, a sea-anemone, and in done, an ascidian, regeneration
after his operations resulted in the formation of new mouth-openings
in abnormal places, surrounded by elaborate structures character-
istic of normal mouths. Other observers have recorded hetero-
morphoses in Crustacea, where antennulae have been regenerated
in place of eyes. It appears that, in the same fashion as more
simply organized animals display a capacity for reproduction of
lost parts greater than that of higher animals, so embryos and
embryonic structures generally have a higher power of renewal
than that displayed by the corresponding adult organs or organisms.
Moreover, experimental work on the young stages of organisms has
revealed a very striking series of phenomena, similar to the hetero-
morphoses in adult tissues, but more extended in range. H. Driesch,
O. Hertwig and others, by separating the segmentation spheres,
by destroying some of them, by compressing young embryos by
glass plates, and by many olher means, have caused cells to develop
REGALIA
PLATE I
I. ST EDWARD'S CROWN. The ancient crown was destroyed at the
Commonwealth, and a model made for Charles II's coronation.
z. THE IMPERIAL STATE CROWN, as worn by Queen Victoria. The Black
Prince's ruby is in the centre. Modifications in the cap were made for the coronation
of King Edward VII. and the smaller "Cullinan" diamond substituted for the sapphire
below the ruby.
3- QUEEN ALEXANDRA'S CORONATION CROWN, with the
Koh-i-Noor in centre.
4. THE CORONET OF THE PRINCE OF WALES.
The illustrations on these
plates are, except where
otherwise stated, repro-
duced by permission from
the unique collection of
photographs in the pos-
session of SIR BENJAMM
STONE, formerly M. P.
for East Birmingham.
XXIII. 36.
5. THE LARGER OR KING'S ORB.
6. THE LESSER OR QUEEN'S ORB.
PLATE II.
REGALIA
2. THE CORONATION SPOON.
a b c d e
i. THE SCEPTRES: (a) The Sceptre with the Dove; (V) The
Royal Sceptre with the Cross (c/.Fig. 3); (c) The Queen's Sceptre
with the Cross; (d) The Queen's Ivory Rod; (e) The Queen's
Sceptre with the Dove.
4. THE SWORDS: (a) The Spiritual Sword of Justice; (i) The
Sword of State; (c) The Temporal Sword of Justice.
Photo, W. E. Gray.
3. THE HEAD OF THE ROYAL
SCEPTRE with the largest of
the "Star of Africa" (Cullinan)
Diamonds. pkola, W. E. Gray.
5. THE BRACELETS.
6. THE AMPULLA.
^ THE ST. GEORGE'S SPURS.
REGALIA
PLATE HI.
i. THE SILVER-GILT CHRISTENING FONT, made for
Charles II.
2 QUEEN ELIZABETH'S SALT-CELLAR.
3. SILVER-GILT ALTAR DISH, used at Christmas and Easter in the
Chapel of St Peter ad Vincula, Tower of London.
4. THE GOLD SALT-CELLAR presented to tne Crown by the City of Exeter.
PLATE IV.
REGALIA
I
t;
!-d
<
f-t
w 5
REGENSBURG REGENT
37
so as to give rise to structures which in normal development they
would not have formed.
It is clear that there are at least three kinds of factors in-
volved in regeneration. There are: (i) Regenerations due to
the presence of undifferentiated, or little differentiated, cells,
which have retained the normal capacity of multiplication when
conditions are favourable. (2) Regenerations due to the
presence of special complicated rudiments, the stimulus to the
development of which is the removal of the fully formed
structure. (3) Regeneration involving the general capacity
of protoplasm to respond to changes in the surroundings by
changes of growth. The most general view is to regard re-
generations as special adaptations; and A. Weismann, following
in this matter Arnold Lang, has developed the idea at con-
siderable length, and has found a place for regenerations in his
system of the germ-plasm (see HEREDITY) by the conception
of the existence of " accessory determinants." Hertwig, on
the other hand, attaches great importance to the facts of
regeneration as evidence for his view that every cell of a body
contains a similar essential plasm.
In E. Schwalbe's Morphologic der Minbildungen (1904), part i.
chap, v., an attempt is made to associate the facts of regeneration
with those of embryology and pathology. Our knowledge of the
facts, however, is not yet systematic enough to allow of important
general conclusions. The power of regeneration appears to be in
some cases a special adaptation, but more often simply an expression
of the general power of protoplasm to grow and to reproduce its
kind. It has been suggested that regenerated parts always repre-
sent ancestral stages, but there is no conclusive evidence for this
view. (P. C. M.)
REGENSBURG (RATISBON), a city and episcopal see of
Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, and the capital of the
government district of the Upper Palatinate. Pop. (1905) 48,41 2.
It is situated on the right bank of the Danube, opposite the
influx of the Regen, 86 m. by rail N.E. from Munich, and 60 m.
S.E. of Nuremberg. On the other side of the river is the suburb
Stadt-am-Hof, connected with Regensburg by a long stone
bridge of the I2th century, above and below which -are the
islands of Oberer and Unterer Worth. In appearance the
town is quaint and romantic, presenting almost as faithful a
picture of a town of the early middle ages as Nuremberg does
of the later. One of the most characteristic features in its
architecture is the number of strong loopholed towers attached
to the more ancient dwellings. The interesting " street of the
envoys " (Gesandtenstrasse) is so called because it contained the
residences of most of the envoys to the German diet, whose
coats-of-arms may still be seen on many of the houses.
The cathedral, though small, is a very interesting example
of pure German Gothic. It was founded in 1275, and completed
in 1634, with the exception of the towers, which were finished
in 1869. The interior con tains numerous interesting monuments,
including one of Peter Vischer's masterpieces. Adjoining the
cloisters are two chapels of earlier date than the cathedral itself,
one of which, known as the "old cathedral," goes back
perhaps to the 8th century. The church of St James also
called Schottenkirche a plain Romanesque basilica of the
1 2th century, derives its name from the monastery of Irish
Benedictines (" Scoti ") to which it was attached; the principal
doorway is covered with very singular grotesque carvings.
The old parish church of St Ulrich is a good example of the
Transition style of the i3th century, and contains a valu-
able antiquarian collection. Examples of the Romanesque
basilica style are the church of Obermunster, dating from
1010, and the abbey church of St Emmeran, built in the I3th
century, and remarkable as one of the few German churches with
a detached belfry. The beautiful cloisters of the ancient abbey,
one of the oldest in Germany, are still in fair preservation. In
1809 the conventual buildings were converted into a palace for
the prince of Thurn and Taxis, hereditary postmaster-general
of the Holy Roman Empire. The town hall, dating in part
from the I4th century, contains the rooms occupied by the
imperial diet from 1663 to 1806. An historical interest also
attaches to the Gasthof zum Goldenen Kreuz (Golden Cross Inn),
where Charles V. made the acquaintance of Barbara Blomberg,
the mother of Don John of Austria (b. 1547). The house is also
shown where Kepler died in 1630. Perhaps the most pleasing
modern building in the city is the Gothic villa of the king of
Bavaria on the bank of the Danube. At Kumpfmuhl, in the
immediate neighbourhood of the city, was discovered, in 1885, the
remains of a Roman camp with an arched gateway; the latter,
known as the Porta Praetoria, was cleared in 1887. Among the
public institutions of the city should be mentioned the public
library, picture gallery, botanical garden, and the institute for
the making of stained glass. The educational establishments
include two gymnasia, an episcopal clerical seminary, a
seminary for boys and a school of church music. Among the
chief manufactures are iron and steel wares, pottery, parquet
flooring, tobacco, and lead pencils. Boat-building is also
prosecuted, and a brisk transit trade is carried on in salt,
grain and timber.
Near Regensburg are two very handsome classical buildings,
erected by Louis I. of Bavaria as national monuments of German
patriotism and greatness. The more imposing of the two is the
Walhalla, a costly reproduction of the Parthenon, erected as a
Teutonic temple of fame on a hill rising from the Danube at Donau-
stauf, 6 m. to the east. The interior, which is as rich as coloured
marbles, gilding, and sculptures can make it, contains the busts
of more than a hundred German worthies. The second of King
Louis's buildings is the Befreiungshalle at Kelheim, 14 m. above
Regensburg, a large circular building which has for its aim the
glorification of the neroes of the war of liberation in 1813.
The early Celtic settleipent of Radespona (L. 'Lat. Ralisbona)
was chosen by the Romans, who named it Castra Regina, as the
centre of their power on the upper Danube. It is mentioned as a
trade centre as early as the 2nd century. It afterwards became
the seat of the dukes of Bavaria, and one of the main bulwarks of
the East Frankish monarchy; and it was also the focus from which
Christianity spread over southern Germany. St Emmeran founded
an abbey here in the middle of the 7th century, and St Boniface
established the bishopric about a hundred years later. Regensburg
acquired the freedom of the empire in the I3th century, and was for
a time the most flourishing city in southern Germany. It became
the chief seat of the trade with India and the Levant, and the boat-
men of Regensburg are frequently heard of as expediting the journeys
of the Crusaders. The city was loyally Ghibelline in its sympathies,
and was a favourite residence of the emperors. Numerous diets
were held here from time to time, and after 1663 it became the
regular place of meeting of the German diet. The Reformation
found only temporary acceptance at Regensburg, and was met
by a counter-reformation inspired by the Jesuits. Before this
period the city had almost wholly lost its commercial importance
owing to the changes in the great highways of trade. Regensburg
had its due share in the Thirty Years' and other wars, and is said
to have suffered in all no fewer than seventeen sieges. In 1807
the town and Wfehopric were assigned to the prince primate Dalberg,
and in 1810 they were ceded to Bavaria. After the battle of
Eggmiihl in 1809 the Austrians retired upon Regensburg, and the
pursuing French defeated them again beneath its walls and reduced
a great part of the city to ashes.
See Gemeiner, Chronik der Sladt und des Hochsiifts Regensburg
(4 vols., Regensburg, 1800-24) ; Chroniken der deutschen Stadte,vo\. xv.
(Leipzig, 1878) ; Count v.Waldersdorf, Regensburg in i einer Vergangen-
heit und Gegenwart (4th ed., Regensburg, 1896) ; Fink, Regensburg in
seiner Vorzeit und Gegenwart (6th ed., Regensburg, 1903) ; and Schratz,
Fiihrer durch Regensburg (sth ed., G. Dengler, Regensburg, 1904).
REGENT (from Lat. regere, to rule), one who rules or governs,
especially one who acts temporarily as an administrator of the
realm during the minority or incapacity of the king. This
latter function, however, is one unknown to the English common
law. " In judgment of law the king, as king, cannot be said
to be a minor, for when the royal body politic of the king doth
meet with the natural capacity in one person the whole body
shall have the quality of the royal politic, which is the greater
and more worthy and wherein is no minority. For omne majus
continet inseminus " (Coke upon Littleton, 433). Butforreasons
of necessity a regency, however anomalous it may be in strict
law, has frequently been constituted both in England and
Scotland. The earliest instance in English history is the
appointment of the earl of Pembroke with the assent of the
loyal barons on the accession of Henry III.
Whether or not the sanction of parliament is necessary for the
appointment is a question which has been much discussed. Lord
Coke recommends that the office should depend on the will of
38
REGGIO CALABRIA REGICIDE
parliament (Inst., vol. iv. p. 58), and in modern times provision for a
regency has always been made by act of parliament. In Scotland
the appointment of regents was always either by the assent of a
council or of parliament. Thus in 1315 the earl of Moray was ap-
pointed regent by Robert I. in a council. At a later period appoint-
ment by statute was the universal form. Thus by an act of 1542
the earl of Arran was declared regent during the minority of Mary.
By an act of 1567 the appointment by Mary of the earl of Moray as
regent was confirmed. As late as 1704 provision was made for a
regency after the death of Anne. The earliest regency in England
resting upon an express statute was that created by 28 Hen. VIII.
c. 7, under which the king appointed his executors to exercise the
authority of the crown till the successor to the crown should attain
the age of eighteen if a male or sixteen if a female. They delegated
their rights to the protector Somerset, with the assent of the lords
spiritual and temporal. No other example of a statutory provision
for a regency occurs till 1751. In that year the act of 24 Geo. II.
c. 24 constituted the princess-dowager of Wales regent of the kingdom
in case the crown should descend to any of her children before such
child attained the age of eighteen. A council, called the council of
regency, was appointed to assist the princess. A prescribed oath
was to be taken by the regent and members of the council. Their
consent was necessary for the marriage of a successor to the crown
during minority. It was declared to be unlawful for the regent to
make war or peace, or ratify any treaty with any foreign power, or
prorogue, adjourn or dissolve any parliament without the consent of
the majority of the council of regency, or give her assent to any bill
for repealing or varying the Act of Settlement, the Act of Uniformity,
or the Act of the Scottish parliament for securing the Protestant
religion and Presbyterian church government in Scotland (1707, c. 6).
The last is an invariable provision, and occurs in all subsequent
Regency Acts. The reign of George III. affords examples of pro-
vision for a regency during both the infancy and incapacity of a
king.
The act of 5 Geo. III. c. 27 vested in the king power to ap-
point a regent under the sign manual, such regent to be one of
certain named members of the royal family. The remaining pro-
visions closely followed those of the act of George II. In 1788 the
insanity of the king led to the introduction of a Regency bill. In
the course of the debate in the House of Lords the duke of York
disclaimed on behalf of the prince of Wales any right to assume the
regency without the consent of parliament. Owing to the king's
recovery the bill ultimately dropped. On a return of the malady in
1810 the act of 51 Geo. III. c. I was passed, appointing the prince
of Wales regent during the king's incapacity. The royal assent was
given by commission authorized by resolution of both Houses. By
this act no council of regency was appointed. There was no
restriction on the regent's authority over treaties, peace and war,
or parliament, as in the previous acts, but his power of granting
peerages, offices and pensions was limited. At the accession of
William IV. the duchess of Kent was, by I Will. IV. c. 2, appointed
regent, if necessary, until the Princess Victoria should attain the
age of eighteen. No council of regency was appointed. By I Viet,
c. 72 lords justices were nominated as a kind of regency council
without a regent in case the successor to the crown should be out
of the realm at the queen's death. They were restricted from
granting peerages, and from dissolving parliament without direc-
tions from the successor. By 3 & 4 Viet. c. 52 Prince Albert was
appointed regent in case any of Queen Victoria's children should
succeed to the crown under the age of eighteen. The only restraint
on his authority was the usual prohibition to assent to any bill
repealing the Act of Settlement, &c. When George V. came to the
throne a Regency Bill was again required, as his eldest son was under
age, and Queen Mary was appointed. By 10 Geo. IV. c. 7 the
office of regent of the United Kingdom cannot be held by a Roman
Catholic. A similar disability is imposed in most, if not all, Regency
Acts.
REGGIO CALABRIA (anc. Regium, q.v.), a town and archi-
episcopal see of Calabria, Italy, capital of the province of
Reggio, on the Strait of Messina, 248 in. S.S.E. from Naples
by rail. Pop. (1906) 39,041 (town); 48,362 (commune). It is
the terminus of the railways from Naples along the west coast,
and from Metaponto along the east coast of Calabria. The
straits are here about 7 m. wide, and the distance to Messina
nearly 10 m. The ferryboats to Messina therefore cross by
preference from Villa S. Giovanni, 8 m. N. of Reggio, whence
the distance is only 5 m. In 1894 the town suffered from an
earthquake, though less severely, than in 1783. It was totally
destroyed, however, by the great earthquake of December 1908;
in the centre of the town about 35,000 out of 40,000 persons
perished. The cathedral, which dated from the I7th century,
and the ancient castle which rose above it, were wrecked.
Great damage was done by a seismic wave following the shock.
The sea front was swept away, and the level of the land here-
abouts was lowered. (See further MESSINA.)
REGGIO NELL' EMILIA, a city and episcopal see of Emilia,
Italy, the capital of the province of Reggio nelT Emilia (till
1859 part of the duchy of Modena), 38 m. by rail N.W. of Bologna.
Pop. (1906) 19,681 (town); 64,548 (commune). The cathe-
dral, originally erected in the i2th century, was reconstructed
in the 15th and i6th; the facade shows traces of both periods,
the Renaissance work being complete only in the lower portion.
S. Prospero, close by, has a facade of 1504, in which are incor-
porated six marble lions belonging to the original Romanesque
edifice. The Madonna della Ghiara, built in 1597 in the form
of a Greek cross, and restored in 1900, is beautifully proportioned
and finely decorated in stucco and with frescoes of the Bolognese
school of the early 1 7th century. There are several good palaces
of the early Renaissance, a fine theatre (1857) and a museum
containing important palaeo-ethnological collections, ancient
and medieval sculptures, and the natural history collection
of Spallanzani. Lodovico Ariosto, the poet (1474-1533), was
born in Reggio, and his father's house is still preserved. The
industries embrace the making of cheese, objects in cement,
matches, and brushes, the production of silkworms, and printing;
and the town is the centre of a rich agricultural district. It
lies on the main line between Bologna and Milan, and is con-
nected by branch lines with Guastalla and Sassuolo (hence a
line to Modena).
Regium Lepidi or Regium Lepidum was probably founded by
M. Aemilius Lepidus at the time of the construction of the Via
Aemilia (187 B.C.). It lay upon this road, half-way between Mutina
and Parma. It was during the Roman period a nourishing munici-
pium, but perhaps never became a colony; and it is associated with
no event more interesting than the assassination of M. Brutus, the
father of Caesar's friend and foe. The bishopric dates perhaps from
the 4th century A.D. Under the Lombards the town was the seat
of dukes and counts; in the I2th and I3th centuries it formed a
flourishing republic, busied in surrounding itself with walls (1229),
controlling the Crostolo and constructing navigable canals to the Po,
coining money of its own, and establishing prosperous schools.
About 1290 it first passed into the hands of Obizzo d'Este, and the
authority of the Este family was after many vicissitudes more
formally recognized in 1409. In the contest for liberty which began
in 1796 and closed with annexation to Piedmont in 1859, Reggio
took vigorous part.
REGICIDE (Lat. rex, a king, and caedere, to kill), the name
given to any one who kills a sovereign. Regicides is the name
given in English history at the Restoration of 1660 to those
persons who were responsible for the execution of Charles I.
On the 4th of April 1660 Charles II. in the Declaration of Breda
promised a free pardon to all his subjects " excepting only such
persons as shall hereafter be excepted by parliament," and on
the i4th of May the House of Commons ordered the immediate
arrest of " all those persons who sat in judgment upon the late
king's majesty when sentence was pronounced." The number
of regicides was estimated at 84, this number being composed
of the 67 present at the last sitting of the court of justice,
ii others who had attended earlier sittings, 4 officers of the
court and the 2 executioners. Many of them were arrested or
surrendered themselves, and the House of Commons in con-
sidering the proposed bill of indemnity suggested that only
twelve of the regicides, who were named, should forfeit their
lives; but the House of Lords urged that all the king's judges,
with three exceptions, and some others, should be treated in
this way.
Eventually a compromise was agreed upon, and the bill as passed
on the 2gth of August 1660 divided the regicides into six classes for
punishment: (l) Four of them, although dead Cromwell, Ireton,
Bradshaw and Pride were to be attainted for high treason.
(2) The estates of twenty others, also dead, were to be subjected to
fine or forfeiture. (3) Thirty living regicides were excepted from all
indemnity. (4) Nineteen living regicides were also excepted, but
with a saving clause that their execution was to be suspended until
a special act of parliament was passed for this purpose. (5) Six
others were to be punished, but not capitally. (6) Two, Colonels
Hutchinson and Thomas Lister, were simply declared incapable
of holding any office. Two regicides Ingoldsby, who declared he
had only signed the warrant under compulsion, and Colonel Matthew
Thomlinson escaped without punishment. A court of thirty-four
commissioners was then appointed to try the regicides, and the
trial took place in October 1660. Twenty-nine were condemned to
death, but only ten were actually executed, the remaining nineteen
REGILLUS REGIOMONTANUS
39
with six others being imprisoned for life. The ten who were exe-
cuted at Charing Cross or Tyburn, London, in October 1660, were
Thomas Harrison, John Jones, Adrian Scrppc, John Carew, Thomas
Scot, and Gregory Clement, who had signed the death-warrant;
the preacher Hugh Peters; Francis Hacker and Daniel Axtel, who
commanded the soldiers at the trial and the execution of the king;
and John Cook, the solicitor who directed the prosecution. In
January 1661 the bodies of Cromwell, Ireton, and Bradshaw were
exhumed and hanged at Tyburn, but Pride's does not appear to
have been treated in this way. Of the nineteen or twenty regicides
who had escaped and were living abroad, three, Sir John Barkstead,
John Okcy and Miles Corbet, were arrested in Holland and executed
in London in April 1662; and one, John Lisle, was murdered at
Lausanne. The last survivor of the regicides was probably Edmund
Ludlow, who died at Vevey in 1692.
Ludlow's Memoirs, edited by C. H. Firth (Oxford, 1894), give
interesting details about the regicides in exile. See also D. Masson,
Life of Milton, vol. vi. (1880), and M. Noble, Lilies of the English
Regicides (1798). (A. W. H.*)
REGILLUS, an ancient lake of Latium, Italy, famous in the
legendary history of Rome as the lake in the neighbourhood
of which occurred (496 B.C.) the battle which finally decided the
hegemony of Rome in Latium. During the battle, so runs the
story, the dictator Postumius vowed a temple to Castor and
Pollux, who were specially venerated in Tusculum, the chief
city of the Latins (it being a Roman usage to invoke the aid of
the gods of the enemy), who appeared during the battle, and
brought the news of the victory to Rome, watering their horses
at the spring of Juturna, close to which their temple in the
Forum was erected. There can be little doubt that the lake
actually existed. Of the various identifications proposed, the
best is that of Nibby, who finds it in a now dry crater lake
(Pantano Secco), drained by an emissarium, the date of which
is uncertain, some 2 m. N. of Frascati. Along the south bank
of the lake, at some 30 or 40 ft. above the present bottom, ran
the aqueducts of the Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus. Most of
the other sites proposed are not, as Regillus should be, within
the limits of the territory of Tusculum.
See T. Ashby in Rendiconti dei Lincei (1898), 103 sqq., andClassical
Review, 1898. (T. As.)
REGIMENT (from Late Latin regimentum, rule, regere, to rule,
govern, direct), originally government, command or authority
exercised over others, or the office of a ruler or sovereign; in this
sense the word was common in the i6th century. The most
familiar instance is the title of the tract of John Knox, the First
Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of Women.
The term as applied to a large body of troops dates from the
French army of the i6th century. In the first instance it
implied " command," as nowadays we speak of " General A's
command," meaning the whole number of troops under his
command. The early regiments had no similarity in strength
or organization, except that each was under one commander.
With the regularization of armies the commands of all such
superior officers were gradually reduced to uniformity, and a
regiment came to be definitely a colonel's command. In the
British infantry the term has no tactical significance, as the
number of battalions in a regiment is variable, and one at least
is theoretically abroad at all times, while the reserve or terri-
torial battalions serve under a different code to that governing
the regular battalions. The whole corps of Royal Artillery
is called " the Royal Regiment of Artillery." In the cavalry
a regiment is tactically as well as administratively a unit of four
squadrons. On the continent of Europe the regiment of infantry
is always together under the command of its colonel, and consists
of three or four battalions under majors or lieutenant-colonels.
REGINA, the capital city of the province of Saskatchewan,
Canada, situated at 104 36' W. and 50 27' N., and 357 m. W.
of Winnipeg. Pop. (1907) 9804. After the Canadian Pacific
railway was completed in 1885, the necessity for a place of
government on the railway line pressed itself upon the Dominion
government. The North-West Territories were but little
settled then, but a central position on the prairies was necessary,
where the mounted police might be stationed and where the
numerous Indian bands might be easily reached. The minister
of the interior at Ottawa, afterwards Governor Dewdney, chose
this spot, and for a number of years Regina was the seat of the
Territorial government. The governor took up his abode on the
adjoining plain, and the North-West Council met each year,
with a show of constitutional government about it. On the
formation of the province of Saskatchewan in 1905 the choice
of capital was left to the first legislature of the province. Prince
Albert, Moose Jaw and Saskatoon all advanced claims, but
Regina was decided on as the capital. It probably doubled
in population between 1905 and 1907. Its public buildings,
churches and residences are worthy of a place of greater pre-
tensions. It is the centre for a rich agricultural district, and
for legislation, education, law and other public benefits. It
remains the headquarters of the mounted police for the western
provinces, and near it is an Indian industrial school of some
note.
REGINON, or REGINO OF PR^M, medieval chronicler, was
born at Altripp near Spires, and was educated in the monastery
of Priim. Here he became a monk, and in 892, just after the
monastery had been sacked by the Danes, he was chosen abbot.
In 899, however, he was deprived of this position and he went
to Trier, where he was appointed abbot of St Martin's, a house
which he reformed. He died in 91 5, and was buried in the abbey
of St Maximin at Trier, his tomb being discovered there in 1581.
Reginon wrote a Chronicon, dedicated to Adalberon, bishop of
Augsburg (d. 909), which deals with the history of the world from
the commencement of the Christian era to 906, especially the
history of affairs in Lorraine and the neighbourhood. The first book
(to 741) consists mainly of extracts from Bede, Paulus Diaconus and
other writers; of the second book (741-906) the latter part is
original and valuable, although the chronology is at fault and the
author relied chiefly upon tradition and hearsay for his informa-
tion. The work was continued to 967 by a monk of Trier, possibly
Adalbert, archbishop of Magdeburg (d. 981). The chronicle was
first published at Mainz in 1521; another edition is in Band I.
of the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores (1826); the
best is the one edited by F. Kurze (Hanover, 1890). It has been
translated into German by W. Wattenbach (Leipzig, 1890).
Reginon also drew up at the request of his friend and patron Radbod,
archbishop of Trier (d. 915), a collection of canons, Libri duo de
synodalibus causis et disciplinis ecclesiasticis, dedicated to Hatto I.,
archbishop of Mainz; this is published in Tome 132 of J. P. Migne's
Palrologia Lalina. To Radbod he wrote a letter on music, Epistpla
de harmonica institutione, with a Tonarius, the object of this being
to improve the singing in the churches of the diocese. The letter
is published in Tome I. of Gerbert's Scriptores ecclesiastic! de musica
sacra (1784), and the Tonarius in Tome II. of Coussemaker's
Scriptores de musica medii aevi. See also H. Ermisch, Die Chronik
des Regino bis 813 (Gottingen, 1872); P. Schulz, Die Glaubwurdig-
keit des Abtes Regino} von Prum (Hamburg, 1894); C. Wawra,
De Reginone Prumensis (Breslau, 1901); A. Molinier, Les Sources
de I'histoire de France, Tome I. (1901); and W. Wattenbach,
DeutschlandsGeschichtsquellen, Band I. (1904).
REGIOMONTANUS (1436-1476), German astronomer, was
born at Konigsberg in Franconia on the 6th of June 1436. The
son of a miller, his name originally was Johann Mu'ller, but he
called himself, from his birthplace, Joh. de Monteregio, an
appellation which became gradually modified into Regiomontanus.
At Vienna, from 1452, he was the pupil and associate of George
Purbach (1423-1461), and they jointly undertook a reform of
astronomy rendered necessary by the errors they detected in
the Alphonsine Tables. In this they were much hindered by
the lack of correct translations of Ptolemy's works; and in
1462 Regiomontanus accompanied Cardinal Bessarion to Italy
in search of authentic manuscripts. He rapidly mastered Greek
at Rome and Ferrara, lectured on Alfraganus at Padua, and
completed at Venice in 1463 Purbach's Epitome in Cl. Ptolemaei
magnam compositionem (printed at Venice in 1496), and his own
De Triangulis (Nuremberg, 1533), the earliest work treating
of trigonometry as a substantive science. A quarrel with
George of Trebizond, the blunders in whose translation of the
Almagest he had pointed out, obliged him to quit Rome pre-
cipitately in 1468. He repaired to Vienna, and was thence
summoned to Buda by Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, for
the purpose of collating Greek manuscripts at a handsome
salary. He also finished his Tabulae Directionum (Nuremberg,
1475), essentially an astrological work, but containing a valuable
table of tangents. An outbreak of war, meanwhile, diverted
REGISTER
the king's attention from learning, and in 1471 Regiomontanus
settled at Nuremberg. Bernhard Walther, a rich patrician,
became his pupil and patron; and they together equipped the
first European observatory, for which Regiomontanus himself
constructed instruments of an improved type (described in his
posthumous Scripta, Nuremberg, 1544). His observations of
the great comet of January 1672 supplied the basis of modern
cometary astronomy. At a printing-press established in
Walther's house by Regiomontanus, Purbach's Theoricae
planetarum novae was published in 1472 or 1473; a series of
popular calendars issued from it, and in 1474 a volume of
Ephemerides calculated by Regiomontanus for thirty-two
years (1474-1506), in which the method of "lunar distances,"
for determining the longitude at sea, was recommended and
explained. In 1472 Regiomontanus was summoned to Rome
by Pope Sixtus IV. to aid in the reform of the calendar; and
there he died, most likely of the plague, on the 6th of July 1476.
AUTHORITIES. P. Gassendi, Vita Jo. Regiomontani (Parisiis,
!654) ; J. G. Doppelmayr, Historische Nachricht von den Nurn-
bergischen Mathematicis, pp. 1-23 (1730); G. A. Will, Nurnber-
gisckes Gelehrten-Lexikon, lii. 273 (1757); P. Niceron, Memoires
pour servir a I'histoire des hommes Ulustres, xxxviii. 337 (1737);
J. F. Weidler, Hist. Astronomiae, p. 313; A. G. Kastner, Geschichte
der Mathematik, i. 556, 572; J. F. Montucla, Hist, des mathe-
matiques, i. 541 ; E. F. Apelt, Die Reformation der Sternkunde,
p. 34; M. Cantor, Vorlesungen uber Geschichte der Math., ii. 254-
264; M. Curtze, Urkunden zur Gesch. der Math., i. 187 (1902); Corr.
Astr. vii. 21 (1822); G. H. Schubert, Peurbach und Regio-
montan (Erlangen, 1828); A. Ziegler, Regiomontanus ein geistiger
Vorldufer des Columbus (1874) ; J. B. J. Delambre, Hist, de Vastrono-
mie au moyen age, p. 284; J. S. Bailly, Hist., de I'astr. moderne,
i. 311; R. Wolf, Geschichte der Aslronomie, p. 87; S. Giinther,
AUg. Deutsche Biog., Bd. xxii. p. 564; C. G. Tocher's Gelehrten-
Lexikon, iii. 1959, and Fortsetzung, vi. 1551 (H. W. Rotermund,
Bremen, 1819); Ersch-Gruber's Encyklopaedie, ii. th. xx. p. 205;
C. T. von Murr, Memorabilia Bibliothecarum Norimbergensium,
1.74(1786). (A. M. C.)
REGISTER, a record of facts, proceedings, acts, events,
names, &c., entered regularly for reference in a volume kept for
that purpose, also the volume in which the entries are made.
The Fr. registre is taken from the Med. Lat. registrum for regisium,
Late Lat. regesta, things recorded, hence list, catalogue, from
regerere, to carry or bear back, to transcribe, enter on a roll.
For the keeping of public registers dealing with various subjects
see REGISTRATION and the articles there referred to, and for the
records of baptisms, marriages and burials made by a parish
clergyman, see section Parish Registers below. The keeper of
a register was, until the beginning of the igth century, usually
known as a " register," but that title has in Great Britain now
been superseded by "registrar"; it still survives in the Lord
Clerk Register, an officer of state in Scotland, nominally the
official keeper of the national records, whose duties are per-
formed by the Deputy Clerk Register. In the United States
the title is still " register." The term " register " has also been
applied to mechanical contrivances for the automatic registration
or recording of figures, &c. (see CASH REGISTER), to a stop in an
organ, to the compass of a voice or musical instrument, and also
to an apparatus for regulating the in- and outflow of air, heat,
steam, smoke or the like. Some of these instances of the
application of the term are apparently due to a confusion in
etymology, with Lat. regere, to rule, regulate.
PARISH REGISTERS were instituted in England by an order
of Thomas Cromwell, as vicegerent to Henry VIII., " supreme
hedd undre Christ of the Church of Englande," in September
1538. The idea appears to have been of Spanish origin,
Cardinal Ximenes having instituted, as archbishop of Toledo,
registers of baptisms in 1497. They included, under the
above order, baptisms, marriages and burials, which were to
be recorded weekly. In 1597 it was ordered by the Convocation
of Canterbury that parchment books should be provided for
the registers and that transcripts should be made on parch-
ment of existing registers on paper, and this order was repeated
in the 7Oth canon of 1603. The transcripts then made now
usually represent the earliest registers. It was further pro-
vided at both these dates that an annual transcript of the
register should be sent to the bishop for preservation in the
diocesan registry, which was the origin of the " bishop's tran-
scripts." The " Directory for the publique worship of God,"
passed by parliament in 1645, provided for the date of birth
being also registered, and in August 1653, an Act of " Bare-
bones' Parliament " made a greater change, substituting
civil " parish registers " (sic) for the clergy, and ordering
them to record births, banns, marriages and burials. The
" register " was also to publish the banns and a justice to per-
form the marriage. The register books were well kept under
this civil system, but at the Restoration the old system was
resumed.
A tax upon births, marriages and burials imposed in 1694
led to the clergy being ordered to register all births, apart
from baptisms, but the act soon expired and births were not
again registered till 1836. Lord Hardwicke's Marriage Act
(1754), by its rigid provisions, increased the registration of
marriages by the parochial clergy and prescribed a form of
entry. In 1812 parish registers became the subject of parlia-
mentary enactment, owing to the discovery of their deficiencies.
Rose's Act provided for their safer custody, for efficient bishops,
transcripts, and for uniformity of system. This act continued
to regulate the registers till their supersession for practical
purposes, in 1837, by civil registration under the act of 1836.
In age, completeness and condition they vary much. A
blue book on the subject was published in 1833, but the returns
it contains are often inaccurate. A few begin even earlier
than Cromwell's order, the oldest being that of Tipton, Staffs,
(1513). Between 800 and 900, apparently, begin in 1538 or
1539. The entries were originally made in Latin, but this
usage died out early in the i7th century: decay and the
crabbed handwriting of the time render the earlier registers
extremely difficult to read. There is general agreement as
to the shocking neglect of these valuable records in the past,
and the loss of volumes appears to have continued even through
the i gth century. Their custody is legally vested in the
parochial clergy and their wardens, but several proposals have
been made for their removal to central depositories. The
fees for searching them are determined by the act of 1836,
which prescribes half a crown for each certified extract, and
sixpence a year for searching, with a shilling for the first year.
The condition of the " bishops' transcripts " was, through-
out, much worse than that of the parish registers, there being
no funds provided for their custody. The report on Public
Records in 1800 drew attention to their neglect, but, in spite
of the provisions in Rose's Act (1812), little or nothing was done,
and, in spite of their importance as checking, and even some-
times supplementing deficient parish registers, they remained
" unarranged, unindexed and unconsultable." Of recent
years, however, some improvement has been made. It has
also been discovered that transcripts from " peculiars " exist
in other than episcopal registries.
Outside the parochial registers, which alone were official
in character, there were, till 1754, irregular marriage registers,
of which those of the Fleet prison are the most famous, and
also registers of private chapels in London. Those of the
Fleet and of Mayfair chapel were deposited with the registrar-
general, but not authenticated. The registers of dissenting
chapels remained unofficial till an act of 1840 validated a
number which had been authenticated, and was extended to
many others in 1858. Useful information on these registers,
now mostly deposited with the registrar-general, will be found
in Sims' Manual, which also deals with those of private chapels,
of English settlements abroad preserved in London, and with
English Roman Catholic registers. These last, however, begin
only under George II. and are restricted to certain London
chapels.
The printing of parish registers has of late made much
progress, but the field is so vast that the rate is relatively
slow. There is a Parish Register Society, and a section of
the Harleian Society engaged on the same work, as well as
some county societies and also one for Dublin. But
REGISTRATION
so many have been issued privately or by individuals that
reference should be made to the lists in Marshall's Genealogist's
Guide (1893) and Dr Cox's Parish Registers (1910), and even
this last is not perfect. The Huguenot Society has printed
several registers of the Protestant Refugees, and Mr Moens
that of the London Dutch church. There are also several
registers of marriages alone now in print, such as that of St
Dunstan's, Stepney, in 3 vols. Colonel Chester's extensive
MS. collection of extracts from parish registers is now in the
College of Arms, London, and the parishes are indexed in
Dr Marshall's book. MS. extracts in the British Museum are
dealt with in Sims' Manual.
In Scotland registers of baptisms and marriages were insti-
tuted by the clergy in 1551, and burials were added by order
of the Privy Council in 1616; but these were very imperfectly
kept, especially in rural parishes. Yet it was not till 1854
that civil registration was introduced, by act of parliament,
in their stead. Some 900 parish registers, beginning about
1563, have been deposited in the Register House, Edinburgh,
under acts of parliament which apply to all those prior to 1819.
Mr Hallen has printed the register of baptisms of Muthill
Episcopal Church.
In Ireland, parish registers were confined to the now dis-
established church, which was that of a small minority, and
were, as in Scotland, badly kept. Although great inconvenience
was caused by this system, civil registration of marriages,
when introduced in 1844, was only extended to Protestants,
nor was it till 1864 that universal civil registration was intro-
duced, great difficulty under the Old Age Pensions Act being
now the result. No provision was made, as in Scotland, for
central custody of the registers, which, both Anglican and
Nonconformist, remain in their former repositories. Roman
Catholic registers in Ireland only began, apparently, to be
kept in the igth century.
In France registers, but only of baptism, were first instituted
in 1539. The Council of Trent, however, made registers both
of baptisms and of marriages a law of the Catholic Church in
1563, and Louis XIV. imposed a tax on registered baptisms and
marriages in 1707.
See Burn, The History of Parish Registers (1829, 1862); Sims,
Manual for the Genealogist (1856, 1888); Chester Waters, Parish
Registers in England (1870, 1882, 1887); Marshall, Genealogist's
Guide (1893); A. M. Burke, Key to the Ancient Parish Registers
(1908) ; J. C. Cox, Parish Registers of England (1910) ; W. D. Bruce,
Account . . . of the Ecclesiastical Courts of Record (1854); Bigland,
Observations on Parochial Registers (1764); Report of the Commis-
sioners on the state of Registers of Births, &c. (1838); Lists of Non-
parochial Registers and Records in the custody of the Registrar-
General (1841); Report on Non-parochial Registers (1857); Detailed
List of the old Parochial Registers of Scotland (1872). (j. H. R.)
REGISTRATION. In all systems of law the registration
of certain legal facts has been regarded as necessary, chiefly
for the purpose of ensuring publicity and simplifying evidence.
Registers, when made in performance of a public duty, are as
a general rule admissible in evidence merely on the production
from the proper custody of the registers themselves or (in most
cases) of examined or certified copies. The extent to which
registration is carried varies very much in different countries.
For obvious reasons, judicial decisions are registered in all
countries alike. In other matters no general rule can be laid
down, except perhaps that on the whole registration is not as
fully enforced in the United Kingdom and the United States
as in continental states. The most important uses of registra-
tion occur in the case of judicial proceedings, land, ships, bills
of sale, births, marriages and deaths, companies, friendly and
other societies, newspapers, copyrights, patents, designs, trade
marks and professions and occupations. In England registrars
are attached to the privy council, the Supreme Court and the
county courts. In the king's bench division (except in its
bankruptcy jurisdiction) the duty of registrars is performed by
the masters. Besides exercising limited judicial authority,
registrars are responsible for the drawing up and recording of
various stages of the proceedings from the petition, writ or
plaint to the final decision. 1 With them are filed affidavits,
depositions, pleadings, &c., when such filing is necessary. The
difference between filing and registration is that the documents
filed are filed without alteration, while only an epitome is
usually registered. The Judicature Act 1873 created district
registries in the chief towns, the district registrar having an
authority similar to that of a registrar of the Supreme Court.
In the admiralty division cases of account are usually referred
to the registrar and merchants. The registration in the central
office of the supreme court of judgments affecting lands, writs
of execution, recognizances and lites pendentes in England, and
the registration in Scotland of abbreviates of adjudications
and of inhibitions, are governed by special legislation. All
these are among the incumbrances for which search is made on
investigating a title. Decisions of criminal courts are said to
be recorded, not registered, except in the case of courts of
summary jurisdiction, in which, by the Summary Jurisdiction
Act 1879, a register of convictions is kept. Probates of wills
and letters of administration, which are really judicial decisions,
are registered in the principal or district registries of the probate
division. In Scotland registration is used for giving a summary
remedy on obligations without action by means of the fiction of
a judicial decision having been given establishing the obligation.
See also the separate articles LAND REGISTRATION;
SHIPPING; BILL OF SALE; COMPANIES; FRIENDLY SOCIETIES;
BUILDING SOCIETIES; PRESS LAWS; COPYRIGHT; TRADE
MARKS; PATENTS, &c.
Registration of Voters. Prior to 1832 Jhe right of parlia-
mentary electors in England was determined at the moment
of the tender of the vote at the election, or, in the event of a
petition against the return, by a scrutiny, a committee of the
House of Commons striking off those whose qualification was
held to be insufficient, and, on the other hand, adding those
who, having tendered their votes at the poll, with a good title
to do so, were rejected at the time. A conspicuous feature of
the Reform Act of that year was the introduction of a new
mode of ascertaining the rights of electors by means of an
entirely new system of pubb'shed lists, subject to claims and
objections, and after due inquiry and revision forming a register
of voters. Registration was not altogether unknown in Great
Britain in connexion with the parliamentary franchise before
the Reform Acts of 1832. Thus in the Scottish counties the
right to vote depended on the voter's name being upon the
roll of freeholders established by an act of Charles II.; a
similar register existed in Ireland of freeholders whose free-
holds were under 20 annual value; and in the universities
of Oxford and Cambridge the rolls of members of Convocation
and of the Senate were, as they still are, the registers of par-
liamentary voters. But except in such cases as the above,
the right of a voter had to be determined by the returning
officer upon the evidence produced before him when the vote
was tendered at a poll. This necessarily took time, and the
result was that a contested election in a large constituency
might last for weeks. The celebrated Westminster election of
1784, in which the poll began on the ist of April and ended on
the 1 7th of May, may be mentioned as an illustration. More-
over, the decision of the returning officer was not conclusive;
the title of every one who claimed to vote was liable to be
reconsidered on an election petition, or, in the case of a rejected
vote, in an action for damages by the voter against the returning
officer.
The inconvenience of such a state of things would have been
greatly aggravated had the old practice continued after the
enlargement of the franchise in 1832. The establishment of a
general system of registration was therefore a necessary and
important part of the reform then effected. It has enabled an
election in the most populous constituency to be completed in
a single day. It has also been instrumental in the extinction
1 The antiquity of registration of this kind is proved by the age of
the Registrum Brevium, or register of writs, called by Lord Coke " a
most ancient book of the Common La\y " ,(Coke -upon -Littleton, c
REGISTRATION
of the " occasional voter," who formerly gave so much trouble
to returning officers and election committees the person,
namely, who acquired a qualifying tenement with the view of
using it for a particular election and then disposing of it. The
period of qualification now required in all cases, being fixed
with reference to the formation of the register, is neces-
sarily so long anterior to any election which it could effect,
that the purpose or intention of the voter in acquiring the
qualifying tenement has ceased to be material, and is not inves-
tigated.
England. The reform of parliamentary representation in 1832
was followed in 1835 by that of the constitution of municipal
corporations, which included the -creation of a uniform quali-
fication (now known as the old burgess qualification) for
the municipal franchise. In 1888 the municipal franchise
was enlarged, and was at the same time extended to the whole
country for the formation of constituencies to elect county
councils; and in 1894 parochial electors were called into
existence for the election of parish councils and for other pur-
poses. Inasmuch as provision was made for the registering of
persons entitled to votes for the above purposes, there are now
three registers of voters, namely, the parliamentary register,
the local government register (i.e. in boroughs under the
Municipal Corporation Acts, the burgess rolls, and elsewhere
the county registers) and the register of parochial electors.
Under the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 the registration
of burgesses, though on similar lines to that of parliamentary
voters, was entirely separate from it. Since, however, the
qualification for the municipal franchise covered to a great
extent the same ground as that for the parliamentary franchise
in boroughs which sent members to parliament, a considerable
number of voters in such boroughs were entitled in respect of
the same tenement to be upon both parliamentary register
and burgess roll. The waste of labour involved in settling
their rights twice over was put an end to in 1878, when the
system of parliamentary registration was extended to the
boroughs in question for municipal purposes, and the lists were
directed to be made out in such a shape that the portion common
to the two registers could be detached and combined with
the portion peculiar to each, so as to form the parliamentary
register and the burgess roll respectively. This system of
registration was extended to the non-parliamentary boroughs
and to the whole country in 1888, the separate municipal
registration being completely abolished.
The procedure of parliamentary registration is to be found in
its main lines in the Parliamentary Registration Act 1843, which
Pro _ superseded that provided by the Reform Act of 1832,
j" and has itself been considerably amended by later legis-
lation. The acts applying and adapting the system to local
government and parochial registration are the Parliamentary and
Municipal Registration Act 1878, the County Electors Act 1888,
and the Local Government Act 1894. Registration is carried out
by local machinery, the common-law parish being taken as the
registration unit; and the work of preparing and publishing the
lists, which when revised are to form the register, is committed to
the overseers. The selection of these officers was no doubt due to
their position as the rating authority, and to their consequent
opportunities for knowing the ownership and occupation of tene-
ments within their parish. They do not always perform the duties
themselves, other persons being empowered to act for them in
many parishes by general or local acts of parliament ; but in all
or almost all cases they are entitled to act personally if they think
fit, they sign the lists, and the proceedings are conducted in their
name.
In order to render intelligible the following summary of the
procedure, it will be necessary to divide the voters to be regis-
tered into classes based on the nature of their qualification, since
the practice differs in regard to each class. The classes are as
follows: (i) Owners, including the old forty-shilling freeholders,
and the copyholders, long leaseholders and others entitled under
the Reform Act of 1832 to vote at parliamentary elections for
counties; (2) occupiers, including those entitled to (a) the 10
occupation qualification, (b) the household qualification and (c) the
old burgess qualification; (3) lodgers, subdivided into (a) old,
i.e. those on the previous register for the same lodgings, and (6) new ;
(4) those entitled to reserved rights, i.e. in addition to those (if
.any stUl remain), who were entitled to votes before the Reform Act
of 1832 in respect of qualifications abolished by that act, (a) free-
hold and burgage tenants in Bristol, Exeter, Norwich, and Notting-
ham, and (b) liverymen of the City of London and freemen of
certain old cities and boroughs, whose right to the parliamentary
franchise was permanently retained by the same act. In regard
to these classes it may be said that the general scheme is that
owners must make a claim in the first instance before they can
get their names upon the register, but that, once entered on the
register, the names will be retained from year to year until removed
by the revising barrister; that the lists of occupiers and of freehold
and burgage tenants are made out afresh every year by the over-
seers from their own information and inquiries, without any act
being required on the part of the voters, who need only make claims
in case their names are omitted; that lodgers must make claims
every year; and that liverymen and freemen are in the same posi-
tion as occupiers, except that the lists of liverymen are made out
by the clerks of the several companies, and those of freemen by the
town clerks, the overseers having nothing to do with these voters,
whose qualifications are personal and not locally connected with
any parish.
The overseers and other officers concerned are required to perform
their duties in connexion with registration in accordance with the
instructions and precepts, and to use the notices and forms pre-
scribed by Order in Council from time to time. The Registration
Order, 1895, directs the clerk of every county council, on or within
seven days before the i;jth of April in every year, to send to the
overseers of each parish in his county a precept with regard to the
registration of ownership electors, and to every parish not within
a parliamentary or municipal borough a precept with regard to
the registration of occupation electors (which expression for this
purpose includes lodgers as well as occupiers proper). The town
clerk of every borough, municipal or parliamentary, is to send to
the overseers of every parish in his borough a precept with regard
to the registration of occupation electors. These precepts are set
out in the Registration Order, and those issued by the town
clerks differ according as the borough is parliamentary only, or
municipal only, or both parliamentary and municipal; in the cases
of Bristol, Exeter, Norwich and Nottingham they contain direc-
tions as to freehold and burgage tenants. The duties of the over-
seers in regard to registration are set out in detail in the precepts.
Along with the precepts are forwarded forms of the various lists and
notices required to be used, and with the ownership precept a certain
number of copies of that portion of the parliamentary register of
the county at the time in force which contains the ownership voters
for the parish, the register being so printed that the portion relating
to each parish can be detached. It is the duty of the overseers
to publish on the 2Oth of June, in manner hereinafter described, the
portion of the register so received, together with a notice to owners
not already registered to send in claims by the 2oth of July. Mean-
while the overseers are making the inquiries necessary for the
preparation of the occupier list. For this purpose they may require
returns to be furnished by owners of houses let out in separate
tenements, and by employers who have servants entitled to the
service franchise. The registrars of births, deaths and marriages
are required to furnish the overseers with returns of deaths, as
must the assessed tax collectors with returns of defaulters; the
relieving officers are to give information as to recipients of parochial
relief. On or before the 3ist of July the overseers are to make
out and sign the lists of voters. These are the following: the
list of ownership electors, consisting of the portion of the register
previously published with a supplemental list of those who have
sent in claims by the 2Oth of July; the occupier list; and the old
lodger list, the last being formed from claims sent in by the 25th of
July. The overseers do not select the names in the first and last
of these lists ; they take them as supplied in the register and claims.
It is, however, their duty to write dead " or " objected " in the
margin against the names of persons whom they have reason to
believe to be dead or not entitled to vote in respect of the qualifica-
tion described. The ownership and old lodger lists will be divided
into two parts, if the register contains names of owners entitled
to a parochial vote only, or if claims by owners or old lodgers have
been made limited to that franchise. The occupier list contains
the names of persons whom the overseers believe to be qualified,
and no others, and therefore will be free from marginal objections.
Except in the administrative county of London, it is made out in
three divisions division I giving the names of occupiers of pro-
perty qualifying for both parliamentary and local government
votes, divisions 2 and 3 those of occupiers of property qualifying
only for parliamentary and only for local government votes respec-
tively. It happens so frequently that a tenement, if not of sufficient
value to qualify for the 10 occupation franchise (parliamentary
and local government), qualifies both for the household franchise
(parliamentary) and for the old burgess franchise (local govern-
ment), that division I would in most cases be the whole list, but for
two circumstances. The service franchise is a special modification
of the household franchise only; and the service occupants, being
therefore restricted to the parliamentary vote, form the bulk of
division 2; while peers and women, being excluded from the
parliamentary vote, are consequently relegated to division 3. In
the administrative county of London the local government register,
being coextensive with the register of parochial electors, includes
REGISTRATION
43
the whole of the parliamentary register. The occupier lists are
consequently there made out in two divisions only, the names which
would elsewhere appear in division 2 being placed in division I.
The lists of freehold and burgage tenants in Bristol, Exeter, Norwich
and Nottingham are to be made out and signed by the same date.
The overseers have also to make out and sign a list of persons
qualified as occupiers to be elected aldermen or councillors, but as
non-residents disqualified from being on the local government
register. By the same date also the clerks of the livery companies
are to make out, sign and deliver to the secondary (who performs
in the City of London the registration duties which elsewhere fall
on the town clerk) the lists of liverymen entitled as such to the
parliamentary vote; and the town clerks are to make out and sign
the lists of freemen so entitled in towns where this franchise exists.
On the ist of August all the above lists are to be published, the
livery lists by the secondary, lists of freemen by the town clerks
and the rest by the overseers. In addition the overseers may have
to publish a list of persons disqualified by having been found guilty
of corrupt or illegal practices; this list they will receive, when it
exists, from the clerk of the county council or town clerk with the
precept. Publication of lists and notices by overseers is made by
affixing copies on the doors of the church and other places of worship
of the parish (or, if there be none, in some public or conspicuous
situation in the parish), and also, with the exception to be men-
tioned, in the case of a parish wholly or partly within a municipal
borough or urban district, in or near every public or municipal or
parochial office and every post and telegraph office in the parish.
The exception is that lists and notices relating to ownership electors
need not be published at the offices mentioned when the parish is
within a parliamentary borough. Publication by the secondary is
made by affixing copies outside the Guildhall and Royal Exchange ;
publication by town clerks is made by affixing copies outside their
town hall, or, where there is none, in some public or conspicuous
place in their borough. From the ist to the 2Oth of August inclusive
is allowed for the sending in of claims and objections. Those whose
names have been omitted from the occupier or reserved rights lists,
or the non-resident list, or whose names, place of abode or particu-
lars of qualification have been incorrectly stated in such lists, may
send in claims to have their names registered; lodgers who are not
qualified as old lodgers, or who have omitted to claim as such, may
claim as new lodgers; persons whose names are on the corrupt and
illegal practices list may claim to have them omitted. Any person
whose name is on the list of parliamentary, local government or
parochial electors for the same parliamentary county, administrative
county, borough or parish, may object to names on the same lists.
Notices of claim and objection in the case of liverymen and freemen are
to be sent to the secondary and town clerk, and in other cases to the
overseers ; and notices of objection must also in all cases be sent to the
person objected to. All notices must be sent inby the 2Oth of August,
and on or before the 25th of August the overseers, secondary and town
clerks are to make out, sign and publish lists of the claimants and
persons objected to. It remains to be added that any person on a
fist of voters (i.e. on one of the lists published on the 1st of August)
may make a declaration before a magistrate or commissioner for
oaths correcting the entry relating to him. In the case of ownership
electors the correction can only deal with the place of abode ; in the
case of other lists it extends to all particulars stated, and is useful
inasmuch as it enables the revising barrister to make corrections as
to the qualification which he could not make in the absence of a
declaration. The declarations must be delivered to the clerk of the
county council or town clerk on or before the 5th of September.
The next stage is the revision of the lists. For this purpose
revising barristers are appointed yearly. The period within which
revision courts can be held is from the 8th of September
Revising to tne J2J.JJ { October, both days inclusive. The clerk of
the county council attends the first court held for each
ers ' parliamentary division of his county, and the town clerk
the first court held for his city or borough; and they respectively
produce all lists, notices and declarations in their custody, and
answer any questions put to them by the revising barrister. The
overseers also attend the courts held for their parish, produce the
rate books, original notices of claim and objection, &c., and answer
questions. The claimants, objectors and persons objected to appear
personally or by representative to support their several conten-
tions. Any person qualified to be an objector may also appear
to oppose any claims, upon giving notice to the barrister before such
claims are reached. The powers of the revising barristers are as
follows: As regards persons whose names are on the lists of voters
published on the ist of August, he is to expunge the names, whether
objected to or not, of those who are dead or subject to personal in-
capacity, such as infants and aliens, and for parliamentary purposes
peers and women. If an entry is imperfect, the name must be
removed, unless the particulars necessary for completing it are
supplied to the barrister. All names marginally objected to by over-
seers must be expunged, unless the voters prove to the barrister that
they ought to be retained. Objections made by other objectors
must be supported by prima facie proof, and if this is not rebutted
the name is struck out. Claimants must be ready to support their
claims. The declaration attached to a lodger claim is indeed prima
facie proof of the Tacts stated in it, but other claimants require
evidence to make out even a prima facie case, and if they fail to
produce it their claims will be disallowed. The barrister is required
to correct errors in the lists of voters, and has a discretion to rectify
mistakes in claims and objections upon evidence produced to him,
although his power in this respect is limited. Lastly, the barrister
has to deal with duplicates, as a voter is entitled to be on the register
once, but not more than once, as a parliamentary voter for each
parliamentary county or borough, as a burgess for each municipal
borough, as a county elector for each electoral division, and as a
parochial elector for each parish in which he holds a qualification.
Consequently, he deals with duplicate entries by expunging or trans-
ferring them to separate parochial lists. The decision of the re-
vising barrister is final and conclusive on all questions of fact ; but
an appeal lies from him on questions of law at the instance of any
person aggrieved by the removal of his name from a list of voters, by
the rejection of his claim or objection or by the allowance of a claim
which he has opposed. Notice of the intention to appeal must be
given to the barrister in writing on the day when his decision is
given. The barrister may refuse to state a case for appeal; but if
he does so without due cause he may be ordered by the High Court
to state a case. The appeal is heard by a divisional court, from
whose decision an appeal lies (by leave either of the divisional court
or of the court of appeal) to the court of appeal, whose decision is
final.
On the completion of the revision the barrister hands the county
and borough lists (every page signed and every alteration initialled
by him) to the clerk of the county council and the town clerk re-
spectively, to be printed. With the following exceptions the revised
lists are to be made up and printed by the 2Oth of December, and
come into force as the register for all purposes on the ist of January.
In the boroughs created by the London Government Act 1899, the
whole register is to be made up and printed by the 2Oth of October,
and to come into force for the purpose of borough elections under
the act on the 1st of November. In boroughs subject to the Muni-
cipal Corporations Acts, divisions I and 3 of the occupiers' list are
to be made up and printed by the 2Oth of October, and come into
force for the purpose of municipal and county council elections on
the ist of November. Corrections ordered in consequence of a
successful appeal from a revising barrister are to be made by the
officers having the custody of the registers, but a pending appeal
does not affect any right of voting. The register in its final form
will consist of the lists published on the 1st of August as corrected,
with the claims which have been allowed on revision incorporated
with them. It is printed in such form that each list and each
division of a list for every parish can be separated from the rest for
the purpose of making up the parliamentary, local government and
parochial registers respectively. The alphabetical order is followed,
except in London and some other large towns, where street order is
adopted for all except the ownership lists and lists of liverymen and
freemen. The parliamentary register for a parliamentary county
will consist of the ownership lists for all parishes in the county, and
of the lodger lists and divisions I and 2 of the occupier lists for
parishes within the county and not within a parliamentary borough.
The parliamentary register for a parliamentary borough will consist
of the lodger lists, of the lists of freehold and burgage tenants (if
any), and of divisions I and 2 of the occupier lists for all parishes
within the borough, and also of the borough lists (if any) of liverymen
or freemen. The local government register for an administrative
county will consist of divisions I and 3 of the occupier lists for all
parishes in the county, and the burgess roll for a municipal borough
of divisions I and 3 of the occupier lists for all parishes in the borough.
It will be seen, therefore, that, except in county boroughs, the
burgess roll is also a part of the local government register of the
administrative county within which the borough is situate. The
register of parochial electors consists of the complete set of lists for
each parish; but this does not include the lists of liverymen and
freemen, which, as has been stated, are not parish lists.
No one whose name is not on the register can vote at an election.
The fact that a man's name is on the register is now so far con-
clusive of his right that the returning officer is bound to receive
his vote. Only two questions may be asked of him when he
tenders his vote, namely, whether he is the person whose name is
on the register, and whether he has voted before at the election.
The Reform Act 1832 allowed him to be asked at parliamentary
elections whether he retained the qualification for which he had
been registered; but the Registration Act 1843 disallowed the
question, and made the register conclusive as to the retention of
the qualification. When, however, a petition is presented against
an election, the register, although conclusive as to the retention
of the qualification, does not prevent the court from inquiring
into the existence of personal incapacities, arising in connexion
with the election or otherwise, and striking off on scrutiny the
votes of persons subject thereto, e.g. aliens, infants, or in parliamen-
tary elections peers, &c.
The City of London is not within the Municipal Corporations
Acts, and is not subject to the general registration law in the
formation of its roll of citizens for municipal purposes. But a
register of parliamentary, county and parochial electors is made in
44
REGIUM
the "ordinary way.' The universities are also exempt from the
general law of registration. At Oxford and Cambridge the members
of Convocation and the Senate respectively have always formed
the parliamentary constituencies; and, as has been already stated,
the registers of those members were before 1832, and still are,
the parliamentary registers. Similarly, the Reform Act of 1867,
which gave parliamentary representation to the university of
London, simply enacted that the register of graduates constituting
the Convocation should be the parliamentary register of that body.
Scotland. In Scotland the qualifications for local government
and parish electors are the same as those for parliamentary voters,
the only difference in the registers being in respect of personal
incapacities for the parliamentary franchise, incapacity for the
other franchises by reason of non-payment of rates, and duplicates.
The principal act regulating registration in burghs is 19 & 20 Viet,
c. 58, amended in some particulars as to dates by 31 & 32 Viet.
c. 48, 20. County registration, formerly regulated by 24 & 25
Viet. c. 83, has been assimilated to burgh registration by 48 & 49
Viet. c. 3, 8 (6). The procedure consists, as in England, of the
making and publication of lists of voters, the making of claims and
objections and the holding of revision courts; but there are im-
portant differences of detail. Though the parish is the registration
unit, parochial machinery is not used for the formation of the
register. The parliamentary lists for a county are made up yearly
by one or more of the assessors of the county, and those for a burgh
by one or more of the assessors for the burgh, or by the clerk of the
commissioners. They are published on the 1 5th of September;
and claims and objections must be sent in by the 2 1st and are
published on the 25th of the same month. Publication is made
in burghs by posting on or near the town hall, or in some other
conspicuous place, in counties by posting the part relating to each
parish on the parish church door, and in both cases giving notice
by newspaper advertisement of a place where the lists may be
perused. The revision is conducted by the sheriff, the time within
which bis courts may be held being from the 25th of September to
the i6th of October, both days inclusive. An appeal lies to three
1'udges of the Court of Session, one taken from each division of the
nner House, and one from the Lords Ordinary of the Outer House.
The revised lists are delivered in counties to the sheriff clerk, in
burghs to the town clerk, or person to whom the registration duties
of town clerk are assigned. The register comes into force for all
purposes on the 1st of November.
The municipal register of a royal burgh which is coextensive,
or of that part of a royal burgh which is coextensive with a parlia-
mentary burgh, consists of the parliamentary register with a supple-
mental list of women who but for their sex would be qualified for
the parliamentary vote. The municipal register for a burgh, or
for that part of one which is not within a parliamentary burgh,
consists of persons possessed of qualifications within the burgh
which, if within a parliamentary burgh, would entitle them, or but
for their sex would entitle them, to the parliamentary vote. The
register of county electors consists of the parliamentary register for
a county with the supplemental list hereafter mentioned; but
inasmuch as exemption from or 'failure to pay the consolidated
county rate is a disqualification for the county electors' franchise,
the names of persons so disqualified are to be marked with a dis-
tinctive mark on the register; as are also the names of persons
whose qualifications are situated within a burgh, such marks indi-
cating that the persons to whose names they are attached are not
entitled to vote as county electors. Every third year, in prepara-
tion for the triennial elections of county and parish councils
(casual vacancies being filled up by co-optation), a supplemental
list is to be made of peers and women possessed of qualifications
which but for their rank and sex would entitle them to parlia-
mentary votes. The register of county electors in a county and the
municipal register in a burgh form the registers of parish electors
for the parishes comprised in each respectively. Inasmuch, how-
ever, as a man is entitled to be registered as a parish elector in every
parish where he is qualified, duplicate entries are, when required,
to be made in the register, with distinctive marks to all but one,
to indicate that they confer the parish vote only. These dis-
tinctive marks and those previously mentioned are to be made in
the lists by the assessors, subject to revision by the sheriff. The
register is conclusive to the same extent as in England, except that
the vote of a parish elector who is one year in arrear in payment
of a parish rate is not to be received. The clerk of the parish
council is_to furnish the returning o_fficer one week before an
election with the names of persons so in arrear; and the returning
officer is to reject their votes except upon the production of a
written receipt. Provision is made by 31 & 32 Viet. c. 48, 27-41,
for the formation of registers of parliamentary electors for the
universities. The register for each university is to be made annually
by the university registrar, with the assistance of two members of.
the council, from whose decisions an appeal lies to the university
court.
Ireland. There are no parish councils in Ireland, and no par-
ochial electors. There are therefore but two registers of voters,
the parliamentary and the local government registers, the latter
of which consists of the former with a local government supplement
containing the names of those excluded from the parliamentary
register by reason of their being peers or women, and duplicate
entries relating to those whose names are registered elsewhere for
the same parliamentary constituency. The principal acts regula-
ting registration are 13 & 14 Viet. c. 69, 31 & 32 Viet. c. 1 12, 48 &
49 Viet. c. 17, and 61 & 62 Viet. c. 2. The lord lieutenant is
empowered to make by Order in Council rules for registration,
and to prescribe forms; and under this power has made the Regis-
tration (Ireland) Rules 1899, now in force. The registration
unit is not the parish, but the district electoral division, except
where such division is subdivided into wards, or is partly within
and partly without any town or ward of a borough or town, in which
cases each ward of the division or part of a division is a separate
registration unit.
The procedure is as follows, subject to variation in cases where
there are clerks of unions who held office on the 3ist of March 1898,
and have not agreed to transfer their registration duties. The
clerk of the peace sends out on the 1st of June a precept in the form
prescribed for county registration to the secretary of the county
council and clerks of urban district councils, together with a copy
of the existing register for their county or district; and a precept
in the form prescribed for borough registration to town clerks of
boroughs. As regards registration units not in a parliamentary
or municipal borough, the secretary of the county council or clerk
of the urban district council is to put marginal objections, " dead "
or " objected," where required, to 10 occupiers and householders
in the copy of the register, both in the parliamentary list and in
the local government supplement. He is also to make out supple-
mental parliamentary and local government lists of 10 occupiers
and householders not on the existing register, and to put marginal
objections where required to these. He is to verify on oath before
a magistrate the copy of the register and supplemental lists, and
to return them to the clerk of the peace by the 8th of July. As
regards registration units in a parliamentary borough, but outside
a municipal borough, the secretary of the county council or clerk
of the urban district council is to make out lists of 10 occupiers
and householders with local government supplement, and transmit
them to the town clerk of the municipal borough or town. The
clerk of the peace is to publish the copy of the register, after himself
placing marginal objections where required to voters other than
10 occupiers and householders, and the supplemental lists as re-
ceived, and also the corrupt and illegal practices list, if any, on the
22nd of July. On the same day the town clerk will publish the
lists received as aforesaid for registration units outside the muni-
cipal borough, and the lists, which he will have made out himself
for the municipal borough, including the freemen's list and corrupt
and illegal practices list. Freemen being entitled to the local
government vote will, if resident, be placed on the list of the regis-
tration unit where they reside, and will, if non-resident, be allotted
by the revising barrister among the registration units of the borough
for local government purposes in proportion to the number of
electors in each registration unit. Claims are to be sent in to the
clerk of the peace and town clerk by the 4th of August, including
old lodger claims and, in the case of the clerk of the peace, owner-
ship claims. Lists of claimants with marginal objections, where
required, are to be published by the clerk of the peace and town
clerk by the nth of August. Notices of objection to voters or
claimants may be given by the 2Oth of August ; and lists of persons
objected to are to be published by the clerk of the peace and town
clerk by the 24th of the same month. Publication of lists and
notices by a clerk of the peace is made by posting copies of those
relating to each registration unit outside every court-house, petty
sessions court, and other public offices in the unit; publication by
a town clerk is made by posting copies outside the town hall, or,
if there be none, in some public and conspicuous place in the
borough.
Revising barristers are specially appointed for the county and
city of Dublin by the lord lieutenant; elsewhere the county court
judges and chairmen of quarter sessions act as such ex officio,
assisted, when necessary, by additional barristers appointed by
the lord lieutenant. The time for the holding of revision courts
is from the 8th of September to the 25th of October inclusive. An
appeal lies to the court of appeal, whose decision is final. The
revised lists are handed to the clerk of the peace; they are to be
made up by him by the 3ist of December, and come into force on
the 1st of January.
The registrar of the university of Dublin is to make out in
December a list of the persons entitled to the parliamentary vote
for the university, and to print the same in January, and to publish
a copy in the university calendar, or in one or more public journals
circulating in Ireland. He is to revise the list annually, and ex-
punge the names of those dead or disqualified; but an elector
whose name has been expunged because he was supposed to be
dead is entitled, if alive, to have his name immediately restored
and to vote at any election. (L. L. S.)
REGIUM (Gr. 'Priyiov. in Latin the aspirate is omitted) , a
city of the territory of the Bruttii in South Italy, on the east
side of the strait between Italy and Sicily (Strait of Messina).
REGIUM DONUM REGNARD
45
A colony, mainly of Chalcidians, partly of Messenians from the
Peloponnesus, settled at Regium in the 8th century B.C. About
494 B.C. Anaxilas, a member of the Messenian party, made him-
self master of Regium (apparently from numismatic evidence,
for the coins assignable to this period are modelled on Samian
types with the help of the Samians: see MESSINA) and about
488 joined with them in occupying Zancle (Messina). Here
they remained. (See C. H. Dodd in Journal of Hellenic Studies,
xxviii. (1908) 56 sqq.) This coinage was resumed after the
establishment of the democracy about 461 B.C., when Anaxilas'
sons were driven out. In 433 Regium made a treaty with
Athens, and in 427 joined the Athenians against Syracuse, but
in 415 it remained neutral. An attack which it made on
Dionysius I. of Syracuse in 399 was the beginning of a great
struggle which in 387 resulted in its complete destruction and the
dispersion of its inhabitants as slaves. Restored by the younger
Dionysius under the name of Phoebias, the colony soon recovered
its prosperity and resumed its original designation. In 280,
when Pyrrhus invaded Italy, the Regines admitted within their
walls a Roman garrison of Campanian troops; these mercenaries
revolted, massacred the male citizens, and held the city till in
270 they were besieged and put to death by the Roman consul
Genucius. The city remained faithful to Rome throughout the
Punic wars, and Hannibal never succeeded in taking it. Up
till the Social War it struck coins of its own, with Greek legends.
Though one of the cities promised by the triumvirs to the
veterans, Regium escaped through the favour of Octavius
(hence it took the name Regium Julium). It continued,
however, to be a Greek city even under the Empire, and never
became a colony. Towards the end of the Empire it was made
the chief city of the Bruttii.
Of ancient buildings hardly anything remains at Regium, and
nothing of the archaic Greek period is in situ, except possibly the
remains of a temple of Artemis Phacelitis, which have not yet been
explored, though various inscriptions relative to it have been found.
The museum, however, contains a number of terra-cottas, vases,
inscriptions, &c., and a number of Byzantine lead seals. Several
baths of the Greek period, modified by the Romans, have been
found, and the remains of one of these may still be seen. A large
mosaic of the 3rd or 4th century A.D. with representations of wild
animals and the figure of a warrior in the centre was found in 1904
and covered up again. The aqueduct and various cisterns connected
with it have been traced, and some tombs of the 5th or 4th century
B.C. (or even later) were found in 1907.
See Noli-ie degli scavi, passim; P. Larizza, Rhegium Chalcidense
(Rome, 1905). ( T As )
REGIUM DONUM, or ROYAL GIFT, an annual grant formerly
made from the public funds to Presbyterian and other Non-
conformist ministers in Great Britain and Ireland. It dates
from the reign of Charles II., who, according to Bishop Burnet,
after the declaration of indulgence of 1672 ordered sums of
money to be paid to Presbyterian ministers. These gifts or
pensions were soon discontinued, but in 1690 William III. made
a grant of i 200 a year to the Presbyterian ministers in Ireland
as a reward for their services during his struggle with James II.
Owing to the opposition of the Irish House of Lords the money
was not paid in 1711 and some subsequent years, but it was
revived in 1715 by George I., who increased the amount to
2000 a year. Further additions were made in 1784 and in
1792, and in 1868 the sum granted to the Irish Presbyterian
ministers was 45,000. The Regium Donum was withdrawn
by the act of 1869 which disestablished the Irish church. Pro-
vision was made, however, for existing interests therein, and
many Presbyterian ministers commuted these on the same
terms as the clergy of the church of Ireland.
In England the Regium Donum proper dates from 1721, when
Dr Edmund Calamy (1671-1732) received 500 from the royal
bounty " for the use and behalf of the poor widows of dissenting
ministers." Afterwards this sum was increased to 1000 and
was made an annual payment " for the assisting either ministers
or their widows," and later it amounted to 1695 per annum.
It was given to distributors who represented the three denomina-
tions, Presbyterians, Baptists and Independents, enjoying the
grant. Among the Nonconformists themselves, however, or
at least among the Baptists and the Independents, there was
some objection to this form of state aid, and in 1851 the chancellor
of the exchequer announced that it would be withdrawn. This
was done six years later.
See J. Stoughton, History of Religion in England (1901) ; J. S. Reid,
History of the Presbyterian Church in Ireland (Belfast, 1867) ; and
E. Calamy, Historical Account of my own Life, edited by J. T. Rutt
(1829-30).
REGLA, formerly an important suburb of Havana, Cuba,
opposite that city, on the bay; now a part of Havana. Pop.
(1899) 11,363. It was formerly the scene of the Havana bull-
fights. The church is one of the best in Cuba; the building
dates substantially from 1805, but the church settlement goes
back to a hermitage established in 1690. Regla is the shipping-
point of the Havana sugar trade. It has enormous sugar and
tobacco warehouses, fine wharves, a dry dock, foundries and an
electric railway plant. It is the western terminus of the eastern
line of the United Railways of Havana, and is connected with
the main city of Havana by ferry. A fishing village was estab-
lished here about 1733. At the end of the i8th century Regla
was a principal centre of the smuggling trade, and about 1820
was notorious as a resort of pirates. It first secured an
ayuntamiento (city council) in 1872, and after 1899 was annexed
to Havana.
REGNARD, JEAN FRANCOIS (1655-1709), French comic
dramatist, was born in Paris on the 7th of February 1655. His
father, a rich shopkeeper, died when Regnard was about
twenty, leaving him master of a considerable fortune. He set
off at once for Italy, and, after a series of romantic adventures,
he journeyed by Holland, Denmark and Sweden to Lapland,
and thence by Poland, Turkey, Hungary and Germany back to
France. He returned to Paris at the end of 1683, and bought
the place of treasurer of France in the Paris district; he had a
house at Paris in the Rue Richelieu; and he acquired the
small estate of Grillon near Dourdan in the department of
Seine-et-Oise, where he hunted, feasted and wrote comedies.
This latter amusement he began in 1688 with a piece called
Le Divorce, which was performed at the Theatre Italien. In four
slight pieces of the same nature he collaborated with Charles
Riviere Dufresny. He gained access to the Theatre Francais
on the 1 9th of May 1694 with a piece called Attendez-moi sous
I'orme, and two years later, on the I9th of December 1696, he
produced there the masterly comedy of Le Joueur. The idea of
the play was evolved in collaboration with Dufresny, but the
authors disagreed in carrying it out. Finally they each produced
a comedy on the subject, Dufresny in prose, and Regnard in
verse. Each accused the other of plagiarism. The plot of
Regnard's piece turns on the love of two sisters for Valere, the
gambler, who loves one and pretends to love the other, really
deceiving them both, because there is no room for any other
passion in his character except the love of play. Other of his
plays were La Serenade (1694), Le Bourgeois de Falaise (1696),
Le Distrait (1697), DSmocrite (1700), Le Retour imprevu (1700),
Les Folies amoureuses (1704), Les Menechmes (1705), a clever
following of Plautus, and his masterpiece, Le Lfgataire universel
(1708).
Regnard's death on the 4th of September 1709 renews the
doubtful and romantic circumstances of his earlier life. Some
hint at poison, but the truth seems to be that his death was
hastened by the rate at which he lived.
Besides the plays noticed above and others, Regnard wrote
miscellaneous poems, the autobiographical romance of La Provenyde,
and several short accounts in prose of his travels, published pos-
thumously under the title of Voyages. Regnard had written a reply
to the tenth satire of Boileau, Contre les femmes, and Boileau had
retorted by putting Regnard among the poets depreciated in his
epistle Sur mes vers. After the appearance of Le Joueur the poet
altered his opinion and cut out the allusion. The saying attributed
to Boileau when some one, thinking to curry favour, remarked that
Regnard was only a mediocre poet, " // n'est pas mediocrement gai,"
is both true and very appropriate. His French style, especially in
his purely prose works, is not considered faultless. He is often un-
original in his plots, and, whether Dufresny was or was not justified
in his complaint about Le Joueur, it seems likely that Regnard owed
not a little to him and to others; but he had a thorough grasp of
46 REGNAULT, H. REGNAULT DE SAINT JEAN D'ANGELY
comic situation and incident, and a most amusing faculty of dia-
logue.
The first edition of Regnard's works was published in 1731
(5 vols., Rouen and Paris). There is a good selection of almost every-
thing important in the Collection Didot (4 vols., 1819), but there is no
absolutely complete edition. The best is that published by Crapelet
(6 vols., Paris, 1822). A selection by L. Moland appeared in 1893.
See also a Bibliographic et iconographie des ceuvres de J. F. Regnard
(Paris, Rouquette, 1878); Le Poete J. F. Regnard en son chasteau de
Grillon, by J. Guyot (Paris, 1907).
REGNAULT, HENRI (1843-1871), French painter, born at
Paris on the 3ist October 1843, was the son of Henri Victor
Regnault (<?..). On leaving school he successively entered the
studios of Montfort, Lamothe and Cabanel, was beaten for the
Grand Prix (1863) by Layraud and Montchablon, and in 1864
exhibited two portraits in no wise remarkable at the Salon.
In 1866, however, he carried off the Grand Prix with a work
of unusual force and distinction " Thetis bringing the Arms
forged by Vulcan to Achilles " (School of the Fine Arts). The
past in Italy did not touch him, but his illustrations to Wey's
Rome show how observant he was of actual life and manners;
even his " Automedon " (School of Fine Arts), executed in obedi-
ence to Academical regulations, was but a lively recollection of a
carnival horse-race. At Rome, moreover, Regnault came into
contact with the modern Hispano-Italian school, a school highly
materialistic and inclined to regard even the human subject
only as one amongst many sources whence to obtain amusement
for the eye. The vital, if narrow, energy of this school told on
Regnault with ever-increasing force during the few remaining
years of his life. In 1868 he had sent to the Salon a life-size
portrait of a lady in which he had made one of the first attempts
to render the actual character of fashionable modern life. While
making a tour in Spain, he saw Prim pass at the head of his troops,
and received that lively image of a military demagogue which
he afterwards put on canvas, somewhat to the displeasure of his
subject. But this work made an appeal to the imagination
of the public, whilst all the later productions of Regnault were
addressed exclusively to the eye. After a further flight to
Africa, abridged by the necessities of his position as a pensioner
of theschool of Rome,he painted" Judith," then (1870) "Salome,"
and, as a work due from the Roman school, despatched from
Tangier the large canvas, " Execution without Hearing under
the Moorish Kings," in which the painter had played with the
blood of the victim as if he were a jeweller toying with rubies.
The war arose, and found Regnault foremost in the devoted
ranks of Buzenval, where he fell on the igth of January 1871.
See Carres pondance de H. Regnault; Duparc, H. Regnault, sa vie
et son (Buvre; Cazalis, H. Regnault, 1843-1871; Bailliere, Les Artistes
de man temps; C. Blanc, H. Regnault; P. Mantz, Gazette des Beaux
Arts (1872).
REGNAULT, HENRI VICTOR (1810-1878), French chemist
and physicist, was born on the 2ist of July 1810 at Aix-la-
Chapelle. His early life was a struggle with poverty. When
a boy he went to Paris and obtained a situation in a large
drapery establishment, where he remained, occupying every
spare hour in study, until he was in his twentieth year. Then
he entered the Ecole Polytechnique, and passed in 1832 to the
Ecole des Mines, where he developed an aptitude for experi-
mental chemistry. A few years later he was appointed to a
professorship of chemistry at Lyons. His most important con-
tribution to organic chemistry was a series of researches, begun
in 1835, on the haloid and other derivatives of unsaturated
hydrocarbons. He also studied the alkaloids and organic
acids, introduced a classification of the metals according to
the facility with which they or their sulphides are oxidized
by steam at high temperatures, and effected a comparison
of the chemical composition of atmospheric air from all parts
of the world. In 1840 he was recalled to Paris by his ap-
pointment to the chair of chemistry in the Ecole Polytech-,
nique; at the same time he was elected a member of the
Academic des Sciences, in the chemical section, in room of
P. J. Robiquet (1780-1840); and in the following year he be-
came professor of physics in the College de France, there suc-
ceeding P. L. Dulong, his old master, and in many respects
his model. From this time Regnault devoted almost all his
attention to practical physics; but in 1847 he published a
four-volume treatise on Chemistry which has been translated
into many languages.
Regnault executed a careful redetermination of the specific
heats of all the elements obtainable, and of many compounds
solids, liquids and gases. He investigated the expansibility
of gases by heat, determining the coefficient for air as 0-003665,
and showed that, contrary to previous opinion, no two gases
had precisely the same rate of expansion. By numerous delicate
experiments he proved that Boyle's law is only approximately
true, and that those gases which are most readily liquefied
diverge most widely from obedience to it. He studied the whole
subject of thermometry critically; he introduced the use of
an accurate air-thermometer, and compared its indications
with those of a mercurial thermometer, determining the ab-
solute dilatation of mercury by heat as a step in the process.
He also paid attention to hygrometry and devised a hygrometer
in which a cooled metal surface is used for the deposition of
moisture.
In 1854 he was appointed to succeed J. J. Ebelmen (1814-1852)
as director of the porcelain manufactory at Sevres. He carried
on his great research on the expansion of gases in the laboratory
at Sevres, but all the results of his latest work were destroyed
during the Franco-German War, in which also his son Henri
(noticed above) was killed. Regnault never recovered from the
double blow, and, although he lived until the igth of January
1878, his scientific labours ended in 1872. He wrote more than
eighty papers on scientific subjects, and he made important
researches in conjunction with other workers. His greatest
work, bearing on the practical treatment of steam-engines,
forms vol. xxi. of the Memoires de I' Academic des Sciences.
REGNAULT, JEAN BAPTISTS (1754-1829), French painter,
was born at Paris on the pth of October 1754, and died in the
same city on the I2th of November 1829. He began life at
sea in a merchant vessel, but at the age of fifteen his talent
attracted attention, and he was sent to Italy by M. de Monval
under the care of Bardin. After his return to Paris, Regnault,
in 1776, obtained the Grand Prix, and in 1783 he was elected
Academician. His diploma picture, the " Education of Achilles
by Chiron," is now in the Louvre, as also the " Christ taken down
from the Cross," originally executed for the royal chapel at
Fontainebleau, and two minor works the " Origin of Painting "
and " Pygmalion praying Venus to give Life to his Statue." Be-
sides various small pictures and allegorical subjects, Regnault
was also the author of many large historical paintings; and his
school, which reckoned amongst its chief attendants Guerin,
Crepin, Lafitte, Blondel, Robert Lefevre and .Menjaud, was
for a long while the rival in influence of that of David.
REGNAULT DE SAINT JEAN D'ANGlSLY, MICHEL LOUIS
ETIENNE, COMTE (1761-1819), French politician, was born at
Saint Fargeau (Yonne) on the 3rd of December 1 761. Before the
Revolution he was an avocat in Paris and lieutenant of the maritime
provostship of Rochefort. In 1789 he was elected deputy to the
States General by the Third Estate of the senechaussee of Saint
Jean d'Angely. His eloquence made him a prominent figure in
the Constituent Assembly, where he boldly attacked Mirabeau,
and settled the dispute about the ashes of Voltaire by decreeing
that they belonged to the nation. But the moderation shown
by the measures he proposed at the time of the flight of the
king to Varennes, by his refusal to accede to the demands for
the king's execution, and by the articles he published in the
Journal de Paris and the Ami des patriotes, marked him out
for the hostility of the advanced parties. He was arrested after
the revolution of the loth of August 1792, but succeeded in
escaping, and during the reaction which followed the fall of
Robespierre was appointed administrator of the military
hospitals in Paris. His powers of organization brought him
to Bonaparte's notice, and he took part in the coup d'ftal of
18 Brumaire, year VIII. (9th of November 1799). Under the
Empire he enjoyed the confidence of Bonaparte, and was made
councillor of state, president of section in the Council of State,
REGNIER, H. REGULA
47
member of the French Academy, procureur general of the high
court, and a count of the Empire. He was dismissed on the
first restoration of the Bourbons, but resumed his posts during
the Hundred Days, and after Waterloo persuaded the emperor
to abdicate. He was exiled by the government of the second
Restoration, but subsequently obtained leave to return to
France. He died on the day of his return to Paris (nth of
March 1819). Les Souvenirs du Comle Regnault de St Jean
d 1 Angely (Paris, 1817) are spurious. His son, AUGUSTE MICHEL
ETIENNE REGNAULT DE SAINT JEAN D'ANGELY (1794-1870),
an army officer, was dismissed from the army by the Restora-
tion government, fought for the Greeks in the Greek War of
Independence, and rejoined the French army in 1830. In
1848 he was elected deputy and sat on the right. Under the
Second Empire he went through the Crimean and Italian cam-
paigns, and was made senator and marshal for bravery at
the battle of Magenta.
REGNIER, HENRI FRANCOIS JOSEPH DE (1864- ),
French poet, was born at Honfleur (Calvados) on the 28th of
December 1864, and was educated in Paris for the law. In
1885 he began to contribute to the Parisian reviews, and his
verses found their way into most of the French and Belgian
periodicals favourable to the symbolist writers. Having begun,
however, to write under the leadership of the Parnassians, he
retained the classical tradition, though 'he adopted some of
the innovations of Moreas and Gustave Kahn. His gorgeous
and vaguely suggestive style shows the influence of Stephane
Mallarme, of whom he was an assiduous disciple. His first
volume of poems, Lendemains, appeared in 1885, and among
numerous later volumes are Poemes anciens et romanesques
(1890), Les Jeux rustiques et divins (1890), Les Medailles d' argent
(1900), La Cite des eaux (1903). He is also the author of a
series of realistic novels and tales, among which are La Canne
de jaspe (and ed., 1897), La Double MaHresse (sth ed., 1900),
Les Vacances d'un jeune homme sage (1904), and Les Amants
singuliers (1905). M. de Regnier married Mile. Marie de
Heredia, daughter of the poet, and herself a novelist and poet
under the name of Gerard d'Houville.
See E. Gosse, French Profiles (1905), and Poeles d'aujourd'hui
(6th ed., 1905), by van Bever and Leautaud.
REGNIER, MATHURIN (1573-1613), French satirist, was
born at Chartres on the 2ist of December 1573. His father,
Jacques Regnier, was a bourgeois of good means and position;
his mother, Simone Desportes, was the sister of the poet Des-
portes. Desportes, who was richly beneficed and in great
favour at court, seems to have been regarded as Mathurin
Regnier's natural protector and patron; and the boy himself,
with a view to his following in his uncle's steps, was tonsured
at eight years old. Little is known of his youth, and it is
chiefly conjecture which fixes the date of his visit to Italy in
a humble position in the suite of the cardinal, Francois de
Joyeuse, in 1587. The cardinal was accredited to the papal
court in that year as " protector " of the royal interests.
Regnier found his duties irksome, and when, after many years
of constant travel in the cardinal's service, he returned definitely
to France about 1605, he took advantage of the hospitality of
Desportes. He early began the practice of satirical writing,
and the enmity which existed between his uncle and the poet
Malherbe gave him occasion to attack the latter. In 1606
Desportes died, leaving nothing to Regnier, who, though dis-
appointed of the succession to Desportes's abbacies, obtained a
pension of 2000 livres, chargeable upon one of them. He was
also made in 1609 canon of Chartres through his friendship
with the lax bishop, Philippe Hurault, at whose abbey of
Royaumont he spent much time in the later years of his life.
But the death of Henry IV. deprived him of his last hope of
great preferments. His later life had been one of dissipation,
and he died at Rouen at his hotel, the Ecu d'Orleans, on the
22nd of October 1613.
About the time of his death numerous collections of licentious
and satirical poems were published, while others remained in
manuscript. Gathered from these there has been a floating
mass of licentious epigrams, &c., attributed to R6gnier, little
of which is certainly authentic, so that it is very rare to find
two editions of Regnier which exactly agree in contents. His
undoubted work falls into three classes: regular satires in
alexandrine couplets, serious poems in various metres, and
satirical or jocular epigrams and light pieces, which often, if
not always, exhibit considerable licence of language. The real
greatness of Regnier consists in the vigour and polish of his
satires, contrasted and heightened as that vigour is with the
exquisite feeling and melancholy music of some of his minor
poems. In these R6gnier is a disciple of Ronsard (whom he
defended brilliantly against Malherbe), without the occasional
pedantry, the affectation or the undue fluency of the Pliade;
but in the satires he seems to have had no master except the
ancients, for some of them were written before the publication
of the satires of Vauquelin de la Fresnaye, and the Tragiques
of D'Aubigne did not appear until 1616. He has sometimes
followed Horace closely, but always in an entirely original
spirit. His vocabulary is varied and picturesque, and is not
marred by the maladroit classicism of some of the Ronsardists.
His verse is extraordinarily forcible and nervous, but his chief
distinction as a satirist is the way in which he avoids the
commonplaces of satire. His keen and accurate knowledge
of human nature and even his purely literary qualities extorted
the admiration of Boileau. Regnier displayed remarkable in-
dependence and acuteness in literary criticism, and the famous
passage (Satire ix., A Monsieur Rapiri) in which he satirizes
Malherbe contains the best denunciation of the merely " correct "
theory of poetry that has ever been written. Lastly, R6gnier
had a most unusual descriptive faculty, and the vividness
of what he called his narrative satires was not approached
in France for at least two centuries after his death. All his
merits are displayed in the masterpiece entitled Macette ou
I'Hypocrisie deconcertee, which does not suffer even on com-
parison with Tartuffe; but hardly any one of the sixteen
satires which he has left falls below a very high standard.
Les Premieres (Euvres ou satyres de Regnier (Paris, 1608) included
the Discours au roi and ten satires. There was another in 1609, and
others in 1612 and 1613. The author had also contributed to two
collections Lw Muses gaillardes in 1609 and Le Temple d'Apollon
in 1611. In 1616 appeared Les Satyres et autres oiuvres folastres
du sieur R&gnier, with many additions and some poems by other
hands. Two famous editions by Elzevir (Leiden, 1642 and 1652)
are highly prized. The chief editions of the I Sth century are that
of Claude Brossette (printed by Lyon & Woodman, London, 1729),
which supplies the standard commentary on Regnier; and that
of Lenglet Dufresnoy (printed by J. Tonson, London, 1733)- The
editions of Prosper Poitevin (Paris, 1860), of Ed. de Barthe'lemy
(Paris, 1862), and of E. Courbet (Paris, 1875), may be specially
mentioned. The last, printed after the originals in italic type, and
well edited, is perhaps the best. See also Vianey's Mathurin Regnier
(1896); M. H. Cherrier, Bibliographie de Mathurin Regnier (1884).
REGNITZ, a river of Germany, and a left-bank tributary of
the Main, the most important river of the province of Lower
Bavaria. It is formed by the confluence, near FUrth, of the
Rednitz and Pegnitz. The united river flows north through
an undulating vine-clad country, past Erlangen, Baiersdorf
and Forchheim, from which point it is navigable, and falls
into the Main at Bischberg, just below Bamberg, after a course
of 126 m. Near Bamberg it is joined by the Ludwigskanal,
which, running parallel to it from Fiirth and separated by the
railway, forms the water-connexion between the Main and the
Danube. Its main tributaries from the right are the Griindlach
and the Wiesent, and from the left the Zenn, the Aurach and
the Aisch.
REG RATING (O.Fr. regrater, to sell by retail), in English
criminal law, was the offence of buying and selling again in
the same market, or within four miles thereof. (See EN-
GROSSING.)
REGULA, the Latin word for a rule, hence particularly
applied to the rules of a religious order (see MONASTICISM).
In architecture the term is applied to a rule or square, the
short fillet or rectangular block, under the taenia (q.v.) on the
architrave of the Doric entablature.
REGULAR REICHENAU
REGULAR, orderly, following or arranged according to a
rule (Lat. regula, whence O.Fr. reide, whence English " rule "),
steady, uniform, formally correct. The earliest and only
use in English until the i6th century was in the Med. Lat. sense
of regularis, one bound by and subject to the rule (regula)
of a monastic or religious order, a member of the " regular "
as opposed to the " secular " clergy, and so, as a substantive,
a regular, i.e. a monk or friar. Another specific application
is to that portion of the armed forces of a nation which are
organized on a permanent system, the standing army, as
opposed to " irregulars," levies raised on a voluntary basis
and disbanded when the particular campaign or war for which
they were raised is at an end. In the British army, the forces
were divided into regulars, militia and volunteers, until 1906,
when they were divided into regular and territorial forces.
REGULUS, MARCUS ATILIUS, Roman general and consul
(for the second time) in the ninth year of the First Punic War
(256 B.C.). He was one of the commanders in the Punic naval
expedition which shattered the Carthaginian fleet at Ecnomus,
and landed an army on Carthaginian territory (see PUNIC
WARS). The invaders were so successful that the other
consul, L. Manlius Vulso, was recalled to Rome, Regulus being
left behind to finish the war. After a severe defeat at Adys
near Carthage, the Carthaginians were inclined for peace, but
the terms proposed by Regulus were so harsh that they
resolved to continue the war. In 255, Regulus was completely
defeated and taken prisoner by the Spartan Xanthippus.
There is no further trustworthy information about him. Accord-
ing to tradition, he remained in captivity until 250, when after
the defeat of the Carthaginians at Panormus he was sent to
Rome on parole to negotiate a peace or exchange of prisoners.
On his arrival he strongly urged the senate to refuse both
proposals, and returning to Carthage was tortured to death
(Horace, Odes, iii. 5). This story made Regulus to the later
Romans the type of heroic endurance; but most historians
regard it as insufficiently attested, Polybius being silent. The
tale was probably invented by the annalists to excuse the
cruel treatment of the Carthaginian prisoners by the Romans.
See Polybius i. 25-34; Florus ii. 2; Cicero, De Officiis, iii. 26;
Livy, Epit. 18; Valerius Maximus ix. 2; Sil. Ital. vi. 299-550;
Appian, Punica, 4; Zonaras viii. 15; see also O. Jager, M. Atilius
Regulus (1878).
REHAN, ADA (1860- ), American actress, whose real
name was Crehan, was born in Limerick, Ireland, on the 22nd
of April 1860. Her parents removed to the United States
when she was five years old, and it was in Newark, N.J., that
in 1874 she made her first stage appearance in a small part in
Across the Continent. She was with Mrs John Drew's stock
company in Philadelphia, John W. Albaugh's in Albany and
Baltimore, and other companies for several seasons, playing
every kind of minor part, until she became connected with
Augustin Daly's theatrical management in 1879. Under his
training she soon showed her talents for vivid, charming por-
trayal of character, first in modern and then in older comedies.
She was the heroine in all the Daly adaptations from the German,
and added to her triumphs the parts of Peggy in Wycherly's
Country Girl, Julia in the Hunchback, and especially Katharina
in The Taming of the Shrew, besides playing Rosalind and
Viola. Miss Rehan accompanied Daly's company to England
(first in 1884), France and Germany (1886). Her life-size
portrait as Katharina is in the picture-gallery, and her bust,
with Ellen Terry's, at the entrance to the theatre in the Shake-
speare Memorial at Stratford-on-Avon.
REHEARSAL (from " rehearse," to say over again, repeat,
recount, O.Fr. rehercer, from re, again, and hercer, to harrow,
cf. " hearse," the original meaning being to rake or go over
the same ground again as with a harrow), a recital of words or
statements, particularly the trial performance in private of a-
play, musical composition, recitation, &c., for the purpose of
practice preparatory to the performance in public. In the
theatre a " full rehearsal " is one in which the whole performance
is gone through with all the performers, a " dress rehearsal "
one in which the performance is carried out with scenery,
costumes, properties, &c., exactly as it is to be played in
public.
REHOBOAM (Heb. rehab'am, probably " the clan is en-
'arged," see Ecclus. xlvii. 23, although on the analogy of
Rehabiah and Bab. ra'bi-ilu, 'Am may represent some god;
Septuagint reads poj3oa.ii), son of Solomon and first king of
Judah. On the events which led to his accession and the
partition of the Hebrew monarchy, see JEROBOAM, SOLOMON.
Although his age is given as forty-one (i Kings xiv. 21), the
account of his treatment of the Israelite deputation (i Kings xii.),
as also 2 Chron. xiii. 7, give an impression of youth. He was
partly of Ammonite origin (i Kings xiv. 21), and, like his
father, continued the foreign worship which his connexions
involved. The chief event of his reign was the incursion of
Egypt under Sheshonk (Shishak) I., who came up against
Judah and despoiled the temple about 930 B.C. (see EGYPT,
History, " Deltaic Dynasties "). That this invasion is to
be connected with the friendly relations which are said to
have subsisted between the first of the Libyan dynasty and
Rehoboam's rival is unlikely. Sheshonk has figured his
campaign outside the great temple of Karnak with a list of
some 150 places which he claims to have conquered, but it
is possible that these were only tributary, and the names may
be largely based upon older lists. Towns of both Judah and
Israel are incorporated, and it is possible that Jerusalem once
stood where now the stone is mutilated. 1 The book of
Chronicles enumerates several Judaean cities fortified by
Rehoboam (not necessarily connected with Sheshonk's cam-
paign), and characteristically regards the invasion as a punish-
ment (2 Chron. xi. 5 sqq., xii. 1-15; for the prophet Shemaiah
see i Kings xii. 21-24). Of Rehoboam's successor Abijah (or
Abijam) little is known except a victory over Jeroboam re-
corded in 2 Chron. xiii. See further ASA, OMRI, and JEWS
(History), 7, 9.
REICHA, ANTON JOSEPH (1770-1836), French musical
theorist and teacher of composition, was born at Prague on the
27th of February 1770, and educated chiefly by his uncle,
Joseph Reicha (1746-1795), a clever violoncellist, who first
received him into his house at Wallerstein in Bohemia, and
afterwards carried him to Bonn. Here, about 1789, he was made
flutist in the orchestra of the elector. In 1794 he went to
Hamburg and gave music lessons there, also producing the
opera Code/raid de Montfort. He was in Paris in 1799 and in
Vienna from 1802 to 1808, during which period he saw much of
Beethoven and Haydn. In the latter year he returned to Paris,
where he produced three operas without much success. In
1817 he succeeded Mehul as professor of counterpoint at the
Conservatoire. In 1829 he was naturalized as a Frenchman, and
in 1835 he was admitted as a member of the Institute in the
place of Boieldieu. He died in Paris on the 28th of May 1836.
He produced a vast quantity of church music, five operas, a
number of symphonies, oratorios and many miscellaneous
works. Though clever and ingenious, his compositions are
more remarkable for their novelty than for the beauty of the
ideas upon which they are based. His fame is, indeed, more
securely based upon his didactic works. His Traite de milodie
(Paris, 1814), Cours de composition musicals (Paris, 1818),
Traite de haute composition musicale (Paris, 1824-26), and
Art du compositeur dramatique (Paris, 1833), are valuable and
instructive essays for the student, though many of the theories
they set forth are now condemned as erroneous.
REICHENAU, a picturesque island in the Untersee or
western arm of the lake of Constance, 3 m. long by i broad, and
connected with the east shore by a causeway three-quarters of a
mile long. It belongs to the grand duchy of Baden. The soil
1 The once popular view that " king of Judah " stands in no. 29 is
untenable. See Petrie, Hist, of Egypt, ii. p. 235; L. B. Paton, Syria
and Pal. p. 193 sq.; W. M. Miiller, Mitteil. Vorderasiat. Gesell.,
1900, p. 19 sq., and Ency. Bib. col. 4486. Breasted (Amer. Journ. of
Sent. Lang., 1904, p. 36) has made the interesting observation that
the list mentions " the field of Abram " (nos. 71 and 72) ; see further,
id., Egypt Hist. Records, iv. pp. 348-357.
REICHENBACH, G. REICHSTADT, DUKE OF
49
is very fertile, and excellent wine is produced in sufficient
quantity for exportation. The Benedictine abbey of Reichenau,
founded in 724, was long celebrated for its wealth and for the
services rendered by its monks to the cause of learning. In
1540 the abbey, which had previously been independent, was
annexed to the see of Constance, and in 1799 it was secularized.
The abbey church, dating in part from the pth century, contains
the tomb of Charles the Fat (d. 888), who retired to this island
in 887, after losing the empire of Charlemagne. It now
serves as the parish church of Mittelzell, while the churches of
Oberzell and Unterzell are also interesting buildings of the
Carolingian era.
REICHENBACH, GEORG VON (1772-1826), German astro-
nomical instrument maker, was born at Durlach in Baden on
the 24th of August 1772. From 1796 he was occupied with
the construction of a dividing engine; in 1804, with Joseph,
Liebherr and Joseph Utzschneider, he founded an instrument-
making business in Munich; and in 1809 he established, with
Joseph Fraunhofer and Utzschneider, optical works at Benedict-
beuern, which were moved to Munich in 1823. He withdrew
from both enterprises in 1814, and founded with T. L. Ertel a
new optical business, from which also he retired in 1821, on
obtaining an engineering appointment under the Bavarian
government. He died at Munich on the 2ist of May 1826.
Reichenbach's principal merit was that he introduced into ob-
servatories the meridian or transit circle, combining the transit in-
strument and the mural circle into one instrument. This had
already been done by O. Romer about 1704, but the idea had not
been adopted by any one else, except in the transit circle constructed
by Edward Troughton for Stephen Gropmbridge in 1806. The
transit circle in the form given it by Reichenbach had one finely
divided circle attached to one end of the horizontal axis and read
by four verniers on an " alidade circle," the unaltered position of
which was tested by a spirit level. The instrument came almost at
once into universal use on the continent of Europe (the first one was
made for F. W. Bessel in 1819), but in England the mural circle and
transit instrument were not superseded for many years.
REICHENBACH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Silesia, situated on the Peile, at the foot of the
Eulengebirge, a spur of the Riesengebirge, 30 m. S.W. of Breslau
by rail. Pop. (1905) 15,984. Among its industries are weaving,
spinning, dyeing, brewing and machine building, and there is a
considerable trade in grain and cattle. Reichenbach is memor-
able for the victory gained here on the i6th of August 1762 by
the Prussians over the Austrians. Here was held the congress
which resulted in the convention of Reichenbach signed on the
27th of July 1790 between Great Britain, Prussia, Austria,
Poland and Holland guaranteeing the integrity of Turkey.
Here, too, in June 1813, was signed the treaty of alliance between
Austria and the Allies for the prosecution of the war against
France.
See theKurze Geschichte der Sladt Reichenbach (Reichenbach, 1874).
REICHENBACH, a town in the kingdom of Saxony, situated
in a hilly district, known as the Vogtland, n m. S.W. of Zwickau,
at the junction of the main lines of railway Dresden-Leipzig-Hof.
Pop. (1905) 24,915. It contains a handsome town-hall rebuilt
in 1833, and a natural history museum. The industries embrace
the manufacture of cloth, machinery and carriages, also dyeing
and bleaching. The earliest mention of the town occurs in a
document of 1212, and it acquired municipal rights in 1367.
The woollen manufacture was introduced in the isth century,
and took the place of the mining industry which had been
established earlier.
REICHENBERG (Czech, Liberec), a town of Bohemia,
87 m. N.E. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 34,99, chiefly
German. The most prominent buildings are the new town-hall
(1893); the castle of Count Clam Gallas, built in the I7th
century, with additions dating from 1774 and 1850; the
Erzdekanatskirche, of the i6th century; the Protestant church,
a handsome modern Romanesque edifice (1864-68) and the hall
of the cloth-workers. Reichenberg is one of the most important
centres of trade and industry in Bohemia, its staple industry
being the cloth manufacture. Next in importance comes the
spinning and weaving of wool, cotton, linen and carpet manu-
factures, and dyeing.
Reichenberg is first mentioned in a document of 1348, and from
1622 to 1634 was among the possessions of the great Wallenstein,
since whose death it has belonged to the Gallas and Clam Gallas
families, though their jurisdiction over the town has long ceased.
The cloth-making industry was introduced in 1579.
REICHENHALL, a town and watering-place in the kingdom
of Bavaria, finely situated in an amphitheatre of lofty moun-
tains, on the river Saalach, 1570 ft. above sea-level, 9 m. S.W.
of Salzburg. Pop. (1900) 4927, excluding visitors. Reichen-
hall possesses several copious saline springs, producing about
8500 tons of salt per annum. The water of some of the springs,
the sources of which are 50 ft. below the surface, is so strongly
saturated with salt (up to 24%) that it is at once conducted
to the boiling houses, while that of the others is first submitted
to a process of evaporation. Reichenhall is the centre of the
four chief Bavarian salt-works, which are connected with each
other by brine conduits having an aggregate length of 60 m.
The surplus brine of Berchtesgaden is conducted to Reichen-
hall, and thence, in increased volume, to Traunstein and Rosen-
heim, which possess larger supplies of timber for use as fuel
in the process of boiling. Since 1846 Reichenhall has become
one of the most fashionable spas and climatic health resorts
in Germany, and it is now visited annually by about ten
thousand patients, besides many thousand passing tourists.
The saline springs are used both for drinking and bathing,
and are said to be efficacious in scrofula and incipient tuber-
culosis.
The brine springs of Reichenhall are mentioned in a docu-
ment of the 8th century and were perhaps known to the Romans;
but almost all trace of antiquity of the town was destroyed
by a conflagration in 1834. The brine conduit to Traunstein
dates from 1618. The environs abound in numerous charming
Alpine excursions.
See G. von Liebig, Reichenhall, sein Klima und seine Heilmillel
(6th ed., Reichenhall, 1889); and Goldschmidt, Der Kurort Bad
Reichenhall und seine Umgebung (Vienna, 1892).
REICHENSPERGER, AUGUST (1808-1895), German poli-
tician, was born at Coblenz on the 22nd of March 1808, studied
law and entered government service, becoming counsellor to
the court of appeal (Appellationsgerichtsrat) at Cologne in 1849.
He was a member of the German parliament at Frankfort in
1848, when he attached himself to the Right, and of the Erfurt
parliament in 1850, when he voted against the Prussian Union.
From 1850 to 1863 he sat in the Prussian Lower House, from
1867 to 1884 in the Reichstag, and from 1879 onwards also
in the Prussian Chamber of Deputies. Originally of Liberal
tendencies, he developed from 1837 onwards ultramontane
opinions, founded in 1852 the Catholic group which in 1861
took the name of the Centre party (Centrum) and became one
of its most conspicuous orators. He died on the i6th of July
1895 at Cologne. He published a considerable number of
works on art and architecture, including Die christlich-ger-
manische Baukunst (Trier, 1852, 3rd ed., 1860); Fingerzeige
auf dem Gebiete der christlichen Kunsl (Leipzig, 1854); Augustus
Pugin, der Neubegrunder der christlichen Kunst in England
(Freiburg, 1877).
See L. v. Pastor, August Reichensperger, 2 vols. (Freiburg-im-
Breisgau, 1899).
His brother, PETER REICHENSPERGER (1810-1892), counsellor
to the appeal court at Cologne (1850) and until 1879 to the
Obertribunal at Berlin, was elected to the Reichstag in 1867
as a member of the Liberal Opposition, but subsequently
joined the Centre party. In the Kulturkampf he took an
active part on the ultramontane side. He had been a member
of the Prussian National Assembly in 1848, and in 1888 he
published his Erlebnisse eines alien Parlamentariers im Revolu-
tionsjahr 1848.
REICHSTADT, NAPOLEON FRANCIS JOSEPH CHARLES,
DUKE OF (1811-1832), known by the Bonapartists as Napo-
leon II., was the son of the Emperor Napoleon I. and Marie
Louise, archduchess of Austria. He was born on the zoth of
50
March 1811, in Paris at the Tuileries palace. He was at first
named the king of Rome, after the analogy of the heirs of the
emperors of the Holy Roman Empire. By his birth the
Napoleonic dynasty seemed to be finally established; but in
three years it crumbled in the dust. At the time of the downfall
of the empire (April 1814) Marie Louise and the king of Rome
were at Blois with Joseph and Jerome Bonaparte, who wished
to keep them as hostages. This design, however, was frustrated.
Napoleon abdicated in favour of his son; but events prevented
the reign of Napoleon II. from being more than titular. While
Napoleon repaired to Elba, his consort and child went to
Vienna; and they remained in Austria during the Hundred
Days (1815), despite efforts made by the Bonapartists to carry
off the prince to his father at Paris.
Meanwhile the congress of Vienna had carried out the con-
ditions of the treaty of Fontainebleau (March 1814) whereby
the duchies of Parma and Guastalla were to go to the ex-
Empress Marie Louise and her son, although much opposition
was offered to this proposal by Louis XVIII. and even (so it
now appears) by Metternich. The secret treaty of the 3ist
of May 1815 between Austria, Russia and Prussia secured
those possessions to her, her son bearing the title Prince of
Parma, with hereditary rights for his descendants. But after
the second abdication of Napoleon in favour of his son (22nd
of June 1815) a condition which was wholly nugatory the
powers opposed all participation of the prince in the affairs
of Parma. He therefore remained in Austria, while Marie
Louise proceeded to Parma. From this time onward he be-
came, as it were, a pawn in the complex game of European
politics, his claims being put forward sometimes by Metternich,
sometimes by the unionists of Italy, while occasionally mal-
contents in France used his name to discredit the French
Bourbons. The efforts of malcontents increased the resolve
of the sovereigns never to allow a son of Napoleon to bear
rule; and in November 1816 the court of Vienna informed
Marie Louise that her son could not succeed to the duchies.
This decision was confirmed by the treaty of Paris of the icth
of June 1817. Marie Louise demanded as a slight compensa-
tion that he should have a title derived from the lands of the
" Bavarian Palatinate " in northern Bohemia, and the title
of " duke of Reichstadt " was therefore conferred on him on
the 22nd of July 1818. Thus Napoleon I., who once averred
that he would prefer that his son should be strangled rather
than brought up as an Austrian prince, lived to see his son
reduced to a rank inferior to that of the Austrian archdukes.
His education was confided chiefly to Count Dietrichstein,
who found him precocious, volatile, passionate and fond of
military affairs. The same judgment was given by Marshal
Marmont, duke of Ragusa, who recognized the warlike strain
in his character. His nature was sensitive, as appeared on his
receiving the news of the death of his father in 1821. The
upheaval in France in 1830 and the disturbances which ensued
led many Frenchmen to turn their thoughts to Napoleon II.;
but though Metternich dallied for a time with the French
Bonapartists, he had no intention of inaugurating a Napoleonic
revival. By this time, too, the duke's health was on the decline ;
his impatience of all restraint and his indulgence in physical
exercise far beyond his powers aggravated a natural weakness
of the chest, and he died on the 22nd of July 1832.
See A. M. Barthelemy and J. P. A. MeVy, Le Fils de I'homme
(Paris, 1829}; Baron G. I. Comte de Montbel, Le Due de Reichstadt
(Paris, 1832); J. de Saint-Fflix, Histoire de Napoleon II. (Paris,
1853); Guy de l'Hrault, Histoire de Napoleon II. (Paris, 1853);
Count Anton von Prokesch-Osten, Mein Verhaltniss zum Herzog
von Reichstadt (Stuttgart, 1878) ; H. Welschinger, Le Rot de Rome
(Paris, 1897); E. de Wertheimer, The Duke of Reichstadt (Eng. ed.,
London, 1905); M. Rostand's play L'Aiglon is a dramatic setting
of the career of the prince. (J. HL. R.)
REID, SIR GEORGE (1841- ), Scottish artist, was born
in Aberdeen on the 3ist of October 1841. He developed an
early passion for drawing, which led to his being apprenticed
in 1854 for seven years to Messrs Keith & Gibb, lithographers
in Aberdeen. In 1861 Reid took lessons from an itinerant
REID, SIR G. REID, SIR R. G.
portrait-painter, William Niddrie, who had been a pupil ol
James Giles, R.S.A., and afterwards entered as a student in
the school of the Board of Trustees in Edinburgh. He returned
to Aberdeen to paint landscapes and portraits for any trifling
sum which his work could command. His first portrait to
attract attention, from its fine quality, was that of George
Macdonald, the poet and novelist, now the property of the
university of Aberdeen. His early landscapes were con-
scientiously painted in the open air and on the spot. But
Reid soon came to see that such work was inherently false,
painted as the picture was day after day under varying con-
ditions of light and shade. Accordingly, in 1865 he proceeded
to Utrecht to study under A. Mollinger, whose work he ad-
mired, from its unity and simplicity. This change in his
method of viewing Nature was looked on as revolutionary by
the Royal Scottish Academy, and for some years his work
found little favour in that quarter; but other artists gradually
adopted the system of tone-studies, which ultimately pre-
vailed. Reid went ,to Paris in 1868 to study under the figure
painter Yvon; and he worked in 1872 with Josef Israels
at the Hague. From this time forward Reid's success was
continuous and marked. He showed his versatility in land-
scape, as in his " Whins in Bloom," which combined great
breadth with fine detail; in flower-pieces, such as his " Roses,"
which were brilliant in rapid suggestiveness and force; but
most of all in his portraits, which are marked by great indi-
viduality, and by fine insight into character. His work in
black-and-white, his admirable illustrations in brushwork of
Edinburgh and its neighbourhood, and also his pen-drawings,
about which it has been declared that " his work contains
all the subtleties and refinements of a most delicate etching,"
must also be noted. Elected Associate of the Royal Scottish
Academy in 1870, Reid attained full membership in 1877,
and took up his residence in Edinburgh in 1882. In 1891
he was elected President a post which he held until 1902
receiving also the honour of knighthood, and he was awarded
a gold medal at the Paris Exhibition of 1900. His brother
Samuel (b. 1854) was also a painter and a writer of tales and
verse.
REID, ROBERT (1862- ), American artist, was born at
Stockbridge, Mass., on the 2pth of July 1862. He studied
at the art schools of the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, the
Art Students' League, New York, and under Boulanger and
Lefebvre in Paris. His early pictures were figures of French
peasants, painted at Etaples, but subsequently he became best
known for mural decoration and designs for stained glass.
He contributed with others to the frescoes of the dome of
the Liberal Arts Building at the Columbian Exposition, Chicago,
in 1893. Other work is in the Congressional Library, Washing-
ton, the Appellate Court House, New York, and the State
House, Boston, where are his three large panels, " James
Otis Delivering his Speech against the Writs of Assistance,"
" Paul Revere's Ride " and the " Boston Tea Party." He
executed a panel for the American Pavilion at the Paris Ex-
hibition, 1900, and in 1906 he completed a series of ten stained
glass windows for a church at Fairhaven, Mass., for the Rogers
Memorial. In 1906 he became a full member of the National
Academy of Design.
REID, SIR ROBERT GILLESPIE (1840-1908), Canadian
railway contractor, was born at Coupar-Angus, Scotland.
When a young man he spent a few years in Australia gold-
mining, and in 1871 he settled in America, where he began his
career as a contractor. He built one section of the Canadian
Pacific railway, and was responsible for the erection of the
international bridge over the Niagara river, the international
railway bridge over the Rio Grande river and the Lachine
bridge over the St Lawrence. In 1893 Reid signed a contract
with the government of Newfoundland by which he under-
took to construct a railway from St John's to Port-aux-Basques
and to work the line for ten years in return for a large grant
of land. In 1898 he further contracted to work all the railways
in Newfoundland for fifty years on condition that at the end
REID, T.
of this time they should become his property. This bargain,
which included other matters such as steamers, docks and
telegraphs, was extraordinarily favourable to Reid, who, by
further enormous grants of land, became one of the largest
landed proprietors in the world; public opinion was aroused
against it, and at first the governor, Sir Herbert Murray, refused
to ratify it. After the premier, Sir James Winter, had been
replaced by Mr (afterwards Sir) Robert Bond, the terms of
the contract were revised, being made more favourable to
Newfoundland, and Reid's interests were transferred to a
company, the Reid Newfoundland Company, of which he was
the first president (see NEWFOUNDLAND, Roads and Railways).
Reid was knighted in 1907, and he died on the 3rd of June 1908.
REID, THOMAS (1710-1796), Scottish philosopher, was born
at Strachan in Kincardineshire, on the 26th of April 1710.
His father was minister of the place for fifty years, and traced
his descent from a long line of Presbyterian ministers on Dee-
side. His mother belonged to the brilliant Gregory family
(q.v.), which, in the i8th century, gave so many representatives
to literature and science in Scotland. Reid graduated at Aber-
deen in 1726, and remained there as librarian to the university
for ten years, a period which he devoted largely to mathematical
reading. In 1737 he was presented to the living of Newmachar
near Aberdeen. The parishioners, violently excited at the
time about the law of patronage, received him with open
hostility; and tradition asserts that his uncle defended him
on the pulpit stair with a drawn sword. Though not dis-
tinguished as a preacher, he was successful in winning -the
affections of his people. The publication of Hume's treatise
turned his attention to philosophy, and in particular to the
theory of external perception. His first publication, however,
dealt with a question of philosophical method suggested by
the reading of Hutcheson. The " Essay on Quantity, occa-
sioned by reading a Treatise in which Simple and Compound
Ratios are applied to Virtue and Merit," denies the possibility
of a mathematical treatment of moral subjects. The essay
appeared in the Transactions of the Royal Society (1748).
In 1740 Reid married a cousin, the daughter of a London
physician. In 1752 the professors of King's College, Aberdeen,
elected him to the chair of philosophy, which he held for twelve
years. The foundation of the Aberdeen Philosophical Society
(the " Wise Club "), which numbered among its members
Campbell, Beattie, Gerard and Dr John Gregory, was mainly
owing to the exertions of Reid, who was secretary for the first
year (1758). Many of the subjects of discussion were drawn
from Hume's speculations; and during the last years of his
stay in Aberdeen Reid propounded his new point of view
in several papers read before the society. The results of these
papers were embodied in the Enquiry into the Human Mind on
the Principles of Common Sense (1764). The Enquiry does not
go beyond an analysis of sense perception, and is therefore more
limited in scope than the later Essays; but if the latter are more
mature, there is more freshness about the earlier work. In
this year, Reid succeeded Adam Smith as professor of moral
philosophy in the university of Glasgow. After seventeen
years of active teaching, he retired in order to complete his
philosophical system. As a lecturer, he was inferior in charm
and eloquence to Brown and Stewart; the latter says that
" silent and respectful attention " was accorded to the " sim-
plicity and perspicuity of his style " and " the gravity and
authority of his character." His philosophical influence was
exerted largely through the writings of Dugald Stewart and
Sir William Hamilton. The Essays on the Intellectual Powers
of Man appeared in 1785, and their ethical complement, the
Essays on the Active Powers of the Human Mind, in 1788. These,
with an account of Aristotle's Logic appended to Lord Kames's
Sketches of the History of Man (1774), conclude the list of works
published in Reid's lifetime. Hamilton's edition of Reid also
contains an account of the university of Glasgow and a selection
of Reid's letters, chiefly. addressed to his Aberdeen friends the
Skenes, to Lord Kames, and to Dr James Gregory. With the
two last named he discussed the materialism of Priestley and
the theory of necessitarianism. He reverted in his old age
to the mathematical pursuits of his earlier years, and his ardour
for knowledge of every kind remained fresh to the last. He
died of paralysis on the 7th of October 1796, his wife and all
his children save one having predeceased him. His portrait
by Raeburn is the property of Glasgow University, and in
the National Portrait Gallery, Edinburgh, there is a good
medallion by Tassie, taken in his eighty-first year. His char-
acter was marked by independence, economy and generosity.
The key to Reid's philosophy is to be found in his revulsion from
the sceptical conclusions of Hume. In several passages of his
writings he expressly dates his philosophical awakening from the
appearance of the Treatise of Human Nature. In the dedication
of the Enquiry, he says: "The ingenious author of that treatise
upon the principles of Locke who was no sceptic hath built a
system of scepticism which leaves no ground to believe any one
thing rather than its contrary. His reasoning appeared to me to
be just; there was, therefore, a necessity to call in question the
principles upon which it was founded, or to admit the conclusion."
Reid thus takes Hume's scepticism as, on its own showing, a reductio
ad impossibile (see HUME, ad fin.) of accepted philosophical
principles, and refuses, accordingly, to separate Hume from his
intellectual progenitors. From its origin in Descartes and onwards
through Locke and Berkeley, modern philosophy carried with it,
Reid contends, the germ of scepticism. Embracing the whole
philosophic movement under the name of " the Cartesian system,"
Reid detects its fundamental error in the unproved assumption
shared by these thinkers " that all the objects of my knowledge
are ideas in my own mind." This doctrine or hypothesis he usually
speaks of as ' the ideal system " or " the theory of ideas"; and to
it he opposes his own analysis of the act of perception. In view
of the results of this analysis, Reid's theory (ana the theory of
Scottish philosophy generally) has been dubbed natural realism or
natural dualism, in contrast to theories like subjective idealism
and materialism or to the cosmothetic idealism or hypothetical
dualism of the majority of philosophers. But this unduly narrows
the scope of Scottish philosophy, which does not exhaust itself,
as is sometimes supposed, in uncritically reasserting the independent
existence of matter and its immediate presence to mind. The
real significance of Reid's doctrine lies in its attack upon Hume's
tundamental principles, (i) that all our perceptions are distinct
existences, and (2) that the mind never perceives any real connexion
among distinct existences (cf. Appendix to the third volume of the
Treatise, 1740). It is here that the danger of " the ideal system "
really lies in its reduction of reality to " particular perceptions,"
essentially unconnected with each other. This theory admitted,
nothing is left for philosophy save to explain the illusion of necessary
connexion. Reid, however, attacks the fundamental assumption.
In logical language, he denies the actuality of the abstract particular.
The unit of knowledge is not an isolated impression but a judgment;
and in such a judgment is contained, even initially, the reference
both to a permanent subject and to a permanent world of thought,
and, implied in these, such judgments, for example, as those of
existence, substance, cause and effect. Such principles are not
derived from sensation, but are " suggested on occasion of
sensation, in such a way as to constitute the necessary conditions
of our having perceptive experience at all. Thus we do not start
with " ideas," and afterwards refer them to objects; we are never
restricted to our own minds, but are from the first immediately
related to a permanent world. Reid has a variety of names for the
principles which, by their presence, lift us out of subjectivity into
perception. He calls them " natural judgments," " natural sug-
gestions," " judgments of nature," " judgments immediately
inspired by our constitution," " principles of our nature," " first
principles," " principles of common sense." The last -
designation, which became the current one, was un- "
doubtedly unfortunate, and has conveyed to many a false
impression of Scottish philosophy. It has been understood as if
Reid had merely appealed from the reasoned conclusions of philo-
sophers to the unreasoned beliefs of common life. But Reid's
actions are better than his words; his real mode of procedure is to
redargue Hume's conclusions by a refutation of the premises in-
herited by him from his predecessors. For the rest, as regards
the question of nomenclature, Reid everywhere unites common
sense and reason, making the former " only another name for
one branch or degree of reason." Reason, as judging of things
self-evident, is called common sense to distinguish it from ratio-
cination or reasoning. And in regard to Reid s favourite proof of
the principles in question by reference to " the consent of ages and
nations, of the learned ana unlearned," it is only fair to observe
that this argument assumes a much more scientific form in the
Essays, where it is almost identified with an appeal to " the structure
and grammar of all languages." " The structure of all languages,"
he says, " is grounded upon common sense." To take out one
example, " the distinction between sensible qualities and the
substance to which they belong, and between thought and the
mind that thinks, is not the invention of philosophers; it is found
REID, T. M. REIGATE
in the structure of all languages, and therefore must be common
to all men who speak with understanding " (Hamilton's Reid, pp.
229 and 454).
The principles which Reid insists upon as everywhere present
in experience evidently correspond pretty closely to the Kantian
categories and the unity of apperception. Similarly, Reid's
da ana asser tipn of the essential distinction between space or
extension and feeling or any succession of feelings may
be compared with Kant's doctrine in the Aesthetic. " Space, '
he says, " whether tangible or visible, is not so properly
an object [Kant's " matter "] as a necessary concomitant of the
objects both of sight and touch." Like Kant, too, Reid finds in
space the source of a necessity which sense, as sense, cannot give
(Hamilton's Reid, p. 323). In the substance of their answer to Hume,
the two philosophers have therefore much in common. But Reid
lacked the art to give due impressiveness to the important advance
which his positions really contain. Although at times he states
his principles with a wonderful degree of breadth and insight, he
mars the effect by looseness of statement, and by the incorporation
of irrelevant psychological matter. And, if Kant was overridden
by a love of symmetry, Reid's indifference to form and system is
an even more dangerous defect. Further, Reid is inclined to state
his principles dogmatically rather than as logical deductions. The
transcendental deduction, or proof from the possibility of experi-
ence in general, which forms the vital centre of the Kantian scheme,
is wanting in Reid ; or, at all events, if the spirit of the proof is
occasionally present, it is nowhere adequately developed. Never-
theless, Reid's insistence on judgment as the unit of knowledge and
his sharp distinction between sensation and perception must still
be recognized as of the highest importance.
The relativism or phenomenalism which Hamilton afterwards
adopted from Kant and sought to engraft upon Scottish philosophy
The * s w hNy absent from the original Scottish doctrine. One
S ottish or ^ Wo P assa S es may certainly be quoted from Reid in
School which he asserts that we know only properties of things
and are ignorant of their essence. But the exact meaning
which he attaches to such expressions is not quite clear; and they
occur, moreover, only incidentally and with the air of current phrases
mechanically repeated. Dugald Stewart, however, deliberately
emphasizes the merely qualitative nature of our knowledge as the
foundation of philosophical argument, and thus paves the way for
the thoroughgoing philosophy of nescience elaborated by Hamilton.
But since Hamilton's time the most typical Scottish thinkers have
repudiated his relativistic doctrine, and returned to the original
tradition of the school. For Reid's ethical theory, see ETHICS.
The complete edition of the works by Sir William Hamilton,
published in two volumes with notes and supplementary disserta-
tions by the editor (6th ed. 1863), has superseded all others. For
Reid's life see D. Stewart's Memoir prefixed to Hamilton's edition
of Reid's works. See also McCosh, Scottish Philosophers (1875);
Rait, Universities of Aberdeen, pp. 199-203, 223; A. C. Fraser,
Monograph (1898); A. Bain, Mental Science, p. 207, p. 422 (for his
theory of free will), and Appendix, pp. 29, 6-;, 88, 89.
(A. S. P.-P.;X.)
REID, THOMAS MAYNE (1818-1883), better known as
MAYNE REID, British novelist, the son of a Presbyterian minister,
was born at Ballyroney, Co. Down, Ireland, on the 4th of April
1818. His own early life was as adventurous as any boy
reader of his novels could desire. He was educated for the
church, but did not take orders, and when twenty years old
went to America in search of excitement and fortune. He
made trading excursions on the Red river, studying the ways
of the red man and the white pioneer. He made acquaintance
with the Missouri in the same manner, and roved through all
the states of the Union. In Philadelphia, where he was engaged
in journalism from 1843 to 1846, he made the acquaintance of
Edgar AUan Poe. When the war with Mexico broke out in 1846
he obtained a captain's commission, was present at the siege
and capture of Vera Cruz, and led a forlorn hope at Chapulte-
pec, where he sustained such severe injuries that his life was
despaired of. In one of his novels he says that he believed
theoretically in the military value of untrained troops, and
that he had found his theories confirmed in actual warfare.
An enthusiastic republican, he offered his services to the
Hungarian insurgents in 1849, raised a body of volunteers,
and sailed for Europe, but arrived too late. He then settled in
England, and began his career of a novelist with the publication,
in 1850, of the Rifle Rangers. This was followed next year
by the Scalp Hunters. He never surpassed his first productions,
except perhaps in The White Chief (1859) and The Quadroon
(1856); but he continued to produce tales of self-reliant enter-
prise and exciting adventure with great fertility. Simplicity of
plot and easy variety of exciting incident are among the merits
that contribute to his popularity with boys. His reflections
are not profound, but are frequently more sensible than might
be presumed at first from his aggressive manner of expressing
them. He died in London on the 22nd of October 1883.
See Memoir (1890) by his widow, Elizabeth Mayne Reid.
REID, WHITELAW (1837- ), American journalist and
diplomatist, was born of Scotch parentage, near Xenia, Ohio,
on the 27th of October 1837. He graduated at Miami Uni-
versity in 1856, and spoke frequently in behalf of John C.
Fremont, the Republican candidate for the presidency in
that year; was superintendent of schools of South Charleston,
Ohio, in 1856-58, and in 1858-59 was editor of the Xenia
News. In 1860 he became legislative correspondent at
Columbus for several Ohio newspapers, including the Cincinnati
Gazette, of which he was made city editor in 1861. He was
war correspondent for the Gazette in 1861-62, serving also
as volunteer aide-de-camp (with the rank of captain) to General
Thomas A. Morris (181 1-1904) and General William S. Rosecrans
in West Virginia. He was Washington correspondent of the
Gazette in 1862-68, acting incidentally as clerk of the mili-
tary committee of Congress (1862-63) and as librarian of the
House of Representatives (1863-66). In 1868 he became a
leading editorial writer for the New York Tribune, in the
following year was made managing editor, and in 1872, upon
the death of Horace Greeley, became the principal proprietor
and editor-in-chief. In 1905 Reid relinquished his active
editorship of the Tribune, but retained financial control. He
declined an appointment as United States minister to Germany
in 1877 and again in 1881, but served as minister to France in
1889-92, and in 1892 was the unsuccessful Republican candi-
date for vice-president on the ticket with Benjamin Harrison.
In 1897 he was special ambassador of the United States on the
occasion of Queen Victoria's jubilee; in 1898 was a member of
the commission which arranged the terms of peace between
the United States and Spain; in 1902 was special ambassador
of the United States at the coronation of King Edward VII.,
and in 1905 became ambassador to Great Britain. He was
elected a life member of the New York State Board of Regents
in 1878; and in 1902 he became vice-chancellor and, in 1904,
chancellor of the university of the state of New York. In 1881
he fliarried a daughter of Darius Ogden Mills (1825-1910), a
prominent financier.
His publications include After the War (1867), in which he gives
his observations during a journey through the Southern States in
1866; Ohio in the War (2 vols., 1868); Some Consequences of the
Last Treaty of Paris (1899); Our New Duties (1899); Later Aspects
of Our New Duties (1899); Problems of Expansion (1900); The
Greatest Fact in Modern History (1906), and How America faced its
Educational Problem (1906).
REID, SIR WILLIAM (1791-1858), Scottish administrator
and man of science, was born on the 25th of April 1791 at
the manse of Kinglassie, Fifeshire, and entered the Royal
Engineers in 1809. He saw active service in the Peninsula
under Wellington, and took part in the bombardment of Algiers
in 1816. In 1835 and 1836 he again saw active service, in
Spain against Don Carlos. In 1838 he published his Attempt
to develop the Law of Storms, which obtained wide popularity.
In 1839 he was appointed governor of the Bermudas, where
he did much to develop the agricultural resources of the islands,
and in 1846 he was transferred to Barbados. In 1850-51 he
was chairman of the executive committee of the Great Exhi-
bition; on the completion of the work he was made a K.C.B.
and appointed governor of Malta. He died in London on the
3ist of October 1858.
REIGATE, a market town and municipal borough in the
Reigate parliamentary division of Surrey, England, 24 m.
S. by W. of London by the South-Eastern & Chatham rail-
way. Pop. (1901) 25,993. It is situated at the head of the
long valley of Holmsdale Hollow, beneath the North Downs.
A very fine prospect over a great part of Surrey and Sussex,
and extending to Hampshire and Kent, is obtained from the
neighbouring Reigate Hill. Of the old castle, supposed to
REIMARUS REIMS
53
have been built before the Conquest to command the pass
through the valley, there only remains the entrance to a cave
beneath, 150 ft. long and from 10 to 12 ft. high, excavated in
the sandstone, which was used as a guardroom. The grounds
are laid out as a public garden. Near the market house is
the site of an ancient chapel dedicated to Thomas a Becket.
In the chancel of the parish church of St Mary, a building
ranging from Transitional Norman to Perpendicular, is buried
Lord Howard, the commander of the English navy against the
Spanish Armada. Above the vestry there is a library contain-
ing choice manuscripts and rare books. The grammar school
was founded in 1675. Among the other public buildings are
the town hall, the public hall, the market hall, and the working
men's institute. The borough includes the township of Red-
hill, adjacent on the east. The town has some agricultural
trade, and in the neighbourhood are quarries for freestone,
hearthstone and white sand. The borough is under a mayor,
6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 5994 acres.
Reigate (Cherchefelle, Regat, Reygale) owed its first settlement to
its situation at a cross-road on the Pilgrim's Way, at the foot of the
North Downs; and its early importance to the castle which was the
stronghold of the De Warennes in the I2th, I3th and I4h centuries.
On the death of Edith, the widow of Edward the Confessor, to whom
it belonged, William I. secured the manor of Cherchefelle, as it was
then called. It was granted by William Rufus to Earl Warenne,
through whose family it passed m 1347 to the earls of Arundel. The
name Reigate occurs in 1199. Burgesses of Reigate are mentioned
in a close roll of 1348, but no eaily charter is known. The town was
incorporated in 1863. It returned two members to parliament
from 1295 till 1831, and afterwards one member only until 1867,
when it was disfranchised for corruption. In the reign of Edward I.
Earl Warenne held a weekly market on Saturdays, and fairs on
Tuesday in Whitsun-week, the eve and day of St Lawrence, and
the eve and day of the Exaltation of the Cross, by prescriptive right.
Edward II. granted a market on Tuesdays, which is still held. The
fair days are now Whit-Tuesday and the gth of December.
REIMARUS, HERMANN SAMUEL (1694-1768), German
philosopher and man of letters, was born at Hamburg,- on the
22nd of December 1694. He was educated by his father and
by the famous scholar J. A. Fabricius, whose son-in-law he
subsequently became. He studied theology, ancient languages,
and philosophy at Jena, became Privaldozent in the university
of Wittenberg in 1716, and in 1720-21 visited Holland and
England. In 1723 he became rector of the high school at
Wismar in Mecklenburg, and in 1727 professor of Hebrew
and Oriental languages in the high school of his native city.
This post he held till his death, though offers of more lucrative
positions were made to him. His duties were light, and he
employed his leisure in the study of philology, mathematics,
philosophy, history, political economy, natural science and
natural history, for which he made large collections. His house
was the centre of the highest culture of Hamburg, and a monu-
ment of his influence in that city still remains in the Haus
der patriotischen Gesellschaft, where the learned and artistic
societies partly founded by him still meet. He had seven
children, only three of whom survived him the distinguished
physician Johann Albrecht Heinrich, and two daughters, one
of them being Elise, Lessing's friend and correspondent. He
died on the ist of March 1768.
Reimarus's reputation as a scholar rests on the valuable edition
of Dio Cassius (1750-52) which he prepared from the materials
collected by J. A. Fabricius. He published a work on logic
( V ernunftlehre als Anweisung zum richtigen Gebrauche der
Vernunft, 1756, sth ed., 1790), and two popular books on the
religious questions of the day. The first of these was a col-
lection of essays on the principal truths of natural religion
(Abhandlungen von den wrnehmsten Wahrheiten der nalurlichen
Religion, 1755, 7th ed., 1798); the second (Betrachtungen iiber
die Triebe der Thiere, 1760, 4th ed., 1798) dealt with one par-
ticular branch of the same subject. His philosophical position
is essentially that of Christian Wolff. But he is best known by
his Apologie oder Schutzschrift fiir die vernunftigen Verehrer
Gottes (carefully kept back during his lifetime), from which,
after his death, Lessing published certain chapters under the
title of the Wolfenbuttel Fragments (see LESSING). The original
MS. is in the Hamburg town library; a copy was made for
the university library of Gb'ttingen, 1814, and other copies
are known to exist. In addition to the seven fragments pub-
lished by Lessing, a second portion of the work was issued in
1787 by C. A. E. Schmidt (a pseudonym), under the title Uebrige
noch wigedruckte Werke des W oljenbiittelschen Fragmenlisten,
and a further portion by D. W. Klose in Niedner's Zeitschrift
fiir hislorische Theologie, 1850-52. Two of the five books of
the first part and the whole of the second part, as well as appen-
dices on the canon, remain unprinted. But D. F. Strauss has
given an exhaustive analysis of the whole work in his book on
Reimarus.
The standpoint of the Apologie is that of pure naturalistic deism.
Miracles and mysteries are denied, and natural religion is put forward
as the absolute contradiction of revealed. The essential truths of
the former are the existence of a wise and good Creator and the
immortality of the soul. These truths are discoverable by reason,
and are such as can constitute the basis of a universal religion. A
revealed religion could never obtain universality, as it could never
be intelligible and credible to all men. Even supposing its possi-
bility, the Bible does not present such a revelation. It abounds in
error as to matters of fact, contradicts human experience, reason
and morals, and is one tissue of folly, deceit, enthusiasm, selfishness
and crime. Moreover, it is not adoctrinal compendium, or catechism,
which a revelation would have to be. What the Old Testament says
of the worship of God is little, and that little worthless, while its
writers are unacquainted with the second fundamental truth of
religion, the immortality of the soul. The design of the writers of
the New Testament, as well as that of Jesus, was not to teach true
rational religion, but to serve their own selfish ambitions, in pro-
moting which they exhibit an amazing combination of conscious
fraud and enthusiasm. It is important, however, to remember that
Reimarus attacked atheism with equal effect and sincerity, and
that he was a man of high moral character, respected and esteemed
by his contemporaries.
Modern estimates of Reimarus may be found in the works of
B. Ptinjer, O. Pfleiderer and H. Hoffding. Piinjer states the position
of Reimarus as follows: " God is the Creator of the world, and Hjs
wisdom and goodness are conspicuous in it. Immortality is
founded upon the essential nature of rran and upon the purpose of
God in creation. Religion is conducive to our happiness ana alone
brings satisfaction. Miracles are at variance with the divine
purpose; without miracles there could be no revelation " (Ptinjer,
History of Christian Philosophy of Religion since Kant, Engl. trans.,
pp. 550-57, which contains an exposition of the Abhandlungen and
Schutzschrift). Pfleiderer says the errors of Reimarus were that he
ignored historical and literary criticism, sources, date, origin, &c.,
of documents, and the narratives were said to be either purely
divine or purely human. He had no conception of an immanent
reason (Philosophy of Religion, Eng. trans., vol. i. p. 102). H.
Hoffding also has a brief section on the Schutzschrift, stating
its main position as follows: " Natural religion suffices; a revelation
is therefore superfluous. Moreover, such a thing is both physically
and morally impossible. God cannot interrupt His own work by
miracles; nor can He favour some men above others by revelations
which are not granted to all, and with which it is not even possible
for all to become acquainted. But of all doctrines that of eternal
punishment is most contrary, Reimarus thinks, to true ideas of God,
and it was this point which first caused him to stumble " (History
of Modern Phil., Eng. trans. (1900), vol. ii. pp. 12, 13).
See the " Fragments " as published by Lessing, reprinted in
vol. xv. of Lessing's Werke, Hempel's edition; D. F. Sttauss, H. S.
Reimarus und seine Schutzschrift fur die vernunftigen Verehrer Gottes
(1862, and ed. 1877); Charles Voysey, Fragments from Reimarus
(London, 1879) (a translation of the life of Reimarus by Strauss, with
the second part of the seventh fragment, on the " Object of Jesus
and his Disciples"); the Lives of Lessing by Danzel and G. E.
Guhrauer, Sime, and Zimmern; Kuno Fischer, Geschichte der neuern
Philosophie (vol. ii. pp. 759-72, 2nd ed. 1867); Zeller, Geschichte der
deutschen Philosophie (2nd ed., 1875, pp. 243-46).
REIMS (RHEIMS), a city of north-eastern France, chief town
of an arrondissement of the department of Marne, 98 m. E.N.E.
of Paris, on the Eastern railway. Pop. (1906) 102,800. Reims
is situated in a plain on the right bank of the Vesle, a tributary
of the Aisne, and on the canal which connects the Aisne with
the Marne. South and west rise the " montagne de Reims "
and vine-clad hills. Reims is limited S.W. by the Vesle and
the canal, N.W. by promenades which separate it from the
railway and in other directions by boulevards lined with fine
residences. Beyond extend large suburbs, the chief of which
are Ceres to the N.E., Coutures to the E., Laon to the N. and
Vesle to the W. Of its squares the principal are the Place
54
REIMS
Royale, with a statue of Louis XV., and the place du Parvis,
with an equestrian statue of Joan of Arc. The rue de Vesle,
the chief street, continued under other names, traverses the
town from S.W. to N.W., passing through the Place Royale.
The oldest monument in Reims is the Mars Gate (so called from a
temple to Mars in the neighbourhood), a triumphal arch 108 ft. in
length by 43 in height, consisting of three archways flanked by
columns. It is popularly supposed to have been erected by the
Remi in honour of Augustus when Agrippa made the great roads
terminating at the town, but probably belongs to the 3rd or 4th
century. In its vicinity a curious mosaic, measuring 36 ft. by 26,
with thirty-five medallions representing animals and gladiators, was
discovered in 1860. To these remains must be added a Gallo-
Roman sarcophagus, said to be that of the consul Jovinus (see below)
and preserved in the archaeological museum in the cloister of the
abbey of St Remi. The cathedral of Notre-Dame, where the kings
of France used to be crowned, replaced an older church (burned in
121 1) built on the site of the basilica where Clovis was baptized by
St Remigius. The cathedral, with the exception of the west front,
was completed by the end of the I3th century. That portion was
erected in the I4th century after 13th-century designs the nave
having in the meantime been lengthened to afford room for the
crowds that attended the coronations. In 1481 fire destroyed the
roof and the spires. In 1875 the National Assembly voted 80,000
for repairs of the facade and balustrades. This fagade is the finest
portion of the building, and one of the most perfect masterpieces of
the middle ages. The three portals are laden with statues and
statuettes. The central portal, dedicated to the Virgin, is surmounted
by a rose-window framed in an arch itself decorated with statuary.
The " gallery of the kings " above has the baptism of Clovis in the
centre and statues of his successors. The towers, 267 ft. high, were
originally designed to rise 394 ft.; that on the south contains two
great bells, one of which, named " Charlotte " by Cardinal de
Lorraine in 1570, weighs more than II tons. The facades of the
transepts are also decorated with sculptures -that on the north
with statues of the principal bishops of Reims, a representation of
the Last Judgment and a figure of Christ (le Beau Dieu) while that
on the south side has a beautiful rose-window with the prophets and
apostles. Of the four towers which flanked the transepts nothing
remains above the height of the roof since the fire of 1481. Above
the choir rises an elegant bell-tower in timber and lead, 59 ft. high,
reconstructed in the 15th century. The interior of the cathedral
is 455 ft. long, 98 ft. wide in the nave, and 125 ft. high in the centre,
and comprises a nave with aisles, transepts with aisles, a choir with
double aisles, and an apse with deambulatory and radiating chapels.
It has a profusion of statues similar to those of the outside, and
stained glass of the I3th century. The rose- window over the main
portal and the gallery beneath are of rare magnificence. The
cathedral possesses fine tapestries. Of these th.e most important
series is that presented by Robert de Lenoncourt, archbishop under
Francis I., representing the life of the Virgin. The north transept
contains a fine organ in a Flamboyant Gothic case. The choir
clock is ornamented with curious mechanical figures. Several
paintings, by Tintoretto, Nicolas Poussin, and others, and the
carved woodwork and the railings of the choir, also deserve mention.
The treasury contains the Sainte Ampoule, or holy flask, the successor
of the ancient one broken at the Revolution (see below), a fragment
of which it contains.
The archiepiscopal palace, built between 1498 and 1509, and in
part rebuilt in 1675, was occupied by the kings on the occasion
of their coronation. The saloon (salle du Tau), where the royal
banquet was held, has an immense stone chimney of the I5th century,
medallions of the archbishops of Reims, and portraits of fourteen
kings crowned in the city. Among the other rooms of the royal
suite, all of which are of great beauty and richness, is that now used
for the meetings of the Reims Academy ; the building also contains a
library. The chapel of the archiepiscopal palace consists of two
storeys, of which the upper still serves as a place of worship. Both
the chapel and the salle du Tau are decorated with tapestries of the
1 7th century, known as the Perpersack tapestries, after the Flemish
weaver who executed them.
After the cathedral, which it almost equals in size, the most
celebrated church is St Remi, once attached to an important abbey,
the buildings of which are used as a hospital. St Remi dates from
the nth, I2th, I3th and I5th centuries. The nave and transepts,
Romanesque in style, date mainly from the earliest, the facade of the
south transept from the latest, of those periods, the choir and apse
chapels from the I2th and I3th centuries. The valuable monu-
ments with which the church was at one time filled were pillaged
during the Revolution, and even the tomb of the saint is a modern
work; but there remain the 12th-century glass windows of the apse
and tapestries representing the history of St Remigius, given by
Robert de Lenoncourt. The churches of St Jacques, St Maurice
(partly rebuilt in 1867), St Andr, and St Thomas (erected from
1847 to 1853, under the patronage of Cardinal Gousset, now buried
within its walls), are all of minor interest. Of the fine church of
St Nicaise only insignificant remains are to be seen.
The town hall, erected in the I7th and enlarged in the igth
century, has a pediment with an equestrian statue of Louis XIII.
and a tall and elegant campanile. It contains a picture gallery,
ethnographical, archaeological and other collections, and the public
library. There are many old houses, the House of the Musicians
(i3_th century) being so called from the seated figures of musicians
which decorate the front.
In 1874 the construction of a chain of detached forts was
begun in the vicinity, Reims being selected as one of the chief
defences of the northern approaches of Paris. The ridge of
St Thierry is crowned with a fort of the same name, which
with the neighbouring work of Chenay closes the west side of
the place. To the north the hill of Brimont has three works
guarding the Laon railway and the Aisne canal. Farther east,
on the old Roman road, lies the fort de Fresnes. Due east the
hills of Arnay are crowned with five large and important works
which cover the approaches from the upper Aisne. Forts
Pompelle and Montbre close the south-east side, and the Falaise
hills on the Paris side are open and unguarded. The perimeter
of the defences is not quite 22 m., and the forts are a mean
distance of 6 m. from the centre of the city.
Reims is the seat of an archbishop, a court of assize and
a sub-prefect. It is an important centre for the combing,
carding and spinning of wool and the weaving of flannel, merino,
cloth and woollen goods of all kinds, these industries employing
some 24,000 hands; dyeing and " dressing " are also carried
on. It is the chief wool market in France, and has a " con-
ditioning house " which determines the loss of weight resulting
from the drying of the wool. The manufacture of and trade
in champagne is also very important. The wine is stored in
large cellars tunnelled in the chalk. Other manufactures are
machinery, chemicals, safes, capsules, bottles, casks, candles,
soap and paper. The town is well known for its cakes and
biscuits.
History. Before the Roman conquest Reims, as Durocor-
torum, was capital of the Remi, from whose name that of the
town was subsequently derived. The Remi made voluntary
submission to the Romans, and by their fidelity throughout the
various Gallic insurrections secured the special favour of their
conquerors. Christianity was established in the town by
the middle of the 3rd century, at which period the bishopric
was founded. The consul Jovinus, an influential supporter
of the new faith, repulsed the barbarians who invaded Cham-
pagne in 336; but the Vandals captured the town in 406 and
slew St Nicasus, and Attila afterwards put it to fire and sword.
Clovis, after his victory at Soissons (486), was baptized at
Reims in 496 by St Remigius. Later kings desired to be
consecrated at Reims with the oil of the sacred phial which was
believed to have been brought from heaven by a dove for the
baptism of Clovis and was preserved in the abbey of St Remi.
Meetings of Pope Stephen III. with Pippin the Short, and of
Leo III. with Charlemagne, took place at Reims; and here
Louis the Debonnaire was crowned by Stephen IV. Louis IV.
gave the town and countship of Reims to the archbishop
Artaldus in 940. Louis VII. gave the title of duke and peer
to William of Champagne, archbishop from 1176 to 1202, and
the archbishops of Reims took precedence of the other eccle-
siastical peers of the realm. In the loth century Reims had
become a centre of intellectual culture, Archbishop Adalberon,
seconded by the monk Gerbert (afterwards Pope Silvester II.),
having founded schools where the " liberal arts " were taught.
Adalberon was also one of the prime authors of the revolution
which put the Capet house in the place of the Carolingians.
The most important prerogative of the archbishops was the
consecration of the kings of France a privilege which was
exercised, except in a few cases, from the time of Philip Augustus
to that of Charles X. Louis VII. granted the town a communal
charter in 1139. The treaty of Troyes (1420) ceded it to the
English, who had made a futile attempt to take it by siege in
1360; but they were expelled on the approach of Joan of Arc,
who in 1429 caused Charles VII. to be consecrated in the
cathedral. A revolt at Reims, caused by the salt tax in 1461,
was cruelly repressed by Louis XI. The town sided with the
League (1585), but submitted to Henry IV. after the battle of
REIN REINDEER
55
Ivry. In the foreign invasions of 1814 it was captured and
recaptured; in 1870-71 it was made by the Germans the
seat of a governor-general and impoverished by heavy re-
quisitions.
See G. Marlot, Histoire de la ville, cite et uniiiersite de Reims,
4 vols. (Reims, 1843-46); J. Justinus (Baron I. Taylor), La Ville
de Reims (Paris, 1854).
REIN, a guiding or controlling leather strap or thong, attached
to the bit of a ridden or driven horse (see SADDLERY). The
word is taken from the O. Fr. rene, modern rene, and is usually
traced to a supposed Late Latin substantive retina formed from
retinere, to hold back, restrain, cf. classical Latin retinaculum,
halter. The word, usually in the plural, has been often used
figuratively, as a type of that which guides, restrains or controls,
e.g. in such phrases as the " reins of government," &c. The
" reins," i.e. the kidneys (Lat. renes, cf. Gr. <t>pi]v, the midriff),
or the place where the kidneys are situated, hence the loins,
also, figuratively, the seat of the emotions or affections, must be
distinguished.
REINACH, JOSEPH (1856- ), French author and politician,
was born in Paris on the soth of September 1856. After
leaving the Lycee Condorcet he studied for the bar, being
called in 1887. He attracted the attention of Gambetta by
articles on Balkan politics published in the Revue bleue, and
joined the staff of the Republique franQaise. In Gambetta's
grand ministere M. Reinach was his secretary, and drew up the
case for a partial revision of the constitution and for the electoral
method known as the scrutin de lisle. In the Republique
franc,aise he waged a steady war against General Boulanger
which brought him three duels, one with Edmond Magnier and
two with Paul Deroulede. Between 1889 and 1898 he sat
for the Chamber of Deputies for Digne. As member of the
army commission, reporter of the budgets of the ministries of
the interior and of agriculture he brought forward bills for the
better treatment of the insane, for the establishment of a
colonial ministry, for the taxation of alcohol, and for the repara-
tion of judicial errors. He advocated complete freedom of the
theatre and the press, the abolition of public executions, and
denounced political corruption of all kinds. He was indirectly
implicated in the Panama scandals through his father-in-law,
Baron de Reinach, though he made restitution as soon as he
learned that he was benefiting by fraud. But he is best known
as the champion of Captain Dreyfus. At the time of the
original trial he attempted to secure a public hearing of the
case, and in 1897 he allied himself with Scheurer-Kestner to
demand its revision. He denounced in the Siecle the Henry
forgery, and Esterhazy's complicity. His articles in the
Siecle aroused the fury of the anti-Dreyfusard party, especially
as he was himself a Jew and therefore open to the charge of
having undertaken to defend the innocence of Dreyfus on racial
grounds. He lost his seat in the Chamber of Deputies, and,
having refused to fight Henri Rochefort, eventually brought
an action for libel against him. Finally, the " affaire " being
terminated and Dreyfus pardoned, he undertook to write the
history of the case, the first four volumes of which appeared in
1901. This was completed in 1905. In 1906 M. Reinach was
re-elected for Digne. In that year he became member of the
commission of the national archives, and next year of the
council on prisons. Reinach was a voluminous writer on
political subjects. On Gambetta he published three volumes
in 1884, and he also edited his speeches. For the criticisms of
the anti-Dreyfusard press see Henri Dutrait-Croyon, Joseph
Reinach, historien (Paris, 1905), a violent criticism in detail of
Reinach's history of the " affaire."
His brother, the well-known savant, SALOMON REINACH
(1858- ), born at St Germain-en-Laye on the 2gth of August
1858, was educated at the Ecole normale superieure, and joined
the French school at Athens in 1879. He made valuable
archaeological discoveries at Myrina near Smyrna in 1880-82,
at Cyme in 1881, at Thasos, Imbros and Lesbos (1882), at
Carthage and Meninx (1883-84), at Odessa (1893) and else-
where. He received honours from the chief learned societies
of Europe, and in 1886 received an appointment at the National
Museum of Antiquities at St Germain; in 1893 he became
assistant keeper, and in 1902 keeper of the national museums.
In 1903 he became joint editor of the Revue archeologique, and
in the same year officer of the Legion of Honour. The lectures
he delivered on art at the Ecole du Louvre in 1902-3 were pub-
lished by him under the title of Apollo. This book has been
translated into most European languages, and is one of the most
compact handbooks of the subject.
His first published work was a translation of Schopenhauer's
Essay on Free Will (1877), which passed through many editions.
This was followed by many works and articles in the learned re-
views of which a list up to 1903 is available in Bibliographic
de S. R. (Angers, 1003). His Manuel de philologie classique (1880-
1884) was crowned by the French association for the study of
Greek; his Grammaire latine (1886) received a prize from the
Society of Secondary Education; La Necropole de Myrina (1887),
written with E. Pottier, and Antiquites nationales were crowned by
the Academy of Inscriptions. He compiled an important Re-
pertoire de la statuaire grecque et romaine (3 vols., 1897-98); also
Repertoire de peintures du ntoyen age et de la Renaissance 1280-1580
(1905, &c.); Repertoire des vases feints grecs et etrusques (190)-
In 1905 he began his Cultes, mythes et religions; and in 1009 he
published a general sketch of the history of religions under the
title of Orpheus. He also translated from the English H. C. Lea's
History of the Inquisition.
A younger brother, THEODORE REINACH (1860- ), also
had a brilliant career as a scholar. He pleaded at the Parisian
bar in 1881-86, but eventually gave himself up to the study
of numismatics. He wrote important works on the ancient
kingdoms of Asia Minor Trois royaumes de I'Asie Mineure,
Cappadoce, Bithynie, Pont (1888), Mithridate Eupator (1890);
also a critical edition and translation with H. Weil of Plutarch's
Treatise on Music; and an Histoire des Israelites depuis la
ruine de lew independance nalionale jusqu'a nos jours (2nd ed.,
1901). From 1888 to 1897 he edited the Revue des etudes
grecques.
REINAUD, JOSEPH TOUSSAINT (1793-1867), French orien-
talist, was born on the 4th of December 1795 at Lambesc,
Bouches du Rhone. He came to Paris in 1815, and became a
pupil of Silvestre de Sacy. In 1818-19 ne was at Rome as an
attache to the French minister, and studied under the Maronites
of the Propaganda, but gave special attention to Mahommedan
coins. In 1824 he entered the department of oriental MSS.
in the Royal Library at Paris, and in 1838, on the death of
De Sacy, he succeeded to his chair in the: school of living
oriental languages. In 1847 he became president of the
Societe Asiatique, and in 1858 conservator of oriental MSS.
in the Imperial Library. His first important work was his
classical description of the collections of the due de Blacas
(1828). To history he contributed an essay on the Arab in-
vasions of France, Savoy, Piedmont and Switzerland (1836),
and various collections for the period of the crusades; he
edited (1840) and in part translated (1848) the geography
of Abulfeda; to him too is due a useful edition of the very
curious records of early Arab intercourse with China of which
Eusebe Renaudot had given but an imperfect translation (Re-
lation des voyages, &c., 1845), and various other essays illus-
trating the ancient and medieval geography of the East.
Reinaud died in Paris on the I4th of May 1867.
REINDEER, in its strict sense the title of a European deer
distinguished from all other members of the family Cervidae
(see DEER), save those of the same genus, by the presence of
antlers in both sexes; but, in the wider sense, including Asiatic
and North American deer of the same general type, the latter
of which are locally designated caribou. Reindeer, or caribou,
constitute the genus -Rangifer, and are large clumsily built deer,
inhabiting the sub- Arctic and Arctic regions of both hemispheres.
As regards their distinctive features, the antlers are of a complex
type and situated close to the occipital ridge of the skull, and
thus far away from the sockets of the eyes, with the brow-tines
in adult males palmated, laterally compressed, deflected towards
the middle of the face, and often unsymmetrically developed.
Above the brow-tine is developed a second palmated tine,
REINECKE REINHOLD
which appears to represent the bez-tine of the red-deer; there
is no trez-tine, but some distance above the bez the beam is
suddenly bent forward to form an " elbow," on the posterior
side of which is usually a short back-tine; above the back-tine
the beam is continued for some distance to terminate in a*large
expansion or palmation. The antlers of females are simple and
generally smaller. The muzzle is entirely hairy; the ears and
tail are short; and the throat is maned. The coat is unspotted
at all ages, with a whitish area in the region of the tail. The
main hoofs are short and rounded and the lateral hoofs very
large. There is a tarsal, but no metatarsal gland and tuft. In
the skull the gland-pit is shallow, and the vacuity of moderate
size; the nasal bones are well developed, and much expanded
at the upper end. Upper canines are wanting; the cheek-teeth
are small and low-crowned, with the third lobe of the last molar
in the lower jaw minute. The lateral metacarpal bones are
represented only by their lower extremities; the importance of
this feature being noticed in the article DEER.
In spite of the existence of a number of more or less well-marked
geographical forms, reindeer from all parts of the northern hemi-
sphere present such a marked similarity that it seems preferable
to regard them as all belonging to a single widespread species, of
which most of the characters will be the same as those of the genus.
American naturalists, however, generally regard these as distinct
species. The coat is remarkable for its density and compactness;
the general colour of the head and upper parts being clove-brown,
with more or less white or whitish grey on the under parts and inner
surfaces of the limbs, while there is also some white above the hoofs
and on the muzzle, and there may be whitish rings round the eyes;
there is a white area in the region of the tail, which includes the sides
but not the upper surface of the latter ; and the tarsal tuft is gener-
ally white. The antlers are smooth, and brownish white in colour,
but the hoofs jet black. Albino varieties occasionally occur in the
wild state. A height of 4 ft. 10 in. at the shoulder has been re-
corded in the case o4 one race.
The wild Scandinavian reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) may be re-
garded as the typical form of the species. It is a smaller animal
than the American woodland race, with antlers approximating to
those of the barren-ground race, but less elongated, and with a
distinct back-tine in the male, the brow-tines moderately palmated
and frequently nearly symmetrical, and the bez-tine not exces-
sively expanded. Female antlers are generally much smaller
than those of males, although occasionally as large, but with much
fewer points. The antlers make their appearance at an unusually
early age.
Mr Madison Grant considers that American reindeer, or caribou,
may be grouped under two types, one represented by the barren-
ground caribou R. tarandus arctir.us, which is a small animal with
immense antlers characterized by the length of the beam, and the
consequent wide separation of the terminal palmation from the
brow-tine; and the other by the woodland-caribou (R. t. caribou),
which is a larger animal with shorter and more massive antlers,
in which the great terminal expansions are in approximation to
the brow-tine owing to the shortness of the beam. Up to 1902
seven other American races had been described, four of which are
grouped by Grant with the first and three with the second type.
Some of these forms are, however, more or less intermediate between
the two main types, as is a pair of antlers from Novaia Zemlia
described by the present writer as R. t. pearsoni. The Scandinavian
reindeer is identified by Mr Grant with the barren-ground type.
Reindeer are domesticated by the Lapps and other nationalities
of northern Europe and Asia, to whom these animals are all-im-
portant. Domesticated reindeer have also been introduced into
Alaska.
See Madison Grant, " The Caribou," ?th Annual Report, New
York Zoological Society (1902); J. G. Millais, Newfoundland and
its Untrodden Ways (1908). (R. L.*)
REINECKE, CARL HEINRICH CARSTEN (1824-1910),
German composer and pianist, was born at Altona on the 23rd of
June 1824; his father, Peter Reinecke (who was also his teacher),
being an accomplished musician. At the age of eleven he made
his first appearance as a pianist, and when scarcely eighteen he
went on a successful tour through Denmark and Sweden. After
a stay in Leipzig, where he studied under Mendelssohn and
under Schumann, Reinecke went on tour with Konigslow and
Wasielewski, Schumann's biographer, in North Germany and
Denmark. From 1846 to 1848 Reinecke was court pianist to
Christian VIII. of Denmark. After resigning this post he went
first to Paris, and next to Cologne, as professor in the Con-
servatorium. From 1854 to 1859 he was music director at
Barmen, in the latter year filling this post at Breslau University;
in 1860 he became conductor of the famous Leipzig Gewandhaus,
a post which (together with that of professor at the Conserva-
torium) he held with honour and distinction for thirty-five
years. He finally retired into private life in 1902 and died
in March 1910. During this time Reinecke continually made
concert tours to England and elsewhere. His pianoforte playing
belonged to a school now almost extinct. Grace and neatness
were its characteristics, and at one time Reinecke was probably
unrivalled as a Mozart player and an accompanist. His grand
opera Konig Manfred, and the comic opera Auf hohen Befehl,
were at one time frequently played in Germany; and his
cantata Hakon Jarl is melodiously beautiful, as are many of his
songs; while his Friedensfeier overture was once quite hack-
neyed. By far his most valuable works are those written
for educational purposes. His sonatinas, his " Kinder-
garten " and much that he has ably edited will keep his name
alive.
REINHART, CHARLES STANLEY (1844-1896), American
painter and illustrator, was born at Pittsburg, Pennsylvania,
and after having been employed in railway work and at a steel
factory, studied art in Paris and at the Munich Academy under
Straehuber and Otto. He afterwards settled in New York,
but spent the years 1882-1886 in Paris. He was a regular
exhibitor at the National Academy in New York, and contri-
buted illustrations in black and white and in colours to the
leading American periodicals. He died in 1896. Among his
best-known pictures are: " Reconnoitring," " Caught Napping,"
" September Morning," " Mussel Fisherwoman," " At the
Ferry," " Normandy Coast," " Gathering Wood," " The Old
Life Boat," " Sunday," and " English Garden "; but it is as an
illustrator that he is best known.
REINHART, JOACHIM CHRISTIAN (1761-1847), German
painter and etcher, was born at Hof in Bavaria in 1761, and
studied under Oeser at Leipzig and under Klingel at Dresden.
In 1789 he went to Rome, where he became a follower of the
classicist German painters Carstens and Koch. He devoted
himself more particularly to landscape painting and to aquatint
engraving. Examples of his landscapes are to be found at
most of the important German galleries, notably at Frankfort,
Munich, Leipzig and Gotha. In Rome he executed a series
of landscape frescoes for the Villa Massimi. He died in Rome
in 1847.
REINHOLD, KARL LEONHARD (1758-1823), German
philosopher, was born at Vienna. At the age of fourteen he
entered the Jesuit college of St Anna, on the dissolution of which
(1774) he joined a similar college of the order of St Barnabas.
Finding himself out of sympathy with monastic life, he fled in
1783 to North Germany, and settled in Weimar, where he
became Wieland's collaborates on the German Mercury, and
eventually his son-in-law. In the German Mercury he published,
in the years 1786-87, his Briefe iiber die Kantische Philosophie,
which were most important in making Kant known to a wider
circle of readers. As a result of the Letters, Reinhold received
a call to the university of Jena, where he taught from 1787 to
1794. In 1789 he published his chief work, the Versuch einer
neuen Theorie des menschlichen Vorstellungsvermogens, in which
he attempted to simplify the Kantian theory and make it more
of a unity. In 1794 he accepted a call to Kiel, where he taught
till his death in 1823, but his independent activity was at an
end. In later life he was powerfully influenced by Fichte, and
subsequently, on grounds of religious feeling, by Jacobi and
Bardili. His historical importance belongs entirely to his earlier
activity. The development of the Kantian standpoint contained
in the " New Theory of Human Understanding " (1789), and in
the Fundament des philosophischen Wissens (1791), was called
by its author Elementarphilosophie.
. " Reinhold lays greater emphasis than Kant upon the unity and
activity of consciousness. The principle of consciousness tells us
that every idea is related both to an object and a subject, and is
partly to be distinguished, partly united to both. Since form
cannot produce matter nor subject object, we are forced to assume
a thing-in-itself. But this is a notion which is self-contradictory
if consciousness be essentially a relating activity. There is there-
REINKENS REISKE
57
fore something which must bethought and yet cannot be thought"
(Hoffding, History of Modern Philosophy, Eng. trans., vol. ii.).
See R. Keil, Wieland und Reinhold (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1890);
J. E. Erdmann, Grundriss der Geschichle der Philosophic (Berlin,
1866); histories of philosophy by R. Folckenberg and W. Windel-
band.
REINKENS, JOSEPH HUBERT (1821-1896), German Old
Catholic bishop, was born at Burtscheid, near Aix-la-Chapelle,
on the ist of March 1821, his father being a gardener. In
1836, on the death of his mother, he took to manual work
in order to support his numerous brothers and sisters, but in
1840 he was able to go to the gymnasium at Aix, and he after-
wards studied theology at the universities of Bonn and Munich.
He was ordained priest in 1848, and in 1849 graduated as
doctor in theology. He was soon appointed professor of ecclesi-
astical history at Breslau, and in 1865 he was made rector of
the university. During this period he wrote, among other
treatises, monographs on Clement of Alexandria, Hilary of
Poitiers and Martin of Tours. In consequence of an essay
on art, especially in tragedy, after Aristotle, he was made
doctor in philosophy in the university of Leipzig. When,
in 1870, the question of papal infallibility was raised, Reinkens
attached himself to the party opposed to the proclamation of
the dogma. He wrote several pamphlets on church tradition
relative to infallibility and on the procedure of the Council.
When the dogma of infallibility was proclaimed, Reinkens
joined the band of influential theologians, headed by Dollinger,
who resolved to organize resistance to the decree. He was
one of those who signed the Declaration of Nuremberg in 1871,
and at the Bonn conferences with Orientals and Anglicans in
1874 and 1875 he was conspicuous. The Old Catholics having
decided to separate themselves from the Church of Rome,
Reinkens was chosen their bishop in Germany at an enthusiastic
meeting at Cologne in 1873 (see OLD CATHOLICS). On the nth
of August of that year he was consecrated by Dr Heykamp,
bishop of Deventer. Reinkens devoted himself zealously to
his office, and it was due to his efforts that the Old Catholic
movement crystallized into an organized church, with a definite
status in the various German states. He wrote a number of
theological works after his consecration, but none of them so
important as his treatise on Cyprian and the Unity of the
Church (1873). The chief act of his episcopal career was his
consecration in 1876 of Dr Edward Herzog to preside as bishop
over the Old Catholic Church in Switzerland. In 1881 Reinkens
visited England, and received Holy Communion more than
once with bishops, clergy and laity of the Church of England,
and in 1894 he defended the validity of Anglican orders against
his co-religionists, the Old Catholics of Holland. He died at
Bonn on the 4th of January 1896.
See Joseph Hubert Reinkens, by his nephew, J. M. Reinkens
(Gotha, 1906).
REISKE, JOHANN JACOB (1716-1774), German scholar and
physician, was born on the 25th of December 1716 at Zorbig
in Electoral Saxony. From the Waisenhaus at Halle he passed
in 1733 to the university of Leipzig, and there spent five years.
He tried to find his own way in Greek literature, to which
German schools then gave little attention; but, as he had not
mastered the grammar, he soon found this a sore task and took
up Arabic. He was very poor, having almost nothing beyond
his allowance, which for the five years was only two hundred
thalers. But everything of which he could cheat his appetite
was spent on Arabic books, and when he had read all that
was then printed he thirsted for manuscripts, and in March
1738 started on foot for Hamburg, joyous though totally
unprovided, on his way to Leiden and the treasures of the
Warnerianum. At Hamburg he got some money and letters
of recommendation from the Hebraist Wolf, and took ship
to Amsterdam. Here d'Orville, to whom he had an intro-
duction, proposed to retain him as his amanuensis at a salary
of six hundred guilders. Reiske refused, though he thought
the offer very generous; he did not want money, he wanted
manuscripts. When he reached Leiden (June 6, 1738) he found
that the lectures were over for the term and that the MSS.
were not open to him. But d'Orville and A. Schultens helped
him to private teaching and reading for the press, by which he
was able to live. He heard the lectures of A. Schultens, and
practised himself in Arabic with his son J. J. Schultens.
Through Schultens too he got at Arabic MSS., and was even
allowed sub rosa to take them home with him. Ultimately
he seems to have got free access to the collection, which he
re-catalogued the work of almost a whole summer, for which
the curators rewarded him with nine guilders.
Reiske's first years in Leiden were not unhappy, till he got
into serious trouble by introducing emendations of his own
into the second edition of Burmann's Petronius, which he had
to see through the press. His patrons withdrew from him, and
his chance of perhaps becoming professor was gone; d'Orville
indeed soon came round, for he could not do without Reiske,
who did work of which his patron, after dressing it up in his
own style, took the credit. But A. Schultens was*iever the
same as before to him; Reiske indeed was too independent,
and hurt him by his open criticisms of his master's way of
making Arabic mainly a handmaid of Hebrew. Reiske, however,
himself admits that Schultens always behaved honourably to
him. In 1742 by Schultens's advice Reiske took up medicine
as a study by which he might hope to live if he could not do so
by philology. In 1746 he graduated as M.D., the fees being
remitted at Schultens's intercession. It was Schultens too
who conquered the difficulties opposed to his graduation at
the last moment by the faculty of theology on the ground that
some of his theses had a materialistic ring. ' On the icth of
June 1746 he left Holland and settled in Leipzig, where he
hoped to get medical practice.
But his shy, proud nature was not fitted to gain patients,
and the Leipzig doctors would not recommend one who
was not a Leipzig graduate. In 1747 an Arabic dedication
to the electoral prince of Saxony got him the title of professor,
but neither the faculty of arts nor that of medicine was willing
to admit him among them, and he never delivered a course of
lectures. He had still to go on doing literary task-work, but
his labour was much worse paid in Leipzig than in Leiden.
Still he could have lived and sent his old mother, as his custom
was, a yearly present of a piece of leather to be sold in retail
if he had been a better manager. But, careless for the morrow,
he was always printing at his own cost great books which
found no buyers. His academical colleagues were hostile;
and Ernesti, under a show of friendship, secretly hindered
his promotion. His unsparing reviews made bad blood with
the pillars of the university.
At length in 1758 the magistrates of Leipzig rescued him
from his misery by giving him the rectorate of St Nicolai,
and, though he still made no way with the leading men of the
university and suffered from the hostility of men like Ruhnken
and J. D. Michaelis, he was compensated for this by the esteem
of Frederick the Great, of Lessing, Karsten Niebuhr, and many
foreign scholars. The last decade of his life was made cheerful
by his marriage with Ernestine Mtiller, who shared all his
interests and learned Greek to help him with collations. In
proof of his gratitude her portrait stands beside his in the
first volume of the Oratores Graeci. Reiske died on the I4th of
August 1774, and his MS. remains passed, through Lessing's
mediation, to the Danish minister Suhm, and are now in the
Copenhagen library.
Reiske certainly surpassed all his predecessors in the range and
quality of his knowledge of Arabic literature. It was the history, the
realia of the literature, that always interested him; he did not care
for Arabic poetry as such, and the then much praised Hariri seemed
to him a grammatical pedant. He read the poets less for their
verses than for such scholia as supplied historical notices. Thus for
example the scholia on Jarir furnished him with a remarkable
notice of the prevalence of Buddhist doctrine and asceticism in
'Irak under the Omayyads. In the Adnotationes historicae to his
Abulfeda (Abulf. Annales Moslemici, 5 vols., Copenhagen, 1789-91),
he collected a veritable treasure of sound and original research ; he
knew the Byzantine writers as thoroughly as the Arabic authors, and
was alike at home in modern works of travel in all languages and
in ancient and medieval authorities. He was interested too in
REJANE RELATIVITY OF KNOWLEDGE
numismatics, and his jetters on Arabic coinage (in Eichhorn]s
Repertorium, vols. ix.-xi.) form, according to De Sacy, the basis
of that branch of study. To comprehensive knowledge and very
wide reading he added a sound historical judgment. He was not,
like Schultens, deceived by the pretended antiquity of the Yemenite
Kasidas. 1 Errors no doubt he made, as in the attempt to ascertain
the date of the breach of the dam of Marib.
Though Abulfeda as a late epitomator did not afford a starting-
point for methodical study of the sources, Reiske's edition with his
version and notes certainly laid the foundation for research in Arabic
history. The foundation of Arabic philology, however, was laid not
by him but by De Sacy. Reiske's linguistic knowledge was great,
but he used it only to understand his authors; he had no feeling for
form, for language as language, or for metre.
In Leipzig Reiske worked mainly at Greek, though he continued
to draw on his Arabic stores accumulated in Leiden. Yet his merit
as an Arabist was sooner recognized than the value of his Greek
work. Reiske the Greek scholar has been rightly valued only in
recent years, and it is now recognized that he was the first German
since Sylburg who had a living knowledge of the Greek tongue. His
reputation, does not rest on his numerous editions, often hasty or
even made to booksellers' orders, but in his remarks, especially his
conjectures. He himself designates the Animadversationes in
Scriptores Graecos as ftps ingenii sui, and in truth these thin booklets
outweigh his big editions. Closely following the author's thought
he removes obstacles whenever he meets them, but he is so steeped
in the language and thinks so truly like a Greek that the difficulties
he feels often seem to us to lie in mere points of style. His criticism
is empirical and unmethodic, based on immense and careful reading,
and applied only when he feels a difficulty ; and he is most successful
when he has a large mass of tolerably homogeneous^literature to lean
on, whilst on isolated points he is often at a loss. His corrections
are often hasty and false, but a surprisingly large proportion of
them have since received confirmation from MSS. And, though
his merits as a Grecian lie mainly in his conjectures, his realism is
felt in this sphere also ; his German translations especially show more
freedom and practical insight, more feeling for actual life, than is
common with the scholars of that age. 2
For a list of Reiske's writings see Meusel, xi. 192 seq. His chief
Arabic works (all posthumous) have been mentioned above. In
Greek letters his chief works are Constantini Porphyrogeniti libri
II. de ceremoniis aulae Byzant., vols. i. ii. (Leipzig, 1751-66), vol. iii.
(Bonn, 1829) ; A nimadv. ad Graecos auctores (5 vols., Leipzig, 1751-66)
(the rest lies unprinted at Copenhagen) ; Oratorum Grace, quae
supersunt (8 vols., Leipzig, 1770-73); App. crit. ad Demosthenem
(3 vols., ib., 1774-75) ; Maximus Tyr. (ib., 1774) ; Plutarchus (i I vols.,
ib., 1774-79) ; Dionys Italic. (6 vols., ib., 1774-77) ; Libanius (4 vols.,
Altenburg, 1784-97). Various reviews in the Ada eruditorum and
Zuverl. Nachrichten are characteristic and worth reading. Compare
D. Johann Jacob Reiskens von ihm selbst aufgesetzte Lebensbe-
schreibung (Leipzig, 1783). (J. WE.)
REJANE, GABRIELLE [CHARLOTTE REJU] (1857- ),
French actress, was born in Paris, the daughter of an actor.
She was a pupil of Regnier at the Conservatoire, and took the
second prize for comedy in 1874. Her debut was made the next
year, during which she played attractively a number of light
especially soubrette parts. Her first great success was in
Henri Meilhac's Ma camarade (1883), and she soon became
known as an emotional actress of rare gifts, notably in Decore,
Germinie Lacerteux, Ma cousine, Amour euse and Lysistrata .
In 1892 she married M. Porel, the director of the Vaudeville
theatre, but the marriage was dissolved in 1905. Her per-
formances in Madame Sans Gene (1893) made her as well
known in England and America as in Paris, and in later years
she appeared in characteristic parts in both countries, being
particularly successful in Zaza and La Passerelle. She opened
the Theatre Rejane in Paris in 1906. The essence of French
vivacity and animated expression appeared to be concentrated
in Madame ^Rejane's acting, and made her unrivalled in the parts
which she had made her own.
RELAND, ADRIAN (1676-1718), Dutch Orientalist, was
born at Ryp, studied at Utrecht and Leiden, and was professor
of Oriental languages successively at Harderwijk (1699) and
Utrecht (1701). His most important works were Palaestina ex
veteribus monumentis illustrata (Utrecht, 17 14), and Anliquitates
sacrae velerum Hebraeorum. (See also Burman, Traj. Erud.,
p. 296 seq.).
1 " Animadvers. criticae in Hamzae hist, regni Joctanidarum," in
Eichhorn's Man. Ant. Hist. Ar.*iTj$.
* For this estimate of Reiske as a Greek scholar the writer is in-
debted to Prof. U. v. Wilamowitz-Moellendorff.
RELAPSING FEVER (Febris recurrens), the name given to
a specific infectious disease occasionally appearing as an epidemic
in communities suffering from scarcity or famine. It is char-
acterized mainly by its sudden invasion, with violent febrile
symptoms, which continue for about a week and end in a
crisis, but are followed, after another week, by a return of the
fever.
This disease has received many other names, the best known
of which are famine fever, seven-day, bilious relapsing fever,
and spirillum fever. As in the case of typhoid, relapsing fever
was long believed to be simply a form of typhus. The distinction
between them appears to have been first clearly established
in 1826, in connexion with an epidemic in Ireland.
Relapsing fever is highly contagious. With respect to the nature
of the contagion, certain important observations have been made
(see also PARASITIC DISEASES). In 1873 Obermeier discovered in
the blood of persons suffering from relapsing fever minute organisms
in the form of spiral filaments of the genus Spirochaele, measuring
in length f fa to -^3 inch and in breadth nitre to snips inch, and
possessed of rotatory or twisting movements. This organism
received the name of Spirillum obermeieri. Fritz Schaudinn has
brought forward evidence that it is an animal parasite. The most
constantly recognized factor in the origin and spread of relapsing
fever is destitution; but this cannot be regarded as more than a
predisposing cause, since in many lands widespread and destructive
famines have prevailed without any outbreak of this fever. In-
stances, too, have been recorded where epidemics were distinctly
associated with overcrowding rather than with privation. Relapsing
fever is most commonly met with in the young. One attack does
not appear to protect from others, but rather, according to some
authorities, engenders liability.
The incubation of the disease is about one week. The symptoms
of the fever then show themselves with great abruptness and violence
by a rigor, accompanied with pains in the limbs and severe head-
ache. The febrile phenomena are very marked, and the tempera-
ture quickly rises to a high point (iO5-iO7 Fahr.), at which it con-
tinues with little variation, while the pulse is rapid (100-140),
full and strong. There is intense thirst, a dry brown tongue,
bilious vomiting, tenderness over the liver and spleen, and occa-
sionally jaundice. Sometimes a peculiar bronzy appearance of the
skin is noticed, but there is no characteristic rash as in typhus.
There is much prostration of strength. After the continuance of
these symptoms for a period of from five to seven days, the tem-
perature suddenly falls to the normal point or below it, the pulse
becomes correspondingly slow, and a profuse perspiration occurs,
while the severe headache disappears and the appetite returns.
Except for a sense of weakness, the patient feels well and may
even return to work, but in some cases there remains a condition of
great debility, accompanied with rheumatic pains in the limbs.
This state of freedom from fever continues for about a week, when
there occurs a well-marked relapse with scarcely less abruptness
and severity than in the first attack, and the whole symptoms
are of the same character, but they do not, as a rule, continue so
long, and they terminate in a crisis in three or four days, after
which convalescence proceeds satisfactorily. Second, third and
even fourth relapses, however, may occur in exceptional cases.
The mortality in relapsing fever is comparatively small, about
5% being the average death-rate in epidemics (Murchison).
The fatal cases occur mostly from the complications common to
continued fevers. The treatment is essentially the same as that
for typhus fever. Lowenthal and Gabritochewsky by using the
serum of an immune horse succeeded in averting the relapse in 40 %
of cases.
RELATIVITY OF KNOWLEDGE, a philosophic term which
was much used by the philosophers of the middle of the igth
century, and has since fallen largely into disuse. It deserves
explanation, however, not only because it has occupied so large
a space in the writings of some great British thinkers, but also
because the main question for which it stands is still matter of
eager debate. We get at the meaning of the term most easily
by considering what it is that " relativity " is opposed to.
" Relativity " of knowledge is opposed to absoluteness or
positiveness of knowledge. Now there are two senses in which
knowledge may claim to be absolute. The knower may say, " I
know this absolutely , y> or he may say, "I know this absolutely."
With the emphasis upon the " know " he asserts that his know-
ledge of the matter in question cannot be affected by anything
whatever. " I know absolutely that two and two are four "
makes an assertion about the knower's intellectual state: he is
convinced that his certain knowledge of the result of adding two
to two is independent of any other piece of knowledge. With
RELEASE RELICS
59
the emphasis upon the object of knowledge, " I know this ," we
have the other sense of absoluteness of knowledge: it is an
assertion that the knower knows the " this," whatever it may be,
in its essence or as it truly is in itself. The phrase " relativity
of knowledge " has therefore two meanings: (a) that no
portion of knowledge is absolute, but is always affected by its
relations to other portions of knowledge; (b) that what we know
are not absolute things in themselves, but things conditioned in
their quality by our channels of knowledge. Each of these
two propositions must command assent as soon as uncritical
ignorance gives place to philosophic reflection; but each may
be exaggerated, indeed has currently been exaggerated, into
falsity. The simplest experience a single note struck upon the
piano would not be what it is to us but for its relation by
contrast or comparison with other experiences. This is true;
but we may easily exaggerate it into a falsehood by saying that
a piece of experience is entirely constituted by its relation to
other experiences. Such an extreme relativity, as advocated
by T. H. Green in the first chapter of his Prolegomena to Ethics,
involves the absurdity that our whole experience is a tissue of
relatioas with no points of attachment on which the relations
depend. The only motive for advocating it is the prejudice of
absolute idealism which would deny that sensation has any part
whatever in the constitution of experience. As soon as we
recognize the part of sensation, we have no reason to deny the
common-sense position that each piece of experience has its
own quality, which is modified indefinitely by the relations in
which it stands.
The second sense of relativity, that which asserts the impossi-
bility of knowing things except as conditioned by our perceptive
faculties, is more important philosophically and has had a more
interesting history. To apprehend it is really the first great
step in philosophical education. The unphilosophical person
assumes that a tree as he sees it is identical with the tree as it is
in itself and as it is for other percipient minds. Reflection
shows that our apprehension of the tree is conditioned by the
sense-organs with which we have been endowed, and that the
apprehension of a blind man, and still more the apprehension
of a dog or horse, is quite different from ours. What the tree is
in itself that is, for a perfect intelligence we cannot, know,
any more than a dog or horse can know what the tree is for a
human intelligence. So far the relativist is on sure ground;
but from this truth is developed the paradox that the tree has
no objective existence at all and consists entirely of the conscious
states of the perceiver. Observe the parallelism of the two
paradoxical forms of relativity: one says that things are
relations with nothing that is related; the other says that things
are perceptive conditions with nothing objective to which the
conditions apply. Both make the given nothing and the work
of the mind everything.
To see the absurdity of the second paradox of relativity is
easier than to refute it. If nothing exists but the conscious
states of the perceiver, how does he come to think that there is
an objective tree at all ? Why does he regard his conscious
states as produced by an object ? And how does he come to
imagine that there are other minds than his own ? In short, this
kind of relativity leads straight to what is generally known as
" the abyss of solipsism." But, like all the great paradoxes
of philosophy, it has its value in directing our attention to a
vital, yet much neglected, element of experience. We cannot
avoid solipsism (q.v.) so long as we neglect the element of force
or power. If, as Hegel asserted, our experience is all knowledge,
and if knowledge is indefinitely transformed by the conditions
of knowing, then we are tempted to regard the object as super-
fluous, and to treat our innate conviction that knowledge has
reference to objects as a delusion which philosophical reflection
is destined to dispel. The remedy for the paradox is to recognize
that the foundation for our belief in the existence of objects is
the force which they exercise upon us and the resistance which
they offer to our will. What the tree is in regard to its specific
qualities depends on what faculties we have for perceiving it.
But, whatever specific qualities it may have, it will still exist
as an object, so long as it comes into dynamic relations with
our minds.
In the history of thought the relativity of knowledge as just
described begins with Descartes, the founder of modern philosophy:
the characteristic of modern philosophy is that it lays more stress
upon the subjective than upon the objective side of experience. It
is a mistake to refer it back to the Greeks. The maxim of Protagoras,
for example, " Man is the measure of all things," has a different
purpose; it was meant to point to the truth that man rather than
nature is the primary object of human study: it -is a doctrine of
humanism rather than of relativism. To appreciate the relativistic
doctrines we find in various thinkers we must take account of the
use to which they were put. By Descartes the principle was used
as an instrument of scepticism, the beneficent scepticism of pulling
down medieval philosophy to make room for modern science; by
Berkeley it was used to combat the materialists; by Hume in the
cause of scepticism once more against the intellectual dogmatists;
by Kant to prepare a justification for a noumenal sphere to be
apprehended by faith; by J. S. Mill and Herbert Spencer to support
their derivation ol all pur experience from sensation. It is in Mill's
Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy that the classical
statement of the Relativity of Knowledge is to be found. The
second chapter of that book sets forth the various forms of the ,
doctrine with admirable lucidity and precision, and gives many
references to other writers.
For the sake of clearness it seems desirable to keep for the future
the term " relativity of knowledge " to the first meaning explained
above: for the second meaning it has been superseded in contem-
porary philosophizing by the terms " subjectivism," " subjective
idealism," and, for its extreme form, " solipsism " (q.v.). (H. ST.)
RELEASE (O.Fr. reles, variant of relais, from relaisser, to
release, let go, Lat. relaxare), freedom or deliverance from
trouble, pain or sorrow, the freeing or discharge from some
obligation or debt, the action of letting go or releasing something
fixed or set in position. In law, the term is applied to the
discharge of some obligation, by which it is extinguished (see
DEBT), and to the conveyance of an estate or interest in real or
personal property to one who has already some estate or interest
therein. For the special form of conveyancing known as " lease
and release," see CONVEYANCING.
RELICS (Lat, reliquiae, the equivalent of the English
" remains " in the sense of a dead body), the name given in the
Catholic Church to,(i) the bodies of the saints, or portions of
them,(2) such objects as the saints made use of during their
lives, or as were used at their martyrdom. These objects are
held by the Church in religious veneration, and by their means
it hopes to obtain divine grace and miraculous benefits (Cone.
Trid. sess. 24).
These ideas had taken shape, in all essentials, during the early
days of the Church, underwent further development in the middle
ages, and were maintained by the Catholic Church in the face
of the opposition of the Reformers, while all the Protestant
Churches rejected them.
The origins of the veneration of relics lie in the anxiety for
the preservation of the bodies of the martyrs. Nothing is more
natural than that the pious solicitude felt by all men for the
bodies of their loved ones should in the primitive Christian
Churches have been turned most strongly towards the bodies
of those who had met with death in confessing their faith. The
account given by the church at Smyrna of the death of their
bishop Polycarp (155) gives us an insight into these feelings.
The church collected and buried the remains of the martyr,
who had been burnt, in order duly to celebrate the anniversary
of the martyrdom at the place of burial. The possession of the
relics seemed to assure the continuation of the common life of
the church with their bishop, of the living with the dead (Mart.
Polyc. c. 17).
The custom of which we have here for the first time an account
had become universal by the $rd century. In all parts the
Christians assembled on the anniversary of the martyrs' death
at their graves, to celebrate the Agape and the Eucharist at
this spot. It was a favourite custom to bury the dead near the
graves of the martyrs; and it was the highest wish of many to
" rest with the saints." It was the body lying in the tomb which
was venerated (see Euseb. Hist. ecd. vii. n, 24; viii. 6, 7).
But these customs soon underwent a further development.
About the end of the 3rd and the beginning of the 4th century
6o
RELICS
it became customary for the bodies of the martyrs not to be
buried, but preserved for the purpose of veneration. Already
individual Christians began to possess themselves of portions
of the bodies of martyrs, and to carry them about with them.
Both these practices met with criticism and opposition, especially
from the leading men of the Church. According to the testi-
mony of Athanasius of Alexandria, the hermit Anthony decided
that it should be held to be unlawful and impious to leave the
bodies of the martyrs unburied (Vita Ant. 90). In Carthage the
archdeacon and later the bishop Caecilianus severely blamed a
certain Lucilla for carrying about with her a relic which she used
to kiss before receiving the Eucharist (Optatus, De schism, Donat.
i. 1 6). The compiler of the Ada S. Fructuosi, a Spanish ecclesi-
astic, represents the martyred bishop as himself requesting the
burial of his relics. But energetic as the opposition was, it was
unsuccessful, and died out. For in the meantime opinion as to
the efficacy of relics had undergone a transformation, parallel
with the growth of the theory, which soon predominated in the
Church, that material instruments are the vehicles of divine
grace. When the Christians of Smyrna decided that the bones
of the martyrs were of more worth than gold or gems, and when
Origen (Exh. ad mart. 50) spoke of the precious blood of the
martyrs, they were thinking of the act of faith which the martyrs
had accomplished by the sacrifice of their life. Now, on the
other hand, the relic came to be looked upon as in itself a thing
of value as the channel of miraculous divine powers. These
ideas are set forth by Cyril of Jerusalem. He taught that a
certain power dwelt in the body of the saint, even when the
soul had departed from it; just as it was the instrument of
the soul during life, so the power passed permanently into it
(Cat. xviii. 16). This was coming very near to a belief that
objects which the saints had used during their life had also a
share in their miraculous powers. And this conclusion Cyril
had already come to (loc. cit.).
We can see how early this estimate of relics became general
from the fact that the former hesitation as to whether they
should be venerated as sacred died out during the 4th century.
The Fathers of the Greek Church especially were united in
recommending the veneration of relics. All the great theologians
of the 4th and sth centuries may be quoted as evidence of this:
Eusebius of Caesarea (Praep. Ev. xiii.n), Gregory of Nazianzus
(Oral, in Cypr. 17), Gregory of Nyssa (Oral, de S. Theod. mart.),
Basil of Caesarea (Ep. ii. 197), Chrysostom (Laud. Drosidis),
Theodoret of Cyrus (Inps. 67, n), &c. John of Damascus, the
great exponent of dogma in the Sth century, gave expression
to the result of a uniform development which had been going
on for centuries when he taught that Christ offers the relics to
Christians as means of salvation. They must not be looked
upon as something that is dead; for through them all good
things come to those who pray with faith. Why should it
seem impossible to believe in this power of the relics, when water
could be made to gush from a rock in the desert? (De fide
orlhod. iv. 15).
Such was the theory; and the practice was in harmony with
it. Throughout the whole of the Eastern Church the veneration
of relics prevailed. Nobody hesitated to divide up the bodies
of the saints in order to afford as many portions of them as
possible. They were shared among the inhabitants of cities
and villages, Theodoret tells us, and cherished by everybody
as healers and physicians for both body and soul (Decur.Graec.
off. 8). The transition from the true relic to the hallowed object
was especially common. Jerusalem, as early as the time of
Eusebius, rejoiced in the possession of the .episcopal chair of
James the Just (Hist. eccl. vii. 19) ; and as late as the 4th century
was discovered the most important of the relics of Christ, the
cross which was alleged to have been His. Cyril of Jerusalem
already remarks that the whole world was filled with portions
of the wood of the cross (Cat. iv. 10).
The development which the veneration of relics underwent
in the West did not differ essentially from that in the East.
Here also the idea came to prevail that the body of the saint,
or a portion of it^was possessed of healing and protective power
(Paulinus of Nola, Poem. xix. 14 et seq., xxvii. 443). The
objection raised by the Aquitanian presbyter Vigilantius (c. 400)
to the belief that the souls of the martyrs to a certain extent
clung to their ashes, and heard the prayers of those who ap-
proached them, appeared to his contemporaries to be frivolous;
and he nowhere met with any support.
The only doubt which was felt was as to whether the bodies
of the saints should be divided, and removed from their original
resting-place. Both practices were forbidden by law under
the emperor Theodosius I. (Cod. Theodos. ix. 17, 7), and the
division of the bodies of martyrs into pieces was prohibited
for centuries. Even Pope Gregory I., in a letter to the empress
Constantia, disapproved it (Ep. iv. 30). Ambrose of Milan, by
the discovery of the relics of Protasius and Gervasius (cf.
Ep. 22 and Augustine, Confess, ix. 7), started in the West the
long series of discoveries and translations of hitherto unknown
relics. His example was followed, to name only the best
known instances, by Bishop Theodore of Octodurum (now
Martigny in the Vaud), who discovered the relics of the Theban
legion which was alleged to have been destroyed by the emperor
Maximian on account of its belief in the Christian faith (see
Passio Acaun. Mart. 16), and by Clematius, a citizen of
Cologne, to whom the virgin martyrs of this city revealed
themselves (Kraus, Inschriften der Rheinlande, No. 294), after-
wards to be known as St Ursula and her eleven thousand
virgins.
The West was much poorer in relics than the East. Rome,
it is true, possessed in the bodies of Peter and Paul a treasure
the virtue of which outshone all the sacred treasures of the
East. But many other places were entirely wanting in relics.
By the discoveries which we have mentioned their number
was notably increased. But the longing for these pledges
of the divine assistance was insatiable. In order to satisfy
it relics were made by placing pieces of cloth on the graves
of the saints, which were afterwards taken to their homes
and venerated by the pilgrims. The same purpose was served
by oil taken from the lamps burning at the graves, flowers from
the altars, water from some holy well, pieces of the garments of
saints, earth from Jerusalem, and especially keys which had
been laid on the grave of St Peter at Rome. All these things
were not looked upon as mementoes, but the conviction pre-
vailed that they were informed by a miraculous power, which
had passed into them through contact with that which was
originally sacred (cf. Greg. Tur. De Glor. mart. i. 25; Greg. I.
Ep. iv. 29, No. 30). A dishonest means of satisfying the
craving for relics was that of forging them, and how common
this became can be gathered from the many complaints about
spurious reh'cs (Sulp. Sev. Vita Mart. 8; Aug. De op. man. 28;
Greg. I. Ep. iv. 30, &c.).
But in the long run these substitutes for relics did not satisfy
the Christians of the West, and, following the example of
the Eastern Church, they took to dividing the bodies of the
saints. Medieval relics in the West also were mostly portions
of the bodies of saints or of things which they had used during
their lives. The veneration of relics also received a strong
impulse from the fact that the Church required that a relic
should be deposited in every altar. Among the first of those
whom we know to have attached importance to the placing of
relics in churches is Ambrose of Milan (Ep. 22), and the 7th
general council of Nicaea (787) forbade the consecration of
churches in which relics were not present, under pain of ex-
communication. This has remained part of the law of the
Roman Catholic Church.
The most famous relics discovered during the middle ages
were those of the apostle James at St Jago de Compostella
in Spain (see PILGRIMAGE), the bodies of the three kings, which
were brought from Milan to Cologne in 1164 by the emperor
Frederick I. (Chron. reg. Colon, for the year 1164), the so-
called sudarium of St Veronica, which from the i2th century
onwards was preserved in the Capella Santa Maria ad praesepe
of St Peter's in Rome (see Dobschiitz, Chrislusbilder,p. 218 seq.),
and the seamless robe of Christ, the possession of which lent
RELIEF RELIGION
61
renown to the cathedral of Trier since the beginning of the
I2th century (Gesta Trevir., Man. Germ. Scr. viii. p. 152).
The number of relics increased to a fabulous extent dur-
ing the middle ages. There were churches which possessed
hundreds, even thousands, of relics. In the cathedral of
Eichstatt were to be found, as early as 1071, 683 relics
(Gundech, Lib. pont. Eist., Man. Germ. Scr. vii. p. 246 seq.);
the monastery of Hirschau had 222 in the year 1091 (De cons.
mai. mon., Man. Germ. Scr. xiv. p. 261); the monastery of
Stedernburg 515 in the year 1166 (Ann. Sled. Scr. xvi. p. 212
seq.). But these figures are trifling compared with those
at the end of the middle ages. In the year 1520 could be
counted 19,013 in the Schlosskirche at Wittenberg, and 21,483
in the Schlosskirche at Halle in 1521 (Kostlin, Friedrich der W.,
und die Schlosskirche zu Wittenberg, p. 58 seq. ; Redlich, Cardinal
Albrecht und das Neue Stifl zu Halle, p. 260). There were also
collections on the same scale belonging to individuals; a
patrician of Nuremberg named Muffel was able to gain pos-
session of 308 relics (Chroniken der deutschen Stddte, xi. p. 745).
It is curious that while the popular craving for relics had
passed all bounds, medieval theology was very cautious in
its declarations on the subject of the veneration of relics.
Thomas Aquinas based his justification of them on the idea
of reverent commemoration; since we venerate the saints,
we must also show reverence for their relics, for whoever loves
another does honour to that which remains of him after death.
On this account it is our duty, in memory of the saints, to pay
due honour to their relics and especially to their bodies, which
were the temples and dwellings of the Holy Ghost in which
He dwelt and worked, and which in the resurrection are to be
made like to the body of Christ; and in likewise because God
honours them, in that He works wonders in their presence
(Summa theol. iii. qu. 25, art. 6). The great scholastic philo-
sopher abandoned the theory that the relics in themselves are
vessels and instruments of the divine grace and miraculous
power. But these ideas were revived, on the other hand, by
the Catholicism of the counter-Reformation, which again taught
and teaches that God grants many benefits to mankind through
the sacred bodies of the martyrs (Cone. Trid. sess. xxv.). The
doctrine has adapted itself to the popular belief. (A. H.*)
RELIEF (through Fr. from Lat. relevare, to lift up), an act
of raising or lifting off or up. Apart from the general sense
of a mitigation, cessation or removal of pain, sorrow, discomfort,
&c., and the artistic use (It. relievo) of the projection of a figure
or design in sculpture from the ground on which it is formed,
which is treated below, the term " relief " is used in the following
senses; it was one of the feudal incidents between lord and vassal,
and consisted of a payment to the lord in kind or money made
by the heir on the death of the ancestor for the privilege of
succession, for, fiefs not being hereditary, the estate had lapsed
to the lord; by this payment the heir caducum praedium
relevabat (Du Cange, Gloss, s.v. Relevare). The word is also
generally used, in law, for any exemption granted by a court
from the strict legal consequences of an act, &c., e.g. to a parlia-
mentary candidate from the penal consequences ensuing from
breaches of the regulations of the Corrupt and Illegal Practices
Acts. Relief is also the term used in English law for the assist-
ance given to the indigent poor by the Poor Law authorities
(see POOR LAW).
RELIEF, a term in sculpture signifying ornament, a figure
or figures raised from the ground of a flat surface of which the
sculptured portion forms an inherent part of the body of the
whole. The design may be in high relief "alto-relievo"^.!'.), or
low relief " bas-relief" or "basso-relievo" (<?..); in the former
case the design is almost wholly detached from the ground, the
attachment, through " under-cutting," remaining only here and
there; in the latter it is wholly attached and may scarcely rise
above the surface (as in the modern medal), or it may exceed in
projection to about a half the proportionate depth (or thickness)
of the figure or object represented. Formerly three terms were
commonly employed to express the degree of relief alto-
relievo, basso-relievo and mezzo-relievo (or half-relief) ; but the
two last-named have been merged by modern custom into
" low-relief," to the disadvantage of accurate description. The
term relief belongs to modern sculpture. To low relief as under-
stood by us Pliny applied the word anaglypta, but it is to be
observed that embossing and chasing came within the same
category. It may be considered that less sculptural skill
(independently of manipulative skill) is needed in high relief
than in low relief, because in the former the true relative pro-
portions in the life (whether figure or other object) have to be
rendered, while in the latter, although the true height and,
in a measure, breadth can be given, the thickness of the object
is reduced by at least one-half, sometimes to almost nothing;
and yet in spite of this departure from actuality, this abandon-
ment of fact for a pure convention, a true effect must still be
produced, not only in respect to perspective, but also of the
actual shadows cast. And insomuch as the compositions are
often extremely complicated and have sometimes to suggest
retreating planes, the true plane of the material affords little
scope for reproducing the required effect. In the beginning
the essential idea of the relief was always maintained : that is
to say, the sense of the flatness of the slab from which it was
cut was impressed throughout the design on the mind of the
spectator. Thus the Egyptians merely sunk the outlines and
scarcely more than suggested the modelling of the figures, which
never projected beyond the face of the surrounding ground.
The Persians, the Etruscans and the Greeks carried on the art
to the highest perfection, alike in sculpture and architectural
ornament, and they applied it to gem sculpture, as in the case
of " cameo." Similarly, the inverse treatment of relief that
is, sunk below the surface, in order that when used for seals a
true relief is obtained was early brought to great completeness;
this form of engraving is called " intaglio." The degree of
projection in relief, broadly speaking, has varied greatly with
the periods of art. Thus, in Byzantine and Romanesque art
the relief was low. In Gothic it increased with the increased
desire to render several planes one behind the other. With the
advent of the Renaissance it became still more accentuated,
the heads and figures projecting greatly; but such high relief
is sometimes found in early work, especially in metal-work.
Although we see a return to lower relief in the Henri II. period,
it becomes stronger in the Louis XIII. style, very full in
Louis XIV. and Louis XV., but in Louis XVI. is considerably
reduced. (M. H. S.)
RELIGION. The origin of the Latin word riligio or reUigio
has been the subject of discussion since the time of Cicero. Two
alternative derivations have been given, viz. from rSUgere,
to gather together, and rSligare, to bind back, fasten. Relegere
meant to gather together, collect, hence to go over a subject
again in thought, from re and legere, to collect together, hence to
read, collect at a glance. This view is that given by Cicero
(Nat. Dear. ii. 28, 72). He says: " Qui omnia quae ad cultum
deorum pertinerent diligenter retractarent et tanquamrelegerent,
sunt dicti religiosi ex relegendo," " men were called ' religious '
from relegere, because they reconsidered carefully and, as it
were, went over again in thought all that appertained to the
worship of the gods." He compares elegantes from eligere,
diligenles from diligere, and continues, " his enim in verbis
omnibus inest vis legendi eadem quae in religioso." This view
is supported by the form of the word in the verse quoted by
Gellius (iv. 9), " religentem esse oportet, religiosum nefas," and
by the use of the Greek &\ty(Lv, to pay heed to, frequently with
a negative, in the sense of the Latin negligere (nec-legere) , cf.
Qtwv miv oi>K. aheyovrfs (Homer, //. xvi. 388), heeding not the
visitation of the gods, or ov yap KwcXonrts Aids . . . dXe'yowrij'
(Od. ix. 275). The alternative derivation, from religare, to
fasten, bind, is that adopted by Lactantius (Inst. iv. 28), " Vinculo
pietatis obstricti, Deo religati sumus unde ipsa religio nomen
cepit. " He quotes in support the line from Lucretius (i. 931),
" religionum nodis animos exsolvere." Servius (on Virgil,
Aen. viii. 349) and St Augustine (Retract, i. 13) also take religare
as the source of the word. It is one that has certainly coloured
the meaning of the word, particularly in that use which restricts
62
RELIGION
[PRIMITIVE
it to the monastic life with its binding rules. It also has appealed
to Christian thought. Liddon (Some Elements of Religion,
Lecture I. 19) says: " Lactantius may be wrong in his etymology,
but he has certainly seized the broad popular sense of the word
when he connects it with the idea of an obligation by which man
is bound to an invisible God." Archbishop Trench (Study of
Words) supposed that when " religion " became equivalent to
the monastic life, and " religious " to a monk, the words lost
their original meaning, but the Ancren Riwle, ante 1225, and the
Cursor Mundi use the words both in the general and the more
particular sense (see quotations in the New English Dictionary),
and both meanings can be found in the Imitatio Christi and in
Erasmus's Colloquia. (X.)
The study of the forms of belief and worship belonging to
different tribes, nations or religious communities has only
recently acquired a scientific foundation. The Greek historians
early directed their attention to the ideas and customs of the
peoples with whom they were brought into contact; and
Herodotus has been called the " first anthropologist of reli-
gion." Theopompus described the Persian dualism in the 4th
century B.C., and when Megasthenes was ambassador to the
court of Chandragupta, 302 B.C., he noted the religious usages
of the middle Ganges valley. The early Christian Fathers
recorded many a valuable observation of the Gentile faiths
around them from varying points of view, sympathetic or
hostile; and Eusebius and Epiphanius, in the 4th century
A.D., attributed to the librarian of Ptolemy Philadelphus the
design of collecting the sacred books of the Ethiopians,
Indians, Persians, Elamites, Babylonians, Assyrians, Romans,
Phoenicians, Syrians and Greeks. The Mahommedan Biruni
(b. A.D. 973) compared the doctrines of the Greeks, Christians,
Jews, Manichaeans and Sufis with the philosophies and reli-
gions of India. Akbar (1542-1605) gathered Brahmans and
Zoroastrians, Jews, Christians and Mahommedans at his court,
and endeavoured to get translations of their scriptures. In the
next century the Persian author of the Dabistan exhibited the
doctrines of no less than twelve religions and their various sects.
Meanwhile the scholars of the West had begun to work. Thomas
Hyde (1636-1703) studied the religion of the ancient Persians;
John Spencer (1630-1693) analysed the laws of the Hebrews;
and Lord Herbert of Cherbury (De Religione Gentilium, 1645)
endeavoured to trace all religions back to five " truly Catholic
truths " of primitive faith, the first being the existence of God.
The doctrine of a primeval revelation survived in various forms
for two centuries, and appeared as late as the Juventus Mundi
of W. E. Gladstone (1868, p. 207 ff.). David Hume, on the other
hand, based his essay on The Natural History of Religion (1757)
on the conception of the development of human society from
rude beginnings, and all modern study is frankly founded on the
general idea of Evolution. 1
The materials at Hume's command, however, were destined
to vast and speedy expansion. The Jesuit missionaries had
already been at work in India and China, and a brilliant band of
English students, led by Sir William Jones and H. T. Colebrooke,
began to make known the treasures of Sanskrit literature,
which the great scholars of Germany and France proteeded to
develop. In Egypt the discovery of the Rosetta stone placed
the key to the hieroglyphics within Western reach; and the
decipherment of the cuneiform character enabled the patient
scholars of Europe tq recover the clues to the contents of the
ancient libraries of Babylonia and Assyria. With the aid of
inscriptions the cults of Greece and Rome have been largely
reconstructed. Travellers and missionaries reported the beliefs
and usages of uncivilized tribes in every part of the world,
with the result that " ethnography knows no race devoid of
religion, but only differences in the degree to which religious
ideas have developed " (Ratzel, History of Mankind, i. 40).
Meanwhile philosophy was at work on the problem of the
religious consciousness. The great series of German thinkers,
Lessing, Herder, Kant, Hegel, Fichte, Schleiermacher and their
1 This does not, of course, preclude the possibility of degeneration
in particular instances.
successors, sought to explain religion by means of the phenomena
of mind, and to track it to its roots in the processes of thought
and feeling. While ethnography was gathering up the facts
from every part of the globe, psychology began to analyse the
forms of belief, of action and emotion, to discover if possible
the ' key to the multitudinous variety which history revealed.
From the historical and linguistic side attention was first fixed
upon the myth, and the publication of the ancient hymns of the
Rig Veda led Max Miiller to seek in the common elements of
Aryan thought for the secrets of primitive religion (essay on
Comparative Mythology, 1856). The phenomena of day and
night, of sunshine and storm, and other aspects of nature, were
invoked by different interpreters to explain the conceptions of
the gods, their origins and their relations. Fresh materials
were gathered at the same time out of European folk-lore; the
work begun by the brothers Grimm was continued by J. W. E.
Mannhardt, and a lower stratum of beliefs and rites began to
emerge into view beneath the poetic forms of the more developed
mythologies. By such preliminary labours the way was
prepared for the new science of anthropology.
Since the appearance of Dr E. B. Tylor's classical treatise
on Primitive Culture (1871), the study of the origins of religion
has been pursued with the utmost zeal. Comte had already
described the primitive form of the religious consciousness as
that in which man conceives of all external bodies as animated
by a life analogous to his own (Philos. Positive, tome v., 1841,
p. 30). This has been since designated as polyzoism or panthelism
or panviialism, 2 and represents the obscure undifferentiated
groundwork out of which Tylor's Animism arises. Many are
the clues by which it has been sought to explain the secret of
primitive religion. Hegel, before the anthropological stage,
found it in magic. Max Miiller, building on philosophy and
mythology, affirmed that " Religion consists in the perception
of the infinite under such manifestations as are able to influence
the moral character of man " (Natural Religion, 1899, p. 188).
Herbert Spencer derived all religion from the worship of the dead
(Principles of Sociology, i.), like Grant Allen, and Lippert in
Germany. Mr Andrew Lang, on the other hand, supposes that
belief in a supreme being came first in order of evolution, but
was afterwards thrust into the background by belief in ghosts
and lesser divinities (Magic and Religion, 1901, p. 224).' Dr
Jevons finds the primitive form in totemism (Inlrod. to the
History of Religion, 1896, chap. ix.). Mr J. G. Frazer regards
religion (see his definition quoted below) as superposed on an
antecedent stage of magic. In The Tree of Life (1905), Mr E.
Crawley interprets it by the vital instinct, and connects its
first manifestations with the processes of the organic life. The
veteran Wilhelm Wundt (Mythus und Religion, ii. 1906, p. 177)
recurs to the primitive conceptions of the soul as the source of
all subsequent development. The origin of religion, however,
can never be determined archaeologically or historically; it
must be sought conjecturally through psychology. (J. E. C.)
A . PRIMITIVE RELIGION
There is a point at which the History of Religion becomes in
its predominant aspect a History of Religions. The conditions
that we describe by the comprehensive term " civilization "
occasion a specification and corresponding differentiation of the
life of societies; whence there result competing types of culture,
each instinct with the spirit of propagandism and, one might
almost say, of empire. It is an age of conscious selection as
between ideal systems. Instead of necessitating a wasteful
and precarious elimination of inadequate customs by the actual
destruction of those who practise them this being the method
of natural selection, which, like some Spanish Inquisition,
abolishes the heresy by wiping out the heretics one and all
progress now becomes possible along the more direct and less
2 Comte's own term " fetishism " was most unfortunately mis-
leading (see FETISHISM). Marett proposed the term " Animalism,"
Folk Lore (1900), xi. p. 171.
3 See his treatise on The Making of Religion (1898), and Hartland's
article on " The ' High Gods ' of Australia," Folk Lore (1898), ix.
p. 290.
PRIMITIVE]
RELIGION
painful path of conversion. The heretic, having developed
powers of rational choice, perceives his heresy, to wit, his want
of adaptation to the moral environment, and turning round
embraces the new faith that is the passport to survival.
Far otherwise is it with man at the stage of savagery the
stage of petty groups pursuing a self-centred life of inveterate
custom, in an isolation almost as complete as if they were
marooned on separate atolls of the ocean. Progress, or at all
events change, does indeed take place, though very slowly,
since the most primitive savage we know of has his portion of
human intelligence, looks after and before, nay, in regard to the
pressing needs of every day shows a quite remarkable shrewdness
and resource. Speaking generally, however, we must pronounce
him unprogressive, since, on the whole, unreflective in regard to
his ends. It is the price that must be paid for social discreteness
and incoherency. And the consequence of this atomism is
not what a careless thinker might be led to assume, extreme
diversity, but, on the contrary, extreme homogeneity of culture.
It has been found unworkable, for instance, to classify the
religions of really primitive peoples under a plurality of heads,
as becomes necessary the moment that the presence of a dis-
tinctive basis of linked ideas testifies to the individuality of
this or that type of higher creed. Primitive religions are like
so many similar beads on a string; and the concern of the
student of comparative religion is at this stage mainly with the
nature of the string, to wit, the common conditions of soul and
society that make, say, totemism, or taboo, very much the same
thing all the savage world over, when we seek to penetrate to
its essence.
This fundamental homogeneity of primitive culture, however,
must not be made the excuse for a treatment at the hands of
psychology and sociology that dispenses with the study of details
and trusts to an a priori method. By all means let universal
characterization be attempted we are about to attempt one
here, though well aware of the difficulty in the present state
of our knowledge but they must at least model themselves
on the composite photograph rather than the impressionist
sketch. An enormous mass of material, mostly quite in the raw,
awaits reduction to order on the part of anthropological theorists,
as yet a small and ill-supported body of enthusiasts. Under
these circumstances it would be premature to expect agreement
as to results. In regard to method, however, there is little
difference of opinion. Thus, whereas the popular writer abounds
in wide generalizations on the subject of primitive humanity,
the expert has hitherto for the most part deliberately restricted
himself to departmental investigations. Religion, for example,
seems altogether too vast a theme for him to embark on, and he
usually prefers to deal with some single element or aspect.
Again, origins attract the litterateur; he revels in describing
the transition from the pre-religious to the religious era. But
the expert, confining his attention to the known savage, finds
him already religious, nay, encumbered with religious survivals
of all kinds; for him, then, it suffices to describe things as they
now are, or as they were in the comparatively recent fore-time.
Lastly, there are many who, being competent in some other
branch of science, but having small acquaintance with the
scientific study of human culture, are inclined to explain
primitive ideas and institutions from without, namely by
reference to various external conditions of the mental life of
peoples, such as race, climate, food-supply and so on. The
anthropological expert, on the other hand, insists on making the
primitive point of view itself the be-all and end-all of his investi-
gations. The inwardness of savage religion the meaning it
has for those who practise it constitutes its essence and
meaning likewise for him, who after all is a man and a brother,
not one who stands really outside.
In what follows, then, we shall, indeed, venture to present a
wholesale appreciation of the religious idea as it is for primitive
man in general; but our account will respect the modern
anthropological method that bids the student keep closely to
the actualities of the religious experience of savages, as it can
with reasonable accuracy be gathered from what they do and say.
We have sought to render only the spirit of primitive religion,
keeping clear both of technicalities and of departmental investi-
gations. These are left to the separate articles bearing on the
subject. There the reader will find the most solid results of
recent anthropological research. Here is he merely offered a
flimsy thread that, we hope, may guide him through the maze of
facts, but alas! is only too likely to break off short in his hand.
Definition of Primitive Religion. In dealing with a develop-
ment of culture that has no immutable essence, but is intrinsically
fluid and changing, definition must consist either in a 'definition
of type, which indicates prevalence of relevant resemblance as
between specimens more or less divergent, or in exterior defini-
tion, which delimits the field of inquiry by laying down within
what extreme limits this divergence holds. Amongst the
numberless definitions of religion that have been suggested,
those that have been most frequently adopted for working
purposes by anthropologists are Tylor's and Frazer's. Dr E. B.
Tylor in Primitive Culture (i), i. 424, proposes as a " minimum
definition" of religion " the belief in spiritual beings." Objec-
tions to this definition on the score of incompleteness are, firstly,
that, besides belief, practice must be reckoned with (since, as
Dr W. Robertson Smith has made clear in his Lectures on the
Religion of the Semites, 18 sqq., ritual is in fact primary for
primitive religion, whilst dogma and myth are secondary);
secondly, that the outlook of such belief and practice is not
exclusively towards the spiritual, unless this term be widened
until it mean next to nothing, but is likewise towards the quasi-
material, as will be shown presently. The merit of this defini-
tion, on the other hand, lies in its bilateral form, which calls
attention to the need of characterizing both the religious
attitude and the religious object to which the former has refer-
ence. The same form appears in Dr J. G. Frazer's definition in
The Golden Bough (2nd ed.), i. 63. He understands by religion
" a propitiation or conciliation of powers superior to man which
are believed to direct and control the course of nature and of
human life." He goes on to explain that by " powers" he means
" conscious or personal agents." It is also to be noted that he
is here definitely opposing religion to magic, which he holds
to be based on the (implicit) assumption " that the course of
nature is determined, not by the passions or caprice of personal
beings, but by the operation of immutable laws acting mechani-
cally." His definition improves'on Tylor's in so far as it makes
worship integral to the religious attitude. By regarding the
object of religion as necessarily personal, however, he is led to
exclude much that the primitive man undoubtedly treats with
awe and respect as exerting a mystic effect on his life. Further,
in maintaining that the powers recognized by religion are always
superior to man, he leaves unclassed a host of practices that
display a bargaining, or even a hectoring, spirit on the part of
those addressing them (see PRAYER). Threatening or beating
a fetish cannot be brought under the head of magic, even if
we adopt Frazer's principle {op. cit. i. 64) that to constrain or
coerce a personal being is to treat him as an inanimate agent;
for such a principle is quite inapplicable to cases of mere terrorism,
whilst it may be doubted if it even renders the sense of the
savage magician's typical notion of his modus operandi, viz.
as the bringing to bear of a greater mana or psychic influence
(see below) on what has less, and must therefore do as it is
bidden. Such definitions, then, are to be accepted; if at all, as
definitions of type, selective designations of leading but not
strictly universal features. An encyclopaedic account, however,
should rest rather on an exterior definition which can serve as it
were to pigeon-hole the whole mass of significant facts. Such
an exterior definition is suggested by Mr E. Crawley in The
Tree of Life, 209, where he points out that " neither the Greek
nor the Latin language has any comprehensive term for religion,
except in the one Up&, and in the other sacra, words which
are equivalent to 'sacred.' No other term covers the whole
of religious phenojnena, and a survey of the complex details
of various worships results in showing that no other conception
will comprise the whole body of religious facts." It may be
added that we have here no generalization imported from a
RELIGION
[PRIMITIVE
higher level of culture, but an idea or blend of ideas familiar to
primitive thought. An important consequence of thus giving
the study of primitive religion the wide scope of a comparative
hierology is that magic is no longer divorced from religion, since
the sacred will now be found to be coextensive with the magico-
religious, that largely undifferentiated plasm out of which religion
and magic slowly take separate shape as society comes more
and more to contrast legitimate with illicit modes of dealing
with the sacred. We may define, then, the religious object as
the sacred, and the corresponding religious attitude as con-
sisting in such manifestation of feeling, thought and action in
regard to the sacred as is held to conduce to the welfare of the
community or to that of individuals considered as members
of the community.
Aspects of the Nature of the Sacred. To exhibit the general
character of the sacred as it exists for primitive religion it
is simplest to take stock of various aspects recognized by
primitive thought as expressed in language. If some, and
not the least essential, of these aspects are quasi-negative,
it must be remembered that negations witness the Unseen,
the Unknown, the Infinite of a more advanced theology are
well adapted to supply that mystery on which the religious
consciousness feeds with the slight basis of conceptual support
it needs, (i) The sacred as the forbidden. The primitive
notion that perhaps comes nearest to our " sacred," whilst it
immediately underlies the meanings of the Latin sacer and
sanctus, is that of a taboo, a Polynesian term for which equiva-
lents can be quoted from most savage vocabularies. The
root idea seems to be that something is marked off as to be
shunned, with the added hint of a mystic sanction or penalty
enforcing the avoidance. Two derivative senses of a more
positive import call for special notice. On the one hand,
since that which is tabooed is held to punish the taboo-breaker
by a sort of mystic infection, taboo comes to stand for un-
cleanness and sin. On the other hand, since the isolation of
the sacred, even when originally conceived in the interest of
the profane, may be interpreted as self-protection on the part
of the sacred as against defiling contact, taboo takes on the
connotation of ascetic virtue, purity, devotion, dignity and
blessedness. Primary and secondary senses of the term between
them cover so much ground that it is not surprising to find
taboo used in Polynesia as a name for the whole system of
religion, founded as it largely is on prohibitions and abstin-
ences. (2) The sacred as the mysterious. Another quasi-
negative notion of more restricted distribution is that of the
mysterious or strange, as we have it expressed, for example, in
the Siouan wakan, though possibly this is a derivative meaning.
Meanwhile, it is certain that what is strange, new or por-
tentous is regularly treated by all savages as sacred. (3) The
sacred as the secret. The literal sense of the term churinga,
applied by the Central Australians to their sacred objects,
and likewise used more abstractly to denote mystic power,
as when a man is said to be " full of churinga," is " secret,"
and is symptomatic of the esotericism that is a striking mark
of Australian, and indeed of all primitive, religion, with its
insistence on initiation, its exclusion of women, and its strictly
enforced reticence concerning traditional lore and proceedings.
(4) The sacred as the potent. Passing on to positive conceptions
of the sacred, perhaps the most fundamental is that which
identifies the efficacy of sacredness with such mystic or magical
power as is signified by the mana of the Pacific or orenda of
the Hurons, terms for which analogies are forthcoming on all
sides. Of mana Dr R. H. Codrington in The Melanesians,
119 ., writes: " It essentially belongs to personal beings to
originate it, though it may act through the medium of water,
or a stone, or a bone. All Melanesian religion consists . . .
in getting this mana for oneself, or getting it used for one's
benefit." E. Tregear's Maori- Polynesian Comparative Dic-
tionary shows how the word and its derivatives are used to
express thought, memory, emotion, desire, will in short,
psychic energy of all kinds. It also stands for the vehicle
of the magician's energy the spell; which would seem like-
wise to be a meaning, perhaps the root-meaning, of orenda
(cf. J. N. B. Hewitt, American Anthropologist, N.S., iv. 40).
Whereas everything, perhaps, has some share of indwelling
potency, whatever is sacred manifests this potency in an extra-
ordinary degree, as typically the wonder-working leader of
society, whose mana consists in his cunning and luck together.
Altogether, in mana we have what is par excellence the primitive
religious idea in its positive aspect, taboo representing its
negative side, since whatever has mana is taboo, and what-
ever is taboo has mana. (5) The sacred as the animate. The
term " animism," which embodies Tylor's classical theory
of primitive religion, is unfortunately somewhat ambiguous.
If we take it strictly to mean the belief in ghosts or spirits
having the " vaporous materiality " proper to the objects
of dream or hallucination, it is certain that the agency of such
phantasms is not the sole cause to which all mystic happenings
are referred (though ghosts and spirits are everywhere believed
in, and appear to be endowed with greater predominance
as religious synthesis advances amongst primitive peoples).
Thus there is good evidence to show that many of the early
gods, notably those that are held to be especially well disposed
to man, are conceived rather in the shape of magnified non-
natural men dwelling somewhere apart, such as the Mungan-
ngaur of the Kurnai of S.E. Australia (cf. A. Lang, The
Making of Religion 1 , x. sqq.). Such anthropomorphism is
with difficulty reduced to the Tylorian animism. The term,
however, will have to be used still more vaguely, if it is to
cover all attribution of personality, will or vitality. This
can be more simply brought under the notion of mana. Mean-
while, since quasi-mechanical means are freely resorted to
in dealing with the sacred, as when a Maori chief snuffs up
the sanctity his fingers have acquired by touching his own
sacred head that he may restore the virtue to the part whence
it was taken (R. Taylor, Te Ika a Maui, 165), or when un-
cleanness is removed as if it were a physical secretion by washing,
wiping and so forth, it is hard to say whether what we should
now call a " material " nature is not ascribed to the sacred,
more especially when its transmissibility after the manner of
a contagion is the trait that holds the attention. It is possible,
however, that the savage always distinguishes in a dim way
between the material medium and the indwelling principle
of vital energy, examples of a pure fetishism, in the sense of
the cult of the purely material, recognized as such, being hard
to find. (6) The sacred as the ancient. The prominence of
the notion of the Alcheringa " dreamtime," or sacred past,
in Central Australian religion illustrates the essential con-
nexion perceived by the savage to lie between the sacred and
the traditional. Ritualistic conservatism may be instanced as
a practical outcome of this feeling. Another development is
ancestor-worship, the organized cult of ancestors marking,
however, a certain stage of advance beyond the very primitive,
though the dead are always sacred and have mana which the
living may exploit for their own advantage.
The Activity of the Sacred. The foregoing views of the sacred,
though starting from distinct conceptions, converge in a single
complex notion, as may be seen from the many-sided sense
borne by such a term as wakan, which may stand not only for
" mystery," but also for " power, sacred, ancient, grandeur,
animate, immortal " (W J McGee, i^th Report of U. S. Bureau
of Ethnology, 182). The reason for this convergence is that,
whereas there is found great difficulty in characterizing the
elusive nature of the sacred, its mode of manifesting itself is
recognized to be much the same in all its phases. Uniform
characteristics are the fecundity, ambiguity, relativity and
transmissibility of its activity, (i) Fecundity. The mystic
potency of the sacred is no fixed quantity, but is big with
possibilities of all sorts. The same sacred person, object, act,
will suffice for a variety of purposes. Even where a piece of
sympathetic magic appears to promise definite results, or when
a departmental god is recognized, there would seem to be room
left for a more or less indefinite expectancy. It must be re-
membered that the meaning of a rite is for the most part obscure
PRIMITIVE]
RELIGION
to the participants, being overlaid by its traditional character,
which but guarantees a general efficacy. " Blessings come,
evils go," may be said to be the magico-religious formula
implicit in all socially approved dealings with the sacred,
however specialized in semblance. (2) Ambiguity. Mystic
potency, however, because of the very indefiniteness of its
action, is a two-edged sword. The sacred is not to be approached
lightly. It will heal or blast, according as it is handled with
or without due circumspection. That which is taboo, for
instance, the person of the king, or woman's blood, is poison or
medicine according as it is manipulated, being inherently just
a potentiality for wonder-working in any direction. Not but
what primitive thought shows a tendency to mark off a certain
kind of mystic power as wholly bad by a special name, e.g. the
arungquiltha of Central Australia; and here, we may note, we
come nearest to a conception of magic as something other than
religion, the trafficker in arungquiltha being socially suspect, nay,
liable to persecution, and even death (as amongst the Arunta
tribe, see Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of C. Australia, 536),
at the hands of his fellows. On the other hand, wholly beneficent
powers seem hardly to be recognized, unless we find them in
beings such as Mungan-ngaur (" father-our" ), who derive an
ethical character from their association with the initiation cere-
monies and the moral instruction given thereat (cf. Lang, I.e.).
(3) Relativity. So far we have tended to represent the activity of
the sacred as that of a universal force, somewhat in the style of
our " electricity" or " mind. " It remains to add that this activity
manifests itself at numberless independent centres. These
differ amongst themselves in the degree of their energy. One
spell is stronger than another, one taboo more inviolable than
another. Dr W. H. R. Rivers ( The Todas, 448) gives an interest-
ing analysis of the grades of sanctity apparent in Toda religion.
The gods of the hill-tops come first. The sacred buffaloes,
their milk, their bells, the dairies and their vessels are on a
lower plane; whilst we may note that there are several grades
amongst the dairies, increase of sanctity going with elaboration
of dairy ritual (cf. ibid. 232). Still lower is the dairyman, who
is in no way divine, yet has sanctity as one who maintains
a condition of ceremonial purity. (4) Transmissibility. If,
however, this activity originates at certain centres, it tends to
spread therefrom in all directions. Dr F. B. Jevons (in An
Introduction to the History of Religion, vii.) distinguishes between
" things taboo," which have the mystic contagion inherent in
them, and " things tabooed," to which the taboo-infection has
been transmitted. In the former class he places supernatural
beings (including men with mana as well as ghosts and spirits),
blood, new-born children with their mothers, and corpses;
which list might be considerably extended, for instance, by the
inclusion of natural portents, and animals and plants such as are
strikingly odd, dangerous or useful. Any one of these can pass
on its sacred quality to other persons and objects (as a corpse
defiles the mourner and his clothes), nay to actions, places and
times as well (as a corpse will likewise cause work to be tabooed,
ground to be set apart, a holy season to be observed). Such
transmissibility is commonly explained by the association of
ideas, that becoming sacred which as it were reminds one of
the sacred; though it is important to add, firstly, that such
association takes place under the influence of a selective interest
generated by strong religious feeling, and, secondly, that this
interest is primarily a collective product, being governed by a
social tradition which causes certain possibilities of ideal com-
bination alone to be realized, whilst it is the chief guarantee of
the objectivity of what they suggest.
The Exploitation of the Sacred. A. Methods. It is hard to find
terms general enough to cover dealings with the sacred that
range from the manipulation of an almost inanimate type of
power to intercourse modelled on that between man and man.
Primitive religion, however, resorts to either way of approach
so indifferently as to prove that there is little or no awareness
of an inconsistency of attitude. The radical contrast between
mechanical and spiritual religion, though fundamental for
modern theology, is alien to the primitive point of view, and is
therefore inappropriate to the purposes of anthropological
description, (i) Acquisition. Mystic power may be regarded
as innate so far as skill, luck or queerness are signs and con-
ditions of its presence. On the whole, however, savage society
tends to regard it as something acquired, the product of acts and
abstinences having a traditional character for imparting magico-
religious virtue. An external symbol in the shape of a ceremony
or cult-object is of great assistance to the dim eye of primitive
faith. Again, the savage universe is no preserve of man, but
is an open field wherein human and non-human activities of
all sorts compete on more or less equal terms, yet so that a
certain measure of predominance may be secured by a judicious
combination of forces. (2) Concentration. Hence the magico-
religious society or individual practitioner piles ceremony on
ceremony, name of power on name of power, relic on relic, to
consolidate the forces within reach and assume direction thereof.
The transmissibility of the sacred ensures the fusion of powers
drawn from all sources, however disparate. (3) Induction. It
is necessary, however, as it were to bring this force to a head.
This would appear to be the essential significance of sacrifice,
where a number of sacred operations and instruments are made
to discharge their efficacy into the victim as into a vat, so that a
blessing-yielding, evil-neutralizing force of highest attainable
potency is obtained (see H. Hubert and M. Mauss, " Essai sur
la nature et la fonction du sacrifice" in L' Annie sociologique, ii.).
(4) Renovation. An important motif in magico-religious ritual,
which may not have been without effect on the development of
sacrifice, is, as Dr Frazer's main thesis in The Golden Bough
asserts, the imparting of reproductive energy to animals, plants
and man himself, its cessation being suggested by such phenomena
as old age and the fall of the year. To concentrate, induce and
renovate are, however, but aspects of one process of acquisition
by the transfusion of a transmissible energy. (5) Demission.
Hubert and Mauss show in their penetrating analysis of sacrifice
that after the rite has been brought to its culminating point
there follows as a pendant a ceremony of re-entry into ordinary
life, the idea of which is preserved in the Christian formula
lie, missa est. (6) Insulation. Such deposition of sacredness
is but an aspect of the wider method that causes a ring-fence to
be erected round the sacred to ward off casual trespassers at
once in their own interest and to prevent contamination. We
see here a natural outcome of religious awe supported by the
spirit of esotericism, and by a sense of the need for an expert
handling of that which is so potent for good or ill. (7) Direction.
This last consideration brings to notice the fact that throughout
magico-religious practice of all kinds the human operator retains
a certain control over the issue. In the numberless transitions
that, whilst connecting, separate the spell and the prayer we
observe as the accompaniment of every mood from extreme
imperiousness to extreme humility an abiding will and desire
to help the action out. Even " Thy will be done " preserves
the echo of a direction, and, needless to say, this is hardly a
form of primitive address. At the bottom is the vague feeling
that it is man's own self-directed mysterious energy that is at
work, however much it needs to be reinforced from without.
Meanwhile, tradition strictly prescribes the ways and means of
such reinforcement, so that religion becomes largely a matter
of sacred lore; and the expert director of rites, who is likewise
usually at this stage the leader of society, comes more and more
to be needed as an intermediary between the lay portion of the
community and the sacred powers.
B. Results. Hitherto our account of primitive religion
has had to move on somewhat abstract lines. His religion
is, however, anything but an abstraction to the savage, and
stands rather for the whole of his concrete life so far as it is
penetrated by a spirit of earnest endeavour. The end and
result of primitive religion is, in a word, the consecration of
life, the stimulation of the will to live and to do. This
bracing of the vital feeling takes place by means of imaginative
appeal to the great forces man perceives stirring within him
and about him, such appeal proving effective doubtless by
reason of the psychological law that to conceive strongly is
xxm. 3
66
RELIGION
[PRIMITIVE
to imitate. Meanwhile, that there shall be no clashing of
conceptions to inhibit the tendency of the idea of an acquired
" grace " to realize itself in action, is secured by the complete
unanimity of public opinion, dominated as it is by an inveterate
custom. To appreciate the consecrating effect of religion on
primitive life we have only to look to the cAwwiga-worship
of the Central Australians (as described by Spencer and Gillen
in The Native Tribes of Central Australia and The Northern
Tribes of Central Australia). Contact with these repositories
of mystic influence " makes them glad " (Nat. Tr. 165) ; it
likewise makes them " good," so that they are no longer greedy
or selfish (North. Tr. 266); it endows them with second sight
(ibid.) ; it gives them confidence and success in war (Nat. Tr. 135) ;
in fact, there is no end to its "strengthening" effects (ibid. .).
Or, again, we may note the earnestness and solemnity that
characterize all their sacred ceremonies. The inwardness
of primitive religion is, however, non-existent for those who
observe it as uninitiated strangers; whilst, again, it evaporates
as soon as native custom breaks down under pressure of
civilization, when only fragments of meaningless superstition
survive: wherefore do travesties of primitive religion abound.
It remains to consider shortly the consecration of life in
relation to particular categories and departments, (i) Educa-
tion. Almost every tribe has its initiation ceremonies, and in
many tribes adult life may almost be described as a continuous
initiation. The object of these rites is primarily to impart
mystic virtue to the novice, such virtue, in the eyes of the
primitive man, being always something more than social use-
fulness, amounting as it does to a share in the tribal luck by
means of association with all it holds sacred. Incidentally
the candidate is trained to perform his duties as a tribesman,
but religion presides over the course, demanding earnest
endeavour of an impressionable age. (2) Government. Where
society is most primitive it is most democratic, as in Australia,
and magico-religious powers are possessed by the whole body
of fully initiated males, age, however, conferring increase of
sacred lore and consequently of authority; whilst even at
this stage the experts tend to form an inner circle of rulers.
The man with mana is bound to come to the top, both because
his gifts give him a start and because his success is taken as a
sign that he has the gift. A decisive " moment " in the evolu-
tion of chiefship is the recognition of hereditary mana, bound
up as this is with the handing on of ceremonies and cult-objects.
Invested, as society grows more complex, with a sanctity in-
creasingly superior to that of the layman, the priest-king
becomes the representative of the community as repository
of its luck, whilst, as controller of all sacred forces that bear
thereon, he is, as Dr Frazer puts it, " dynamical centre of the
universe" (The Golden Bough (2nd ed.), i. 233). Only when the
holy man's duty to preserve his holiness binds him hand and foot
in a network of taboos does his temporal power tend to devolve
on a deputy. (3) Food-supply. In accordance with the
principle of Renovation (see above), the root-idea of the appli-
cation of religion to economics is not the extorting of boons
from an unwilling nature, but rather the stimulation of the
sources of life, so that all beings alike may increase and multiply.
(4) Food-taking. Meanwhile, the primitive meal is always more
or less of a sacrament, and there are many food-taboos, the
significance of which is, however, not so much that certain
foods are unclean and poisonous as that they are of special
virtue and must be partaken of solemnly and with circum-
spection. (5) Kinship. It is hard to say whether the unit
of primitive society is the tribe or the group of kinsmen. Both
are forms of union that are consolidated by means of religious
usages. Thus in Australia the initiation ceremonies, concerned
as they partly are with marriage, always an affair between
the kin-groups, are tribal, whilst the totemic rites are the prime
concern of the members of the totem clans. The significance
of a common name and a common blood is immensely enhanced
by its association with mystic rights and duties, and the pulse
of brotherhood beats faster. (6) The Family. Side by side
with the kin there is always found the domestic group, but
the latter institution develops fully only as the former weakens,
so that the one comes largely to inherit the functions of the
other, whilst the tribe too in its turn hands over certain interests.
Thus in process of time birth-rites, marriage-rites, funeral-
rites, not to mention subordinate ceremonies such as those
of name-giving and food-taking, become domestic sacraments.
(7) Sex. Woman, for certain physiological reasons, is always
for primitive peoples hedged round with sanctity, whilst man
does all he can to inspire awe of his powers in woman by keep-
ing religion largely in his own hands. The result, so far as
woman is concerned, is that, in company with those males
who are endowed with sacredness in a more than ordinary
degree, she tends as a sex to lose in freedom as much as she
gains in respect. (8) Personality. Every one has his modicum
of innate mana, or at least may develop it in himself by com-
municating with powers that can be brought into answering
relation by the proper means. Nagualism, or the acquisition
of a mystic guardian, is a widely distributed custom, the essence
of which probably consists in the procuring of a personal name
having potency. The exceptional man is recognized as having
mana in a special degree, and a belief thus held at once by
others and by himself is bound to stimulate his individuality.
The primitive community is not so custom-bound that per-
sonality has no chance to make itself felt, and the leader of
men possessed of an inner fund of inspiration is the wonder-
worker who encourages all forms of social advance.
Psychology of the Primitive Attitude towards the Sacred. We
are on firmer ground when simply describing the phenomena of
primitive religion than when seeking to account for these in
terms of natural law in whatever sense the conception of
natural law be applicable to the facts of the mental life of man.
One thing is certain, namely, that savages stand on virtually
one footing with the civilized as regards the type of explanation
appropriate to their beliefs and practices. We have no right to
refer to " instincts " in the case of primitive man, any more
at any rate than we have in our own case. A child of civilized
parents brought up from the first amongst savages is a savage,
neither more nor less. Though race may count for something
in the matter of mental endowment and at least it would seem
to involve differences in weight of brain it clearly counts for
much less than does milieu, to wit, that social environment of
ideas and institutions which depends so largely for its effectiveness
on mechanical means of tradition, such as the art of writing.
The outstanding feature of the mental life of savages known to
psychologists as " primitive creduh'ty " is doubtless chiefly due
to sheer want of diversity of suggestiveness in their intellectual
surroundings. Their notions stick fast because there are no
competing notions to dislodge them. Society suffers a sort of
perpetual obsession, and remains self-hypnotized as it were
within a magic circle of traditional views. A rigid orthodoxy
is sustained by means of purblind imitation assisted by no little
persecution. Such changes as occur come about, not in conse-
quence of a new direction taken by conscious policy, but rather
in the way that fashions in dress alter amongst ourselves, by
subconscious, hardly purposive drifting. The crowd rather
than the individual is the thinking unit. A proof is the
mysterious rapid extinction of savages the moment that their
group-life is broken up; they are individually so many lost
sheep, without self-reliance or initiative. And the thinking
power of a crowd that is, a mob, not a deliberative assembly
is of a very low order, emotion of a " panicky " type driving it
hither and thither like a rudderless ship. However, as the
students of mob-psychology have shown, every crowd tends to
have its meneur, its mob-leader, the man who sets the cheering
or starts the running-away. So too, then, with the primitive
society. Grossly ignorant of all that falls outside " the daily
round, the common task," they are full of panicky fears in regard
to this unknown, and the primary attitude of society towards
it is sheer avoidance, taboo. But the mysterious has another
face. To the mob the mob-leader is mysterious in his power
of bringing luck and salvation; to himself also he is a wonder,
since he wills, and lo ! things happen accordingly. He has
HIGHER RELIGIONS]
RELIGION
67
mana, power, and by means of this mana, felt inwardly by
himself, acknowledged by his fellows, he stems the social impulse
to run away from a mystery. Not without nervous dread
witness the special taboo to which the leader of society is subject
he draws near and strives to constrain, conciliate or cajole
the awful forces with which the life of the group is set about.
He enters the Holy of Holies; the rest remain without, and are
more than half afraid of their mediator. In short, from the
standpoint of lay society, the manipulator of the sacred is
himself sacred, and shares in all the associations of sacred-
ness. An anthropomorphism which is specifically a " mago-
morphism " renders the sacred powers increasingly one with the
governing element in society, and religion assumes an ethico-
political character, whilst correspondingly authority and law
are invested with a deeper meaning.
The Abuse of the Sacred. Lest our picture of primitive
religion appear too brightly coloured, a word must be said on
the perversions to which the exploitation of the sacred is liable.
Envy, malice and uncharitableness are found in primitive
society, as elsewhere, and in their behoof the mystic forces are
not unfrequently unloosed by those who know how to do so.
To use the sacred to the detriment of the community, as does,
for instance, the expert who casts a spell, or utters a prayer,
to his neighbour's hurt, is what primitive society understands
by magic (cf. arungquillha, above), and anthropology has no
business to attach any other meaning to the word if it under-
takes to interpret the primitive point of view. On the other
hand, if those in authority perpetrate in the name of what their
society holds sacred, and therefore with its full approval, acts
that to the modern mind are cruel, silly or revolting, it is bad
science and bad ethics to speak of vice and degradation, unless
it can be shown that the community in which these things
occur is thereby brought nearer to elimination in the struggle
for existence. As a matter of fact, the earlier and more demo-
cratic types of primitive society, uncontaminated by our
civilization, do not present many features to which the modern
conscience can take exception, but display rather the edifying
spectacle of religious brotherhoods encouraging themselves by
mystical communion to common effort. With the evolution
of rank, however, and the concentration of magico-religious
power in the hands of certain orders, there is less solidarity
and more individualism, or at all events more opportunity
for sectional interests to be pursued at other than critical times;
whereupon fraud and violence are apt to infect religion. Indeed,
as the history of the higher religions shows, religion tends in the
end to break away from secular government with its aristocratic
traditions, and to revert to the more democratic spirit of the
primitive age, having by now obtained a clearer consciousness
of its purpose, yet nevertheless clinging to the inveterate forms
of human ritual as still adequate to symbolize the consecration
of life the quickening of the will to face life earnestly.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The number of works dealing with primitive
religion is endless. The English reader who is more or less new to
the subject is recommended to begin with E. B. Tylor, Primitive
Culture (4th ed., Lond. 1903), and then to proceed to J. G. Frazer,
The Golden Bough (2nd ed., Lond. 1900). The latter author's
Lectures on the Early History of the Kingship (Lond. 1905) may also
be consulted. Only second in importance to the above are W.
Robertson Smith, Lectures on the Religion of the Semites (2nd ed.,
Lond. 1904); A. Lang, Myth, Ritual and Religion (2nd ed., Lond.
1899), and Magic and Religion (Lond. 1902); E. S. Hartland, The
Legend of Perseus (Lond. 1894-1896) ; F. B. Jevons, An Introduction to
the History of Religion (2nd ed., 1902); E. Crawley, The Mystic Rose
(Lond. 1902), and The Tree of Life (Lond. 1905). The two last-
mentioned works perhaps most nearly represent the views taken in
the text, which are also developed by the present writer in " Pre-
Animistic Religion," Folk-Lore xi. (1900), " From Spell to Prayer,"
Folk-Lore, xv. (1904), and " Is Taboo a Negative Magic?" Anthropo-
logical Essays presented to E. B. Tylor (1907); L. R. Farnell, The
Evolution of Religion (1905), follows similar lines. The present writer
owes something to Goblet d'Alviella, Hibbert Lectures (Lond. 1891),
and more to H. Hubert and M. Mauss, " Essai sur la nature et la
fonction du sacrifice," L'Annee sociologique, ii. ; and " Esquisse d'unc
th6orie g6ne>ale de la magie," ibid. vii. If the reader wish to keep
pace with the output of literature on this vast subject, he will
find L'Annee sociologique (1896 onwards) a wonderfully complete
bibliographical guide.
Side by side with works of general theory, first-hand authorities
should be freely used. To make a selection from these is not easy,
but the following at least are very important: R. H. Codrington,
The Melanesians (Oxford, 1891); W. B. Spencer and F. J. Gillen,
The Native Tribes of Central Australia (Lond. 1899); The Northern
Tribes of Central Australia (Lond. 1904); A. W. Howitt, The Native
Tribes of South-Eastern Australia (Lond. 1904); A. C. Haddon,
Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres
Straits (Cambridge, 1904, vol. v.); A. B. Ellis, The Tshi-Speaking
Peoples of the Gold Coast (Lond. 1897); The Ewe-Speaking Peoples
of the Slave Coast (Lond. 1890); The Yoruba-Speaking Peoples
of the Slave Coast (Lond. 1894); Miss M. H. Kingsley, Travels in
West Africa (Lond. 1898), and West African Studies (Lond. 1899);
A. C. Hollis, The Masai (1905); W. Crooke, The North-West Pro-
vinces of India (Lond. 1897); W. H. R. Rivers, The Todas (1906).
An immense amount of valuable evidence is to be obtained in the
Reports of the Bureau of Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution, Wash-
ington. See Nos. 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, n, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23,
and specially J. O. Dorsey, A Study of Siouan Cults, in No. n ; A. C.
Fletcher, The Hako, in No. 22; and M. C. Stevenson, The Zuni
Indians, in No. 23. Though dealing primarily with a more advanced
culture, J. J. M.deGroot, The Religious System of China (1892-1901),
will be found to throw much light on primitive ideas. Finally let
it be repeated that there is offered here no more than an introduc-
tory course of standard authorities suitable for the English
reader. (R. R. M.)
B. THE HIGHER RELIGIONS
Various phenomena associated with the religions of the
lower culture will be found discussed in the articles on ANIMISM;
FETISHISM; MAGIC; MYTHOLOGY; PRAYER; RITUAL; SACRIFICE;
and TOTEMISM. In this article religions .are treated
from the point of view of morphology, and no attempt can be
made in the allotted limits to connect them with the phases
of ritual, sociological or ethical development. See the separate
articles on each religious system, and the separate headings for
different forms of ritual.
i. Developments oj Animism. Animism is not, indeed,
itself a religion; it is rather a primitive kind of philosophy
which provides the intellectual form for the interpretation
alike of Man and of Nature. It implies that the first great
step has been taken for distinguishing between the material
objects whether the conscious body, or the rocks, trees and
animals and the powers that act in or through them. The
Zunis of New Mexico, U.S.A., supposed " the sun, moon and
stars, the sky, earth and sea, in all their phenomena and elements,
and all inanimate objects as well as plants, animals and men,
to belong to one great system of all-conscious and interrelated
life, in which the degrees of relationship seem to be deter-
mined largely, if not wholly, by the degrees of resemblance." 1
If the earliest conception is that of an obscure undifferentiated
animation (panvitalism) , the analysis of the human person into
body and spirit with the corresponding doctrine of " object-
souls " (e.g. the tornait or " invisible rulers " of every object
among the Eskimo) 2 constitutes an important development.
Matter is no longer animated or self-acting; it is subject to
the will of an agent which can enter or quit it, perhaps at its
own pleasure, perhaps at the compulsion of another. The
transition has usually been effected ages before the higher
religions come into view; but it has left innumerable traces
in language and custom. Thus the Vedic hymns, which ex-
hibit the deposits of so many stages of thought, are founded
ultimately on the conception of the animation of nature. The
objects of the visible world are themselves mighty to hurt or
help. The springs and rivers, the wind, the sun, fire, the
Earth-Mother, the Sky-Father, are all active powers. The
animals, domesticated or wild, like the horse or cow, the guardian
dog, the bird of omen, naturally share the same life, and are
approached with the same invocation. The sacred energy
is also discerned in the ritual implements, in the stones for
squeezing the soma-juice, and the sacrificial post to which
animals were bound; nay, it was even recognized in fabricated
products like the plough (the " tearer " or " divider "), the
1 F. H. Gushing, on " Zuni Fetiches " in Second Annual Report
of the Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, 1883, p. 9.
2 Dr. Franz Boas, in the Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of
Ethnology, 1888, p. 591.
68
RELIGION
[HIGHER RELIGIONS
war-car, the drum, quiver, bow and axe. The Earth-Mother
and Sky-Father are to be found again and again in religions,
at various stages of development, as co-ordinating conceptions
which comprehend the universe. 1 Sometimes one is more
prominent, sometimes the other. In many cases the Sky has
been already resolved into the visible firmament and its lord
and owner, like the Yoruban Olorun or the Finnic Ukko. The
consort of Ukko is Maan-emo, " mother of the earth," or maan
emantii, " mistress of the earth." But the rare expression
maan-emS, " Mother-earth," still used in the ancient lays, 2
points to the older type of belief in the animation of the pro-
ductive soil. So the Peruvians designated the Earth as Pacha-
mama, " mother of (all) things." In Egypt the relation was
curiously reversed; the earth-god Keb was the husband of
Nut, the sky, represented sometimes as a woman, overarching
the earth and supported on hands and feet, sometimes as a
gigantic cow, upheld on the outstretched hands of Shu, the
atmosphere. 3 When earth and sky were still unseparated,
Shu thrust himself between them and raised Nut to the heights.
So in the New Zealand myth, Rangi and Papa, Sky and Earth,
who once clave together in the darkness, were rent asunder
by the forest-god Tane-mahuta, who forced up the sky far
above him. 4 The most elaborate presentment of this mode
of thought is to be seen in the organized animism of the ancient
state religion of China, where the supreme power is lodged
in the living sky (Tien). 6 Tien was originally the actual firma-
ment. In the Shi-King it is addressed in prayer as " great
and wide," as " vast and distant "; it is even " blue " (Pt. II.
v. 6, 5). So it is the ancestor of all things; and Heaven and
Earth are the father and mother of the world. From the
imperial point of view the sky bore the name of Ti, " ruler,"
or Shang Ti, "supreme ruler" (emperor); and later com-
mentators readily took advantage of this to discriminate between
the visible expanse and the indwelling spirit, producing a
kind of Theism. But the older conception still holds its own.
" Why " (says Edkins, Religion in China, 95), " they have been
often asked, should you speak of those things which are dead
matter, fashioned from nothing by the hand of God, as living
beings? And why not? they have replied. The Sky pours
down rain and sunshine; the Earth produces corn and grass.
We see them in perpetual movement, and we therefore say
that they are living." Tien Ti, Fu Mu, " Heaven and Earth,
Father and Mother," are conjoined in common speech, and are
the supreme objects of imperial worship. The great altar
to Heaven, round in shape like the circuit of the sky, and
white as the symbol of the light principle (Yang), stands in
the southern suburb of Peking in the direction of light and
heat. The altar to the Earth is dark and square, on the north
side of the city, the region of yin, the principle of cold and
gloom. Associated with the Sky are tablets to the sun and
moon, the seven stars of the Great Bear, the five planets,
the twenty-eight constellations, and all the stars of heaven;
tablets to clouds, rain, wind and thunder being placed next
to that of the moon. With the Earth are grouped the tablets
to the five lofty Mountains, the three Hills of perpetual peace
and the four Seas, the five celebrated Mountains and the four
great Rivers. 6 The ancient ritual (Chow Li) carefully graded
the right of sacrifice from the viceroys of provinces down to
the humblest district-superintendent who offered to the spirits
of his district, the hills, lakes and grains. With these spirits
ranged in feudal order in two vast groups beneath Heaven and
Earth is associated a third class, those of human beings. They
are designated by the same name, shin; and they are in-
1 The Japanese name is Ame-tsuchi, " heaven and earth," a trans-
lation of the Chinese ten-chi, Aston, Shinto (1905), p. 35.
2 Castren, Finnische Mythologie, p. 86.
8 Erman, Handbook of Egyptian Religion (1907), pp. 8, 12.
4 Sir George Grey, Polynesian Mythology (1855), pp. 1-4.
6 The English " Heaven " has acquired a quasi-personal mean-
ing, and is usually employed as its equivalent, but, like the Jewish
use (e.g. Luke xv. 18), tends to carry too definite religious associa-
tions with it.
Blodget, on " The Chinese Worship of Heaven and Earth,"
Journ. of the American Oriental Society, xx. p. 58 ff.
extricably mingled with the operations of nature. So in the
Vedic hymns the departed " Fathers " inhabit the three zones
of earth, air and sky; they are invoked with the streams and
mountains of this lower earth, as well as with the dawns and
the sky itself; even cosmic functions are ascribed to them;
and they adorn the heaven with stars. The Chinese concep-
tion of the Shin under the name of Shin-to (Chinese too) or
" spirits'-way " profoundly influenced Japanese thought from
the 6th century A.D. onwards; and the great Shinto revival of
the i8th century brought the doctrine again into prominence.
The Japanese Kami are the " higher " powers, the superi,
conceived as acting through nature on the one hand and govern-
ment on the other. Just as the emperor is kami , and provincial
officers of rank, so also mountains, rivers, the sea, thunder,
winds, and even animals like the tiger, wolf or fox, are all kami. 1
The spirits of the dead also become kami, of varying character
and position; some reside in the temples built in their honour;
some hover near their tombs; but they are constantly active,.
mingling in the vast multitude of agencies which makes every
event in the universe, in the language of Motowori (1730-1801),
the act of the Kami. They direct the changing seasons, the
wind and the rain; and the good and bad fortunes of individuals,
families and states are due to them. 8 Everywhere from birth
to death the entire life of man is encompassed and guided
by the Kami, which are sometimes reckoned at 8,000,000 in
number.
2. Transition to Polytheism. In such ways does the Poly-
daemonism of early faith survive in the modern practice of
religion. The process of enrolling the spirits of the dead in the
ranks of what may be more or less definitely called " gods "
may be seen in the popular usages of India at the present day,
or traced in the pages of the Peking Gazette under the direction
of the Board of Rites, one of the most ancient branches of
Chinese administration. Whether the higher polytheisms were
produced in this fashion out of the cultus of the dead, may,
however, be doubted. Many influences have doubtless contri-
buted,' and different races have followed different lines of
development. No definite succession like the series of ages
marked by the use of stone, bronze and iron can be clearly
marked. But there must always have been some correspondence
between the stages of social advance (or, in certain cases, of
degeneration) and the religious interpretation of the world.
The formation of clans and tribes, the transitions from the
hunting to the pastoral life, and from the pastoral to the
agricultural the struggle with forest and swamp, the clearings
for settlement, the protection of the dwelling-place, the safety
of flocks and herds, the production of corn, the migration of
peoples, the founding of colonies, the processes of conquest,
fusion, and political union have all reacted on the elaboration
of the higher polytheisms, before bards and poets, priesthoods
and theological speculators, began to systematize and regulate
the relations of the gods. Certain phases of thought may be
more or less clearly indicated ; certain elements of race, of
local condition, of foreign contact, may be distinguished with
more or less historic probability; but no single key can explain ,
all the wide diversity of phenomena. Broadly speaking it
may be said that a distinction may be drawn between " spirits "
and " gods," but it is a distinction of degree rather than of kind,.
obvious enough at the upper end, yet shading off into manifold
varieties of resemblance in the lower forms. Some writers.
only recognize friendly agencies as gods; but destructive
powers like the volcano, or the lords of the underworld, cannot
be regarded as the protectors of the life of man, yet they seem in
many mythologies to attain the full personalised stature of
gods with definite names. Early Greek religion recognized
a class of gods of Aversion and Riddance, ATrorpoirotot and
ioi. Neither the spirit nor the god is conceived as
' So the epithet 'el might be applied in Hebrew to men of might,
to lofty cedars, or mountains of unusual height, as well as to the
Supreme Being.
8 See E. M. Satow, " Revival of Pure Shinto, Trans. As. 6oc.
of Japan, vol. iii. pt. I (1875), Appendix, p. 26.
HIGHER RELIGIONS]
RELIGION
69
immaterial. They can take food, though the crudest form of
this belief soon passes into the more refined notion that they
consume the impalpable essence of the meals provided for them.
The ancient Indian ritual for the sacrifice to the Fathers required
the officiating priest to turn away with bated breath that he
might not see the spirits engaged upon the rice-balls laid out
for them. The elastic impalpable stufi of the spirit-body is
apparently capable of compression or expansion, just as Athena
can transform herself into a bird. The spirits can pass swiftly
through the air or the water; they can enter the stone or the
tree, the animal or the man. The spirit-land of the Ibo on the
Lower Niger had its rivers, forests or hills, its towns and roads,
as upon earth: 1 the spirits of the Mordvinian mythology,
created by Chkai, not only resembled men, they even possessed
the faculty of reproduction by multiplication. 2 The Finns
ascribed a haltia or genius to each object, which could, how-
ever, guard other individuals of the same species. This is the
beginning of the species-god, and implies a step of thought
comparable to the production in language of general terms.
These protecting spirits were free beings, having form and
shape, but not individualized; while above them rose the higher
deities like the forest-god Tapio and his maiden Hillervo,
protectress of herds, or Ahto the water-god who gradually took
the place of Vesi, the actual element originally conceived as
itself divine, and ruled over the spirits of lakes and rivers, wells
and springs. 3 The Finns came to apply to the upper gods the
term Yumala which originally denoted the living sky; the
Samoyedes made the same use of Num, and the Mongols of
Tengri. 4 Above the innumerable wongs of the Gold Coast rose
Nyongmo, the Sky-god, giver of the sunshine and the rain.
The Yoruba-speaking peoples generalized the spirits of mountain
and hill into Oke, god of heights; and the multitude of local
sea-gods on the western half of the slave coast was fused into
one god of the Ocean, Olokun. 6 The Babylonian theology
recognized a Zi or " spirit " in both men and gods, somewhat
resembling the Egyptian " double " or ka; spirits are classed as
spirits of heaven and spirits of earth; but the original identity
of gods and spirits may be inferred from the fact that the same
sign stands before the names of both. 6 Out of the vast mass of
undifferentiated powers certain functional deities appear; and
the Kami of Japan to-day who preside over the gilds and crafts
of industry and agriculture, over the trees and grasses of the
field, the operations of the household, and even the kitchen-
range, the saucepan, the rice-pot, the well, the garden, the
scarecrow and the privy, have their counterparts in the lists of
ancient Rome, the indigitamenta over whose contents Tertullian
and Augustine made merry. The child was reared under the
superintendence of Educa and Potina. Abeona and Adeona
taught him to go out and in. Cuba guarded him when he was
old enough to exchange a cradle for a bed. Ossipaga strengthened
his bones; Levana helped him to get up, and Statina to stand. 7
There were 'powers protecting the threshold, the door and the
hinge: and the duties of the house, the farm, the mill, had each
its appointed guardian. But such powers were hardly persons.
The settler who went into the woods might know neither the
name nor the sex -of the indwelling numen; "si deus si dea,"
" sive mas sive femina," ran the old formulae. 8 So the Baals
1 Leonard, The Lower Niger and its Tribes (1906), p. 186.
2 Mainof, " Les Restes de la mythologie mordvine," Journal de la
Soc. Finno-Ougrienne, v. (1889), p. 102.
3 Castrdn, Finn. Mythol. pp. 92 ff., 72.
4 Ibid. pp. 7, 14, 17, 24.
6 A. B. Ellis, The Yoruba-speaking Peoples (1894), P- 289.
6 Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria (1898), p. 181. The
Zufiis applied the term a-h&i " All-Life " or " the Beings " to all
supernatural beings, men, animals, plants, and many objects in
nature regarded as personal existences, as well as to the higher
anthropomorphic powers known as " Finishers or Makers of the
Paths of Life," Report of Bureau of Ethnol. (1883), p. II. On the
distinction between " gods " and " spirits," cf. Ed. Meyer, Gesch.
des Alterlhums, 2nd ed. Band i. erste Haelfte (1907), p. 97 ff.
7 Tert. DeAnima, 39 Aug. De Civ. Dei, iv. n, &c.
8 On the Dei Certi and the Dei Incerti, see von Domaszewski
in the Archivfur Religionswiss., x. (1907), pp. 1-17.
of the Semitic peoples constituted a group of powers fertilizing
the land with water-springs, the givers of corn and wine and oil,
out of which under onditions of superior political development
a high-god like the Tyrian Baal, the majestic City-King, might
be evolved. The Celts who saw the world peopled with the
spirits of trees and animals, rocks, mountains, springs and rivers,
grouped them in classes like the Dervonnae (oak-spirits), the
Niskai (water-spirits), the Proximae, the Matronae (earth-
goddesses)' and the like. Below the small band of Teutonic
divinities were the elves of forest and field, the water-elves or
nixes and spirits of house and home. The Vedic deities of the
nobler sort, the shining devas, the asuras (the " breathers " or
living, perhaps to be identified with the Scandinavian asir)
rose above a vast multitude of demonic powers, many of them
doubtless derived from the local customs and beliefs of the native
races whom the immigrant Aryans subdued. In the earliest
literary record of Greek religion Homer distinguishes between
the 0os and the Saiftuv, the personalized god and the numen
or divine power. In Homer the element of time is definitely
recognized. The gods are the " Immortals." They are born, and
their parentage is known, but they do not die. Zeus is not
self-existent in the sense in which the Indian Brahma, is
svayambhu, but certain questions have been by implication
asked and answered, which the demonology of the savage has
not yet raised. But behind Homer stretches the dim scene of
pre-Hellenic religion, and the conflict of elements " Pelasgic,"
oriental and Hellenic, out of which the Homeric religion emerged;-
and beneath the Homeric religion how many features of the
religion of ghosts and nature-spirits survived in popular usage
and the lower cults! 10 When Herodotus (ii. 53) tried to trace
the origin of the beliefs around him, he found his way back to
an age before Hesiod or Homer, when the gods were nameless.
To that age the traditions preserved at Dodona bore witness;
and the designations of special groups like the 0eoi
lieyiaroi, 6toi (iti\ixioi, dtol irpat-ioiKai, or, possibly, the
Venerable Goddesses (6eai atnvai) of Athens, point to a mode
of thought when the divine Powers were not definitely in-
dividualized. They are just at the point of transition from the
ranks of spirits to the higher classes of the gods. As they had
no names, they had no relations. Nor had any images yet been
made of them. They were associated with hallowed trees,
with sacred stones and pillars, out of which came the square
rough-hewn Hermae which were anointed with oil like the sacred
stone attributed by legend to Jacob at Bethel. 11 By what
processes the Hellenic immigration introduced new deities and
the Greek pantheon was slowly formed, can only be conjecturally
traced with the help of archaeology. But Herodotus and
Aeschylus were well aware that the religion of Greece had not
been uniformly the same; and the gods whom they knew had
been developed out of intercourse with other peoples and the
succession of races in the obscure and distant past.
3. Polytheism. The lower and unprogressive religions
practically remain in the polydaemonistic stage, though not
without occasionally feeling the stimulus of contact with higher
faiths, like some of the West African peoples in the presence
of the Mahommedan advance. Among the more progressive
races, on the other hand, continual processes of elevation and
decline may be observed, and the activities of the greater gods
are constantly being enriched with new functions. Personal
or social experiences of the satisfaction of some desire or escape
from some danger are referred to some particular deity. Ele-
ments of race-consciousness help to shape the outlook on nature
or life: and slight differences of linguistic use in the coining of
descriptive terms sometimes lead to the multiplication of divine
forms. Exacter observation of nature; closer attention to its
contrasts of life and death, or light and darkness, or male and
9 Cf . the groups of " Mothers " in modern India, of various origins,
Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore (2), i. in.
10 Cf . Andrew Lang, Myth, Ritual and Religion ; and Miss Harrison,
Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion.
11 Cf. A. J. Evans, on The Mycenean Tree and Pillar Cult (1901),
and Sir W. M. Ramsay, " Religion of Greece and Asia Minor," in
Hastings' Diet, of the Bible, extra vol.
RELIGION
[HIGHER RELIGIONS
female; the distinction between its permanent objects, and its
occasional or recurring operations; the recognition that behind
sudden manifestations of power, like the thunder-storm, there
are steady forces and continuous cosmic agencies at work lead
to the gradual rise of the higher deities. And from the social
side the development of law, the influence of city life, the
formation of priesthoods, the connexion of particular deities
with the fortunes of dynasties or the vicissitudes of nations,
the processes of migration, of conquest and political fusion, the
deportations of vanquished peoples, even the sale of slaves to
distant lands and the growth of trade and travel, all contribute
to the processes which expand and modify different pantheons,
and determine the importance of particular deities. In the
midst of the bewildering variety, where all types co-exist
together and act and react on each other, it is impossible to do
more than point out some obvious groups receiving their special
forms chiefly from the side (i) of nature, (2) of human life,
and (3) from moral or theological speculation. Divine persons,
objects or powers, connected with ritual, are not here considered,
such as the Brahman priests who claimed to be manushyadevah
(human-gods), or the sacred soma-juice which grew by strange
analogies into a mysterious element, linking together heaven
and earth.
I. On the side of Nature the lowest rank (i) seems to belong
to what Usener has designated " momentary " or " occasional "
gods. 1 They embody for the time being a vague consciousness
of the divine, which is concentrated for some single act into an
outward object, like a warrior's spear or the thunderbolt, 2 or
the last sheaf of corn into which the Corn-Mother has been
driven. 3 (2) Above these, to use again Usener's nomenclature, 4
are the " special " or * functional " gods, " departmental
gods," as Mr Lang has called them. Such were some of the
deities of the Indigitamenta already compared with the Japanese
Kami. Among them, for example, were twelve deities of
ploughing and harvest operations, who were invoked with
Tellus and Ceres. (3) Another class may be seen in the species-
deities previously named; the Samoan gods which could become
incarnate as a heron or an owl, did not die with particular birds.
A dead owl was not a dead god; he yet lived in all other owls. 5
(4) The worship of trees, plants and animals is a particular
phase of the wider series of nature-cults, only named here because
of its frequency and its obvious survivals in some of the higher
polytheisms, where, as in Egypt, the Apis bulls were. worshipped;
or where, as in Mesopotamia, the great gods are partly symbolized
by animal forms; or where, as in Israel, Yahweh might be
represented as a bull; or where, as in Greece, such epithets as
Dendrites and Endendros preserved traces of the association
of Dionysus and Zeus with vegetation; while sacred animals
like the serpents of Aesculapius were preserved in the temples. 6
(s) The higher elemental gods sometimes, like the sun, as the
Indian Surya, the Egyptian Re, the Babylonian Shamash
(Samas), the Greek Helios, retain their distinct connexion with
the visible object. It was naturally more easy for a relatively
spiritual worship to gather round a god whose name did not
immediately suggest a familiar body. No one ever thought of
confessing sin, for instance, to a river. But the dally survey
of the sun (occasionally also the function of the moon as measurer
of time), together with his importance for life, secured him a
high moral rank; and R6, united with the Theban Ammon,
became (under the New Empire) the leading god of Egypt for
a thousand years, " He who hath made all, the sole One with
many hands." Other deities, like Zeus, rise to the head of a
monarchical polytheism, in which their physical base is almost,
1 Gotternamen, Bonn, 1896, p. 279 ff. But cp. Dr Farnell's
essay " On the Place of the Sonder-Gottcr in Greek Polytheism," in
Anthropological Essays presented to Edward Burnett Tylor (1907),
p. 81.
* Ibid. pp. 285, 286.
* Frazer, The Golden Bough (2), ii. 170-1.
4 Gotternamen, p. 75.
'Turner, Samoa, 1884, p. 21.
6 Cf. de Visser, Die nicht Menschen-Gestaltigen Cotter der Griechen
(Leiden, 1903).
if not quite, forgotten in cosmic and moral grandeur. The gods
are often arranged in groups, three, seven and twelve Being
frequent numbers. Egyptian summaries recognized gods in
the sky, on earth and in the water; gods of the north and
south, the east and west, gods of the field and the cities. Indian
theologians classified them in three zones, earth, air and sky.
Babylonian speculation embraced the world in a triad of divine
powers, Anu the god of heaven, Bel of earth and Ea of the deep;
and these became the symbols of the order of nature, the divine
embodiments of physical law. 7 Sometimes the number three is
reached by the distribution of the universe into sky, earth and
underworld, and the gods of death claim their place as the
rulers of the world to come. Among these deities all kinds of
relationships are displayed; consorts must be provided for the
unwedded, and the family conception, as distinct from the regal,
presents a divine father, mother and child. The Ibani in
Southern Nigeria recognized Adum the father-god, Okoba the
mother-god and Eberebo the son-god. 8 In Egypt, Osiris,
Isis and Horus proved an influential type. Perhaps at a
relatively earlier stage maternity alone is emphatically asserted,
as in the figure of the Cretan Mother, productive without
distinctly sexual character. 9 Or, again, maternity disappears,
while parenthood survives, and causation is embodied in a
universal " Father of all that are and are to be," like the Indian
Brahma in the days of Gotama the Buddha." 10
II. On the human side polytheism receives fresh groups in
connexion with the development of social institutions and
national feeling, (i) In the family the hearth-fire is the scene
of the protecting care of deity; the gods of the household watch
over its welfare. Each Roman householder had his Genius, the
women their Junones. These stood at a higher level than the
" occasional gods," having permanent functions of supervision.
(2) From the household a series of steps embodied the divine
power in higher forms for social and political ends. Hestia
presided over cities; there was even a common Hestia for all
Greece. The frmashi or ideal type, the genius of both men and
gods in the Zend Avesta (possibly connected originally with the
cultus of the dead u ) , rises in successive ranks from the worshipper's
own person through the household, the village, the district and
the province, up to the throne of Ahura himself. 12 The Chinese
Shin were similarly organized; so (less elaborately) were the
Japanese Kami; 13 and the Roman lares, the old local land-gods,
found their highest co-ordinating term in the Lares Augusti,
just as the Genius was extended to the legion and the colony,
and finally to Rome itself. (3) In the case of national deities
the tie between god and people is peculiarly close, as when
Yahweh of Israel is pitted against Chemosh of Ammon (Judges
xi. 24) . The great gods of Greece, in their functions as " saviours "
and city-guardians, acquire new moral characters, and become
really different gods, though they retain the old names. Ashur
rises into majestic sovereignty as the " Ruler of all the gods,"
the supreme religious form of Assyrian sway: when the empire
falls beneath the revived power of Babylon, he fades away and
disappears. (4) The earthly counterpart of the heavenly
monarch is the divine king, who may be traced back in Egypt,
for example, to the remotest antiquity, 14 and who survives to-day
among the civilized powers in the emperor of Japan (anciently
Arahito-gami, " incarnate Kami "). " To the end of time,"
7 Jastrow, Rel. of Babylonia, p. 432.
8 Leonard , The Lower Niger and its Tribes, p. 354.
9 Cf. Farnell, Cults of Greece, iii. 295.
w Digha Nikaya, i. 18.
11 This is denied by Tiele, Religion im Altertum, tr. Gehrich, ii.
(1898), p. 259.
12 Cf. Yasna, Jxxi. iSfS.B.E. xxxi. p. 331; and Soderblom's essay
in the Rev. de I'hist. des religions, xxxix. (1899), pp. 229, 373.
13 Hirata's morning prayer in the last century included 800
myriads of celestial kami, 800 myriads of ancestral kami, the 1500
myriads to whom are consecrated the great and small temples in
all provinces, all islands, and all places of the great land of eight
islands, &c.
14 Moret, Du caractere religieux de la royaute pharaonique (1902).
For instances in the lower culture see Frazer, Golden Bough (2),
i. 140 ff.
HIGHER RELIGIONS]
RELIGION
7 1
said Motowori (i8th century), " the Mikado is the child of
the Sun-goddess." (5) The dead hero (historical or
mythic) signalizes his power by gracious saving acts; and
Heracles, Asclepius, Amphiaraus, and others pass into the
ranks of the gods, which are thus continually recruited from
below.
III. A third great group rises out of the sentiments and
affections of man, or the moral energies which he sees working
in human life, (i) The Vedic Craddha, " faith," the Greek
Metameleia, " repentance," 1 the Latin Spes, and a band of other
figures, represent the dispositions of the heart; Nemesis and
Nike and Concordia and their kin belong to a somewhat different
sphere, the divine powers avenging, conquering, harmonizing
the counterparts of the " departmental " gods in the field of
moral agencies. (2) Over these theological speculation erects
a few lofty and impressive forms; sometimes below the highest,
like Vohu Mano, " the Good Mind " of Ahura Mazda; or the
Bodhisattva Avalokitec. vara, who vowed not to enter into final
peace till every creature had received the saving truth; some-
times supreme, like Brahma or Prajapati (" lord of creatures ")
in the early Brahmanic theology; or Adi Buddha, or the
Zervan Akarana, " boundless time," of a kind of Persian
gnosticism; or the Qe& ity-ioros whose worship appears among
other syncretistic cults of the Roman empire.
4. The Order of N attire. Polytheism is here on the way to
monotheism, and this tendency receives significant support
from the recognition of an order in nature which is the ground
and framework of social ethics. Not only does a sky-god like
Varuna, or a sun-god like the Babylonian Shamash, survey all
human things, and take cognizance of the evil-doer, but the daily
course of the world is itself the expression of an intellectual and
moral power. In the Chinese combination of Heaven and Earth
as the parents and nourishers of all things, the energy and
action lie with Tien, Earth being docile and receptive. Tien
is intelligent and all-observing, and its " sincerity " or stead-
fastness, displayed in the courses of the sun and moon and the
succession of the seasons, becomes the basis of right human
conduct, personal and social. The " way " of Heaven, the
" course " of Heaven, the " lessons " of Heaven, the law or
" decree " (ming) of Heaven, are constantly cited as the pattern
for the emperor and his subjects. This conception is even
reflected in human nature: " Heaven in giving birth to the
multitude of the people, to every faculty and relationship affixed
its laws " (Shi King, III. iii. 6; cf. IV. iii. 2, tr. Legge), and the
" Grand Unity " forms the source of all moral order (Li Ki, in
Sacred Books of the East, xxvii. p. 387). Indian thought pre-
sented this Order in a semi-personal form. The great elemental
gods imposed their laws (dhaman, dharman, vrata) on the
visible objects of nature, the flow of rivers, the march of the
heavenly bodies across the sky. But the idea of Law was
generalized in the figure of Rita (what is " fitted " or " fixed ";
or the " course " or " path " which is traversed), whose Zend
equivalent asha shows that the conception had been reached
before the separation of the Eastern Aryans produced the
migrations into India and Iran. 2 In the Rig Veda the gods
(even those of storm) are again and again described as " born
from the Rita," or born in it, according to it, or of it. Even
Heaven and Earth rejoice in the womb or lap of the Rita. In
virtue of the mystic identity between the cosmic phenomena
and sacrifice, Rita may be also viewed as the principle of the
cultus; and from that sphere it passes into conduct and
acquires the meaning of morality and is equated with what is
" true." The fundamental idea remains the same in the Zend
Asha, its philological counterpart, but it is applied with a
difference. Its form is more personal, for Asha is one of the six
Holy Immortals round the throne of Ahura Mazda (Auramazda).
In the primeval conflict between the powers of good and evil,
the Bounteous Spirit chose Asha, the Righteous Order which
1 Worshipped at Argos. Usener, Gdtternamen, p. 366.
2 Cf. Max Miiller, Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion
(Hibbert Lect., 1878), v., and the Vedic treatises of Ludwig, Ber-
gaigne and Wallis.
knit the world together and maintained the stars.* The im-
mediacy of the relation between Ahura and Asha is implied
in the statements that Ahura created Asha and that he dwells
in the paths which proceed from Asha; and when he created
the inspired word of Reason, Asha consented with him in his
deed. In its ritual form Asha becomes the principle of sacrifice,
and hence of holiness, first ritual and then moral. Like Rita,
it rises into an object of worship, and in its most exalted aspect
(Asha vahisla, the " best " Asha, most excellent righteousness)
it is identified with Ahura himself, being fourth among his
sacred names (Ormazd Yasht, 7; S.B.E. xxiii. p. 25).
Egyptian speculation, in like manner, impersonated the con-
ceptions of physical and moral order as two sides of a funda-
mental unity in the goddess Maat. Derived from the verb ma,
" to stretch out," her name denoted the ideas of right and rule,
and covered the notions of order, law, justice and truth, which
remained steadfast and unalterable. Mythologically she was
the daughter (or the eye) of the sun-god Re; but she became
Lady of Heaven and Queen of Earth, and even Lady of the
land of the West, the mysterious habitation of the dead. Each
of the great gods was said to be lord or master of Maat; but
from another point of view she " knew no lord or master," and
the particular quality of deity was expressed in the phrase
anx em maat, " living by Maat," which was applied to the gods
of the physical world, the sun and moon, the days and hours,
as well as to the divine king. She was solemnly offered by the
sovereign to his god; and the deity replied by laying her within
the heart of his worshipper "to manifest her everlastingly
before the gods." So in the famous scene of the weighing of the
soul, which first appears pictorially under the New Empire, she
introduces the deceased before the forty-two assessors of the
heavenly judge, Osiris, and presides over the scale in which his
actions and life are weighed. From the zenith to the realm
of the departed she is the "queen of all gods and goddesses." 4
The Hellenic polytheism of Homer and Hesiod is already at
work upon similar ideas, and a whole group of mythic per-
sonifications slowly rises into view representing different phases
of the same fundamental conception. Themis (root 0e=Sanskr.
dha, as in dhaman) appears in Homer as the embodiment of
what is fit or right; 6 she convenes or dismisses assemblies, she
even keeps order at the banquet of the gods. Next, Hesiod
supplies a significant biography. She is the daughter of Ouranos
and Gaia; and after Metis she becomes the bride of Zeus.'
Pindar describes her as born in a golden car from the primeval
Oceanus, source of all things, to the sacred height of Olympus
to be the consort of Zeus the saviour; and she bears the same
august epithet, as the symbol of social justice and the refuge
for the oppressed. 7 Law was thus the spouse of the sovereign
of the sky, but Aeschylus identified her with the Earth
(worshipped at Athens as Ge-Themis), not only the kindly
Mother, but the goddess who bound herself by fixed rules or
laws of nature and life. 8 For the cultus of the earth as the
source of fertility was associated with the maintenance of the
family, with the operations of agriculture and the social order
of marriage. So Themis became the mother of the seasons;
the regular sequence of blossom and fruit was her work; and
Good Order, Justice and Peace were her offspring. 9 By such
conceptions the Hellenic polytheism was moralized; the
physical character of the greater gods fell into the background,
and the sculptor's art came to the aid of the poet by completely
enduing them with personality.
8 Yasna, xxx. 5; Sacred Books of the East, xxxi. p. 30; cf. pp. 44,
51, 248.
4 Cf. Renouf, Hibbert Lectures, p. 119; Brugsch, Rel. und Mythol.,
p. 477; Wiedemann, Ann. du Music Guimet, x. p. 561; Budge,
Gods of Egypt, i. p. 416.
6 Cf. Aids e</u<TT, Od. xvi. 403 ; cf. Apollo, Horn. Hymn. 394.
6 Theog. 135, 901.
7 Fr. 6, 7 ; 01. viii. 29.
8 Farnell, however, supposes that Ge acquired the cult-appellative
through her prophetic character (Cults of the Greek States, iii. p. 12).
The union of Zeus and Themis is, then, a later equivalent of the
marriage of Zeus and Earth (ibid. p. 14).
Paus. v. 17; Hes. Theog. 901 ; Pindar, 01. xiii. 6; ix. 26.
RELIGION
[HIGHER RELIGIONS
5. Transition to Monotheism. From the higher Polytheism
an easy step leads to some form of Monotheism. The transition
may be effected in various ways. Max Muller observed the
Vedic poets addressing themselves to the several objects of
their devotion, as if each occupied the field alone. Varuna or
Indra was for the time being the only god within the worshipper's
view; and to this mode of thought he gave the name Heno-
theism. 1 It obviously reappears elsewhere, as it is the natural
attitude of prayer, and may be seen in the pious homage of
the pilgrims to the Virgin of Loretto or Einsiedeln. Pfleiderer
employed the word to denote a relative monotheism like that
of the early religion of Israel, whose teachers demanded that
the nation should worship but one god, Yahweh, but did not
deny the existence of other gods for other peoples. Yet once
again the term has been applied to characterize a whole group
of religions, like the Indo-Germanic, which are ultimately
founded on the unity of the divine nature in a plurality of
divine persons. A designation of such doubtful meaning it
seems better (with Chantepie de la Saussaye) to abandon. But
the unifying process may advance along different lines. The
deities of different local centres may be identified; many such
combinations took place in Egypt, and Isis in late days served
to her votaries as the unitary principle which appeared in one
figure after another of whole pantheons. Again, the gods may
be viewed as a collective totality, like the " All-gods " of the
Vedic poets, or as at Olympia where there was a " common
altar for all the gods " (cf. the frequent Roman dedication in
later days, " Jovi optimo maximo caeterisque dis immortalibus ").
Or the relation between the inferior deities and the most exalted
may be conceived politically and explained by Tertullian's
formula, " Imperium penes unum, officia penes multos." One
particular god may be eminent enough, like Zeus, to rise above
all others, and supply cultivated thought with a name for the
supreme power; and this may be strengthened by the national
motive as in the case of Israel. Or philosophic theology may
penetrate to an abstract conception of deity, like the Babylonian
'iluth, or the Vedic devatva and asuratva; and some seer may
have the courage and insight to formulate the principle that
" the great asuratva of the devas is one " (R. V. iii. 55.1). " The
One with many names " was recognized alike in India and in
Greece; "iroXXbi' OVOHCLTUV MOP*? 11 ) pia," says Aeschylus, almost
in the words of the Vedic poet. 2 Historians have usually
recognized only three monotheistic religions, Judaism, Chris-
tianity and Islam. The Christian apologists of the and
century, however, found plenty of testimony to their doctrine
of the unity of God in the writings of Greek poets and philo-
sophers; it was a commonplace in the revival under the
Empire; and among the group of religions embraced under the
name Buddhism more than one form must be ranked as mono-
theistic. The idealist philosophy of the Prajna Paramita in the
system of the " Great Vehicle " declared that " every pheno-
menon is the manifestation of mind " (Beal, Catena, p. 303).
In the " Lotus of the Good Law " (S.B.E. xxi.) the Buddha is
the " Father of the World," " Self-born " or Uncreate (like the
eternal Brahma of the Hindu theology), the protector of all
creatures, the Healer (Saviour) of the sickness of their sins.
These types have reappeared in Japan. Nichiren taught a
philosophical monism in the I3th century which is the basis of
a vigorous sect at the present day; and the " True Sect of the
Pure Land," founded by his older contemporary Shin-ran, and
now the most numerous, wealthy and powerful of the Buddhist
denominations, has dropped the original Gotama altogether out
of sight, and permits worship to Amida alone, the sublime
figure of " Boundless Light," whose saving power is appro-
priated by faith. Here is a monotheism of a definite and clear-
cut type, arising apparently by spontaneous development apart
from any external impulse.* On the other hand, the mono-
1 Or Kathenotheism, a term which did not succeed in gaining
permanent support, Hibbert Lect., p. 271.
* R. V. i. 164. 46, " Men call him Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni. . . .
Poets name variously what is but one."
' Cf. Carpenter, " Japanese Buddhism," in Hibbert Journal,
April 1906, p. 522.
theism of Judaism was subject to serious qualifications. An
exuberant demonology admitted all kinds of interfering causes
in the field of human life. Above man on earth rose rank after
rank of angels in the seven heavens. These were of course
created, but they were in their turn the agents of the phenomena
of nature, " the angels of the spirit of fire and the angels of the
spirit of the winds, and the angels of the spirits of the clouds and
of darkness and of snow and of hail and of hoarfrost, and the
angels of the voices and of the thunder and of the lightning, and
the angels of the spirits of cold and of heat, and of winter and of
spring and of autumn and of summer " (Jubilees, tr. R. H.
Charles, ii. 2). These powers are of a well-marked animistic
type, and correspond to the Chinese Shin, save that they were
not incorporated in the cultus. Higher in rank came various
mediating forms, like Wisdom, Memra (the Word) or Shekinah
(the Presence), more or less definitely personalized. [Mahom-
medanism still recognizes innumerable jinn peopling the solitudes
of the desert, and over the grave of the deceased saint a little
mosque is built, and prayers are offered and miracles performed. 4
Christianity has, in like manner, in the course of its long and
eventful history, admitted numerous agencies within the sphere
of superhuman causation. The Virgin, the angelic hierarchy,
the saints, have received the believer's homage, and answered
his petitions. Theology might draw subtle distinctions between
different forms of devotion; but, tried by the comparisons of
the anthropologist, the monotheism even of historical Chris-
tianity cannot be strictly maintained.
6. Classification. In the panorama of religious development
thus briefly sketched, the different stages constantly appear to
shade off into one another, and any one of the higher seems to
contain elements of all the rest. This is the great difficulty
of classification. All religions, even the most conservative and
traditional, are in constant flux, they either advance or decay.
In these processes, which do not take place at equal rates
in different cases, all kinds of survivals remain lodged, and
embarrass every attempt to fix the place of specific religions
in any general course of development. The theologian, the
philosopher, the historian, have all tried their hands at dis-
tribution, (i.) The 18th-century divine who divided religions
into True and False grimly remarked that the second chapter
was much the longer of the two. 6 The corresponding distinction
into Natural and Revealed breaks down in view of the fact that
revelation by dream and oracle, by inspired seer or divine
teacher and law-giver, is a practically universal phenomenon
in more or less distinctly defined forms, (ii.) Philosophy, in
the person of Hegel, classified religion in a threefold form: (a) the
religion of Nature, (b) the religion of Spiritual Individuality,
(c) the Absolute Religion (Christianity). 6 The subdivisions of
this scheme have been long since abandoned, as the progress of
knowledge rendered them untenable. K. F. A. Wuttke, however,
adopted its fundamental idea 7 and distinguished three periods
or phases: (i) the objective, producing the religions of nature;
(2) the subjective, God as comprehended in the individual mind;
(3) God as Absolute Spirit. In the same way Dr Edward Caird 8
recognizes three similar stages: (i) objective consciousness,
the divine in nature; (2) self -consciousness, the divine in man
(e.g. Judaism, Stoicism, and modern philosophy of the type of
Kant) ; (3) God-consciousness, where God is above the contrast
of subject and object, yet is revealed in both (Christianity),
(iii.) On the historical side numerous bases have been suggested,
(i) Max Muller proposed to group religions ethnologically by
tests of language. This had the obvious advantage of lifting
two great families into prominence, the Semitic and the Indo-
Germanic. The Semitic peoples were closely bound together
by common types of thought and civilization, and produced
three of the leading religions of the world, Judaism, Christianity
and Islam. But a glance at the table of Indo-Germanic religions
< Cf. Goldziher, Rev. de I' Hist, des Rel. ii. 257; Weir, The Shaikhs
of Morocco (1904).
6 Broughton, Diet, of all Religions (1745), preface.
6 Philosophy of Religion (Eng. trans.), i. p. 266.
7 Geschichte des Heidenthums (1852), i. p. 95.
8 Evolution of Religion (1893), lect. vii.
HIGHER RELIGIONS]
RELIGION
73
drawn up by Tiele (Ency. Brit., gth ed., vol. xx. p. 360) will
show what diversified products are blended together. Why
should philosophical Brahmanism, or the Buddhism which
reacted against it, be associated with so undeveloped a form as
the religion of the ancient Latin settlers in mid-Italy? And
why, on the other hand, should the religions of the lower culture,
which are practically of a common type, be separated genea-
logically into numerous independent families? (2) Whitney 1
found the most important distinction to lie between religions
which were the collective product of the wisdom of the com-
munity, race-religions as they might be called, and those which
proceeded from individual founders. But, as Tiele pointed
out, the " individual " element cannot be eliminated from the
" race-religion," where each myth has been first uttered, each
rite first performed, by some single person. And the founder
who enters history with an impressive personality can only do
his work through the response made to him by the insight and
feeling of his time. (3) Kuenen disengaged another character-
istic, the scope and aim of any given religion; was it limited to
a particular people, or could it be thrown open to the world?
On this foundation the higher religions were classed as national
or universal, the latter group being formerly supposed to include
Buddhism, Christianity and Mahommedanism. Here, once
more, the student is confronted with many qualifications. A
missionary religion like Mithraism, which established itself all
the way from Western Asia to the borders of Scotland, was
certainly not " national." Judaism and Brahmanism both
passed beyond the confines of race. The Confucian morality
could be adopted without difficulty in Japan. In other
words, there was either a definite tendency to expansion, or there
was no impediment in the religion itself when circumstances
promoted its transplantation. Further, there are elements of
Islam, like the usages of the hajj (or pilgrimage to the sacred
places at Mecca), the dryness of its official doctrine and the
limitations of its real character as indicated in the Wahhabi
revival, which so impair its apparent universalism that Kuenen
found himself obliged to withdraw it from the highest rank
of religions. 2 (4) Professor M. Jastrow, jun., starting from the
relation of religion to life, distinguishes four groups, the religions
of savages, the religions of primitive culture, the religions of
advanced culture and the religions which emphasize as an ideal
the coextensiveness of religion with life. It may, however, be
doubted whether the fundamental assumption of such a scheme,
viz. that in the life of the savage religion plays a comparatively
small part, can be satisfactorily established. The evidence
rather implies that, so far as the sanctions of religion affect the
savage at all, they affect him with unusual force. In the absence
of other competing interests his religious beliefs and duties
occupy a much larger share of his attention than the votaries
of many higher faiths bestow on theirs; and though his ethical
range may be very limited, yet the total influence of his religion
in determining for him what he may do and what he may not,
brings the greater part of conduct under its control. The savage
who finds himself encompassed by taboos which he dare not
break, lives up to his religion with a faithfulness which many
professing Christians fail to reach. (5) There remains a broad
distinction between religions that are in the main founded on
the relation of man to the powers of Nature, and those based
on ethical ideas, which partly corresponds to the philosophical
division already cited. This enabled Professor Tiele to arrange
the chief religions in certain groups, starting from the primitive
conception of the common life of the objects of the surrounding
scene: *
1 Princeton Review, May 1881, quoted by Tiele, Elements of the
Science of Religion (1897), i. p. 42.
2 National Religions and Universal Religions (Hibbert Lectures,
1882).
3 Ency. Brit., gth ed., art. " Religions " ; Elements of the Science of
Religion, vol. i. (1897), with some corrections communicated by letter
to Professor Chantepie de la Saussaye, Religionsgesch. (3rd ed., 1905),
vol. i. p. n.
4 For a long series of suggested bases of classification see Raoul de
la Grasserie, Des Religions Compares au Point de Vue Sociologique
(1899), chap, xii.; cf. further E. von Hartmann, Religionsphilosophie
I. Nature Religions
1. Polyzoic Naturalism (hypothetical).
2. Polydemonistic-magical religions under the control of
Animism (religions of savages).
3. Purified or organized magical religions. Therianthropic
Polytheism.
(a) Unorganized (religions of the Japanese, Dravidians,
Finns, Esths, the ancient Arabs, the ancient
Pelasgi, the Old-Italian peoples, the Etruscans (?).
the Old-Slavs).
(6) Organized (religions of the half-civilized peoples of
America, ancient Chinese state-religion, religion
of the Egyptians).
4. Worship of beings in human form, but of superhuman
power and half-ethical nature. Anthropomorphic poly-
theism (religions of the Vedic Indians.the ancient Persians,
the later Babylonians andAssyrians.thea.dvanced Semites,
the Kelts, Germans, Hellenes, Greeks and Romans).
II. Ethical Religions (spiritualistic ethical religions of Revelation)
1. National Nomistic (nomothetic) Religious Communions
(Taoism and Confucianism, Brahmanism, Jainism, Mazde-
ism, Mosaism and Judaism, the two last already passing
into 2).'
2. Universalistic Religious Communipns(Buddhism,Christian-
ity: Islam with its particularistic and nomistic elements
only partially belongs to this group).*
7. Revelation. The second group in this division practically
corresponds to the second stage recognized by Caird; but it
rests upon a somewhat different basis, the conception of revela-
tion addressed to the conscience in the form of religious law.
Neither Taoism nor Confucianism, indeed, makes this claim.
The Tao-teh-king, or book of aphorisms on " the Tao and virtue "
ascribed to Lao Tsze, is wholly unlike such a. composition as
Deuteronomy; and the disciples of Confucius carefully refrained
from attributing to him any kind of supernatural inspiration
in his conversations about social and personal morality. The
sacred literatures of India and Israel, however, present many
analogies, and emerge out of a wide range of phenomena which
have their roots in the practices of the lower culture. The
belief that the Powers controlling man's life are willing upon
occasion to disclose something of their purpose, has led to
widespread rites of divination, which Plato described as the
" art of fellowship between gods and men," and the Stoics
defended on grounds of a priori religious expectation as well as
of universal experience. Through the dream the living was put
into communication with the dead, which sometimes embodied
itself in peculiar and pathetic literary forms, such as the
Icelandic dream-verses imparted by the spirits of those who had
been lost at sea or overwhelmed by the snow; and a whole
series of steps leads up from necromancy to prophecy and oracle,
as the higher gods become the teachers of men. The gods of
revelation are naturally not the highest, since they appear as the
interpreters of one superior to themselves. The revealing
agency may be only a voice like Aius Locutius, to which the
Romans raised a temple; or, like Hermes, he may be the
messenger of the gods; or, like Marduk, pre-eminently the god
of oracles in Babylonia, he may be the son of Ea, the mighty
deep encompassing the earth, source of all wisdom and culture.
To Marduk the prophet-god Nabu in his turn became son, and
his consort Tashmit (" causing to hear ") was the personification
of Revelation. Egyptian thought ascribed this function to
Thoth, who played somewhat different parts in different systems,
but emerges as the representative of the immanent intelligence
(1888); Siebeck, Lehrbuch der Religionsphilosophie (1893); Dorner,
Grundriss der Religionsphilosophie (1903). Siebeck proposed to
distribute religions in three grades: (i) Nature-Religions, i.e. those
of the lower culture; (2) Morality-Religions in various grades and
stages, e.g. Mexicans and Peruvians, Arcadians, Chinese, Egyptians,
Hindus, Persians, Germans, Romans, with the Greek religion in the
highest rank; (3) Religions of Redemption (Judaism forming the
transition from the second group), Buddhism in the sense of world-
negation, and, positively, Christianity. Bousset, What is Religion?
(1907) reckons Platonism along with Buddhism. For criticism of
Siebeck's scheme see Tiele, Elements of the Science of Religion, vol. i.
(1897), pp. 62, 65. Pfleiderer, Religion and Historic Faiths (1907), p. 88,
recognizes more clearly the difficulty of carrying almost any division
through the whole field, without frequent breach of historical
connexions.
xxm. 3 a
74
RELIGION
[HIGHER RELIGIONS
of the world, brother of Maat and the giver of laws and culture
to man. 1 Thoth " the thrice-great " passed into Hermes
Trismegistus whom Christian fathers could recognize, 2 when the
supremely beautiful figure of Greek theology, Apollo, had lost
his dignity and ceased to be desired. Thoth was a voluminous
author, and the collection of forty-two books which bore his
name was a kind of primitive cyclopaedia of theology, astronomy,
geography and physiology. Apollo proclaims at his birth that
he will declare the counsel of Father Zeus to men. 3 But his
utterances have been only casually preserved. A special
literature of oracles did indeed arise; the divine words were
collected and the circumstances which produced them were
recorded; and had Delphi become in fact the centre of Greece,
as Piato conceived it, here might have been the nucleus of
a scripture. Theories of inspiration lurk behind the rich
vocabulary of Greek prophecy; the seer is Zvdfos, (JeoXT/Trros,
OftnrvevaTOs, 0eo06pTjros, and Bakis and Musaeus give their
names to sacred verses. The story of the Sibylline books
in Rome, on the other hand, shows the growth of the idea
of authority. They are deposited in a temple, in charge of
a small sacred college; new deities and rites are introduced
under their sanction; when they are accidentally destroyed,
envoys are sent to the East and fresh collections are made;
these are in their turn purged, the false are discarded and the
true reverently preserved. By what method the books were
consulted is not known; but they exhibit the idea of a sacred
canon in process of formation. The theologians of India
guarded their ancient hymns with the utmost care. A vast
literary apparatus was devised for their protection. The famous
Purusha-hymn (R. V. x. 90) already claimed a divine origin for
the three Vedas, the Rik, the Saman and the Yajush. The
" triple knowledge " was sometimes derived from the " Lord of
Creatures " Prajapati one of the unifying forms of Brahmanical
theology through Vac or " speech." The Veda, that is to say,
had existed in the divine mind ere it was made known to men,
and as such it belonged to the realm of the deathless and the
infinite. The tribal poets were supposed to have " seen "'the
heavenly originals; elaborate arguments were devised to explain
how the names of particular objects like rivers and mountains
could have existed in the Eternal; while the grounds of belief
in the infallibility of the sacred verses were enforced with the
double weight of philosophy and tradition. Buddhism repudi-
ated the authority of the Veda, but found it needful to supply
its place; and the word of the omniscient Teacher, faithfully
reported by his disciples and guaranteed by concurrent tradi-
tions, became the rule of belief for the new Order. Nor were
the authors of the scriptures whose fragments are preserved in
the Zend Avesta less conscious of their divine value. The
ancient Gathas, which were supposed to be the composition of
Zarathustra himself, received the homage of later worshippers. 4
Daena, the ideal personification of law and religion, is the object
of praise and sacrifice. She dwells on high in the Heavenly
Home, the radiant "Abode of song," but Zarathustra summons
her thence, begs for her fellowship, and prays her for righteous-
ness of thought, speech and deed. 6 She is produced by Vohu
Mano, the " Good Thought " of Ahura, one of the six Holy
Immortals; she thus belongs to the ideal creation before the
'earth and its inhabitants; 6 but how the heavenly Daena was
wrought by Zarathustra into written form is nowhere stated.
This conception of pre-existent spiritual counterparts was not
without influence on the later theology of Israel. The sacred
law (Torah) was the earthly reproduction of a heavenly Torah
which had no origin in time, and constituted the sum of ideal
wisdom into which God looked when he would create the world. 7
1 Cf. Maspero, Dawn of Civilization, p. 204 ; Wiedemann, Religion
of the Ancient Egyptians, p. 227 ; Budge, Gods of Egypt, i. p. 415.
2 Aug. De Civ. Dei, xviii. 39, attributes the origin of philosophy to
his era.
3 Horn. Hymn. i.
4 Yasna, Iv. ; S.B.E. xxxi. p. 294.
6 S.B.E. xxiii. p. 264.
6 Bundahis, i. 25; S.B.E. \. p. 9.
7 Midrash Bereshilh Rabba, tr. Wunsche, I. i. ver. i.
Even Mahommedanism felt the spell of the same modes of
thought. The idea of revelation was expressed by " sending
down" (from nazala, to descend); that which passed from
heaven to earth was a pre-existent word, eternal as God Himself.
Allusions in particular passages of the Koran to the " mother
of the scripture," the invisible originals of the prophet's speech,
led to the doctrine of its uncreated being. The whole history
of religion presents perhaps no more singular spectacle than the
mosques of Bagdad in the middle of the 9th century filled with
vast crowds of twenty and thirty thousand of the faithful,
assembled to discuss the dogmas of the created and the un-
created Koran. 8
8. Ethics and Eschatology. The second distinguishing mark
in Tiele's higher group is implied in the term " Ethical." By
this it is not intended to assert that moral ideas are wanting in
the so-called " naturist " religions. Anthropologists Ijave, it
is true, taken widely different views of the relation of ethics
and religion, and the stage at which an effective alliance between
them might be recognized. Like all problems of origins, the
question is necessarily extremely obscure, and cannot be definitely
settled by historical evidence. Broadly speaking, however, it
may be said that the attempt to show that certain savages are
destitute of moral feeling cannot be sustained; 9 and evidence
has been already cited above (in the section on PRIMITIVE
RELIGION) proving the varied and immediate effects of religion
on the life of the lowest tribes. Continuous interaction marks
the slow courses of advance. At a very early period in social
development the rules of conduct are referred to some higher
source. Thus among the tribes of south-eastern Australia
described by Mr Howitt, 10 the native rites and laws handed
down from generation to generation were supposed to have been
first imparted by some higher being such as Nurrundere, who
made all things on the earth; or Nurelli, who created the whole
country, with the rivers, trees and animals; or Daramulun,
who (like Nurrundere) bestowed weapons on the men, and
instituted the rites and ceremonies connected with life and death.
As religion advances with improved social organization, a series
of figures, partly human, partly divine, embodies the idea that
the command of nature implied in the progress of the arts is
due to some kind of instruction from above, and that the obli-
gations of law are of more than human origin. The Algonquin
Manibozho and Quetzalcoatl of Mexico stand for a whole group
of typical personalities in North and Central America. The
mysterious fish-man Oannes,who taught the primitive inhabitants
of Babylonia, according to Alexander Polyhistor, has been
identified with Ea, god of the deep, the source of wisdom, culture
and social order. Zeus gave laws to Minos; Apollo revealed
the Spartan constitution to Lycurgus; Zaleucus received the
laws for the Locrians from Athena in a dream; Vishnu and
Manu condescended to draw up law-books in India. The
worship of ancestors has again and again gathered around it
powerful and ethical influences, emphasizing the parental and
filial relations, and strengthening the mutual obligations of
communal life. Hirata answered by anticipation the modern
reproach against Shinto, founded on the absence of any definite
morality connected with it, by laying down the simple rule,
" Act so that you need not be ashamed before the Kami of the
unseen." u The mythological embodiments of the connexion
of law in nature with the social and moral order have already
been briefly noted: a few words may be said in conclusion on
another product of the union of religion and ethics, viz. the
doctrine of judgment after death. That this doctrine is not
essential to a highly moralized religion is clear from the fact that
it formed no part of the earlier Hebrew prophecy. Judgment,
indeed, was an^nevitable outcome of the sovereignty of Yahweh,
but it would be passed upon the nation in the -immediate scene
of its misdoings; and even when the scope of the divine doom
8 Von Kremer, Die Herrschenden Ideen des Islams, p. 233 ff.
9 See Westermarck, Origin and Development of Moral Ideas, vol.i.
(1906), p. 125, on Lord Avebury's conclusions.
Native Tribes of S.E. Australia (1904), pp. 488, 489, 495, 543.
11 Satow, " Revival of Pure Shinto," Trans. As. Soc. Japan, vol. iii.
Appendix, p. 87.
HIGHER RELIGIONS]
RELIGION
75
was extended to include the nations of the world, it was still
upon the living that it would alight. The seers of Israel were
content to dismiss their dead to a land of silence and darkness,
the vast hollow gloom of the subterranean Sheol. 1 A far ruder
outlook on life, however, which has again and again appealed
to some form of the divine cognizance by means of the ordeal
and the oath, frequently supplements the moral issues of this
world by the judicial award of the next. Assuming the proper
fulfilment of the ritual of death, ethics gradually extends its
control over the future. At first the social distinctions of this
life are simply continued hereafter: the chief remains a chief,
the slave a slave; and the conditions of the future only prolong
those of the present. In so far as tribal eminence depends on
superior skill or courage or wisdom, the germs of ethical differ-
entiation may be discovered even here. The process is carried
further (i) in individual cases of retribution, when (as among
the Kaupuis) crime within the tribe was punished, and a
murderer becomes in the next life his victim's slave; 2 or
(2) when service to the community received special reward,
and warriors who had fallen in battle, women who had died in
childbirth and merchants who had perished on a journey were
sent in Mexico to the house of the sun. 3 As the social order
acquires more defmiteness and stability, the control of life by
the gods tends to become more clearly moralized. This brings
with it new standards independent of clan-customs or tribe-
usage. Only the worst offences, however, at first draw down
post-mortem punishment. The Homeric Erinyes chastise
outrages on the poor, injuries to guests, failure to show the
respect due to parents or to recognize the rights of age, in this
life; only on perjury does the divine doom extend to the next. 4
On the other hand, the Egyptian version of " the whole duty of
man " in the famous 12 5th chapter of the Book of the Dead
embraces a singular complex of ritual, social and personal
sins, in which the inward states of lying, anger and ill-will are
condemned along with murder, theft and adultery, beside
violation of the times of offerings to the gods, or interference
with the food of the blessed dead. The great judgment of
Osiris formulates with the utmost precision the alliance between
morals and religion. The doctrine established itself in Greek
theology under the influence of Orphism, and supplied Plato
with mythic forms for his " criticism of life." In India the
union of morality and religion was effected in another manner.
True, Yama, first of men to enter the world beyond, became the
" King of Righteousness " before whose tribunal the dead must
appear. But a new agency began to engage the speculations
of thinkers, the moral values of action embodied in the Deed.
"The deed does not perish," ran an early formula. 6 " A man is
born into the world that he has made," said another: 6 and
what was laid down first as a ritual principle survived as an
ethical. Buddhism conceived men as constantly making their
own world for good and ill; it took over from Brahmanism a
whole series of heavens and hells to provide an exact adjustment
in the future for the virtue or vice of the present; and its
eschatologic confidence was one of the potent instruments
of its success in countries which, like China and Japan, had
developed no theories of retribution or reward beyond the grave.
Along a different line of thought the Iranian teachers, beholding
the world divided between hostile powers, demanded, as the
fundamental postulate of religion, the victory of the good. The
conflict must end with the triumph of light, truth and right.
The details of this remarkable scheme must be studied elsewhere
(see ZOROASTER). The award of the angel-judges at the Bridge
of Assembly, soon after death, despatched the individual to his
appropriate lot in the homes of Good or Evil Thought, Word
1 Cf . Ezek. xxxii. 17-32; Ps. Ixxxviii 3-4, 10, n; Job x. 21-22,
and many other passages.
2 Watt, Journ. Anthrop. Institute, xvi p. 356. Cf. Codrington,
The Melanesians (1891), p. 274.
3 Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States of N. America, iii.
P- 532.
4 II. iii. 278-79; xix. 258-60.
b S.B.E. ii. p. 271 ; xiv. pp. 116, 310.
' Ibid. xli. p. 181.
and Deed. But at length the long struggle would draw to an
end. The great " divine event," the frasho-kereli, the renova-
tion, would set in. A new heaven and a new earth would be
created: a general resurrection should take place; the powers
of evil should be overthrown and extinguished; and hell should
be brought back for the enlargement of the world. Eschatology
has again and again expressed the alliance between ethics and
religion. It remains for the future to show how long that
alliance will require its support.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. (For primitive religion see preceding section.)
Only a selection of the copious and ever-increasing literature can
here be named. Monographs on the separate religions are named
in their respective articles.
1. After Hume's Natural Hist, of Religions (1757) earlier surveys
will be found in Meiners, Allgem. Krit. Cesch. der Religionen (2 vols.,
1806-7); Constant, De la religion (5 vols., 1824-31); Baur,
Symbolik und Mythologie (3 vols., 1825); Creuzer, Symbolik und
Mythol. der alien Viilker* (1837); F. D. Maurice, The Religions of
the World (1846); Hardwick, Christ and other Masters (4 vols., 1855-
59); Dollinger, The Gentile and the Jew (2 vols., 1863). On Myth-
ology and Religion English study was chiefly influenced by F. Max
Muller, Essay on Comparative Mythology (1856); Chips from a
German Workshop (1867 onwards); Lectures on the Science of
Language (2 vols., 1861-64) '> Contributions to the Science of Mythology
(2 vols., 1897); cf. A. Lang, Modern Mythology (1897). Earlier
Anthropology, Bastian, Der Mensch in der Gesch. (3 vols., Leipzig,
1860); Waitz-Gerland, Anthropologie* (6 vols., Leipzig, 1877).
2. Translations from the Scriptures of various religions. Sacred
Books of the East (49 vols., 1879 and onwards); Annales du Musee
Guimet (1880 and onwards).
3. Manuals, treatises and series in single or collective authorship.
C. P. Tiele, Outlines of the History of Religion, tr. Carpenter (London,
1877); Gesch. der Religion im Alterthum, tr. Gehric'h (2 vols., Gotha,
1895-98) ; Kompendium der Religionsgesch., tr. Weber (Breslau, 1903) ;
G. Rawlinson, Religions of the Ancient World (London, 1882);
Religious Systems of the World, by various authors (London, 1890);
Menzies, Hist, of Religion (1895); Orelli, Allgemeine Religionsgesch.
(Bonn, 1899); Great Religions of the World, by various authors
(1901); Bousset, Das Wesen der Religion (Halle, 1903); Eng. trans.,
What is Religion? (London, 1907); Chantepie de la Saussaye,
Religionsgesch. 3 (2 vols., 1905); Achelis, Abriss der Vergleichenaen
Religionswissenschaft (Sammlung Goschen) ; " Die Orientalischen Re-
ligionen " (in Die Kultur der Gegenwart), by various authors (1906);
Pfleiderer, Religion und Religionen (Berlin, 1906) ; Eng. trans., Religion
and Historic Faiths (London, 1907) ; Haarlem Series, Die Voornaamste
Godsdiensten, beginning with Islam, by Dozy (1863 onwards); Soc.
for Promotion of Christian Knowledge, Non-Christian Religions ;
Hibbert Lectures on The Origin and Growth of Religion (15 vols.,
beginning with F. Max Muller, 1878); Aschendorff's series, Darstel-
lungen aus dem Gebiete der Nichtchristl. Religionsgesch. (14 vols..
Munster i.w., beginning 1890); Handbooks on the History of
Religions, ed. Jastrow, beginning with Hopkins on India (1895);
American Lectures on the History of Religions, beginning with Rhys
Davids on Buddhism (1896); Constables series, Religions, Ancient
and Modern (London, beginning 1905), brief and popular; J.
Freeman Clarke, Ten Great Religions (Boston, 1871); S. Johnson,
Oriental Religions, &c. (3 vols.); India; 1 (London, 1873); China
(Boston, 1877); Persia (1885); Lippert, Die Religionen der Euro-
pdischen Cultur-Vplker (Berlin, 1881); A. ReVille, Prolegom. de
I'hist. des rel. (Paris, 1881; Engl. trans., 1884); Les Rel. des peuples
non-civilises (2 vols., Paris, 1883); Rel. du Mexique (1885); Rel.
chinoise (1889); Letourneau, L'Evolution religieuse 2 (Paris, 1898);
Publications of the Ecole des hautes etudes, section des sciences
religieuses; and Annales du Musee Guimet, " Bibliothque de
Vulgarisation."
4. Works bearing on history. Fustel de Coulanges, La Citi
antique (Paris, 1864); Lubbock, Origin of Civilization (1870);
Whitney, Oriental and Linguistic Studies (New York, 1872 and 1874) ;
Brinton, The Religious Sentiment (1876); Myths of the New World 1
(New York, 1876); Essays of an Americanist (1890); Religions of
Primitive Peoples (1897); Keary, Outlines of Primitive Belief
(London, 1882) ; Leblois, Les Bibles et les initialeurs de l'humanit&
(4 vols. in 7 parts, Paris, 1883); Goblet d'Alviella, Introd. a I'hist.
generate des religions (Brussels, 1887); La Migration des symboles
(Paris, 1891); Hartland, The Legend of Perseus (3 vols., London,
1894); Ratzel, The History of Mankind, tr. Butler (3 vols., London,
1896); Usener, Gotternamen (Bonn, 1896); Grant Allen, The
Evolution of the Idea of God (London, 1897); Forlong, Short Studies
in the Science of Comp. Religions (London, 1897); Lang, The Making
of Religion (1898); Lyall, Asiatic Studies'* (2 vols., London, 1899);
Baissac, Les Origines de la religion* (Paris, 1899); Marillicr,
" Religion," Grande Encyclop. xxviii. (Paris, 1900) ; Maculloch,
Comparative Theol. (1902); Dieterich, Mutter Erde (Leipzig, 1905);
S. Reinach, Cultes, mythes el religions (2 vols., Pans, 1905-6);
Frazer, Adonis, Attis and Osiris (1906); Ed. Meyer, Gesch. des
Alterthums 2 , I. i. " Einleitung: Elementeder Anthropologie " (1907).
5. Psychology, Philosophy and History. Hegel, Philosophy of
7 6
REMAGEN REMAINDER
Religion (Eng. trans., 3 vols., 1895) ; Pfleiderer, Die Religion (2 vols.,
Berlin, 1869); Philos. of Religion, vol. iii. (Engl. trans., London,
1888); Religionsphilosofhie' (Berlin, 1896); F. Max Muller, Introd.
to the Science of Religion (1873); Hibbert Lectures (1878); Gifford
Lectures (4 vols., 1889-93) < Spencer, Principles of Sociology, i. (1876) ;
Fairbairn, Studies in the Philosophy of Religion and History (1876);
E. von Hartmann, Das Relig. Bewusstsein der Menschheit (Berlin,
1882) ; Rauwenhoff, Weisbegeerte van den Godsdienst (Leiden, 1887);
E. Caird, The Evolution of Religion (2 vols., 1893); Siebeck, Lehrbuch
der Religionsphilosophie (Freiburg i. B., 1893); Tiele, Elements of
the Science of Religion (2 vols., 1897); Raoul de la Grasserie, Des
religions comparees au point de vue sociologique, and De la psycholo-
fie des religions (Paris, 1899); Starbuck, Psychology of Religion
London, 1900); Jastrow, The Study of Religion (London, 1901);
W. James, The Varieties of Religious Experience (1903); Corner,
Grundriss der Religionsphilosophie (Leipzig, 1903) ; Girgensohn,
Die Religion, ihre Psychischen Formen und ihre Zentralidee (Leipzig,
1903); Wundt, Volkerpsychologie, Bd. ii. Mythus und Religion
(1905-6); Ladd, The Philosophy of Religion (2 vols., London, 1906);
Hoffding, The Philosophy of Religion (Engl. trans., 1906) ; Wester-
maarck, The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, i. (London,
1906) ; Hobhouse, Morals in Evolution (2 vols., London, 1906).
6. Periodicals, &c. Revue de I'hist. des religions (Paris, 1880 on-
wards); Folk-Lore (London, 1890 onwards); Archiv. fur Religions-
wissenschaft (Freiburg i. B., 1898 onwards); L'Annee sociologique
(Paris, 1898 onwards) ; Actes du premier congres international
d'histoire des religions (Paris, 1900); Verhandlungen des II. Inter-
nationalen Kongresses fur Allgemeine Religionsgeschichte in Basel
(1904).
Much information on the growth and present condition of the
study has been collected by Jordan, Comparative Religion, its
Genesis and Growth (Edinburgh, 1905). (J. E. C.)
REMAGEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine
Province, on the left bank of the Rhine, 1 2 m. above Bonn, by
the railway from Cologne to Coblenz, and at the junction of the
Ahr valley railway to Adenau. Pop. (1900) 3534. The (Roman
Catholic) parish church is remarkable for a gate (Romertor)
with grotesque sculptures of animals, dating from the i2th
century. Archaeologists have variously interpreted its original
purpose, whether as church door, city gate or palace gate. The
industry of the place is almost wholly concerned with the
preparation of wine, in which a large export trade is done.
Just below the town, on a height overlooking the Rhine, stands
the Apollinaris church, built 1839-53 n the site of a chapel
formerly dedicated to St Martin, and containing the relics of
St Apollinaris. It is a frequent place of pilgrimage from all
parts of the lower Rhine. According to legend, the ship con-
veying the relics of the three kings and of Bishop Apollinaris
from Milan to Cologne in 1164 could not be got to move away
from the spot until the bones of St Apollinaris had been interred
in St Martin's chapel.
Remagen (the Rigomagus of the Romans) originally belonged
to the duchy of Julich. Many Roman antiquities have been
discovered here. In 1857 a votive altar dedicated to Jupiter,
Mars and Mercury was unearthed, and is now in the Provincial
Museum at Bonn.
See Kinkel, Der Fiihrer durch das Ahrthal nebst Beschreibung der
Stadt Remagen (2nd ed., Bonn, 1854).
REMAINDER, REVERSION. In the view of English
law a remainder or reversion is classed either as an incorporeal
hereditament or, -with greater correctness, as an estate in
expectancy. That is to say, it is a present interest subject to
an existing estate in possession called the particular estate,
which must determine before the estate in expectancy can
become an estate in possession. A remainder or reversion is
in strictness confined to real estate, whether legal or equitable,
though a similar interest may exist in personalty. The par-
ticular estate and the remainder or reversion together make up
the whole estate over which the grantor has power of disposition. 1
Accordingly a remainder or reversion limited on an estate in fee
simple is void. The difference between a remainder and a
reversion, stated as simply as possible, is that the latter is that
undisposed-of part of the estate which after the determination
of the particular estate will fall into the possession of the original
grantor or his representative, while a remainder is that part of
the estate which under the same circumstances will fall into the
possession of a person other than the original grantor or his
1 Compare the life-rent and fee of Scots law.
representative. A reversion, in fact, is a special instance of a
remainder, distinguishable from it in two important respects:
(i) a reversion arises by operation of law on every grant of an
estate where the whole interest is not parted with, whereas
a remainder is created by express words; (2) tenure exists
between the reversioner and the tenant of the particular estate,
but not between the latter and the remainderman. Accordingly
rent service is said to be an incident of a reversion but not of a
remainder, and a reversioner could distrain for it at common
law. A reversion may be limited upon any number of remainders,
each of them as it falls into possession becoming itself a particular
estate. A remainder or reversion may be alienated either by
deed or by will. A conveyance by the tenant of a particular
estate to the remainderman or reversioner is called a surrender;
a conveyance by the remainderman or reversioner to the tenant
is a release.
Remainder, Remainders are either vested or contingent. " An
estate is vested in interest when there is a present fixed right of
future enjoyment. An estate is contingent when a right of enjoy-
ment is to accrue on an event which is dubious and uncertain. A
contingent remainder is a remainder limited so as to depend on an
event or condition which may never happen or be performed, or
which may not happen or be performed till after the determination
of the preceding estate " (Fearne, Contingent Remainders, 2, 3).
Contingent remainders are of two kinds, those limited to uncertain
persons and those limited on uncertain events. A grant by A to B
for life, followed by a remainder in fee to the heir of C is an example
of a contingent remainder. 2 Until the death of C he can have no
heir. If C die during the lifetime of B, the contingent remainder
of his heir becomes vested; if C survive B, the remainder is at
common law destroyed owing to the determination of the par-
ticular estate, for every remainder must have a particular estate
to support it. In the case of a contingent remainder, it must become
vested during the continuance of the particular estate or at the
instant of its determination. This rule of law no doubt arose
from the disfavour shown by the law to contingent remainders
on their first introduction. They were not firmly established even
when Littleton wrote in the reign of Edward IV. (see Williams,
Real Property). The inconveniences resulting from this liability
of contingent remainders to destruction were formerly overcome by
the device of appointing trustees to preserve contingent remainders
at law. Equitable contingent remainders, it should be noticed,
were indestructible, for they were supported by the legal estate.
In modern times the matter has been dealt with by act of Parlia-
ment. By the Real Property Act 1845, 8, a contingent remainder
is rendered capable of taking effect notwithstanding the deter-
mination by forfeiture, surrender or merger of any preceding
estate of freehold in the same manner as if such determination had
not happened. The case of determination by any other means
is met by the Contingent Remainders Act 1877. The act provides
that a contingent remainder which would have been valid as a
springing or shifting use or executory devise or other limitation
had it not had a sufficient estate to support it as a contingent re-
mainder is, in the event of the particular estate determining before the
contingent remainder vests, to be capable of taking effect as though
the contingent remainder had originally been created as a springing
or shifting use or executory devise or other executory limitation.
It will accordingly only be good if the springing use, &c. (for which
see TRUST), would be good. If the springing use be void as a breach
of the rule against perpetuities (see PERPETUITY), the remainder
will likewise be void. Apart from this act, there is some un-
certainty as to the application of the rule against perpetuities to
remainders. The better opinion is that it applies to equitable
remainders and to legal remainders expectant upon an estate for
life limited to an unborn person. In the latter case the rule as
applied to contingent remainders is somewhat different from that
affecting executory interests. The period is different, the remainder
allowing the tying up of property for a longer time than the execu-
tory interest. There is also the further difference that the rule
does not affect a contingent remainder if it become vested before
the determination of the particular estate. An executory interest
is void if it may transgress the rule, even though it do not actually
do so. For the rule in Shelley's case, important in connexion
with remainders, see that title.
The state laws of the United States affecting remainders will
be found in Washburn, Real Property, ii. bk. ii. As a general
rule contingent remainders have been rendered of little practical
importance by enactments that they shall take effect as executory
devises or shall not determine on determination of the particular
estate.
Reversion. Unlike remainders, all reversions are present or
vested estates. The law of reversion, like that of remainder, has
been considerably modified by statute. It was formerly considered
* A contingent remainder amounting to a freehold cannot be
limited on a particular estate less than a freehold.
REMAND REMBRANDT
77
that on the grant of the reversion the tenant should have the
opportunity of objecting to the substitution of a new landlord.
It was therefore necessary that he should attorn tenant to the
purchaser. Without such attornment the grant was void, unless
indeed attornment were compelled by levying a fine. The neces-
sity of attornment was abolished by 4 & 5 Anne c. 16. Its only
use at present seems to be in the case of mortgage. A mortgagor
in possession sometimes attorns tenant to the mortgagee in order
that the latter may treat him as his tenant and distrain for his
interest as rent. The legal view that rent was incident to the
reversion led at common law to a destruction of .the rent by de-
struction of the reversion. This would chiefly happen in the case
of an under-tenant and his immediate reversioner, if the inter-
mediate became merged in the superior reversion. To obviate
this difficulty it was provided by the Real Property Act 1845, 9,
that, on surrender or merger of a reversion expectant on a lease,
the rights under it should subsist to the reversion conferring the
next vested right. The question as to what covenants run with the
reversion is one of the most difficult 'in law. The rule of common
law seems to have been that covenants ran with the land but not
with the reversion, that is to say, the benefit of them survived to
a new tenant but not to a new landlord. The effect of the act
of 32 Hen. VIII. c. 34, and of the Conveyancing Act 1881, has been
to annex to the reversion as a general rule the benefit _ of the rent
and the lessee's covenants and the burden of the lessor's covenant.
Merely collateral covenants, however, do not run with the reversion,
but are regarded as personal contracts between lessor and lessee.
At common law on the severance of a reversion a grantee of part
of the reversion could not take advantage of any condition for
re-entry, on the ground that the condition was entire and not
severable. This doctrine was abolished by one of Lord St Leonard's
Acts in 1859. The Conveyancing Act 1881, 12, now provides
in wider terms than those of the act of 1859 that on severance of
the reversion every condition capable of apportionment is to be
apportioned. In order to guard against fraudulent concealment
of the death of a cestui que vie, or person for whose life any lands are
held by another, it was provided by 6 Anne c. 18 that on applica-
tion to the court of chancery by the person entitled in remainder,
reversion or expectancy, the cestui que vie should be produced to
the court or its commissioners, or in default should be taken to be
dead. In Scotland reversion is generally used in a sense approaching
that of the equity of redemption of English law. A reversion is
either legal, as in an adjudication, or conventional, as in a wadset;
Reversions are registered under the system established by the Act
1617 c. 16.
In the United States the act of 32 Hen. VIII. c. 34 " is held to
be in force in Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Connecti-
cut, but was never in force in New York till re-enacted " (Wash-
burn, Real Property, i.).
REMAND (Lat. remandare) , a term of English law meaning
the return of a prisoner by order of a court to the custody from
which he came to the court. Thus where an application for
release is unsuccessfully made by means of habeas corpus, the
applicant is remanded to the custody which he has challenged
as illegal. Where trials or indictments are not concluded at a
single sitting the court of trial has power to remand the accused
into proper custody during any necessary adjournment. Where
a preliminary inquiry into an indictable offence is not completed
at a single sitting, the prisoner, if not released on bail, may be
remanded to prison or some other lawful place of custody for
a period not exceeding eight days, and so on by further remands
till the inquiry is completed and the accused is discharged, or
committed to prison to await his trial, or released on bail to
take his trial. If the remand is for more than three days the
order must be in writing (Indictable Offences Act 1848, n & 12
Viet. c. 42, s. 21). Similar powers of remand or committal to
prison during adjournments are given to justices in the exercise
of their summary criminal jurisdiction, whether as to offences
punishable only on summary conviction, or as to indictable
offences with which it is proposed to deal summarily (Summary
Jurisdiction Acts 1848, s. 16, and 1879, s. 24).
In the case of charges against children or young persons,
where the justices commit for trial or order a remand pending
inquiry, or with a view to sending a child to an industrial school
or a reformatory, they may remand to the workhouse or to some
fit custody instead of remanding to prison (Youthful Offenders
Act 1901, s. 4). For this purpose remand homes have been
established.
REMBRANDT (1606-1660). REMBRANDT HARMENS VAN
RIJN, Dutch painter, was born in Leiden on the isth of July
1606. It is only within the past fifty years that we have come
to know anything of his real history. A tissue of fables formerly
represented him as ignorant, boorish and avaricious. These
fictions, resting on the loose assertions of Houbraken (De Creole
Schouburgh, 1718), have been cleared away by the untiring
researches of Scheltema and other Dutchmen, notably by C.
Vosmaer, whose elaborate work (Rembrandt, sa vie et ses ceuvres,
1868, 2nd ed., 1877) is the basis of our knowledge of the man and
of the chronological development of the artist. 1 Rembrandt's
high position in European art rests on the originality of his
mind, the power of his imagination, his profound sympathy
with his subjects, the boldness of his system of light and shade,
the thoroughness of his modelling, his subtle colour, and above
all on his intense humanity. He was great in conception
and in execution, a poet as well as a painter, an idealist and
also a realist; and this rare union is the secret of his power.
From his dramatic action and mastery of expression Rembrandt
has been well called " the Shakespeare of Holland."
In the beginning of the i7th century Holland had entered on
her grand career of national enterprise. Science and literature
flourished in her universities, poetry and the stage were favoured
by her citizens, and art found a home not only in the capital
but in the provincial towns. It was a time also of new ideas.
Old conventional forms in religion, philosophy and art had
fallen away, and liberty was inspiring new conceptions. There
were no church influences at work to fetter the painter in the
choice and treatment of his subject, no academies to prescribe
rules. Left to himself, therefore, the artist painted the life of
the people among whom he lived and the subjects which inter-
ested them. It was thus a living history that he painted
scenes from the everyday life and amusements of the people,
as well as the civic rulers, the " regents " or governors of the
hospitals and the heads of the guilds, and the civic guards who
defended their towns. So also with religious pictures. The
dogmas and legends of the Church of Rome were no longer of
interest to such a nation; but the Bible was read and studied
with avidity, and from its page the artist drew directly the scenes
of the simple narrative. Perhaps the earliest trace of this new
aspect of Bible story is to be found in the pictures painted
in Rome about the beginning of the I7th century by Adam
Elsheimer of Frankfort, who had undoubtedly a great influence
on the Dutch painters studying in Italy. These in their turn
carried back to Holland the simplicity and the picturesque
effect which they found in Elsheimer's work. Among these,
the precursors of Rembrandt, may be mentioned Moeyaert,
Ravesteyn, Lastman, Pinas, Honthorst and Bramer. Influenced
doubtless by these painters, Rembrandt determined to work out
his own ideas of art on Dutch soil, resisting apparently every
inducement to visit Italy. Though an admirer of the great
Italian masters, he yet maintained his own individuality.
Rembrandt was born at No. 3 Weddesteg, on the rampart
at Leiden overlooking the Rhine. He was the fourth son of
Gerrit Harmens van Rijn, a well-to-do miller. As the older
boys had been sent to trade, his parents resolved that he should
enter a learned profession. With this view he was sent to the
High School at Leiden; but the boy soon manifested his dislike
of the prospect, and determined to be a painter. Accordingly
he was placed for three years under Swanenburch, a painter of
no great merit, who enjoyed some reputation from his having
studied in Italy. His next master was Lastman of Amsterdam,
a painter of very considerable power. In Lastman's works we
can trace the germs of the colour and sentiment of his greater
pupil, though his direct influence cannot have been great, as
it is said by Orlers that Rembrandt remained with him only six
months, after which time he returned to Leiden, about 1623.
During the early years of his life at Leiden Rembrandt seems
to have devoted himself entirely to studies, painting and etching
the people around him, the beggars and cripples, every pic-
turesque face and form he could get hold of. Life, character,
1 Vosmaer's first volume, on the precursors and apprenticeship of
Rembrandt, was published in 1863. New light has since been thrown
on important points by Dr Bode (Holldndische Malerei, 1883), De
Roever, De Vries and others.
REMBRANDT
and above all light were the aims of these studies. His mother
was a frequent model, and we can trace in her features the strong
likeness to her son, especially in the portraits of himself at an
advanced age. In the collection of Rembrandt's works at
Amsterdam in 1898 were shown three portraits of his father, who
died about 1632; nine are catalogued altogether. The last
portrait of his mother is that of the Vienna Museum, painted the
year before her death in 1640. One of his sisters also frequently
sat to him, and Bode suggests that she must have accompanied
him to Amsterdam and kept house for him till he married.
This conjecture rests on the number of portraits of the same
young woman painted in the early years of his stay in Amsterdam
and before he met his bride. Then, again, in the many portraits
of himself painted in his early life we can see with what zeal he
set himself to master every form of expression, now grave, now
gay how thoroughly he learned to model the human face not
from the outside but from the inner man. Dr Bode gives fifty
as the number of the portraits of himself (perhaps sixty is nearer
the actual number), most of them painted in youth and in old
age, the times when he had leisure for such work.
Rembrandt's earliest pictures were painted at Leiden, from
1627 to 1631. Bode mentions about nine pictures as known to
belong to these years, chiefly paintings of single figures, as
" St Paul in Prison" and " St Jerome"; but now and then
compositions of several, as " Samson in Prison " and " Presenta-
tion in the Temple." The prevailing tone of all these pictures
is a greenish grey, the effect being somewhat cold and heavy.
The gallery at Cassel gives us a typical example of his studies
of the heads of old men, firm and hard in workmanship and full
of detail, the effects of light and shade being carefully thought
out. His work was now attracting the attention of lovers of
art in the great city of Amsterdam; and, urged by their calls,
he removed about 1631 to live and die there. At one bound
he leaped into the position of the first portrait painter of the
city, and received numerous commissions. During the early
years of his residence there are at least forty known portraits
from his hand, firm and solid in manner and staid in expression.
It has been remarked that the fantasy in which he indulged
through life was reserved only for the portraits of himself and
his immediate connexions. The excellent painter Thomas de
Keyser was then in the height of his power, and his influence
is to be traced in some of Rembrandt's smaller portraits. Pupils
also now flocked to his house in the Bloemgracht, among them
Gerard Douw, who was nearly of his own age. The first
important work executed by Rembrandt in Amsterdam is
" Simeon in the Temple," of the Hague Museum, a fine early
example of his treatment of light and shade and of his subtle
colour. The concentrated light falls on the principal figure,
while the background is full of mystery. The surface is smooth
and enamel-like, and all the details are carefully wrought out,
while the action of light on the mantle of Simeon shows how
soon he had felt the magical effect of the play of colour. In the
life-sized " Lesson in Anatomy " of 1632 we have the first of
the great portrait subjects Tulp the anatomist, the early
friend of Rembrandt, discoursing to his seven associates, who
are ranged with eager heads round the foreshortened body.
The subject had been treated in former years by the Mierevelts,
A. Pietersen and others, for the Hall of the Surgeons. But it
was reserved for Rembrandt to make it a great picture by the
grouping of the expressive portraits and by the completeness
of the conception. The colour is quiet and the handling of the
brush timid and precise, while the light and shade are somewhat
harsh and abrupt. But it is a marvellous picture for a young
man of twenty-five, and it is generally accepted as marking a
new departure in the career of the painter.
About 700 pictures are known to have come from Rembrandt's
own hand. _ It is impossible to notice more than the prominent
works. Besides the Pellicorne family portraits of 1632 now in the'
Wallace Collection, we have the caligraphist Coppenol of the
Cassel Gallery, interesting in the first place as an early example of
Rembrandt's method of giving permanent interest to a portrait by
converting it into a picture. He invests it with a sense of life by
a momentary expression as Coppenol raises his head towards the
spectator while he is mending a quill. The same motive is to be
found in the " Shipbuilder," 1633 (Buckingham Palace), who looks
up from his work with a sense of interruption at the approach of
his wife. Coppenol was painted thrice and etched twice by the
artist, the last of whose portrait etchings (1661) was the Coppenol
of large size. The two small pictures of " The Philosopher " of the
Louvre date from 1633, delicate in execution and full of mysterious
effect.
The year 1634 is especially remarkable as that of Rembrandt's
marriage with Saskia van Uylenborch, a beautiful, fair-haired
Frisian maiden of good connexions. Till her death in 1642 she
was the centre of his life and art, and lives for us in many a canvas
as well as in her own portraits. On her the painter lavished his
magical power, painting her as the Queen of Artemisia or Bath-
sheba, and as the wife of Samson always proud of her long fair
locks, and covering her with pearls and gold as precious in their
play of colour as those of the Indies. A joyous pair we see them
in the Dresden Gallery, Saskia sitting on his knee while he
laughs gaily, or promenading together in a fine picture of 1636, or
putting the last touches of ornament to her toilette, for thus Bode
interprets the so-called " Burgomaster Pancras and his Wife."
These were his happy days when he painted himself in his
exuberant fantasy, and adorned himself, at least in his portraits,
in scarfs and feathers and gold chains. Saskia brought him a
marriage portion of forty thousand guilders, a large sum for
those times, and she brought him also a large circle of good
friends in Amsterdam. She bore him four children, Rumbartus
and two girls, successively named Cornelia after his beloved
mother, all of whom died in infancy, and Titus, named after
Titia a sister of Saskia. We have several noble portraits of
Saskia, a good type of the beauty of Holland, all painted with
the utmost love and care, at Cassel (1633), at Dresden (1641),
and a posthumous one (1643) at Berlin. But the greatest in
workmanship and most pathetic in expression seems to us,
though it is decried by Bode, that of Antwerp (1641), in which
it is impossible not to trace declining health and to find a melan-
choly presage of her death.
One of Rembrandt's greatest portraits of 1634 is the superb full-
length of Martin Daey, which, with that of Madame Daey, painted
according to Vosmaer some years later, formed one of the ornaments
of the Van Loon collection at Amsterdam. Both now belong to
Baron Gustaye de Rothschild. From the firm detailed execution
of this portrait one turns with wonder to the broader handling of the
" Old Woman " (Frangoise van Wasserhoven) , aged eighty-three,
in the National Gallery, of the same year, remarkable for the effect
of reflected light and still more for the sympathetic rendering of
character.
The life of Samson supplied many subjects in these early days.
The so-called " Count of Gueldres threatening his Father-in-law "
of the Berlin Gallery has been restored to its proper signification
by M. Kolloff, who finds it to be Samson. It is forced and violent
in its action. The greatest of this series, and one of the pro-
minent pictures of Rembrandt's work, is the " Marriage of Samson,"
of the Dresden Gallery, painted in 1638. Here Rembrandt gives
the rein to his imagination and makes the scene live before us.
Except the bride (Saskia), who sits calm and grand on a dais in the
centre of the feast, with the full light again playing on her flowing
locks and wealth of jewels, all is animated and full of bustle. Sam-
son, evidently a Rembrandt of fantasy, leans over a chair pro-
pounding his riddle to the Philistine lords. In execution it is a
great advance on former subject pictures; it is bolder in manner,
and we have here signs of his approaching love of warmer tones of
red and yellow.
The story of Susannah also occupied him in these early years,
and he returned to the subject in 1641 and 1653. " The Bather "
of the National Gallery may be another interpretation of the same
theme. In all of these pictures the woman :s coarse in type and
lumpy in form, though the modelling is soft and round, the effect
which Rembrandt always strove to gain. Beauty of form was
outside his art. But the so-called " Danae " (1636) at St Peters-
burg is a sufficient reply to those who deny his ability ever to ap-
preciate the beauty of the nude female form. It glows with colour
and life, and the blood seems to pulsate under the warm skin. In
the picturesque story of Tobit Rembrandt found much to interest
him, as we see in the beautiful small picture of the d'Arenberg
Collection at Brussels. Sight is being restored to the aged Tobias,
while with infinite tenderness his wife holds the old man's hand
caressingly. The momentary action is complete, and the picture
goes straight to the heart. In the Berlin Gallery he paints the
anxiety of the parents as they wait the return of their son. In
1637 he painted the fine picture now in the Louvre of the " Flight
of the Angel "; and the same subject is grandly treated by him,
REMBRANDT
79
apparently about 1645, in the picture exhibited in the winter exhibi-
tion at Burlington House in 1885. Reverence and awe are shown
in every attitude of the Tobit family. A similar lofty treatment is
to be found in the " Christ as the Gardener," appearing to Mary, of
1638 (Buckingham Palace).
We have now arrived at the year 1640, the threshold of
his second manner, which extended to 1654, the middle age of
Rembrandt. During the latter part of the previous decade we
find the shadows more transparent and the blending of light
and shade more perfect. There is a growing power in every
part of his art. The coldness of his first manner had disappeared,
-and the tones were gradually changing into golden-brown. He
had passed through what Bode calls his " Sturm-und-Drang "
period of exaggerated expression, as in the Berlin Samson, and
had attained to a truer, calmer form of dramatic expression, of
which the " Manoah " of Dresden is a good example (1641).
The portraits painted " to order " became more rare about this
time, and those which we have are chiefly friends of his circle,
such as the " Mennonite Preacher " (C. C. Ansloo) and the
" Gilder," a fine example of his golden tone, formerly in the
Morny collection and now in America. His own splendid
portrait (1640) in the National Gallery illustrates the change in
his work. It describes the man well strong and robust, with
powerful head, firm and compressed lips and determined chin,
with heavy eyebrows, separated by a deep vertical furrow, and
with eyes of keen penetrating glance altogether a self-reliant
man that would carry out his own ideas, careless whether his
popularity waxed or waned. The fantastic rendering of himself
has disappeared; he seems more conscious of his dignity and
position. He has now many friends and pupils, and numerous
commissions, even from the stadtholder; he has bought a large
house in the Breedstraat, in which during the next sixteen years
of his life he gathers his large collection of paintings, engravings,
armour and costume which figure afterwards in his inventory.
His taste was wide and his purchases large, for he was joint
owner with picture-dealers of paintings by Giorgione and Palma
Vecchio, while for a high-priced Marcantonio Raimondi print
he gave in exchange a fine impression of his " Christ Healing
the Sick," which has since been known as the " Hundred Guilder
Print." The stadtholder was not a prompt payer, and an
interesting correspondence took place between Rembrandt and
Constantin Huygens, the poet and secretary of the prince. The
Rembrandt letters which have come down to us are few, and
these are therefore of importance. Rembrandt puts a high
value on the picture, which he says had been painted " with
much care and zeal," but he is willing to take what the prince
thinks proper; while to Huygens he sends a large picture as a
present for his trouble in carrying through the business. There
is here no sign of the grasping greed with which he has been
charged, while his unselfish conduct is seen in the settlement of
the family affairs at the death of his mother in 1640.
The year 1642 is remarkable for the great picture formerly known
as the " Night Watch," but now more correctly as the " Sortie
of the Banning Cock Company," another of the landmarks of Rem-
brandt's career, in which twenty-nine life-sized civic guards are
introduced issuing pell-mell from their club house. Such gilds
of arquebusiers had been painted admirably before by Ravesteyn
and notably by Frans Hals, but Rembrandt determined to throw
life and animation into the scene, which is full of bustle and move-
ment. The dominant colour is the citron yellow uniform of the
lieutenant, wearing a blue sash, while a Titian-like red dress of a
musketeer, the black velvet dress of the captain, and the varied
green of the girl and drummer, all produce a rich and harmonious
effect. The background has become dark and heavy by accident
or neglect, and the scutcheon on which the names are painted is
scarcely to be seen. It is to be observed that, as proved by the
copy by Gerrit Lundens in the National Gallery, it represents not a
" night watch," except in name, but a day watch.
But this year of great achievement was also the year of his great
loss, for Saskia died in 1642, leaving Rembrandt her sole trustee
for her son Titus, but with full use of the money till he should
marry again or till the marriage of Titus. The words of the will
express her love for her husband and her confidence in him. With
her death his life was changed. Bode has remarked that there
is a pathetic sadness in his pictures of the Holy Family a favourite
subject at this period of his life. All of these he treats with the
na'ive simplicity of Reformed Holland, giving us the real carpenter's
shop and the mother watching over the Infant reverently and
lovingly, with a fine union of realism and idealism.
The street in which he lived was full of Dutch and Portuguese
Jews, and many a Jewish rabbi sat to him. He accepted or invented
their turbans and local dress as characteristic of the people. But
in his religious pictures it is not the costume we look at; what
strikes us is the profound perception of the sentiment of the story,
making them true to all time and independent of local circumstance.
A notable example of this feeling is to be found in the " Woman
Taken in Adultery " of the National Gallery, painted in 1644 in
the manner of the " Simeon " of the Hague. Beyond the ordinary
claims of art, it commands our attention from the grand conception
of the painter who here, as in other pictures and etchings, has invested
Christ with a majestic dignity which recalls Lionardo and no other.
A similar lofty ideal is to be found in his various renderings of the
" Pilgrims at Emmaus," notably in the Louvre picture of 1648,
in which, as Mrs Jameson says, " he returns to those first spiritual
principles which were always the dowry of ancient art." From the
same year we have the " Good Samaritan " of the Louvre, the story
of which is told with intense pathos. The helpless suffering of the
wounded man, the curiosity of the boy on tiptoe, the excited faces
at the upper window, are all conveyed with masterly skill. In these
last two pictures we find a broader touch and freer handling, while
the tones pass into a dull yellow and brown with a marked pre-
dilection for deep rich red. Whether it was that this scheme of
colour found no favour with the Amsterdamers, who, as Hoog-
straten tells us, could not understand the " Sortie," it seems certain
that Rembrandt was not invited to take any leading part in the
celebration of the congress of Westphalia (1648).
Rembrandt touched no side of art without setting his mark on it,
whether in still life, as in his dead birds or the " Slaughtered Ox "
of the Louvre (with its repetitions at Glasgow and Budapest), or
in his drawings of elephants and lions, all of which are instinct with
life. But at this period of his career we come upon a branch of
his art on which he left, both in etching and in-painting, the stamp
of his genius, viz. landscape. Roeland Roghman, but ten years
his senior, evidently influenced his style, for the resemblance between
their works is so great that, as at Cassel, there has been confusion
of authorship. Hercules Sieghers also was much appreciated by
Rembrandt, for at his sale eight pictures by this master figure in
the inventory, and Vosmaer discovered that Rembrandt had worked
on a plate by Seghers and had added figures to an etched " Flight
into Egypt.' The earliest pure landscape known to us from Rem-
brandt's hand is that at the Ryks Museum (1637-38), followed in
the latter year by those at Brunswick, Cracow and Boston (U.S.A.),
and that dated 1638 and belonging to Mr G. Rath in Budapest.
Better known is the " Winter Scene " of Cassel (1646), silvery and
delicate. As a rule in his painted landscape he aims at grandeur
and poetical effect, as in the " Repose of the Holy Family " of
1647 (formerly called the " Gipsies "), a moonlight effect, clear
even in the shadows. The " Canal " of Lord Lansdowne, and the
" Mountain Landscape with Approaching Storm," the sun shining
out behind the heavy clouds, are both conceived and executed in
this spirit. A similar poetical vein runs through the " Castle
on the Hill " of Cassel, in which the beams of the setting sun strike
on the castle while the valley is sunk in the shades of approaching
night. More powerful still is the weird effect of Lord Lansdowne's
" Windmill," with its glow of light and darkening shadows. In
all these pictures light with its magical influences is the theme of
the poet-painter. From the number of landscapes by himself in
the inventory of his sale, it would appear that these grand works
were not . appreciated by his contemporaries. The last of the
landscape series dates from 1655 or 1656, the close of the middle
age or manhood of Rembrandt, a period of splendid power. In the
" Joseph Accused by Potiphar's Wife " of 1654 we have great
dramatic vigour and perfect mastery of expression, while the
brilliant colour and glowing effect of light and shade attest his
strength. To this period also belongs the great portrait of himself
in the Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge.
But evil days were at hand. The long-continued wars and
civil troubles had worn out the country, and money was scarce.
Rembrandt's and doubtless Saskia's means were tied up in his
house and in his large collection of valuable pictures, and we find
Rembrandt borrowing considerable sums of money on the security
of his house to keep things going. Perhaps, as Bode suggests,
this was the reason of his extraordinary activity at this time.
Then, unfortunately, in this year of 1654, we find Rembrandt
involved in the scandal of having a child by his servant Hendrickje
Jaghers or Stoffels, as appears by the books of the Reformed
Church at Amsterdam. He recognized the child and gave it the
name of Cornelia, after his much-loved mother, but there is no
proof that he married the mother, and the probability is against
such a marriage, as the provisions of Saskia's will would in that
case have come into force, and her fortune would have passed
at once to her son Titus. Hendrickje- seems to have continued
8o
REMBRANDT
to live with him, for we find her claiming a chest as her property
at his sale in 1658. Doubtless she is the peasant girl of Rasdorf
to whom Houbraken says Rembrandt was married. Sad as the
story is, Hendrickje has an interest for us. Bode asserts that in
his art there was always a woman in close relationship to Rem-
brandt and appearing in his work his mother, his sister and
then Saskia.
He also suggests that the beautiful portrait of the " Lady "
in the Salon Carre of the Louvre and the " Venus and Cupid " of
the same gallery may represent Hendrickje and her child. Both
pictures belong to this date, and by their treatment are removed
from the category of Rembrandt's usual portraits. But if this
is conjecture, we get nearer to fact when we look at the picture
exhibited at Burlington House in 1883 to which tradition has
attached the name of " Rembrandt's Mistress," now in the
Edinburgh National Gallery. At a glance one can see that it is
not the mere head of a model, as she lies in bed raising herself
to put aside a curtain as if she heard a well-known footstep. It
is clearly a woman in whom Rembrandt had a personal interest.
The date is clearly 165 the fourth figure being illegible; but
the brilliant carnations and masterly touch connect it with
the " Potiphar's Wife " of 1654 and the Jaghers period. In 1656
Rembrandt's financial affairs became more involved, and the
Orphans' Chamber transferred the house and ground to Titus,
though Rembrandt was still allowed to take charge of Saskia's
estate. Nothing, however, could avert the ruin of the painter,
who was declared bankrupt in July 1656, an inventory of all his
property being ordered by the Insolvency Chamber. The first
sale took place in 1657 in the Keizerskroon hotel; and the second
in 1658, when the larger part of the etchings and drawings were
disposed of " collected by Rembrandt himself with much love
and care," says the catalogue. The sum realized, under 5000
guilders, was but a fraction of their value. The time was
unfavourable over the whole of Europe for such sales, the
renowned collection of Charles I. of England having brought but
a comparatively small sum in 1653. Driven thus from his house,
stripped of everything he possessed, even to his table linen,
Rembrandt took a modest lodging in the same Keizerskroon
hostelry (the amounts of his bills are on record), apparently
without friends and thrown entirely on himself.
But this dark year of 1656 stands out prominently as one in which
some of his greatest works were produced, as, for example, " John
the Baptist preaching in the Wilderness," of the Berlin Gallery, and
" Jacob blessing the Sons of Joseph," of the Cassel Gallery. It
is impossible not to respect the man who, amid the utter ruin of his
affairs, could calmly conceive and carry out such noble work. Yet
even in his art one can see that the tone of his mind was sombre.
Instead of the brilliancy of 1654 we have for two or three years a
preference for dull yellows, reds and greys, with a certain uni-
formity of tone. The handling is broad and rapid, as if to give
utterance to the ideas which crowded on his mind. There is less
caressing of colour for its own sake, even less straining after
vigorous effect of light and shade. Still the two pictures just named
are among the greatest works of the master. To the same year
belongs the " Lesson in Anatomy of Johann Deyman." The sub-
ject is similar to the great Tulp of 1632, but his manner and power
of colour had advanced so much that Sir Joshua Reynolds, in his
visit to Holland in 1781, was reminded by it of Michelangelo and
Titian. 1 Vosmaer ascribes to the same year, though Bode places
it later, the famous " Portrait of Jan Six," the future burgo-
master, consummate in its ease and character, as Six descends the
steps of his house drawing on his glove. The connexion between
Rembrandt and the great family of Six was long and close. In
1641, the mother of Six, Anna Wymer, had been painted with con-
summate skill by Rembrandt, who also executed in 1647 the beauti-
ful etching of Six standing by a window reading his tragedy of
Medea, afterwards illustrated by his friend. Now he paints his
portrait in the prime of manhood, and in the same year of gloom
paints for him the masterly " John the Baptist." Six, if he could
not avert the disaster of Rembrandt's life, at least stood by him in
the darkest hour, when certainly the creative energy of Rembrandt
1 This picture has had a strange history. It had suffered by fire
and was sold to a Mr Chaplin of London in 1841, was exhibited in
Leeds in 1868, and again disappeared, ultimately to be found in the
storeroom of the South Kensington Museum as a doubtful Rem-
brandt. The patriotism of some Dutch lovers of art restored it to
its native country; and it now hangs, a magnificent fragment, in
the museum of Amsterdam.
was in full play. The same period gives us the " Master of the
Vineyard," and the " Adoration of the Magi " of Buckingham
Palace.
After the sale of the house in the Breedstraat, Rembrandt retired
to the Rosengracht, an obscure quarter at the west end of the city.
We are now drawing to the splendid close of his career in his third
manner, in which his touch became broader, his impasto more solid
and his knowledge more complete. We may mention the " Old
Man with the Grey Beard " of the National Gallery (1657) and the
" Bruyningh, the Secretary of the Insolvents' Chamber," of Cassel
(1658), both leading up to the great portraits of the " Syndics of
the Cloth Hall " of 1661. Nearly thirty years separate us from the
" Lesson in Anatomy," years of long-continued observation and
labour. The knowledge thus gathered, the problems solved, the
mastery attained, are shown here in abundance. Rembrandt
returns to the simplest gamut of colour, but shows his skill in the
use of it, leaving on the spectator an impression of absolute enjoy-
ment of the result, unconscious of the means. The plain burghers
dealing with the simple concerns of their gild arrest our attention
as if they were the makers of history. They live for ever; and we
close our eyes to the strange perspective of the table.
In his old age Rembrandt continued to paint his own portrait
as assiduously as in his youthful and happy days. About
twenty of these portraits are known; a typical one is to be found
in the National Gallery. All show the same self-reliant expres-
sion, though broken down indeed by age and the cares of a hard
life.
About the year 1663 Rembrandt painted the (so-called)
" Jewish Bride " of the Ryks Museum in Amsterdam, and the
" Family Group " of Brunswick, the last and perhaps the most
brilliant works of his life, bold and rapid in execution and
marvellous in the subtle mixture and play of colours in which
he seems to revel. The woman and children are painted with
such love that the impression is conveyed that they represent a
fancy family group of the painter in his old age. This idea
received some confirmation from the supposed discovery that
he left a widow Catherine Van Wyck and two children, but this
theory falls to the ground, for de Roever has shown (Oud
Holland, 1883) that Catherine was the widow of a marine painter
Theunisz Blanckerhoff, who died about the same time as Rem-
brandt. The mistake arose from a miscopying of the register.
The subject of these pictures is thus more mysterious than ever.
In 1668 Titus, the only son of Rembrandt, died, leaving one
child, and on the 8th of October 1669 the great painter himself
passed away, leaving two children, and was buried in the Wester
Kerk. He had outlived his popularity, for his manner of paint-
ing, as we know from contemporaries, was no longer in favour
with a people who preferred the smooth trivialities of Van der
Werff and the younger Mieris, the leaders of an expiring school.
We must give but a short notice of Rembrandt's achievements in
etching. Here he stands out by universal confession as first, excel-
ling by his unrivalled technical skill, his mastery of expression and
the lofty conceptions of many of his great pieces, as in the " Death
of the Virgin," the " Christ Preaching," the " Christ Healing the
Sick " (the " Hundred Guilder Print ), the " Presentation to the
People," the " Crucifixion " and others. So great is his skill simply
as an etcher that one is apt to overlook the nobleness of the etcher s
ideas and the depth of his nature, and this tendency has been doubt-
less confirmed by the enormous difference in money value between
" states " of the same plate, rarity giving in many cases a factitious
worth in the eyes of collectors. A single impression of one of his
etchings " Rembrandt with a Sabre " realized 2000 at the
Holford sale in 1893, when " Ephraim Bonus, with black ring "
fetched 1950, and the " Hundred Guilder Print," 1750. The
points of difference between these states arise from the additions
and changes made by Rembrandt on the plate; and the prints
taken off by him have been subjected to the closest inspection by
Bartsch, Gersaint, Wilson, Daulby, De Claussin, C. Blanc, Willshire,
Seymour Haden, Middleton and others, who have described them
at great length, and to whom the reader is referred. The classifica-
tion of Rembrandt's etchings adopted till lately was according to
the subject, as Biblical, portrait, landscape, and so on; until
Vosmaer attempted the more scientific and interesting line of
chronology. This method has been developed by Sir F. Seymour
Haden and Middleton. v But even in 1873 C. Blanc, in his fine work
L'CEuvre complet de Rembrandt, still adheres to the older and less
intelligent arrangement, resting his preference on the frequent
absence of dates on the etchings and more strangely still on the
equality of the work. Sir Seymour Haden's reply is " that the more
important etchings which may be taken as types are dated, and
that, the style of the etchings at different periods of Rembrandt's
career being fully as marked as that of his paintings, no more
REMEDIOS REMIREMONT
81
difficulty attends the classification of one than of the other." In-
deed Vosmaer points out in his Life of Rembrandt that there is a
marked parallelism between Rembrandt's painted and etched work,
his early work in both cases being timid and tentative, while he
gradually gains strength and character both with the brush and the
graver's tools.
In his L'CEuvre complet de Rembrandt (Paris, 1885), Eugene Dutuit
rejects the classification of C. Blanc as dubious and unwarranted,
dismisses the chronological arrangement proposed by Vosmaer and
adopted by Seymour Haden and Middleton as open to discussion
and lacking in possibility of proof, and reverts to the order estab-
lished by Gersaint, ranging his materials under twelve heads:
Portraits (real and supposed), Old Testament and New Testament
subjects, histories, landscapes, &c. Sir Seymour Haden originated
the theory that many of the etchings ascribed to Rembrandt up to
1640 were the work of his pupils, and seems to make out his case,
though it may be carried too far. He argues (in his monograph on
the Etched Work of Rembrandt, 1877) that Rembrandt's real work in
etching began after Saskia's death, when he assumes that Rembrandt
betook himself to Elsbrqek, the country house of his " powerful
friend " Jan Six. But it must be remembered that the future
burgomaster was then but a student of twenty-four, a member of a
great family it is true, but unmarried and taking as yet no share in
public life. That Rembrandt was a frequent visitor at Elsbroek,
and that the " Three Trees " and other etchings may have been pro-
duced there, may be admitted without requiring us to believe that
he had left Amsterdam as his place of abode. The great period of
his etching lies between 1639 and 1661, after which the old painter
seems to nave renounced the needle. In these twenty years were
produced his greatest works in portraiture, landscape and Bible
story. They bear the impress of the genius of the man.
In addition to the authors named, the reader is referred to
W. Burger, (the nom de plume of T. Thor6), Musees de la Hollands
(1858-60); E. Fromentin, Mattres d'autrefois; H. Havard, L'Ecole
Hollandaise; Scheltema, Rembrandt, discours sur sa vie (1866); Ath.
Cocquerel fils, Rembrandt, son individualisme dans I' art (Paris, 1869) ;
Dr Langbehn, Rembrandt als Erzieher (Leipzig, 1890); Emile
Michel, Rembrandt, sa vie, son ceuvre, et son temps (Paris, 1893) ;
P. G. Hamerton, Rembrandt's Etchings (London, 1894); Malcolm
Bell, Rembrandt van Rijn and his Work (London, 1899); Adolf
Rosenberg, Rembrandt, des Meisters Gemalde (Stuttgart and Leipzig,
1906), a useful work, admirably reproducing 565 of the artist s
pictures, and its companion volume, Hans Wolfgang Singer, Rem-
brandt, des Meisters Radierungen (Stuttgart and Leipzig, 1906),
reproducing 402 etchings. The chronological, geographical and
classifying indexes in both books are of particular utility.
(J. F. W.; P. G. K.)
REMEDIOS, or SAN JUAN DE Los REMEDIOS, town of Santa
Clara province, Cuba, in the municipality of San Juan de Los
Remedies. Pop. of the town (1907), 6988; of the munici-
pality, 21,573. The town is served by a branch of the Cuban
Central railway, extending from Caibarien to Camajuani, where
it connects with the main line. The site is low and flat, and
unhealthily wet in the rainy season. The port of Remedies
is Caibarien (pop. in 1907, 8333), on the N. coast, about 5 m. E.
Both are in the sugar country, and sugar is the base of their
economic interests. The first settlement on the site of the
present town was made in 1515-16, and in 1545 Remedies was
created a villa with an ayuntamiento (council).
REMEMBRANCER, the name originally of certain subordinate
officers of the English Exchequer. The office itself is of great
antiquity, the holder having been termed remembrancer,
memorator, rememorator, registrar, keeper of the register,
despatcher of business (Maddox, History of the Exchequer).
There were at one time three clerks of the remembrance, styled
king's remembrancer, lord treasurer's remembrancer and re-
membrancer of first-fruits. The latter two offices have become
extinct, that of remembrancer of first-fruits by the diversion
of the fund (Queen Anne's Bounty Act 1838), and that of lord
treasurer's remembrancer on being merged in the office of king's
remembrancer (1833). By the Queen's Remembrancer Act
1859 the office ceased to exist separately, and the queen's
remembrancer was required to be a master of the court of
exchequer. The Judicature Act 1873, s. 77, attached the office
to the Supreme Court, and the Supreme Court of Judicature
(Officers) Act 1879 transferred it to the central office of the
Supreme Court. By s. 8 the king's remembrancer is a master
of the Supreme Court, and the office is usually filled by the
senior master. The king's remembrancer department of the
central office is now amalgamated with the judgments and
married women's acknowledgments department. The king's
remembrancer still assists at certain ceremonial functions
relics of the former importance of the office such as the nomina-
tion of sheriffs, the swearing-in of the lord mayor of London,
the trial of the pyx and the acknowledgments of homage for
crown lands. Other duties are set out in the Second Report of
the Legal Departments Commission, 1874.
" Remembrancer " is also the title of an official of the cor-
poration of the city of London, whose principal duty is to
represent that body before parliamentary committees and at
council and treasury boards.
REMIGIUS, ST (c. 437-533), bishop of Reims and the friend
of Clovis, whom he converted to Christianity. According to
Gregory of Tours, 3000 Franks were baptized with Clovis by
Remigius on Christmas Day, 496, after the defeat of the Ala-
manni. With the growing power of the papacy a good many
fictions grew up around his name, e.g. that he anointed Clovis.
with oil from the sacred ampulla, and that Pope Hormisdas had
recognized him as primate of France. The Commentary on the
Pauline Epistles (ed. Villalpandus, 1699) is not his work, but that
of Remigius of Auxerre.
For authorities see H. Jadart, Bibliographie des ouvrages cone.
la vie et le culte de S. Remi . . . (Reims, 1891), which contains 126
references.
REMINGTON, FREDERICK (1861-1909), American artist,
was born at Canton, New York, on the 4th of October 1861.
He was a pupil of the Yale Art School, and of the Art Students'
League, New York, and became known as an illustrator,
painter and sculptor. Having spent much time in the West,
whither he went for his health, and having been with the
United States troops in actual warfare, he made a specialty of
rendering the North American Indian and the United States
soldier as seen on the western plains. In the Spanish-American
War he was with the army under General Shatter as war corre-
spondent. He died on the 26th of December 1909, near Ridge-
field, Connecticut. His statuettes of soldiers, Indians, cowboys
and trappers are full of character, while his paintings have been
largely reproduced. He wrote several volumes of stories,
including Pony Tracks (1895), Crooked Trails (1898), Sundown
Leflare (1899), and John Ermine of the Yellowstone (1902).
REMINISCENCE (from Lat. reminisci, to remember), the
recognized translation of the Greek dj'd/wtyo'w, which is used
technically by Plato in his doctrine that the soul recovers
knowledge of which it had direct intuition in a former incorporeal
existence. The doctrine may be regarded as the poetical
precursor of modern a priori theories of knowledge and of
" race-memory " and the like. In common language " remi-
niscence " is synonymous with " recollection."
REMIREMONT, a town of eastern France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Vosges, 17 m. S.S.E. of
Epinal by rail, on the Moselle, a mile below its confluence with
the Moselotte. Pop. town, 8782; commune, 10,548. Remire-
mont is surrounded by forest-clad mountains, and commanded
by Fort Parmont, one of the Moselle line of defensive works.
The abbey church, consecrated in 1051, has a crypt of the nth
century in which are the tombs of some of the abbesses, but as a
whole belongs to the late I3th century. The abbatial residence
(which now contains the mairie, the court-house and the public
library) has been twice rebuilt in modern times (in 1750 and
again after a fire in 1871), but the original plan and style have
been preserved in the imposing front, the vestibule and the
grand staircase. Some of the houses of the canonesses dating
from the i7th and i8th centuries also remain. Remiremont
is the seat of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal of first instance,
a communal college, a board of trade-arbitration and a chamber
of arts and manufactures. Its industries include cotton-spinning
and weaving, the manufacture of hosiery and embroidery, iron
and copper founding and the manufacture of boots and shoes
and brushes.
Remiremont (Romarici Mans) derives its name from St
Romaric, one of the companions of St Columban of Luxeuil,
who in the 7th century founded a monastery and a convent
on the hills above the present town. In 910 the nuns, menaced
REMONSTRANTS REMUSAT, COMTE DE
by the invasion of the Hungarians, took refuge at Remiremont,
which had grown up round a villa of the Prankish kings, and in
the nth century they permanently settled there. Enriched
by dukes of Lorraine, kings of France and emperors of Germany,
the ladies of Remiremont attained great power. The abbess was
a princess of the empire, and received consecration at the hands
of the pope. The fifty canonesses were selected from those
who could give proof of noble descent. On Whit-Monday the
neighbouring parishes paid homage to the chapter in a ceremony
called the "Kyrioles"; and on their accession the dukes of
Lorraine, the immediate suzerains of the abbey, had to come to
Remiremont to swear to continue their protection. The " War
of the Scutcheons " (Panonceaux) in 1566 between the duke and
the abbess ended in favour of the duke; and the abbess never
recovered her former position. In the I7th century the ladies
of Remiremont fell away so much from the original monastic
rule as to take the title of countesses, renounce their vows and
marry. The town was attacked by the French in 1638 and
ruined by the earthquake of 1682. With the rest of Lorraine
it was joined to France in 1766. The monastery on the hill
and the nunnery in the town were both suppressed in the
Revolution.
REMONSTRANTS, the name given to those Dutch Protestants
who, after the death of Arminius (<?..), maintained the views
associated with his name, and in 1610 presented to the states of
Holland and Friesland a " remonstrance " in five articles
formulating their points of departure from stricter Calvinism.
These were: (i) that the divine decree of predestination is
conditional, not absolute; (2) that the Atonement is in intention
universal; (3) that man cannot of himself exercise a saving
faith; (4) that though the grace of God is a necessary condition
of human effort it does not act irresistibly in man; (5) that
believers are able to resist sin but are not beyond the possibility
of falling from grace. Their adversaries (the Gomarists) met
them with a " counter-remonstrance," and so were known as the
Counter-Remonstra'nts. Although the states-general issued an
edict tolerating both parties and forbidding further dispute, the
conflict continued, and the Remonstrants were assailed both
by personal enemies and by the political weapons of Maurice
of Orange, who executed and imprisoned their leaders for holding
republican views. In 1618-19 the synod of Dort (see DORT,
SYNOD or), the thirteen Arminian pastors headed by Simon
Episcopius (q.v.) being shut out, established the victory of the
Calvinist school, drew up ninety-three canonical rules, and
confirmed the authority of the Belgic Confession and the
Heidelberg Catechism. The judgment of the synod was enforced
by the deposition and in some cases the banishment of Remon-
strant ministers; but the government soon became convinced
that their party was not dangerous to the state, and in 1630 they
were formally allowed liberty to reside in all parts of Holland
and build churches and schools. In 1621 they had already
received liberty to make a settlement in Schleswig, where they
built the town of Friedrichstadt. This colony still exists. The
doctrine of the Remonstrants was embodied in 1621 in a confessio
written by Episcopius, their great theologian, while J. Uyten-
bogaert gave them a catechism and regulated their churchly
order. The Remonstrants adopted a simple synodical constitu-
tion; but their importance was henceforth more theological
than ecclesiastical. Their seminary in Amsterdam has boasted
of many distinguished names Curcellaeus, Limborch, Wetstein,
Le Clerc; and their liberal school of theology, which naturally
grew more liberal and even rationalistic, reacted powerfully
on the state church and on other Christian denominations.
The Remonstrants first received official recognition in 1795. As
a church they now number 27 communities with about 12,500
members, in a flourishing condition and respected for their
traditions of scholarship and liberal thought. Their chief
congregation is in Rotterdam.
REMPHAN, the Authorized Version's rendering of the Greek
word variously appearing in Acts vii. 48 as 'Po/j.<t>a, 'Ptfufrav,
'Ptfjujta./*, 'PaL<t>av, 'Pf>av. It is part of a quotation from
Amos v. 26, where the Septuagint 'Pai<di> or 'Pt<t>av stands
for the Hebrew P'? Chuin or Kewan. The Greek forms are
probably simple mistakes for the Hebrew, k ( 3 ) having been
replaced by r 0) and ph (</>) substituted for v ('). Kewan
is probably the old Babylonian Ka(y)awanu, the planet Saturn,
another (the Akkadian) name for which is Sakkut, which appears
as Siccuth in the earlier part of the verse.
REMSCHEID, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine
Province, situated on an elevated plateau, noo ft. above sea-
level, 6 m. by rail S. of Barmen and 20 m. N.E. of Cologne.
Pop. (1905) 64,340. Remscheid is a centre of the hardware
industry, and large quantities of tools, scythes, skates and
other small articles in iron, steel and brass are made for export
to all parts of Europe, the East, and North and South America.
The name of Remscheid occurs in a document of 1132, and
the town received the first impulse to its industrial importance
through the immigration of Protestant refugees from France
and Holland.
R6MUSAT, CHARLES FRANCOIS MARIE, COMTE DE (1797-
1875), French politician and man of letters, was born in Paris
on the i3th of March 1797. His father, Auguste Laurent,
Comte de Remusat, of a good family of Toulouse, was chamber-
lain to Napoleon, but acquiesced in the restoration and became
prefect first of Haute Garonne, and then of Nord. His mother's
maiden name was Claire Elisabeth Jeanne Gravier de Ver-
gennes, born in 1780. She married at sixteen, and was attached
to Josephine as dame du palais in 1802. Talleyrand was among
her admirers, and she was generally recognized as a woman of
great intellectual capacity and personal grace. After her
death (1824) an Essai sur I' education des femmes was published
and received an academic couronne. But it was not until her
grandson Paul de Remusat published her Memoires (3 vols.,
Paris, 1879-80), which have since been followed by some corre-
spondence with her son (2 vols., 1881), that justice could be
done to her literary talent. Much light was thrown on the
Napoleonic court by this book, and on the youth and education
of her son Charles. He early developed political views more
liberal than those of his parents, and, being bred to the bar,
published in 1820 a pamphlet on trial by jury. He was an
active journalist, showing in philosophy and literature the
influence of Cousin, and is said to have furnished to no small
extent the original of Balzac's brilliant egoist Henri de Marsay.
He signed the journalists' protest against the Ordinances of
July 1830, and in the following October wa's elected deputy
for Haute Garonne. He then ranked himself with the doctrin-
aires, and supported most of those measures of restriction on
popular liberty which made the July monarchy unpopular with
French Radicals. In 1836 he became for a short time under-
secretary of state for the interior. He then became an ally of
Thiers, and in 1840 held the ministry of the interior for a brief
period. In the same year he became an Academician. For
the rest of Louis Philippe's reign he was in opposition till he
joined Thiers in his attempt at a ministry in the spring of 1848.
During this time Remusat constantly spoke in the chamber,
but was still more active in literature, especially on philosophical
subjects, the most remarkable of his works being his book on
Abelard (2 vols., 1845). In 1848 he was elected, and in 1849
re-elected, for Haute Garonne, and voted with the Conservative
side. He had to leave France after the coup d'etat; nor did he
re-enter political life during the Second Empire until 1869, when
he founded a moderate opposition journal at Toulouse. In 1871
he refused the Vienna embassy offered him by Thiers, but in
August he was appointed minister of foreign affairs in succession
to M. Jules Favre. Although minister he was not a deputy, and
on standing for Paris in September 1873 he was beaten by Desire
Barodet. A month later he was elected (having already
resigned with Thiers) for Haute Garonne by a great majority.
He died in Paris on the 6th of January 1875.
During his abstention from politics Remusat continued to
write on philosophical history, especially English. Saint
Anselme de Cantorbery appeared in 1854; L'Anglcterre an
XVIIIeme siecle in 1856 (2nd ed. enlarged, 1865); Bacon, sa vie,
REMUSAT, J. P. A. RENAISSANCE
son temps, &c., in 1858; Channing, sa vie et ses atwires, in 1862;
John Wesley in 1870; Lord Herbert de Cherbury in 1874; His-
toire de la philosophic, en Anglelerre depuis Bacon jusqu'd Locke
in 1875; besides other and minor works. He wrote well, was
a forcible speaker and an acute critic; but his adoption of the
indeterminate eclecticism of Cousin in philosophy and of the
somewhat similarly indeterminate liberalism of Thiers in politics
probably limited his powers, though both no doubt accorded
with his critical and unenthusiastic turn of mind.
His son PAUL DE REMUSAT (1831-1897) became a distin-
guished journalist and writer. He was for many years a regular
contributor to the Revue des deux mond.es. He stood for election
in Haute-Garonne in 1869 in opposition to the imperial policy
and failed, but was elected to the National Assembly in 1871
and later. In 1890 he entered the Acaddmie des sciences
morales et politiques.
REMUSAT, JEAN PIERRE ABEL (1788-1832), French
Chinese scholar, was born in Paris on the 5th of September 1788.
He was educated for the medical profession, but a Chinese
herbal in the collection of the Abbe Tersan attracted his atten-
tion, and he taught himself to read it by great perseverance
and with imperfect help. At the end of five years' study he
produced in 1811 an Essai sur la langue et la litter ature chinoises,
and a paper on foreign languages among the Chinese, which
procured him the patronage of Silvestre de Sacy. In 1814 a
chair of Chinese was founded at the College de France, and
Remusat was placed in it. From this time he gave himself
wholly to the languages of the Far East, and published a series
of useful works, among which his contributions from Chinese
sources to the history of the Tatar nations claim special notice.
Remusat became an editor of the Journal de savants in 1818,
and founder and first secretary of the Paris Asiatic Society in
1822; he also held various Government appointments. He
died at Paris on the 4th of June 1832. A list of his works is
given in Querard's France litteraire s.v. Remusat.
RENAISSANCE, THE. The " Renaissance " or " Renascence "
is a term used to indicate a well-known but indefinite space
of time and a certain phase in the development of Europe. 1 On
the one hand it denotes the transition from that period of his-
tory which we call the middle ages (q.v.) to that which we call
modern. On the other hand it implies those changes in the
intellectual and moral attitude of the Western nations by which
the transition was characterized. If we insist upon the literal
and etymological meaning of the word, the Renaissance was a
re-birth; and it is needful to inquire of what it was the re-birth.
The metaphor of Renaissance may signify the entrance of the
European nations upon a fresh stage of vital energy in general,
implying a fuller consciousness and a freer exercise of faculties
than had belonged to the medieval period. Or it may mean the
resuscitation of simply intellectual activities, stimulated by the
revival of antique learning and its application to the arts and
literatures of modern peoples. Upon our choice between these
two interpretations of the word depend important differences in
any treatment of the subject. The former has the disadvantage
of making it difficult to separate the Renaissance from other
historical phases the Reformation, for example with which
it ought not to be confounded. The latter has the merit of
assigning a specific name to a limited series of events and group
of facts, which can be distinguished for the purpose of analysis
from other events and facts with which they are intimately but
not indissolubly connected. In other words, the one definition
of Renaissance makes it denote the whole change which came
over Europe at the close of the middle ages. The other confines
it to what was known by our ancestors as the Revival of Learning.
Yet, when we concentrate attention on the recovery of antique
culture, we become aware that this was only one phenomenon
or symptom of a far wider and more comprehensive alteration
in the conditions of the European races. We find it needful to
retain both terms, Renaissance and Revival of Learning, and
1 For a somewhat different view of the parcelling out into such
periods, see the article MIDDLE AGES.
to show the relations between the series of events and facts which
they severally imply. .The Revival of Learning must be regarded
as a function of that vital energy, an organ of that mental
evolution, which brought into existence the modern world, with
its new conceptions of philosophy and religion, its reawakened
arts and sciences, its firmer grasp on the realities of human nature
and the world, its manifold inventions and discoveries, its altered
political systems, its expansive and progressive forces. Im-
portant as the Revival of Learning undoubtedly was, there are
essential factors in the complex called the Renaissance with
which it can but remotely be connected. When we analyse the
whole group of phenomena which have to be considered, we
perceive that some of the most essential have nothing or little
to do with the recovery of the classics. These are, briefly
speaking, the decay of those great fabrics, church and empire,
which ruled the middle ages both as ideas and as realities; the
development of nationalities and languages; the enfeeblement
of the feudal system throughout Europe; the invention and
application of paper, the mariner's compass, gunpowder, and
printing; the exploration of continents beyond the ocean; and
the substitution of the Copernican for the Ptolemaic system of
astronomy. Europe in fact had been prepared for a thorough-
going metamorphosis before that new ideal of human life and
culture which the Revival of Learning brought to light had
been made manifest. It had recovered from the confusion conse-
quent upon the dissolution of the ancient Roman empire. The
Teutonic tribes had been Christianized, civilized and assimilated
to the previously Latinized races over whom they exercised the
authority of conquerors. Comparative tranquillity and material
comfort had succeeded to discord and rough living. Modern
nationalities, defined as separate factors in a common system,
were ready to co-operate upon the basis of European federation.
The ideas of universal monarchy and of indivisible Christendom,
incorporated in the Holy Roman Empire and the Roman
Church, had so far lost their hold that scope was offered for the
introduction of new theories both of state and church which would
have seemed visionary or impious to the medieval mind. It is
therefore obvious that some term, wider than Revival of Learn-
ing, descriptive of the change which began to pass over Europe
in the I4th and isth centuries, has to be adopted. That of
Renaissance, Rinascimento, or Renascence is sufficient for the
purpose, though we have to guard against the tyranny of what is
after all a metaphor. We must not suffer it to lead us into rhetoric
about the deadness and the darkness of the middle ages, or hamper
our inquiry with preconceived assumptions that the re-birth in
question was in any true sense a return to the irrecoverable pagan
past. Nor must we imagine that there was any abrupt break
with the middle ages. On the contrary, the Renaissance was
rather the last stage of the middle ages, emerging from ecclesi-
astical and feudal despotism, developing what was original in
medieval ideas by the light of classic arts and letters, holding
in itself the promise of the modern world. It was therefore a
period and a process of transition, fusion, preparation, tentative
endeavour. And just at this point the real importance of the
Revival of Learning may be indicated. That rediscovery of the
classic past restored the confidence in their own faculties to men
striving after spiritual freedom; revealed the continuity of
history and the identity of human nature in spite of diverse
creeds and different customs; held up for emulation master-
works of literature, philosophy and art; provoked inquiry;
encouraged criticism; shattered the narrow mental barriers
imposed by medieval orthodoxy. Humanism, a word which
will often recur in the ensuing paragraphs, denotes a specific
bias which the forces liberated in the Renaissance took from
contact with the ancient world, the particular form assumed
by human self-esteem at that epoch, the ideal of life and
civilization evolved by the modern nations. It indicates the
endeavour of man to reconstitute himself as a free being, not as
the thrall of theological despotism, and the peculiar assistance
he derived in this effort from Greek and Roman literature, the
litterae humaniores, letters leaning rather to the side of man than
of divinity.
RENAISSANCE
In this article the Renaissance will be considered as implying
a comprehensive movement of the European intellect and will
Method toward self-emancipation, toward reassertion of the
of treat- natural rights of the reason and the senses, toward
ment - .the" conquest of this planet as a place of human occu-
pation, and toward the formation of regulative theories
both for states and individuals differing from those of medieval
times. The Revival of Learning will be treated as a decisive
factor in this process of evolution on a new plan. To exclude
the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation wholly from the
survey is impossible. These terms indicate moments in the
whole process of modern history which were opposed, each to
the other, and both to the Renaissance; and it is needful to
bear in mind that they have, scientifically speaking, a quite
separate existence. Yet if the history of Europe in the i6th
century of our era came to be written with the brevity with
which we write the history of Europe in the 6th century B.C.,
it would be difficult at the distance of time implied by that
supposition to distinguish the Italian movement of the
Renaissance in its origin from the German movement of the
Reformation. Both would be seen to have a common starting-
point in the reaction against long dominant ideas which were
becoming obsolete, and also in the excitation of faculties which
had during the same period been accumulating energy.
The Renaissance, if we try to regard it as a period, was essentially
the transition from one historical stage to another. It cannot
therefore be confined within strict chronological limits.
Chrono- Xhere is one date, however, which may be remembered
with advantage as the starting-point in time of the Re-
naissance, after the departure from the middle ages had
been definitely and consciously made by the Italians. This is the
year 1453, when Constantinople, chosen for his capital by the first
Christian emperor of Rome, fell into the hands of the Turk. One of
the survivals of the old world, the shadow of what had been the
Eastern Empire, now passed suddenly away. Almost at the same
date that visionary revival of the Western Empire, which had im-
posed for six centuries upon the imagination of medieval Europe,
hampering Italy and impeding the consolidation of Germany,
ceased to reckon among political actualities; while its more robust
rival, the Roman Church, seemed likely to sink into the rank of a
petty Italian principality. It was demonstrated by the destruction
of the Eastern and the dotage of the Western Empire, and by the
new papal policy which Nicholas V. inaugurated, that the old order
of society was about to be superseded. Nothing remained to check
those centrifugal forces in state and church which substituted
a confederation of rival European powers for the earlier ideal
of universal monarchy, and separate religious constitutions for
the previous Catholic unity. At the same time the new learning
introduced by the earlier humanists awakened free thought, encour-
aged curiosity, and prepared the best minds of Europe for specula-
tive audacities from which the schoolmen would have shrunk, and
which soon expressed themselves in acts of cosmopolitan importance.
If we look a little forward to the years 1492-1500, we obtain a
second date of great importance. In these years the expedition of
Charles VIII. to Naples opened Italy to French, Spanish and
German interference. The leading nations of Europe began to
compete for the prize of the peninsula, and learned meanwhile that
culture which the Italians had perfected. In these years the secular-
ization of the papacy was carried to its final point by Alexander VI.,
and the Reformation became inevitable. The same period was
marked by the discovery of America, the exploration of the Indian
seas, and the consolidation of the Spanish nationality. It also
witnessed the application of printing to the diffusion of knowledge.
Thus, speaking roughly, the half-century between 1450 and 1500
may be termed the culminating point of the Renaissance. The
transition from the medieval to the modern order was now secured
if not accomplished, and a Rubicon had been crossed from which no
retrogression to the past was possible. Looking yet a little farther,
to the years 1527 and 1530, a third decisive date is reached. In the
first of these years happened the sack of Rome, in the second the
pacification of Italy by Charles V. under a Spanish hegemony. The
age of the Renaissance was now closed for the land which gave it
birth. The Reformation had taken firm hold on northern Europe.
The Counter-Reformation was already imminent.
It must not be imagined that so great a change as that implied
by the Renaissance was accomplished without premonitory
Precur- symptoms and previous endeavours. In the main
son of we mean by it the recovery of freedom for the human
the Re- spirit after a long period of bondage to oppressive
aalssaace. , . ,. , , .... ,
ecclesiastical and political orthodoxy a return to
the liberal and practical conceptions of the world which
the nations of antiquity had enjoyed, but upon a new and
enlarged platform. This being so, it was inevitable that the
finally successful efforts after self-emancipation should have
been anticipated from time to time by strivings within the
ages that are known as dark and medieval. It is therefore
part of the present inquiry to pass in review some of the
claimants to be considered precursors of the Renaissance.
First of all must be named the Frank in whose lifetime the dual
conception of universal empire and universal church, divinely ap-
pointed, sacred and inviolable, began to control the order of Euro-
pean society. Charles the Great (Charlemagne) lent his forces to
the plan of resuscitating the Roman empire at a moment when his
own power made him the arbiter of western Europe, when the papacy
needed his alliance, and when the Eastern Empire had passed under
the usurped regency of a female. He modelled an empire, Roman
in name but essentially Teutonic, since it owed such substance as
its fabric possessed to Prankish armies and the sinews of the German
people. As a structure composed of diyerf ill-connected parts it
fell to pieces at its builder's death, leaving little but the incubus
of a memory, the fascination of a mighty name, to dominate the
mind of medieval Europe. As an idea, the empire grew in visionary
power, and remained one of the chief obstacles in the way of both
Italian and German national coherence. Real force was not in it,
but rather in that counterpart to its unlimited pretensions, the
church, which had evolved it from barbarian night, and which used
her own more vital energies for'undermining the rival of her creation.
Charles the Great, having proclaimed himself successor of the Caesars,
was obscurely ambitious of imitating the Augusti also in the sphere
of letters. He caused a scheme of humanistic education to be
formulated, and gave employment at his court to rhetoricians, of
whom Alcuin was the most considerable. But very little came of
the revival of learning which Charles is supposed to have encouraged ;
and the empire he restored was accepted by the medieval intellect
in a crudely theological and vaguely mystical spirit. We should,
however, here remember that the study of Roman law, which was
one important precursory symptom of the Renaissance, owed much
to medieval respect for the empire as a divine institution. This,
together with the municipal Italian intolerance of the Lombard and
Prankish codes, kept alive the practice and revived the science of
Latin jurisprudence at an early period.
Philosophy had attempted to free itself from the trammels of
theological orthodoxy in the hardy speculations of some schoolmen,
notably of Scotus Engena and Abelard. These innovators
found, however, small support, and were defeated by
opponents who used the same logical weapons with auth-
ority to back them. Nor were the rationalistic opinions
of the Averroists without their value, though the church
condemned these deviators from her discipline as heretics.
Such medieval materialists, moreover, had but feeble hold upon the
substance of real knowledge. Imperfect acquaintance with authors
whom they studied in Latin translations made by Jews from Arabic
commentaries on Greek texts, together with almost total ignorance
of natural laws, condemned them to sterility. Like the other
schiomachists of their epoch, they fought with phantoms in a
visionary realm. A similar judgment may be passed upon those
Paulician, Albigensian, Paterme and Epicurean dissenters from the
Catholic creed who opposed the phalanxes of orthodoxy with frail
imaginative weapons, and alarmed established orders in the state
by the audacity of their communistic opinions. Physical science
struggled into feeble life in the cells of Gerbert and Roger Bacon.
But these men were accounted magicians by the vulgar; and,
while the one eventually assumed the tiara, the other was incarcer-
ated in a dungeon. The schools meanwhile resounded still to the
interminable dispute upon abstractions. Are only universals real,
or has each name a corresponding entity? From the midst of the
Franciscans who had persecuted Roger Bacon because he presumed
to know more than was consistent with human humility arose John
of Parma, adopting and popularizing the mystic prophecy of
Joachim of Flora. The reign of the Father is past ; the reign of the
Son is passing; the reign of the Spirit is at hand. Such was the
formula of the Eternal Gospel, which, as an unconscious forecast of
the Renaissance, has attracted retrospective students by its felicity
of adaptation to their historical method. Yet we must remember
that this bold intuition of the abbot Joachim indicated a monastic
reaction against the tyrannies and corruptions of the church, rather
than a fertile philosophical conception. The Fraticelli spiritualists,
and similar sects who fed their imagination with his doctrine, ex-
pired in the flames to which Fra Dolcino Longino and Margharita
were consigned. To what extent the accusations of profligate
morals brought agaihst these reforming sectarians were justified
remains doubtful; and the same uncertainty rests upon the alleged
iniquities of the Templars. It is only certain that at this epoch the
fabric of Catholic faith was threatened with various forms of pro-
phetic and Oriental mysticism, symptomatic of a widespread desire
to grasp at something simpler, purer and less rigid than Latin
theology afforded. Devoid of criticism, devoid of sound learning,
devoid of a firm hold on the realities of life, these heresies passed
away without solid results and were forgotten.
P* 6
**
RENAISSANCE
We are too apt to take for granted that the men of the middle
ages were immersed in meditations on the other world, and that their
Natural- intellectual exercises were confined to abstractions of the
schools, hallucinations of the fancy, allegories, visions.
"" . This assumption applies indeed in a broad sense to that
mea evai pg,.;^ w hich was dominated by intolerant theology and
lit *t deprived of positive knowledge. Yet there are abundant
' signs that the native human instincts, the natural human
appetites, remained unaltered and alive beneath the crust of ortho-
doxy. In the person of a pope like Boniface VIII. those ineradicable
forces of the natural man assumed, if we may trust the depositions
of ecclesiastics well acquainted with his life, a form of brutal
atheistic cynicism. In the person of an emperor, Frederick II.,
they emerged under the more agreeable garb of liberal culture and
Epicurean scepticism. Frederick dreamed of remodelling society
upon a mundane type, which anticipated the large toleration and
cosmopolitan enlightenment of the actual Renaissance. But his
efforts were defeated by the unrelenting hostility of the church,
and by the incapacity of his contemporaries to understand his aims.
After being forced in his lifetime to submit to authority, he was
consigned by Dante to hell. Frederick's ideal of civilization was
derived in a large measure from Provence, where a beautiful culture
had prematurely bloomed, filling southern Europe with the perfume
of poetry and gentle living. Here, if anywhere, it seemed as though
the ecclesiastical and feudal fetters of the middle ages might be
broken, and humanity might enter on a new stage of joyous unim-
peded evolution. This was, however, not to be. The church
preached Simon de Mpntfort's crusade, and organized Dominic's
Inquisition; what Quinet calls the " Renaissance sociale par
1'Amour " was extirpated by sword, fire, famine and pestilence.
Meanwhile the Provencal poets had developed their modern language
with incomparable richness and dexterity, creating forms of verse
and modes of emotional expression which determined the latest
medieval phase of literature in Europe. The naturalism of which
we have been speaking found free utterance now in the fabliaux of
jongleurs, lyrics of minnesingers, tales of trouveres, romances of
Arthur and his knights compositions varied in type and tone, but
in all of which sincere passion and real enjoyment of life pierce
through the thin veil of chivalrous mysticism or of allegory with
which they were sometimes conventionally draped. The tales of
Lancelot and Tristram, the lives of the troubadours and the Wacht-
lieder of the minnesingers, sufficiently prove with what sensual
freedom a knight loved the lady whom custom and art made him
profess to worship as a saint. We do not need to be reminded that
Beatrice's adorer had a wife and children, or that Laura's poet
owned a son and daughter by a concubine, in order to perceive that
the mystic passion of chivalry was compatible in the middle ages
with commonplace matrimony or vulgar illegitimate connexions.
But perhaps the most convincing testimony to the presence of this
ineradicable naturalism is afforded by the Latin songs of wandering
students, known as Curmina Burana, written by the self-styled
Goliardi. In these compositions, remarkable for their
iacile handling of medieval Latin rhymes and rhythms,
the allegorizing mysticism which envelops chivalrous
poetry is discarded. Love is treated from a frankly carnal point of
view. Bacchus and Venus go hand in hand, as in the ancient ante-
Christian age. The open-air enjoyments of the wood, the field, the
dance upon the village green, are sung with juvenile lighthearted-
ness. No grave note, warning us that the pleasures of this earth
are fleeting, that the visible world is but a symbol of the invisible,
that human life is a probation for the life beyond, interrupts the
tinkling music as of castanets and tripping feet which gives a novel
charm to these unique relics of the 1 3th century. Goliardic poetry
is further curious as showing how the classics even at that early
period were a fountain-head of pagan inspiration. In the taverns
and low places of amusement haunted by those lettered songsters,
on the open road and in the forests trodden by their vagrant feet,
the deities of Greece and Rome were not in exile, but at home
within the hearts of living men. Thus, while Christendom was still
preoccupied with the Crusades, two main forces of the Renaissance,
naturalism and enthusiasm for antique modes of feeling, already
brought their latent potency to light, prematurely indeed and
precociously, yet with a promise that was destined to be kept.
When due regard is paid to these miscellaneous evidences of
intellectual and sensual freedom during the middle ages, it will be
. . seen that there were by no means lacking elements of
attitude nat ' ve vigour ready to burst forth. What was wanting
of m lad was not vi^'ity an d licence, not audacity of speculation,
not lawless instinct or rebellious impulse. It was rather
the right touch on life, the right feeling for human independence,
the right way of approaching the materials of philosophy, religion,
scholarship and literature, that failed. The courage that is born of
knowledge, the calm strength begotten by a positive attitude of mind,
face to face with the dominant over-shadowing Sphinx of theology,
were lacking. We may fairly say that natural and untaught people
had more of the just intuition that was needed than learned folk
trained in the schools. But these people were rendered licentious
in revolt or impotent for salutary action by ignorance, by terror,
by uneasy dread of the doom declared for heretics and rebels. The
aollardk
poetry.
massive vengeance of the church hung over them, like a heavy
sword suspended in the cloudy air. Superstition and stupidity
hedged them in on every side, so that sorcery and magic seemed the
only means of winning power over nature or insight into mysteries
surrounding human life. The path from darkness to light was lost;
thought was involved in allegory; the study of nature had been
perverted into an inept system of grotesque and pious parable-
mongering; the pursuit of truth had become a game of wordy
dialectics. The other world, with its imagined heaven and hell,
haunted the conscience like a nightmare. However sweet this
world seemed, however fair the flesh, both world and flesh were
theoretically given over to the devil. It was not worth while to
master and economize the resources of this earth, to utilize the good
and ameliorate the evils of this life, while every one agreed, in theory
at any rate, that the present was but a bad prelude to an infinitely
worse or infinitely better future. To escape from these preoccupa-
tions and prejudices except upon the path of conscious and deliber-
ate sin was impossible for all but minds of rarest quality and
courage; and these were too often reduced to the recantation of
their supposed errors no less by some secret clinging sense of guilt
than by the church's iron hand. Man and the actual universe kept
on reasserting their rights and claims, announcing their goodliness
and delightfulness, in one way or another; but they were always
being thrust back again into Cimmerian regions of abstractions,
fictions, visions, spectral hopes and fears, in the midst of which the
intellect somnambulistically moved upon an unknown way.
At this point the Revival of Learning intervened to determine
the course of the Renaissance. Medieval students possessed
a considerable portion of the Latin classics, though Italythe
Greek had become in the fullest sense of the phrase Revival of
a dead language. But what they retained of ancient l - e * rala x-
literature they could not comprehend in the right spirit.
Between them and the text of poet or historian hung a
veil of mysticism, a vapour of misapprehension. The odour
of unsanctity clung around those relics of the pagan past. Men
bred in the cloister and the lecture-room of the logicians, trained
in scholastic disputations, versed in allegorical interpretations
of the plainest words and most apparent facts, could not find
the key which might unlock those stores of wisdom and of
beauty. Petrarch first opened a new method in scholarship,
and revealed what we denote as humanism. In his teaching
lay the twofold discovery of man and of the world. For
humanism, which was the vital element in the Revival of
Learning, consists mainly of a just perception of the dignity of
man as a rational, volitional and sentient being, born upon
this earth with a right to use it and enjoy it. Humanism
implied the rejection of those visions of a future and imagined
state of souls as the only absolute reality, which had fascinated
the imagination of the middle ages. It involved a vivid
recognition of the goodliness of man and nature, displayed in
the great monuments of human power recovered from the past.
It stimulated the curiosity of latent sensibilities, provoked fresh
inquisition into the groundwork of existence, and strengthened
man's self-esteem by knowledge of what men had thought and
felt and done in ages when Christianity was not. It roused
a desire to reappropriate the whole abandoned provinces of
mundane energy, and a hope to emulate antiquity in works
of living loveliness and vigour. The Italians of the I4th century,
more precocious than the other European races, were ripe for
this emancipation of enslaved intelligence. In the classics
they found the food which was required to nourish the new spirit ;
and a variety of circumstances, among which must be reckoned
the pride of a nation boasting of its descent from the Populus
Romanus, rendered them apt to fling aside the obstacles that
had impeded the free action of the mind through many centuries.
Petrarch not only set his countrymen upon the right method
of studying the Latin classics, but he also divined the importance
of recovering a knowledge of Greek literature. To this task
Boccaccio addressed himself; and he was followed by numerous
Italian enthusiasts, who visited Byzantium before its fall as the
sacred city of a new revelation. The next step was to collect
MSS., to hunt out, copy and preserve the precious relics of the
past. In this work of accumulation Guarino and Filelfo,
Aurispa and Poggio, took the chief part, aided by the wealth
of Italian patricians, merchant-princes and despots, who were
inspired by the sacred thirst for learning. Learning was then
86
RENAISSANCE
no mere pursuit of a special and recluse class. It was fashionable
and it was passionate, pervading all society with the fervour of
romance. For a generation nursed in decadent scholasticism
and stereotyped theological formulae it was the fountain of
renascent youth, beauty and freedom, the shape in which the
Helen of art and poetry appeared to the ravished eyes of
medieval Faustus. It was the resurrection of the mightiest
spirits of the past. " I go," said Cyriac of Ancona, the inde-
fatigable though uncritical explorer of antiquities, " I go to
awake the dead ! " This was the enthusiasm, this the vitalizing
faith, which made the work of scholarship in the isth century
so highly strung and ardent. The men who followed it knew
that they were restoring humanity to its birthright after the
expatriation of ten centuries. They were instinctively aware
that the effort was for liberty of action, thought and conscience
in the future. This conviction made young men leave their
loves and pleasures, grave men quit their counting-houses,
churchmen desert their missals, to crowd the lecture-rooms of
philologers and rhetoricians. When Greek had been acquired,
MSS. accumulated, libraries and museums formed, came the age
of printers and expositors. Aldus Manutius in Italy, Froben in
Basel, the Etiennes in Paris, committed to the press what the
investigators had recovered. Nor were there wanting men who
dedicated their powers to Hebrew and Oriental erudition,
laying, together with the Grecians, a basis for those Biblical
studies which advanced the Reformation. Meanwhile the
languages of Greece and Rome had been so thoroughly appro-
priated that a final race of scholars, headed by Politian, Pontano,
Valla, handled once again in verse and prose both antique
dialects, and thrilled the ears of Europe with new-made pagan
melodies. The church itself at this epoch lent its influence to
the prevalent enthusiasm. Nicholas V. and Leo X., not to
mention intervening popes who showed themselves tolerant of
humanistic culture, were heroes of the classical revival. Scholar-
ship became the surest path of advancement to ecclesiastical
and political honours. Italy was one great school of the new
learning at the moment when the German, French and Spanish
nations were invited to her feast.
It will be well to describe briefly, but in detail, what this
meeting of the modern with the ancient mind effected over the
Nature of whole field of intellectual interests. In doing so, we
Italian must be careful to remember that the study of the
human- classics did but give a special impulse to pent-up
energies which were bound in one way or another to
assert their independence. Without the Revival of Learning
the direction of those forces would have been different; but
that novel intuition into the nature of the world and man which
constitutes what we describe as Renaissance must have emerged.
As the facts, however, stand before us, it is impossible to dis-
sociate the rejection of the other world as the sole reality, the
joyous acceptance of this world as a place to live and act in, the
conviction that " the proper study of mankind is man," from
humanism. Humanism, as it actually appeared in Italy, was
positive in its conception of the problems to be solved, pagan
in its contempt for medieval mysticism, invigorated for sensuous
enjoyment by contact with antiquity, yet holding in itself the
germ of new religious aspirations, profounder science and sterner
probings of the mysteries of life than had been attempted even
by the ancients. The operation of this humanistic spirit has
now to be traced.
It is obvious that Italian literature owed little at the outset to
the Revival of Learning. The Divine Comedy, the Canzoniere
and the Decameron were works of monumental art,
flit deriving neither form nor inspiration immediately from
p * f' the classics, but applying the originality of Italian genius
.' to matter drawn from previous medieval sources. Dante
and Villanl snowe d both in his epic poem and in his lyrics that he
to the had not abandoned the sphere of contemporary thought.
Revivalol Allegory and theology, the vision and the symbol, still
Learning, determine the form of masterpieces which for perfection
of workmanship and for emancipated force of intellect
rank among the highest products of the human mind. Yet they
are not medieval in the same sense as the song of Roland or the
Arthurian cycle. They proved that, though Italy came late into
the realm of literature, her action was destined to be decisive and
alterative by the introduction of a new spirit, a firmer and more
positive grasp on life and art. These qualities she owed to her
material prosperity, to her freedom from feudalism, to her secular-
ized church, her commercial nobility, her political independence in
a federation of small states. Petrarch and Boccaccio, though they
both held the medieval doctrine that literature should teach some
abstruse truth beneath a veil of fiction, differed from Dante in this
that their poetry and prose in the vernacular abandoned both
allegory and symbol. In their practice they ignored their theory.
Petrarch's lyrics continue the Provencal tradition as it had been
reformed in Tuscany, with a subtler and more modern analysis of
emotion, a purer and more chastened style, than his masters could
boast. Boccaccio's tales, in like manner, continue the tradition
of the fabliaux, raising that literary species to the rank of finished
art, enriching it with humour and strengthening its substance
by keen insight into all varieties of character. The Canzoniere
and the Decameron distinguish themselves from medieval literature,
not by any return to classical precedents, but by free self-conscious
handling of human nature. So much had to be premised in order
to make it clear in what relation humanism stood to the Renais-
sance, since the Italian work of Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio
is sufficient to indicate the re-birth of the spirit after ages of ap-
parent deadness. Had the Revival of Learning not intervened it is
probable that the vigorous efforts of these writers alone would have
inaugurated a new age of European culture. Yet, while noting
this reservation of judgment, it must also be remarked that all three
felt themselves under some peculiar obligation to the classics.
Dante, medieval as his temper seems to us, chose Virgil for his guide,
and ascribed his mastery of style to the study of Virgilian poetry.
Petrarch and Boccaccio were, as we have seen, the pioneers of the
new learning. They held their writings in the vernacular cheap,
and initiated that contempt for the mother tongue which was a
note of the earlier Renaissance. Giovanni Villani, the first chroni-
cler who used Italian for the compilation of a methodical history,
tells us how he was impelled to write by musing on the ruins of Rome
and thinking of the vanished greatness of the Latin race. We
have therefore to recognize that the four greatest writers of the I4th
century, while the Revival of Learning was yet in its cradle, each
after his own fashion acknowledged the vivifying touch upon their
spirit of the antique genius. They seem to have been conscious
that they could not give the desired impulse to modern literature
and art without contact with the classics; and, in spite of the
splendour of their achievements in Italian, they found no immediate
followers upon that path.
The fascination of pure study was so powerful, the Italians at
that epoch were so eager to recover the past, that during the I5th
century we have before our eyes the spectacle of this great Delation
nation deviating from the course of development begun
, r-* j r> L L r> Of human-
m poetry by Dante and retrarch, in prose by Boccaccio ^ sm t
and Villani, into the channels of scholarship and anti- gcag/gf.
quarian research. The language of the Canzoniere and /,/ aai j
Decameron was abandoned for revived Latin and dis- literature.
covered Greek. Acquisition supplanted invention;
imitation of classical authors suppressed originality of style.
The energies of the Italian people were devoted to transcrib-
ing codices, settling texts, translating Greek books into Latin,
compiling grammars, commentaries, encyclopaedias, dictionaries,
epitomes and ephemerides. During this century the best histories
Bruno's and Poggio's annals of Florence, for example were
composed in Latin after the manner of Livy. The best disserta-
tions, Landino's Camaldunenses, Valla's De Voluptate, were laboured
imitations of Cicero's Tusculans. The best verses, Pontano's
elegies, Politian's hexameters, were in like manner Latin; public
orations upon ceremonial occasions were delivered in the Latin
tongue; correspondence, official and familiar, was carried on in
the same language; even the fabliaux received, in Poggio's Facetiae.
a dress of elegant Latinity. The noticeable barrenness of Italian
literature at this period is referable to the fact that men of genius
and talent devoted themselves to erudition and struggled to express
their thoughts and feelings in a speech which was not natural.
Yet they were engaged in a work of incalculable importance. At
the close of the century the knowledge of Greece and Rome had been
reappropriated and placed beyond the possibility of destruction;
the chasm between the old and new world had been bridged ;
medieval modes of thinking and discussing had been superseded ;
the staple of education, the common culture which has brought all
Europe into intellectual agreement, was already in existence.
Humanism was now an actuality. Owing to the uncritical venera-
tion for antiquity which then prevailed, it had received a strong
tincture of pedantry. s Its professors, in their revolt against the
middle ages, made light of Christianity and paraded paganism.
What was even worse from an artistic point of view, they had con-
tracted puerilities of style, vanities of rhetoric, stupidities of weari-
some citation. Still, at the opening of the i6th century, it became
manifest what fruits of noble quality the Revival of Letters was
about to bring forth for modern literature. Two great scholars,
Lorenzo de' Medici and Politian, had already returned to the
RENAISSANCE
practice of Italian poetry. |Their work is the first absolutely
modern work, modern in the sense of having absorbed the stores
of classic learning and reproduced those treasures in forms of simple,
natural, native beauty. Boiardo occupies a similar position by
the fusion of classic mythology with chivalrous romance in his
Orlando Innamorato. But the victor's laurels were reserved for
Ariosto, whose Orlando Furioso is the purest and most perfect
extant example of Renaissance poetry. It was not merely in what
they had acquired and assimilated from the classics that these
poets showed the transformation effected in the field of literature
by humanism. The whole method and spirit of medieval art had
been abandoned. That of the Cinque Cento is positive, defined,
mundane. The deity, if deity there be, that rules in it, is beauty.
Interest is confined to the actions, passions, sufferings and joys
of human life, to its pathetic, tragic, humorous and sentimental
incidents. Of the state of souls beyond the grave we hear and
are supposed to care nothing. In the drama the pedantry of the
Revival, which had not injured romantic literature, made itself
perniciously felt. Rules were collected from Horace and Aristotle.
Seneca was chosen as the model of tragedy; Plautus and Terence
supplied the groundwork of comedy. Thus in the plays of Rucellai,
Trissino, Sperone and other tragic poets the nobler elements of
humanism, considered as a revelation of the world and man, ob-
tained no free development. Even the comedies of the best
authors are too observant of Latin precedents, although some
pieces of Machiavelli, Ariosto, Aretino, Cecchi and Gelli are admirable
for vivid delineation of contemporary manners.
The relation of the plastic arts to the revival of learning is similar
to that which has been sketched in the case of poetry. Cimabue
started with work which owed nothing directly to anti-
"*' quity. At about the same time Niccola Pisano (d. 1278)
studied the style of sculpture in fragments of Graecp-Roman
marbles. His manner influenced Giotto, who set painting on a
forward path. Fortunately for the unimpeded expansion of Italian
art, little was brought to light of antique workmanship during the
I4th and I5th centuries. The classical stimulus came to painters,
sculptors and architects chiefly through literature. Therefore
there was narrow scope for imitation, and the right spirit of humanism
displayed itself in a passionate study of perspective, nature and
the nude. Yet we find in the writings of Gniberti and Alberti,
we notice in the masterpieces of these men and their compeers
Brunelleschi and Donatello, how even in the I5th century the minds
of artists were fascinated by what survived of classic grace and
science. Gradually, as the race became penetrated with antique
thought, the earlier Christian motives of the arts yielded to pagan
subjects. Gothic architecture, which had always flourished feebly
on Italian soil, was supplanted by a hybrid Roman style. The
study of Vitruvius gave strong support to that pseudo-classic
manner which, when it had reached its final point in Palladio's
work, overspread the whole of Europe and dominated taste during
two centuries. But the perfect plastic art of Italy, the pure art
of the Cinque Cento, the painting of Raphael, Da Vinci, Titian
and Cprreggio, the sculpture of Donatello, Michelangelo and
Sansovinp, the architecture of Bramante, Omodeo and the Venetian
Lombard!, however much imbued with the spirit of the classical
revival, takes rank beside the poetry of Ariosto as a free intelligent
product of the Renaissance. That is to say, it is not so much an
outcome of studies in antiquity as an exhibition of emancipated
modern genius fired and illuminated by the masterpieces of the
past. It indicates a separation from the middle ages, inasmuch as
it is permanently natural. Its religion is joyous, sensuous, dramatic,
terrible, but in each and all of its many-sided manifestations
strictly human. Its touch on classical mythology is original,
rarely imitative or pedantic. The art of the Renaissance was an
apocalypse of the beauty of the world and man in unaffected
spontaneity, without side thoughts for piety or erudition, inspired
by pure delight in loveliness ana harmony for their own sakes.
In the fields of science and philosophy humanism wrought similar
important changes. Petrarch began by waging relentless war
against the logicians and materialists of his own day.
<c '* n "' With the advance made in Greek studies scholastic methods
'" P ~ of thinking fell into contemptuous oblivion. The newly
aroused curiosity for nature encouraged men like Alberti,
Da Vinci, Toscanelli and Da Porta to make practical experiments,
penetrate the working of physical forces, and invent scientific
instruments. Anatomy began to be studied, and the time was not
far distant when Titian should lend his pencil to the epoch-making
treatise of Vesalius. The middle ages had been satisfied with
absurd and visionary notions about the world around them, while
the body of man was regarded with too much suspicion to be
studied. Now the right method of interrogating nature with
patience and loving admiration was instituted. At the same time
the texts of ancient authors supplied hints which led to discoveries
so far-reaching in their results as those of Copernicus, Columbus
and Galileo. In philosophy, properly so called, the humanistic
scorn for medieval dullness and obscurity swept away theological
metaphysics as valueless. But at first little beyond empty rhetoric
and clumsy compilation was substituted. The ethical treatises
of the scholars are deficient in substance, while Ficino's attempt
to revive Platonism betrays an uncritical conception of his master's
drift. It was something, however, to have shaken off the shackles
of ecclesiastical authority; and, even if a new authority, that of
the ancients, was accepted in its stead, still progress was being
made toward sounder methods of analysis. This is noticeable
in Pomponazzo's system of materialism, based on the interpreta-
tion of Aristotle, but revealing a virile spirit of disinterested and
unprejudiced research. The thinkers of southern Italy, Telesio,
Bruno and Campanella, at last opened the two chief lines on which
modern speculation has since moved. Telesio and Campanella
may be termed the predecessors of Bacon. Bruno was the pre-
cursor of the idealistic schools. All three alike strove to disengage
their minds from classical as well as ecclesiastical authority, proving
that the emancipation of the will had been accomplished. It must
be added that their writings, like every other product of the Re-
naissance, except its purest poetry and art, exhibit a hybrid between
medieval and modern tendencies. Childish ineptitudes are mingled
with intuitions of maturest wisdom, and seeds of future thought
germinate in the decaying refuse of.past systems.
Humanism in its earliest stages was uncritical. It absorbed the
relics of antiquity with omnivorous appetite, and with very im-
perfect sense of the distinction between worse and better
work. Yet it led in process of time to criticism. The Clit '
critique of literature began in the lecture-room of Politian, in the
printing-house of Aldus, and in the school of Vittprino. The critique
of Roman law started, under Politian's auspices, upon a more
liberal course than that which had been followed by the powerful
but narrow-sighted glossators of Bologna. Finally, in the court of
Naples arose that most formidable of all critical engines, the critique
of established ecclesiastical traditions and spurious historical docu-
ments. Valla by one vigorous effort destroyed the False Decretals
and exposed the Donation of Constantine to ridicule, paving the
way for the polemic carried on against the dubious pretensions of
the papal throne by scholars of the Reformation. A similar
criticism, conducted less on lines of erudition than of persiflage
and irony, ransacked the moral abuses of the church and played
around the very foundations of Christianity. This was tolerated
with approval by men who repeated Leo X.'s witty epigram:
" What profit has not that fable of Christ brought us ! " The same
critical and philosophic spirit working on the materials of history
produced a new science, the honours of which belong to Machia-
velli. He showed, on the one side, how the history of a people
can be written with a recognition of fixed principles, and at the same
time with an artistic feeling for personal and dramatic episodes.
On the other side, he addressed himself to the analysis of man
considered as a political being, to the anatomy of constitutions
and the classification of governments, to the study of motives
underlying public action, the secrets of success and the causes of
failure in the conduct of affairs. The unscrupulous rigour with
which he applied his scientific method, and the sinister deductions
he thought himself justified in drawing from the results it yielded,
excited terror and repulsion. Nevertheless, a department had
been added to the intellectual empire of mankind, in which fel-
low-workers, like Guicciardini at Florence, and subsequently
Sarpi at Venice, were not slow to follow the path traced by
Machiavelli.
The object of the foregoing paragraphs has been to show in what
way the positive, inquisitive, secular, exploratory spirit of the Renais-
sance, when toned and controlled by humanism, penetrated
the regions of literature, art, philosophy and science. It
becomes at this point of much moment to consider how
social manners in Italy were modified by the same causes, since the
type developed there was in large measure communicated together
with the new culture to the rest of Europe. The first subject to
be noticed under this heading is education. What has come to be
called a classical education was the immediate product of the Italian
Renaissance. The universities of Bologna, Padua and Salerno had
been famous through the middle ages for the study of law, physics
and medicine; and during the I5th and l6th centuries the first
two still enjoyed celebrity in these faculties. But at this period
no lecture-rooms were so crowded as those in which professors of
antique literature and language read passages from the poets and
orators, taught Greek, and commented upon the systems of philo-
sophers. The medieval curriculum offered no defined place for
the new learning of the Revival, which had indeed no recognized
name. Chairs had therefore to be founded under the title of rhe-
toric, from which men like Chrysoloras and Guarino, Filelfo and Poli-
tian expounded orally to hundreds of eager students from every
town of Italy and every nation in Europe their accumulated know-
ledge of antiquity. One mass of Greek and Roman erudition,
including history and metaphysics, law and science, civic institu-
tions and the art of war, mythology and magistracies, metrical
systems and oratory, agriculture and astronomy, domestic manners
and religious rites, grammar and philology, biography and numis-
matics, formed the miscellaneous subject-matter of this so-styled
rhetoric. Notes taken at these lectures supplied young scholars
with hints for further exploration ; and a certain tradition of treat-
ing antique authors for the display of general learning, as well as'
for the elucidation of their texts, came into vogue, which has
RENAISSANCE
determined the method of scholarship for the last three centuries in
Europe. The lack of printed books in the first period of the Revival,
and the comparative rarity of Greek erudition among students,
combined with the intense enthusiasm aroused for the new gospel
of the classics, gave special value to the personal teaching of these
professors. They journeyed from city to city, attracted by promises
of higher pay, and allured by ever-growing laurels of popular fame.
Each large town established its public study, academy or uni-
versity, similar institutions under varying designations, for the
exposition of the literae humaniores. The humanists, or professors
of that branch of knowledge, became a class of the highest dignity.
They were found in the chanceries of the republics, in the papal
curia, in the council chambers of princes, at the headquarters of
condottieri, wherever business had to be transacted, speeches to
be made and the work of secretaries to be performed. Further-
more, they undertook the charge of private education, opening
schools which displaced the medieval system of instruction, and
taking engagements as tutors in the families of despots, noblemen
and wealthy merchants. The academy established by Vittonno
da Feltre at Mantua under the protection of Gian Francesco Gonzaga
for the training of pupils of both sexes, might be chosen as the type
of this Italian method. His scholars, who were lodged in appro-
priate buildings, met daily to hear the master read and comment
on the classics. They learned portions of the best authors by heart,
exercised themselves in translation from one language to another,
and practised composition in prose and verse. It was Vittorino's
care to see that, while their memories were duly stored with words
and facts, their judgment should be formed by critical analysis,
attention to style, and comparison of the authors of a decadent age
with those who were acknowledged classics. _ During the hours
of recreation suitable physical exercises, as fencing, riding and gym-
nastics, were conducted under qualified trainers. From this sketch
it will be seen how closely the educational system which came into
England during the reigns of the Tudors, and which has prevailed
until the present time, was modelled upon the Italian type. English
youths who spend their time at Eton between athletic sports
and Latin verses, and who take an Ireland with a first class in
" Greats " at Oxford, are pursuing the same course of physical
and mental discipline as the princes of Gonzaga or Montefeltro
in the 15th century.
The humanists effected a deeply penetrating change in social
manners. Through their influence as tutors, professors, orators
_^. . and courtiers, society was permeated by a fresh ideal of
culture. To be a gentleman in Italy meant at this epoch
manners. to ^ a man ac q uam t e d with the rudiments at least of
scholarship, refined in diction, capable of corresponding or of speak-
ing in choice phrases, open to the beauty of the arts, intelligently
interested in archaeology, taking for his models of conduct the great
men of antiquity rather than the saints of the church. He was also
expected to prove himself an adept in physical exercises and in the
courteous observances which survived from chivalry. The type
is set before us by Castiglione in that book upon the courtier which
went the round of Europe in the i6th century. It is further em-
phasized in a famous passage of the Orlando Innamorato where
Boiardo compares the Italian ideal of an accomplished gentleman
with the coarser type admired by nations of the north. To this
point the awakened intelligence of the Renaissance, instructed by
humanism, polished by the fine arts, expanding in genial conditions
of diffused wealth, had brought the Italians at a period when the
rest of Europe was comparatively barbarous.
This picture has undoubtedly a darker side. Humanism, in its
revolt against the middle ages, was, as we have seen already,
The moral mun dane, pagan, irreligious, positive. The Renaissance
defects of 9 an ' ^ ter a "> be regarded only as a period of transition
the Italian * n wn ' cn much of the good of the past was sacrificed while
K oals- some f the evil was retained, and neither the bad nor the
good of the future was brought clearly into fact. Beneath
the surface of brilliant socialculture lurked gross appetites
and savage passions, unrestrained by medieval piety, untutored
by modern experience. Italian society exhibited an almost un-
exampled spectacle of literary, artistic and courtly refinement
crossed by brutalities of lust, treasons, poisonings, assassinations,
violence. A succession of worldly pontiffs brought the church into
flagrant discord with the principles of Christianity. Steeped in
pagan learning, emulous of imitating the manners of the ancients,
used to think and feel in harmony with Ovid and Theocritus, and
at the same time rendered cynical by the corruption of papal Rome,
the educated classes lost their grasp upon morality. Political
honesty ceased almost to have a name in Italy. The Christian
virtues were scorned by the foremost actors and the ablest thinkers
of the time, while the antique virtues were themes for rhetoric
rather than moving-springs of conduct. This is apparent to all
students of Machiavelli and Guicciardini, the profoundest analysts
of their age, the bitterest satirists of its vices, but themselves in-
fected with its incapacity for moral goodness. Not only were the
Italians vitiated; but they had also become impotent for action
and resistance. At the height of the Renaissance the five great
powers in the peninsula formed a confederation of independent
but mutually attractive and repellent states. Equilibrium was
maintained by diplomacy, in which the humanists played a fore-
most part, casting a network of intrigue over the nation which
helped in no small measure to stimulate intelligence and create a
common medium of culture, but which accustomed statesmen to
believe that everything could be achieved by wire-pulling. Wars
were conducted on a showy system by means of mercenaries, who
played a safe game in the field and developed a system of blood-
less campaigns. Meanwhile the people grew up unused to arms.
When Italy between the years 1494 and 1530 became the battle-
field of French, German and Spanish forces, it was seen to what a
point of helplessness the political, moral and social conditions of
the Renaissance had brought the nation.
It was needful to study at some length the main phenomena
of the Renaissance in Italy, because the history of that phase
of evolution in the other Western races turns almost Diffusion
entirely upon points in which they either adhered of the
to or diverged from the type established there. Speak- ^ w
ing broadly, what France, Germany, Spain and j"^,
England assimilated from Italy at this epoch was in the through-
first place the new learning, as it was then called, out
This implied the new conception of human life, Europe.
the new interest in the material universe, the new
method of education, and the new manners, which we have
seen to be inseparable from Italian humanism. Under these
forms of intellectual enlightenment and polite culture the
renascence of the human spirit had appeared in Italy, where it
was more than elsewhere connected with the study of classical
antiquity. But that audacious exploratory energy which
formed the motive force of the Renaissance as distinguished
from the Revival of Learning took, as we shall see, very different
directions in the several nations who now were sending the
flower of their youth to study at the feet of Italian rhetoricians.
The Renaissance ran its course in Italy with strange indiffer-
ence to consequences. The five great powers, held in equilibrium
by Lorenzo de' Medici, dreamed that the peninsula could be
maintained in statu quo by diplomacy. The church saw no
danger in encouraging a pseudo-pagan ideal of life, violating
its own principle of existence by assuming the policy of an
aggrandizing secular state, and outraging Christendom openly
by its acts and utterances. Society at large was hardly aware
that an intellectual force of stupendous magnitude and in-
calculable explosive power had been created by the new learning.
Why should not established institutions proceed upon the
customary and convenient methods of routine, while the delights
of existence were augmented, manners polished, arts developed,
and a golden age of epicurean ease made decent by a state religion
which no one cared to break with because no one was left to
regard it seriously? This was the attitude of the Italians when
the Renaissance, which they had initiated as a thing of beauty,
began to operate as a thing of power beyond the Alps.
Germany was already provided with universities, seven of which
had been founded between 1348 and 1409. In these haunts of
learning the new studies took root after the year 1440, D.I*
chiefly through the influence of travelling professors, Peter *"**" v .
Luder and Samuel Karoch. German scholars made their
way to Lombard and Tuscan lecture-rooms, bringing back
the methods of the humanists. Greek, Latin and Hebrew "
erudition soon found itself at home on Teutonic soil. Like Italian
men of letters, these pioneers of humanism gave a classic turn to
their patronymics; unfamiliar names, Crotus Rubeanusand Pierius
Graecus, Capnion and Lupambulus Ganymedes, Oecolampadius and
Melanchthon, resounded on the Rhine. A few of the German
princes, among whom Maximilian, the prince cardinal Albert of
Mainz, Frederick the Wise of Saxony, and Eberhard of Wurttem-
berg deserve mention, exercised a not insignificant influence on
letters by the foundation of new universities and the patronage of
learned men. The cities of Strassburg, Nuremberg, Augsburg, Basel,
became centres of learned coteries, which gathered round scholars
like Wimpheling, Brant, Peutinger, Schedel, and Pirckheimer,
artists like purer and Holbein, printers of the eminence of Froben.
Academies in imitation of- Italian institutions came into existence,
the two most conspicuous, named after the Rhine and the Danube,
holding their headquarters respectively at Heidelberg and Vienna.
Crowned poets, of whom the most eminent was Conrad Celtes Pro-
tucius (Picket!), emulated the fame of Politian and Pontano. Yet,
though the Renaissance was thus widely communicated to the
centres of German intelligence, it displayed a different character
from that which it assumed in Italy. Gothic art,_ which was indi-
genous in Germany, yielded but little to southern influences. Such
RENAISSANCE
89
work as that of Dttrer, Vischer, Cranach, Schongauer, Holbein, con-
summate as it was in technical excellence, did not assume Italian
forms of loveliness, did not display the paganism of the Latin races.
The modification of Gothic architecture by pseudo-Roman elements
of style was incomplete. What Germany afterwards took of the
Palladian manner was destined to reach it on a circuitous route from
France. In like manner the new learning failed to penetrate all
classes of society with the rapidity of its expansion in Italy, nor was
the new ideal of life and customs so easily substituted for the
medieval. The German aristocracy, as Aeneas Sylvius had noticed,
remained for the most part barbarous, addicted to gross pleasures,
contemptuous of culture. The German dialects were too rough to
receive that artistic elaboration under antique influences which had
been so facile in Tuscany. The doctors of the universities were too
wedded to their antiquated manuals and methods, too satisfied with
dullness, too proud of titles and diplomas, too anxious to preserve
ecclesiastical discipline and to repress mental activity, for a genial
spirit of humanism to spread freely. Not in Cologne or Tubingen
but in Padua and Florence did the German pioneers of the Renais-
sance acquire their sense of liberal studies. And when they returned
home they found themselves encumbered with stupidities, jealousies
and rancours. Moreover, the temper of these more enlightened
men was itself opposed to Italian indifference and immorality; it
was pugnacious and polemical, eager to beat down the arrogance of
monks and theologians rather than to pursue an ideal of aesthetical
self-culture. To a student of the origins of German humanism it is
clear that something very different from the Renaissance of Lorenzo
ie' Medici and Leo X. was in preparation from the first upon
Teutonic soil. Far less plastic and form-loving than the Italian,
the German intelligence was more penetrative, earnest, disputative,
occupied with substantial problems. Starting with theological
criticism, proceeding to the stage of solid studies in the three
learned languages, German humanism occupied the attention of a
widely scattered sect of erudite scholars; but it did not arouse the
interest of the whole nation until it was forced into a violently
militant attitude by Pfefferkorn's attack on Reuchlin. That
attempt to extinguish honest thought prepared the Reformation;
and humanism after 1518 was absorbed in politico-religious warfare.
The point of contact between humanism and the Reformation in
Germany has to be insisted on; for it is just here that the relation
of the Reformation to the Renaissance in general makes
Relai itself apparent. As the Renaissance had its precur-
of human- sorv movements in the medieval period, so the German
Reformation was preceded by Wickliffe and Huss, by the
uerman discontents of the Great Schism and by the councils of Con-
stance and Basel. These two main streams of modern
progress had been proceeding upon different tracks to
diverse issues, but they touched in the studies stimulated by
the Revival, and they had a common origin in the struggle of the
spirit after self-emancipation. Johann Reuchlin, who entered the
lecture-room of Argyropoulos at Rome in 1482, Erasmus of Rotter-
dam, who once dwelt at Venice as the house guest of the Aldi, applied
their critical knowledge of Hebrew and of Greek to the elucidation
and diffusion of the Bible. To the Germans, as to all nations of
that epoch, the Bible came as a new book, because they now read it
for the first time with eyes opened by humanism. The touch of the
new spirit which had evolved literature, art and culture in Italy
sufficed in Germany to recreate Christianity. This new spirit in
Italy emancipated human intelligence by the classics; in Germany
it emancipated the human conscience by the Bible. The indigna-
tion excited by Leo X.'s sale of indulgences, the moral rage stirred
in Northern hearts by papal abominations in Rome, were external
causes which precipitated the schism between Teutonic and Latin
Christianity. The Reformation, inspired by the same energy of
resuscitated life as the Renaissance, assisted by the same engines of
the printing-press and paper, using the same apparatus of scholar-
ship, criticism, literary skill, being in truth another manifestation
of the same world-movement under a diverse form, now posed
itself as an irreconcilable antagonist to Renaissance Italy. It would
be difficult to draw any comparison between German and Italian
humanists to the disparagement of the former. Reuchlin was no less
learned than Pico; Melanchthon no less humane than Ficino;
Erasmus no less witty, and far more trenchant, than Petrarch;
Ulrich von Hutten no less humorous than Folengo; Paracelsus
no less fantastically learned than Cardano. But the cause in which
Cerman intellect and will were enlisted was so different that it is
difficult not to make a formal separation between that movement
which evolved culture in Italy and that which restored religion in
Germany, establishing the freedom of intelligence in the one sphere
and the freedom of the conscience in the other. The truth is that
the Reformation was the Teutonic Renaissance. It was the emanci-
pation of the reason on a line neglected by the Italians, more impor-
tant indeed in its political consequences, more weighty in its bearing
on rationalistic developments than the Italian Renaissance, but
none the less an outcome of the same ground-influences. We have
already in this century reached a point at which, in spite of
stubborn Protestant dogmatism and bitter Catholic reaction, we
can perceive how the ultimate affranchisement of man will be
the work of both.
The German Reformation was incapable of propagating itself in
Italy, chiefly for the reason that the intellectual forces which it
represented and employed had already found specific _.
outlet in that country. It was not in the nature of the catholk
Italians, sceptical and paganized by the Revival, to be .
keenly interested about questions which seemed to revive la ^.
the scholastic disputes of the middle ages. It was not in
their external conditions, suffering as they were from invasions,
enthralled by despots, to use the Reformation as a lever for political
revolution. Yet when a tumultuary army of so-called Lutherans
sacked Rome in 1527 no sober thinker doubted that a new agent had
appeared in Europe which would alter the destinies of the peninsula.
The Renaissance was virtually closed, so far as it concerned Italy,
when Clement VII. and Charles V. struck their compact at Bologna
in 1530. This compact proclaimed the principle of monarchical
absolutism, supported by papal authority, itself monarchically
absolute, which influenced Europe until the outbreak of the Revolu-
tion. A reaction immediately set in both against the Renaissance
and the Reformation. The council of Trent, opened in 1545 and
closed in 1563, decreed a formal purgation of the church, affirmed
the fundamental doctrines of Catholicism, strengthened the papal
supremacy, and inaugurated that movement of resistance which is
known as the Counter-Reformation. The complex onward effort
of the modern nations, expressing itself in Italy as Renaissance, in
Germany as Reformation, had aroused the forces of conservatism.
The four main instruments of the reaction were the papacy, which
had done so much by its sympathy with the revival to promote the
humanistic spirit it now dreaded, the strength of Spain, and two
Spanish institutions planted on Roman soil the Inquisition and the
Order of Jesus. The principle contended for and established by
this reaction was absolutism as opposed to freedom monarchical
absolutism, papal absolutism, the suppression of energies liberated
by the Renaissance and the Reformation. The partial triumph of this
principle was secure, inasmuch as the majority of established powers
in church and state felt threatened by the' revolutionary opinions
afloat in Europe. Renaissance and Reformation were, moreover,
already at strife. Both, too, were spiritual and elastic tendencies
toward progress, ideals rather than solid organisms.
The part played by Spain in this period of history was deter-
mined in large measure by external circumstance. The Spaniards
became one nation by the conquest of Granada and the
union of the crowns of Castile and Aragon. The war of fP" 1 ^ la
national aggrandizement, being in its nature a crusade, "
inflamed the religious enthusiasm of the people. It *
was followed by the expulsion of Jews and Moors, and by gfts aga
the establishment of the Inquisition on a solid basis, with i etters
powers formidable to the freedom of all Spaniards from the
peasant to the throne. These facts explain the decisive action of
the Spanish nation on the side of Catholic conservatism, and help
us to understand why their brilliant achievements in the field of
culture during the l6th century were speedily followed by stag-
nation. It will be well, in dealing with the Renaissance in Spain, to
touch first upon the arts and literature, and then to consider those
qualities of character in action whereby the nation most distinguished
itself from the rest of Europe. Architecture in Spain, emerging
from the Gothic stage, developed an Early Renaissance style of
bewildering richness by adopting elements of Arabic and Moorish
decoration. Sculpture exhibited realistic vigour of indubitably
native stamp; and the minor plastic crafts were cultivated with
success on lines of striking originality. Painting grew from a
homely stock, until the work of Velazquez showed that Spanish
masters in this branch were fully abreast of their Italian compeers
and contemporaries. To dwell here upon the Italianizing versifiers,
moralists and pastoral romancers who attempted to refine the
vernacular of the Romancero would be superfluous. They are
mainly noticeable as proving that certain coteries in Spain were
willing to accept the Italian Renaissance. But the real force of
the people was not in this courtly literary style. It expressed
itself at last in the monumental work of Don Quixote, which places
Cervantes beside Rabelais, Ariosto and Shakespeare as one of the
four supreme exponents of the Renaissance. The affectations of
decadent chivalry disappeared before its humour; the lineaments
of a noble nation, animated by the youth of modern Europe emerging
from the middle ages, were portrayed in its enduring pictures
of human experience. The Spanish drama, meanwhile, untram-
melled by those false canons of pseudo-classic taste which fettered
the theatre in Italy and afterwards in France, rose to an eminence in
the hands of Lope de Vega and Calderon which only the English, and
the English only in the masterpieces of three or four playwrights,
can rival. Camoens, in the Lusiad, if we may here group Portugal
with Spain, was the first modern poet to compose an epic on a purely
modern theme, vying with Virgil, but not bending to pedantic
rules, and breathing the spirit of the age of heroic adventures
and almost fabulous discoveries into his melodious numbers. What
has chiefly to be noted regarding the achievements of the Spanish
race in arts and letters at this epoch is their potent national origin-
ality. The revival of learning produced in Spain no slavish imitation
as it did in Italy, no formal humanism, and, it may be added, very
little of fruitful scholarship. The Renaissance here, as in England,
9 o
RENAISSANCE
displayed essential qualities of intellectual freedom, delight in life,
exultation over rediscovered earth and man. The note of Renais-
sance work in Germany was still Gothic. This we feel in the
penetrative earnestness of Durer, in the homeliness of Hans Sachs,
in the grotesque humour of Eulenspiegel and the Narrenschiff,
the sombre pregnancy of the Faust legend, the almost stolid mastery
of Holbein. It lay not in the German genius to escape from the
preoccupations and the limitations of the middle ages, for this
reason mainly that what we call medieval was to a very large
extent Teutonic. But on the Spanish peninsula, in the master-
pieces of Velazquez, Cervantes, Camoens, Calderon, we emerge
into an atmosphere of art, definitely national, distinctly modern,
where solid natural forms stand before us realistically modelled,
with light and shadow on their rounded outlines, and where the
airiest creatures of the fancy take shape and weave a dance of
rhythmic, light, incomparable intricacy. The Spanish Renaissance
would in itself suffice, if other witnesses were wanting, to prove
how inaccurate is the theory that limits this movement to the
revival of learning. Touched by Italian influences, enriched and
fortified by the new learning, Spanish genius walked firmly forward on
its own path. It was only crushed by forces generated in the nation
that produced it, by the Inquisition and by despotic Catholic
absolutism.
In the history of the Renaissance, Spain and Portugal represent
the exploration of the ocean and the colonization of the other
B 1 ra- hemisphere. The voyages of Columbus and Vespucci
tioa of ' *? America, the rounding of the Cape by Diaz and the
the ocean, discovery of the sea road to India by Vasco da Gama,
Cortes's conquest of Mexico and Pizarro's conquest of
Peru, marked a new era for the human race and inaugurated
the modern age more decisively than any other series of events
has done. It has recently been maintained that modern European
history is chiefly an affair of competition" between confederated
states for the possession of lands revealed by Columbus and Da
Gama. Without challenging or adopting this speculation, it may
be safely affirmed that nothing so pregnant of results has happened
as this exploration of the globe. To say that it displaced the centre
of gravity in politics and commerce, substituting the ocean for the
Mediterranean, dethroning Italy from her seat of central importance
in traffic, depressing the eastern and elevating the western powers
of Europe, opening a path for Anglo-Saxon expansiveness, forcing
philosophers and statesmen to regard the Occidental nations as a
single group in counterpoise to other groups of nations, the European
community as one unit correlated to other units of humanity upon
this planet, is truth enough to vindicate the vast significance of
these discoveries. The Renaissance, far from being the re-birth
of antiquity with its civilization confined to the Mediterranean,
with its Hercules' Pillars beyond which lay Cimmerian darkness,
was thus effectively the entrance upon a quite incalculably wider
stage of life, on which mankind at large has since enacted one great
drama.
While Spanish navies were exploring the ocean, and Spanish
paladins were overturning empires, Charles V. headed the reaction
Dogmatic ^ Catholicism against reform. Stronger as king of Spain
Catholl- than as emperor, for the Empire was little but a name,
cism. ne l en t the weight of his authority to that system of
coercion and repression which enslaved Italy, desolated
Germany with war, and drowned the Low Countries in blood.
Philip II., with full approval of the Spanish nation, pursued the same
policy in an even stricter spirit. He was powerfully assisted by
two institutions, in which the national character of Spain expressed
itself, the Inquisition and the Society of Jesus. Of the former
it is not needful to speak here. But we have to observe that the
last great phenomenon of the Spanish Renaissance was Ignatius
Loyola, who organized the militia by means of which the church
worked her Counter-Reformation. His motto, Perinde ac cadaver,
expressed that recognition of absolutism which papacy and
monarchy demanded for their consolidation (see JESUITS and
LOYOLA).
The logical order of an essay which attempts to show how
Renaissance was correlated to Reformation and Counter-
France la Reformation has necessitated the treatment of Italy,
the Re- Germany and Spain in succession; for these three
naissaoce na tj ons were t ne three main agents in the triple
period. . _
process to be analysed. It was due to their specific
qualities, and to the diverse circumstances of their external
development, that the re-birth of Europe took this form of
duplex action on the lines of intellectual and moral progress,
followed by reaction against mental freedom. We have now to
speak of France, which earliest absorbed the influence of the
Italian revival, and of England, which received it latest. The
Renaissance may be said to have begun in France with Charles
VIII. 's expedition to Naples, and to have continued until the
extinction of the house of Valois. Louis XII. and Francis I.
spent a considerable portion of their reigns in the attempt to
secure possession of the Italian provinces they claimed. Henry
II. 's queen was Catherine of the Medicean family; and her
children, Charles IX. and Henry III., were Italianated French-
men. Thus the connexion between France and Italy during
the period 1494-1589 was continuous. The French passed to
and fro across the Alps on military and peaceful expeditions.
Italians came to France as courtiers, ambassadors, men of
business, captains and artists. French society assumed a
strong Italian colouring, nor were the manners of the court very
different from those of an Italian city, except that externally
they remained ruder and less polished. The relation between
the crown and its great feudatories, the military bias of the
aristocracy, and the marked distinction between classes
which survived from the middle ages, rendered France
in many vital points unlike Italy. Yet the annals of
that age, and the anecdotes retailed by Brant6me, prove
that the royalty and nobility of France had been largely
Italianized.
It is said that Louis XII. brought Fra Giocondo of Verona back
with him to France, and founded a school of architects. But we
need not have recourse to this legend for the explanation preach
of such Italian influences as were already noticeable architec-
in the Renaissance buildings on the Loire. Without ture.
determining the French style, Italian intercourse helped
to stimulate its formation and development. There are students
of the I5th century in France who resent this intrusion of the
Italian Renaissance. But they forget that France was bound by
inexorable laws of human evolution to obey the impulse which
communicated itself to every form of art in Europe. In the school
of Fontainebleau, under the patronage of Francis I., that Italian
influence made itself distinctly felt; yet a true French manner
had been already formed, which, when it was subsequently applied
at Paris, preserved a marked national quality. The characteristic
of the style developed by Bullant, De I'Orme and Lescot, in the
royal or princely palaces of Chenonceaux, Chambord, Anet, Ecouen,
Fontainebleau, the Louvre and elsewhere, is a blending of capricious
fancy and inventive richness of decoration with purity of outline
and a large sense of the beauty of extended masses. Beginning
with the older castles of Touraine, and passing onward to the
Tuilerics, we trace the passage from the medieval fortress to the
modern pleasure-house, and note how architecture obeyed the
special demands of that new phenomenon of Renaissance civiliza-
tion, the court. In the general distribution of parts these monu-
mental buildings express the peculiar conditions which French
society assumed under the influence of Francis I. and Diane de
Poitiers. In details of execution and harmonic combinations they
illustrate the precision, logic, lucidity and cheerful spirit of the
national genius. Here, as in Lombardy, a feeling for serene beauty
derived from study of the antique has not interrupted the evolution
of a style indigenous to France and eminently characteristic of the
French temperament.
During the reign of Francis I. several Italian painters of eminence
visited France. Among these, Del Rosso, Primaticcio, Del Sarto
and Da Vinci are the most famous. But their example pff^i,
was not productive of a really great school of French paint- oalntinv
ing. It was left for the Poussins and Claude Lorraine '
in the next century, acting under mingled Italian and sculpture.
Flemish influences, to embody the still active spirit of
the classical revival. These three masters were the contemporaries
of Corneille, and do not belong to the Renaissance period. Sculp-
ture, on the contrary, in which art, as in architecture, the medieval
French had been surpassed by no other people of Europe, was
practised with originality and power in the reigns of Henry II.
and Francis I. Ponzio and Cellini, who quitted Italy for France,
found themselves outrivalled in their own sphere by Jean Goujon,
Cousin and Pilon. The decorative sculpture of this epoch, whether
combined with architecture or isolated in monumental statuary,
ranks for grace and suavity with the best of Sansovino's. At the
same time it is unmistakably inspired by a sense of beauty different
from the Italian more piquant and pointed, less languorous,
more mannered perhaps, but with less of empty rhythmical effect.
All this while, the minor arts of enamelling, miniature, glass-paint-
ing, goldsmith's work, jewellery, engraving, tapestry, wood-carving,
pottery, &c., were cultivated with a spontaneity and freedom which
proved that France, in the middle point between Flanders and Italy,
was able to use both influences without a sacrifice of native taste.
It may indeed be said in general that what is true of France is
likewise true of all countries which felt the artistic impulses of
the Renaissance. Whether we regard Spain, the Netherlands, or
Germany at this epoch, we find a national impress stamped upon
the products of the plastic and the decorative arts, notwithstanding
the prevalence of certain forms derived from the antique and Italy.
It was only at a later period that the formalism of pseudo-classic
pedantry reduced natural and national originality to a dead
unanimity.
RENAISSANCE
9 1
French literature was quick to respond to Renaissance influences.
DC Comincs, the historian of Charles VIII. 's expedition to Naples,
P . differs from the earlier French chroniclers in his way of
f-rencn regarding the world of men and affairs. He has the
' perspicuity and analytical penetration of a Venetian
ambassador. Villon, his contemporary, may rather be ranked,
so far as artistic form and use of knowledge are concerned, with
rts of the middle ages, and in particular with the Goliardi. But
is essentially modern in the vividness of his self-portraiture,
and in what we are wont to call realism. Both De Comines and
Villon indicate the entrance of a new quality into literature. The
Rhetoriqueurs, while protracting medieval traditions by their use
of allegory and complicated metrical systems, sought to improve
the French language by introducing Latinisms. Thus the Revival
of Learning began to affect the vernacular in the last years of the
I5th century. Marot and his school reacted against this pedantry.
The Renaissance displayed itself in their effort to purify the form
and diction of poetry. But the decisive revolution was effected
by Ronsard and his comrades of the Pleiade. It was their professed
object to raise French to a level with the classics, and to acclimatize
Italian species of verse. The humanistic movement led these
learned writers to engraft the graces of the antique upon their
native literature, and to refine it by emulating the lucidity of
Petrarch. The result of their endeavour was immediately apparent
in the new force added to French rhythm, the new pomp, richness,
colouring and polish conferred upon poetic diction. French style
gradually attained to fixity, and the alexandrine came to be recog-
nized as the standard line in poetry. D'Aubigne's invective and
Regnier's satire, at the close of the l6th century, are as modern as
Voltaire's. Meanwhile the drama was emerging from the medieval
mysteries; and the classical type, made popular by Garnier's
genius, was elaborated, as in Italy, upon the model of Seneca and
the canons of the three unities. The tradition thus formed was
continued and fortified by the illustrious playwrights of the I7th
century. Translation from Greek and Latin into French progressed
rapidly at the commencement of this period. It was a marked
characteristic of the Renaissance in France to appropriate the
spoils of Greece and Rome for the profit of the mother tongue.
Amyot's Plutarch and his Daphnis and Chloe rank among the
most exquisite examples of beautiful French prose. Prose had now
the charm of simplicity combined with grace. To mention Bran-
t&me is to mention the most entertaining of gossips. To speak of
Montaigne is to speak of the best as well as the first of essayists.
In all the literary work which has been mentioned, the originality
and freshness of the French genius are no less conspicuous
than its saturation with the new learning and with Italian
studies. But the greatest name of the epoch, the name which
is synonymous with the Renaissance in France, has yet to be
uttered. That, of course, is Rabelais. His incommensurable
and indescribable masterpiece of mingled humour, wisdom,
satire, erudition, indecency, profundity, levity, imagina-
tion, realism, reflects the' whole age in its mirror of hyper-
Aristophanic farce. What Ariosto is for Italy, Cervantes for
Spain, Erasmus for Holland, Luther for Germany, Shakespeare
for England, that is Rabelais for France. The Renaissance can-
not be comprehended in its true character without familiarity
with these six representatives of its manifold and many-sided
inspiration.
The French Renaissance, so rich on the side of arts and letters,
was hardly less rich on the side of classical studies. The revival
of learning has a noble muster-roll of names in France:
Turnebus, the patriarch of Hellenistic studies; the
. Etiennes of Paris, equalling in numbers, industry and
e learning their Venetian rivals; the two Scaligers; impas-
' sioned Dolet; eloquent Muret; learned Cujas; terrible
Calvin; Ramus, the intrepid antagonist of Aristotle;
De Thou and De Beze i\ponderous Casaubon; brilliant
young Saumaise. The distinguishing characteristics of French
humanism are vivid intelligence, critical audacity and polemical
acumen, perspicuity of exposition, learning directed in its appli-
cations by logical sense rather than by artistic ideals of taste.
Some of the names just mentioned remind us that in France, as
in Germany and Holland, the Reformation was closely connected
with the revival of learning. Humanism has never been in the
narrow sense of that term Protestant; still less has it been strictly
Catholic. In Italy it fostered a temper of mind decidedly averse
to theological speculation and religious earnestness. In Holland
and Germany, with Erasmus, Reuchlin and Melanchthon, it de-
veloped types of character, urbane, reflective, pointedly or gently
critical, which, left to themselves, would not have plunged the north
of Europe into the whirlpool of belligerent reform. Yet none the
less was the new learning, through the open spirit of inquiry it
nourished, its vindication of the private reason, its enthusiasm for
republican antiquity, and its proud assertion of the rights of human
independence, linked by a strong and subtle chain to that turbid
revolt of the individual consciousness against spiritual despotism
draped in fallacies and throned upon abuses. To this rebellion
we give the name of Reformation. But, while the necessities of
antagonism to papal Rome made it assume at first the form of
French
scholar-
tioa In
France.
narrow and sectarian opposition, it marked in fact a vital struggle
of the intellect towards truth and freedom, involving future results
of scepticism and rationalistic audacity from which its earlier
champions would have shrunk. It marked, moreover, in the con-
dition of armed resistance against established authority which was
forced upon it by the Counter-Reformation, a firm resolve to assert
political liberty, leading in the course of time to a revolution with
which the rebellious spirit of the Revival was sympathetic. This
being the relation of humanism in general to reform, French learn-
ing in particular displayed such innovating boldness as threw many
of its most conspicuous professors into the camp at war with Rome.
Calvin, a French student of Picard origin, created the type of
Protestantism to which the majority of French Huguenots adhered.
This too was a moment at which philosophical seclusion was hardly
possible. In a nation so tumultuously agitated one side or the
other had to be adopted. Those of the French humanists who did
not proclaim Huguenot opinions found themselves obliged with
Muretus to lend their talents to the Counter-Reformation, or to
surfer persecution for heterodoxy, like Dolet. The church, terrified
and infuriated by the progress of reform, suspected learning on its
own account. To be an eminent scholar was to be accused of
immorality, heresy and atheism in a single indictment; and the
defence of weaker minds lay in joining the Jesuits, as Heinsius was
fain to do. France had already absorbed the earlier Renaissance
in an Italianizing spirit before the Reformation made itself felt
as a political actuality. This fact, together with the strong
Italian bias of the Valois, serves to explain in some degree
the reason why the Counter-Reformation entailed those fierce
entangled civil wars, massacres of St Bartholomew, murders
of the Guises, regicides, treasons and empoisonments that ter-
minated with the compromise of Henry IV. It is no part
of the present subject to analyse the political, religious and
social interests of that struggle. The upshot was the triumph
of the Counter- Reformation, and the establishment of its
principle, absolutism, as the basis of French government. It
was a French king who, when the nation had been reduced to
order, uttered the famous word of absolutism, " L'Etat, c'est
moi."
The Renaissance in the Low Countries, as elsewhere, had its
brilliant age of arts and letters. During the middle ages the wealthy
free towns of Flanders flourished under conditions not _.
dissimilar to those of the Italian republics. They raised Tf*
miracles of architectural beauty, which were modified in 0*
the isth and 1 6th centuries by characteristic elements ?." . .
of the new style. The Van Eycks, followed by Memling, ^ *
Metsys, Mabuse, Lucas van Leyden, struck out a new path rj u t c h
in the revival of painting and taught Europe the secret painting
of oil-colouring. But it was reserved for the 1 7th century
to witness the flower and fruit time of this powerful art in
the work of Porbus, Rubens and Vandyck, in the Dutch schools
of landscape and home-life, and in the unique masterpieces of
Rembrandt. We have a right to connect this later period with
the Renaissance, because the distracted state of the Netherlands
during the l6th century suspended, while it could not extinguish,
their aesthetic development. The various schools of the tyth
century, moreover, are animated with the Renaissance spirit no
less surely than the Florentine school of the lth or the Venetian
of the l6th. The animal vigour and carnal enjoyment of Rubens,
the refined Italianizing beauty of Vandyck, the mystery of light
and gloom on Rembrandt's panels, the love of nature in Ruysdael,
Cuyp and Van Hooghe, with their luminously misty skies, silvery
daylight and broad expanse of landscape, the interest in common
life displayed by Ter Borch, Van Steen, Douw, Ostade and Teniers,
the instinct for the beauty of animals in Potter, the vast sea spaces
of Vanderveldt, the grasp on reality, the acute intuition into char-
acter in portraits, the scientific study of the world and man, the
robust sympathy with natural appetites, which distinguish the
whole art of the Low Countries, are a direct emanation from the
Renaissance.
The vernacular in the Netherlands profited at first but little
by the impulse which raised Italian, Spanish, French and English
to the rank of classic languages. But humanism, first of . . .
all in its protagonist Erasmus, afterwards in the long *^ .
list of critical scholars and editors, Lipsius, Heinsius scfto/a ^.
and Grotius, in the printers Elzevir and Plantin, developed w
itself from the centre of the Leiden university with
massive energy, and proved that it was still a motive force
of intellectual progress. In the fields of classical learning the
students of the Low Countries broke new ground chiefly by
methodical collection, classification and comprehensive criticism
of previously accumulated stores. Their works were solid and sub-
stantial edifices, forming the substratum for future scholarship.
In addition to this they brought philosophy and scientific thorough-
ness to bear on studies which had been pursued in a more literary
spirit. It would, however, be uncritical to pursue this subject
further; for the encyclopaedic labours of the Dutch philologers
belong to a period when tte Renaissance was overpast. For the
same reason it is inadmissible to do more than mention the name
of Spinoza here.
RENAISSANCE
The Netherlands became the battlefield of Reformation and
Counter-Reformation in even a stricter sense than France. Here
Dutch t ' ie antagonistic principles were plainly posed in the
wars of course of struggle against foreign despotism. The
Indeoead- con ^' ct en ded in the assertion of political independence
as opposed to absolute dominion. Europe in large measure
owes the modern ideal of political liberty to that spirit
of stubborn resistance which broke the power of Spain. Recent
history, and in particular the history of democracy, claims for its
province the several stages whereby this principle was developed
in England and America, and its outburst in the frenzy of the
French Revolution. It is enough here to have alluded to the part
played by the Low Countries in the genesis of a motive force which
may be described as the last manifestation of the Renaissance
striving after self -emancipation.
The insular position of England, combined with the nature
of the English people, has allowed us to feel the vibration of
England European movements later and with less of shock
in the Re- than any of the continental nations. Before a 'wave
naissance o f progress has reached our shores we have had the
opportunity of watching it as spectators, and of con-
period.
sidering how we shall receive it. Revolutions have passed
from the tumultuous stages of their origin into some settled
and recognizable state before we have been called upon to
cope with them. It was thus that England took the
influences of the Renaissance and Reformation simultaneously,
and almost at the same time found herself engaged in that
struggle with the Counter-Reformation which, crowned by
the defeat of the Spanish Armada, stimulated the sense of
nationality and developed the naval forces of the race. Both
Renaissance and Reformation had been anticipated by at least
a century in England. Chaucer's poetry, which owed so much
to Italian examples, gave an early foretaste of the former.
Wickliffe's teaching was a vital moment in the latter. But
the French wars, the Wars of the Roses and the persecution
of the .Lollards deferred the coming of the new age; and the
year 1536, when Henry VIII. passed the Act of Supremacy
through parliament, may be fixed as the date when England
entered definitively upon a career of intellectual development
abreast with the foremost nations of the continent. The
circumstances just now insisted on explain the specific character
of the English Renaissance. The Reformation had been adopted
by consent of the king, lords and commons; and this change
in the state religion, though it was not confirmed without
reaction, agitation and bloodshed, cost the nation comparatively
Combined little disturbance. Humanism, before it affected the
'ot'senals- bul k f the En g lish People, had already permeated
sanceand Italian and French literature. Classical erudition
Retorma- had been adapted to the needs of modern thought.
tion. The hard work of collecting, printing, annotating
and translating Greek and Latin authors had been
accomplished. The masterpieces of antiquity had been
interpreted and made intelligible. Much of the learning
popularized by our poets and dramatists was derived at second
hand from modern literature. This does not mean that England
was deficient in ripe and sound scholars. More, Colet, Ascham,
Cheke, Camden were men whose familiarity with the classics
was both intimate and easy. Public schools and universities
conformed to the modern methods of study; nor were there
wanting opportunities for youths of humble origin to obtain an
education which placed them on a level with Italian scholars.
The single case of Ben Jonson sufficiently proves this. Yet
learning did not at this epoch become a marked speciality in
England. There was no class corresponding to the humanists.
It should also be remembered that the best works of Italian
literature were introduced into Great Britain together with the
classics. Phaer's Virgil, Chapman's Homer, Harrington's
Orlando, Marlowe's Hero and Leander, Fairfax's Jerusalem
Delivered, North's Plutarch, Hoby's Courtier to mention only a
few examples placed English readers simultaneously in posses-
sion of the most eminent and representative works of Greece,
Rome and Italy. At the same time "Spanish influences reached
them through the imitators of Guevara and the dramatists;
French influences in the versions of romances; German in-
Arts,
letters
and the
drama.
fluences in popular translations of the Faust legend, Eultn-
spiegel and similar productions. The authorized version of the
Bible had also been recently given to the people so that almost
at the same period of time England obtained in the vernacular
an extensive library of ancient and modern authors. This was
a privilege enjoyed in like measure by no other nation. It
sufficiently accounts for the richness and variety of Elizabethan
literature, and for the enthusiasm with which the English
language was cultivated.
Speaking strictly, England borrowed little in the region of the
arts from other nations, and developed still less that was original.
What is called Jacobean architecture marks indeed an
interesting stage in the transition from the Gothic style.
But, compared with Italian, French, Spanish, German and
Flemish work of a like period, it is both timid and dry.
Sculpture was represented in London for a brief space by
Torrigiani; painting by Holbein and Antonio More; music by
Italians and Frenchmen of the Chapel Royal. But no Englishmen
rose to European eminence in these departments. With literature
the case was very different. Wyat and Surrey began by engrafting
the forms and graces of Italian poetry upon the native stock. They
introduced the sonnet and blank verse. Sidney followed with the
sestine and terza rima and with various experiments in classic
metres, none of which took root on English soil. The translators
handled the octave stanza. Marlowe gave new vigour to the
couplet. The first period of the English Renaissance was one of
imitation and assimilation. Academies after the Italian type were
founded. Tragedies in the style of Seneca, rivalling Italian and
French dramas of the epoch, were produced. Attempts to Latinize
ancestral rhythms, similar to those which had failed in Italy and
France, were made. Tentative essays in criticism and dissertations
on the art of poetry abounded. It seemed as though the Renaissance
ran a risk of being throttled in its cradle by superfluity of foreign and
pedantic nutriment. But the natural vigour of the English genius
resisted influences alien to itself, and showed a robust capacity
for digesting the varied diet offered to it. As there was nothing
despotic in the temper of the ruling classes, nothing oppressive in
English culture, the literature of that age evolved itself freely from
the people. It was under these conditions that Spenser gave his
romantic epic to the world, a poem which derived its allegory from
the middle ages, its decorative richness from the Italian Renaissance,
its sweetness, purity, harmony and imaginative splendour from the
most poetic nation of the modern world. Under the same conditions
the Elizabethan drama, which in its totality is the real exponent of
the English Renaissance, came into existence. This drama very
early freed itself from the pseudo-classic mannerism which imposed
on taste in Italy and France. Depicting feudalism in the vivid
colours of an age at war with feudal institutions, breathing into
antique histories the breath of actual life, embracing the romance of
Italy and Spain, the mysteries of German legend, the fictions of poetic
fancy and the facts of daily life, humours of the moment and abstrac-
tions of philosophical speculation, in one homogeneous amalgam
instinct with intense vitality, this extraordinary birth of time, with
Shakespeare for the master of all ages, left a monument of the Re-
naissance unrivalled for pure creative power by any other product
of that epoch. To complete the sketch, we must set Bacon, the
expositor of modern scientific method, beside Spenser and Shake-
speare, as the third representative of the Renaissance in England.
Nor should Raleigh, Drake, Hawkins, the semi-buccaneer explorers
of the ocean, be omitted. They, following the lead of Envliih
Portuguese and Spaniards, combating the Counter-Re- *
formation on the seas, opened for England her career
of colonization and plantation. All this while the political cthii
policy of Tudors and Stewarts tended towards monarchical .
absolutism, while the Reformation in England, modified '
by contact with the Low Countries during their struggles, f\
was narrowing into strict reactionary intolerance. Puri- , .
tanism indicated a revolt of the religious conscience of f'
the nation against the arts and manners of the Renais- ao<
sance, against theencroachmentsof belligerentCatholicism, nalssattce
against the corrupt and Italianated court of James I., cu " ure -
against the absolutist pretensions of his son Charles. In its final
manifestation during the Commonwealth, Puritanism won a tran-
sient victory over the mundane forces of both Reformation and
Renaissance, as these had taken shape in England. It also secured
the eventual triumph of constitutional independence. Milton, the
greatest humanistic poet of the English race, lent his pen and moral
energies during the best: years of his life to securing that principle
on which modern political systems at present rest. Thus the geo-
graphical isolation of England, and the comparatively late adoption
by the English of matured Italian and German influences, give
peculiar complexity to the phenomena of Reformation and Re-
naissance simultaneously developed on our island. The period of
our history between 1536 and 1642 shows how difficult it is to
separate these two factors in the re-birth of Europe, both of which
contributed so powerfully to the formation of modern English
nationality.
RENAIX RENAN
93
It has been impossible to avoid an air of superficiality, and
the repetition of facts known to every schoolboy, in this sketch
New f so complicated a subject as the Renaissance, em-
poiitical bracing many nations, a great variety of topics and
relations an indefinite period of time. Yet no other treatment
dating' 1 ' 6 was possible upon the lines laid down at the outset,
from the where it was explained why the term Renaissance
Renais- cannot now be confined to the Revival of Learning
and the effect of antique studies upon literary
and artistic ideals. The purpose of this article has been
to show that, while the Renaissance implied a new way of
regarding the material world and human nature, a new concep-
tion of man's destiny and duties on this planet, a new culture
and new intellectual perceptions penetrating every sphere of
thought and energy, it also involved new reciprocal relations
between the members of the European group of nations. The
Renaissance closed the middle ages and opened the modern era,
not merely because the mental and moral ideas which then
sprang into activity and owed their force in large measure to
the revival of classical learning were opposed to medieval
modes of thinking and feeling, but also because the political
and international relations specific to it as an age were at
variance with fundamental theories of the past. Instead of
empire and church, the sun and moon of the medieval system,
a federation of peoples, separate in type and divergent in
interests, yet bound together by common tendencies, common
culture and common efforts, came into existence. For obedi-
ence to central authority was substituted balance of power.
Henceforth the hegemony of Europe attached to no crown,
imperial or papal, but to the nation which was capable of
winning it, in the spiritual region by mental ascendancy, and
in the temporal by force.
That this is the right way of regarding the subject appears
from the events of the first two decades of the i6th century,
Conserva- those years in which the humanistic revival attained its
tive and highest point in Italy. Luther published his theses in
1517, sixty-four years after the fall of Constantinople,
parties la twenty-three years after the expedition of Charles
modern VIII. to Naples, ten years before the sack of
Europe. Rome, at a moment when France, Spain and
England had only felt the influences of Italian culture but
feebly. From that date forward two parties wrestled for
supremacy in Europe, to which may be given the familiar
names of Liberalism and Conservatism, the party of pro-
gress and the party of established institutions. The triumph
of the former was most signal among the Teutonic peoples.
The Latin races, championed by Spain and supported by the
papacy, fought the battle of the latter, and succeeded for a
time in rolling back the tide of revolutionary conquest. Mean-
while that liberal culture which had been created for Europe
by the Italians before the contest of the Reformation began
continued to spread, although it was stifled in Italy and Spain,
retarded in France and the Low Countries, well-nigh extirpated
by wars in Germany, and diverted from its course in England
by the counter-movement of Puritanism. The aulos da ft of
Seville and Madrid, the flames to which Bruno, Dolet and
Paleario were flung, the dungeon of Campanella and the seclu-
sion of Galileo, the massacre of St Bartholomew and the faggots
of Smithfield, the desolated plains of Germany and the cruelties
of Alva in the Netherlands, disillusioned Europe of those golden
dreams which had arisen in the earlier days of humanism, and
which had been so pleasantly indulged by Rabelais. In truth
the Renaissance was ruled by no Astraea redux, but rather by a
severe spirit which brought no peace but a sword, reminding
men of sternest duties, testing what of moral force and tenacity
was in them, compelling them to strike for the old order or the new,
suffering no lukewarm halting between two opinions. That,
in spite of retardation and retrogression, the old order of
ideas should have yielded to the new all over Europe, that
science should have won firm standing-ground, and political
liberty should have struggled through those birth-throes of its
origin, was in the nature of things. Had this not been, the
Renaissance or re-birth of Europe would be a term without
a meaning. (J. A. S.)
LITERATURE. The special articles on the several arts and the
literatures of modern Europe, and on the biographies of great men
mentioned in this essay, will give details of necessity here omitted.
Of works on the Renaissance in general may be mentioned Jacob
Burckhardt, Die Cultur der Renaissance in Italien (Eng. trans., 1878) ;
G. Voigt, Wiederbelebung des Classischen Alterthums (2 vols. 3rd ed.,
by M. Lehnerdt, 1893); J. A. Symonds, Renaissance in Italy; Marc
Monnier, Renaissance de Dante a Luther; Eugene Miintz, Precur-
seurs de la Renaissance (1882), Renaissance en Italie et en France
(1885), and Hist, de I'art pendant la Renaissance (1889-95); Ludwie
Geiger, Humanismus und Renaissance in Italien und Deutschland
(1882), and Cambridge Modern History, vol. i., " The Renaissance "
(Cambridge, 1903), where full bibliographies will be found.
RENAIX, a town of Belgium in the province of East Flanders,
8 m. S. of Oudenarde. It has extensive dyeworks, bleaching
grounds and manufactories for linen and woollen goods. Pop.
(1904) 20,760.
RENAN, ERNEST (1823-1892), French philosopher and
Orientalist, was born on the 27th of February 1823 at Treguier.
His father's people were of the fisher-clan of Renans or Ronans;
his grandfather, having made a small fortune by his fishing
smack, bought a house at Treguier and settled there, and his
father, captain of a small cutter and an ardent Republican,
married the daughter of Royalist trading-folk from the neigh-
bouring town of Lannion. All his life Renan was divided
between his father's and his mother's political beliefs. He was
only five years old when his father died, and hjs sister Henriette,
twelve years older than Ernest, a girl of remarkable character,
was henceforth morally the head of the household. Having in
vain attempted to keep a school for girls at Treguier, she left her
native place and went to Paris as teacher in a young ladies'
boarding-school. Ernest meanwhile was educated in the
ecclesiastical seminary of his native place. His good-conduct
notes for this period describe him as " docile, patient, diligent,
painstaking, thorough." We do not hear that he was brilliant,
but the priests cared little for such qualities. While the priests
were grounding him in mathematics and Latin, his mother
completed his education. She was only half a Breton. Her
paternal ancestors came from Bordeaux, and Renan used to say
that in his own nature the Gascon and the Breton were con-
stantly at odds.
In the summer of 1838 Renan carried off all the prizes at the
college of Treguier. His sister in Paris told the doctor of the
school in which she taught about the success of her brother,
and he carried the news to F. A. P. Dupanloup, then engaged in
organizing the ecclesiastical college of St Nicholas du Char-
donnet, a school in which the young Catholic nobility and the
most gifted pupils of the Catholic seminaries were to be educated
together, with a view to cementing the bond between the
aristocracy and the priesthood. Dupanloup sent for Renan at
once. He was fifteen and a half. He had never been outside
his Breton province. " I learned with stupor that knowledge
was not a privilege of the church ... I awoke to the meaning
of the words talent, fame, celebrity." Above all, religion seemed
to him wholly different in Treguier and in Paris. The super-
ficial, brilliant, pseudo-scientific Catholicism of the capital did not
satisfy Renan, who had accepted the austere faith of his Breton
masters.
In 1840 Renan left St Nicholas to study philosophy at the
seminary of Issy. He entered with a passion for Catholic
scholasticism. The rhetoric of St Nicholas had wearied him,
and his serious intelligence hoped to satisfy itself with the vast
and solid material of Catholic theology. Reid and Malebranche
first attracted him among the philosophers, and after these he
turned to Hegel, Kant and Herder. Renan began to perceive
the essential contradiction between the metaphysics which he
studied and the faith that he professed, but an appetite for
truths that can be verified restrained his scepticism. " Philo-
sophy excites and only half satisfies the appetite for truth; I
am eager for mathematics," he wrote to his sister Henriette.
Henriette had accepted in the family of Count Zamoyski an en-
gagement more lucrative than her former place. She exercised
94
RENAN
the strongest influence over her brother, and her published
letters reveal a mind almost equal, a moral nature superior, to
his own.
It was not mathematics but philology which was to settle the
gathering doubts of Ernest Renan. His course completed at
Issy, he entered the college of St Sulpice in order to take his
degree in philology prior to entering the church; and here he
began the study of Hebrew. He saw that the second part of
Isaiah differs from the first not only in style but in date; that the
grammar and the history of the Pentateuch are posterior to the
time of Moses; that the book of Daniel is clearly apocryphal.
It followed from his training that, if you admit one error in a
revealed text, you incriminate the whole. Secretly, Renan felt
himself cut off from the communion of saints, and yet with his
whole heart he desired to live the life of a Catholic priest
Hence a struggle between vocation and conviction; owing to
Henriette, conviction gained the day. In October 1845 Renan
left the seminary of St Sulpice for Stavistas, a lay college of the
Oratorians. Finding himself even there too much under the
domination of the church, a few weeks later he reluctantly broke
the last tie which bound him to the religious life and entered
M. Crouzet's school for boys as an usher.
It is always dangerous to educate a really great mind in only
one order of truth. Renan, brought up by priests in a world
ruled by authority and curious only of feeling and opinion, was to
accept the scientific ideal with an extraordinary expansion of all
his faculties. He was henceforth ravished by the splendour
of the cosmos. At the end of his life he wrote of Amiel, " The
man who has time to keep a private diary has never understood
the immensity of the universe." The certitudes of physical and
natural science were revealed to Renan in 1846 by the chemist
Marcellin Berthelot, then a boy of eighteen, his pupil at M.
Crouzet's school. To the day of Renan's death their friendship
continued. Renan was occupied as usher only in the evenings.
In the daytime he continued his researches in Semitic philology.
In 1847 he obtained the Prix Volney one of the principal dis-
tinctions awarded by the Academy of Inscriptions for the
manuscript of his " General History of Semitic Languages."
In 1847 he took his degree as Agrege de Philosophic; that is to
say, fellow of the university, and was offered a place as master
in the lycee of Vend6me. In 1848 a small temporary appoint-
ment to the lycee of Versailles permitted him to return to the
capital and resume his studies.
The revolution of 1848 aroused in Renan that side of him which
loved the priesthood because " the priest lives for his fellows."
He for the first time confronted the problems of Democracy.
The result was an immense volume, The Future of Science,
which remained in manuscript until 1890. L'Avenir de la
science is an attempt to conciliate the privileges of a necessary
elite with the diffusion of the greatest good of the greatest
number. The difficulty haunted Renan throughout his life.
By the time he had finished his elaborate scheme for regenerating
society by means of a devoted aristocracy of knowledge, and the
diffusion of culture, the year 1848 was past, and with it his fever
of Democracy. In 1849 the French government sent him to
Italy on a scientific mission. He remained eight months abroad,
during which he forgot his anxiety about the toilers' lot.
Hitherto he had known nothing of art. In Italy the artist in him
awoke and triumphed over the savant and the reformer. On
his return to Paris Renan lived with his sister Henriette. A small
post at the National Library, .together with his sister's savings,
furnished him with the means of livelihood. In the evenings he
wrote for the Revue des deux mondes and the Debats the
exquisite essays which appeared in 1857 and 1859 under the
titles Etudes d'histoire religieuse and Essais de morale et de
critique. In 1852 his book on Averroes had brought him not
only his doctor's degree, but his first reputation as a thinker.
In his two volumes of essays Renan shows himself a Liberal, but
no longer a Democrat. Nothing, according to his philosophy,
is less important than prosperity. The greatest good of the
greatest number is a theory as dangerous as it is illusory. Man
is not born to be prosperous, but to realize, in a little vanguard of
chosen spirits, an ideal superior to the ideal of yesterday. Only
the few can attain a complete development. Yet there is a
solidarity between the chosen few and the masses which produce
them; each has a duty to the other. The acceptance of this
duty is the only foundation for a moral and just society The
aristocratic idea has seldom been better stated.
The success of the Etudes d'histoire religieuse and the Essais
de morale had made the name of Renan known to a cultivated
public. While Mademoiselle Renan remained shut up at home
copying her brother's manuscripts or compiling material for his
work, the young philosopher began to frequent more than one
Parisian salon, and especially the studio of Ary Scheffer, at that
time a noted social centre. In 1856 he proposed to marry
Cornelie Scheffer, the niece and adopted daughter of the great
Dutch painter. Not without a struggle Henriette consented
not only to the marriage, but to make her home with the young
couple, whose housekeeping depended on the sum that she
could contribute. The history of this romance has been told by
Renan in the memorial essay which he wrote some six years later,
entitled Ma Sceur Henriette, His marriage brought much
brightness into his life, a naturalness into his style and a greater
attention to the picturesque. He did not forsake his studies in
Semitic philology, and in 1859 appeared his translation of the'
Book of Job with an introductory essay, followed in 1859 by the
Song of Songs.
Renan was now a candidate for the chair of Hebrew and
Chaldaic languages at the College de France, which he had
desired since first he studied Hebrew at the seminary of St
Sulpice. The death of the scholar Quatremere had left this post
vacant in 1857. No one in France save Renan was capable of
filling it. The Catholic party, upheld by the empress, would
not appoint an unfrocked seminarist, a notorious heretic, to a
chair of Biblical exegesis. Yet the emperor wished to conciliate
Ernest Renan. He offered to send the young scholar on an
archaeological mission to Phoenicia. Renan immediately accepted.
Leaving his wife at home with their baby son, Renan left France,
accompanied by his sister, in the summer of 1860. Madame
Renan joined them in January 1861, returning to France in
July. The mission proved fruitful in Phoenician inscriptions
which Renan published in his Mission de Phenicie. They form
the base of that Corpus Inscription-urn Semiticarum on which he
used in later years to declare that he founded his claim to re-
membrance. He wished to complete his exploration of the
upper range of Lebanon; he remained, therefore, with Henriette
to affront the dangerous miasma of a Syrian autumn. At
Amshit, near Byblos, Henriette Renan died of intermittent
fever on the 24th of September 1861. Her brother, himself at
death's door, was carried unconscious on board a ship waiting
in harbour and bound for France. The sea air revived him,
but he reached France broken apparently in heart and health.
His sister in her last days had entreated him not to give up his
candidature for the chair of Hebrew, and on the nth of January
1862 the Minister of Public Instruction ratified Renan's election
to the post. But his opening lecture, in which, amid the
applause of the students, Renan declared Jesus Christ " an
incomparable Man," alarmed the Catholic party. Renan's
lectures were pronounced a disturbance of the public peace, and
he was suspended. On the 2nd of June 1864, on opening the
newspaper, Renan saw that he had been transferred from the
chair of Hebrew at the College of France to the post of sub-
librarian at the National Library. He wrote to the Minister of
Public Instruction: " Pecunia tua tecum sit!" He refused
the new position, was deprived of his chair, and henceforth
depended solely upon his pen.
Henriette had told him to write the life of Jesus. They had
begun it together ih Syria, she copying the pages as he wrote
them, with a New Testament and a Josephus for all his library.
The book bears the mark of its origin it is filled with the
atmosphere of the East. It is the work of a man familiar with
the Bible and theology, and no less acquainted with the inscrip-
tions, monuments, types and landscapes of Syria. But it is
scarcely the work of a great scholar: Renan's debt to the school
RENARD
95
of Tubingen has been exaggerated, in so far as regards the Life
of Jesus. The book appeared on the 2$rd of June 1863; before
November sixty thousand copies of it were in circulation.
Renan still used his literary gifts to pursue a scientific ideal.
In the days when he had composed his huge, immature treatise
on the Future of Science, he had written: " I envy the man who
shall evoke from the past the origins of Christianity. Such a
writer would compose the most important book of the century."
He set to work to realize this project, and produced the Apostles
in 1866, and Si Paul in 1869, after having visited Asia Minor
with his wife, where he studied the scenes of the labours of
St Paul as minutely as in 1861 he had observed the material
surroundings of the life of Jesus.
Renan was not only a scholar. In St Paul, as in the Apostles,
he shows his concern with the larger social life, his sense of
fraternity, and a revival of the democratic sentiment which
had inspired L'Avenir de la science. In 1869 he presented
himself as the candidate of the liberal opposition at the parlia-
mentary election for Meaux. While his temper had become
less aristocratic, his Liberalism had grown more tolerant. On
the eve of its dissolution Renan was half prepared to accept the
Empire, and, had he been elected to the Chamber of Deputies,
he would have joined the group of ['Empire liberal. But he
was not elected. A year later war was declared with Germany,
the Empire fell, and Napoleon III. went into exile. The
Franco-German War was a turning-point in Renan's history.
Germany had always been to him the asylum of thought and
disinterested science. Now he saw the land of his ideal destroy
and ruin the land of his birth; he beheld the German no longer
as a priest, but as an invader. His heart turned to France. In
La Rejorme intellectuellc et morale (1871) he endeavoured at
least to bind her wounds, to safeguard her future. Yet he
was still under the influence of Germany. The ideal and the
discipline which he proposed to his defeated country were those
of her conqueror a feudal society, a monarchical government,
an elite, which the rest of the nation exists merely to support
and nourish; an ideal of honour and duty imposed by a chosen
few on the recalcitrant and subject multitude. The errors of
the Commune confirmed Renan in this reaction. At the same
time the irony always perceptible in his work grows more bitter.
His Dialogues philosophiques, written in 1871, his Ecclesiastes
(1882) and his Antichrist (1876) (the fourth volume of the
Origins of Christianity, dealing with the reign of Nero) are
incomparable in their literary genius, but they are examples of
a disenchanted and sceptical temper. He had vainly tried to
make his country follow his precepts. He resigned himself to
watch her drift towards perdition. The progress of events
showed him, on the contrary, a France which every day left a
little stronger, and he aroused himself from his disbelieving,
disillusioned mood, and observed with genuine interest the
struggle for justice and liberty of a democratic society. For
his mind was the broadest of the age. The fifth and sixth
volumes of the Origins of Christianity Hhe Christian Church and
Marcus Aurelius) show him reconciled with democracy, confident
in the gradual ascent of man, aware that the greatest catastrophes
do not really interrupt the sure if imperceptible progress of the
world reconciled also in some measure, if not with the truths,
at least with the moral beauties of Catholicism, and with the
remembrance of his pious youth.
On the threshold of old age the philosopher cast a glance at
the days of his childhood. He was nearly sixty when, in 1883,
he published those Souvenirs d'enfance et de jeunesse which,
after the Life of Jesus, are the work by which he is chiefly
known. They possess that lyric note of personal utterance
which the public prizes in a man already famous. They showed
the blase modern reader that a world no less poetic, no less
primitive than that of the Origins of Christianity exists, or still
existed within living memory, on the north-western coast of
France. They have the Celtic magic of ancient romance and
the simplicity, the naturalness, the veracity which the igth
century prized so highly. But his Ecclesiastes, published a few
months earlier, his Dramcs philosophiques, collected in 1888,
give a more adequate image of his fastidious critical, disen-
chanted, yet not unhopeful spirit. These books are often bitter
and melancholy, yet not destitute of optimism. They show the
attitude towards uncultured Socialism of a philosopher liberal
by conviction, by temperament an aristocrat. We learn in
them how Caliban (democracy), the mindless brute, educated
to his own responsibility, makes after all an adequate ruler;
how Prospero (the aristocratic principle, or, if we will, the mind)
accepts his dethronement for the sake of greater liberty in the
intellectual world, since Caliban proves an effective policeman,
and leaves his superiors a free hand in the laboratory; how
Ariel (the religious principle) acquires a firmer hold on life, and
no longer gives up the ghost at the faintest hint of change.
Indeed, Ariel flourishes in the service of Prospero under the
external government of the many-headed brute. For the
one thing needful is not destined to succumb. Religion and
knowledge are as imperishable as the world they dignify. Thus
out of the depths rises unvanquished the essential idealism of
Ernest Renan.
Renan was a great worker. At sixty years of age, having
finished the Origins of Christianity, he began his History of Israel,
based on a lifelong study of the Old Testament and on the
Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum, published by the Academic
des Inscriptions under Renan's direction from the year 1881
till the end of his life. The first volume of the History of Israel
appeared in 1887, the third and finest volume in 1891, the last
two only after the historian's decease. As a history of facts and
theories the book has many faults; as an essay on the evolution
of the religious idea it is (despite some passages of frivolity,
irony, or incoherence) of extraordinary importance; as a reflec-
tion of the mind of Ernest Renan it is the most lifelike of images.
In a volume of collected essays, Feuilles delachees, published
also in 1891, we find the same mental attitude, an affirmation
of the necessity of piety independent of dogma. On the i2th
of October 1892 he died after a few days' illness. In his last
years he received many marks of honour, being made an
administrator of the College de France and grand officer of the
Legion of Honour. Two volumes of the History of Israel, his
correspondence with his sister Henriette, his Letters to M.
Berthelot, and the History of the Religious Policy of Philippe-le-
Bel, which he wrote in the years immediately before his marriage,
all appeared during the last eight years of the igth century
See Desportesand Bournand, E. Renan, savieet son auvre (1892);
E. Grant Duff, Ernest Renan, in memoriam (1893); Seailles,
E. Renan, essai de biographie psychologique (1894); G. Monod, Les
maitres de I'histoire (1894) ; Allier, La Philosophic d'E. Renan (1895) ;
M. J. Darmesteter, La vie de E. R. (1898); Platzhoff, E. Renan, ein
Lebensbild (1900); Brauer, Philosophy of Ernest Renan (1904); W.
Barry, Renan (1905) ; Sorel, Le Systeme historique de R. (1905-1906).
(A. M. F. D.;X.)
RENARD, ALPHONSE FRANCOIS (1842-1903), Belgian geolo-
gist and petrographer, was born at Renaix, in Eastern Flanders,
on the 27th of September 1842. He was educated for the church
of Rome, and from 1866 to 1869 he was superintendent at the
College de la Paix, Namur. In 1870 he entered the Jesuit Train-
ing College at the old abbey of Maria Laach in the Eifel, and
there, while engaged in studying philosophy and science, he
became interested in the geology of the district, and especially
in the volcanic rocks. Thenceforth he worked at chemistry
and mineralogy, and qualified himself for those petrographical
researches for which he was distinguished. In 1874 he became
professor of chemistry and geology in the college of the Belgian
Jesuits at Louvain, a few years later he was appointed one of
the curators of the Royal Natural History Museum at Brussels,
and in 1882 he relinquished his post at Louvain. In 1888 he
was chosen professor of geology at the university of Ghent, and
retained the post until the close of his life. Meanwhile he had
been ordained priest in 1877, and had intended to enter the
Society of Jesus. He was known as the Abbe Renard; but, as
remarked by Sir A. Geikie, " As years passed, the longing for
nental freedom grew ever stronger, until at last it overmastered
all the traditions and associations of a lifetime, and he finally
separated himself from the church of Rome." His first work,
9 6
RENAUD DE MONTAUBAN RENAUDOT, T.
written in conjunction with Charles de la VaI16e-Poussin (1827-
1904), was the Memoir e sur les caracteres miner alogiques el
stratigraphiques des roches dites plutoniennes de la Belgique
et de I'Ardenne franqaise (1876). In later essays and papers
he dealt with the structure and mineral composition of many
igneous and sedimentary rocks, and with the phenomena of
metamorphism in Belgium and other countries. In acknow-
ledgment of his work the Bigsby Medal was in 1885 awarded to
him by the Geological Society of London. Still more important
were his later researches connected with the Challenger Expedi-
tion. The various rock specimens and oceanic deposits were
submitted to him for examination in association with Sir John
Murray, and their detailed observations were embodied in the
Report on the Scientific Results of the Voyage of H.M.S, " Chal-
lenger." Deep Sea Deposits (1891) The more striking additions
to our knowledge included " the detection and description of
cosmic dust, which as fine rain slowly accumulates on the ocean
floor; the development of zeolitic crystals on the sea-bottom
at temperatures of 3 2 and under ; and the distribution and
mode of occurrence of manganiferous concretions and of phos-
phatic and glauconite deposits on the bed of the ocean " (Geikie).
Renard died at Brussels on the 9th of July 1903.
Obituaries by Sir A. Geikie in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Ix. 1904,
and in Geol. Mag,, Nov. 1903.
RENAUD DE MONTAUBAN (Rinaldo di Montalbano), one of
the most famous figures of French and Italian romance. His
story was attached to the geste of Boon of Mayence by the 13th-
century trouvere who wrote the chanson de geste of Renaus de
Montauban, better known perhaps as Les quatre fils Aymon.
The four sons of Aymon give their name to inns and streets in
nearly every town of France, and the numerous prose versions
show what a hold the story gained on the popular imagination.
Renaud's sword Floberge, and his horse Bayard passed with
him into popular legend. The poem of Renaus de Montauban
opens with the story of the dissensions between Charlemagne
and the sons of Boon of Mayence, Beuves d'Aigremont, Boon
de Nanteuil and Aymon de Bordone. The rebellious vassals
are defeated by the imperial army near Troyes, and, peace
established, Aymon rises in favour at court, and supports the
emperor, even in his persecution of his four sons, Renaud,
Alard, Guichard and Richard. A second feud arises from a
quarrel between Renaud and Bertolai, Charlemagne's nephew,
over a game of chess, in the course of which Renaud kills Ber-
tolai with the chess-board. The hero then mounts his steed
Bayard, and escapes with his brothers to the Ardennes, where
they build the castle of Montessor overlooking the Meuse. At
Chateau Renaud, near Sedan, there existed in the 1 8th century
a ruined castle with a tower called the " tour Maugis " and the
reputed stable of Bayard. The outlaws are eventually persuaded
to seek their fortune outside Charlemagne's kingdom, and cross
the Loire to take service with King Yon of Gascony against
the Saracens, accompanied by their cousin, the enchanter Maugis.
Yon, however, is compelled by Charlemagne to withdraw his
protection, and the castle of Montauban, which the brothers
have built on the Bordogne, is besieged by the emperor. They
next seek refuge beyond the Rhine, and sustain a third siege
at Tremoigne (Bortmund), after which the emperor is per-
suaded by the barons to make peace. Bayard is abandoned
to Charlemagne, and thrown into the Meuse, only to rise again.
He still gallops over the hills of the Ardennes on St John's
Eve. Renaud, who throughout the story is a type of the
Christian and chivalric virtues, makes a pilgrimage to the Holy
Land and is invested with some of the exploits of Godfrey de
Bouillon. On his return he gives himself up to religion, working
as a mason on the church of St Peter at Cologne, where he
receives martyrdom at the hands of his jealous fellow-labourers.
The story is closely connected with the legend of Girard
de Roussillon. The chanson de geste of Renaus de Montauban
falls into sections which had probably been originally the
subject of separate recitals. These may have arisen at different
dates, and were not necessarily told in the first instance of
the same person, the account of Renaud on the crusade being
obviously a late interpolation. The outlaw life of the brothers
in the Ardennes bears the marks of trustworthy popular tradition,
and it was even at one time suggested that the Gascon and
Rhenish episodes were reduplications of the story of Montessor.
The connexion of the four brothers with Montessor, Bortmund,
Mayence and Cologne, and the abundant local tradition,
mark the heroes as originating from the region between the
Rhine and the Meuse. Nevertheless, their adventures in
Gascony are corroborated by historical evidence, and this
section of the poem is the oldest. The enemy of Renaud was
Charles Martel, not Charlemagne; Yon was Odo of Gascony,
known indifferently as duke, prince, or king; the victory over
the Saracens at Toulouse, in which the brothers are alleged
to have taken part, was won by him in 721, and in 719 he
sheltered refugees from the dominions of Charles Martel, Chil-
peric II., king of Neustria, and his mayor of the palace, Ragin-
fred, whom he was compelled to abandon. In a local chronicle
of Cologne it is stated that Saint Reinoldus died in 697, and in
the Latin rhythmical Vita his martyrdom is said to have taken
place under Bishop Agilolf (d. 717). Thus the romance was
evidently composite before it took its place in the Carolingian
cycle.
In Italy Renaud had his greatest vogue. His connexion with
the treacherous family of Mayence was thrust into the back-
ground, and many episodes were added, as well as the personage
of the hero's sister, Bradamante. Rinaldo di Montalbano had
been the subject of many Italian poems before // Rinaldo of
Tasso.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The chanson of Maugis d'Aigremont and the
prose romance of the Conqueste de Trebizonde belong to the same
cycle. The prose Ystoire de Regnault de Montauban (Lyons, c. 1480)
had a great vogue. It was generally printed as Les quatre fils Aymon,
and was published in English, The Foure Sonnes of Aymon, by
William Caxton, and subsequently by Wynkyn de Worde and
William Copland. See Hist. litt. de la France, xxii., analysis by
Paulin Paris; Renaus de Montauban (Stuttgart, 1862), edited by
H. Michelant; F. Wulff, Recherches sur les sagas de Maeus et de
Geirard (Lund, 1873) ; Magus saga, ed. G. Cederschiold (Lund,
1876); Renout von Montalbaen, ed. J. C. Matthis (Groningen,
1873); A. .Longnon, in Revue des questions historiques (1879);
R. Z wick, Vber die Sprache des Renaut von Montauban (Halle, 1 884) ;
F. Pfaff, Das deutsche Volksbuch von den Heymonskindern (Freiburg
in Breisgau, 1887), with a general introduction to the study of the
saga; The Four Sonnes of Aimon (E. E. Text. Soc., ed. Octavia
Richardson, 1884); a special bibliography of the printed editions
of the prose romance in L. Gautier's Bibl. des chansons de geste
(1897); rejuvenations of the story by Karl Simrock (Frankfort,
1845), and by Richard Steel (London, 1897); Storia di Rinaldino,
ed. C. Minutoli (Bologna, 1865). Stage versions are: Renaud de
Montauban, a play translated from Lope de Vega was played at the
Th6citre italien, Paris, in 1717; Les quatre fils Aymon, op6ra comique
by MM. de Leuven and Brunswick, music by Balfe, in 1884.
RENAUDOT, EUSEBE (1646-1720), French theologian and
Orientalist, was born in Paris in 1646, and educated for the
church. Notwithstanding his taste for theology and his title
of abbe, much of his life was spent at the French court, where
he attracted the notice of Colbert and was often employed in
confidential affairs. The unusual learning in Eastern tongues
which he acquired in his youth and maintained amid the dis-
tractions of court life did not bear fruit till he was sixty-two.
His best-known books are HistoriaPatriarcharutn Alexandrinorum
(Paris, 1713) and Liturgiarum orientalium collectio (2 vols.,
1715-16). The latter was designed to supply proofs of the
" perpetuity of the faith " of the church on the subject of the
sacraments, the topic on which most of his theological writings
turned, and which was then, in consequence of the controversies
attaching to Arnauld's Perpetuite de lafoi, a burning one between
French Catholics and Protestants. Renaudot was not a fair
controversialist, but his learning and industry are unquestion-
able. He died in 1720.
RENAUDOT, TH60PHRASTE (1586-1653), French physician
and philanthropist, was born at Loudun (Vienna), and
studied surgery in Paris. He was only nineteen when he
received, by favour apparently, the degree of doctor at Mont-
pellier. After some time spent in travel he began to practise
in his native town. In 1612 he was summoned to Paris by
RENDEZVOUS RENE I.
97
Richelieu, partly because of his medical reputation, but more
because of his philanthropy. He received the titles of physician
and councillor to the king, and was desired to organize a scheme
of public assistance. Many difficulties were put in his way,
however, and he therefore returned until 1624 to Poitou, where
Richelieu made him " commissary general of the poor." It
was six years before he was able to begin his work in Paris by
opening an information bureau at the sign of the Grand Coq
near the Pont Saint-Michel. This bureau d'adresse was labour
bureau, intelligence department, exchange and charity organiza-
tion in one; and the sick were directed to doctors prepared
to give them free treatment. Presently he established a free
dispensary in the teeth of the opposition of the faculty in Paris.
The Paris faculty refused to accept the new medicaments pro-
posed by the heretic from Montpellier, restricting themselves to
the old prescriptions of blood-letting and purgation. In addition
to his bureau d'adresse Renaud established a system of lectures
and debates on scientific subjects, the reports of which from
1633 to 1642 were published in 1651 with the title Recueil des
conferences publiques. Under the protection of Richelieu he
started the first French newspaper, the Gazette (1631), which
appeared weekly and contained political and foreign news.
He also edited the Mercure franc,ais and published all manner
of reports and pamphlets. In 1637 he opened in Paris the first
Mont de Piete, an institution of which he had seen the advantages
in Italy. In 1640 the medical faculty, headed by Guy Patin,
started a campaign against the innovator of the Grand Coq.
After the death of Richelieu and of Louis XIII. the victory of
Renaudot's enemies was practically certain. The parlement of
Paris ordered him to return the letters patent for the establish-
ment of his bureau and his Mont de Piete, and refused to allow
him to practise medicine in Paris. The Gazette remained, and
in 1646 Renaudot was appointed by Mazarin historiographer
to the king. During the first Fronde he had his printing presses
at Saint-Germain. He died on the 25th of October 1653. His
difficulties had been increased by his Protestant opinions. His
sons Isaac (d. 1688) and Eusebe (d. 1679) were students for ten
years before they could obtain their doctorates from the faculty.
They carried on their father's work, and defended the virtues
of antimony, laudanum and quinine against the schools.
See E. Hatin, Theodore Renaudot (Poitiers, 1883), and La Maison
du Coq (Paris, 1885) ; Michel Emery, Renaudot el I' introduction de la
medication chimique (Paris, 1889); and G. Bonnefont, Un Oublie.
Theophraste Renaudot (Limoges, n.d.).
RENDEZVOUS, a place of meeting appointed or arranged
for the assembling of troops, ships or persons. The word was
adopted in English at the end of the i6th century from the
French substantival use of the imperative rendez vous, i.e.
" render or betake yourselves."
RENDSBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Schleswig-Holstein, situated on the Eider and on the Kaiser
Wilhelm canal, in a flat and sandy districts 20 m. W. of Kiel, on
the Altona-Vamdrup railway. Pop. (1905) 15,577. It consists
of three parts the crowded Altstadt, on an island in the Eider;
the Neuwerk, on the south bank of the river; and the Kronwerk,
on the north bank. Rendsburg is the chief place in the basin of
the Eider, and when in the possession of Denmark was main-
tained as a fortress. Its present importance, however, rests on
the commercial facilities afforded by its connexion with the
North Sea and the Baltic through the Kaiser Wilhelm canal,
by which transit trade is carried on in grain, timber, Swedish
iron and coals. The principal industries are cotton-weaving,
tanning and the manufacture of artificial manures.
Rendsburg came into existence under the shelter of a castle
founded by the Danes about the year noo on an island of the
Eider, and was an object of dispute between the Danish kings
and the counts of Holstein. In 1252 it was adjudged to the
latter. The town was surrounded with ramparts in 1539, but
the fortifications of the Kronwerk were not constructed till
the end of the i7th century. During the Thirty Years' War
Rendsburg was taken both by the Imperialists and the Swedes,
but in 1645 it successfully resisted a second siege by the latter.
The war of 1848-50 began with the capture of Rendsburg by
the Holsteiners by a coup de main, and it formed the centre of
the German operations. On the departure of the German
troops in 1852 the Danes demolished the fortifications on the
north side. Immediately after the death of King Frederick VII.
(iSth of November 1863) the town was occupied by the Saxon
troops acting as the executive of the German Confederation, and
it was the base of the operations of the Austrians and Prussians
against Schleswig in the spring of the following year. On the
termination of the Danish war in 1864 Rendsburg was jointly
occupied by Austrian and Prussian military until 1866, when
it fell to Prussia.
See Warmstedt, Rendsburg (Kiel, 1850).
RENE I. (1400-1480), duke of Anjou, of Lorraine and Bar,
count of Provence and of Piedmont, king of Naples, Sicily and
Jerusalem, was born at Angers on the i6th of January 1409,
the second son of Louis II., king of Sicily, duke of Anjou,
count of Provence, and of Yolande of Aragon. Louis II. died
in 1417, and his sons, together with their brother-in-law, after-
wards Charles VII. of France, were brought up under the
guardianship of their mother. The elder, Louis III., succeeded
to the crown of Sicily and to the duchy of Anjou, Rene being
known as the count of Guise. By his marriage treaty (1419)
with Isabel, elder daughter of Charles II., duke of Lorraine, he
became heir to the duchy of Bar, which was claimed as the
inheritance of his mother Yolande, and, in right of his wife, heir
to the duchy of Lorraine. Rene, then only ten, wa"s'to be brought
up in Lorraine under the guardianship of Charles II. and Louis,
cardinal of Bar, both of whom were attached to the Burgundian
party, but he retained the right to bear the arms of Anjou.
He was far from sympathizing with the Burgundians, and,
joining the French army at Reims in 1429, was present at the
coronation of Charles VII. When Louis of Bar died in 1430
Rene came into sole possession of his duchy, and in the next
year, on his father-in-law's death, he succeeded to the duchy
of Lorraine. But the inheritance was claimed by the heir-male,
Antoine de Vaudemont, who with Burgundian help defeated
Rene at Bulgneville in July 1431. The Duchess Isabel effected
a truce with Antoine de Vaudemont, but the duke remained a
prisoner of the Burgundians until April 1432, when he recovered
his liberty on parole on yielding up as hostages his two sons,
Jean and Louis of Anjou. His title as duke of Lorraine was
confirmed by his suzerain, the Emperor Sigismund, at Basel
in 1434. This proceeding roused the anger of the Burgundian
duke, Philip the Good, who required him early in the next year
to return to his prison, from which he was released two years
later on payment of a heavy ransom. He had succeeded to
the kingdom of Naples through the deaths of his brother Louis III.
and of Jeanne II. de Duras, queen of Naples, the last heir
of the earlier dynasty. Louis had been adopted by her in
1431, and she now left her inheritance to Rene. The marriage
of Marie de Bourbon, niece of Philip of Burgundy, with John,
duke of Calabria, Rene's eldest son, cemented peace between the
two princes. After appointing a regency in Bar and Lorraine,
he visited his provinces of Anjou and Provence, and in 1438
set sail for Naples, which had been held for him by the Duchess
Isabel. Rent's captivity, and the poverty of the Angevin
resources due to his ransom, enabled Alphonso of Aragon, who
had been first adopted and then repudiated by Jeanne II.,
to make some headway in the kingdom of Naples, especially
as he was already in possession of the island of Sicily. In 1441
Alphonso laid siege to Naples, which he sacked after a six months'
siege. Rene returned to France in the same year, and though
he retained the title of king of Naples his effective rule was never
recovered. Later efforts to recover his rights in Italy failed.
His mother Yolande, who had governed Anjou in his absence,
died in 1442. Ren6 took part in the negotiations with the
English at Tours in 1444, and peace was consolidated by the
marriage of his younger daughter, Margaret, with Henry VI.
at Nancy. Rene now made over the government of Lorraine
to John, duke of Calabria, who was, however, only formally
installed as duke of Lorraine on the death of Queen Isabel in
xxm. 4
9 8
RENEE OF FRANCE RENFREWSHIRE
1453. Ren4 had the confidence of Charles VII., and is said to
have initiated the reduction of the men-at-arms set on foot by
the king, with whose military operations against the English
he was closely associated. He entered Rouen with him in
November 1449, and was also with him at Formigny and Caen.
After his second marriage with Jeanne de Laval, daughter
of Guy XIV., count of Laval, and Isabel of Brittany, Rene took
a less active part in public affairs, and devoted himself more to
artistic and literary pursuits. The fortunes of his house declined
in his old age. The duke of Calabria, after repeated misfortunes
in Italy, was offered the crown of Aragon in 1467, but died,
apparently by poison, at Barcelona on the i6th of December
1470; the duke's eldest son Nicholas perished in 1473, also
under suspicion of poisoning; Rene's daughter Margaret was
a refugee from England, her son Prince Edward was murdered
in 1471, and she herself became a prisoner, to be rescued by
Louis XI. in 1476. His only surviving male descendant was
then Rene II., duke of Lorraine, son of his daughter Yolande,
comtesse de Vaudemont, who was gained over to the party
of Louis XL, who suspected the king of Sicily of complicity
with his enemies, the duke of Brittany and the Constable Saint-
Pol. Rene retired to Provence, and in 1474 made a will by
which he left Bar to his grandson Rene II., duke of Lorraine;
Anjou and Provence to his nephew Charles, count of Le Maine.
Louis seized Anjou and Bar, and two years later sought to
compel the king of Sicily to exchange the two duchies for
a pension. The offer was rejected, but further negotiations
assured the lapse to the crown of the duchy of Anjou, and the
annexation of Provence was only postponed until the death
of the count of Le Maine. Rene died on the loth of July 1480,
his charities having earned for him the title of " the good."
He founded an order of chivalry, the Ordre du Croissant, which
was anterior to the royal foundation of St Michael, but did not
survive Rene.
The king of Sicily's fame as an amateur of painting has
led to the attribution to him of many old paintings in Anjou
and Provence, in many cases simply because they bear his
arms. These works are generally in the Flemish style, and
were probably executed under his patronage and direction, so
that he may be said to have formed a school of the fine arts
in sculpture, painting, gold work and tapestry. Two of the
most famous works formerly attributed to Rene are the triptych,
the " Burning Bush," in the cathedral of Aix, showing portraits
of Rene and his second wife, Jeanne de Laval, and an illumin-
ated Book of Hours in the Bibliotheque nationale, Paris. The
" Burning Bush " was in fact the work of Nicolas Froment, a
painter of Avignon. Among the men of letters attached to his
court was Antoine de la Sale, whom he made tutor to his son,
the duke of Calabria. He encouraged the performance of
mystery plays; on the performance of a mystery of the Passion
at Saumur in 1462 he remitted four years of taxes to the
town, and the representations of the Passion at Angers were
carried out under his auspices. He exchanged verses with his
kinsman, the poet Charles of Orleans. The best of his poems
is the idyl of Regnault and Jeanneton, representing his own
courtship of Jeanne de Laval. Le Livre des lournois, a book
of ceremonial, and the allegorical romance, Conqueste qu'un
chevalier nomme le Cuer d'amour espris feist d'une dame appelie
Doulce Mercy, with other works ascribed to him, were perhaps
dictated to his secretaries, or at least compiled under his direc-
tion. His (Euvres were published by the comte de Quatrebarbes
(4 vols., Paris and Angers, 1845-46).
See A. Lecoy de la Marche, Le Roi Rene (2 vols., 1875) ; A. Vallet
de Viriville, in the Nouvelle Biographie generate, where there is some
account of the MSS. of his works; and J. Renouvier, Les Peinlres
et enlumineurs du roi Rene (Montpellier, 1857).
RENEE OF FRANCE (1510-1575), second daughter 'of
Louis XII. and Anne of Brittany, was born at Blois on the 25th
of October 1510. After being betrothed successively to Gaston
de Foix, Charles of Austria (the future emperor Charles V.),
his brother Ferdinand, Henry VIII. of England, and the
elector Joachim II. of Brandenburg, she married in 1528
Hercules of Este, son of the duke of Ferrara, who succeeded his
father six years later. Renee's court became a rendezvous of
men of letters and a refuge for the persecuted French Calvinists.
She received Clement Marot and Calvin at her court, and
finally embraced the reformed religion. Her husband, however,
who viewed these proceedings with disfavour, banished her
friends, took her children from her, threw her into prison,
and eventually made her abandon at any rate the outward
forms of Calvinism. After his death in 1559, Renee returned
to France and turned her duchy of Montargis into a centre of
Protestant propaganda. During the wars of religion she was
several times molested by the Catholic troops, and in 1562 her
chateau was besieged by her son-in-law, the duke of Guise.
She died at Montargis.
See B. Fontana, Renata di Francia (Rome, 1889 seq.); and E.
Rodocanachi, Renee de France (Paris, 1896).
RENEVIER, EUGENE (1831- ), Swiss geologist, was born
at Lausanne on the 26th of March 1831. In 1857 he became
professor of geology and palaeontology in the university at
Lausanne. He is distinguished for his researches on the geology
and palaeontology of the Alps, on which subjects he published
numerous papers in the proceedings of the scientific societies in
Switzerland and France. With F. J. Pictet he wrote a memoir
on the Fossiles du terrain aptien de la Perte-du- Rhone (1854).
In 1894 he was appointed president of the Swiss Geological
Commission, and also of the International Geological Congress
held^hat year at Zurich, in the previous meetings of which he had
taken a prominent part. He published a noteworthy Tableau
des terrains sedimentaires (1874); and a second more elaborate
edition, accompanied by an explanatory article Chronographe
geologique, was issued in 1897 as a supplement to the Report of
the Zurich Congress. This new table was printed on coloured
sheets, the colours for each geological system corresponding
with those adopted on the International geological map of
Europe.
RENFREW, a royal, municipal and police burgh and county
town of Renfrewshire, Scotland, near the southern bank of the
Clyde, 7 m. W. by N. of Glasgow, via Cardonald, by the Glasgow
& South-Western and Caledonian railways (5 m. by road).
Pop. (1891) 6777; (1901) 9296. Industries include ship-
building (the construction of dredgers and floating docks is a
speciality), engineering, dyeing, weaving, chemicals and cabinet-
making. The Clyde trust has constructed a large dock here.
Renfrew belongs to the Kilmarnock district group of parlia-
mentary burghs (with Kilmarnock, Dumbarton, Rutherglen
and Port Glasgow). Robert III. gave a charter in 1396, but it
was a burgh (Renifry) at least 250 years earlier. About 1160
Walter Fitzalan, the first high steward of Scotland, built a castle
on an eminence by the side of the Clyde (still called Castle Hill),
the original seat of the royal house of Stewart. Close to the
town, on the site of Elderslie House, Somerled, lord of the
Isles, was defeated and slain in 1 164 by the forces of Malcolm IV.,
against whom he had rebelled. In 1464 Robert II. bestowed
upon his son James (afterwards James I.) the title of Baron of
Renfrew, still borne by the prince of Wales.
RENFREWSHIRE, a south-western county of Scotland,
bounded N. by the river and firth of Clyde, E. by Lanarkshire,
S. and S.W. by Ayrshire and W. by the firth of Clyde. A small
detached portion of the parish of Renfrew, situated on the
northern bank of the Clyde, is surrounded on the landward side
by Dumbartonshire. The county has an area of 153,332 acres,
or 239-6 sq. m. Excepting towards the Ayrshire border on the
south-west, where the principal heights are Hill of Stake (171 1 ft.),
East Girt Hill (1673), Misty Law (1663) and Creuch Hill (1446),
and the confines^ of Lanarkshire on the south-east, where a few
points attain an altitude of 1200 ft. the surface is undulating
rather than rugged. Much of the higher land in the centre is
well wooded. The Clyde forms part of the northern boundary
of the shire. In the N.W. Loch Thorn and Gryfe Reservoir
provide Greenock with water, and Balgray Reservoir and Glen
Reservoir reinforce the water-supply of a portion of the Glasgow
area. The other lakes are situated in the S. and S.E. and
RENFREWSHIRE
99
include Castle Semple Loch, Long Loch, Brother Loch, Black
Loch, Binend Loch and Dunwan Dam. The Glasgow, Paisley
and Johnstone canal has been converted since 1882 into the track
of the Glasgow & South-Western railway. Strathgryfe is the
only considerable vale in the shire. It extends from the
reservoir to below Bridge of Weir, a distance of 10 m. The
scenery at its head is somewhat wild and bleak, but the lower
reaches are pasture land. The wooded ravine of Glenkillock,
to the south of Paisley, is watered by Killock Burn, on which
are three falls.
Geology. Carboniferous rocks form the substratum of this county.
The hilly ground from the neighbourhood of Eaglesham north-
westward is formed of volcanic rocks, basalts, porphyrites, tuffs
and agglomerates of the age of the Cementstone group of the Cal-
ciferous Sandstone series. Here and there the sites of the volcanic
cones are distinguishable, the best being those between Misty Law
and Queenside Muir. Beneath the volcanic rocks are some red
sandstones and conglomerates which occupy a small tract between
Loch Thorn and the neighbourhood of Inverkip. Resting upon
the volcanic rocks is the Carboniferous Limestone series which at
the base consists of ashy sandstones and grits followed by the three
subdivisions prevalent in southern Scotland. With unimportant
exceptions, all the area north of the volcanic rocks is occupied by
the Carboniferous Limestone series. The beds lie in a faulted
basin around Linwood, and the following strata may be distinguished
from below upwards: the Hurlet coal and limestone, Lillies oil
shale, Hosie limestone, Johnstone clay ironstone and Cowglass lime-
stone along with other beds of ironstone and coal. The sandstone
of Giffnock, used for building; the limestone and coal of Orchard
with a very fossiliferous shale bed; and the limestone and coal of
Arden all belong to the same series. Besides the contemporaneous
volcanic rocks numerous intrusive sheets are found in the Carbon-
iferous rocks such as the large mass of basalt south of Johnstone;
and doleritic sheet of Quarrelton and the similar sheets N.E. of
Paisley. In the eastern part of the county, near the border the
coals and ironstones of this series near Shawlands and Crossmyloof
are faulted directly against the coal measures of Rutherglen. Tertiary
basalt dikes cut the older rocks in a S.E.-N.W. direction, for example
those on Misty Law. Glacial striae abound on the hilly ground,
those in the north indicating that the ice took a south-easterly
direction which farther south became south-westerly. Boulder
clays, gravels and sands also cover considerable areas. Copper
ore has been worked in the volcanic rocks near Lochwinnoch and
in the grey sandstones near Gourock.
Climate and Agriculture. The climate is variable. As the
prevailing west and south-west winds come in from the Atlantic
warm and full of moisture, contact with the land causes heavy
rains, and the western area of the shire is one of the wettest districts
in Scotland, the mean annual rainfall exceeding 60 in. The
temperature for the year averages about 48 F., for January 38-5 F.,
and for July 58-5 F. The hilly tract contains much peat-moss and
moorland, but over those areas which are not thus covered the
soil, which is a light earth on a substratum of gravel, is deep enough
to produce good pasture. In the undulating central region the
soil is better, particularly in the basins of the streams, while on the
flat lands adjoining the Clyde there is a rich alluvium which,
except when soured by excessive rain, yields heavy crops. Of the
total area three-fifths is under cultivation, more than half of this
being permanent pasture. Oats are grown extensively, and wheat
and barley are also cultivated. Potatoes, turnips and swedes,
and beans are the leading green crops. Near the populous centres
orchards and market gardens are found, and an increasing acreage
is under wood. Horses are kept mostly for farming operations,
and the bulk of the cattle are maintained in connexion with dairying.
Sheep-farming, though on the increase, is not prosecuted so vigor-
ously as in the other southern counties of Scotland, and pig-rearing
is on the decline.
Other Industries. Coal, iron, oil-shale and fireclay are the prin-
cipal minerals. Limestone is largely quarried for smelting purposes,
and for the manufacture of lime. Sandstone is also quarried.
The thread industry at Paisley is the most important in the world.
Cotton spinning, printing, bleaching and dyeing are carried on
at Paisley, Pollokshaws, Renfrew, Barrhead and elsewhere;
woollens and worsteds are produced at Paisley, Greenock and
Renfrew. Engineering works and iron and brass foundries are
found at Greenock, Port-Glasgow, Paisley, Renfrew, Barrhead and
Johnstone. Sugar is a staple article of trade in Greenock and
there are chemical works at Hurlet, Nltshill and Renfrew. Brewing
and distilling are carried on at Greenock, Paisley and other places.
Shipbuilding is especially important at Greenock and Port-Glasgow.
Paper mills are established in Greenock, Cathcart and Johnstone,
and tanneries in Paisley and Kilbarchan. Numerous miscellaneous
industries such as the making of starch, cornflour and preserves
have also grown up in Paisley and elsewhere. The sea and river
ports are Greenock, Port-Glasgow and Renfrew.
Railway communication is ample in the north, the centre and
towards the south-west. The Caledonian railway runs westwards
from Glasgow by Paisley to Greenock, Gourock and Wemyss Bay ;
south-westwards to Barrhead and other stations; and southwards
to Busby. The Glasgow & South-Western railway runs to
Greenock by Paisley, Johnstone and Kilmalcolm ; to Nitshill and
other places south-westwards; by Lochwinnoch (for Dairy and
Ardrossan in Ayrshire); and to Renfrew jointly with the Cale-
donian. The Clyde and the railway steamers call at Renfrew,
Prince's Pier (Greenock), Gourock and Wemyss Bay.
Population and Administration. In 1891 the population
numbered 230,812, and in 1901 it was 268,980, or 1123 to the
sq. m. In 1901 there were 40 persons who spoke Gaelic only
and 5585 Gaelic and English. Thus though the shire is
but twenty-seventh in point of size of the 33 Scottish
counties, it is fifth in respect of population, and only Lanarkshire
and Mid Lothian are more densely populated. The county is
divided into the upper ward, embracing the easterly two-thirds,
with Paisley as district centre, and the lower ward, consisting of
the parishes of Inverkip, Greenock, Port-Glasgow and Kil-
malcolm, with Greenock as district centre. The chief towns
are Paisley (pop. 79,363), Greenock (68,142), Port-Glasgow
(16,857), Pollokshaws (11,369), Johnstone (11,331), Barrhead
(9855), Renfrew (9296), Gourock (5261), Cathcart (5808). The
shire returns one member to parliament for the eastern, and
another for the western division. Paisley and Greenock return
each one member, and Renfrew and Port-Glasgow belong to the
Kilmarnock district, group of parliamentary burghs. Renfrew-
shire forms a sheriffdom with Bute, and there is a resident
sheriff-substitute at Paisley and one at Greenock-. The county
is under school-board jurisdiction. For secondary and special-
ized education there are an academy at Greenock and a grammar
school and technical school at Paisley, while some of the schools
in the county earn grants for higher education. The county
secondary committee also makes provision for the free educa-
tion of Renfrewshire children in Glasgow High School and the
Spier School at Beith. The Paisley Technical School and the
Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College are subsidized
out of the " residue " grant, part of which also defrays the
travelling expenses of students and supports science and art
and technological classes in the burghs and towns in the county.
History. At the time of the Roman advance from the Solway
the land was peopled by the British tribe of Damnonii. To
hold the natives in check the conquerors built in 84 the fort of
Vanduara on high ground now covered by houses and streets
in Paisley; but after the Romans retired (410) the territory
was overrun by Cumbrian Britons and formed part of the
kingdom of Strathclyde, the capital of which was situated
at Alclyde, the modern Dumbarton. In the 7th and 8th cen-
turies the region practically passed under the supremacy of
Northumbria, but in the reign of Malcolm Canmore became
incorporated with the rest of Scotland. During the first half
of the 1 2th century, Walter Fitzalan, high steward of Scotland,
ancestor of the royal house of Stuart, settled in Renfrewshire
on an estate granted to him by David I. Till their accession
to the throne the Stuarts identified themselves with the district,
which, however, was only disjoined from Lanarkshire in 1404.
In that year Robert III. erected the barony of Renfrew and
the Stuart estates into a separate county, which, along with
the earldom of Carrick and the barony of King's Kyle (both in
Ayrshire), was bestowed upon his son, afterwards James I.
From their grant are derived the titles of earl of Carrick and
baron of Renfrew, borne by the eldest son of the sovereign.
Apart from such isolated incidents as the defeat of Somerled
near Renfrew in 1164, the battle of Langside in 1568 and the
capture of the 9th earl of Argyll at Inchinnan in 1685, the
history of the shire is scarcely separable from that of Paisley or
the neighbouring county of Lanark.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Description of the Sheriffdom of Lanark and
Renfrew (Maitland Club, 1831); W. Hector, Lichens from an Old
Abbey (Paisley, 1876); Vanduara (Paisley, 1881); Gilmour,
Paisley, Weavers of Other Days (Paisley, 1879); D. Campbell, His-
torical Sketches of the Town and Harbours of Greenock (1879-81);
Old Greenock (Greenock, 1888); Craig, Historical Notes on Paisley
(Paisley, 1881); A. H. Millar, Castles and Mansions of Renfrew
(Glasgow, 1889).
IOO
RENNELL RENNEVILLE
RENNELL, JAMES (1742-1830), British geographer, was born
on the 3rd of December 1742, near Chudleigh in Devonshire.
His father, an officer in the Artillery, was killed in action shortly
after the birth of his son. He entered the navy as a mid-
shipman in 1756, and was present at the attack on Cherbourg
(1758), and the disastrous action of St Cast in the same year.
At the end of the Seven Years' War, seeing no chance of pro-
motion, he entered the service of the East India Company, and
was appointed surveyor of the Company's dominions in Bengal
(1764), with the rank of captain in the Bengal Engineers. To
this work he devoted the next thirteen years. In 1766 he
received a severe wound in an encounter with some Sannyasis,
or religious fanatics, from which he never thoroughly recovered;
and in 1777 he retired as major on a pension of 600 a year.
The remaining fifty-three years of his life were spent in London,
and were devoted to geographical research chiefly among the
materials in the East India House. His most valuable works
include the Bengal Atlas (1779), the first approximately correct
map of India (1783), the Geographical System of Herodotus (1800),
the Comparative Geography of Western Asia (1831), and im-
portant studies on the geography of northern Africa in intro-
ductions to the Travels of Mungo Park and Hornemann and
the currents of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. He also
contributed papers to Archaeologia on the site of Babylon, the
island of St Paul's shipwreck, and the landing-place of Caesar
in Britain. He was elected F.R.S. in 1781; and he received
the Copley medal of the Royal Society in 1791, and the gold
medal of the Royal Society of Literature in 1825. While in
India he had married (1772) Jane Thackeray, a great-aunt of
the novelist. He died on the zgth of March 1830, and was
buried in the nave of Westminster Abbey.
See Sir Clements Markham, Major James Rennell and the Rise of
Modern English Geography (London, 1895).
RENNES, a town of western France, formerly the capital of
Brittany and now the chief town of the department of Ille-et-
Vilaine. Pop. town, 62,024; commune, 75,640. Rennes is
situated at the meeting of the Ille and the Vilaine and at the
junction of several lines of railway connecting it with Paris
(232 m. E.N.E.), St Malo (51 m. N.N.W.), Brest (155 m.
W.N.W.). A few narrow winding streets with old houses are
left in the vicinity of the cathedral, but the town was for the
most part rebuilt on a regular plan after the seven days' fire of
1720. Dark granite was used as building material. The old
town or Ville-Haute, where the chief buildings are situated,
occupies a hill bounded on the south by the Vilaine, on the
west by the canalized Ille. The Vilaine flows in a deep hollow
bordered with quays and crossed by six bridges leading to the
new town or Ville-Basse on its left bank. The cathedral of
Rennes was rebuilt in a pseudo-Ionic style between 1787 and
1844 on the site of two churches dating originally from the
4th century. The west facade with its twin towers was finished
in 1700 and is in the Renaissance style. The interior is richly
decorated, a German altar-piece of the isth century being
conspicuous for its carving and gilding. The archbishop's
palace occupies in part the site of the abbey dedicated to St
Melaine, whose church is the sole specimen of n-i3th cen-
tury architecture among the numerous churches in the town.
A colossal statue of the Virgin was placed above its dome in
1867. The Mordelaise Gate, by which the dukes and bishops
used to make their state entry into the town, is a curious example
of isth-century architecture, and preserves a Latin inscription
of the 3rd century, a dedication by the Redones to the emperor
Gordianus. The finest building in Rennes is the old parliament
house (now the law-court), designed by Jacques Debrosse in
the 1 7th century, and decorated with statues of legal celebrities,
carving, and paintings by Jean Jouvenet and other well-known
artists. The town hall was erected in the first half of the i8th
century. It contains the library and the municipal archives,
which are of great importance for the history of Brittany. In
the Palais Universitaire, a modern building occupied by the
university, there are scientific collections and important galleries
of painting and sculpture, the chief work being the " Perseus
delivering Andromeda " of Paul Veronese. About 2 m. from
the town is the castle (i6th century) of La Prevalaye, a hamlet
famous for its butter.
Rennes is the seat of an archbishop and a prefect, head-
quarters of the X. army corps and centre of an acadimie (educa-
tional division). Its university has faculties of law, science and
letters, and a preparatory school of medicine and pharmacy,
and there are training colleges, a Iyc6e and schools of agriculture,
dairying, music, art, architecture and industry (cole pratique).
The town is also the seat of a court of appeal, of a court of
assizes, of tribunals of first instance and commerce, and of a
chamber of commerce, and has a branch of the Bank of France.
Tanning, iron-founding, timber-sawing and the production of
furniture and wooden goods, flour-milling, flax-spinning and the
manufacture of tenting and other coarse fabrics, bleaching and
various smaller industries are carried on. Trade is chiefly in
butter made in the neighbourhood, and in grain, flour, leather,
poultry, eggs and honey.
Rennes, the chief c.ty of the Redones, was formerly (like some
other places in Gaul) called Condate (hence Condat, Conde),
probably from its position at the confluence of two streams.
Under the Roman empire it was included in Lugdunensis Tertia,
and became the centre of various Roman roads still recognizable
in the vicinity The name Urbs Rubra given to it on the oldest
chronicles is explained by the bands of red brick in the founda-
tions of its first circuit of walls. About the close of the loth
century Conan le Tort, count of Rennes, subdued the whole
province, and his son and successor Geoffrey first took the title
duke of Brittany. The dukes were crowned at Rennes, and
before entering the city by the Mordelaise Gate they had to
swear to preserve the privileges of the church, the nobles and
the commons of Brittany. During the War of Succession the
city more than once suffered siege, notably in 1356-57, when
Bertrand du Gu'esclin saved it from capture by the English
under Henry, first duke of Lancaster. The parlement of
Brittany, founded in 1551, held its sessions at Rennes from 1561,
they having been previously shared with Nantes. During the
troubles of the League Philip Emmanuel, duke of Mercosur,
attempted to make himself independent at Rennes (1589), but
his scheme was defeated by the loyalty of the parlement.
Henry IV. entered the city in state on the 9th of May 1598.
In 1675 an insurrection at Rennes, caused by the taxes imposed
by Louis XIV. in spite of the advice of the parlement, was
cruelly suppressed by Charles, duke of Chaulnes, governor of
the province. The parlement was banished to Vannes till 1689,
and the inhabitants crushed with forfeits and put to death in
great numbers. The fire of 1720, which destroyed eight hundred
houses, completed the ruin of the town. At the beginning of
the Revolution Rennes was again the scene of bloodshed, caused
by the discussion about doubling the third estate for the con-
vocation of the states-general. In January 1789, Jean Victor
Moreau (afterwards general) led the law-students in their
demonstrations on behalf of the parlement against the royal
government. During the Reign of Terror Rennes suffered less
than Nantes, partly through the courage and uprightness of the
mayor, Jean Leperdit. It was soon afterwards the centre of the
operations of the Republican army against the Vendeans. The
bishopric, founded in the 5th century, in 1859 became an arch-
bishopric, a rank to which it had previously been raised from
1790 to 1802. In 1899 the revision of the sentence of Captain
Alfred Dreyfus was carried out at Rennes.
See Grain, Rennes et ses environs (Reims, 1904).
RENNEVILLE, RENE AUGUSTE CONSTANTIN DE (1650-
1723), French writer, was born at Caen in 1650. In consequence
of his Protestant principles, he left France for Holland in 1699,
and on his return three years later he was denounced as a spy
and imprisoned in the Bastille, where he remained until 1713.
During his imprisonment he wrote on the margins of a copy
of Auteurs deguises (Paris, 1690) poems which he called Olia
bastiliaca. These were rediscovered by Mr James Tregaski in
1906. Renneville was set at liberty through the intercession of
Queen Anne, and made his way to England, where he published
RENNIE RENOUF
101
his Histoiredela Bastille (7 vols., 1713-24), dedicated to George I.
At the time of his death in 1723 he was a major of artillery in the
" service of the elector of Hesse. His other important work is a
Recueil des voyages qui ont servi A I'etablissement de la Compagnie
des Indes Orientals aux Provinces Unies (10 vols., new ed.,
Rouen, 1725).
RENNIE, JOHN (i 761-1821), British engineer, was the youngest
son of James Rennie, a farmer at Phantassie, Haddingtonshire,
where he was born on the 7th of June 1761. On his way to
the parish school at East Linton he used to pass the workshop
of Andrew Meikle (1710-1800), the inventor of the threshing
machine, and its attractions were such that he spent there much
of the time that was supposed to be spent at school. In his
twelfth year he was placed under Meikle, but after two years he
was sent to Dunbar High School, where he showed marked
aptitude for mathematics. On his return to Phantassie he
occasionally assisted Meikle, and soon began to erect corn mills
on his own account. In 1780, while continuing his millwright's
business, he began to attend the classes on physical science at
Edinburgh University. Four years later he was commissioned
by Boulton and Watt, to whom he was introduced by Professor
John Robison (1739-1805), his teacher at Edinburgh, to super-
intend the construction of the machinery for the Albion flour
mills, which they were building at the south end of Blackfriars
Bridge, London, and a feature of his work there was the use of
iron for many portions of the machines which had formerly been
made of wood. The completion of these mills established his
reputation as a mechanical engineer, and soon secured him a
large business as a maker of millwork of all descriptions. But
his fame chiefly rests on his achievements in civil engineering.
As a canal engineer his services began to be in request about
1790, and the Avon and Kennet, the Rochdale and the Lancaster
canals may be mentioned among his numerous works in England.
His skill solved the problem of draining and'reclaiming extensive
tracts of marsh in the eastern counties and on the Sol way Firth.
As a bridge engineer he was responsible for many structures in
England and Scotland, among the most conspicuous being three
over the Thames Waterloo Bridge, Southwark Bridge and
London Bridge the last of which he did not live to see com-
pleted. A noteworthy feature in many of his designs was the
flat roadway. Among the harbours and docks in the construction
of which he was concerned may be mentioned those at Wick,
Torquay, Grimsby, Holyhead, Howth, Kingstown and Hull,
together with the London dock and the East India dock on the
Thames, and he was consulted by the government in respect of
improvements at the dockyards of Portsmouth, Sheerness,
Chatham and Plymouth, where the breakwater was built from
his plans. He died in London on the 4th of October 1821, and
was buried in St Paul's. In person he was of great stature and
strength, and a bust of him by Chantrey (now in the National
Gallery), when exhibited at Somerset House, obtained the name
of Jupiter Tonans. Of his family, the eldest son George, who was
born in London on the 3rd of September 1791 and died there
on the 3oth of March 1866, carried on his father's business in
partnership with the second son John, who was born in London
on the 30th of August 1794 and died near Hertford on the 3rd
of September 1874. George devoted himself especially to the
mechanical side of the business. John completed the con-
struction of London Bridge, and at its opening in 1831 was made
a knight. He succeeded his father as engineer to the Admiralty,
and finished the Plymouth breakwater, of which he published
an account in 1848. He was also the author of a book on the
Theory, Formation and Construction of British and Foreign
Harbours (1851-54), and his Autobiography appeared in 1875.
He was elected president of the Institution of Civil Engineers
in 1845, and held the office for three years.
RENO, a city and the county-seat of Washoe county, Nevada,
U.S.A., in the W. part of the state, on the Truckee river, and
about 244 m. E. of San Francisco. Pop. (1890) 3563; (1900)
4500 (915 foreign-born); (1910 census) 10,867. It is served by
the Southern Pacific, the Virginia & Truckee and the Nevada-
California-Oregon railways. The city lies near the foot of the
Sierra Nevada Mountains, 4484 ft. above the sea, and is in the
most humid district of a state which has little rainfall. Among
the public institutions are the university of Nevada (see NEVADA),
a United States Agricultural Experiment Station, a public library
(1903), the Nevada Hospital for Mental Diseases (1882), the City
and County Hospital and the People's Hospital. At Reno are
railway shops (of the Nevada-California-Oregon railway) and re-
duction works, and the manufactures include flour, foundry and
machine-shop products, lumber, beer, plaster and packed meats.
Farming and stock-raising are carried on extensively in the
vicinity. On the site of the present city a road house was
erected in 1859 for the accommodation of travellers and freight
teams on their way to and from California. By 1863 this place
had become known as Lake's Crossing, and five years later it was
chosen as a site for a station by the Central (now the Southern)
Pacific railway, then building through the Truckee Valley.
The new station was then named Reno, in honour of Gen. Jesse
Lee Reno (1823-1862), a Federal officer during the Civil War,
who was commissioned brigadier-general of volunteers in
November 1861 and major-general of volunteers in July 1862,
and led the Ninth Corps at South Mountain, where he was killed.
The city twice suffered from destructive fires, in 1873 and 1879.
Reno was incorporated as a town in 1879 and chartered as a city
in 1899. Its city charter was withdrawn in 1901, but it was
rechartered in 1903.
RENOIR, FIRMIN AUGUSTE (1841- ), French painter,
was born at Limoges in 1841. In his early work he followed,
with pronounced modern modifications, certain traditions of
the French 18th-century school, more particularly of Boucher,
of whom we are reminded by the decorative tendency, the pink
and ivory flesh tints and the facile technique of Renoir. In
the 'seventies he threw himself into the impressionist movement
and became one of its leaders. In some of his paintings he
carried the new principle of the division of tones to its extreme,
but in his best work, notably in some of his paintings of the
nude, he retained much of the refined sense of beauty of colour
of the 1 8th century. Renoir has tried his skill almost in every
genre in portraiture, landscape, flower-painting, scenes of modern
life and figure subject; and though he is perhaps the most un-
equal of the great impressionists, his finest works rank among the
masterpieces of the modern French school. Among these are
some of his nude " Bathers," the " Rowers' Luncheon," the
" Ball at the Moulin de la Galette," " The Box," " The Terrace,"
" La Pensee," and the portrait of " Jeanne Samary." He is
represented in the Caillebotte toom at the Luxembourg, in the
collection of M. Durand-Ruel, and in most of the collections of
impressionist paintings in France and in the United States.
Comparatively few of his works have come to England, but the
full range of his capacity was seen at the exhibition of impres-
sionist art held at the Grafton Galleries in London in 1905.
At the Viau sale in Paris in 1907, a garden scene by Renoir,
" La Tonnelle," realized 26,000 frs., and a little head, " Ingenue,"
25,100 frs.
RENOUF, SIR PETER LE PAGE (1822-1897), Egyptologist,
was born in Guernsey, on the 23rd of August 1822. He was
educated at Elizabeth College there, and proceeded to Oxford,
which, upon his becoming a Roman Catholic, under the influence
of Dr Newman, he quitted without taking a degree. Like many
other Anglican converts, he proved a thorn in the side of the
Ultramontane party in the Roman Church, though he did not,
like some of them, return to the communion of the Church of
England. He opposed the promulgation of the dogma of Papal
Infallibility, and his treatise (1868) upon the condemnation of
Pope Honorius for heresy by the council of Constantinople in
A.D. 680 was placed upon the index of prohibited books. He
had been from 1855 to 1864 professor of ancient history and
Oriental languages in the Roman Catholic university which
Newman vainly strove to establish in Dublin, and during part
of this period edited the Atlantis and the Home and Foreign
Review, which latter had to be discontinued on account of the
hostility of the Roman Catholic hierarchy. In 1864 he was
appointed a government inspector of schools, which position he
102
RENOUVIER RENT
held until 1886, when his growing celebrity as an Egyptologist
procured him the appointment of Keeper of Oriental Antiquities
in the British Museum, in succession to Dr Samuel Birch. He
was also elected in 1887 president of the Society of Biblical
Archaeology, to whose Proceedings he was a constant contri-
butor. The most important of his contributions to Egyptology
are his Hibbert Lectures on " The Religion of the Egyptians,"
delivered in 1879; and the translation of The Book of the Dead,
with an ample commentary, published in the Transactions of the
society over which he presided. He retired from the Museum
under the superannuation rule in 1891, and died in London on
the 1 4th of October 1897. He had been knighted the year
before his death. He married in 1857 Ludovica von Brentano,
member of a well-known German literary family.
RENOUVIER, CHARLES BERNARD (1815-1903), French
philosopher, was born at Montpellier on the ist of January 1818,
and educated in Paris at the Ecole Polytechnique. In early
life he took an interest in politics, and the approval extended by
Hippolyte Carnot to his Manuel republicain de I'homme et du
citoyen (1848) was the occasion of that minister's fall. He
never held public employment, but spent his life writing, retired
from the world. He died on the ist of September 1903. Ren-
ouvier was the first Frenchman after Malebranche to formulate
a complete idealistic system, and had a vast influence on the
development of French thought. His system is based on Kant's,
as his chosen term " Neo-criticisme " indicates; but it is a trans-
formation rather than a continuation of Kantianism. The two
leading ideas are a dislike to the Unknowable in all its forms,
and a reliance on the validity of our personal experience. The
former accounts for his acceptance of Kant's phenomenalism,
combined with rejection of the thing in itself. It accounts, too,
for his polemic on the one hand against a Substantial Soul, a
Buddhistic Absolute, an Infinite Spiritual Substance; on the
other hand against the no less mysterious material or dynamic
substratum by which naturalistic Monism explains the world.
He holds that nothing exists except presentations, which are
not merely sensational, and have an objective aspect no less
than a subjective. To explain the formal organization of
our experience he adopts a modified version of the Kantian
categories. The insistence on the validity of personal experience
leads Renouvier to a yet more important divergence from Kant
in his treatment of volition. Liberty, he says, in a much wider
sense than Kant, is man's fundamental characteristic. Human
freedom acts in the phenomenal, not in an imaginary noiimenal
sphere. Belief is not intellectual merely, but is determined by
an act of will affirming what we hold to be morally good. In
his religious views Renouvier makes a considerable approxima-
tion to Leibnitz. He holds that we are rationally justified in
affirming human immortality and the existence of a finite God
who is to be a constitutional ruler, but not a despot, over the
souls of men. He would, however, regard atheism as preferable
to a belief in an infinite Deity.
His chief works are: Essais de critique generate (1854-64), Science
de la morale (1869), Uchronie (1876), Esquisse d'une classification
systematique des doctrines philosophiqu.es (1885-86), Philosophie
analytique de I'histoire (1896-97), Histoire et solution des problemes
metaphysiques (1901); Victor Hugo: Le Polite (1893), Le Philo-
sophe (1900); Les Dilemmes de la metaphysique pure (1901); Le
Personnalisme (1903) ; Critique de la doctrine de Kant (J9O6, pub-
lished by L. Prat).
See L. Prat, Les Verniers entreiiens de Charles Renouvier (1904) ;
M. Ascher, Renouvier und der franzosische Neu-Kriticismus (1900) ;
E. Janssens, Le Neocriticisme de C. R. (1904); A. Darlu, La Morale
de Renouvier (1904); G. Seailles, La Philosophie de C. R. (1905);
A. Arnal, La Philosophie religieuse de C. R. (1907).
RENSSELAER, a city of Rensselaer county, New York,
U.S.A., in the eastern part of the state, on the E. bank of the
Hudson river, opposite Albany. Pop. (1900) 7466, of whom
1089 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 10,711. It is served
by the New York Central and the Boston & Albany rail-
ways, which have shops here, and is connected with Albany
by three bridges across the Hudson. Rensselaer, originally
called Greenbush, was first settled in 1631, and the site formed
part of the large tract bought from the Indians by the agents
of Killian van Rensselaer and known as Rensselaerwyck. In
1810 a square mile of land within the present city limits was
acquired by a land speculator, was divided into lots and offered
for sale. Development followed, and five years later the village
was incorporated. In 1897 Greenbush was chartered as a
city, and its name was changed to Rensselaer. Its limits were
extended in 1902 by the annexation of the village of Bath
(pop. in 1900, 2504) and the western part of the township of
East Greenbush. Rensselaer manufactures knit-goods, wool
shoddy, felt, &c.
RENT. Various species of rent appear in Roman Law: rent
(canon) under the long leasehold tenure of Emphyteusis; rent
(reditus) of a farm; ground-rent (solarium); rent of state
lands (wctigal); and the annual rent (prensio) payable
for the jus superficiarum or right to the perpetual enjoy-
ment of anything built on the surface of land. (See ROMAN
LAW.)
ENGLISH LAW. (As to the rent of apartments, &c., see
LODGER AND LODGINGS.) Rent is a certain and periodical
payment or service made or rendered by the tenant of a corporeal
hereditament and issuing out of (the property of) such heredita-
ment. Its characteristics, therefore, are (i) certainty in amount;
(2) periodicity in payment or rendering; (3) the fact that rent
is yielded and is, therefore, said " to lie in render," as distinguished
from profits d prendre in general, which are taken, and are,
therefore, said to lie in prendre; (4) that it must issue out of
(the profits of) a corporeal hereditament. A rent cannot be
reserved out of incorporeal hereditaments such as advowsons
(Co. Litt. 473, I42a). But rent may be reserved out of estates
in reversion or remainder (see REAL PROPERTY) which are not
purely incorporeal. It is not essential that rent should consist
in a payment of money. Apart from the rendering of services,
the delivery of hens, horses, wheat, &c., may constitute a rent.
But, at the present day, rent is generally a sum of money paid
for the occupation of land. It is important to notice that this
conception of rent was attained at a comparatively late period
in the history of the law. The earliest rent seems to have been
a form of personal service, generally labour on land, and was
fixed by custom. The exaction of a competition or rack rent
beyond that limited by custom was, if one may judge from the old
Brehon law of Ireland, due to the presence upon the land of
strangers in blood, probably at first outcasts from some other
group. 1 The strict feudal theory of rent admitted labour on
the lord's land as a lower form, and developed the military
service due to the crown or a lord as a higher form. Rent service
is the oldest and most dignified kind of existing rent. It is
the only one to which the power of distress attaches at common
law, giving the landlord a preferential right over other creditors
exercisable without the intervention of judicial authority (see
DISTRESS). The increasing importance of socage tenure,
arising in part from the convenience of paying a certain amount,
whether in money or kind, rather than comparatively uncertain
services, led to the gradual evolution of the modern view of
rent as a sum due by contract between two independent persons.
At the same time the primitive feeling which regarded the
position of landlord and tenant from a social rather than a
commercial point of view is still of importance.
Rents, as they now exist in England, are divided passes
/ of Keats.
into two great classes rent service and rent charge.
Rent Service. A rent service is so called because by it a
tenure by means of service is created between the landlord
and the tenant. The service is now represented by fealty, and
is nothing more than nominal. Rent service is said to be
incident to the reversion that is, a grant of the reversion carries
the rent with it (see REMAINDER) . A power of distress is incident
'"The three rents are: rack rent from a person of a strange
tribe, a fair rent from one of the tribe, and the stipulated rent which
is paid equally by the tribe and the strange tribe." Senchus Mor,
p. 159, cited by Maine, Village Communities, p. 187. See also
Vinogradoff, Villainage in England (Oxford, 1892), pp. 181, 188,
215; The Growth of the Manor (by the same author) (London, 1905),
pp. 230, 328; Pollock and Maitland, Hist. Eng. Law (Cambridge,
1895), ii. 128-134.
RENT
103
at common law to this form of rent. Copyhold rents and rents
reserved on lease fall into this class.
Rent Charge. A rent charge is a grant of an annual sum
payable out of lands in which the grantor has an estate. It
may be in fee, in tail, for life the most common form or for
years. It must be created by deed or will, and may be either
at common law or under the Statute of Uses (1536). The
grantor has no reversion, and the grantee has at common law no
power of distress, though such power may be given him by the
instrument creating the rent charge. The Statute of Uses (1536)
gave a power of distress for a rent charge created under the
statute. The Conveyancing Act 1881, 44, has given a power
of distress for a sum due on any rent charge which is twenty-one
days in arrear. By 45 a power of redemption of certain per-
petual rents in the nature of rent charges is given to the owner
of the land out of which the rent issues. Rent charges granted
since April 26th, 1855, otherwise than by marriage settlement
or will for a life or lives or for any estate determinable on a life
or lives must, in order to bind lands against purchasers, mort-
gagees or creditors, be registered in the Land Registry in
Lincoln's Inn Fields (Judgments Act 1855 and Land Charges
Act 1900). In certain other cases it is also necessary to register
rent charges, for instance, under the Improvement of Land
Act 1864 and the Land Transfer Acts 1875 and 1897. Rent
charges are barred by non-payment or non-acknowledgment
for twelve years. The period of limitation for the arrears of
such rent is six years.
Various Forms of Rent Charge. Forms of rent charge of special
interest are tithe rent charge (see TITHES), and the rent charges
formerly used for the purpose of creating " faggot votes." The
device was adopted of creating parliamentary voters by splitting
up freehold interests into a number of rent-charges of the annual
value of 405., so as to satisfy the freeholders' franchise. But
such rent charges are now rendered ineffective by the Repre-
sentation of the People Act 1884, 4, which enacts (subject to a
saving for existing rights and an exception in favour of owners
of tithe rent charge) that a man shall not be entitled to be
registered as a voter in respect of the ownership of any rent
charge.
A rent charge reserved without power of distress is termed a
rent-seek (reditus siccus) or " dry rent," from the absence of the
power of distress. But, as power of distress for rents-seek was
given by the Landlord and Tenant Act 1736, the legal effect
of such rents has been since the act the same as that of a rent
charge.
Other Varieties of Rent. Rents of assize or Quit rents are a relic
of the old customary rents. They are presumed to have been
established by usage, and cannot be increased or diminished. A
Quit rent (quietus reditus) is a yearly payment made from time
immemorial by freeholders or copyholders of a manor to the lord.
The term implies that the tenant thereby becomes free and quit
from all other services. Owing to the change in the value of money,
these rents are now of little value. Under the Conveyancing Act
1 88 1 (s. 45) they may be compulsorily redeemed by the freehold
tenant; and the Copyhold Act 1894 provides similarly for their
extinction in the case of manors. Quit rents, like ordinary rent
charges, are barred by non-payment, or non-acknowledgment, for
twelve years. Those paid by freeholders are called chief rents.
Fee farm rents are rents reserved on grants in fee. According to
some authorities, they must be at least one-fourth of the value of
the lands. They, like quit rents, now occur only in manors,
unless existing before the Statute of Quia Emptores or created by
the crown (see REAL PROPERTY). A rent which is equivalent
or nearly equivalent in amount to the full annual value of the land
is a rack rent. A rent which falls appreciably short of a rack rent
is usually styled a ground rent (q.v.). It is generally reserved on
land which the lessee agrees to cover with buildings, and is calculated
on the value of the land, though the buildings to be erected increase
the security for the rent and revert to the Tessor at the end of the
term. A dead rent is a fixed annual sum paid by a person working
a mine or quarry, in addition to royalties varying according to the
amount of minerals taken.
The object of a dead rent is twofold first, to provide a specified
income on which the lessor can rely; secondly (and this is the
more important reason), as a security that the mine will be worked,
and worked with reasonable rapidity. Rents in kind still exist
to a limited extent; thus the corporation of London is tenant of
some lands in Shropshire by payment to the crown of an annual
rent of a fagot. All peppercorn, or nominal, rents seem to fall under
this head. 1 The object of the peppercorn rent is to secure the
acknowledgment by the tenant ot the landlord's right. In modern
building leases a peppercorn rent is sometimes reserved as the
rent for the first few years. Services rendered in lieu of payment
by tenants in grand and petit serjeanty may also be regarded as
examples of rents in kind. Grand serjeanty is a form of tenure in
chivalry under which the king's tenants (servientes) in chief owed
special military or personal services to the king; e.g. carrying his
banner. Petit serjeanty a form of tenure in socage was usually
applied to tenure of the king or a mcsne lord by some fixed service
of trivial value, e.g. feeding his hounds. These forms of tenure
were abolished in 1660. Labour rents are represented by those
cases, not unfrequent in agricultural leases, where the tenant is
bound to render the landlord a certain amount of team work or
other labour as a part of his rent. It was held in the court of
queen's bench in 1845 that tenants who occupied houses on the
terms of sweeping the parish church and of ringing the church belt
paid rent within the meaning of the Limitation Act of 1833 (see
Doe v. Benham (1845), 7 Q.B. 976).
As to the apportionment of rents, see APPORTIONMENT.
Payment of Rent. Rent is due in the morning of the day
appointed for payment, but a tenant is not in arrears until after
midnight on that day. Rent made payable in advance
by agreement between a landlord and his tenant is
called forehand rent. It is not uncommon in letting payment.
a furnished house, or as to the last quarter of the
term of a lease of unfurnished premises, to stipulate that the
rent shall be paid in advance. As soon as such rent is payable
under the agreement the landlord has the same rights in regard
to it as he has in the case of ordinary rent. If' a tenant pays
his rent before the day on which it is due, he runs the risk of
being called upon in certain circumstances to pay it over again.
Such a 'payment is an advance to the landlord, subject to an
agreement that, when the rent becomes due, the advance shall be
treated as a fulfilment of the tenant's obligation to pay rent. The
payment is, therefore, generally speaking, a defence to an action
by the landlord or his heirs. But if the landlord mortgages his
reversion, either before or after the advance, the assignee will,
by giving notice to the tenant, before the proper rent-day, to pay
rent to him, become entitled to the rent then falling due. Pay-
ment by cheque is conditional payment only, and if the cheque is
dishonoured the original obligation revives. Where a cheque
in payment of rent is lost in the course of transmission through
the post, the loss falls on the tenant, unless the landlord has
expressly or impliedly authorized it to be forwarded in that
way: and the landlord's consent to take the risk of such trans-
mission will not be inferred from the fact that payments were
ordinarily made in this manner in the dealings between the
parties. A tenant may deduct from his rent (i) the " land-
lord's property tax " (on the annual value of the premises for
income tax purposes), which is paid by the tenant, if the statute
imposing the tax authorizes the deduction (which should be
made from the rent next due after the payment); (ii) taxes or
rates which the landlord had undertaken to pay but had not
paid, payment having thereupon been made by the tenant; (iii)
payments made by the tenant which ought to have been made
by the landlord, e.g. rent due to a superior landlord; (iv) com-
pensation under the Agricultural Holdings Acts 1883-1900.
Remedies for Non-payment of Rent. A landlord's main remedy
for non-payment of rent is distress (Lat. distringere, to draw
asunder, detain, occupy), i.e. the right to seize all goods found
upon the demised premises, whether those of the tenant or of
a stranger, except goods specially privileged, and to detain and,
if need be, to sell them, in satisfaction of his claim. The
requisites of a valid distress are these: (a) There must be " a
certain and proper rent," i.e. rent due in respect of an actual
tenancy of corporeal hereditaments: (b) the rent must be in
arrear; (c) there must be a reversion in the person distrain-
ing; and (d) there must be goods on the premises liable to be
distrained.
1 When peppercorn rents were instituted, in the middle ages,
they were not, however, nominal, the cost of spices being then very
great. A peppercorn rent, generally an obligation to pay I ft of
pepper at the usual rent flays, constituted a substantial impost
even as late as the i8th century.
IO4
RENT
All personal chattels are distrainable with the following excep
tions: (i) Goods absolutely privileged (a) fixtures (q.v.); (b) goods
sent to the tenant in the way of trade; (c) things which cannot be
restored, e.g. meat and milk; growing corn and corn in sheaves
formerly fell within this category, but the Distress for Rent Act
!737 ( s - 8) abolished this exemption in the case of the former,
and a statute of 1690 abolished it in that of the latter; (d) things
in actual use, e.g. a horse while it is drawing a cart ; (e) animals
ferae naturae (dogs and tame deer or deer in an enclosed park
may be distrained) ; (/) things in the custody of the law, e.g. in the
possession of a sheriff under an execution (q.v.) ; (g) straying cattle;
(h) in the case of agricultural holdings under the Agricultural
Holdings Acts 1883-1900 hired agricultural machinery and breeding
stock; (i) the wearing apparel and " bedding " a term which
includes " bedstead " of tenant and his family, and the tools
and implements of his trade to the value of 5 (Law of Distress
Amendment Act 1888) ; (j) the goods of ambassadors and their
suites (Diplomatic Privileges Act 1708). (ii) Goods conditionally
privileged, i.e. privileged if there are sufficient goods of other kinds
on the premises to satisfy the distress (a) implements of trade not
in actual use; (b) beasts of the plough and sheep; (c) agisted
cattle; (d) growing crops sold under an execution (Landlord and
Tenant Act 1851, s. 2); (e) lodgers' goods. The Lodgers' Goods
Protection Act 1871 provides that where a lodger's goods have
been seized by the superior landlord the lodger may serve him with
a notice stating that the intermediate landlord had no interest in
the property seized, but that it is the property, or in the lawful
possession, of the lodger, and setting forth the amount of the rent
due by the lodger to his immediate landlord. On payment or
tender of such rent the landlord cannot proceed with the distress
against the goods in question.
In general, a landlord cannot distrain except upon the premises
demised, but he has a statutory right to follow things clandestinely
or fraudulently removed from the premises within 30 days after
their removal, unless they have been in the meantime sold bona
fide and for valuable consideration. A landlord may, by statute
(Landlord and Tenant Act 1709, s. 6), distrain within six months
after the determination of the lease provided that the tenant has
remained in possession. A distress must be made in the daytime,
i.e. not before sunrise or after sunset. Six years' arrears of rent
only are recoverable by distress (Real Property Limitation Act
1833, s. 12): the Real Property Limitation Act 1874 (s. i), which
bars distress for rent after twelve years, applies to rent-charges
and not to rent under a lease, and the six years' arrears may be
recovered in spite of the lapse of time. In the case of agricultural
tenancies falling within the Agricultural Holdings Acts 1883-1900,
the right of distress is confined to one year's arrears of rent. Where
the tenant is bankrupt, a distress levied after the bankruptcy is
limited to six months' rent accrued due prior to the date of adjudica-
tion; see Bankruptcy Act 1883 (s. 42) and 1890 (s. 28). Where
a company is being wound up, the landlord may not distrain without
the leave of the court. An extension of time is allowed in cases
where in the ordinary course of dealing between landlord and tenant
the payment of rent has been allowed to be deferred for a quarter
or half year after the rent became legally due (act of 1883, s. 4).
The landlord may distrain in person or may employ a certificated
bailiff (Law of Distress Amendment Act 1888, s. 7). An uncerti-
ficated person levying a distress is liable to a fine of 10, without
prejudice to his civil liability (Law of Distress Amendment Act
1895, s. 2). The seizure must not be excessive (statute of Henry III.,
1267); but enough must be taken to satisfy the claim, for the
landlord cannot distrain twice for the same rent where he could have
taken sufficient in the first instance. After being seized, the goods
must be impounded (Distress for Rent Act 1707, s. 10; and see
the statute of 1690, s. 3, on impounding of corn, straw, hay; the
Distress for Rent Act 1737, s. 8, on impounding of growing crops;
and the statute of 1554 and the Cruelty to Animals Act 1849, s. 5,
on impounding of cattle) ; and the landlord has a statutory power
of sale (statute of 1690, s. 5). It is illegal to proceed with a distress
if the tenant tenders the rent before the impounding; and a tenant
has, by statute (1690, c. 5), five clear days' grace, excluding the date
of seizure, between impounding and sale. On the written request
of the tenant, this period will be extended to fifteen days (Law of
Distress Amendment Act 1888, s. 6). A tenant may, before sale,
recover goods illegally distrained by an action of replevin (L. Lat.
replegiare, to redeem a thing taken by another). Where no rent
was due to the distrainer the tenant may recover by action double
the value of the goods sold (statute 1690, s. 5); and summary
remedies for the recovery of the property have been created by
modern enactments (Law of Distress Amendment Act 1895, s. 4,
on distress of privileged goods; Agricultural Holdings Act 1883,
s. 46). Where rent was due, but the distress was irregular, the
tenant can only recover special damage (Distress for Rent Act 1737,
s. 19).
Goods taken under an execution (q.v.) are not removable till
one year's rent has been paid to the landlord (Landlord and Tenant
Act 1709).
The landlord has, besides distress, his ordinary remedy by action.
In addition, special statutory remedies are given in the case of tenants
holding over after the expiration of their tenancy. By the Distress
for Rent Act 1737 any tenant giving notice to quit, and holding
over, is liable to pay double rent for such time as he continues in
possession (see further under EJECTMENT).
Ireland. The main differences between Irish and English
law have been caused by legislation (see EJECTMENT; LAND-
LORD AND TENANT).
Scotland. Rent is properly the payment made by tenant
to landlord for the use of lands held under lease (see LANDLORD
AND TENANT). In agricultural tenancies the legal terms
for the payment of rent are at Whitsunday after the crop has
been shown, and at Martinmas after it has been reaped. But
a landlord and tenant may substitute conventional terms of
payment, either anticipating (fore, or forehand rent) or post-
poning (back, or backhand rent) the legal term. The rent paid
by vassal to superior is called feu-duty (see FEU). Its nearest
English equivalent is the fee farm rent. The remedy of dis-
tress does not exist in Scots law. Rents are recovered (i) by
summary diligence, proceeding on a clause, in the lease, of
consent to registration for execution; (ii) by an ordinary peti-
tory action; (iii) by an action of " maills and duties " (the
rents of an estate in money or grain: " maills " was a coin at
one time current in Scotland) in the Sheriff Court or the Court
of Session; and (iv) in non-agricultural tenancies by procedure
under the right of hypothec, where that still exists; the right
of hypothec over land exceeding 2 acres in extent let for agri-
culture or pasture was abolished as from November ii, 1881
(see HYPOTHEC); (v) by action of removing (see EJECTMENT).
Arrears of rent prescribe in five years from the time of the
tenant's removal from the land.
Labour or service rents were at one time very frequent in Scot-
land. The events of 1715 and 1745 showed the vast influence over
the tenantry that the great proprietors acquired by such means.
Accordingly acts of 1716 and 1746 provided for the commutation
of services into money rents. Such services may still be created
by agreement, subject to the summary power of commutation by
the sheriff given by the Conveyancing Act 1874 ( 20, 21). " In
the more remote parts of Scotland it is understood that there still
exist customary returns in produce of various kinds, which being
regulated by the usage of the district or of the barony or estate
cannot be comprehended under any general rule " (Hunter, Landlord
and Tenant, ii. 298). Up to 1848 or 1850 there existed in Scot-
land " steelbow " leases analogous to the chetel de fer of French
law (see LANDLORD AND TENANT) by which the landlord stocked
the farm with corn, cattle, implements, &c., the tenant returning
similar articles at the expiration of his tenancy and paying in
addition to the ordinary rent a steelbow rent of 5 % on the value
of the stock.
As to the rent of apartments, &c., see LODGER AND LODGINGS.
United Stales. The law is in general accordance with that
of England. The tendency of modern state legislation is
unfavourable to the continuance of distress as a remedy. In
the New England states, attachment on mesne process has, to
a- large extent, superseded it. In New York and Missouri it
has been abolished by statute; in Mississippi the landlord has
a claim for one year's rent on goods seized under an execution
and a lien on the growing crop. In Ohio, Tennessee and
Alabama it is not recognized, but in Ohio the landlord has a
share in the growing crops in preference to the execution creditor.
The legislatures of nearly all the states agree with the law of
England as to the exemption from distress of household goods,
wearing apparel, &c. (see Dillon's Laws and Jurisprudence of
England and America, pp. 360, 361; also HOMESTEAD). As
to the rent of apartments, &c., see LODGER AND LODGINGS.
Fee farm rents exist in some states, like Pennsylvania, which
have not adopted the statute of Quia Emptores as a part of their
common law (Washburn's Real Property, ii. 252).
Other Laws. Under the French Code Civil (art. 2102) the land-
lord is a privileged creditor for his rent. If the lease is by authentic
act, or under private signature for a fixed term, he has a right over
the year's harvest and produce, the furniture of the house and
everything employed to keep it up, and (if a farm) to work it, in
order to satisfy all rent due up to the end of the term. If the lease
is not by authentic act nor for a specified term, the landlord's
claim is limited to the current year and the year next following
(see law of I2th Feb.' 1872). The goods of a sub-lessee are protected :
and goods bailed or deposited with the tenant are in general not
RENTON REPLEVIN
105
liable to be seized. The French law is in force in Mauritius, and
has been reproduced in substance in the Civil Codes of Quebec
(arts. 2005 et seq.) and St Lucia (arts. 1888 et seq.). There are
analogous provisions in the Spanish Civil Code (art. 1922). The
subject of privileges and hypothecs is regulated in Belgium by a
special law of the i6th Dec. 1851; and in Germany by ss. 1113
et seq. of the Civil Code. The law of British India as to rent (Transfer
and Property Act 1882) and distress (cf., e.g., Act 15 of 1882) is
similar to English law. The British dominions generally tend in
the same direction. See, e.g.. New South Wales (the consolidating
Landlord and Tenant Act 1899); Newfoundland (Act 4 of 1899);
Ontario (Act I of 1902, s. 22, giving a tenant five days for tender
of rent and expenses after distress); Jamaica (Law 17 of 1900,
certification of landlord's bailiffs) ; Queensland (Act 15 of 1904).
AUTHORITIES. English Law: Woodfall, Landlord and Tenant
(i8th ed., London, 1907) ; Foa, Landlord and Tenant (Ath ed., London,
1907); Fawcett, Landlord and Tenant (yd ed., London, 1905);
Gilbert on Distress and Replevin (London, 1823); Sullen, Law of
Distress (2nd ed., London, 1899) ; Oldham and Foster, Law of Distress
(2nd ed., London, 1889). Scots Law: Hunter on Landlord and
Tenant (4th ed., Edin., 1876) ; Erskine's Principles (2Oth ed., by
Rankine, Edin., 1903); Rankine's Law of Landownership in Scot-
land (3rd ed., Edin., 1891); Rankine's Law of Leases in Scotland
(2nd ed., Edin., 1893). American Law: McAdam, Law of Landlord
and Tenant (New York, 1900) ; Bouvier's Law Dictionary (ed. G.
Rawle) (London and Boston, 1897), tit. " Distress " in " Ruling
Cases"; Landlord and Tenant (American Notes) (London and
Boston, 1894-1901). (A. W. R.)
RENTON, a manufacturing town of Dumbartonshire, Scotland.
Pop. (1901) 5067. It is situated on the Leven, 2 m. N.N.W.
of Dumbarton by the North British and Caledonian railways.
The leading industry is Turkey red dyeing, and calico-printing
and bleaching are also carried on. A parish church stands on
the site of Dalquhurn House, the birthplace of Tobias Smollett
the novelist, to whose memory a- Tuscan column was erected
in 1774, the inscription for which was revised by Dr Johnson
when he visited Bonhill in that year with Boswell. The town
was founded in ^782 by Mrs Smollett previously Mrs Telfer
of Bonhill (sister of Tobias Smollett), who resumed her maiden
name when she succeeded to the Smollett estates; it was named
after Cecilia Renton, daughter of John Renton of Blackadder,
who had married Mrs Smollett's son, Alexander Telfer.
RENWICK, JAMES (1662-1688), Scottish covenanting leader,
was born at Moniaive in Dumfriesshire on the isth of February
1662, being the son of a weaver, Andrew Renwick. Educated at
Edinburgh University, he joined the section of the Covenanters
known as the Cameronians about 1681 and soon became pro-
minent among them. Afterwards he studied theology at the
university of Groningen and was ordained a minister in 1683.
Returning to Scotland " full of zeal and breathing forth threats
of organized assassination," says Mr Andrew Lang, he became
one of the field-preachers and was declared a rebel by the
privy council. He was largely responsible for the " apologetical
declaration " of 1684 by which he and his followers disowned
the authority of Charles II.; the privy council replied by
ordering every one to abjure this declaration on pain of death.
Unlike some of his associates, Renwick refused to join the
rising under the earl of Argyll in 1685; in 1687, when the
declarations of indulgence allowed some liberty of worship to
the Presbyterians, he and his followers, often called Renwickites,
continued to hold meetings in the fields, which were still illegal.
A reward was offered for his capture, and early in 1688 he was
seized in Edinburgh. Tried and found guilty of disowning
the royal authority and other offences, he refused to apply for
a pardon and was hanged on the I7th of February 1688. Ren-
wick was the last of the convenanting martyrs.
See R. Wodrow, History of the Sufferings of the Church of Scot-
land, vol. iv. (Glasgow, 1838); and A. Smellie, Men of the Covenant
(1904) ; also Renwick's life by Alexander Shields in the Biographia
Presbyteriana (1827).
REP, REPP, or REPS, a cloth made of silk, wool or cotton.
The name is said to have been adapted from the French reps,
a word of unknown origin; it has also been suggested that it
is a corruption of " rib." It is woven in fine cords or ribs
across the width of the piece. In silk it is used for dresses,
and to some extent for ecclesiastical vestments, &c. In wool
and cotton it is used for various upholstery purposes.
REPAIRS (from Lat. reparare, to make ready again), acts
necessary to restore things to a sound state after damage;
the question of repairs is important in the relations between
landlord and tenant. (See the articles FLAT; LANDLORD AND
TENANT.)
REPEAL (O.F. rapel, modern rappel, from rapder, rappeler,
revoke, re and appeler, appeal), the abrogation, revocation or
annulling of a law (see ABROGATION and STATUTE). The word
is particularly used in English history of the movement led by
Daniel O'Connell (q.v.) for the repeal of the act of Union between
Great Britain and Ireland hi 1830 and 1841-46, which in its later
development became known as the Nationalist or Home Rule
movement (see IRELAND, History).
REPIN, ILJA JEFIMOVICH (1844- ), Russian painter,
was born in 1844 at Tschuguev in the department of Charkov,
the son of parents in straitened circumstances. He learned
the rudiments of art under a painter of saints named Bunakov,
for three years gaining his living at this humble craft. In 1863
he obtained a studentship at the Academy of Fine Arts of St
Petersburg, where he remained for six years, winning the gold
medal and a travelling scholarship which enabled him to visit
France and Italy. He returned to Russia after a short absence,
and devoted himself exclusively to subjects having strong
national characteristics. In 1894 he became professor of
historical painting at the St Petersburg Academy. Repin's
paintings are powerfully drawn, with not a little imagination
and with strong dramatic force and characterization. A
brilliant colourist, and a portrait-painter of the 'first rank, he
also became known as a sculptor and etcher of ability. His
chief pictures are " Procession in the Government of Kiev,"
" Home-coming," " The Arrest," " Ivan the Terrible's murder
of his Son," and, best known of all, " The Reply of the Cossacks
to Sultan Mahmoud IV." The portraits of the Baroness V. I.
Ulskiil, of Anton Rubinstein and of Count Leo Tolstoy are
among his best achievements in this class. The Tretiakov
gallery at Moscow contains a very large collection of his work.
See " Professor Repin," by Prince Bojidar Karageorgevich,
in the Magazine of Art, xxiii. p. 783 (1899) ; " Russian Art," a paper
by E. Bray ley Hodgetts in the Proceedings of the Anglo-Russian
Literary Society (jjjth of May 1896); " Ilja Jefimovich Repin,"
by Julius Norden, in Velhagen and Klasing's Monatshefte, xx. p. I
(1905) ; also R. Muther, History of Modern Painting (ed. 1907),
iv. 272. (E. F. S.)
REPINGTON (or REPYNGDON), PHILIP (d. 1424), English
bishop and cardinal, was educated at Oxford and became an
Augustinian canon at Leicester before 1382. A man of some
learning, he came to the front as a defender of the doctrines
taught by John Wycliffe; for this he Was suspended and after-
wards excommunicated, but in a short time he was pardoned
and restored by Archbishop William Courtenay, and he appears
to have completely abandoned his unorthodox opinions. In
1394 he was made abbot of St Mary de Pre at Leicester, and
after the accession of Henry IV. to the English throne in 1399
he became chaplain and confessor to this king, being described
as " clericus specialissimus domini regis Henrici." In 1404 he
was chosen bishop of Lincoln, and in 1408 Pope Gregory XII.
made him a cardinal. He resigned his bishopric in 1419. Some
of Repington's sermons are in manuscript at Oxford and at
Cambridge.
REPLEVIN, an Anglo-French law term (derived from replevir,
to replevy; see PLEDGE for further etymology) signifying the
recovery by a person of goods unlawfully taken out of his
possession by means of a special form of legal process; this
falls into two divisions (i) the " replevy," the steps which the
owner takes to secure the physical possession of the goods, by
giving security for prosecuting the action and for the return
of the goods if the case goes against him, and (2) the " action
of replevin " itself. The jurisdiction in the first case is in the
County Court; in the second case the Supreme Court has also
jurisdiction in certain circumstances. The proceedings are now
regulated by the County Courts Act 1888. At common law,
the ordinary action for the recovery of goods wrongfully taken
would be one of detinue; but no means of immediate recovery
xxin. 4 a
io6
REPNIN REPORTING
was possible till the action was tried, and until the Common
Law Procedure Act 1854 the defendant might exercise an
option of paying damages instead of restoring the actual goods.
The earliest regulations with regard to the action of replevin
are to be found in the Statute of Marlborough (Marlebridge),
1267, cap. 21. For the early history, see Blackstone's Com-
mentaries, iii. 145 seq. Only goods and cattle can be the subjects
of an action for replevin. Although the action can be brought
for the wrongful taking of goods generally, as long as the initial
taking was wrongful and it was from the possession of the
owner; it is practically confined to goods taken by an illegal
as opposed to an excessive distress (see DISTRESS and RENT,
Legal).
REPNIN, the name of an old Russian princely family, the first
of whom to gain distinction was
PRINCE ANIKITA IVANOVICH REPNIN (1668-1726), Russian
general, and one of the collaborators of Peter the Great, with
whom he grew up. On the occasion of the Sophian insurrection
of 1689, he carefully guarded Peter in the Troitsa monastery,
and subsequently took part in the Azov expedition, during
which he was raised to the grade of general. He took part in
all the principal engagements of the Great Northern War.
Defeated by Charles XII. at Holowczyn, he was degraded to the
ranks, but was pardoned as a reward for his valour at Lyesna
and recovered all his lost dignities. At Poltava he commanded
the centre. From the Ukraine he was transferred to the Baltic
Provinces and was made the first governor-general of Riga after
its capture in 1710. In 1724 he succeeded the temporarily
disgraced favourite, Menshikov, as war minister. Catherine I.
created him a field-marshal.
See A. Bauman, Russian Statesmen of the Olden Time (Rus.), vol. i.
(Petersburg, 1877).
His grandson, PRINCE NIKOLAI VASILEVICH REPNIN (1734-
1801), Russian statesman and general, served under his father,
Prince Vasily Anikitovich, during the Rhenish campaign of 1748'
and subsequently resided for some time abroad, where he
acquired " a thoroughly sound German education." He also
participated in the Seven Years' War in a subordinate capacity.
Peter III. sent him as ambassador in 1 763 to Berlin. The same
year Catherine transferred him to Warsaw as minister pleni-
potentiary, with especial instructions to form a Russian party
in Poland from among the dissidents, who were to receive equal
rights with the Catholics. Repnin convinced himself that the
dissidents were too poor and insignificant to be of any real
support to Russia, and that the whole agitation in their favour
was factitious. At last, indeed, the dissidents themselves even
petitioned the empress to leave them alone. It is clear from his
correspondence that Repnin, a singularly proud and high-
spirited man, much disliked the very dirty work he was called
upon to do. -Nevertheless he faithfully obeyed his instructions,
and, by means more or less violent or discreditable, forced the
diet of 1 768 to concede everything. The immediate result was the
Confederation of Bar, which practically destroyed the ambas-
sador's handiwork. Repnin resigned his post for the more
congenial occupation of fighting the Turks. At the head of an
independent command in Moldavia and Walachia, he prevented
a large Turkish army from crossing the Pruth (1770); distin-
guished himself at the actions of Larga and Kagula; and
captured Izmail and Kilia. In 1771 he received the supreme
command in Walachia and routed the Turks at Bucharest. A
quarrel with the commander-in-chief , Rumyantsev, then induced
him to send in his resignation, but in 1774 he participated in the
capture of Silistria and in the negotiations which led to the
peace of Kuchuk-Kainarji. In 1775-76 he was ambassador at
the Porte. On the outbreak of the war of the Bavarian Suc-
cession he led 30,000 men to Breslau, and at the subsequent
congress of Teschen, where he was Russian plenipotentiary,
compelled Austria to make peace with Prussia. During the
second Turkish war (1787-92) Repnin was, after Suvarov,
the most successful of the Russian commanders. He defeated
the Turks at Sakha, captured the whole camp of the seraskier,
Hassan Pasha, shut him up in Izmail, and was preparing to reduce
the place when he was forbidden to do so by Potemkin (1789^.
On the retirement of Potemkin (<?..) in 1791, Repnin succeeded
him as commander-in-chief, and immediately routed the grand
vizier at Machin, a victory which compelled the Turks to accept
the truce of Galatz (3ist of July 1791). In 1794 he was made
governor-general of the newly acquired Lithuanian provinces.
The emperor Paul raised him to the rank of field-marshal (1796),
and, in 1798, sent him on a diplomatic mission to Berlin and
Vienna in order to detach Prussia from France and unite both
Austria and Prussia against the Jacobins. On his return unsuc-
cessful, he was dismissed the service.
See A. Kraushar, Prince Repnin in Poland, 1764-8 (Pol.) (Warsaw,
1900) ; " Correspondence with Frederick the Great and others "
(Rus. and Fr.), in Russky Arkhiv (1865, 1869, 1874, Petersburg);
M. Longinov, True Anecdotes of Prince Repnin (Rus.) (Petersburg,
1865). (R. N. B.)
REPORT (O.Fr. report or raporl, modern rapport, from O.Fr.
reporter, mod. rapporter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical
use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.), an account
or statement of events, speeches, proceedings, the results of
investigations, &c., " brought back " by one who was present
either casually or sent for the specific purpose, hence reputation,
rumour. A special sense, that of a loud noise, as of the explosion
of firearms, appears as early as the end of the i6th century.
For the reports of speeches, parliamentary debates, &c., in the
daily press see REPORTING below, and for the particular form of
law reporting see ENGLISH LAW; AMERICAN LAW.
REPORTING, the art or business of reproducing in readable
form, mainly for newspapers, but also for such publications as
the Parliamentary or Law Reports, the words of speeches, or
describing in narrative form the events, in contemporary history,
by means of the notes made by persons known generally as
reporters. The special business of reporting is a comparatively
modern one, since it must not be confounded with the general
practice of quoting, or of mere narrative, which is as old as
writing. There was no truly systematic reporting until the
beginning of the igth century, though there was parliamentary
reporting of a kind almost from the time when parliaments
began, just as law reporting (which goes back to 1292) began in
the form of notes taken by lawyers of discussions in court. The
first attempts at parliamentary reporting, in the sense of seeking
to make known to the public what was done and said in parlia-
ment, began in a pamphlet published monthly in Queen Anne's
time called The Political State. Its reports were mere indications
of speeches. Later, the Gentleman's Magazine began to publish
reports of parliamentary debates. Access to the Houses of
Parliament was obtained by Edward Cave (q.v.), the publisher
of this magazine, and some of his friends, and they took
surreptitiously what notes they could. These were subsequently
transcribed and brought into shape for publication by another
hand. Dr Johnson for some years wrote the speeches, and he
took care, as he admitted, not to let the " Whig dogs " get the
best of it; the days of verbatim reporting were not yet come,
and it was considered legitimate to make people say in print
what substantially was supposed to represent their opinions. ,
There was a strict parliamentary prohibition of all public
reporting; but the Gentleman's Magazine appears to have
continued its reports for some time without attracting the
attention or rousing the jealousy of the House of Commons.
The publisher, encouraged by immunity from prosecution by
parliament, grew bolder, and began in his reports to give the
names of the speakers. Then he was called to account. A
standing order was passed in 1728, which declared " that it is
an indignity to, and a breach of, the privilege of this House
for any personate presume to give, in written or printed news-
papers, any account or minute of the debates or other proceed-
ings; that upon discovery of the authors, printers or publishers
of any such newspaper this House will proceed against the
offenders with the utmost severity." Under this and other
standing orders, Cave's reports were challenged, with the result
that they appeared without the proper names of the speakers,
and under the guise of " Debates in the Senate of Lilliput,"
REPORTING
107
or some other like title. France was Blefuscu; London was
Mildendo; pounds were sprugs; the duke of Newcastle was
the Nardac secretary of state; Lord Hardwicke was the Hurgo
Hickrad; and William Pulteney was Wingul Pulnub.
In the latter half of the century the newspapers began to
report parliamentary debates more fully, with the result that,
in 1771, several printers, including those of the Morning Chronicle
and the London Evening Post, were ordered into custody for
publishing debates of the House of Commons. A long and
bitter struggle between the House and the public ensued. John
Wilkes took part in it. The lord mayor of London and an
alderman were sent to the Tower for refusing to recognize the
Speaker's warrant for the arrest of certain printers of parlia-
mentary reports. But the House of Commons was beaten.
In 1772 the newspapers published the reports as usual; and
their right to do so has never since been really questioned.
Both Houses of Parliament, indeed, now show as much anxiety
to have their debates fully reported as aforetime they showed
resentment at the intrusion of the reporter. Elaborate pro-
vision is made in the House of Lords and in the House of Commons
for reporters. They have a Press Gallery in which they may
take notes, writing rooms in which those notes may be extended,
and a special dining-room. Reporting is nowhere carried to
such an extent as in the United Kingdom, since in most other
countries the newspapers do not find it sufficiently interesting
" copy " for their readers to justify the amount of space required.
Consequently the verbatim reports, though now no longer
hindered by law, and made possible by shorthand (which was
first employed in the service of parliament in 1802) and by all
the arts of communication and reproduction, are considerably
restricted.
But parliamentary work is only a small part of newspaper
reporting. The newspapers in the beginning of the ipth century
rarely contained more than the barest outline of any speech or
public address delivered in or in the neighbourhood of the towns
where they were published. After the peace of 1815 a period
of much political fermentation set in, and the newspapers began
to report the speeches of public men at greater length. It was
not, however, until well into what may be called the railway
era that any frequent effort was made by English newspapers
to go out of their own district for the work of reporting. The
London newspapers had before this led the way. Early in the
igth century, greater freedom of access to both Houses was given,
and the manager of the Morning Chronicle established a staff
of reporters. Each reporter took his "turn" that is, he took
notes of the proceedings for a certain time, and then gave place
to a colleague. The reporter who was relieved at once extended
his notes, and thus prompt publication of the debates was made
possible. The practice grew until there was a good deal of
competition among the papers as to which should first issue a
report of any speech of note in the country. Reporters had
frequently to ride long distances in post-chaises, doing their
best as they jolted along the roads to transcribe their notes,
so that they might be ready for the printer on arrival at their
destination. Charles Dickens, whose efforts in the way of
reporting were celebrated, used to tell several stories of his
adventures of this kind while he held an engagement on the
Morning Chronicle. One result was that the provincial news-
papers were stimulated to greater efforts, and as daily news-
papers sprang up in all directions, and the electric telegraph
provided greater facilities for reporting, the old supremacy of
the London journals in this department of newspaper work
gradually disappeared. No public man made a speech but it
was faithfully reproduced in print. Local governing bodies,
charitable institutions, political associations, public companies
all these came in a short time to furnish work for the reporter,
and had full attention paid to them. By the second half of the
igth century, parliamentary reporting was a leading feature
of the London newspapers. They had a monopoly of it. All
the reporting arrangements in the House of Lords and in the
House of Commons were made with sole regard to their require-
ments. There had indeed been a long battle between The
Times and some of the other London newspapers as to which
should have the best parliamentary report, and The Times
had established its supremacy, which has never been shaken.
The provincial newspapers were in the main obliged to copy
the London reports, and rarely made any attempt to get reports
of their own. When the electric telegraph came into use for
commercial purposes a change began. The company which
first carried wires from London to the principal towns in the
country started a reporting service for the country newspapers.
In addition, it procured admission to the parliamentary galleries
for reporters in its employment, and began to send short accounts
of the debates to the newspapers in the country. These news-
papers were thus enabled to publish in the morning some
account of the parliamentary proceedings of the previous night,
instead of having to take like reports a day later from the London
journals. The telegraph companies (not yet taken over by the
state) for a long time could or would do no more than they had
begun by doing; and they offered no inducements to the pro-
vincial newspapers to telegraph speeches. The public meanwhile
wanted to know more fully what their representatives were
saying in parliament, and gradually the leading provincial
newspapers adopted the practice of employing reporters in the
service of the London journals to report debates on subjects
of special interest in localities; and these reports, forwarded
by train or by post, were printed in full, but of course a day late.
The London papers paid little attention to debates of local
interest, and thus the provincial papers had parliamentary
reporting which was not to be found elsewhere. Bit by bit
this feature was developed. It was greatly accelerated by a
movement which the Scotsman was the first to bring about.
About 1865, a new company having come into existence, it was
agreed that wires from London should be put at the disposal of
such newspapers as desired them. Each newspaper was to
have the use of a wire of course on payment of a large subscrip-
tion from six o'clock at night till three o'clock in the morning.
This was the beginning of the " special wire " which now plays
so important a part in the production of almost all newspapers.
The arrangement was first made by the Scotsman and by other
newspapers in Scotland. The special wires were used to their
utmost capacity to convey reports of the speeches of leading
statesmen and politicians; and, instead of bare summaries of
what had been done, the newspapers contained pretty full
reports. <
When the telegraphs were taken over by the state in 1870
the facilities for reporting were increased in every direction.
The London papers, with the exception of The Times, had given
less and less attention to parliamentary debates, while on the
other hand several of the provincial newspapers were giving
more space than ever to the debates. These newspapers haJd
to get their reports as best they could. The demand for such
reporting had led, on the passing of the telegraphs into the
hands of the state, to the formation of news agencies, which
undertook to supply the provincial papers. These agencies
were admitted to the reporters' galleries in the Houses of
Parliament, but the reports which any agency supplied were
identical; that is to say, all the newspapers taking a particular
class of report had exactly the same material supplied to them
the reporter producing the number of copies required by
means of manifold copying paper. Accordingly attempts were
made to get separate reports by engaging the services of some
of the reporters employed by the London papers. The " gallery "
was shut to all save the London papers and the news agencies.
The Scotsman sought in vain to break through this exclusiveness.
The line, it was said, must be drawn somewhere, and the proper
place to draw it was at the London Press. Once that line was
departed from every newspaper in the kingdom must have
admission. But in 1880 a select committee of the House of
Commons was appointed to consider the question. It took
evidence, and it reported in favour of the extension of the
gallery and of the admission of provincial papers. The result
was that three or four papers which would be satisfied with
the same report joined in providing the necessary reporting
io8
REPOUSSE REPRESENTATION
staff. In other cases individual newspapers put themselves
on the same footing as the London newspapers by engaging
separate staffs of reporters.
The effect of telegraphic improvements may be partially
gauged by the fact that in 1871 the number of words handed
in for transmission through the British Post Office for Press
purposes (special rates being allowed) was 22,000,000, and that
in 1900 it had risen to 835,000,000. Meanwhile the evolution
of the modern newspaper had brought many other kinds of
reporting, besides parliamentary, into play.
What is commonly called " descriptive reporting " has in some
cases nearly shouldered the reporting of speeches out of news-
papers. The special correspondent or the war correspondent is a
descriptive reporter." The '' interviewer " came into great
prominence during the " eighties " and " nineties," and the influence
of American journalistic methods, which made smart reporting the
most valuable commercial asset of the popular newspaper, and
the reporter correspondingly important, spread to other countries.
No daily newspaper now confines its reporting to the affairs of the
part of the country in which it is published. The electric telegraph
has made the work of the reporter more arduous and his responsibility
greater. The variety of work open to reporting causes considerable
difference, of course, in the professional status of the journalists
who do such work. This subject generally is discussed in the article
NEWSPAPERS, but one instance of the recognition of the modern
reporter's responsibility is worth special mention. In the year 1900,
in the English case of Walter v. Lane (see COPYRIGHT), it was decided,
on the final appeal to the House of Lords, that the reporter of a
speech, printed verbatim in a newspaper, was under the Copyright
Act of 1842 to be considered the " author." Absurd as it might seem
to call the reporter the author of another man's speech, the decision
gave effect to the fact that it is his labour and skill which bring into
existence the " copy " to which alone can right of property attach.
Strictly speaking, he is the author of the report of the speech; but
for literary purposes the report is the speech. It must, however, be
borne in mind that there may be more than one verbatim report,
and therefore more than one " author."
See also NEWSPAPERS; SHORTHAND; PRESS LAWS; TELEGRAPH.
REPOUSSE (Fr. " driven back "), the art of raising designs
upon metal by hammering from the back, while the " ground "
is left relatively untouched (see METAL WORK and PLATE).
The term is often loosely used, being applied indifferently to
" embossing." Embossing is also called " repousse sur coquille "
and " estampage," but the latter consists of embossing by
mechanical means and is therefore not to be considered as an
art process. Moreover, it reverses the method of repousse, the
work being done from the front, and by driving down the ground
Jeaving the design in relief. Gold, silver, bronze, brass, etc.,
being easily malleable metals, are specially suitable to repouss6,
which at the present day, in its finer forms, is mainly employed
for silver-plate and jewelry. The silver-plate in repousse of
Gilbert Marks (d. 1905) in England, and the portrait-plaques
from life by Stephan Schwartz (b. in Hungary, 1851) in
Austria, are noteworthy modern examples of the art.
Repousse a term of relatively recent adoption, employed
to differentiate the process from embossing has been known
from remote antiquity. Nothing has ever excelled, and little
has ever approached, the perfection of the bronzes of Siris
(4th century B.C., in the British Museum), of which the armour-
plate especially the shoulder-pieces presents heroic figure-
groups beaten up from behind with punches from the flat plate
until the heads and other portions are wholly detached that is
to say, in high relief from the ground of which they form a part.
Yet the metal, almost as thin as paper, is practically of constant
thickness, and nowhere is there any sign of puncture. The
" Bernay treasure," in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris,
discovered in 1830, belongs to the 2nd century B.C., and includes
silver vases of Roman execution decorated with groups in
mezzo-relief, beaten up in sections and soldered together. The
best of these, of which perhaps the finest is that known from
its subject as " La nymphe de la fontaine Pirene et Pegase,"
belong to the noblest period of Roman art. The Hildesheim
treasure (discovered 1868) comprises a patera on the ground of
which is a superb etnblema representing Minerva in high relief.
These repousse emblemata were usually of another metal and
applied to the vase which they decorated; indeed repouss6 was
of leading importance in caelalura, or the metallic art (statuary
excepted) of classic times. Thus the patera of Hildesheim, the
patera of Rennes, and the earlier shoulder-plate of the Siris
bronze may be accepted as illustrative of the highest develop-
ment of repouss6.
The art was not only Greek and Graeco-Roman in its early
practice; it was pursued also by the Assyrians, the Phoenicians,
and other oriental peoples, as well as in Cyprus and elsewhere,
and was carried forward, almost without a break, although with
much depreciation of style and execution, into medieval times.
In the nth century the emperor Henry II. presented as a thank-
offering to the Basel cathedral the altar-piece, in the Byzantine
style, decorated with fine repouss6 panels of gold (representing
Jesus Christ with two angels and two saints) , which is now in the
Cluny Museum in Paris. Up to this time, also, repousse instead
of casting in metal was practised for large work, and Limoges
became a centre for the manufacture and exportation of sepul-
chral figures in repousse bronze. These were affixed to wooden
cores. By the time of Benvenuto Cellini the art was confined
almost entirely to goldsmiths and silversmiths (who, except
Cellini himself, rarely cast their work) ; and to them the sculptors
and artists of to-day are still content to relegate it.
The elementary principle of the method, after the due prepara-
tion and annealing of the plate, was to trace on the back of it
the design to be beaten up, and to place it face downwards upon
a stiff yet not entirely unresisting ground (in the primitive
stage of development this was wood), and then with hammers and
punches to beat up the design into relief. According to Cellini,
his master Caradosso da Milano would beat up his plate on a
metal casting obtained from a pattern he had previously modelled
in wax; but he is pot sufficiently explicit to enable us to judge
whether this casting was hollow mould, which would result in
true repousse, or in the round, which is tantamount to repousse
sur coquille, or embossing.
Nowadays the plate is laid upon and affixed to a " pitch-
block," a resinous ground docile to heat, usually composed of
pitch mixed with pounded fire-brick, or, for coarser work such
as brass, with white sand, with a little tallow and resin. This
compound, while being sufficiently hard, is elastic, solid, adhesive
and easy to apply and remove. Gold and silver are not only
the densest and most workable but the most ductile metals,
admitting of great expansion without cracking if properly
annealed. The tools include hammers, punches (in numerous
shapes for tracing, raising, grounding, chasing and texturing
the surfaces), together with a special anvil called in French a
recingle or ressing, in English " snarl." The recingle, or small
anvil with projecting upturned point, was known in the i6th
century. This point is introduced into the hollow of the vase
or other vessel such as punch and hammer cannot freely enter,
which it is desired to ornament with reliefs. A blow of a hammer
on that part of the anvil where the prolongation first projects
from it, produces, by the return spring, a corresponding blow
at the point which the operator desires to apply within the vase.
The same effect is produced by the modern " snarl " or " snarling
iron " a bar of steel, with an inch or two of the smaller end
upturned and ending in a knob held firmly in a tightly screwed-
up vice, whereby the blow is similarly repeated or echoed by
vibration. The repousse work, when complete, is afterwards
finished at the front and chased up. The same vase, to be
worked up by embossing, would be filled with " cement " and
laid on a sand-bag, and finally the whole would be heated and
the cement run out. In the case of repousse the vase itself may
be beaten up out of the metal on the pitch-block. It must be
understood that in order to obtain a result not merely excellent
in technique but artistic and unmechanical in effect, the blows
of the hammer must be made with feeling and "sentiment,"
otherwise the result cannot be a work of art.
See C. G. Leland, Repousse Work (New York, 1885); and Gaw-
thorp, A Manual of Instruction in the Art of Repousse (London,
2nd ed., 1899). (M. H. S.)
REPRESENTATION, a term used in various senses in
different connexions, but particularly in a political meaning,
which has developed out of the others.
REPRESENTATION
109
The word " represent " comes from Lat. re-praesentare, to
" make present again," or " bring back into presence," and its
history in English may be traced fairly well by the
citations given in the New English Dictionary of its
earliest uses in literature in senses which are still common. Thus
we find the verb meaning (1380) simply to " bring into presence,"
and Barbour uses it (1375) in the sense of bringing clearly
before the mind, whence the common sense of " explain,"
"exhibit," "portray." In 1513 it is used as synonymous
with " describe," or " allege to be." In 1460 we find it em-
ployed for the performance of a play or a part in a play, whence
comes the sense of symbolizing, standing in the place of
some one, or corresponding to something; and in 1655 for
acting as authorized agent or deputy of some one. This is a
notable point in the development of the word. In Cromwell's
speech to the parliament, January 22, 1655, he says: " I have
been careful of your safety, and the safety of those you repre-
sented." This strictly political use of the verb developed, it
will be seen, comparatively late.
The noun " representation " passed through similar stages.
In 1425 we find it equivalent to " image," " likeness," " repro-
duction," " picture," from which is derived a meaning hardly
distinguishable from "pretence." In 1553 it means a "state-
ment " or " account," a sense which leads later (1679) to that of
a formal and serious plea or remonstrance. In 1589 it occurs for
a performance of a play. In 1647 it is used in psychology for
the action of mental reproduction, a technical sense which
applies especially to the " immediate object of imagination "
(Sir W. Hamilton), and in Kantian language becomes the
generic term for percepts, concepts and ideas. In 1624 it comes
to mean "substitution of one thing or person for another,"
" substituted presence " as opposed to " actual presence," or
" the fact of standing for, or in place of, some other thing or
person," especially with a right or authority to act on their
account. Its application to a political assembly then becomes
natural, but for some time it is not so found in literature, the
sense remaining rather formal. Good instances of this use
are: Gataker, Transubst. 4: " The Rocke was Christ onely
symbolically and sacramentally, by representation or re-
semblance "; and R. Coke, Power and Subj. iii.: " So cannot
these members be formed into one body but by the king, either
by his Royal Presence or representation." Thus " presence "
and " representation " are used in distinctive meanings. In
Scots law (1693) it obtains the technical meaning of the assump-
tion by an heir of his predecessor's rights and obligations.
The term " representative," now specially applied to an
elected member of a national or other assembly, deriving his
authority from the constituency which returns him, appears
to have been first used to denote not the member but the
assembly itself. In the act abolishing the office of king, after
Charles I.'s execution, 1649, section iv. runs: " And whereas
by the abolition of the kingly office provided for in this Act,
a most happy way is made for this nation (if God see it good)
to return to its just and ancient right of being governed by its
own Representatives or national meetings in council, from time
to time chosen and entrusted for that purpose by the people,
it is therefore resolved and declared by the Commons assembled
in Parliament," &c., " and that they will carefully provide for
the certain choosing, meeting and sitting of the next and
future Representatives," &c. But the application of the term
to the persons who sat in parliament was at all events very soon
made, for in 1651 Isaac Penington the younger published a
pamphlet entitled " The fundamental right, safety and liberty
of the People; which is radically in themselves, derivatively
in the Parliament, their substitutes or representatives."
It is worth while to dwell on the historical evolution of the
various meanings of " represent," " representation " and
" representative," because it is at least curious that it was not
till the 1 7th century that the modern political or parliamentary
sense became attached to them; and it is well to remember
that though the idea of political representation is older and thus
afterwards is expressed by the later meaning of the word, the
actual use of " representation " in such a sense is as modern as
that. In Burke's speeches of 1769' and 1774-1775, relating
to taxation, we find the word in this sense already in common
use, but the familiar modern doctrine of " no taxation without
representation," however far back the idea may be traced, is
not to be found in Burke in those very words. The " originator
of that immortal dogma of our (i.e. American) national greatness "
was, according to the American writer M. C. Tyler (Amer. Lit. i.
1 54) , the politician and philanthropist Daniel Gookin (1612-1687),
an Irish settler in Virginia, who, moving to Boston and becoming
speaker of the Massachusetts legislature, became prominent in
standing up for popular rights in the agitation which resulted
in the withdrawal of the colonial charter (1686). But it was
the vogue of the " dogma " in America, not its phrase, that
he seems to have originated; and while the precise form of the
phrase does not appear to be attributable to any single author,
the principle itself was asserted in England long before the
word " representation," in a political sense, was current. In
English constitutional history the principle was substantially
established in 1 297 by the declaration De Tallagio non concedendo?
confirmed by the Petition of Right in 1628.
The growth of the parliamentary system in England is traced
in the article PARLIAMENT, but the account there given may
be supplemented here by a more precise reference to The idea
the evolution of the idea of political " representa- of political
tion " as such, and of its embodiment in the word now P*>-
employed to express it. The simple idea of the substi-
tution of one person for another, in some connexion, e.g. hostage,
pledge, victim, is so old as to be only describable as primitive;
it is found in the proxy system, e.g. in marriage, and in diplo-
macy, the legate or ambassador being the alter ego of his
sovereign; but, so far as general political legislative action,
by one man in an assembly on behalf of others, is concerned,
no systematic employment of a " deputy " (the word still used
both in a general sense and in politics as a synonym for "repre-
sentative ") is known among the ancients. So long as political
power rests in a small privileged class, such an idea must be
slow to develop; and the primitive notion of a law-making
body is that of all the members present in person, as in ancient
Greece. But, as Stubbs (Const. Hist. i. 586) points out, the early
English jury system (see JURY) shows the germ of the true idea
of representation in England; it was the established practice
of electing or selecting juries to present criminal matters before
the king's judges, and assessors to levy taxes on the county,
that suggested the introduction of popular representation in
the English political system, and thus brought " the commons "
into play in addition to the Crown and the nobles. Under
Henry III., in 1254, we have the writ (see PARLIAMENT) requir-
ing the sheriff of each county to " cause to come 3 before the
King's Council two good and discreet Knights of the Shire,
whom the men of the county shall have chosen for this purpose
in the stead of all and of each of them, to consider along with
knights of other shires what aid they will grant the king." But
the definite establishment of the principle of political representa-
tion, in a shape from which the later English system of repre-
sentation lineally descended, may be traced rather to the year
1295, in Edward I.'s famous writ of summons to parliament,
of which the following is the important part. In the volume
of Select Documents of English Constitutional History (1901),
selected by G. B. Adams and H. M. Stephens, whose version from
the Latin we quote, the section is headed (ante-dating the use
of the vital word), " Summons of representatives of the counties
and boroughs ":
" The king to the sheriff of Northamptonshire. Since we intend
to have a consultation and meeting with the earls, barons and other
principal men of our kingdom with regard to providing remedies
1 The New English Dictionary, for its first citation of " repre-
sentation " in an assembly, quotes Burke, Late St Nat., Works,
ii. 138, i.e. in 1769.
* No tallage or aid shall be laid or levied by us or our heirs in our
realm, without the goodwill and assent of the archbishops, bishops,
earls, barons, knights, burgesses and other freemen of our realm.'
1 " Venire facias," not " elegi facias."
no
REPRESENTATION
against the dangers which are in these days threatening the same
kingdom: and on that account have commanded them to be with
us on the Lord's Day next after the feast of St Martin in the ap-
proaching winter, at Westminster, to consider, ordain and dp as
may be necessary for the avoidance of these dangers: we strictly
require you to cause two knights from the aforesaid county, two
citizens from each city in the same county and two burgesses from
each borough, of those who are especially discreet and capable of
labouring, to be elected without delay, and to cause them to come
to us at the aforesaid time and place. Moreover, the said knights
are to have full and sufficient power for themselves and for the com-
munity of the aforesaid county, and the said citizens and burgesses
for themselves and the communities of the aforesaid cities and
boroughs separately, then and there, for doing what shall then be
ordained according to the Common Council in the premises, so that
the aforesaid business shall not remain unfinished in any way for
defect of this power. And you shall have there the names of the
knights, citizens and burgesses, and this writ."
The words " Elegi facias," instead of " venire facias " (which
were retained in 1275; see PARLIAMENT), still appear to make
the parliament of 1295 the model, rather than that of 1275, though
in other respects the latter appears now to have established the
summoning of county and borough representatives.
In this summoning by the king of the two knights and two
burgesses with full and sufficient power for themselves and for
Growth ^ te commun tiy> we find therefore the origin of political
ofrepre- representation of the commons, as opposed to the
seatatioa actual presence and personal attendance of the peers.
'" The older English national assemblies had consisted
of the privileged class fully summoned as individuals.
The change involved has been well explained by E. A.
Freeman (Ency. Brit., gth ed., viii. 297), when he says: " The
national assemblies changed their character ... by no cause
so much as by the growth of the practice of summons. ... In
the great assembly at Salisbury (1086), where all the land-
owners of England became the men of the king (William the
Conqueror), we see the first germs of Lords and Commons. The
Witan are distinguished from the ' land-sitting men.' By the
Witan, so called long after the Conquest, we are doubtless to
understand those great men of the realm who were usually
summoned to every assembly. The vast multitude who came
to do their homage to the king were summoned only for that
particular occasion. The personal right of summons is the
essence of the peerage. . . . The earls and bishops of England,
by never losing their right to the personal summons, have
kept that right to personal attendance in the national assembly
which was once common to ah 1 freemen, but which other free-
men have lost. The House of Lords represents 1 by unbroken
succession the Witan of the assembly of Salisbury; that is,
it represents by unbroken succession the old assemblies of the
Teutonic democracy. . . . The ' land-sitting men,' on the other
hand, not summoned personally or regularly, but summoned
in a mass when their attendance was specially needed, gradually
lost the right of personal attendance, till in the end they gained
the more practical right of appearing by their representatives."
From the same authority the account of the intermediate
stages in the adoption of the representative principle may be
further quoted:
" By the time of Henry II. the force of circumstances, especially
the working of the practice of summons, had gradually changed the
ancient assembly of the whole nation into a mere gathering of the
great men of the realm. ... It is in the reign of Richard I. that
we begin to see the first faint glimmerings of parliamentary represen-
tation. . . . The object of his wise ministers, of Archbishop Hubert
among the first, was to gain the greatest amount of money for their
master with the least amount of oppression towards the nation.
Under Hubert's administration, chosen bodies of knights or other
lawful men, acting in characters which became more and more dis-
tinctly representative, were summoned for every kind of purpose.
How far they were nominated, how far freely elected, is not always
clear. It seems most likely that in one stage they were nominated
by the sheriff in the county court, while at a later stage they were
chosen by the county court itself. In other words, the principle of
representation was first established, and then the next stage naturally
'The inevitable use of the word " represent " in its wider sense
(" corresponds to "), is worth noting in this passage from Freeman,
side by side with the more technical one in " representative "
(" chosen delegate ").
was that the representatives should be freely chosen. Summoned
bodies of knights appear in characters which are the forerunners of
grand jurors and of justices of the peace. They appear also in a
character which makes them distinctly forerunners of the knights
of the shire which were soon to come. A chosen body of knights
have to assess the imposts on each shire. From assessing the taxes
the next stage was to vote or to refuse them. In 1213 the sheriffs
are called on to summon four discreet men from each shire, to come
and speak with the king about the affairs of the realm. When we
have reached this stage, we have come very near to a parliament,
name and thing. The reign of John, in short, is marked by common
consent as the time from which Englishmen date the birth of their
national freedom in its later form. . , The (Great) Charter (1215)
is the first solemn act of the united English nation after Norman
conquerors and Norman settlers had become naturalized Englishmen.
. . . Representation was already fast growing up; but it had
hardly yet reached such a stage that it could be ordained in legal
form. But rules are laid down out of which, even if it had not
begun already, representation in the strictest sense could not fail
shortly to arise. The distinction which had been growing up ever
since the Conquest, and indeed before, between the Witan and the
land-sitting men, now receives a legal sanction. The practice of
summons makes the distinction. Certain great men, prelates, earls
and greater barons, are to receive the personal summons. The rest
of the king's tenants-in-chief are to be summoned only in a body. Here
we have almost come to a separation of Lords and Commons. But in
modern ideas those names imply two distinct houses; and it was not
yet settled, it had not yet come into men's minds to consider, whether
the national council should consist of one house or a dozen. But it
is decreed in so many words that the acts of those who came would
bind those who stayed away. On such a provision, representation,
and not only representation but election of the representatives,
follows almost as a matter of course. The mass stay away: a few
appear, specially commissioned to act in the name of the rest. The
Charter mentions only the king's tenants-in-chief; so far had things
been marred or feudalized by the influence of the Conquest. But as
the election could only be made in the ancient county court, every
freeholder at least, if not every freeman, won back his ancient right.
If he could not come himself to say Yea or Nay, he at least had a
voice in choosing those who could do so with greater effect."
(Ibid. pp. 307, 308.)
" The constitution of the (national) assembly, as defined in the
Great Charter, did not absolutely imply representation ; but it
showed that the full establishment of representation could not be
long delayed. The work of the period 1217-1340 was to call up,
alongside of the gathering of prelates, earls and other great men
specially summoned, into which the ancient Witanagemot had
shrunk up, another assembly directly representing all other classes
of the nation which enjoyed political rights. This assembly,
chosen by various local bodies, communitates or universitates, having a
quasi corporate being, came gradually to bear the name of the
commons. The knights of the shire, the barons, citizens and
burgesses of the towns, were severally chosen by the communa or
communitas of that part of the people which they represented." !
" The notion of local representation, by which shires and boroughs
chose representatives of their own communities, had to some extent
to strive with another doctrine, that of the representation of
estates or classes of men. The I3th century was the age when the
national assemblies, not only of England but of most other Euro-
pean countries, were putting on their definite shape. And in most
of them the system of estates prevailed. These in most countries
were three, clergy, nobles and commons. By these last were
commonly meant only the communities of the chartered towns,
while the noblesse of foreign countries answered to the lesser barons
and knights, who in England were reckoned among the commons.
The English system thus went far to take in the whole free popula-
tion, while the estates of other countries, the commons no less than
the clergy and nobles, must be looked on as privileged bodies. In
England we had in truth no estates: we had no nobility in the
foreign sense. . . . Yet the continental theory of estates so far
worked in the development of our parliamentary system that the
' Three Estates of England ' became a familiar phrase. It was
meant to denote the lords, the commons and the clergy in their
parliamentary character. For it is plain that it was the intention
of Edward I. to organize the clergy as a parliamentary estate,
alongside of the lords and commons. This scheme failed, mainly
through the unwillingness of the clergy themselves to attend in a
secular assembly. This left, so far as there were any estates at all,
two estates only, lords and commons. This led to the common
2 Professor Maste/man, lecturing (1908) on the House of Commons,
has pointed out how fortunate it was that this beginning of the
organization of the communes into a central body did not come
earlier than it did. Had there been one assembly representing the
local communitates at any earlier time it would have been far too
sectional in character and far too little conscious of any common
interest. The organization did not begin till England had become
a self-conscious body, realizing its common interests and the common
destiny that belonged to it as a nation.
REPRESENTATION
in
mistake of fancying the three estates to be king, lords and commons.
The ecclesiastical members of the House of Lords kept their seats
there; but the parliamentary representation of the clergy as an
estate came to nothing. So far as the clergy kept any parliamentary
powers, they exercised them in the two provincial convocations.
These anomalous assemblies, fluctuating between the character of
an ecclesiastical synod and of a parliamentary estate, kept, from
Edward I. to Charles II., the parliamentary power of self-taxation.
For a long time lords and commons taxed themselves separately.
So did the clergy ; so sometimes did other bodies. . . .
" During the reign of Henry III. assemblies were constantly held,
and their constitution is often vaguely described. But in a great
many cases phrases are used which, however vague, imply a popular
element. We read of knights, of tenants in chief, of freemen,
sometimes even of freemen and villeins, sometimes, more vaguely
still, of ' univcrsi,' ' universitas Angliae,' and the like. In some
cases we are able better to interpret these vague phrases. For
instance, in 1224 each shire sends four knights chosen by the
4 milites et probi homines.' Whether these knights were or were
not to vote along with the magnates, they were at all events to
transact business with them. We must always remember that in
these times formal voting in the modern sense is not to be looked
for." l (Ibid. pp. 314, 315.)
This summary shows clearly how the idea of " representa-
tion " as opposed to " presence in person " was applied to the
The English parliament, so as to give the commons a
Theory of proper voice in it as well as the lords. It is unnecessary
Repre- here to trace further the gradual increase in power of
seatation. ^ e House of Commons till it became the predominant
partner in the English bicameral constitution (see PARLIAMENT).
But from the point of view of historical theory it is important to
note that its representative character does not essentially depend
upon the particular method (election by vole) by which its members
have for so long been chosen. It is a common error to regard the
House of Commons as having a national authority higher than
that of the House of Lords merely on the ground that it is
composed of elected members, and to stigmatize the House of
Lords as "unrepresentative" because it is not elected. But in
strictness the question of election, as such, has nothing to do
with the matter. 2 The proper distinction (ignoring for the
moment the later inclusion in the House of Lords of a certain
representative element strictly so regarded in the Scotch and
Irish peers) is that the House of Lords, as still constituted in
1910, remained a presentative chamber, while the House of
Commons was essentially a representative one; in the former
the members, summoned personally as individuals, were entitled
to speak in the great council of the nation, while in the latter
the members were returned as the mouthpieces of whole communi-
tates, to whom, in the person of the sheriffs, the summons had
been directed to send persons to speak for them. 3 The pre-
ponderant authority of the House of Commons is due not to its
members being elected that is only one way of settling who the
mouthpieces of the commons shall be but to the progress of
1 " Election " in these early times has its simple meaning of
" choice." " We must guard ourselves from supposing that the
citizens and burgesses, who were summoned to Parliament, were
absolutely elected by the inhabitants of the towns as their repre-
sentatives. Their presence in Parliament is another instance of
representation without election. They were often nominated by the
sheriff of the county, and even when that great officer, from negli-
gence or favour, permitted the return to be made by those interested
in the transaction, the nomination was confined to the small govern-
ing body, who returned two of their members, in general very un-
willing missionaries, to the great council " (Disraeli, Vindication of
the British Constitution, 1835).
2 In the American federal system the bicameral legislature is
divided into a " House of Representatives," composed of members
elected by popular vote in each state, and a " Senate," composed
of members elected by the legislature in each state. In spite of the
nomenclature, both houses are really composed of " representatives."
But under a republican system there is no room for a purely pre-
sentative assembly, and the term " representative " comes to
imply a more direct choice by the " commons."
3 There was at one time, it may be noted, a sort of " representative "
element even in the case of the House of Lords, in so far as peers
(including peeresses in their own right, abbesses, &c.) could send
deputies or proxies. But it must be remembered that the privilege
flowed directly from the personal and presentative character of the
summons to a peer, who as such could name a deputy. It is quite
illegitimate to strain from it an analogy with the election of a repre-
sentative by the commons, who had no personal right to a summons.
popular government. The two British houses have historically
existed as assemblies of the separate estates of the realm the
House of Lords of the two estates of lords spiritual and temporal,
and the House of Commons of the commons. The third estate
has so increased in power as to become predominant in the
country; but the authority of its own assembly simply depends
on the powers of those it represents. If the balance of political
power had not been shifted in the country itself, the authority
and competence of the peers, speaking for themselves in a
primary assembly, would in theory actually appear higher, so
far as their order is concerned, than that of members of the
House of Commons, who can only " represent " the popular
constituencies. Moreover, the fact that most members of the
House of Commons are elected by a party vote is apt to make
them very often even less authoritative spokesmen of their
constituencies the communitates than if they were selected
by some method which would indicate that they had the full
confidence of the whole body they " represent." It is notorious
that many members of a modern House of Commons, or of any
other " representative " assembly, have only been elected by
the votes of a minority of their constituency, or (where there
have been more than two candidates) a minority even of those
who voted; and there always comes a time when it is certain
that if a representative has to come again before the electorate
for their votes he will be defeated; he, in fact, no longer reflects
their views, while he still sits and legislates. The real desires
of the commons in a certain British constituency may even be
more faithfully, even if only accidentally, reflected by a local
peer whose only right to speak in parliament is technically
presentative. In his Vindication of the British Constitution
(1835), Disraeli, writing of the Reform Bill of 1832, observed
that " in the effort to get rid of representation without election,
it will be well if eventually we do not discover that we have only
obtained election without representation." A truer word was
never spoken. A man may be representative, practically
consensu omnium, although no vote, resulting from a division of
opinion, has been taken for the purpose of selecting him. The
vote is merely a method of selection when there is a definite
division of opinion involving an uncertainty; and even in the
modern House of Commons many members are returned " un-
opposed," no actual voting taking place. A well-recognized
representative character (as regards the functions involved)
attaches, for instance, in British public life to other persons in
whose selection the method of popular voting has had no
place; such as the king himself, the Cabinet (in relation to the
political party in power), or the bishops (as regards the Church
of England).
The question of remodelling the constitution of the British
House of Lords was prominently before the country in 1910 ;
and a large number even of those who were prepared to Thf
defend its actions in the past were ready to accept British
changes which would make it in form and composi- Houses
tion a Second Chamber representative of the nation ofPariia-
rather than presentative of its historic order. But
it is important to remember, in connexion with the House of
Lords question, that, in a country like England, where the con-
stitution has provided for a Second Chamber which is composed
of members of an estate or estates distinct in the nation from
the estate of the commons, these persons may to a predominant
degree nevertheless be really representative men by common
consent; while their being so, though not theoretically the
reason for their legislative power, is substantially the reason
why it has so long persisted. In the absence of a written
constitution, theoretical considerations have in England
always been second to the force of circumstances. Most
people regarded the House of Lords, as still unreformed
in 1910, as purely a hereditary body; its members had been
summoned to parliament as peers (the important question of
their right to a summons need not here be discussed), and most
peers enjoyed their titles by hereditary succession. But the
constant creation of peers by both political parties had in fact
introduced even into the constitution of the House of Lords
112
REPRESENTATION
an essentially representative element (though not resulting
from direct election), apart altogether from the fact that heredity
maintained there a number of persons whose title had des-
cended from men who were originally representative Englishmen,
and whose successors, on the whole, were no less so. In the
days when kings really governed in England, the most powerful
check on the king, in the interest of the nation at large, was the
peerage; the earls and barons, in parliament, were the chief
bulwark of the people against tyranny. It was they who stood
for the nation in extorting Magna Carta from King John;
and as time went on, the representation of the commons in
parliament was largely due, not to any direct popular pressure,
but to the desire of the kings to influence the lower ranks of
society independently of the nobles. Up to the reign of Charles I.,
at all events, the House of Lords was actually the predominant
partner in parliament; the House of Commons was recruited
from and returned by only a smaE section of the commons as
now understood; and Oliver Cromwell certainly a " popular "
leader in the ordinary sense made as short work of it as he
did of the king himself. Up to 1832, when the first modern
Reform Act was passed, the House of Commons was an oli-
garchical body, and the electors themselves were a small and
privileged class. It is only since then except in the granting of
supplies that first equality, and then predominance, in respect of
the House of Lords, has been asserted by the House of Commons,
owing to the fact that an extended suffrage has made the estate
of the commons more adequately coincident with the nation as a
whole. Prior to 1832 it was the king who directly made and
unmade ministries; in 1835 for the first time the result of a
general election caused a change of ministry; and the modern
view of the House of Lords as purely a revising chamber dates
only from then. But the very fact that the responsibility
for creating new peerages now passed to ministers dependent
on popular suffrage may well justify the contention that hence-
forth it indirectly included a select number of representative
men of the nation, holding their seats in virtue of authoritative
nomination and not by heredity. In the sixty years preceding
1906 no fewer than 419 new peerages were created, 238 by the
Liberal party, 1 8 1 by the Conservative, or a balance of 5 7 creations
on the Liberal side. 1 It is fair to assume that all these new
peers were created as being representative men in the nation for
one reason or another. And an analysis of the composition of the
House of Lords in 1906 would have led an unprejudiced outside
observer to suppose that its competence to speak on national
affairs had not been ' weakened by any dependence on the
hereditary title. It included 166 men who had been M.P.'s
(i.e. had been elected by popular vote to the House of Commons) ,
172 who had held government office, 140 who had been mayors
of county councils, 207 who had served in the army or navy,
40 who had been judges or lawyers, 7 ex- viceroys, 16 ex-
governors of colonies, 50 who had been eminent in art, letters,
manufactures or trade, and 21 archbishops or bishops (appointed
by ministerial recommendation, but only after they had worked
up to eminence from being curates, and therefore had wide
experience of the social life of the people).
It is possible to compare a chamber so composed some-
what favourably with a modern House of Commons, if
the point at issue the provision of " representative men "
(i.e. men generally accepted as national spokesmen) be strictly
considered, apart from the method of selecting them by direct
popular vote. 2 In the House of Lords the method is heredity
plus selection by the political party which the popular vote
has put in power; while in the election of members of the House
' l Between January 1906 and January 1910 thirty-five more new
peers were created by Liberal premiers, and seven more in June 1910.
'Speaking at Oldham on December 15, 1909, Lord Curzon said:
I have taken out the figures of the past 200 years, and I tell you
this, that during that time 41 of our prime ministers have sat in the
Lords and only 17 in the Commons; of our foreign secretaries, 56
in the Lords and only 8 in the Commons; of our colonial secretaries,
46 in the Lords and 25 in the Commons; of our war ministers, 29
in the Lords and 31 in the Commons; of first lords of the Admiralty,
48 in the Lords and_28 in the Commons."
of Commons the popular choice is doubly limited first, by the
fact that only the enfranchised commons can vote (in 1910
about 7^ millions out of 43); and secondly, because the
choice must be made from among candidates who are
themselves not disqualified for various reasons (for instance
they must not be clergymen, nor entitled to seats in the House
of Lords). Now, to carry out the real " will of the nation "
in parliament must require (i) a reasonable knowledge of
the wishes of the nation, and (2) an understanding of the
best ways of expressing those wishes in legislation and adminis-
tration. In the case of the peers, those who sit as having been
originally created and therefore selected for the purpose a
considerable section of those actively attending the quali-
fications are obvious: and it is only necessary to deal with
those qualified by inheritance of title. Here too, in a number
of cases, preceding experience in the House of Commons, to
which the popular vote has returned them while they were only
in the succession to a peerage, is a frequent factor; but, apart
from that, the art of legislation is one which may well be con-
sidered to require a certain special disposition and mental
equipment. Though allowance must be made for exceptional
cases, it is obvious that the son of a man who has been respon-
sible for legislating, who has himself been brought up as one
who will have to take his part in legislating, is most likely, .hi
any society, to have qualified himself for the business, as in
the case of any profession or trade. He has been accustomed
to breathe the parliamentary atmosphere, and as one of a
leisured class has had the opportunity to study the subject
of legislation, and to obtain experience of its conditions. This
is so generally accepted that, hi fact, the same theory is com-
monly applied to candidates for the House of Commons, and
predominantly to members of that House who are given office.
The names of more than one generation are writ large in English
history in the case of the Pitts, Foxes, Grenvilles, Cannings,
Cecils, Stanleys and Cavendishes. The sons of famous political
commoners, a Gladstone, a Harcourt, a Churchill, a Primrose,
a Chamberlain, have by consent a superior claim, even within
the radical or popular party, by no means resting originally-
or primarily on known personal merit or proved experience, for
selection as candidates and then for preferment to office; and
it is a very common occurrence for younger sons of peers to be
selected as candidates (liberal as much as conservative) for
parliament, even though from general intellectual considera-
tions they may appear in no way the equals of other men.
They have been brought up to the business; and they are
therefore adapted for it by heredity. If the House of Commons
were deprived of those members who obtained their seats or
their offices primarily for reasons of heredity, it would lose
many of its best men as indeed it occasionally does, to its
disadvantage and possibly to the chagrin of the individuals
themselves, when succession to a peerage forces a prominent
parliamentarian to relinquish his seat in the Lower House and
to take his place in the " unrepresentative " chamber.
It remains nevertheless the fact that, in politics, " repre-
sentative " government means not so much government by men
really representative of the nation as government in Expres .
the name of the whole body of citizens (and predomi- s /oa of
nantly the estate of the commons) through a chamber the " will
or chambers composed of elected deputies. The ^*
object in view is the expression of the " will of the
people " the people, that is, who are sovereign. Clearly the
only pure case of such government can be in a republic,
where there is only one " estate," the free citizens. The home
and historical type of representative government, the United
Kingdom, is strictly no such case, since the monarchy and
the House of Lords exist and work on lines constitutionally
independent of any direct contact with the electorate. British
practice, however, is of vital importance for the theory of repre-
sentative institutions, and it is worth while to point out that
the " will of the people " may even so be effectively expressed
some people may think even more effectively expressed than
in a pure republic. The king and the House of Lords, quA
REPRESENTATION
estates of the realm, are just as much part of " the people," in
the widest sense, as " the commons " are; they are an integral
part of the nation. In a republic they would as individuals be
equal citizens, able to become candidates for the representative
chamber or chambers; but as it is, since they are expressly
debarred from taking part in elections to the House of Commons,
they remain entitled and expected to use their historic method
of playing a part in the government of the state. They assist
to constitute " the people " in the wider sense, and in the
narrower sense " the people " (i.e. the commons) know it and
rely on it. Under the British constitution the commons have
habitually relied on the monarchy and the House of Lords to
play their part in the state, and on many occasions it has been
proved, by various methods by which it is open to the commons
themselves to show their real feeling, that action on the part of
the monarch (e.g. in foreign affairs) or the House of Lords (in
rejecting or modifying bills sent up by the House of Commons),
in which a popular vote has played no initiating or controlling
part, is welcomed and ratified, by consent of a large majority,
on the part of the nation at large. So much is this so that it is
notorious, in the case of the House of Lords, that elected members
of the House of Commons, tied by purely party allegiance and
pledges, have constantly voted for a measure they did not want
to see passed, relying on the House of Lords to throw it out.
Ultimately, no doubt, the reconciliation of this " presentative "
element in the British form of constitution with the -growth of
democracy and the predominance of the " representative "
system depends purely on the waiving of historical theory both
by king and peers, and its adaptation to the fact of popular
government through the recognition that their action rests for
its efficient authority upon conformity with the " will of the
people." Thus it has become an established maxim in England
that while it is the proper function of the House of Lords to
reject a measure which in their opinion is not in accordance with
the wishes of the nation, they could not repeat such a rejection
after a general election had shown that its authors in the House
of Commons were supported by the country. The experience
of politics from 183210 1910 gave abundant justification to the
House of Lords for supposing that in such cases they were
interpreting the desire of the country better than the House of
Commons; the case of the Irish Home Rule bill of 1893 is, of
course, the classical example. 1 So that in practice the House
of Lords only acts in opposition to the House of Commons,
subject to the remedy of a dissolution of parliament (which
depends strictly on the prerogative of the Crown, but in practice
on the advice of the leader of the majority in the House of
Commons) , at which the view of the House of Commons might
be confirmed and reasserted, and in that case would prevail.
The violent attacks made on the House of Lords by the Liberal
party, on occasions when that party has had a majority in the
commons and has had its measures rejected or distastefully
amended, have always been open to the criticism that if the
majority in the House of Commons were really supported by the
electorate in the country they had the remedy in their own hands.
If it were shown by the result of a general election that their
defeated measure were the " will of the people," the House of
Lords, as was generally understood, must give way. Such a
position, though naturally objectionable to a party in power in
the House of Commons (because general elections are uncertain
things in every respect but that of trouble and expense), could
clearly be strong only in view of the confidence of the House of
Lords in its action being more truly representative of public
opinion. It therefore must be said to have acted, however
clumsily and indirectly and no direct way would be feasible
except that of the Referendum as a " representative " body,
i.e. as carrying out what it judged to be the national will and
not merely the will of the peers, although not constituted as
1 The result of the general election of January 1910, following on
the rejection of the Budget by the House of Lords, cannot properly
be said to show anything to the contrary. It was notorious that
there was no genuine majority in the new House of Commons for
the Budget, and that the Irish Nationalists only voted for it as part
of an arrangement for ulterior purposes.
such in the narrower sense. In practice, and in accordance
with this view, it has on more than one occasion (e.g. in the case
of the Trades Disputes Act of 1906) accepted and passed measures
which it was notorious, and indeed avowed, that the peers
themselves regarded as bad.
The immense extension of the " representative principle "
in government, by means of popular election, and its adaptation
to municipal as well as national councils, has in recent
times resulted in attracting much attention to the ^ /</es /
problem of making such elected bodies more accurately obtaining
representative of public opinion than they frequently Repre-
are. There are three distinct problems involved
(i) that of making the number of enfranchised citizens tioa.
correspond to a real embodiment of the nation; (2) that
of getting candidates to stand for the office of representative
who are competent and incorruptible exponents of the national
will, and (3) that of adopting a system of voting which shall
result in the elected representatives forming an assembly which
shall adequately reflect the balance of opinion in the electorate.
(i) The history of the gradual extension of the franchise in
the United Kingdom is given under PARLIAMENT, and the
conditions for other countries under their respective
headings. But while, in countries with a representative suffrage
system at all, the question as to the extent to which
the male citizens shall have the vote is mainly one of degree as
to property or other qualification, up to the inclusion of all
adults (see VOTE AND VOTING) the question of the incapacity
of women, as a sex, raises a distinction which is more radical.
The facts as to the progress of the movement for women's
suffrage are given in the article WOMEN. It is only necessary
to say here that, where the franchise is limited to the male
sex, the theory of " no taxation without representation " is
under modern conditions of life carried out in a decidedly one-
sided way. The question of women's suffrage is, however, one of
public policy, in whatever state it is raised; and even where,
as in Great Britain, it has been adopted for municipal affairs,
a distinction is commonly made as regards the national assembly.
So far as the historical facts as to the disability of women are
concerned, it has been unanimously decided in England by the
highest law-court of the realm (judgment of the House of Lords
in the Edinburgh University case, December 1908), presided over
on this occasion by a Liberal Lord Chancellor (Lord Loreburn),
that, according to their authoritative statement of the common
law, women never had in earlier times any legal right to vote
for members of parliament; this judgment is therefore entirely
adverse to such ingenious arguments to the contrary as are ably
expressed in Mrs Charlotte Carmichael Stopes's British Free-
women (1907).
Sex, however, apart, there are various interesting questions as
to the principles which should govern the extension of the
suffrage and its limitations, to which a brief reference may here
be made. It is noteworthy that John Stuart Mill, the philo-
sophical radical whose work on Representative Government
(first published in 1861) is a classic on the subject, and who
regarded the representative system as the highest ideal of polity,
made a good many reservations which have been ignored by
those who frequently quote him. Mill's ideal was by no means
that popular government should involve a mere counting of
heads, or absolute equality of value among the citizens. While
holding that " no arrangement of the suffrage can be permanently
satisfactory in which any person or class is peremptorily excluded,
or in which the electoral privilege is not open to all persons
of full age who desire to obtain it," he insisted on " certain
exclusions." Thus he demanded that universal education should
precede universal enfranchisement, and laid it down, that if
education to the required amount had not become universally
accessible and thus a hardship arose, this was " a hardship
that had to be borne." He would not grant the suffrage to
any one who could not read, write and perform a sum in the rule
of three. Further, he insisted on the electors being taxpayers,
and emphasized the view that, as a condition annexed to
representation, such taxation should descend to the poorest class
REPRESENTATION
" in a visible shape," by which he explained that he did not
mean " indirect taxes," a " mode of defraying a .share of the
public expenses which is hardly felt." He advocated for this
purpose " a direct tax, in the simple form of a capitation " on
every grown person. But even more than this, he was in favour
of a form of plural voting, so that the intellectual classes of the
community should have more proportionate weight than the
numerically larger working-classes: " though every one ought
to have a voice, that every one should have an equal voice is a
totally different proposition." The well-informed and capable
man's opinion being more valuable than that of the barely
qualified elector, it should be given more effect by a system of
plural voting, which should give him more votes than one. As
to the test of value of opinion, Mill was careful to say he did not
mean property though the principle was so important that he
would not abolish such a test where it existed but individual
mental superiority, which he would gauge by the rough indica-
tion afforded by occupation in the higher forms of business or
profession, or by such a criterion as a university degree or the
passing of an examination of a fairly high standard.
" Until there shall have been devised some mode of plural voting,
which may assign to education as such the degree of superior in-
fluence due to it, and sufficient as a counterpoise to the numerical
weight of the least educated class, for so long the benefits of completely
universal suffrage cannot be obtained without bringing with them,
as it appears to me, more than equivalent evils." " Equal voting,"
he repeated, " is in principle wrong, because recognizing a wrong
standard, and exercising a bad influence on the voter's mind. It is
not useful, but hurtful, that the constitution of the country should
declare ignorance to be entitled to as much political power as know-
ledge."
Modern democracy may ignore Mill's emphatic plea for plural
voting, as it ignores his equally strong arguments against the
ballot 1 his contention being that secret voting violated the
spirit of the suffrage, according to which the voter was a trustee
for the public, whose acts should be publicly known but Mill's
discussion of the whole subject proceeds on high grounds which
are still worth careful consideration. Where a representative
system, as such, is extolled as the ideal polity, the reservations
made by Mill, a liberal thinker who cannot be dismissed as a
prejudiced reactionary, should be remembered. Mill postulated,
in any event, a state of society which was worthy of such a
system, no less than the necessary checks and balances which
should make it correspond to the real conditions of rational
government. " Representative institutions," he pointed out,
" are of little value, and may be a mere instrument of tyranny
or intrigue, when the generality of electors are not sufficiently
interested in their own government to give their vote, or, if
they vote at all, do not bestow their suffrages on public grounds,
but sell them for money, or vote at the beck of some one who has
control over them, or whom for private reasons they desire to
propitiate. Popular election, as thus practised, instead of a
security against misgovernment, is but an additional wheel in
its machinery." When, in modern days, advocates of repre-
sentative institutions seem ready to extend them to all countries,
they become doctrinaires who depart widely from the standpoint
of Mill, and forget that democracy is itself only a " form of
government," as Sir Henry Maine insisted, for which all com-
munities may not be ripe or fitted. The ideal form of govern-
ment must be relative to a certain state of civilization and certain
conditions of national life, and its advantages can only be tested
by results and practical working.
(2) As regards the important question of the selection of
candidates (which depends partly on their willingness to stand,
Selection and partly on the means available for discovering
of Caodi- suitable persons) , modern practice is entirely dominated
dates. ky t jj e or g an i za tion of political parties and the require-
ments of party allegiance. Though much has been said as to
the desirability or not of paying members for their services
(see PAYMENT or MEMBERS), this is certainly overshadowed by
the question of the availability of really capable men at all to the
number required, for all candidates become " professional "
1 Before 1872, when the Ballot Act was passed, voting was public.
politicians, whether paid or not. The ideal of having a " repre-
sentative man " in the broader sense as a " representative " in
the narrower is only very roughly attained where the conditions
of public life niake a capacity for electioneering a necessity.
To a large extent the political candidate depends purely upon
the support of a party organization. His choice rests with party
wire-pullers, and the average individual elector is confronted
with the task of voting for some one of whom he may personally
know very little, except that, if returned, the candidate will in
parliament vote for measures embodying certain general prin-
ciples as indicated in some vague party programme. Since
the elector as a rule himself supports a party, he votes accord-
ingly, but there are always a good many electors who under such a
system fail to get a chance of voting for a candidate who fully
represents their views. The supremacy of party interests,
resulting from the difficulty of having any other form of electoral
organization, is apt to bring many evils in its train, including the
corruption of the electorate, and the practice of " lobbying,"
i.e. the pressure upon members in parliament of important
" interests " whose electoral assistance is indispensable.
(3) The more important point to be considered here is the
third. When a representative assembly is to be elected by a
direct popular vote, it is obviously necessary (a) that Systems
either there should be some system by which the whole ol v "Uag.
body as a unit should elect all the members en bloc, or, as this
usually appears impracticable, that the mass of electors should be
divided within defined areas, or " constituencies "; and (b) that
in the latter case voting shall take place for the purpose of electing
one or more representatives of each such area according to some
method by which due effect shall be given to the preferences of
the electors. In theory there can be no perfectly fair arrangement
as between constituency and constituency, where a single repre-
sentative is to be returned, except on the terms that they are ex-
actly equal in the number of electors; each elector's voice would
then count equally with that of any other in the nation (or mutatis
mutandis in the municipality, &c.). But in practice it is difficult
to the point of impossibility to attempt more than an arbitrary
distribution of electoral areas, more or less approximating to
equality; and recourse is had to the formation of constituencies
out of geographical districts taken as units for historical or
practical reasons, and necessarily fluctuating from time to time
in population or influence. It may become necessary periodi-
cally to revise these areas by what in England are called Re-
distribution Acts, but it has to be admitted that any perfect
system of representation is always stultified by the necessary
inequalities involved; and what is known as " gerrymandering "
is sometimes the result, when a party in power so recasts the
electoral districts as to give more opportunity for its own
candidates to be returned than for those of its opponents.
This flaw is particularly noticeable when the arrangement for
the method of voting is that which allots only one member
or representative to each district (scrutin d'arrondissemenf).
The essential vice of this single-member system, which prevails
in the United Kingdom 2 and the United States, is the lack of
correspondence between the proportions in which the elected
members of each party stand to one another and the proportions
in which the numbers of the electors who returned them similarly
stand; and it may well be that the minority party in the country
obtains a majority of representatives in the assembly, or at
any rate that a substantial minority obtains an absurdly small
representation. " As a result of the district system," writes Pro-
fessor J. R. Commons of Wisconsin (Proportional Representation,
1907), " the national House of Representatives (in America) is
scarcely a representative body. In the Fifty-first Congress, a
majority of representatives were elected by a minority of the
voters "; the figures being 5,348,379 Republican votes with 164
elected, and 5,502,581 Democratic votes with 161 elected. In
2 The House of Commons in 1910 was elected by 643 constituencies,
of which 27 (including three universities) returned two members each,
and the rest one; and the Royal Commission, which reported in
that year, recommended the abandonment of the existing two-
member constituencies " at the earliest convenient opportunity."
REPRESENTATION
the case of the Fifty-second Congress, the Democrats, with
50-6% of the votes, returned 71-1% of the representa-
tives; the Republicans, with 42-9% of the votes, returning
26-5% of the representatives. Lord Avebury (Propor-
tional Representation, 1890; new ed. 1906) has given various
similar experiences in England; thus, at the general election
of 1886, the Liberals, with 1,333,400 votes, only obtained 176
seats, while the Unionists, with 1,423,500, obtained 283 (not
counting 99 unopposed returns on the Liberal side, and in on
the Unionist). In the general election of 1895, at which 132
Unionist seats and 57 Liberal were unopposed, the result in the
481 seats contested was the return of 279 Unionists and 202
Liberals; yet the actual votes given were 1,800,000 for the
Liberals, and 1,775,000 for the Unionists. Again, in 1906, the
Unionist vote, though 44% of the total cast, returned only
28% of the members, and the Liberal majority, which in
strict proportion would have been 68, actually was 256.
The establishment of mere party majority rule, which is char-
acteristic of a representative system, is a necessity, no doubt,
in popular government; but the way in which a substantial
minority of voters may only obtain a contemptible minority
of members, and may in practice be tyrannized over in con-
sequence, somewhat detracts from its blessings, and leads to
extreme party measures. The division of the whole electoral
body into constituencies is, after all, only a device for getting
over the difficulty of the electors voting en bloc, and it docs not
seem to justify the conversion of a real majority in the country
into a minority as represented in parliament, nor the complete
exclusion of a substantial number of the electorate from parlia-
mentary representation so far as their views are concerned at
all. Yet under the English system such results are possible as the
capture of every seat in Wales (34), in 1906, by the Liberal party,
with 217,462 votes, the 100,547 Unionist voters having no
representation in parliament; while in Warwickshire, though
22,490 votes were given to the Unionist candidates against 22,021
for the Liberal, three Liberals were returned against one
Unionist.
The attempt to rectify this flaw in the representative method
has led to the suggestion of various devices by the adoption
Propor- f wn ' cn the elected members may correspond more
tioaal equally to the divisions of opinion in the electorate.
repre- Under the plan of scrutin de lisle (or " general ticket ")
seatatloa. [ ar g er districts are created, each returning several
members, and each voter has as many votes as there are
members to elect; but while this system apparently
provides the opportunity for the return of candidates
.with different views, it only requires a solid party vote to
capture the whole of the representation for a majority.
What is known as the " limited vote " is a form of scrutin
de liste by which the elector has less votes than there are seats
to be filled; with (say) three to be elected, the elector has
only two votes. Systems of " limited vote " are in force in
Portugal, Spain and Japan. A somewhat better plan is the
" cumulative vote, " which gives each elector as many votes
as there are members to be elected, but allows him to divide
them as he pleases (instead of giving only one vote to any one
candidate). This enables an organized minority, by concentrat-
ing their votes, to elect at all events some representative; but
the " cumulative vote " works rather capriciously, and is com-
monly defeated by careful party organization.
A more elaborate plan, but depending like the " limited "
vote and the " cumulative " vote on the formation of constitu-
encies returning three or more members each, is that of the
" transferable vote. " By this device an elector can indicate
on his ballot paper not only his first choice, but also his second
or third, &c. To ensure election a candidate need not obtain
a majority of the votes polled, but only a certain number, so
fixed that it can be obtained by a number of candidates equal
to the number of seats to be filled, but by no more; this number
of votes is called the " quota. " At the first count first choices
only are reckoned, and those candidates who have received
a " quota " or more are declared duly elected. If all the seats
have not then been filled up, the surplus votes of those candi-
dates who have received more than the " quota " are trans-
ferred according to the names marked (2) on them. If these
transfers still do not bring the requisite number of candidates
up to the " quota, " the lowest candidate is eliminated and his
votes transferred according to the next preferences, and so on
till the seats are filled This system, which is the one usually
associated with the term " proportional representation " was
first suggested by Thomas Hare, who published in 1857 a
pamphlet on The Machinery of Representation, and in
1859 a more complete scheme in his treatise on The Election
of Representatives. John Stuart Mill, in Representative Govern-
ment (1861) warmly endorsed Hare's proposal. Hare wished
to treat the whole country as one constituency, but by later
supporters of the " transferable vote " that plan was abandoned
as impracticable; and the principle will work so long as the
constituencies adopted each return several members. Lord
Courtney, in his evidence before the British Royal Commission
in 1909, said that his minimum constituency would be a three-
membered one, but he would create a fifteen-membered con-
stituency without hesitation. The simple " transferable vote "
has been adopted in Tasmania for all elections (1907), after
experimental adoption in the constituencies of Hobart and
Launceston in 1896-1901, and in the election of the Tasmanian
members of the Commonwealth legislature in 1900. It was
proposed in the draft of the South African constitution, but
abandoned. The principle has also been adopted in the " list
systems " of Belgium, some Swiss cantons,' Sweden, Finland
and parts of Denmark, Wiirttemberg and Servia, where candi-
dates are grouped in lists and all votes given to individual
candidates on the list count first as votes for the list itself, the
seats being divided among the lists in proportion to the total
number of votes obtained by the list. The use of the general
term " proportional representation " for all of these is, however,
somewhat misleading; people often suppose that only one
identical system of voting is meant, whereas in fact some
300 possible varieties have been proposed, and each of the
states mentioned has a different one from all the others. The
only common element is the device of the " transferable
vote, " i.e. the method of having an " electoral quota, " and the
filling up of seats, where a quota is not provided by the
first choices, by votes transferred from the second choices,
and so on. It may be noted here that the " transferable vote "
is calculated to multiply candidates to a point at which the
minds of the electorate may well be embarrassed as to their
preferences (the largest Belgian constituency returns 22 mem-
bers), and, while undoubtedly providing for " minority repre-
sentation, " to encourage what may be called " minority
thinking " and particularist politics. The " transferable vote "
is commonly objected to as puzzling to the electors and too
complicated for the scrutineers, while it is not much favoured
by " machine " party organizations, which generally prefer
the simpler plan of rough-and-ready majorities; but it has
received a growing amount of theoretical support, as well as
success in practical experiment, in recent years.
The " second ballot " is a device for securing absolute majority,
instead of relative majority, representation. Where the two-
party system prevails, it is usual for only two The
candidates, one for each party, to stand for each second
single-member constituency. But there is nothing ballot.
to prevent a third or even a fourth candidate standing,
and this multiplication of candidates becomes the more com-
mon in proportion as parliamentary organization is split
up into groups. The consequence is that the candidate who
heads the poll may well have only a relative, not an absolute,
majority of votes, and to meet this objection the " second ballot "
has been introduced, and is in operation in Austria-Hungary,
France, Germany, Italy and Russia. Under this system, if no
candidate receives an absolute majority of all the votes, a second
election is held, at which, as a rule, only the two candidates
compete who received most; or in cases where more than one
seat is to be filled, twice as many candidates compete as there
n6
REPRIEVE REPRODUCTION
are seats. In principle the second ballot has much in its favour,
though it does not necessarily reflect the real opinion of the
electorate, but only what is practicable; and while leading to
political bargaining it does nothing for minority representation.
In England the importance of the whole subject of the method
of elections was recognized at the end of 1908 by the appoint-
ment of a Royal Commission to inquire and report. Its con-
clusions were published in 1910, after much interesting evidence
had been taken, but they attracted little attention, being in the
main adverse to innovation. The one positive recommenda-
tion was for the adoption of the " alternative vote " (already
in use in Queensland and Western Australia) by which the
electors might mark their choices i, 2, 3, &c.; this would not be
for the purpose already discussed as part of the method of the
" transferable vote," but the indications of preference would only
be used for the same purpose as the " second ballot," while
saving the voters the trouble of further elections. One objection
to this " alternative vote," however, as compared with the
" second ballot," is that it does not allow the voter to change
his mind as to his preference, as he well might do after he knew
the result of the original voting.
It may be said broadly that all the devices which have been
proposed for mitigating or redressing the defects of electoral
methods ignore the essential fact that in any case a representative
system can only result in a rather arbitrary approximation to
correspondence with the opinions of the electorate. It is by
no means certain even that " proportional representation " in
any of its forms would always result in the return of a repre-
sentative assembly reflecting with mathematical accuracy
the balance of opinion in the electorate; and even if it did,
the electors have a way of changing their opinions long before
their representatives come up for re-election. It was stated
before the British Royal Commission that in Belgium, in spite
of " proportional representation," both in 1900 and in 1902
a majority of members was returned by a minority of votes.
While under majority rule, as Mr Augustine Birrell once re-
marked, " minorities must suffer " even large minorities
it is on the other hand not likely to conduce to the popularity
of representative government that minorities should obtain
too great a share of political power. The fact is that no
" representation " can reflect the views of those " represented "
as accurately as " presentation " by those entitled personally
to speak. This conclusion, while in no necessary degree qualify-
ing the importance of " popular government," undoubtedly
detracts from the value of the representative method. The result
is seen in the increasing desire in really democratic countries
to supplement representative government by some form of
Referendum, or direct appeal to the electors for their own
personal opinion on a distinct issue a method which involves
fundamentally the addition of a " presentative " element to
the representative system.
LITERATURE. The number of separate works on various aspects
of the theory, history and practice of political representation a
much wider subject than representative government is too large
for detailed mention. A general reference can only be made here
to the standard treatises on constitutional law. The chapter
in Sir G. Cornewall Lewis's Remarks on the Use and Abuse of some
Political Terms (Sir T. Raleigh's edition, 1898) should also be noted.
In addition to works cited above, a valuable account of all parts
of the electoral " machind " is given in M. Ostrogorski's Democracy
and the Organization of Political Parties (1902). The Congressional
Library, Washington, U.S.A., issued in 1904 a " List of Books relat-
ing to Proportional Representation," which constitutes a complete
bibliography of that subject up to that date. The best discussion
of the various methods for securing adequate representation is,
however, now to be found in the Report (1910) of the British Royal
Commission on Systems of Election (Parliamentary Paper, Cd. 5163).
It is chiefly valuable for its description of the devices in use in different
countries and for its weighty criticism of the proposals for minority
representation. (H. CH.)
REPRIEVE (reprise, from Fr. reprendre), in English law,
a term which originally meant remand to prison: later and
more usually, the suspension for a time of the execution of a
sentence passed on conviction of crime. The term is now seldom
or never used except with reference to sentences of death. In
the case of capital felonies other than murder the recording of
sentence of death has the effect of a reprieve by the court. The
court which can award a sentence is said to possess as of common
right a discretionary power of granting a reprieve. Courts of
justice, however, do not grant reprieves by way of dispensation
from the penalties of the law, which is not for the judicial
department, but for temporary purposes, e.g. of appeal or inquiry
as to the state of mind or health of the convict, or to enable him
to apply for a pardon. Under the old system of transportation
it was a common practice to reprieve convicted felons as a step
to induce them to consent to transportation to the American
colonies (see the Old Bailey Regulations of 1662, J. Kelyng,
ed. 1873, p. i). In cases of conviction of wilful murder the
reprieve, if any, is granted by the home secretary on behalf of
the crown, and on convictions of murder the court seems now to
have no power to reprieve except in the case of a pregnant
woman.
See Hawkins, P.C. bk. 2, c. 51; Blackstone, Commentaries.
REPRISALS (Fr. represailles, from reprendre; Lat. repre-
hendere, to take back), properly speaking, the act of forcibly
seizing something belonging to another state by way of retalia-
tion, but currently used for the retaliation itself. They are acts
of violence which are a casus belli according to the manner in
which the state against which they are exercised regards them
and is able to resist or resent them. Two comparatively recent
cases have occurred in which this form of redress was resorted
to. In the one case a demand by the British government for
an indemnity for injuries inflicted on the British vice-consul
and certain other British subjects by Nicaraguan authorities
in the Mosquito reserve not having been complied with, British
naval forces were landed on April 27th, 1895, at Corinto, where
they occupied the customs house and other public buildings
till an agreement was arrived at. In the other case the French
government in November 1901 ordered the occupation by French
naval forces of the customs house at Mytilene until redress was
obtained for divers claims of French citizens. A Hague Con-
vention of 1907 now places limitations on the employment of
force for the recovery of contract debts, and forbids recourse
to armed force unless " the debtor state refuses or neglects to
reply to an offer of arbitration, or after accepting the offer prevents
any compromise from being agreed on, or after arbitration fails
to submit to the award " (art. i). (T. BA.)
REPRODUCTION, in biology, the generation of new organ-
isms from existing organisms more or less similar. It is a special
case of growth, and consists of an increase of living substance
in such fashion that the new substance is either set free as a new
individual, or, whilst remaining attached to the parent organism,
separated by some sort of partition so as to have a subordinate
individuality. Y. Delage has distinguished as multiplication
those cases in which the new individual arises from a mass of
cells which remain a part of the maternal tissues during differ-
entiation, reserving the term reproduction for those cases in
which the spore or cell which is the starting-point of the new
individual begins by separating from the maternal tissues;
but the distinction is inconvenient in practice and does not
appear to carry with it any fundamental biological significance.
The general relation between parent and filial organisms is
discussed under HEREDITY and EMBRYOLOGY; many of the
details of the cellular processes are dealt with under CYTOLOGY,
and the modes of reproduction exhibited by different kinds of
animals and plants are treated of in the various articles describing
individual groups. Finally, some of the special problems involved
are discussed under the heading SEX. As reproduction is a
general biological phenomenon, its manifestations should be
dealt with simultaneously in the case of animals and plants,
but many of the special details differ so much that it is practically
convenient to make two headings.
REPRODUCTION OF ANIMALS
A. Asexual. Many animals possess a more or less limited
capacity to repair portions of the body that have been accident-
ally removed (see REGENERATION), and this capacity may be so
ANIMALS]
REPRODUCTION
117
extensive that, if the whole body be cut in pieces, each portion
may grow into a new organism. Such a mode of artificial
propagation, familiar in horticultural operations, has been made
use of in such animals as sponges, and has been performed
experimentally in hydroids and some worms. In many Protozoa
asexual reproduction by simple division is a normal event. In
Coelentera it is common, the plane of division usually passing
through the long axis of the body, as in Actinians and many
Hydroids, or being horizontal, as in the repeated divisions by
which medusae are produced from an asexual polyp; the new
individual may separate completely, or serve to build up a
colonial or compound organism. In some Turbellarians
(Microstomum) and Chaetopods (Syllis, Myrianida, Nereis,
Eunice viridis (the palolo-worm of Samoa), asexual reproduction
occurs in a form that is partly fission and partly budding;
portions are constricted transversely or laterally, very much
smaller than the whole animal, and these grow out into new
animals which may separate or remain attached in chains. In
Salps, chains are formed sometimes by transverse constriction,
sometimes by budding. True budding is much more common
than fission; it occurs in Protozoa, Coelentera, Sponges,
Polyzoa, Tunicates and some Flatworms and Chaetopods, the
bud being a multicellular portion of the tissues which is partly
or completely separated from the parent before it proliferates
into the new form. In various larval stages of many animals,
asexual reproduction by fission or budding may be produced
experimentally or may occur naturally. It has been suggested
that cases of identical twins in vertebrates and many monstrous
forms, including even dermoid cysts, are due to embryonic
asexual fission or budding. The artificial subdivision of young
embryos has been performed successfully by several investi-
gators (see HEREDITY). In Lumbricus trapezoides the gastrula
stage of the embryo divides and each half produces a complete
individual; and multiplication by budding is common at various
stages of the life-history of many parasitic worms. Spore
formation, or cellular budding, appears to be limited to the
Protozoa amongst animals.
B. Sexual. Apart from the special and probably secondary
cases presently to be considered under the subheading partheno-
genesis, sexual reproduction or amphimixis may be defined as
the production of a new organism from a zygote, and a zygote
may be defined as the cell resulting from the conjugation of two
gametes or sexual cells derived from the specialized reproductive
tissue of the parent or parents. In asexual reproduction by
spore formation, the spore proliferates without the aid of another
spore; in true sexual reproduction the gametes may be regarded
as special kinds of spores which appear in two forms, the egg-
cell, ovum or female gamete not proceeding to proliferate into
a new organism until it has been stimulated by partial or
complete fusion with the other form, the spermatozoon or male
gamete. The act of fusion or conjugation in question is usually
spoken of as fertilization, and the zygote, or starting-point of
the new organism, is the fertilized egg-cell. Among protozoa
and the lower plants there occur a series of forms of conjugation
leading towards the specialized form characteristic of the sexual
reproduction of higher animals. The conjugation may be
isogamous, that is to say the conjugating cells may be actually
or at least apparently indistinguishable. T*he fusion between
the cells may be complete, or may concern only the nuclei. The
conjugation may be followed by reproduction, or may apparently
have no relation to reproduction. In true sexual reproduction
the conjugation is hete.ro gamous, i.e. the gametes are unlike;
the fusion is chiefly nuclear, and the process is the prelude of the
development of the zygote into the new organism.
In all the Metazoa the gametes arise from special reproductive
tissues which are supposed to contain (see HEREDITY) the
reproductive material or germ-plasm. In the lower (or simpler
and possibly degenerate Metazoa) the reproductive or germinal
tissue consists of a few cells, sometimes in a group, sometimes
scattered and sometimes migratory; in the vast majority of the
Metazoa the germinal tissue becomes aggregated in distinct
organs, of which those that give rise to ova or female gametes
are known as the ovaries, and those that give rise to the sper-
matozoa or male gametes are known as the testes. The ovary
and the testis are the primary reproductive organs; the details of
their anatomy and position in the various groups need not be
discussed here (see REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM).
The male gamete or spermatozoon was first seen in 1677 by
Ludwig van Hammen, a pupil of A. Leeuwenhoek, with the
microscope that had been constructed by his master. Leeu-
wenhoek, under the influence of the current preformationist
ideas, interpreted these actively moving bodies in the seminal
fluids as preformed germs and described them as animalculae
spermetia or spermatozoa. Throughout the i8th century the
general tendency was to regard them as parasites of no con-
sequence in fertilization. In 1837 R. Wagner established that
they were present in all sexually mature males and absent in
infertile male hybrids, and in 1841 A. Kolliker showed that they
were cells proliferated in the testes. The spermatozoon is one
of the smallest of known cells, frequently being no more than one
hundred thousandth of the size of the ovum, although the
extraordinary case of a small Cypris has been recorded in which
the spermatozoa are longer than the animal. It is produced in
enormous quantities and relatively to other minute cells is
extremely tenacious of life. It may retain its vitality in the male
organism for a long time after it has become a separate cell,
and may exist for lengthy periods in the female organism. The
queen-bee is impregnated only once, and the spermatozoa may
remain functional within her body for three years. Lord
Avebury (Sir J. Lubbock) has described the case of a female ant
which laid fertile eggs thirteen years after she had been im-
pregnated. It is undoubted that in snakes, birds and many
mammals, fertilization may not take place for many days after
impregnation. The spermatozoa, with a few exceptions, are
actively motile, being elongated in shape, with a vibratile tail
sometimes provided with a swimming membrane. In a few
cases, chiefly of crustaceans, the spermatozoa are spherical with
radiating processes, but are capable of amoeboid movements.
The cell nucleus is generally situated near the rounded or pointed
extremity, with a centrosome immediately behind it, whilst the
scanty protoplasm forms the body and vibratile tail; but there
appears to be no general significance in the various configura-
tions that occur amongst different animals. The process of
spermatogenesis, or production of spermatozoa from the per-
manent cells of the testis, varies extremely amongst different
animals and has been the subject of many elaborate investiga-
tions and much confusing nomenclature. Two factors are
involved: first, the arrangements to produce a very large crop
of cells so to provide for the enormous numbers of spermatozoa
produced by most animals; and second, the final changes of shape
and of nucleus by which the ripe spermatozoa arise from the
indifferent testis-cells, and these processes may to a certain
extent overlap. The point of general significance relates to the
nuclear changes. The nuclear matter that occurs in the tissue
cells of animals, when these cells divide, breaks up into a number
of chromosomes constant for each kind of animal, and the final
stage of cell division is such that each chromosome splits and
contributes a half to each daughter cell, so that the latter come
to contain the number of chromosomes peculiar to the animal in
which they occur. In the case of spermatozoa, however, a
" reducing " division occurs, in which the chromosomes instead
of dividing distribute themselves equally between the two
daughter cells, with the result that each of the latter contains
only half the number peculiar to the species. In its simplest
form, what occurs in the last stage of spermatogenesis is that one
cell breaks up into four spermatozoa by two successive divisions,
the first of which is normal and the second reducing. The
nuclear matter of spermatozoa, therefore, contains half the
number of chromosomes normal to the tissue cells of the species,
and we shall see later that a similar reduction takes place in the
formation of the egg. Further complications, however, exist,
at least in certain forms. In 1891 H. Henking showed that in a
Hemipteran insect of the genus Pyrrochoris, two kinds of
spermatozoa are produced in equal numbers, and F. C. Paulmier
n8
REPRODUCTION
[ANIMALS
confirmed the observation in the case of some other insects
a few years later, whilst other observers have extended the
observation to over a hundred species. In all these cases half
the spermatozoa differ from the other half by the presence of
what E. B. Wilson calls the " X-element," and which, in the
simplest cases, occurs as an unpaired chromosome of the mother
cell which passes into one and not the other of the two spermato-
zoa formed from that mother cell. The matter is still obscure,
and it is not certain whether the facts are peculiar to insects or
have a parallel in spermatogenesis universally. According to
E. B. Wilson, the facts demonstrate that eggs fertilized by
spermatozoa with the X-element invariably produce females
(see SEX). The female gamete or ovum is in a large number of
cases expanded by the presence of food-yolk and protective
swathings to form the visible mass known as an egg, and the
production of embryos from eggs has been studied from the time
of Aristotle and Pliny. Galen had described the human ovaries
as testes muliebres, and W.Harvey in 1651 showed that the chick
arose from the cicatricula of the yolk of the egg, compared these
early stages with corresponding stages in the uterus of mammals,
and laid down the general proposition ovum esse primordium
commune omnibus animalibus that the ovum is a starting-
point common to all animals. In 1664 N. Steno identified the
sexual organ of the mammalian female with that of sharks, and
first named it the ovary. In 1672 R. De Graaf described the
structure of the ovary in birds and mammals, observed the ovum
in the oviduct of the rabbit, and repeated Harvey's statement as
to the universal occurrence of ova, although he mistook for ova
the follicles that now bear his name. In 1825 J. E. Purkyne
described the germinal vesicle in the chick, thus distinguishing
between the structure of the egg as a whole and the essential
germinal area, and in 1827 K. E. von Baer definitely traced the
ovum back from the uterus to the oviduct and thence to its origin
within the Graafian follicle in the ovary, and thus paved the way
for identification of the ovum as a distinct cell arising from the
germinal tissue of the ovary. The ovum or female gamete, unlike
the spermatozoon, is a large cell, in most cases visible to the
naked eye even in the ovary. Also, in definite contrast with the
spermatozoon, it is a passive non-motile cell, although in certain
cases it is capable of protruding pseudopodia. It is usually
spherical, contains a large nucleus, a centrosome and abundant
protoplasm, and is generally enclosed in a stout membrane which
may or may not have a special aperture known as the micro-
pyle. The protoplasm of all eggs contains nutritive material
for the nourishment of the future embryo, and this material
may be sufficient in quantity to make the whole cell, although
remaining microscopic, conspicuously large, or to expand it to the
relatively enormous mass of the yellow yolk of a fowl's egg.
Finally, the cellular nature of the ovum is frequently further
disguised by its being enclosed in a series of membranes such as
the albumen and shell of the fowl's egg. Such complexities are
ancillary to the growth or protection of the future embryo, and
from the general biological point of view the ovum is to be
regarded as a specialized cell derived from the germinal tissue
of the ovary, just as the spermatozoon is a specialized cell derived
from the corresponding stock of germinal material in the testis.
The number of ova produced varies from a very few, as in mammals
and birds, to a very large number, as in the herring and many
invertebrates, but in all cases the number is relatively small
compared with that of the spermatozoa produced by the male
of the same species. The details of ovogenesis are more sharply
divided than in the case of spermatogenesis into processes
connected with the production of a crop of large cells bloated
with food-yolk, and the peculiar nuclear changes. The latter
changes are generally spoken of as the maturation of the ovum,
and in most cases do not begin until the full size has been
attained. As in the nuclear changes of spermatogenesis, the
details differ in different animals, but the salient feature is that
the mature ovum contains, like the ripe spermatozoon, half the
number of chromosomes normal to the tissue cells of the animal
to which it belongs. The simplest form in which the reduction
takes place is that the nucleus of the ovum divides by an ordinary
division, each chromosome splitting and sharing itself between
the daughter nuclei. Of these nuclei one is extruded from the
egg, forming what is called a polar body, and this polar body may
again divide by a reducing division, so as to form two polar
bodies, each with half the normal number of chromosomes.
Finally, the daughter nucleus, remaining in the ovum, also
divides by a reducing division, and one of the segments remains
to form the nucleus of the ripe ovum, with half the normal
number of chromosomes, whilst the other is extruded as a polar
body. Very many suggestions as to the meaning of the extru-
sion of the polar bodies have been made, but the least fanciful
of these is to regard the ovum ready for maturation as homo-
logous with the cell about to divide into four spermatozoa; in
each case the nucleus divides twice and one of the divisions is a
reducing division, so that four daughter nuclei are formed each
with half the normal number of chromosomes. Many sper-
matozoa are required, and each of the four becomes the nucleus
of a complete active cell; relatively few ova are required, but
each has a large protoplasmic body, and only one of the four
becomes a functional mature egg, the other three being simply
extruded and so to say wasted. It must be remembered,
however, that there is no inherent probability in favour of the
apparently simplest explanation of a very complex biological
process. It is also to be noted that in many cases the first polar
body does not divide, and it is not clearly established that when
the first polar body remains single, it is always the result of a
normal nuclear division.
When the mature ova and spermatozoa come together in one
of the various ways to be discussed later, fertilization, the con-
jugation of the gametes to form the zygote, occurs. Alcmaeon
(580 B.C.) is believed first to have laid down that fertilization
in animals and plants consisted in the material union of the
sexual products from both sexes, but it was not until 1761 that
it was established experimentally by J. T. Kolreuter's work on
the hybridization of plants. In 1780 L. Spallanzani artificially
fertilized the eggs of the frog and tortoise, and successfully
introduced seminal fluid into the uterus of the bitch, but came
to the erroneous conclusion that it was the fluid medium and
not the spermatozoa that caused fertilization. This error was
corrected in 1824 by J. L. Prevost and J. B. Dumas, who showed
that filtration destroyed the fertilizing power of the fluid. In
1843 M. Barry observed spermatozoa within the egg of the rabbit,
whilst in 1849 R. Leuckart observed the fertilization of the
frog's egg, and in 1851 H. Nelson noticed the entrance of sper-
matozoa to the egg of Ascaris, whilst in 1854 a series of observa-
tions published independently by T. L. W. Bischoff and Allen
Thomson finally and definitely established the fact that ova were
fertilized by the actual entrance of spermatozoa. Further
advances in microscopical methods enabled a series of observers,
of whom the most notable were E. van Beneden, H. Fol and
O. Hertwig, to follow and record the details of the process. They
made it clear that the chief event in fertilization was entrance
into the ovum of the nucleus or head of the spermatozoon
where it formed the " male pronucleus," which gradually
approached and fused with the female pronucleus or residual
nucleus of the ovum. Still later observers, of whom E. B.
Wilson is the most conspicuous, have studied the details of
the process in many different animals and have shown that
the nucleus of the spermatozoon invariably enters the ovum,
that the centrosome generally does so, and that the cytoplasm
usually plays no part. The nucleus of the zygote or fertilized
ovum, then, possesses the number of chromosomes normal in
the tissue cells of the animal to which it belongs, but of these
half belong to the female gamete and are derived from the
germ plasm of the parental ovary, and half to the male gamete
or spermatozoon, derived from the germ plasm of the parental
testis. The stimulus which leads to and induces the conjugation
' of the gametes appears to be chemotactic and to consist of some
substance positively attractive to the male gamete, liberated
by the mature female gamete, but the attraction is mutual,
and in the final stages of approach a protoplasmic outgrowth of
the ovum towards the spermatozoon frequently occurs. The
ANIMALS]
REPRODUCTION
119
fertilized zygote proceeds to form the embryo (see EM-
BRYOLOGY).
Parthenogenesis is the production of the new organism from
the female gamete without previous conjugation with the male
gamete, and is to be regarded as secondary to and degenerate
from true sexual reproduction. Aristotle recognized that it
occurred in the bee. In 1745 C. Bonnet showed that it must
occur in the case of Aphides or plant-lice, in which throughout
the summer there were developed a series of generations con-
sisting entirely of females. R. A. F. de Reaumur repeated the
observations, but evaded the difficulty by suggesting that the
Aphides were hermaphrodite, an explanation soon afterwards
disproved by L. Dufour. In 1849 (Sir) R. Owen brought to-
gether the facts as they were" then known and made a remark-
able suggestion regarding them. " Not all the progeny of the
primary impregnated germ cell are required for the formation
of the body in all animals; certain of the derivative germ cells
may remain unchanged and become included in that body
which has been composed of their metamorphosed and diversely
combined or confluent brethren; so included, any derivative
germ cell or the nucleus of such may begin and repeat the same
processes of growth by imbibition, and of propagation by
spontaneous fission, as those to which itself owed its origin."
Taking hold of the recently published views of J. J. S. Steenstrup
on alternation of generations, he correlated the sexual and
asexual alternation in hydroids and so forth with the virgin
births of insects and Crustacea, and regarded the one and the
other as instances of the subsequent proliferation of included
germ cells, applying the word parthenogenesis to the pheno-
menon. His theory was a very remarkable anticipation of the
germ-plasm theory of A. Weismann, but further knowledge
showed that there was an important distinction between the
reproduction of the asexual generations described by Steenstrup
and the cases of Aphides and Crustacea, the germinal cells in
the latter instances being true ova produced from the ovaries
of true females, but capable of development without fertilization.
In 1856 C. T. E. von Siebold established this fact and limited
Owen's term parthenogenesis to the sense in which it is now
used, the development without fertilization of ova produced in
ovaries. True parthenogenesis occurs frequently amongst
Rotifers, and in certain cases (Philodinadae) males either do not
exist or are so rare that they have not been discovered. Amongst
Crustaceans it is common in Branchiopods and Ostracods; in
the case of Daphnids, large thick-shelled ova are produced
towards winter, which develop only after fertilization and
produce females; the latter, throughout summer, produce
thin-shelled ova which do not require fertilization, and from
which towards autumn both males and females are produced.
Amongst insects it occurs in many forms in many different
groups, sometimes occasional, sometimes as a regular occurrence.
Apart from Aphides the classical instance is that of the bee,
where eggs that are not fertilized develop parthenogenetically
and produce only drones. What is known as pathological
parthenogenesis has been observed occasionally in higher
animals, e.g. the frog, the fowl and certain mammals, whilst
in the case of human beings, ovarian cysts in which hair and other
structures are produced have been attributed to the incomplete
development of parthenogenetic ova. Finally, it has been
shown in a number of different instances, notably by J. Loeb,
that artificial parthenogenesis may be induced by various
mechanical and chemical stimulations. It has been shown that
ova may be induced to segment by the presence of spermatozoa
belonging even to different classes of the animal kingdom as,
for instance, the ova of echinoderms by the spermatozoa of
molluscs. In such cases the resulting embryos have purely
maternal characters. A possible interpretation is that sperma-
tozoa have two functions which may be exercised independently;
they may act as stimulants to the ovum to segment, and they
may convey the paternal qualities. The former function may
be replaced by the chemical substances employed in producing
artificial parthenogenesis. Juvenile or precocious partheno-
genesis, in which there takes place reproduction without fer-
tilization in immature larvae, has been observed chiefly in
insects (Dipterous midges), and to this the term paedogenesis
has been applied.
The theory of parthenogenesis remains doubtful. When
Weismann and others began to study the polar bodies, they
made the remarkable discovery that in some parthenogenetic
eggs only one polar body was extruded, but the meaning of this
distinction was blurred when other cases were described in which
two polar bodies were formed. Later on, Weismann drew
attention to the difference between normal and reducing
divisions, and it now appears to be clear that, with one set of
exceptions, ova which develop without fertilization are those in
which no reducing division takes place and which, accordingly,
contain the number of chromosomes normal to the tissue cells
of the species. Such eggs, in fact, resemble the zygote except
that all their chromosomes are of maternal origin and the
centrosome which becomes active in the first segmentation is
that of the ovum and not, as in normal fertilized eggs, that which
came in with the spermatozoon. The case of the bee and other
insects in which parthenogenetic development results hi the pro-
duction of males, is doubtful; it appears to be the case that a
reduction division has taken place in the maturation of the egg.
A. Petrunkevitch has made the ingenious suggestion, that after
the reducing division the normal number of chromosomes is
restored by the splitting of each into two. Cases of patho-
logical and artificial parthenogenesis would fall into line, on the
supposition that the stimulus acted by preventing the occurrence
of a reducing division in an ovum otherwise mature. It is to be
noticed, however, that such explanations of parthenogenesis
are not much more than a formal harmonizing of the behaviour
of the chromosomes in the respective cases of fertilized and
parthenogenetic development; they do not provide a theory as
to why the process occurs.
Accessory Reproductive Organs and Processes. It has been
already stated that the primary organs of reproduction in
animals are the germinal tissues producing respectively sper-
matozoa and ova, and that in most cases these are aggregated
to form testes and ovaries. In certain animals there are no
accessory organs, and when the reproductive products are ripe,
they are discharged directly to the exterior if the gonads are
external, as in some Coelentera, or if they are internal, break
through into some cavity of the body and escape by rupture of the
body-wall or through some natural aperture. In a majority of
cases, however, special ducts are developed, which in the male
serve primarily for the escape of the spermatozoa, but secondarily
may be associated with intromittent organs. Similarly, in the
female, the primary function of the gonad ducts is to provide
a passage for the ova, but in many cases they serve also for the
reception of spermatozoa, for the development of embryos and
for the subsequent exit of the young. Associated with the ovary
and the oviducts are many kinds of yolk-glands and shell-glands,
the function of which is to form nutritive material for the future
embryo, to discharge this into or around the ovum, and to provide
protective wrappings. Although, hi the last resort, fertilization de-
pends on impulses attracting the spermatozoa to the ova, probably
chemical in their nature, the necessary proximity is secured in
a number of ways. In many simple cases the ripe products are
discharged directly into the surrounding water, and impregnation
is a matter of accident highly probable because such animals
discharge enormous quantities of ova and spermatozoa, are
frequently sessile and live in colonies, and are mature about the
same tune. In other cases, as, for instance, Tunicates and many
Molluscs, the spermatozoa are discharged, and, being drawn into
the body of the female with the inhalcnt currents, there fertilize
the ova. In yet a number of other cases, there is sexual congress
without intromittence. The males of many fish, such as salmon,
attend the females about to discharge their ova, and afterwards
pour the male fluid over the liberated eggs; whilst amongst
other fish the males seek out a suitable locality and prepare some
kind of nest to which the female is enticed and which receives
first the ova and then the milt. In many other animals, again,
as for instance the frog, the male grasps the ripe female, embracing
I2O
REPRODUCTION
[PLANTS
her firmly for a prolonged period, during which ova and sper-
matozoa are discharged simultaneously. Where internal fer-
tilization occurs, there are usually special accessory organs. In
the female, the terminal portion of the gonad-duct, or of the cloaca,
is modified to receive the intromittent organ of the male, or to
retain and preserve the seminal fluid. In the male, the terminal
portion of the gonad-duct may be modified into an intromittent
organ or penis, grooved or pierced to serve as a channel by which
the semen is passed into the female. In arthropods, ordinary
limbs may be modified for this purpose, or special appendages
developed; in spiders, the terminal joints of the pedipalps, or
second pair of appendages, are enlarged, and are dipped into the
semen, which is sometimes shed into a special web, and are used
as intromittent organs; in cuttlefish, one of the " arms " is
charged with spermatozoa, is inserted into the mantle cavity
of the female and there broken off. In many cases there is a
temporary apposition of the apertures of the male and female,
with an injection from the male without a special intromittent
organ. The females are usually passive during coitus, and there
are innumerable varieties of clasping organs developed by the
male to retain hold of the female. Finally, the various secondary
sexual characters which are developed in males and females and
induce association between them by appeals to the senses, must
be regarded as accessory reproductive organs and processes
(see SEX).
Another set of accessory organs and processes are concerned
with what may be termed in the widest sense of the phrase
" brood-care." In many cases the relation between parent
and offspring ceases with the extrusion of the fertilized ovum,
whilst others display every possible grade of parental care. Many
of the lower invertebrates choose special localities in which
to deposit the ova or embryos, and glands, the viscid secretion
of which serves to bind the ova together or to attach them to
some external object, are frequently present. In many insects,
elaborate preparations are made; special food-plants are
selected, cocoons are woven, or, by means of the special organ
known as the ovipositor, the eggs are inserted in the tissues
of a living or dead host, or in other cases a supply of food is pre-
pared and stored with the young larvae. The eggs or larvae
may be attached to the parent and carried about with it, as
in the gills of bivalves, the brood-pouches of the smaller Crus-
tacea, the back of the Surinam toad, the vocal sacs of the frog
Rhinoderma, the expanded ends of the oviducts or the mar-
supial pouch. In a large number of cases the young are nour-
ished directly from the blood of the mother by some kind of
placental connexion, as in some of the sharks, in Anablebs,
a bony fish, in some lizards and in mammals. In other cases,
the young after birth or hatching are fed by the parents, by
the special secretion of the mammary glands in the case of
mammals, by regurgitated food in many birds and mammals,
by salivary secretions or by food obtained and brought to the
young by the parents.
Reproductive Period. In a general way, reproduction begins
when the limit of growth has been nearly attained, and the
instances of paedogenesis, whether that be parthenogenetic
as in midges, or sexual as in the axolotl, must be regarded as
an exceptional and special adaptation. In lower animals,
where the period of growth is short or indefinite, reproduction
begins earlier and is more variable. But, in all cases, surrounding
conditions play a great part in hastening or retarding the onset
of reproduction. Increased temperature generally acceler-
ates reproductive maturity, excess of food retards it, and
sudden privation favours it. In a majority of cases it endures
to the end of life, but in some of the higher forms, such as birds
and mammals, there is a marked decrease or a cessation of
reproductive activity, especially in the case of females, as
life advances. In most animals, moreover, periods of re-
productive activity alternate with periods of quiescence in
a rhythmical series. In its simplest form, the rhythm is
seasonal; but although at first associated with actual seasonal
changes, it persists in the absence or alteration of these. Many
animals brought to Europe from the southern hemisphere come
into reproductive activity at the time of year corresponding
to the spring or summer of their native home. " Heat,"
menstruation and ovulation in the higher mammals, including
man, are rhythmical, and probably physiologically linked, but
the ancestral meaning of the periodicity is unknown.
Reproduction and Increase of the Race. Two distinct factors
are involved in this question the potential fecundity of
organisms, and the chances of the young reaching maturity.
The first varies with the actual output of zygotes, and is
determined partly by the reproductive drain on the individual,
and especially the female in cases where the ova are provided
with much food-yolk, partly on the duration of reproductive
maturity, and partly on the various adaptive and environ-
mental conditions which regulate the chances of the gametes
meeting for fertilization. It is to be noted that as the gametes
are simply cells proliferating from the germinal tissue, the poten-
tial number that can be produced is almost indefinite; and as
it is found that in very closely allied forms the actual number
produced varies within very wide limits, it may be assumed
that potential fecundity is indefinite. The possibility of zygotes
reaching maturity varies first with the individuation of the
organism concerned that is to say, the degree of complexity
of its structure and the duration of the period of its growth ;
and secondly, with the incidence of mortality on the eggs and
immature young. It is plain that a parasite capable of living
only on a particular host may give rise to myriads of progeny,
and yet, from the difficulty of these reaching the only environ-
ment in which they can become mature, might not increase
more rapidly than an elephant which carries a single foetus
for about two years, and guards it for many years after birth.
The probable adaptation of the variable reproductive processes
to the average conditions of the race is discussed under the
heading LONGEVITY. It may be added here that the adapta-
tion, in all successful cases, appears to be in excess of what
would be required merely to replace the losses caused by death,
and that there is ample scope for the Malthusian and Darwinian
factors. The rate of reproduction tends to outrun the food-
supply.
LITERATURE. Almost any zoological publication may contain
matter relating to reproduction, but text-books on Embryology
must be specially consulted. The annual volumes of the Zoological
Record, under the heading " General Subject " until 1906, and
thereafter under " Comprehensive Zoology," give a classified
subject-index of the literature of the year in which references to
the separate parts of the subject are given. Amongst the older
memoirs referred to in this article the following are the most im-
portant: A. Leeuwenhoek, Epistolae ad societatem regiam Angliam
(1719); R. A. P. de Reaumur, Memoires pour servir a I'histoire des
insectes (Paris, 1734-1742); C. Bonnet, CEumes d'histoire naturelle et
de philosophie (Neuchatel, 1779-1783); L. Spallanzani, Dissertations
relative to the Natural History of Animals and Vegetables (Eng.
trans., 2nd ed., London, 1789); J. L. PreVost et J. B. Dumas,
" Observations relatives 4 1'appareil gendrateur des abimaux males,"
Ann. Sci. Nat. \. (1824); K. E. von Baer, Epistola ad Academiam
Scient. Petropolitanam ; Heusinger, Zeitschrift, ii. (1828); Leon
Dufour, Recherches anatomiques et physiologique sur les Hemipteres
(Paris 1833); R. Wagner, " Recherches sur la g^neVation," Ann. Sci.
Nat. viii. (1837); A. Kolliker, l)ber das Wesen der sogenannten
Saamenthiere, Froriep, Notizen xix. (1841) ; M. Barry, " Spermatozoa
observed within the Mammiferous Ovum," Phil. Trans. (1743);
J. J. S. Steenstrup, On the Alternation of Generations (Eng. trans.,
Ray Society, London, 1845); R. Leuckart, Beitrdge zur Lehre der
Befruchtung (Gottingen Nachrichten, 1849); (Sir) R. Owen, On
Parthenogenesis (London, 1849); H. Nelson, "The Reproduction of
Ascaris mystax," Phil. Trans. (1852); C. T. E. von Siebold, On a
True .Parthenogenesis in Moths and Bees (Eng. trans., London,.
1857); E. van Beneden, " Recherches sur la maturation de 1'ceuf et
la fecondation," Arch, de biol. (1883) ; O. Hertwig, " Das Problem der
Befruchtung," Jen. Zeitsch. xviii. (1885). (P. C. M.)
REPRODUCTION OF PLANTS
The various modes- in which plants reproduce their species
may be conveniently classified into two groups, namely,
vegetative propagation and true reproduction, the distinction
between them being roughly this, that whereas in the former
the production of the new individual may be effected by the
most various parts of the body, in the latter it is always effected
by means of a specialised reproductive cell.
PLANTS]
REPRODUCTION
121
I. Vegetative Propagation.
The simplest case of vegetative multiplication is afforded
by unicellular plants. When the cell which constitutes the
body of the plant has attained its limit of size it gives rise to
two either by division or gemmation; the two cells then grow,
and at the same time become separated from each other, so
that eventually two new distinct individuals are produced,
each of which precisely resembles the original organism. A
good example of this is to be found in the germination of the
yeast plant. This mode of multiplication is simply the result
of the ordinary processes of growth. All plant-cells grow and
divide at some time or other of their life; but whereas in >
multicellular plant the products of division remain coherent, and
add to the number of the cells of which the plant consists, in
a unicellular plant they separate and constitute new individuals.
In more highly organized plants vegetative propagation may
be effected by the separation of the different parts of the
body from each other, each such part developing the missing
members and thus constituting a new individual. This takes
place spontaneously in rhizomatous plants, in which the main
stem gradually dies away from behind forwards; the lateral
branches thus become isolated and constitute new individuals.
The remarkable regenerative capacity of plant-members
is largely made use of for the artificial propagation of plants.
A branch removed from a parent-plant will, under appropriate
conditions, develop roots, and so constitute a new plant; this
is the theory of propagation by " cuttings." A portion of a
root will similarly develop one or more shoots, and thus give
rise to a new plant. An isolated leaf will, in many cases, produce
a shoot and a root, that is, a new plant; it is in this way that
new begonias, for instance, are propagated. The production of
plants from leaves occurs also in nature, as, for instance, in
certain so-called " viviparous " plants, of which Bryophyllum
calycinum (Crassulaceae) and many ferns [Nephrodium (Laslraea)
Filix-mas, Asplenium (Athyrium) Filix-foemina and other
species of Asplenium] are examples. But it is in the mosses,
Of all plants, that the capacity for vegetative propagation is
most widely diffused. Any part of a moss, whether it be the
stem, the leaves, the rhizoids, or the sporogonium, is capable,
under appropriate conditions, of giving rise to filamentous
protonema, on which new moss-plants are then developed as
lateral buds.
In a large number of plants provision is made for vegetative
propagation by the development of more or less highly specialized
organs. In lichens, for instance, there are the soredia, which
are minute buds of the thallus containing both algal and fungal
elements; these are set free on the surface in large numbers,
and each grows into a thallus. In the Characeae there are the
bulbils or " starch-stars " of Char a stelligera, which are under-
ground nodes, and the branches with naked base and the pro-
embryonic branches found by Pringsheim on old nodes of Chara
fragilis. In the mosses small tuberous bulbils frequently occur
on the rhizoids, and in many instances (Bryum annotinum,
Aulacomnion androgynum, Tetraphis pellucida, &c.) stalked
fusiform or lenticular multicellular bodies containing chlorophyll,
termed gemmae, are produced on the shoots, either in the axils
of the leaves or in special receptacles at the summit of the stem.
"Gemmae of this kind are produced in vast numbers in Marchantia
and Lumdaria among the liverworts. Similar gemmae are also
produced by the prothallia of ferns. In some ferns (e.g. Nephro-
lepis tuberosa and undulata) the buds borne on the leaves or in
their axils become swollen and filled with nutritive materials,
constituting bulbils which fall off and give rise to new plants.
This conversion of buds into bulbils, which subserve vegetative
multiplication, occurs also occasionally among Phanerogams,
as for instance in Lilium bulbiferum, species of Poa, Polygonum
viviparum, &c. But many other adaptations of the same kind
occur among Phanerogams. Bulbous plants, for instance,
produce each year at least one bulb or corm from which a new
plant is produced in the succeeding year. In the potato, tubers
are developed from subterranean snoots, each of which in the
following year gives rise to a new individual. In the dahlia,
Thladiantha dubia, &c., tuberous swellings are found on the
roots, from each of which a new individual may spring.
II. True Reproduction.
This is effected by cells formed by the proper reproductive
organs. These cells are of two principal kinds. There are,
first, those cells each of which is capable of developing by itself
into a new organism: these are the asexual reproductive cells,
known generally as spores. Secondly, there are the cells which
are incapable of independent germination; it is not until these
cells have fused together in pairs that a new organism can be
developed: these are the sexual reproductive cells or gametes.
In some exceptional cases the normal mode of reproduction,
sexual or asexual, does not take place: instead, the new organism
is developed vegetatively from the parent. When sexual
reproduction is suppressed the case is one of apogamy; when
asexual reproduction by spores is suppressed the case is one of
apospory. (Apogamy and apospory are discussed below in the
section on Abnormalities of Reproduction.)
Asexual Reproduction. Reproduction by means of some
kind of spore (using the term in its widest sense, so as to include
all asexually produced reproductive cells) is common to nearly
all families of plants; it is wanting in certain Algae (Conjugatae,
Fucaceae, Characeae), and in certain fungi (e.g. some Perono-
sporeae). The structure of a spore is essentially this: it consists
of a nucleated mass of protoplasm, enclosing, starch or oil as re-
serve nutritive material, usually invested by a cell-wall. In those
cases in which the spore is capable of germinating immediately
on its development the cell-wall is a single delicate membrane
consisting of cellulose; but in those cases in which the spore
may or must pass through a period of quiescence before germina-
tion the wall becomes thickened and may consist of two layers,
an inner, the endospore, which is delicate and consists of cellulose,
and an outer, the exospore, which is thick and rigid, frequently
darkly coloured and beset externally with spines or bosses, and
which consists of cutin. In some few cases among the fungi,
multicellular or septate spores are produced; these approximate
somewhat to the gemmae mentioned above as highly specialized
organs for vegetative propagation. In some cases, particularly
among the algae, and also in some fungi (Peronosporeae,
Saprolegnieae, Chytridiaceae, and the Myxomycetes), spores are
produced which are usually destitute of any cell-wall, and are
further peculiar in that they are motile, and are therefore termed
zoospores; they move sometimes in an amoeboid manner by the
protrusion of pseudopodia, but more frequently they are provided
with one, two, or many delicate vibratile protoplasmic filaments,
termed cilia, by the lashing of which the spore is propelled
through the water. The zoospore eventually comes to rest,
withdraws its cilia, surrounds itself with a cell-wall, and then
germinates.
In the simplest case a single spore is developed from the
cell of the unicellular plant, the protoplasm of which surrounds
itself with the characteristic thick wall. This occurs only in
plants of low organization such as the Schizophyta.
In other cases the contents of the cell undergo division, each
portion of the protoplasm constituting a spore. Examples of
this are afforded, among unicellular plants, by yeast and the
Protococcaceae; and in multicellular plants by the Pandorineae,
Confervaceae, Ulvaceae, &c., where any cell of the body may
produce spores.
In such cases the spore-producing cell may be regarded as a
rudimentary reproductive organ of the nature of a sporangium.
In more highly organized plants special organs are differentiated
for the production of spores. In the majority of cases the
special organ is a sporangium, that is, a capsule in the interior
of which the spores are developed; but in many fungi the
spores are formed by abstriction from an organ termed a
sporophore. In the Thallophyta the sporangium is commonly
a single cell. In the Bryophyta it is a multicellular capsule.
In the Pteridophyta the sporangium is mullicellular, but simple
in structure, and this is true also of the Phanerogams.
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REPRODUCTION
[PLANTS
It is important to note that in all the Bryophyta and in
some of the Pteridophyta (most of the Filicinae, all existing
Equisetinae, and the Lycopodiaceae and Psilotaceae) there is
but one kind of sporangium and spore, the plants being homo-
sporous or isosporous, whereas the rest of the Pteridophyta
(Hydropterideae, Selaginellaceae) and the Phanerogams are
heterosporous, having sporangia of two kinds; some produce one
or a few large spores (megaspores), and are hence termed mega-
sporangia, while others give rise to a larger number of small
spores (microspores) and are hence termed microsporangia.
In the Phanerogams the two kinds of sporangia have received
special names: the megasporangium, which produces as a
rule only one mature spore (embryo-sac), is termed the ovule;
the microsporangium, which produces a large number of micro-
spores (pollen-grains), is termed the pollen-sac.
The development of spores, except in the simpler Thallophyta,
is more or less restricted to definite parts of the body. Thus
in the Red Algae (Florideae) there are the organs known as
stichidia, nemathecia. In the fungi the number and variety of
such organs is very great; they may be described generally as
simple and compound sporophorcs: but for a description the
article FUNGI should be consulted. In the higher plants the
organs are less various. In the Bryophyta the production of
spores is restricted to the sporogonium. In the vascular plants
(Pteridophyta, Phanerogams) the development of sporangia,
speaking generally, is confined to the leaves. In most ferns the
sporangiferous leaves (sporophylls) do not differ in appearance
from the foliage leaves; but in other Pteridophyta (Equisetaceae,
Marsiliaceae, some species of Lycopodium and Selaginella) they
present considerable adaptation, and notably in the Phanero-
gams. In the Phanerogams the specialization is so great that
the sporophylls have received special names; those which bear
the microsporangia (pollen-sacs) are termed the stamens, and
those which bear the megasporangia (ovules) are termed the
carpels. The sporophylls are usually aggregated together on a
short stem, forming a shoot that constitutes a flower.
Many terms are employed to indicate the nature of the various
kinds of spores, especially among the fungi, but the endless
varieties of asexual (and asexually produced) reproductive
cells may be grouped under two heads (i) Gonidia, (2) Spores
proper.
The distinction between these two kinds of asexual repro-
ductive cells is as fellows.
The gonidium is a reproductive cell that gives rise, on germina-
tion, to an organism resembling the parent. For instance,
among the algae, the " zoospore " of Vaucheria develops into
a Vaucheria-plant. There is thus a close connexion between
vegetative multiplication and multiplication by means of
gonida. The production of gonida is entirely limited to the
Thallophyta, and is especially marked in the fungi, though the
nature of all the many kinds of reproductive cells formed in
this group has not yet been fully investigated. It is, however,
wanting in certain algae (Conjugatae, Fucaceae, Characeae) and
fungi (some Peronosporeae and Ascomycetes).
The spore proper is a reproductive cell that as a rule gives rise,
on germination, to an organism unlike that which produced it.
For instance, the spore of a fern when it germinates gives rise,
not to a fern-plant, but to a prothallium. The apparent
exceptions to this rule occur only among the Thallophyta, and
are explained below in the section on Life-history.
The true spore is developed, usually in a sporangium, after a
process of division which presents certain features that call for
special notice.
Observation of the process of division of the nucleus (karyo-
kinesis) in plants generally has shown (for details see CYTOLOGY)
that the linin-reticulum of the resting nucleus breaks up into a
definite number of segments, the chromosomes, each of which
bears a series of minute bodies, the chromalin-disks or chroma-
meres, consisting largely of a substance termed chromatin. In
the ordinary homotype divisions of the nuclei the characteristic
number of chromosomes is always observable: but when the
spore-mother-cells are being formed the number of chromosomes
is reduced to one-half. This, if the number of chromosomes of
the parent plant be expressed as 2X the number in the spore
will be x. To take a concrete case: it has been observed by
Guignard and others that in the early divisions taking place in
the developing anther and ovule of the lily the number of
chromosomes is 24; whereas in the later divisions which give
rise to the pollen-mother-cells in the one case and to the mother-
cell of the embryo-sac in the other, the number of chromosomes
is only 12. Thus the development of a spore (as distinguished
from a gonidium) is always preceded by a reducing- or heterotype-
division, a process now more generally termed meiosis (Farmer).
The reduced number of chromosomes in the nucleus of the
spore-mother-cell persists in the spore, and in all the cells of the
organism to which the spore may give rise. (Meiosis is discussed
below in the section on Sexual Reproduction.)
It should be explained that cells, to which the name " spore "
has also been applied, are formed as the result of a sexual act:
such are zygospores, oospores, and some carpospores. But these
cells differ from spores proper not only in their mode of origin
but also in that their nuclei contain the full double number (2*)
of chromosomes; hence they may be distinguished as diplospores.
Sexual Reproduction. Sexual reproduction involves the
development of sexual organs (gametangia) and sexual cells
(gametes). When the organism is unicellular, as in the lower
Green Algae (e.g. Protococcaceae, Conjugatae), the cell becomes
a sexual organ and its whole protoplasm gives rise to one or more
sexual cells: in the higher forms certain parts of the body are
specialized as sexual organs. In many of the lower plants the
organs present no external distinction of sex (e.g. lower Green
Algae: the Chytridiaceae, Mucorinae, and some Ascomycetes
among the fungi): it is impossible to distinguish between the
male and female organs, although it cannot be doubted that
the essential physiological difference exists; consequently the
organs are merely described as gametangia. The gap between
these plants and those with differentiated sexual organs is,
however, bridged over by intermediate forms, as explained in the
article ALGAE.
When the sexual organs are more or less obviously differ-
entiated into male and female, they present considerable variety
of form in different groups of plants, and accordingly bear
different names. Thus the male organ is a pollinodium in most
of the fungi, a spermogonium in others (certain Ascomycetes,
Uredineae) ; in all other plants it is an antheridium. Similarly
the female organ is an oogonium in various Thallophyta (Green
and Brown Algae: Oomycetous Fungi); a procarp in the Red
Algae; an archicarp in certain Ascomycetous Fungi and in the
Uredineae; an archegonium in all the higher plants.
It is generally the case that the protoplasm of the sexual organ
is differentiated into one or more sexual cells. Thus the game-
tangium usually gives rise to cells which, as they are externally
similar, are termed isogametes or simply gametes. Certain forms
of the male organ, the spermogonium and the antheridium, give
rise to male cells which are termed spermatia when they are non-
ciliate, spermatozoids when they are ciliated and free-swimming.
Again, the female organs termed oogonia and archegonia produce
one or more female cells called oospheres. But there are im-
portant exceptions to this rule. Thus the protoplasm is not
differentiated into cells in the gametangium of the Mucorinae;
in the male organ (pollinodium), of fungi generally; and in the
female organ (procarp) of the Red Algae and (archicarp) of the
Ascomycetes and Uredineae.
The immediate product of the fusion of cells, or of undifferenti-
ated protoplasm, derived from sexual organs of opposite sex
may be generally termed the zygote; but it is not always of the
same kind. Thus when two isogametes, or the undifferentiated
contents of two gametangia, fuse together, the process is desig-
nated conjugation, and the product is usually a single cell
termed zygospore. When an oosphere fuses with a male cell,
or with the undifferentiated contents of a male organ, the process
is fertilization, and the product is a single cell termed oospore.
When, finally, a female organ with undifferentiated contents
receives a male cell, the process again is fertilization; here the
PLANTS]
REPRODUCTION
123
product is not a single cell, but a fructification termed cystocarp
(Red Algae), or ascocarp (Ascomycetes) or aecidium (Uredineae),
containing many spores (carpospores).
As a consequence of the diversity in the sexual organs and cells,
in the details of the sexual act, and in the product of it, several
modes of the sexual process have to be distinguished, which may be
conveniently summarized as follows:
I. Isogamy: the sexual process consists in the fusion of either
two similar sexual cells (isogametes) , or two similar sexual organs
(gametangia) : it is termed conjugation, and the product is a
zygospore. Its varieties are:
(a) Gametes ciliated and free-swimming (planogametes), set
free into the water where they meet and fuse: lower
Green Algae (Protococcaceae, Pandorineae, most
Siphonaceae and Confervaceae) ; some Brown Algae (Phaeo-
sporeae) :
(b) Gametangia fuse in pairs, and a gamete is differentiated in
each: the gametes of each pair fuse, but are not set free
and are not ciliated (the Conjugate Green Algae) : or, no
gametes are differentiated, the undifferentiated con-
tents of the gametangia fusing (Mucorinae among the
Fungi).
II. Ooeamy: male and female organs distinct: the protoplasm
of the female organ is differentiated into one or (rarely) more
oospheres which usually remain enclosed in the female organ: the
contents of the male organ are usually differentiated into one or
more male cells: the process is fertilization, the product is an
oospore.
(A) The sexual organs arc unicellular (or coenocytic as in certain
Siphonaceous Green Algae and in the Oomycetous Fungi) ; the
female organ is an oogonium.
(a) The male organ is an antheridium giving rise to one or more
free-swimming ciliated spermatozoids :
(1) The oogonium contains a single oosphere which is fertilized
in situ: higher Green Algae (Volvox, Vaucheria,
Oedogonium, Coleochaete, Characeae) ; some Brown
Algae (Tilopteris); among the Fungi, Monoblepharis,
the only fungus known to have spermatozoids :
(2) The oogonium produces a single oosphere which is extruded
and is fertilized in the water : Dictyota and some Fucaceae
(Brown Algae) :
(3) The oogonium contains several oospheres which are fertilized
in situ : Sphaeroplea (Siphonaceous Green Alga) :
(4) The oogonium produces more than one oosphere (2-8) which
are extruded and are fertilized in the water: certain Brown
Algae (Pelvetia, Ascophyllum, Fucus):
(0) The male organ is a pollinodium which applies itself closely
to the oogonium: the amorphous male cell is not ciliated
and is not set free:
(1) The oogonium contains a single oosphere which is fertilized
in situ : Peronosporaceae (Oomycetes) :
(2) The oogonium contains several oospheres; Saprolegnia-
ceae: but it is debated whether or not fertilization
actually takes place.
(B) The male and female organs are (as a rule) multicellular;
the male organ is an antheridium, the female an archegonium: the
archegonium always contains a single oosphere which is fertilized
in situ.
(a) The male cell is a free-swimming ciliated spermatozoid :
the antheridium produces more than one (usually very
many) spermatozoids, each of which is developed in a
single cell: all Bryophyta (mosses, &c.) and Pterido-
phyta (ferns, &c.): the only Phanerogams in which
spermatozoids have been observed are the gymno-
spermpus species Ginkgo biloba, Cycas revoluta, Zamia
integrifolia.
03) The male cell is amorphous and passes directly from the
pollen-tube into the oosphere (siphonogamy) : all Phanero-
gams except the species just mentioned.
It must be explained that in the angiospermous Phanerogams,
the male and female organs are so reduced that each is represented
by only a single cell: the male, by the generative cell, formed in the
pollen-grain, which usually divides into two male cells: the female,
by the oosphere. The gradual reduction can be traced through the
Gymnosperms.
Attention may here be drawn to the fact (see ANGIOSPERMS)
that, in several cases, the second male cell has been seen to enter
the embryo-sac from the pollen-tube, and its nucleus to fuse with
the definitive nucleus (endosperm-nucleus) or with one of the polar
nuclei. The significance of this remarkable observation is dis-
cussed in the section on the Physiology of Reproduction.
III. Carpogamy: the sexual organs are (as a rule) differentiated
into male and female: the protoplasm of the unicellular or multi-
cellular female organ (archicarp, procarp) is never differentiated
into an oosphere: in many cases definite male cells, spermatia,
are produced and are set free, but they are not ciliated, and fre-
quently have a cell-wall : the process is fertilization : the product
is a fructification derived essentially from the female organ con-
taining several (sometimes very many) spores (carpospores):
characteristic of the Red Algae and of the Ascomycetous Fungi.
(A) There are definite male cells (spermatia) :
(a) The female organ is a procarp, consisting of an elongated,
closed, receptive filament, the trichogyne, and of a basal
fertile portion, the carpogonium: on fertilization the
latter grows and gives rise directly or indirectly to a cysto-
carp: the spermatia are each formed in a unicellular
antheridium and have no cell-wall at first : they fuse
with the tip of the trichogyne : Red Algae (Rhodopnyceac
or Florideae) :
03) The female organ (archicarp) resembles the preceding : in
fertilization the fertile portion (ascogonium) develops into
an ascocarp containing one or more asci (sporangia) each
containing usually eight ascospores: the spermatia are
formed by abstriction from the filaments (sterigmata)
lining special receptacles, the spermogonia, which are the
male organs: certain Ascomycetous Fungi (e.g. Laboul-
beniaceae, some Lichen-Fungi, Polystigma). For the
Uredineae, see Abnormalities of Reproduction, below).
(B) There are no definite male cells: the more or less distinct
male and female organs come into contact, and their undiffer-
entiated contents fuse: the product is an ascocarp:
(a) The male and female organs are obviously different : the
female organ is an ascogonium, the male a pollinodium:
e.g. Pyronema, Sphaerotheca (Ascomycetes) :
03) The male and female organs are quite similar : e.g. Eremas-
cus, Dipodascus (Ascomycetes).
It may be explained that carpogamy is the expression of sexual
degeneration. In the cases last mentioned, when the sexual organs
are quite similar, they have reverted to the condition of gametangia.
Still further reduction is observable in other Ascomycetes in which
one of the sexual organs, presumably the male, is either much
reduced or is altogether wanting. Again in the 'rusts (Uredineae),
there are spermatia, but they are functionless (see section on
Abnormalities of Reproduction). In the highest Fungi, the Auto-
basidiomycetes, no sexual organs have been discovered.
Details of the Sexual Act. It has been already stated that the
sexual act consists in the fusion of two masses of protoplasm,
commonly cells, derived from two organs of opposite sex:" but
this is only the first stage in the process. The second stage is the
fusion of the nuclei, which usually follows quickly upon the fusion
of the cells; but nuclear fusion may be postponed so that the two
sexual nuclei may be observed in the zygote, as " conjugate "
nuclei, and even in the cells of the organism developed from the
zygote (e.g. Uredineae). The result of nuclear fusion is that the
nucleus of the zygote contains the double number of chromo-
somes that is, if the number of chromosomes in each of the
fusing sexual nuclei be x, the number in the nucleus of the zygote
will be 2X. Moreover, this double number persists in all the
cells of the organism developed from the zygote, until it is
reduced to one-half by meiosis preceding either the development
of the spores, or, less commonly, the development of the sexual
cells. But there is yet a third stage, which consists in the
temporary fusion of the chromosomes belonging to the two
sexual nuclei. This always takes place as a preliminary to
meiosis; it may be in the germinating zygote, or after many
generations of cells have been formed from it. At the onset of
meiosis the (2*) chromosomes are seen to be double, one of each
pair having been derived from the male and the female cell
respectively: the chromosomes of each pair then fuse so that
their chromomeres unite along their length, constituting the
pseudo-chromosomes. The paired chromosomes separate and
eventually go to form the two daughter-nuclei, one to each, which
thus have half (x) the original number of chromosomes. The
daughter-nuclei at once divide homotypically, retaining the
reduced (x) number of chromosomes to form the four nuclei of a
tetrad of spores (more rarely, e.g. Fucus, of sexual cells).
III. Life-history.
It will have been gathered from the foregoing sections that
plants generally are capable of both sexual and asexual repro-
duction; and, further, that in different stages of their life-history
they possess the diploid (2*) number of chromosomes in their
nuclei, or the haploid (x) number. It may be at once stated
that, in all plants in which sexual reproduction and true meiotic
spore-formation exist, these two modes of reproduction are
restricted to distinct forms of the plant; the sexual form bears
only the sexual organs and is haploid; the asexual form only
124
REPRODUCTION
[PLANTS
produces spores and is diploid. Hence all such plants are to this
extent polymorphic that is, the plant assumes these two forms
in the course of its life-history. When, as in many Thallophyta,
one or other of these forms can reproduce itself by means of
gonidia, additional forms may be introduced into the life;
history, which becomes the more complicated the more pro-
nounced the polymorphism.
The most straightforward life-histories are those presented by
the Bryophyta and the Pteridophyta, where there are but the
two forms, the sexual and the asexual. In the life-history of a
moss, the plant itself bears only sexual organs: it is the sexual
form, and is distinguished as the gametophyte. The zygote
(oospore) formed in the sexual act develops into an organism,
the sporogonium, which is entirely asexual, producing only spores:
it is distinguished as the sporophyte. When these spores germ-
inate, they give rise to moss-plants. Thus the two forms, the
sexual and the asexual, regularly alternate with each other
that is, the life-history presents that simple form of poly-
morphism which is known as alternation of generations. Simi-
larly, in the life-history of a fern, there is a regular alternation of
a sporophyte, which is the fern-plant itself, with a gametophyte,
which is the fern-prothallium.
It is pointed out in the preceding section that, as the result
of the sexual act, the nucleus of the zygote contains twice
as many chromosomes as those of the fusing sexual cells. This
2X number of chromosomes persists throughout all the cell-
generations derived from the zygote, that is, in the cells
constituting the sporophyte, up to the time that it begins to
produce spores, when meiosis takes place. Again, the cell-
generations derived from the spore, that is, the cells constituting
the gametophyte, all have the reduced x number of chromosomes
in their nuclei up to the sexual act. Hence the sporophyte
may also be designated the diplophyte and the gametophyte
the haplophyte (Strasburger) : in other words, the sporo-
phyte is the pre-meiotic, the gametophyte the post-meiotic
generation. Twice in its life-history the plant is represented
by a single cell: by the spore and by the zygote. The turning-
points in the life-history, the transitions from the one genera-
tion to the other, are (i) meiosis, (2) the sexual act.
The course of the life-history in Phanerogams and in those
Thallophyta which have been adequately investigated is essenti-
ally the same as that of the Bryophyta and of the Pteridophyta
as described above, though it is less easy to trace on account
of the peculiar relation of the two generations to each other
in the Phanerogams and on account of various irregularities
that present themselves in the Thallophyta.
In the Phanerogams, as in the Pteridophyta, the pre-
ponderating generation is the sporophyte, the plant itself.
Inasmuch as they are heterosporous, the gametophyte is
represented by a male and a female organism or prothallium,
both rudimentary. The male prothallium consists of the few
cells formed by the germinating pollen-grain (microspore) ; and
though it is quite independent, since the microspores are shed,
it grows parasitically in the tissues upon which the microspore
has been deposited in pollination. The female prothallium
may consist of many cells with well-developed archegonia, as
in the Gymnosperms, or of only a few cells with the female
organ reduced to the oosphere, as in the Angiosperms. In
either case it is the product of the germination of a megaspore
(embryo-sac) which is not shed from its sporangium (ovule):
hence it never becomes an independent plant, and was long
regarded as merely a part of the sporophyte until its true nature
was ascertained, chiefly by the researches of Hofmeister, who
first explained the alternation of generations in plants. This
intimate and persistent connexion between the two generations
affords the explanation of the characteristic features of the
Phanerogams, the seed and the flower. The ovule containing
the embryo-sac, which eventually contains the embryo, per-
sists as the seed a structure that is distinctive of Phanero-
gams, which have, in fact, on this account been also termed
Spermatophyta. With regard to the flower, it has been already
mentioned that it is, like the cone of an Equisetum or a Lyco-
podium, a shoot adapted to the production of spores. But
it is something more than this: for whereas in Equisetum or
Lycopodium the function of the cone comes to an end when
the spores are shed, the flower of the Phanerogam has still
various functions to perform after the maturation of the spores.
It is the seat of the process of pollination that is, the bringing
of the pollen-grain by one of various agencies into such a posi-
tion that a part (the pollen-tube) of the male prothallium
developed from it may reach and fertilize the oosphere in the
embryo-sac. Thus the flower of Phanerogams is a reproductive
shoot adapted not only for spore-production, but also for
pollination, for fertilization, and for the consequences of fertiliza-
tion, the production of seed and fruit. However, in spite of
these complications, it is possible to determine accurately the
limits of the two generations by the observation of the nuclei.
The meiosis preceding the formation of the spores marks the
beginning of the (haploid) gametophyte, male and female;
and the sexual act marks that of the (diploid) sporophyte.
The difficult task of elucidating the life-histories of the
Thallophyta has been successfully performed in certain cases
by the application of the method of chromosome-counting,
with the result that alternation of generations has been found
to be of general occurrence. To begin with the Algae. In
the Dictyotaceae (Brown Algae) there are two very similar
forms in the life-history, the one bearing asexual reproductive
organs (tetrasporangia), the other bearing sexual organs (oogonia
and antheridia). It has been shown (Lloyd Williams) that
the former is undoubtedly the sporophyte and the latter the
gametophyte, since the nuclei of the former contain 32 chromo-
somes, and those of the latter 16. Meiosis takes place in the
mother-cell of the tetraspores, which, on germination, give
rise to the sexual form. Quite a different life-history has been
traced in Fucus, another Brown Alga. Here no spores are
produced: there is but one form in the life-history, the Fucus-
plant, which bears sexual organs and has, on that account,
been regarded as a gametophyte. The investigation of the
nuclei has, however, shown (Farmer) that the Fwcws-plant
is actually diploid, that it is, in fact, a sporophyte; but since
there is no spore-formation, meiosis immediately precedes
the development of the sexual cells, which alone represent the
gametophyte (see below, Apospory).
Similarly, two types of life-history have been discovered in
the Red Algae. In Polysiphonia violacea, a species in which
the tetraspores and the sexual organs are borne by similar but
distinct individuals, it has been ascertained (Yamanouchi)
that, as in Dictyota, meiosis takes place in the mother-cell of
the tetraspores, so that the nuclei of these spores, as also those
of the sexual plants to which they give rise, contain 20 chromo-
somes: and further, that the nuclei of the carpospores (diplo-
spores) produced in the cystocarp as the result of fertilization,
contain 40 chromosomes, as do also those of the asexual plant
to which the carpospores give rise. Hence the sporophyte
is represented by the cystocarp and the resulting tetraspor-
angiate plants: the gametophyte, by the sexual plants. Though
it is the rule in the Red Algae that the tetrasporangia and the
sexual organs are borne on distinct individuals, yet cases are
known in which both kinds of reproductive organs are borne
upon the same plant; and to those the above conclusions
obviously cannot apply. They have yet to be investigated.
The second type of life-history has been traced in Nemalion.
Here there is no tetrasporangiate form, consequently meiosis
takes place at a different stage in the life-history. It has
been observed (Wolfe) that the nuclei of the sexual plant
contain 8 chromosomes; those of the gonimoblast-filaments
of the developing cystocarp contain 16, whilst those of the
carpospores contain 8: hence meiosis takes place in the carpo-
sporangia. Here the plant is the gametophyte; the sporophyte
is only represented by the cystocarp. The carpospores here are
true spores (haplospores).
Among the Green Algae, Coleochaete is the only form that
has been fully investigated (Allen). Here meiosis takes place
in the germinating oospore: consequently the plant is the
PLANTS]
REPRODUCTION
125
gametophyte, and the sporophyte is represented only by the
oospore, so that the life-history resembles that of Nemalion.
It is probable that this conclusion is generally true of the
whole group; at any rate of those forms (Desmids, Spirogyra,
Oedogonium, Chara) which have been more or less investi-
gated.
Turning to the Fungi, somewhat similar results have been
obtained in the few forms that have been studied from this
point of view. In the sexual Ascomycetes it appears (Harper)
that meiosis takes place in the ascocarp just before the develop-
ment of the spores, so that the life-history essentially resembles
that of Nemalion. Again, in certain Uredineae, having an
aecidium-stage and a teleutospore-stage, which is apparently a
sexual process has been observed (Blackman, Christman) which
is described in the section on Abnormalities of Reproduction, and
the life-history is as follows. The sexual act having taken
place, a row of aecidiospores is developed in the aecidium, each
of which contains two conjugate nuclei derived from the sexual
nuclei. The mycelium developed from the aecidiospore, as
well as the uredospores and the teleutospores that it bears,
shows two conjugate nuclei. When, however, the teleuto-
spore is about to germinate, the two nuclei fuse (thus completing
the sexual act) and meiosis takes place. As a result the promy-
celium developed from the teleutospore, and the sporidia that it
produces, are uninucleate: so are also the mycelium developed
from the sporidium, and the female organs (archicarps) borne
upon it. Hence the limits of the sporophyte are the aecidio-
spore and the teleutospore: those of the gametophyte, the
teleutospore and the aecidiospore.
Similar observations have been made upon other Uredineae
with a more contracted life-history. Phragmidium Potentillae-
canadensis is a rust that has no aecidium-stage: consequently
the primary uredospores are borne by the mycelium produced
on infection of the host by a sporidium. It has been observed
(Christman) that the sporogenous hyphae fuse in pairs, suggest-
ing a sexual act; then the primary uredospores are developed
in rows from the fused pairs of hyphae which thus behave as
sexual organs (archicarps), and each such uredospore contains
two conjugate nuclei. Although the research has not been
carried beyond this point, it may be inferred that in this case, as
in the preceding, nuclear fusion and meiosis take place in the
teleutospore. Here the sporophyte is represented by the
uredo-form.
Finally, in some of the fungi in which no sexual organs have
yet been discovered, this method of investigation has made it
probable that some kind of sexual act takes place nevertheless.
Thus in the Uredine Puccinia malvacearum, which has only
teleutospore- and sporidium-stages, it has been observed (Black-
man) that the formation of the teleutospores is preceded by a
binucleate condition of the hyphae. The same idea is suggested
by the binucleate basidia of the Basidiomycetes, which corre-
spond to the teleutospores of the Uredineae.
The life-histories sketched in the preceding paragraphs show
that one of the complexities met with in the Thallophyta is
that meiosis does not always take place at the same point in the
life-history. In the higher plants the incidence of meiosis is
generally, though not absolutely, constant: it may be stated as
a rule that in the Bryophyta, Pteridophyta and Phanerogams
it takes place in the spore-mother-cells. In the Thallophyta
this rule does not hold. In some of them, it is true, meiosis
immediately precedes, as in the higher plants, the formation of
certain spores, the tetraspores (Dictyotaceae, Polysiphonia),
the teleutospores (Uredineae): but in others it immediately
precedes the development of the sexual organs (Fucaceae), or
follows more or less directly upon the sexual act (Green Algae,
Nemalion, Ascomycetes).
The life-history of most Thallophyta is further complicated
by the capacity of the gametophyte of the sporophyte to repro-
duce themselves by cells termed gonidia, a capacity that is
wholly lacking in the higher plants. The karyology of gonidia
has not yet been sufficiently investigated: but when, as in the
Green Algae and the Oomycetous Fungi, the gonidia are developed
by and reproduce the gametophyte, it may be inferred that
they, like the gametophyte, are haploid. One case, at any
rate, of the reproduction of the sporophyte by gonidia is fully
known, that of the Uredineae just described, in which the uredo-
form, which is a phase of the sporophyte, is reproduced by the
uredo-spores which are binucleate, that is diploid, and may be
distinguished as dlplogonidia. In any case the result is that
whereas in the higher plants each of the alternating generations
occurs but once in the life-history, in these Thallophyta the life-
history may include a succession of gametophytic or of sporo-
phytic forms This is, in fact, a distinguishing feature of the
group. The higher plants present a regular alternation of
generations: whereas, in the Thallophyta, though they probably
all present some kind of alternation of generations, yet it is
irregular hi the various ways and for the various reasons
mentioned above.
Sufficient information has been given in the preceding pages
to render possible the consideration of the origin of alternation
of generations. To begin quite at the beginning, it may be
assumed that the primitive form of reproduction was purely
vegetative, merely division of the unicellular organism when it
had attained the limits of its own growth. Following on this
came reproduction by a gonidium: that is, the protoplasm of
the cell, at the end of its vegetative life, became quiescent,
surrounded itself with a proper wall, or was set free as a motile
ciliated cell, having in some unexplained way become capable
of originating a new course of life (rejuvenescence) on germination.
Then, as can be well traced in the Brown and" Green Algae (see
ALGAE), these primitive reproductive cells (gonidia) began to
fuse in pairs: in other words, they gradually became sexual.
This stage can still be observed in some of these Algae (e.g.
Ulothrix, Ectocarpus) where the zoospores (gonidia) may either
germinate independently, or fuse in pairs to form a zygote.
Gradually the sexuality of these cells became more pronounced :
losing the capacity for independent germination, they acquired
the external characters of more or less differentiated sexual
cells, and the gametangia producing them developed into male
and female sexual organs. But this advancing sexual differenti-
ation did not necessarily deprive the plant of the primitive mode
of propagation: the sexual organism still retained the faculty
of reproduction by gonidia. The loss- of this faculty only came
with higher development: it is entirely wanting in some of the
higher Thallophyta (e.g. Fucaceae, Characeae), and hi all plants
above them in the evolutionary series.
With the introduction of the sexual act, a new kind of repro-
ductive cell made its appearance, the zygote. This cell, as
already explained, differs from other kinds of spores and from
the sexual cells, in that its necleus is diploid; and with it the
sporophyte (diplophyte) was introduced into the life-history. It
has been mentioned that in some plants (e.g. Green Algae) the
zygote is all that there is to represent the sporophyte, giving rise,
or germination and after meiosis, to one or more spores. Passing
to the Bryophyta, in the simpler forms (e.g. Riccia), the zygote
develops into a multicellular capsule (sporogonium) ; and in the
higher forms into a more elaborate sporogonium, producing many
spores. In the Pteridophyta and the Phanerogams, the zygote
gives rise to the highly developed sporophytic plant.
Thus the evolution of the sporophyte can be traced from the
unicellular zygote, gradually increasing in bulk and in in-
dependence until it becomes the equal of the gametophyte (e.g.
in Dictyota and Polysiphonia), and eventually far surpasses it
(Pteridophyta, Phanerogams) . Moreover, the increase in size was
attended by the gradual limitation of spore-production to certain
parts only, the rest of the tissues being vegetative, assuming the
form of stems, leaves, &c. These facts have been formulated
in the theory of " progressive sterilization " (Bower), which states
that the sporophytic form of the higher plants has been evolved
from the simple, entirely fertile, sporophyte of the lower, by the
gradually increasing development of the sterile vegetative tissue
at the expense of the sporogenous, accompanied by increase in
total bulk and in morphological and histological differentiation.
In connexion with the study of the evolution of the sporophyte.
126
REPRODUCTION
IPLANTS
the question arose as to its morphological significance; whether
it is to be regarded as a modified form of the gametophyte, or as an
altogether new form intercalated in the life-history: in other
words, whether the alternation is " homologous "or" antithetic."
In certain plants there is a succession of forms which are un-
doubtedly homologous: for instance, in Coleochaete where a
succession of individuals without sexual organs is produced by
zoospores (gonidia). The main fact that has been established is
that the sporophyte, from the simple zygote of the Thallophyta
to the spore-bearing plant of the Phanerogams, is character-
ized by its diploid nuclei; that it is a diplophyte, in contrast
to the haplophytic gametophyte. Were these nuclear characters
absolutely universal, there could be no question but that the
sporophyte is an altogether new antithetic form, and not an
homologous generation. But certain exceptions to the rule have
been detected, which are described under Abnormalities of Repro-
duction: at present it will suffice to say that such things as
a diploid gametophyte and a haploid sporophyte have been ob-
served in certain ferns. It can only be inferred that alternation
of generations is not absolutely dependent upon the periodic
halving in meiosis and the subsequent doubling by a sexual act,
of the number of chromosomes in the nuclei, though the two
sets of phenomena usually coincide. It must not, however,
be overlooked that these exceptional cases occur in plants
presenting an abnormal life-history: the fact remains that where
there is both normal spore-formation with meiosis, and a sub-
sequent sexual act, the haploid form is the gametophyte, the
diploid the sporophyte. But the actual observation of a haploid
sporophyte and of a diploid gametophyte makes it clear that
however generally useful the nuclear characters may be in the
distinction of sporophyte and gametophyte, they do not afford
an absolute criterion, and therefore their value in determining
homologies is debatable.
IV. Abnormalities of Reproduction.
In what may be regarded as the type of normal life-history,
the transition from the one generation to the other is marked by
definite processes: there is the meiotic development of spores
by the sporophyte, and the sexual production of a zygote, or
something analogous to it, by the gametophyte. But it has been
mentioned in the preceding pages that the transition may, in
certain cases, be effected in other ways, which may be regarded
as abnormal, though they are constant enough in the plants in
which they occur, in fact as manifestations of reproductive
degeneration.
In the first place, the sporophyte may be developed either
after an abnormal sexual act, or without any preceding sexual
act at all, a condition known as apogamy. In the second, the
gametophyte may be developed otherwise than from a post-
meiotic spore, a condition known as apospory.
APOGAMY. The cases to be considered under this head may be
arranged in two groups:
" i. Pseudapogamy: sexual act abnormal. The following abnor-
malities have been observed :
(a) Fusion of two female organs: observed (Christman) in cer-
tain Uredineae (Caeoma nitens, Phragmidium speciosum,
Uromyces Caladii) where adjacent archicarps fuse: male
cells (spermatia) are present but functionless.
(ft) Fusion between nuclei of the same female organ : observed in
the ascogonium of certain Ascomycetes, Humaria granu-
lata (Blackman), where there is no male organ; Lachnea
stercorea (Fraser), where the male organ (pollinodium) is
present but is apparently functionless.
(c) Fusion of a female organ with an adjacent tissue-cell: ob-
served (Blackman) in the archicarp of some Uredineae
(Phragmidium violaceum, Uromyces Poae, Puccinia
Poarum) : male cells (spermatia) present but functionless.
(d) There is no female organ: fusion takes place between two
adjacent tissue-cells of the gametophyte; the sporophyte
is developed from diploid cells thus produced, but there is
no proper zygote as there is in a, 5 and c : observed (Farmer)
in the prothallium of certain ferns (Lastraea pseudo-mas,
var. polydactyla): male organs (and sometimes female)
present but functionless. Another such case is that_ of
Humaria rutilans (Ascomycete), in which nuclear fusion
has been observed (Fraser) in hyphae of the hypothecium :
the asci are developed from these hyphae, and in them
meiosis takes place ; there are no sexual organs.
2. Eu-apogamy: no kind of sexual act
(a) The gametophyte is haploid :
(o) The sporophyte is developed from the unfertilized
oosphere: no such case of true parthenogenesis has yet
been observed.
03) The sporophyte is developed vegetatively from the gameto-
phyte and is haploid : observed in the prothallia of certain
ferns, Lastraea pseudo-mas, var. cristata-apospora(Farmer
and Digby), and Nephrodium molle (Yamanouchi).
(6) The gametophyte is diploid (see under Apospory):
(a) The sporophyte is developed from the diploid oosphere :
observed in some Pteridophyta, viz. certain ferns
(Farmer), Athyrium Filix-foemina, var. clarissima,
Scolopendrium vulgare, var. crispum-Drummondae, and
Marsilia (Strasburger) ; also in some Phanerogams, viz.
Compositae (Taraxacum, Murbeck; Antennaria alpina,
Juel; sp. of Hieracium (Rosenberg): Rosaceae (Eu-
Alchemilla sp., Murbeck, Strasburger): Ranunculaceae
(Thalictrum purpurascens, Overton).
09) The sporophyte is developed vegetatively from the game-
tophyte: observed (Farmer) in the fern Athyrium Filix-
foemina, var. clarissima.
In all the cases enumerated under Eu-apogamy,
apogamy is associated with some form of apospory except
Nephrodium molle, full details of which have not yet been
published.
Many other ferns are known to be apogamous, but
they are not included here because the details of their
nuclear structure have not been investigated.
APOSPORY. The known modes of apospory may be arranged as
follows:
1. Pseudapospory: a spore is formed but without meiosis, so thai
it is diploid- observed only in heterosporous plants, viz. certain
species of Marsilia (e.g. Marsilia Drummondii) where the megaspore
has a diploid nucleus (32 chromosomes) and the resulting prothallium
and female organs are also diploid (Strasburger); and in various
Phanerogams, some Compositae (Taraxacum and Antennaria alpina,
Juel), some Rosaceae (Eu-Alchemilla, Strasburger), and occasionally
in Thalictrum purpurascens (Overton), where the megaspore (embryo-
sac) is diploid; in some species of Hieracium it has been found
(Rosenberg) that adventitious diploid embryo-sacs are developed in
the nucellus: these plants are also apogamous.
2. Eu-apospory: no spore is formed of this there are two
varieties :
(a) With meiosis: this occurs in some Thallophyta which form
no spores; the sporophyte of the Fucaceae bears no
spores, consequently meiosis takes place in the developing
sexual organs; the Conjugate Green Algae also have no
spores, meiosis taking place in the germinating zygospore .
which develops directly into the sexual plant.
(6) Without meiosis: the gametophyte is developed upon the
sporophyte by budding; that is, spore-reproduction is
replaced by a vegetative process: for instance, in mosses
it has been found possible to induce the development of
protonema, the first stage of the gametophyte, from tissue-
cells of the sporogonium: similarly, in certain ferns
(varieties of Athyrium Filix-foemina, Scolopendrium
vulgare, Lastraea pseudo-mas, Polystichum angulare, and
in the species Pteris aquilina and Asplenium dimorphum),
the gametophyte (prothallium) is developed by budding
on the leaf of the sporophyte, and in some of these cases it
has been ascertained that the gametophyte so developed
has the same number (2x) of chromosomes in its nuclei as
the sporophyte that bears it that is, it is diploid.
Apospory has been found to be frequently associated
with apogamy; in fact, in the absence of meiosis, this
association would appear to be inevitable.
Combined Apospory and Apogamy. Instances have been
given of the occurrence of both apospory and apogamy in the
same life-history; but in all of them there is a regular succession
of sporophyte and gametophyte. The cases now to be con-
sidered are those in which one or other of the generations gives
rise directly to its like, sporophyte to sporophyte, gametophyte
to gametophyte, the normally intervening generation being
omitted.
It is possible to conceive of this abbreviation of the life-history
taking place in various ways. Thus, a sporophyte might be
developed from a haploid spore instead of a gametophyte as is
the normal case, but this has not been observed: again, a
sporophyte might be developed from a diploid spore (as dis-
tinguished from a zygote or a diploid oosphere), a possibility
that is to some extent realized in the life-history of some
Uredineae in which successive forms of the polymorphic sporo-
phyte are developed from diplogonidia. Similarly a gameto-
phyte might be developed from a fertilized or an unfertilized
PLANTS]
REPRODUCTION
127
female cell: the latter possibility is to some extent realized in
those Algae (e.g. Ulothrix, Ectocarpus) in which the sexual
cells (isogametes), if they fail to conjugate, germinate inde-
pendently as gonidia, giving rise to gametophytes.
The more familiar mode is that of vegetative budding, as
already mentioned. When a " viviparous " fern or Phanerogam
reproduces itself by a bud or a bulbil, both spore-formation and
the sexual act are passed over: sporophyte springs from sporo-
phyte. Remarkable cases of this have been observed in certain
Phanerogams (Coelebogyne ilicifolia, Funkia ovata, Nothoscordum
fragrans, Citrus, sp. of Euonymus, Opuntia vulgaris) in the ovule
of which adventitious embryos are formed by budding from cells
of the nucellus: with the exception of Coelebogyne, it appears
that this only takes place after the oosphere has been fertilized.
In other plants it is the gametophyte that reproduces itself by
means of gemmae or bulbils, as commonly in the Bryophyta,
the prothallia of ferns, &c.
The abnormalities described are all traceable to reproductive
degeneration; the final result of which is that true reproduction
is replaced more or less completely by vegetative propagation.
It may be inquired whether degeneration may have proceeded
so far in any plant of sufficiently high organization to present
spore-formation, or sexual reproduction, or both, as to cause
the plant to reproduce itself entirely and exclusively by the vege-
tative method. The only such case that suggests itself is that of
Caulerpa and possibly some other Siphonaceous Green Algae.
In this plant no special reproductive organs have yet been
discovered, and it certainly reproduces itself by the breaking off
of portions of the body which become complete plants: but
it is quite possible that reproductive organs may yet be dis-
covered.
V. Physiology of Reproduction.
The reproductive capacity of plants, as of animals, depends
upon the fact that the whole or part of the protoplasm of the
individual can develop into one or more new organisms in one
or other of several possible ways. Thus, in the case of unicellular
plants, the whole of the protoplasm of the parent gives rise,
whether by simple division or otherwise, to one or more new
plants. Reproduction necessarily closes the life of the individual :
here, as August Weismann long ago pointed out, there is no
natural death, for the whole of the protoplasm of the parent
continues to live in the progeny. In multicellular plants, on
the contrary,' the reproductive function is mainly discharged by
certain parts of the body, the reproductive organs, the remainder
of the body being essentially vegetative that is, concerned
with the maintenance of the individual. In these plants it is
only a part of the protoplasm that continues to live in their
progeny; the remainder, the vegetative part, eventually dies.
It is therefore possible to distinguish in them, on the one
hand, the essentially reproductive protoplasm, which may be
designated by Weismann's term germ-plasm, though without
necessarily adopting all that his use of it implies, and the
essentially vegetative, mortal protoplasm, the somato -plasm, on
the other. In the unicellular plant no such distinction can be
drawn, for the whole of the protoplasm is concerned in repro-
duction. But even in the most highly organized multicellular
plant this distinction is not absolute: for, as already explained,
plants can, in general, be propagated by the isolation of almost
any part of the body, that is vegetatively, and this implies the
presence of germ-plasm elsewhere than in the special repro-
ductive organs.
If the attempt be made to distinguish between the organs
of vegetative propagation and those of true reproduction, the
nearest approach would be the statement that the former contain
both germ-plasm and somatoplasm, whereas the latter, or at
least the reproductive cells, consist entirely of germ-plasm.
The question now arises as to the exact seat of the germ-plasm,
and the answer is to be looked for in the results of the numerous
researches into the structure and development of the reproductive
cells that form so large a part of the biological work of recent
years. The various facts already mentioned suffice to prove
that the nucleus plays the leading part in the reproductive
processes of whatever kind: the general conclusion is justified
that no reproductive cell can develop into a new organism if
deprived of its nucleus. It may be inferred that the nucleus
either actually contains the germ-plasm, or that it controls and
directs the activities of the germ-plasm present in the cell. It
is not improbable that both these inferences may be true. At
any rate there is no sufficient ground for excluding the co-
operation of the cytoplasm, especially of that part of it dis-
tinguished as kinoplasm, in the reproductive processes.
Pursuing the ascertained facts with regard to the nucleus, it
is established that the part of it especially concerned is the
linin-network which consists of the chromosomes. The be-
haviour, as already described, of the chromosomes in the
various reproductive processes has led to the conclusion that the
hereditary characters of the parent or parents are transmitted
in and by them to the progeny: that they constitute, in fact,
the material basis of heredity (see HEREDITY). They can hardly,
however, be regarded as the ultimate structural units, for the
simple reason that their number is far too small in relation to
the transmissible characters. It has been suggested (Farmer)
that the chromomeres are the units, but the number of these
would seem to be hardly sufficient. It seems necessary to fall
back upon hypothetical ultimate particles, as suggested by
Darwin, de Vries and Weismann, which may be generally termed
pangens. The chromomeres may be regarded as aggregates of
such particles, the " ids " of Weismann.
The foregoing considerations make it possible to attempt an
explanation of the various reproductive processes.
Vegetative Propagation. It is easily intelligible that the
two individuals produced by the division of a unicellular plant
should resemble the parent and each other; for, the division
of the parent-nucleus being homotypic, the chromosomes
which go to constitute the nucleus of each daughter-cell are
alike both in number and in nature, and exactly repeat the
constitution of the parent-nucleus.
In the more complicated cases of propagation by bulbils,
cuttings, &c., the development of the new individual, or of the
missing parts of the individual (roots, &c.), may be ascribed
to the presence in the bulbil or cutting of the necessary pangens.
Reproduction by Gonidia. In this case a single cell gives
rise to a complete new organism resembling the parent. The
inference is that the gonidium is a portion of the parental germ-
plasm, in which all the necessary pangens have been accumulated.
Reproduction by Spores. In this case, also, an entire organism
is developed from a single cell, but with this peculiarity that
the resulting organism is unlike that which bore the spore, a
peculiarity which has not yet been explained. It has been
already stated that the development of true spores involves
meiosis, and this process is no doubt related to the behaviour
of the spore on germination; but the nature of this relation
remains obscure. It might be assumed that, as the result
of meiosis, the nucleus of the spore receives only gametophytic
pangens. But the assumption is rendered impossible by the
fact that the spore gives rise to a sexual organism, the repro-
ductive cells of which, after the sexual act, produce a sporo-
phyte. Clearly sporophytic pangens must be present as well
in the spore as in the gametophyte and in its sexual cells. It
can only be surmised that they exist there in a latent condition,
dominated, as it were, by the gametophytic pangens.
Sexual Reproduction. Here, again, as yet unanswered
questions present themselves. The essence of a sexual cell
is that it cannot give rise by itself to a new organism, it is only
truly reproductive after the sexual act: this peculiarity is
just what constitutes its sexuality. Minute investigation has
not yet detected any essential structural difference between
a sexual cell and a spore; on the contrary, the results so far
obtained have established that they essentially agree in
being post-meiotic (haploid). Why then do they differ so
fundamentally in their reproductive capacities? Again,
sexual cells differ in sex; but there are as yet no facts to
demonstrate any essential structural difference between male
128
REPRODUCTION
[PLANTS
and female cells. What is known about them tends to prove
their structural similarity rather than their difference. But
it is possible that their difference may be chemical, and so
not to be detected by the microscope.
The normal sexual act has been described as consisting in
the fusion, first, of two cells, then of their nuclei, and finally,
often after a long interval, of their chromosomes and of their
chromomeres in meiosis. What causes determined these
fusions is a question that is only partly answered. It is known
in certain cases (e.g. ferns and mosses) that the male cell is
attracted to the female by chemical substances secreted for
the purpose by the female organ; that it is a case of chemio-
taxis. Probably this is more common than experiment has
yet shown it to be. It is quite conceivable that the consequent
cell-fusion, as also the subsequent fusions of nuclei and of
chromosomes, are likewise cases of chemiotaxis, depending
upon chemical differences between the fusing structures.
The sexual process can only take place between cells which
are related to each other in a certain degree (see HYBRIDISM);
that is, it depends upon sexual affinity. It is the general
rule that it takes place between cells derived from different
individuals of the same species; that is, cross-fertilization is
the rule. This is necessarily the case when the male and female
organs are developed upon different individuals, when the
plant is said to be dioecious. When both kinds of organs are
developed upon the same individual (monoecious), self-fertiliza-
tion may and often does occur; but it is commonly hindered
by various special arrangements, of which dichogamy is the
most common; that is, that the male and female organs are
not mature at the same time. But though these arrangements
favour cross-fertilization, they do not absolutely prevent self-
fertilization. In some cases, cleistogamic flowers, for instance,
self-fertilization alone is possible (see ANGIOSPERMS). The
general conclusion is that though cross-fertilization is the more
advantageous form of sexual reproduction, still self-fertilization
is more advantageous to the species than no fertilization at all.
In considering this subject, it must be borne in mind that
the terms used have different meanings when applied to certain
heterosporous plants from those which they convey when
applied to isosporus plants. In the latter cases their meaning
is direct and simple: in the former it is indirect and somewhat
complicated. In heterosporous plants generally the actual
sexual organs are never borne upon the same individual, there
is always necessarily a male and a female gametophyte; so
that, strictly speaking, self-fertilization is impossible. But in
the Phanerogams, where there is a process preliminary to fertiliza-
tion, that of pollination, which is unknown in other plants,
the terms and the conceptions expressed by them are applied,
not to the real sexual organs, but to the spores. Thus a dioe-
cious Phanerogam is one in which the microspores are developed
by one individual, the megaspores by another; and again,
self-fertilization is said to occur when the microspores (pollen)
fall upon the stigma of the same flower (see ANGIOSPERMS);
but this is really only self-pollination.
To return to the sexual process itself. Whatever its nature,
two sets of results follow upon the sexual act (i) a zygote
is formed, which is capable of developing into a new organism,
from two cells, neither of which could so develop; (2) the
hereditary sporophytic characters of the two parents are pos-
sessed by the organism so developed. These two results will
now be considered in some detail.
(i) The Relation between the Sexual Act and Reproductive
Capacity. In the early days of the discovery of the sexual process,
it was thought that the capacity for development imparted to
the female cell was to be attributed to the doubling of its nuclear
substance by the fusion with the male cell. Reproductive
capacity does not, however, depend upon the bulk of the nuclear'
substance, for a spore, like an unfertilized female cell, contains
but the x number of chromosomes, and yet it can give rise to a
new organism. Again, it has been observed (Winkler) that a
non-nucleated fragment of an oosphere of Cystoseira (Fucaceae)
can be " fertilized " by a spermatozoid and will then grow and
divide to form a small embryo, though it necessarily contains only
the x number of chromosomes. From this it would appear that
some stimulating influence had been exerted by the male cell,
and it is probably in this direction that the desired explanation
is to be sought. Some important confirmatory facts have been
recorded with regard to certain animals (sea-urchins). It has
been observed (Loeb) that treatment with magnesium chloride
will cause the ova to grow and segment; and similar results have
been obtained (Winkler) by treating the ova with a watery
extract of the male cells. Hence it may be inferred that the male
cell carries with it, either in its cytoplasm (kinoplasm), or in
its nucleus, extractable substances, perhaps of the nature of
enzymes, that stimulate the female cell to growth.
It may be mentioned that the stimulating effect of fertilization
is not necessarily confined to the female cell; very frequently
adjacent tissues are stimulated to growth and structural change.
In a Phanerogam, for instance, the whole ovule grows and
develops into the seed: the development of endosperm in the
embryo-sac is initiated by another nuclear fusion, taking place
between the second male nucleus and the endosperm-nucleus:
the ovary, too, grows to form the fruit, which may be dry and hard
or more or less succulent: the stimulating effect may extend to
other parts of the flower; to the perianth, as in the mulberry;
to the receptacle, as in the strawberry and the apple: or even
beyond the flower to the axis of the inflorescence, as in the fig and
the pine-apple. Analogous developments in other groups are
the calyptra of the Bryophyta, the cystocarps of the Red Algae,
the ascocarps of the Ascomycetes, the aecidia of the Uredineae,
&c.
(2) The Relation o] the Sexual Act to Heredity. The product of
the sexual act is essentially a diploid cell, the zygote, which
actually is or gives rise to a sporophyte. The sexual heredity
of plants consequently presents the peculiar feature that the
organism resulting^ from the sexual act is quite unlike its imme-
diate parents, which are both gametophytes. But it is clear
that the sporophytic characters must have persisted, though in
a latent condition, through the gametophyte, to manifest them-
selves in the organism developed from the zygote.
The real question at issue is as to the exact means by which
these characters are transmitted and combined in the sexual act.
There is a considerable amount of evidence that the hereditary
characters are associated with the chromomeres, and that it is
rather their linin-constituent than their chromatin which is
functional (Strasburger) : that they constitute, in fact, the
material basis of heredity. From this point of view it is
probable that the last phase of the sexual act, the fusion of the
chromomeres in meiosis, represents the combination of the two
sets of parental characters. What exactly happens in the
pseudo-chromosome stage is not known; at any rate this stage
offers an opportunity for a complete redistribution of the
substance of the chromomeres in other words, of the parental
pangens. It is a striking fact that, in the subsequent nuclear
division, the distribution of the chromosomes derived from the
male and female parents (when they can be distinguished) seems
to be a matter of indifference: they are not equally distributed
to the two daughter-nuclei. The explanation would appear
to be this, that they are not any longer male and female as they
were before meiotic fusion; and that it is because they now
contain both male and female nuclear substance that their equal
distribution to the daughter-nuclei is unimportant.
The nature of this redistribution of the substance of the
chromomeres is still under discussion. Some regard it as
essentially a chemical process, resulting in the formation of new
compounds: others consider it to be rather a physical process,
a new material system being formed in the rearrangement of the
pangens; here it must be left for the present.
The various ways in which the parental characters manifest
themselves in the progeny are fully dealt with in the articles
HEREDITY, HYBRIDISM, MENDELISM. It will suffice to say that
the progeny, though maintaining generally the characters of the
species, do not necessarily exactly resemble either of the parents,
nor do they necessarily present exactly intermediate characters:
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
129
they may vary more or less from the type. It is an interesting
fact, the full significance of which has not yet been worked out,
that, as a rule, plants that vary profusely are those in which
the characteristic 2x number of chromosomes is high (60-100).
Brief reference may be made to the cases of abnormal sexual
or pseudo-sexual reproduction described above under Apogamy.
Taking first the cases of true apogamy, there is clearly no need
for any sexual process, for, since no meiotic division has taken
place, the gametophyte is diploid; its cells, whether vegetative
or contained in female organs, possess the capacity for both
development and the transmission of the sporophytic characters.
It is not remarkable that such a gametophyte should be able to
give rise directly to a sporophyte; but it is remarkable, in the
converse case of apospory, that a sporophyte should give rise to
a diploid gametophyte rather than to another sporophyte. In
the latter case the tendency to the regular development of the
alternate form appears to override the influence of the diploid
nucleus.
Turning to the various forms of pseudo-apogamy, there are
first those in which fusion takes place between two apparently
female organs (some Uredineae; Christman), and those in
which it takes place between nuclei within the same female
organ (Humaria; Blackman). If these are to be regarded
physiologically as sexual acts, it must be inferred that the fusing
organs or nuclei have come to differ from each other to some
extent; for it is unthinkable that equivalent female organs or
cells should be able to fertilize, or to be fertilized by, one another.
There are finally those cases in which apparently vegetative
cells take part in the sexual act, as in Phragmidium (Blackman),
where the female organ fuses with an adjacent vegetative cell,
and in the fern-prothallium (Farmer), where the nuclei of two
vegetative cells fuse. They would seem to indicate that vege-
tative cells may, in certain circumstances, contain sufficient
germ-plasm to act as sexual organs without being differentiated
as such.
An interesting question is that of the origin of apogamy. It
is no doubt the outcome of sexual degeneration; but this
general statement requires some explanation. In certain cases
apogamy seems to be the result of the degeneration of the male
organ; as in Humaria, where there is no male organ, and in
Lachnea, where the male organ is rudimentary. In others,
as in the Uredineae, it is apparently the female organ that has
degenerated, losing its receptive part, the trichogyne; the male
cells (spermatia) are developed normally, and there is no reason
to believe that they might not fertilize the female organ were
there the means of penetrating it. In yet other cases the
degeneration occurs at a different stage in the life-history, in
the development of the spores. In the apogamous ferns in-
vestigated, meiosis is suppressed and apogamy results. In the
heterosporous plants which have been investigated (e.g. Marsilia,
Eu- Alchemilla) it has been observed that the microspores are
so imperfectly developed as to be incapable of germinating, so
that fertilization is impossible; and it is perhaps to this that
the occurrence of apogamy is to be attributed. This abnormal
development of the spores may be regarded as a variation; and
in most cases it occurs in plants that are highly variable and often
have a high 2x number of chromosomes.
It will be observed that such physiological explanation as
can be given of the phenomena of reproduction is based upon the
results of the minute investigation of the changes in nuclear
structure associated with them. The explanation is often rather
suggested than proved, and some fundamental facts still remain
altogether unexplained. But it may be anticipated that a
method of research which has already so successfully justified
itself will not fail in the future to elucidate what still remains
obscure.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. This article should be read in connexion with
the following: ALGAE, ANGIOSPERMS, BRYOPHYTA, CYTOLOGY,
FUNGI, GYMNOSPERMS.HEREDITY, HYBRIDISM, MENDELISM, PLANTS,
PTERIDOPHYTA.
As the bibliographies to these articles include all the publications
containing the facts and theories mentioned here, it will suffice to
append only a few papers of general importance: Blackman and
Fraser. " Further Studies on the Sexuality of the Uredineae,"
Ann. Dot. (1906) vol. xx. ; Farmer, " On the Structural Constituents
of the Nucleus, and their Relation to the Organization of the In-
dividual " (Croonian Lecture), Proc. Roy. Soc. (1907) vol. 79, series B ;
Farmer and Digby, " Studies in Apospory and Apogamy in Ferns,"
Ann. Bot. (1907) vol. xxi. ; Strasburger, Die stpfflichen Grundlagen
der Vererbung (1905); " Apogamie bei Manilla," Flora (1907),
vol. 97; D. M. Mottier, Fecundation in Plants (1904), Carnegie
Institution, Washington. (S. H. V.*)
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM, IN ANATOMY. The repro-
ductive system in some parts of its course shares structures in
common with the urinary system (q.v.). In this article the
following structures will be dealt with. In the male the testes,
epididymis, vasa deferentia, vesiculae seminales, prostate,
penis and urethra. In the female the ovaries, Fallopian tubes,
uterus, vagina and vulva.
Male Reproductive Organs.
The testes or testicles are the glands in which the male repro-
ductive cells are formed. They lie, one on each side, in the
scrotum surrounded by the tunica vaginalis (see COELOM and
SEROUS MEMBRANES). Each is an oval gland about one and a
half inches long with its long axis directed downward, backward
and inward. There is a strong fibrous coat called the tunica
albuginea, from which vertical and horizontal septa penetrate
into the substance, thus dividing it into compartments or lobules
in which the seminiferous tubes are coiled. It is estimated that
the total length of these
seminiferous tubes in the
two glands is little short of
a mile. (See fig. i.)
At the posterior part of the
testis the fibrous sheath is
greatly thickened to form the
mediastinum testis, and con-
tains a plexus of tubules
called the rele testis (see fig.
i), into which the semini-
ferous tubes open. In this
way the secretion of the gland
is carried to its upper and
back part, whence from fifteen From A. F. Dixon, Cunningham's Textbook
to twenty small tubes (vasa f Ana "> m y-
e/erenlia) pass to the epidi- FlG ' ''T Dia f ra , m to '""strate the
f . V r xi. structure of the testis and epidi-
dymis. Each of these is dymis.
convoluted before opening, ct Coni vasculosi.
and forms what is known as c - , G .!!> us m ? )or -
g.m'. Globus minor,
a C011US VaSCUWSUS. r.v. Rete testis
Under the microscope the ' ^^
seminiferous tubules are seen
to consist of a basement membrane surrounding several layers of
epithelial cells, some of which are constantly being transformed
into spermatozoa or male sexual cells.
The epididymis (see fig. i) is a soft body lying behind the testis;
it is enlarged above to form the globus major or head, while
below is a lesser swelling, the globus minor or tail. The whole
epididymis is made up of a convoluted tube about 20 ft.
long, from which one long diverticulum (vas aberrans) comes off.
Between the globus major arid the testis two small vesicles
called the hydatids of Morgagni are often found.
The vas deferens is the continuation of the tube of the epidi-
dymis and starts at the globus minor; at first it is convoluted,
but soon becomes straight, and runs up on the inner (mesial)
side of the epididymis to the external abdominal ring in the
abdominal wall. On its way up it is joined by several other
structures, to form the spermatic cord; these are the artery
(spermatic) and veins (pampiniform plexus) of the testis, the
artery of the vas, the ilio-inguinal, genito-crural and sympathetic-
nerves, and the testicular lymphatics. After entering the
external abdominal ring, these structures pass obliquely through
the abdominal wall, lying in the inguinal canal for an inch and a
half, until the internal abdominal ring is reached. Here they
separate and the vas passes down the side of the pelvis and turns
XXIII. S
s./. Seminiferous
tubule.
vd. Vas deferens.
t.e. Vas efferens.
t.r. Tubuli recti.
130
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
inward to meet its fellow at the back of the bladder, just above
the prostate. The whole length of the vas is 12 to 18 in. and
it is remarkable for the great thickness of its muscular walls,
which gives it the feeling of a piece of whipcord when rolled
between the finger and thumb.
A little above the globus major a few scattered tubules are
found in children in front of the cord; these form the rudi-
mentary structure known as the organ of Giraldes or paradidymis.
As the vas deferens approaches the prostate it enlarges and
becomes slightly sacculated to act as a reservoir for the secretion
of the testis; this part is the ampulla (see fig. 2).
Posterior superior
iliac spine
Ureter
Great sciatic notch
Vas deferens
Spine of ischium
Vas deferens
Seminal vesicle
Bladder wall
Levator ani
Prostate
Ischio-rectal fossa
Tuberpsity of
ischium
Gluteus
maximus
and run, side by side, through the prostate to open into the floor
of the prostatic urethra.
The prostate is partly a muscular and partly a glandular struc-
ture, situated just below the bladder and traversed by the
urethra; it is of a somewhat conical form with the base upward
in contact with the bladder. Both vertically and transversely it
measures about an inch and a quarter, while antero-posteriorly it
is only about three-quarters of an inch, though its size is liable to
great variation. It is enclosed in a fibrous capsule from which it
is separated by the prostatic plexus of veins anteriorly. It is often
described as formed of three lobes two lateral and a median or
posterior, but careful
sections and recent
research throw doubt
on the existence of
the last.
Microscopically the
prostate consists of
masses of long, slen-
der, slightly branching
glands, embedded in
unstriped muscle and
fibrous tissue; these
glands open by deli-
cate ducts (about
twenty in number)
into the prostatic
urethra, which will be
described later. In
the anterior part of
the gland are seen
bundles of striped
muscle fibres, which
are of interest when
the comparative ana-
tomy of the gland
Cut end of great sacro- is studied: they are
ulatory duct better seen in young
Levator ani
Tuberosity of ischium
Posterior superior
iliac spine
Cut end of rectum
Apex of sacrum
Great sciatic notch
Ureter
Peritoneum
Spine of ischium
Bladder wall
Seminal vesicle
Ampulla of vas defcrens
Ischio-rectal fossa
Cut end of rectum
External sphincter ani
Gluteus maximus
than in old prostates.
The male urethra
begins at the bladder
and runs through the
prostate and perineum
to the penis, which it
traverses as far as the
tip. It is divided into
a prostatic, membran-
ous and spongy part,
and is altogether about
8 inches in length.
The prostatic urethra
The coccyx and the sacro-sciatic ligaments, together with the muscles attached to them, have been removed. runs downward
"' through the prostate
rather nearer the an-
terior than the pos-
inch and a quarter long, and
it bends forward forming an
From A. F. Dixon, Cunningham's Text-book of Anatomy.
FIG. 2. View of the Base of the Bladder, Prostate, Seminal Vesicles and
Vasa Deferentia from behind,
ro-sciatic ligamer
The levatores ani have been separated along the median raphe, and drawn outwards. A considerable ,
portion of the rectum and the upper part of the right seminal vesicle have been taken away.
The vesiculae seminales are sac-like diverticula, one on each
side, from the lower part of the ampullae of the vasa deferentia.
They are about 2 in. long and run outward behind the bladder
and parallel to the upper margin of the prostate for some
little distance, but usually turn upward near their blind
extremity. When carefully dissected and unravelled each is
found to consist of a thick tube, about 5 in. long, which is
sharply bent upon itself two or three times, and also has several
short, sac-like pouches or diverticula. The vesiculae seminales
are muscular sacs with a mucous lining which is thrown into a
series of delicate net-like folds. The convolutions are held
together by the pelvic cellular tissue, and by involuntary muscle
continuous with that of the bladder. It is probable that these
vesicles are not reservoirs, as was at one time thought, but form
some special secretion which mixes with that of the testes.
Where the vesiculae join the ampullae of the vasa deferentia the
ejaculatory ducts are formed; these are narrow and thin-walled,
terior part. It is about an
in the middle of the gland
angle (see fig. 5); here it is from a third to half an inch
wide, though at the base and apex of the prostate it is
narrower. When it is slit open from in front a longitudinal
ridge is seen in its posterior wall, which is called the verumon-
tanum or crista urethra, and on each side of this is a longitudinal
depression, the prostatic sinus, into which numerous ducts of the
prostate open, though some of them open, on to the antero-lateral
surface. Near the lower part of the verumontanum is a little
pouch, the utriculus masculinus, about one-eighth of an inch
deep, the opening of which is guarded by a delicate membranous
circular fold, the male hymen. Close to the opening of the
utriculus the ejaculatory ducts, already mentioned, open into the
urethra by very small apertures. The part of the urethra above
the openings of these ducts really belongs to the urinary system
only, though it is convenient to describe it here. After leaving
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
the prostate the urethra runs more forward for about three-
quarters of an inch, lying between the two layers of the triangular
From C. S. Wallace's Pnslatic Enlargement.!
FIG. 3. Coronal Section through the Pelvis, showing the relations
of the bladder above, prostate and bulb below.
ligament, both of which it pierces. This is known as the
membranous urethra, and is very narrow, being gripped by the
compressor urethrae muscle.
The spongy urethra is that part which is enclosed in the penis
after piercing the anterior layer of the triangular ligament.
At first it lies in the substance of the bulb and, later, of the
corpus spongiosum, while finally it passes through the glans.
In the greater part of its course it is a transverse slit, but in tra-
versing the glans it enlarges considerably to form the fossa
navicularis, and here, in transverse section, it looks like an
inverted T (J.), then an inverted Y (A), and finally at its opening
From C. S. Wallace's Pmtatic Enlargement.
FIG. 4. Transverse Section of a young Prostate, showing wavy
striped muscle in front, urethra in the middle, and the two ejacu-
latory ducts behind.
(external meatus) a vertical slit. Into the whole length of the
urethra mucous glands (glands of Littre) open, and in the roof of
1 Figs. 3, 4, 5 and 9 of this article are redrawn from Cuthbert S.
Wallace's Prostatic Enlargement by permission of the managers of
The Oxford Medical Publications.
the fossa navicularis the mouth of one of these is sometimes so
large that it may engage the point of a small catheter and is
known as the lacuna magna. As a rule the meatus is the
narrowest part of the whole canal.
Opening into the spongy urethra where it passes through
the bulb are the ducts of two small glands known as Cowper's
glands, which lie on each side of the membranous urethra and
are best seen in childhood.
The penis is the intromittent organ of generation, and is
made up of three cylinders of erectile tissue, covered by skin
and subcutaneous tissue without fat. In a transverse section
two of these cylinders (the corpora cavernosa) are placed above,
side by side, while one, the corpus spongiosum, is below. Pos-
teriorly, at what is known as the root of the penis, the two
corpora cavernosa diverge, become more and more fibrous in
structure, and are attached on each side to the rami of the
ischium, while the corpus spongiosum becomes more vascular
and enlarges to form the bulb. It has already been pointed
out that the whole length of the corpus spongiosum is traversed
by the urethra. The anterior part of the penis is formed by
the glans, a bell-shaped structure, apparently continuous with
the corpus spongiosum, and having the conical ends of the cor-
pora cavernosa fitted into depressions on its posterior surface.
On the dorsum of the penis the rim of the bell-shaped glans
projects beyond the level of the corpora cavernosa, and is
From C. S. Wallace's Pnslatic Enlargement.
FIG. 5. Sagittal Median Section of Bladder, Prostate and Rectum,
showing one of the ejaculatory ducts.
known as the corona glandis. The skin of the penis forms
a fold which covers the glans and is known as the prepuce or
foreskin; when this is drawn back a median fold, the frenulum
praeputii, is seen running to just below the meatus. After
forming the prepuce the skin is reflected over the glans and
here looks like mucous membrane. The structure of the cor-
pora cavernosa consists of a strong fibrous coat, the tunica
albuginea, from the deep surface of which numerous fibrous
trabeculae penetrate the interior and divide it into a number
of spaces which are lined with endothelium and communicate
with the veins. Between the two corpora cavernosa the sheath
is not complete and, having a comb-like appearance, is known
as the septum pectinatum. The structure of the corpus
spongiosum and glans resembles that of the corpora cavernosa,
but the trabeculae are finer and the network closer.
Female Reproductive Organs.
The ovary is an organ which in shape and size somewhat
resembles a large almond, though its appearance varies con-
siderably in different individuals, and at different times of life.
It lies in the side wall of the pelvis with its long axis nearly
vertical and having its blunt end (tubal pole) upward. Its
more pointed lower end is attached to the uterus by the liga-
ment of the ovary, while its anterior border has a short reflection
of peritoneum, known as the mesovarium, running forward to
the broad ligament of the uterus. It is through this anterior
border that the vessels and nerves enter and leave the gland.
Under the microscope the ovary is seen to be covered by a
132
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
layer of cubical cells, which are continuous near the anterior
border with the cells of the peritoneum. Deep to these is the
ovarian stroma, composed of fibrous tissue, and embedded
in it are numerous nests of epithelial cells, the Graafian fol-
licles, in various stages of development. During the child-
bearing period of life some of these will be nearing the ripe
condition, and if one such be looked at it will be seen to con-
tain one large cell, the ovum, surrounded by a mass of small
cells forming the discus proligerus. At one point this is con-
tinuous with a layer of cells called the stratum granulosum
which lines the outer wall of the follicle, but elsewhere the two
layers are separated by fluid, the liquor folliculi. When the
follicle bursts, as it does in time, the ovum escapes on to the
surface of the ovary.
The Fallopian tubes receive the ova and carry them to the
uterus. That end of each which lies in front of the ovary is
called the fimbriated extremity, and has a number of fringes
(fimbriae) hanging from it; one of the largest of these is the
ovarian fimbria and is attached to the upper or tubal pole of
the ovary. The small opening among the fimbriae by which
the tube communicates with the peritoneal cavity is known as
the ostium abdominale, and from this the lumen of the tube
runs from four to four and a half inches, until it opens into the
cavity of the uterus by an extremely small opening. In the
accompanying figure (fig. 6) the Fallopian tube and ovary
Parovarium
Fallopian tube I Ovary
Ligament
of ovary
Uterus
Hydatid
Fiml
Round ligament
Broad
ligament
A. F. Dixon, Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy.
FIG. 6. A. The Uterus and Broad Ligament seen from behind (the broad
ligament has been spread out).
a, b and c, the isthmus tubae, the ligament of the ovary, and the round ligament of the
right side cut short.
B. Diagrammatic Representation of the Uterine Cavity opened up from in front.
are pulled out from the uterus; this, as has been explained,
is not the position of the ovary in the living body, nor is it
of the tube, the outer half of which lies folded on the front
and inner surface of the ovary. The Fallopian tubes, like many
other tubes in the body, are made chiefly of unstriped muscle,
the outer layer of which is longitudinal and the inner circular;
deep to this are the submucous and mucous coats, the latter
being lined with ciliated epithelium (see EPITHELIAL TISSUES),
and thrown into longitudinal pleats. Superficially the tube
is covered by a serous coat of peritoneum. The calibre
gradually contracts from the peritoneal to the uterine
opening.
The uterus or -womb is a pear-shaped, very thick-walled,
muscular bag, lying in the pelvis between the bladder and
rectum. In the non-pregnant condition it is about three
inches long and two in its broadest part, which is above. The
upper half or body of the uterus is somewhat triangular with
its base upward, and has an anterior surface which is moderately
flat, and a posterior convex. The lower half is the neck or
cervix and is cylindrical; it projects into the anterior wall
of the vagina, into the cavity of which it opens by the os uteri
externum. This opening in a uterus which has never been
pregnant is a narrow transverse slit, rarely a circular aperture,
but in those uteri in which pregnancy has occurred the slit is
much wider and its lips are thickened and gaping and often
scarred. The interior of the body of the uterus shows a com-
paratively small triangular cavity (see fig. 6, B), the anterior
and posterior walls of which are in contact. The base of the
triangle is upward, and at each lateral angle one of the Fallopian
tubes opens. The apex leads into the canal of the cervix,
but between the two there is a slight constriction known as the
os uteri internum. The canal of the cervix is about an inch
long, and is spindle-shaped when looked at from in front;
its anterior and posterior walls are in contact, and its lining
mucous membrane is raised into a pattern which, from its
likeness to a cypress twig, is called the arbor vitae. This arrange-
ment is obliterated after the first pregnancy. On making
a mesial vertical section of the uterus the cavity is seen as a
mere slit which is bent about its middle to form an angle the
opening of which is forward. A normal uterus is therefore
bent forward on itself, or anteflexed. In addition to this, its
long axis forms a marked angle with that of the vagina, so that
the whole uterus is bent forward or anteverted. As a rule,
in adults the uterus is more or less on one side of the mesial
plane of the body. From each side of the uterus the peritoneum
is reflected outward, as a two-layered sheet, to the side wall
of the pelvis; this is the broad ligament, and between its layers
lie several structures of importance. Above, there is the Fal-
lopian tube, already described; below and in front is the round
ligament; behind, the ovary projects backward, and just above
this, when the broad ligament is
stretched out as in fig. 6, are the
epoophoron and paroophoron with the
duct of Gartner.
The round ligament is a cord of un-
striped muscle which runs from the
lateral angle of its own side of the
uterus forward to the internal abdominal
ring, and so through the inguinal canal
to the upper part of the labium majus.
The epoophoron or parovarium is a
collection of short tubes which radiate
from the upper border of the ovary when
the broad ligament is pulled out as in
fig. 6. It is best seen in very young
children and represents the vasa effer-
entia hi the male. Near the ovary the
tubes are closed, but nearer the Fal-
lopian tube they open into another
tube which is nearly at right angles to
them, and which runs toward the
uterus, though in the human subject
Lateral angle
of uterus
Vaginal cavity
B
it is generally lost before reaching that organ. It is known
as the duct of Gartner, and is the homologue of the male
epididymis and vas deferens. Some of the outermost tubules
of the epoophoron are sometimes distended to form hydatids.
Nearer the uterus than the epoophoron a few scattered tubules
are occasionally found which are looked upon as the homologue
of the organ of Giraldes in the male, and are known as the
paroophoron.
The vagina is a dilatable muscular passage, lined with mucous
membrane, which leads from the uterus to the external genera-
tive organs; its direction is, from the uterus, downward and
forward, and its anterior and posterior walls are in contact, so
that in a horizontal section it appears as a transverse slit. As
the orifice is neared the slit becomes H-shaped. Owing to the
fact that the neck of the uterus enters the vagina from in front,
the anterior wall of that tube is only about 25 in., while the
posterior is 35. The mucous membrane is raised into a series of
transverse folds^or rugae, and between it and the muscular wall
are plexuses of veins forming erectile tissue. The relation of the
vagina to the peritoneum is noticed under COELUM and SEROUS
MEMBRANES.
The vulva or pudendum comprises all the female external
generative organs, and consists of the mons Veneris, labia
majora and minora, clitoris, urethral orifice, hymen, bulbs of
the vestibule, and glands of Bartholin. The mons Veneris :s the
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
elevation in front of the pubic bones caused by a mass of fibro-
fatty tissue; the skin over it is covered by hair in the adult. The
labia majora are two folds of skin, also containing fibro-fatty
tissue and covered on their outer surfaces by hair, running down
from the mons Veneris to within an inch, of the anus and touching
one another by their internal surfaces. They are the homologues
of the scrotum in the male. The labia minora are two folds of
skin containing no fat, which are usually hidden by the labia
majora and above enclose the clitoris, they are of a pinkish
colour and look like mucous membrane.
The clitoris is the representative of the penis, and consists of
two corpora cavernosa which posteriorly diverge to form the
crura clitoridis, and are attached to the ischium; the organ is
about an inch and a half long, and ends anteriorly in a rudi-
mentary glans which is covered by the junction of the labia
minora; this junction forms the prepuce of the clitoris.
The orifice of the urethra is about an inch below the glans
clitoridis and is slightly puckered.
The hymen is a fold of mucous membrane which surrounds
the orifice of the vagina and is usually only seen in the virgin.
As has been pointed out above, it is represented in the male by
the fold at the opening of the uterus masculinus. Occasionally
the hymen is imperforate and then gives rise to trouble in
menstruation.
The bulbs of the vestibule are two masses of erectile tissue
situated one on each side of the vaginal orifice: above they are
continued up to the clitoris; they represent the bulb and the
corpus spongiosum of the male, split into two, and the fact that
they are so divided accounts for the urethra failing to be
enclosed in the clitoris as it is in the penis.
The glands of Bartholin are two oval bodies about half an inch
long, lying on each side of the vagina close to its opening; they
represent Cowper's glands in the male, and their ducts open by
minute orifices between the hymen and the labia minora.
From the above description it will be seen that all the parts
of the male external genital organs are represented in the
female, though usually in a less developed condition, and that,
owing to the orifice of the vagina, they retain their original
bi-lateral form.
For further details see Quain's Anatomy (London: Longmans,
Green & Co.) ; Gray's Anatomy (London : Longmans, Green & Co.) ;
Cunningham's Text-Bo6k of Anatomy (Edinburgh: Young J. Pent-
land), or Macafister's Anatomy (London: Griffin & Co.).
Embryology.
The development of the reproductive organs is so closely
interwoven with that of the urinary that some reference from
this article to that on the URINARY SYSTEM is necessary. It
will here be convenient to take up the development at the stage
depicted in the accompanying figure (fig. 7), in which the genital
ridge (a) is seen on each side of the attachment of the mesentery ;
external to this, and forming another slight ridge of its own, is
the Wolffian duct, while a little later the Mullerian duct is
.formed and lies ventral to the Wolffian. The early history of
these ducts is indicated in the article on the URINARY SYSTEM.
Until the fifth or sixth week the development of the genital
ridge is very much the same in the two sexes, and consists of
cords of cells growing from the epithelium-covered surface into
the mesenchyme, which forms the interior of the ridge. In
these cords are some large germ cells which are distinguishable
at a very early stage of development. It must, of course, be
understood that the germinal epithelium covering the ridge, and
the mesenchyme inside it, are both derived from the mesoderm
or middle layer of the embryo. About the fifth week of human
embryonic life the tunica albuginea appears in the male, from
which septa grow to divide the testis into lobules, while the
epithelial cords form the seminiferous tubes, though these do
not gain a lumen until just before puberty. From the adjacent
mesonephros cords of cells grow into the attached part of the
genital ridge, or testis, as it now is, and from these the rete testis
is developed. Recent research, however, points to these cords
of the rete testis et ovarii as being derived from the coelomic
epithelium instead of from the mesonephros.
In the female the same growth of epithelial cords into the
mesenchyme of the genital ridge takes place, but each one is
Neural tube
gunjlioo
Anna--
Mesentery
Blood-vessel
From A. F. Dixon, Cunningham's Ttxt-Book of Anatomy.
FIG. 7. Transverse Section through a Rat Embryo.
a. shows position of germinal epithelium.
distinguished by a bulging toward its middle, in which alone the
large germ cells are found. Eventually this bulging part is
broken up into a series of small portions, each of which contains
one germ cell or ovum, and gives rise to a Graafian follicle.
Mesonephric cords appear as in the male; they do not enter the
ovary, however, but form a transitory network (rete ovarii) in the
mesovarium. As each genital gland enlarges it remains attached
to the rest of the intermediate cell mass by a constricted fold of
the coelomic membrane, known as the mesorchium in the male,
and the mesovarium in the female. Lying dorsal to the genital
ridge in the intermediate cell mass is the mesonephros, consisting
Ep.O.
M.N.
Mt.N
FIG. 8. Diagram of the Formation of the Genito-Urinary Apparatus.
The first figure is the generalized type, the second the male and
the third the female specialized arrangements. Suppressed
parts are dotted.
Pro. N.
Pronephros.
N.
Nephrostome.
M.N.
Mt.N.
Mesonephros.
Metanephros.
M.C.
T.
Malpighum corpuscle.
Testis.
B.
Bladder.
E.
Epididymis.
Clo.
Cloaca.
O.G.
Organ of Giraldes.
R.
Rectum.
V.D.
Vas def erens.
M.D.
Mullerian duct.
U.M.
Uterus masculinus.
W.D.
Wolffian duct.
O.
Ovary.
Ur.
Ureter.
Ep.O.
Epoophoron.
S.H.;
Sessile hydatid.
Par.O.
Paroophoron.
P.H.
Pedunculated hydatid.
F.T.
Fallopian tube.
S.G.
Sexual gland.
U.
Uterus.
of numerous tubules which open into the Wolffian duct. This
at first is an important excretory organ, but during development
becomes used for other purposes. In the male, as has been
shown, it may form the rete testis, and certainly forms the vasa
efferentia and globus major of the epididymis: in addition to
these, some of its separate tubes probably account for the vas
aberrans and the organ of Giraldes (see fig. 8, E. and O.G.). In
the female the tubules of the epoophoron represent the main part.
134
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
while the paroophoron, like the organ of Giraldes in the male,
is probably formed from some separate tubes (see fig. 8, Ep. O.
and Par. O.).
The Wolffian duct, which, in the early embryo, carries the
excretion of the mesonephros to the cloaca, forms eventually the
body and tail of the epididymis, the vas deferens, and ejaculatory
duct in the male, the vesicula seminalis being developed as a
pouch in its course. In the female this duct is largely done
away with, but remains as the collecting tube of the epoophoron,
and in some mammals as the duct of Gartner, which runs down
the side of the vagina to open into the vestibule.
The Miillerian duct, as it approaches the cloaca, joins its
fellow of the opposite side, so that there is only one opening into
the ventral cloacal wall. In the male the lower part only of it
remains as the uterus masculinus (fig. 8, U.M.), but in the female
the Fallopian tubes, uterus, and probably the vagina, are all
formed from it (fig. 8, F.T. and U.) . In both sexes a small hydatid
or vesicle is liable to be formed at the beginning of both the
Wolffian and Miillerian duct (fig. 8, P.H. and S.H.) ; in the male
these are close together in front of the globus major of the
epididymis, and are known as the sessile and pedunculated
hydatids of Morgagni. In the female there is a hydatid among
the fimbriae of the Fallopian tube which of course is Mullerian
and corresponds to the sessile hydatid in the male, while another
is often found at the beginning of the collecting tube of the
epoophoron and is probably formed by a blocked mesonephric
tubule. This is the pedunculated hydatid of the male. The
development of the vagina, as Berry Hart (Journ. Anal, and
Phys. xxxv. 330) has pointed out, is peculiar. Instead of
the two Mullerian ducts joining to form the lumen of its lower
third, as they do in the case of the uterus and its upper two-thirds,
they become obliterated, and their place is taken by two solid
cords of cells, which Hart thinks are derived from the Wolffian
ducts and are therefore probably of ectodermal origin, though
this is open to doubt. These cords later become canalized and
the septum between them is obliterated.
The common chamber, or cloaca, into which the alimentary,
urinary and reproductive tubes open in the foetus, has the
urinary bladder (the remains of -the allantois) opening from its
ventral wall (see PLACENTA and URINARY SYSTEM).
During development the alimentary or anal part of the cloaca
is separated from the urogenital, and in the article ALIMENTARY
SYSTEM the hitherto accepted method of this separation' is
described. The question has, however, lately been reinvesti-
gated by F. Wood Jones, who says that the anal part is com-
plete.ly shut off from the urogenital and ends in a blind pouch
which grows toward the surface and meets a new ectodermal
depression, the main point being that the permanent anus is
not, according to him, any part of the original cloacal aperture,
but a new perforation. This description is certainly more in
harmony with the malformations occurring in this region than
the old one, and only awaits confirmatory evidence to be gener-
ally accepted.
The external generative organs have at first the same appear-
ance in the two sexes, and consist of a swelling, the genital
eminence, in the ventral wall of the cloaca. This in the male
becomes the penis and in the female the clitoris. Throughout
the generative system the male organs depart most from the
undifferentiated type, and in the case of the genital eminence
two folds grow together and enclose the urogenital passage,
thus making the urethra perforate the penis, while in the female
these two folds remain separate as the labia minora or nymphae.
Sometimes in the male the folds fail to unite completely, and
then there is an opening into the urethra on the under surface
of the penis a condition known as hypospadias.
In the undifferentiated condition the integument surrounding
the genital opening is raised into a horseshoeh'ke swelling with
its convexity over the pubic symphysis and its concavity to-
ward the anus; the lateral parts of this remain separate in
the female and form the labia majora, but in the male they
unite to form the scrotum. The median part forms the mons
Veneris or mons Jovis.
The Descent of the Testis. It has been shown that the testis
is formed in the loin region of the embryo close to the kidney,
and it is only in the later months of foetal life that it changes
this position for that of the scrotum. In the lower part of the
genital ridge a fibro-muscular cord is formed which stretches
from the lower part of the testis to the bottom of the scrotum;
it is known as the gubernaculum testis, and by its means the
testis is directed into the scrotum. Before the testis descends,
a pouch of peritoneum called the processus vaginalis passes
down in front of the gubernaculum through the opening in the
abdominal wall, which afterwards becomes the inguinal canal,
into the scrotum, and behind this the testis descends, carrying
with it the mesonephros and mesonephric duct. These, as has
already been pointed out, form the epididymis and vas def-
erens. At the sixth month the testis lies opposite the abdom-
inal ring, and at the eighth reaches the bottom of the scrotum
and invaginates the processus vaginalis from behind. Soon
after birth the communication between that part of the pro-
cessus vaginalis which now surrounds the testis and the general
cavity of the peritoneum disappears, and the part which remains
forms the tunica vaginalis. Sometimes the testis fails to pass
beyond the inguinal canal, and the term " cryptorchism " is
used for such cases.
In the female the ovary undergoes a descent like that of the
testis, but it is less marked owing to the fact that the guber-
naculum becomes attached to the Mullerian duct where that
duct joins its fellow to form the uterus; hence the ovary does not
descend lower than the level of the top of the uterus, and the
part of the gubernaculum running between it and the uterus
remains as the ligament of the ovary, while the part running
from the uterus to the labium is the round ligament. In rare
cases the ovary may be drawn into the labium just as the
testis is drawn into the scrotum.
Comparative Anatomy. In the Urochorda, the class to which
Salpa, Pyrosoma and the sea squirts (Ascidians) belong, male
and female generative glands (gonads) are present in the same
individual; they are therefore hermaphrodite.
In the Acrania (Amphioxus) there are some twenty-six
pairs of gonads arranged segmentally along the side of the
pharynx and intestine and bulging into the atrium. Between
them and the atrial wall, however, is a. rudimentary remnant
of the coelom, through which the spermatozoa or ova (for the
sexes are distinct) burst into the atrial cavity. There are no
genital ducts.
In the Cyclostomata (lampreys and hags) only one median
gonad is found, and its contents (spermatozoa or ova) burst
into the coelom and then pass through the genital pores into
the urogenital sinus and so to the exterior. It is probable
that the single gonad is accounted for by the fact that its fellow
has been suppressed?
In the Elasmobranchs or cartilaginous fishes there are usually
two testes or two ovaries, though in the dogfish one of the
latter is suppressed. From each testis, which in fish is popularly
known as the soft roe, vasa efferentia lead into the mesonephros,
and the semen is conducted down the vas deferens or mesone-
phric duct into the urogenital sinus, into which also the ureters
open. Sometimes one or more thin-walled diverticula the
sperm sacs open close to the aperture of the vas deferens.
In the female the ova are large, on account of the quantity of
yolk, and they burst into the coelum, from which they pass
into the large Mullerian ducts or oviducts. In the oviparous
forms, such as the common dogfish (Scyllium), there is an
oviducal gland which secretes a horny case for the egg after it
is fertilized, and these cases have various shapes in 'different
species. Some ,pf the Elasmobranchs, e.g., the spiny dogfish
(Acanthias), are viviparous, and in these the lower part of the
oviduct is enlarged and acts as a uterus. In male elasmo-
branchs the anterior part of the Mullerian duct persists.
Paired intromittent organs (claspers) are developed on the
pelvic fins of the males; these conduct the semen into the
cloaca of the female.
In the teleostean and ganoid fishes (Teleostomi) the nephridial
REPSOLD
ducts are not always used as genital ducts, but special
coelomic ducts are formed (see COELOM and SEROUS MEM-
BRANES).
In the Dipnoi or mudfish long coiled Mullerian ducts are
present, but the testes either pour their secretion directly into
the coelom or, as in Protopterus, have ducts which are probably
coelomic in origin.
In both the Teleostomi and Dipnoi the testes and ovaries
are paired.
True hermaphroditism is known among fishes, the hag
(Myxine) and the sea perch (Serranus) being examples. In
many others it occurs as an abnormality.
In the Amphibia both ovaries and testes are symmetrical.
In the snakelike forms which are found in the order Gymno-
phiona the testes are a series of separate lobules extending
for a long distance, one behind the other, and joined by a
connecting duct from which vasa efferentia pass into the Mal-
pighian capsules of the kidneys, and so the sperm is conducted
to the mesonephric duct, which acts both as vas deferens and
ureter. The Mullerian ducts or oviducts are long and often
coiled in Amphibia, and usually open separately into the cloaca.
There is no penis, but in certain forms, especially the Gymno-
phiona, the cloaca is protrusible in the male and acts as an
intromittent organ. Corpora adiposa or fat bodies are present
in all Amphibians, and probably nourish the sexual cells during
the hibernating period.
In Reptilia two testes and ovaries are developed, though
they are often asymmetrical in position. In Lizards the vas
deferens and ureter open into the cloaca by a common orifice;
as they do in the human embryo. In these animals there are
two penes, which can be protruded and retracted through the
vent; but in the higher reptiles (Chelonia and Crocodilia) there
is a single median penis rising from the ventral wall of the
cloaca, composed of erectile tissue and deeply grooved on its
dorsal surface for the passage of the sperm.
In birds the right ovary and oviduct degenerates, and the
left alone is functional. In the male the ureter and vas deferens
open separately into the cloaca, and in the Ratitae (ostriches)
and Anseres (ducks and geese) a well-developed penis is present
in the male. In the ostrich this is fibrous, and bifurcated at
its base, suggesting the crura penis of higher forms.
Among the Mammalia the Monotremata (Ornithorhynchus
and Echidna) have bird-like affinities. The left ovary is larger
than the right, and the oviducts open separately into the cloaca
and do not fuse to form a uterus. The testes retain their
abdominal position; and the vasa deferentia open into the base
of the penis, which lies in a separate sheath in the ventral wall of
the cloaca, and shows an advance on that of the reptiles and
birds in that the groove is now converted into a complete tunnel.
In the female there is a well-developed clitoris, having the same
relations as the penis.
In the marsupials the cloaca is very short, and the vagina and
rectum open separately into it. The two uteri open separately
and three vaginae are formed, two lateral and one median. The
two lateral join together below to form a single median lower
vagina, and it is by means of these that the spermatozoa pass
up into' the oviducts. The upper median vagina at first does
not open into the lower one, but during parturition a com-
munication is established which in some animals remains
permanent (see J. P. Hill, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1899
and 1900). This tripartite arrangement of the upper part of the
marsupial vagina is of especial interest in connexion with the
views of the. embryology of the canal detailed by Berry Hart and
already referred to.
When, as in marsuf ials, the two uteri open separately into the
vagina by two ora, the arrangement is spoken of as uterus duplex.
When the two uteri join below and open by one os externum, it
is known as uterus bipartitus. When the uterus bifurcates
above and has two horns for the reception of the Fallopian
tubes (oviducts) , but is otherwise single, the term uterus bicornis
is given to it, while the single uterus of man and other Primates
is called uterus simplex. From the marsupials upward the
ovarian end of the Fallopian tube has the characteristic fimbriated
appearance noticed in human anatomy.
In some mammals, such as the sow and the cow, the Wolffian
duct is persistent in the female and runs along the side of the
vagina as the duct of Gartner. It is possible that the lateral
vaginae of the marsupials are of Wolffian origin.
In marsupials the testes descend into the scrotum, which lies
in these animals in front of instead of behind the penis. In some
mammals, such as the elephant, they never reach the scrotum at
all; while in others, e.g. many rodents, they can be drawn up
into the abdomen or lowered into the scrotum. The subject
of the descent of the testicles has been very fully treated by
H. Klaatsche, " Ueber den Descensus testiculorum," Morph.
Jahrb., Ed. xvi.
The prostate is met with in its most simple forms in marsupials,
in which it is a mere thickening of the mucous membrane of the
urethra; in the sheep it forms a bilateral elongated mass of
gland tissue lying behind the urethra and surrounded by a well-
developed layer of striped muscle. In the sloth it is said to be
altogether absent, while in many of the insectivores and rodents
it consists of many lobes which usually show a bilateral arrange-
ment. The vesiculae seminales are. usually present in the
Eutheria or higher mammals, and sometimes, as in the hedge-
hog, are very large, though they are absent in the Carnivora.
Cowper's glands are usually present and functional throughout
From C. S. Wallace's Prostatic Enlargement.
FIG. 9. Transverse Section of Sheep's Prostate.
life. The uterus masculinus is also usually present, but there is
grave doubt whether the large organ called by this name in the
rabbit should not rather be regarded as homologous with part
of the vesiculae seminales. The penis shows many diversities
of arrangement; above the marsupials its two crura obtain an
attachment to the ischium. In many mammals it is quite hidden
by the skin in the flaccid condition, and its external orifice may
range from the perineum in the marsupials to the middle of
the ventral wall of the abdomen in the ruminants. In the
Marsupialia, Rodentia, Chiroptera, Carnivora and some Primates
an os penis is developed in connexion with the corpora cavernosa.
The clitoris is present in all mammals; sometimes, as in the
female hyena, it is very large, and at others, as in the lemur,
it is perforated by the urethra.
For further details and literature, see Oppel's Lehrbuch der ver-
gleich. mikroskop. Anatomie der Wirbelthiere, Bd. iv. (Jena, 1904);
also Gegenbaur's Vergleich. Anal, der Wirbelthiere, and Wiedersheim's
Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates, translated by W. N. Parker
(London, 1907). (F. G. P.)
REPSOLD, JOHANN GEORQ (i77i-i3o), German instru-
ment maker, was born at Wremen in Hanover on the 23rd of
September 1771, and became an engineer and afterwards chief
of the fire brigade in Hamburg, where he started business as an
instrument maker early in the igth century. He was killed by
the fall of a wall during a fire at Hamburg on the I4th of January
1830. The business was continued by his sons Georg (1804-1884)
136
REPTILES
[HISTORY
and Adolf (1806-1871), and his grandsons Johann Adolf and
Oskar Philipp.
J. G. Repsold introduced essential improvements in the meridian
circles by substituting microscopes (on Jesse Ramsden's plan) for
the verniers to read the circles, and by making the various parts
perfectly symmetrical. For a number of years the firm furnished
meridian circles to the observatories at Hamburg, Konigs-
bcrg, Pulkova, &c.; later on its activity declined, while Pistor
and Martins of Berlin rose to eminence. But after the discon-
tinuance of this firm that of Repsold again came to the front, not
only in the construction of transit circles, but also of equatorial
mountings and more especially of heliometers (see MICRO-
METER) .
REPTILES (Lat. Reptilia, creeping things, from reptilis;
re/ere, to creep; Gr. epTreiv, whence the term " herpetology,"
for the science dealing with them). In the days before Linnaeus,
writers comprised the animals which popularly are known as
tortoises and turtles, crocodiles, lizards and snakes, frogs and
toads, newts and salamanders, under the name of oviparous
quadrupeds or four-limbed animals which lay eggs. Linnaeus,
desirous of giving expression to the extraordinary fact that many
of these animals pass part of their life in the water and part on
land, 1 substituted the name of Amphibia for the ancient term.
Subsequent French naturalists (Lyonnet 2 and Brisson 3 ) con-
sidered that the creeping mode of. locomotion was a more general
characteristic of the class than their amphibious habits, and
consequently proposed the scarcely more appropriate name of
Reptiles.
As naturalists gradually comprehended the wide gap existing
between frogs, toads, &c., on the one hand, and the other
oviparous quadrupeds on the other, they either adopted the
name of Batrachia for the former and that of Amphibia for the
latter, or they restricted the term Amphibia to Batrachians,
calling the remainder of these creatures reptiles. Thus the term
Amphibia, as used by various authors, may apply (i) to all the
various animals mentioned, or (2) to Batrachians only (see
BATRACHIA). The term Reptiles (Reptilia) is used (i) by some
for all the animals mentioned above, and (2) by others, as in the
present article, for the same assemblage of animals after the
exclusion of Batrachians.
Equally varying are the limits of the term Saurians,
which occurs so frequently in every scientific treatise on this
subject. At first it comprised living crocodiles and lizards only,
with which a number of fossil forms were gradually associated.
As the characters and affinities of the latter became better
known, some of them were withdrawn from the Saurians, and at
present it is best to abandon the term altogether.
I. HISTORY OF HERPETOLOGY
Certain kinds of reptiles are mentioned in the earliest written
records or have found a place among the fragments of the oldest
relics of human art. Such evidences, however, form no part of
a succinct review of the literature of the subject such as it is
proposed to give here. We distinguish in it six periods: (i) the
Aristotelian; (2) the Linnaean (formation of a class Amphibia,
in which reptiles and Batrachians are mixed); (3) the period
of the elimination of Batrachians as one of the reptilian orders
(Brongniart) ; (4) that of the separation of reptiles and Bat-
rachians as distinct subclasses; (5) that of the recognition of a
class Reptilia as part of the Sauropsida (Huxley) ; (6) that of the
discovery of fossil skeletons sufficiently well preserved to reveal,
in its general outlines, the past history of the class.
i. The Aristotelian Period. Aristotle was the first to deal
with the reptiles known to him as members of a distinct portion
Aristotle ^ t ^ le al " ma l kingdom, and to point out the character-
istics by which they resemble each other and differ from
other vertebrate and invertebrate animals. The plan of his
1 " Polymorpha in his amphibiis natura duplicem vitara plerisque
concessit."
2 Theologie des insectes de Lesser (Paris, 1745), i. 91, note 5.
3 Regne animal divise en neuf classes (Paris, 1756).
work, however, was rather that of a comparative treatise of the
anatomical and physiological characters of animals than their
systematic arrangement and definition, and his ideas about the
various g r oups of reptiles are not distinctly expressed, but must
be gleaned from the terms which he employs. Moreover, he paid
less attention to the study of reptiles than to that of other
classes. This is probably due to the limited number of kinds
he could be acquainted with, to which only very few extra-
European forms, like the crocodile, were added from other
sources. But while we find in some respects a most remarkable
accuracy of knowledge, there is sufficient evidence that he
neglected everyday opportunities of information. Thus, he has
not a single word about the metamorphoses of Batrachians,
which he treats of in connexion with reptiles.
Aristotle makes a clear distinction between the scute or scale
of a reptile, which he describes as <oXis, and that of a fish, which
he designates as Xris. He mentions reptiles (i) as oviparous
quadrupeds with scutes, viz. Saurians and Chelonians; (2) as
oviparous apodals, viz. Snakes; (3) as oviparous quadrupeds
without scutes, viz. Batrachians. He considered the first and
second of these three groups as much more nearly related to each
other than to the third. Accurate statements and descriptions
are sadly mixed with errors and stories of, to our eyes, the most
absurd and fabulous kind. The most complete accounts are
those of the crocodile (chiefly borrowed from Herodotus) and of
the chameleon, which Aristotle evidently knew from personal
observation, and had dissected himself. The other lizards men-
tioned by him are the common lizards (aavpa), the common
seps (XO.XKIS or f lyvls) and the gecko (do-KaXajSom/s or /copSuXos).
Of snakes (of which he generally speaks as 3(is) he knew the
vipers (ex or extova), the common snake (vdpos), and the
blindworm (Tv<t>\ivris o<), which he regards as a snake; he
further mentions the Egyptian cobra and dragons (dpaiaav)
North-African serpents of fabulous size. Of Chelonians he
describes in a perfectly recognizable manner land tortoises
(xeXcbir;), freshwater turtles (ejws) and marine turtles (xsXoicr; 17
0a.Xa.TTia).
Passing over eighteen centuries, we find the knowledge of
reptiles to have remained as stationary as other branches of
natural history, perhaps even more so. The reptile fauna of
Europe was not extensive enough to attract the energy of a
Belon' or Rondelet; popular prejudice and the difficulty of
preserving these animals deterred from their study; nor was man
sufficiently educated not to give implicit credence to the fabulous
tales of reptiles in the isth and i6th centuries. The art of
healing, however, was developing into a science based upon
rational principles, and consequently not only those reptiles
which formed part of the materia medica but also the venomous
snakes became objects of study to the physician, though the
majority of the writers were ignorant of the structure of the
venom-apparatus, and of the distinction between non-venomous
and venomous snakes.
Nothing can show more clearly the small advance made by
herpetology in this long post -Aristotelian period than a glance
at the celebrated work, De Differentiis Animalium w ot i om
Libri decem (Paris, 1552), by Edward Wotton (1492-
USSS)- Wotton treats of the reptiles which he designates as
Quadrupedes oviparae et Serpentes in the sixth book of his work.
They form the second division of the Quadrupedes qitae sanguinem
habent, and are subdivided in the following " genera ":
Crocodilus et scincus (cap. cv.); Testudinum genera (cvi.); Ran-
arum genera (cvii.); Lacertde (cviii.); Salamandra et seps quad-
rupes (cix.); Stellio (ex.); Chamaeleo (cxi.); Serpentes (cxii.), a
general account, the following being different kinds of serpents:
Hydrus et alii quidam serpentes aquatiles (cxiii.) ; Serpentes
terrestres et prints aspidum genera (cxiv.) ; Vipera, dipsas, cerastes,
et hammodytes (cxv.); Haemorrhus, sepedon, seps, cenchris, et
cenchrites (cxvi.); Basiliscus et alii quidam serpentes quorum venenum
remedio caret (cxvii.) ; Draco, amphisbaena, et alii quidam serpentes
quorum morsus minus affert periculi (cxviii.).
Wotton's work might with propriety be termed " Aristoteles
redivivus." The plan is the same, and the observations of the
Greek naturalist are faithfully, sometimes literally, reproduced.
HISTORY]
REPTILES
137
It is surprising that even the reptiles "f his native country
were most imperfectly known to the author.
With the enlargement of geographical knowledge that of
reptiles was also advanced, as is sufficiently apparent from the
Johnston l ar S e encyclopaedic works of Gesner, Aldrovandi and
Johnston. The last-named author especially, who
published the various portions of his Natural History in
the middle of the lyth century, was able to embody in his
compilations notices of numerous reptiles observed by Francisco
Hernandez in Mexico and by Marcgrave and Piso in Brazil.
As the author had no definite idea of the Ray-Linnaean term
" species," it is not possible to give the exact number of
reptiles mentioned in his work. But it may be estimated
at about fifty, not including some marine fishes and fabulous
creatures. He figures (or rather reproduces the figures of)
about forty some species being represented by several figures.
2. Linnaean Period: Formation of a Class Amphibia.
Within the century which succeeded these compilatory works
Precur- (1650-1750) fall the labours which prepared the way
sorsof for and exerted the greatest influence on Ray and
Lmaaeus. L mnaeus . Although original researches in the field of
herpetology were limited in extent and in number, the authors
had freed themselves from the purely literary or scholastic
tendency. Men were no longer satisfied with reproducing and
commenting on the writings of their predecessors; the pen was
superseded by the eye, the microscope and the knife, and
statements were tested by experiment. This spirit of the
age manifested itself, so far as the reptiles are concerned, in
Chara's and Redi's admirable observations on the viper, in
Major's and Vallisnieri's detailed accounts of the anatomy
of the chameleon, in the researches of Jacobaeus into the
metamorphoses of the Batrachians and the structure of lizards,
in Dufay's history of the development of the salamander
(for Batrachians are invariably associated with reptiles
proper); in Tyson's description of the anatomy of the rattle-
snake, &c. The natural history collections formed by insti-
tutions and wealthy individuals now contained not merely
skins of crocodiles or serpents stuffed and transformed into a
shape to correspond with the fabulous descriptions of the
ancient dragons, but, with the discovery of alcohol as a means
of preserving animals, reptiles entire or dissected were exhibited
for study; and no opportunity was lost of obtaining them
from travellers or residents in foreign countries. Fossils also
were now acknowledged to be remains of animals which had
lived before the Flood, and some of them were recognized as
those of reptiles.
The contributions to a positive knowledge of the animal
kingdom became so numerous as to render the need of a method-
ical arrangement of the abundance of new facts more and more
pressing. Of the two principal systematic attempts made in
this period the first ranks as one of the most remarkable steps
of the progress of natural history, whilst the second can only
be designated as a signal failure, which ought to have been a
warning to all those who in after years classified animals in
what is called an, " artificial system." As the latter attempt,
originating with Klein (1685-1759), did not exercise any further
influence on herpetology, it will be sufficient to have merely
o mentioned it. John Ray (1628-1705) had recognized
the necessity of introducing exact definitions for the
several categories into which the animals had to be divided, and
he maintained that these categories ought to be characterized
by the structure of animals, and that all zoological knowledge
had to start from the " species " as its basis. His definition
of reptiles as " animalia sanguinea pulmone respirantia cor
unico tantum ventriculo instructum habentia ovipara " fixed
the class in a manner which was adopted by the naturalists of
the succeeding hundred and fifty years. Nevertheless, Ray
was not a herpetologist ; his knowledge of reptiles is chiefly
derived from the researches of others, from whose accounts,
however, everything not based upon reliable demonstration is
critically excluded. He begins with a chapter treating of frogs
(Rana, with two species), toads (Bufo, with one species) and
tortoises 1 (Tesludo, with fourteen species). The second group
comprises the Lacertae, twenty-five in number, and includes the
salamander and newts; and the third the Serpentes, nine species,
among which the limbless lizards are enumerated.
Except in so far as he made known and briefly characterized
a number of reptiles, our knowledge of this class was not
advanced by Linnaeus. That he associated in the
1 2th edition cartilaginous and other fishes with the
reptiles under the name of Amphibia Nantes was the
result of some misunderstanding of an observation by Garden,
and is not to be taken as a premonitory token of the recent
discoveries of the relation between Batrachians and fishes.
Linnaeus places reptiles, which he calls Amphibia, as the third
class of the animal kingdom; he divides the genera thus:
ORDER i. REPTILES. Testudo (15 species); Rana (17 sp.);
Draco (2 sp.); Lacerla (48 sp., including 6 Batrachians).
ORDER 2. SERPENTES. Crotalus (5 species); Boa (10 sp.);
Coluber (96 sp.); Anguis (15 sp.); Amphisbaena (2 sp.); Caecilia
(2 sp.).
None of the naturalists who under the direction or influence
of Linnaeus visited foreign countries possessed any special
knowledge of or predilection for the study of reptiles; all,
however, contributed to our acquaintance with tropical forms,
or transmitted well-preserved specimens to the collections at
home, so that Gmelin, in the i3th edition of the Sy sterna Naturae,
was able to enumerate three hundred and seventy-one species.
The man who, with the advantage of the Linpaean method,
first treated of reptiles monographically, was Laurenti. In a
small book 2 he proposed a new division of these
animals, of which some ideas and terms have survived
into our times, characterizing the orders, genera and species
in a much more precise manner than Linnaeus, giving, for
his time, excellent descriptions and figures of the species of
his native country. Laurenti might have become for herpetology
what Artedi was for ichthyology, but his resources were extremely
limited.
The circumstance that Chelonians are entirely omitted from
his Synopsis seems due rather to the main object with which
he engaged in the study of herpetology, viz. that of examining
and distinguishing reptiles reputed to be poisonous, and to
want of material, than to his conviction that tortoises should
be relegated to another class. He divides the class into three
orders:
1. SALIENTIA, with the genera Pipa, Bufo, Rana, Hyla, and one
species of " Proteus," viz. the larva of Pseudis paradoxa.
2. GRADIENTIA, the three first genera of which are Tailed Batrach-
ians, viz. two species of Proteus (one being the P. anguinus),
Triton and Salamandra; followed by true Saurians
Caudiverbera, Gecko, Chamaeleo, Iguana, Basiliscus, Draco,
Cordylus, Crocodilus, Scincus, Stellio, Seps.
3. SERPENTIA, among which he continues to keep Amphisbaena,
Caecilia and Anguis, but the large Linnaean genus Coluber
is divided into twelve, chiefly from the scutellation of the
head and form of the body.
The work concludes with an account of the experiments made
by Laurenti to prove the poisonous or innocuous nature of those
reptiles of which he could obtain living specimens.
The next general work on reptiles is by LacSpede. It
appeared in the years 1788 and 1790 under the title Histaire
naturelle des quadrupedes ovipares et des serpens (Paris,
2 vols. 4to). Although as regards treatment of
details and amount of information this work far surpasses the
modest attempt of Laurenti, it shows no advance towards a
more natural division and arrangement of the genera. The
author depends entirely on conspicuous external characters,
and classifies the reptiles into (i) oviparous quadrupeds with a
tail, (2) oviparous quadrupeds without a tail, (3) oviparous
1 In associating tortoises with toads, Ray could not disengage
himself from the general popular view as to the nature of these
animals, which found expression in the German Schildkrote (" Shield-
toad ").
1 Specimen medicum exhibens Synopsin Reptilium emendatam cum
experimentis circa venena et antidota Reptilium Austriacorum (Vienna,
1768, 8vo, pp. 214, with 5 plates).
XXIH. 5 a
138
REPTILES
[HISTORY
Oaudin.
bipeds (Chirotes and Pseudopus), (4) serpents, an arrangement
in which the old confusion of Batrachians and reptiles and the
imperfect definition of lizards and snakes are continued, and
which it is worthy of remark we find also adopted in Cuvier's
Tableau elementaire de I'histoire naturelle des animaux (1798),
and nearly so by Latreille in his Histoire naturelle des reptiles
(Paris, 1801, 4 vols. 12 mo). Lacepede's monograph, however,
remained for many years deservedly the standard work on
reptiles. The numerous plates with which the work is illus-
trated, are, for the time, well drawn, and the majority readily
recognizable.
3. The Period of Elimination of Batrachians as one of the
Reptilian Orders. A new period for herpetology commences
Bronx- with Alex. Brongniart, 1 who in 1799 first recognized
atari. the characters by which Batrachians differ from the
other reptiles, and by which they form a natural passage
to the class of fishes. Caecilia (as also Langaha and Acro-
chordus) is left by Brongniart with hesitation in the order
of snakes-, but newts and salamanders henceforth are no more
classed with lizards. He leaves the Batrachians, however, in
the class of reptiles, as the fourth order. The first order com-
prises the Chelonians, the second the Saurians (including
crocodiles and lizards), the third the Ophidians terms which
have been adopted by all succeeding naturalists. Here, however,
Brongniart 's merit on the classification of reptiles ends, the
definition and disposition of the genera remaining much the same
as in the works of his predecessors.
The activity in France in the field of natural science was at
this period, in spite of the political disturbances, so great that
only a few years after Lacepede's work another, almost
identical in scope and of the same extent, appeared,
viz. the Histoire naturelle genSrale et particuliere des reptiles
of F. M. Daudin (Paris, 1802-3, 8 vols. 8vo). Written and
illustrated with less care than that by Lacepede, it is of greater
importance to the herpetologists of the present day, as it contains
a considerable number of generic and specific forms described
for the first time. Indeed, at the end of the work, the author
states that he has examined more than eleven hundred specimens,
belonging to five hundred and seventeen species, all of which he
has described from nature. The system adopted is that of
Brongniart, the genera are well defined, but ill arranged; it is,
however, noteworthy that Caecilia takes now its place at the
end of the Ophidians, and nearest to the succeeding order of
Batrachians.
The next step in the development of the herpetological system
was the natural arrangement of the genera. This involved a
stupendous amount of labour. Although many isolated con-
tributions were made by various workers, this task could be
successfully undertaken and completed in the Paris Museum
only, in which, besides Seba's and Lacepede's collections, many
other herpetological treasures from other museums had been
deposited by the victorious generals of the empire, and to which,
through Cuvier's reputation, objects from every part of the
world were attracted in a voluntary manner. The men who
devoted themselves to this task were A. M. C. Dumeril,
Oppel and Cuvier himself. Oppel was a German who,
during his visit to Paris (1807-1808), attended the
Cuvier. lectures of Dumeril and Cuvier, and at the same time
studied the materials to which access was given to him
by the latter in the most liberal manner. Dumeril 2 maintains
that Oppel's ideas and information were entirely derived from
his lectures, and that Oppel himself avows this to be the case.
The passage, 3 however, to which he refers is somewhat ambiguous,
1 Bull. Acad. Sci. (1800), Nos. 35, 36.
2 Erpet. gener., i. p. 259.
8 " Ware es nicht die Ermunterung . . . dieser Freunde gewesen,
so wiirde ich uberzeugt von den Mangeln, denen eine solche Arbeit
bei aller moglichen Vorsicht doch unterworfen ist, es nie gewagt
haben, meine Eintheilung bekannt zu machen, obwohl selbe Herr
Dum^ril in seinen Lectionen vom Jahre 1809 schon vorgetragen, und
die Thiere im Cabinet darnach bezeichnet hat " (preface, p. viii). A
few lines further on he emphatically declares that the classification
is based upon his own researches.
and it is certain that there is the greatest possible difference
between the arrangement published by Dumeril in 1806 (Zoologie
Andlytique, Paris, 8vo) and that proposed by Oppel in his
Ordnungen, Familien,undGattungen der Reptilien (Munich, 1811,
4to). There is no doubt that Oppel profited largely by the
teaching of Dumeril; but, on the other hand, there is sufficient
internal evidence in the works of both authors, not only that
Oppel worked independently, but also that Dumeril and Cuvier
owed much to their younger fellow-labourer, as Cuvier himself
indeed acknowledges more than once.
Oppel's classification may be shortly indicated thus:
ORDER I. TESTUDINATA OR CHELONIENS.
Fam. i. CHELONII (gen. Mydas, Goriacea).
Fam. 2. AMYDAE (gen. Trionyx, Chelys, Testudo, Emys).
ORDER 2. SQUAMATA.
Sect. A. SAURII.
Fam. I. CROCODILINI (gen. Grocodilus, Gavialis, Alligator).
Fam. 2. GECKOIDES (gen. Gecko, Stellio, Agama).
Fam. 3. IGUANOIDES (gen. Camaeleo, Draco, Iguana, Basiliscus,
Lophyrus, Anolis).
Fam. 4. LACERTINI (gen. Tupinambis, Dracaena, Lacerta, Tachy-
drontus).
Fam. 5. SCINCOIDES (gen. Scincus, Seps, Scheltopusik, Anguis).
Fam. 6. CHALCIDICI (gen. Chalcides, Bimanus, Bipes, Ophisaurus).
Sect. B. OPHIDII.
Fam. i. ANGUIFORMES (gen. Tortrix, Amphisbaena, Typhlops).
Fam. 2. CONSTRICTORES (gen. Boa, Eryx).
Fam. 3. HYDRI (gen. Platurus, Hydrophis).
Fam. 4. PSEUDO-VIPERAE (gen. Acrochordus, Erpeton).
Fam. 5. CROTALINI (gen. Crotalus, Trigonocephalus).
Fam. 6. VIPERINI (gen. Vipera, Pseudoboa).
Fam. 7. COLUBRINI (gen. Coluber, Bungarus).
ORDER 3. NUDA OR BATRACII.
In this classification we notice three points, which indicate
a decided progress towards a natural system, (i) The four
orders proposed by Brongniart are no more considered co-
subordinate in the class, but the Saurians and Ophidians are
associated as sections of the same order, a view held by Aristotle
but abandoned by all following naturalists. The distinction
between lizards and snakes is carried out in so precise a manner
that one genus only, Amphisbaena, is wrongly placed. (2) The
true reptiles have now been entirely divested of all hetero-
geneous elements by relegating positively Caecilia to the
Batrachians, a view for which Oppel had been fully prepared by
Dumeril, who pointed out in 1807 that " les cecities se rapprochent
considerablement des batraciens auxquels elles semblent lier
1'ordre entier des serpens." 4 (3) An attempt is made at
arranging the genera into families, some of which are still
retained at the present day.
In thus giving a well-merited prominence to Oppel's labours
we are far from wishing to detract from the influence exercised
by the master spirit of this period, Cuvier. Without his guid-
ance Oppel probably never would have found a place among the
promoters of herpetological science. But Cuvier's principal
researches on reptiles were incidental or formed part of some
more general plan; Oppel concentrated his on this class only.
Cuvier adopts the four orders of reptiles proposed by Brong-
niart as equivalent elements of the class, and restores the blind-
worms and allied lizards and, what is worse, also the Caecilias,
to the Ophidians. The chameleons and geckos are placed in
separate groups, and the mode of dividing the latter has been
retained to the present day. Also a natural division of the
snakes, although the foreign elements mentioned are admitted
into the order, is sufficiently indicated by his arrangement of the
" vrais serpens proprement dits " as (i) non-venomous snakes,
(2) venomous snakes with several maxillary teeth, and (3)
venomous snakes with isolated poison-fangs. He distinguishes
the species of reptiles with a precision not attained in any
previous work. ^
Cuvier's researches into the osteology of reptiles had also
the object of discovering the means of understanding the fossil
remains which now claimed the attention of French, English
and German naturalists. Extinct Chelonian and Crocodilian
4 Memoires de zoologie et d'anatomie comparee (Paris, 1807, 8vo),
P- 45-
HISTORY]
REPTILES
139
v!fwe""
Menem.
remains, Pterodactylus, Mosasaurus, Iguanodon, Ichthyosaurus,
Teleosaurus, became the subjects of Cuvier's classical treatises,
which form the contents of the 5th volume (part 2) of his
Recherches sur les ossemens fossiles, oil. Von rttablit les caracteres
des plusieurs animaux dont les revolutions du globe ont detruit
les especes (new ed., Paris, 1824, 4to).
All the succeeding herpetologists adopted either Oppel's
or Cuvier's view as to the number of orders of reptiles, or as to
the position Batrachians ought to take in their relation
* ve P l il es proper, with the single exception of D. DE
BLAINVILLE. He divided the " oviparous subtype "
of Vertebrates into four classes, Birds, Reptiles, Amphibians
and Fishes, 1 a modification of the system which is all the
more significant as he designates the reptiles " Squammiferes
Ornithoides, ecailleux," and the amphibians " Nudipelliferes,
Ichthyoldes nus." In these terms we perceive clear indications of
the relations which exist to the class of birds on the one hand, and
to that of fishes on the other; but, unfortunately, Blainville
himself did not follow up the ideas thus expressed, and abandoned
even the terms in a later edition of his systematic tables.
The direct or indirect influence of the work of French anato-
mists manifested itself in the systems of the other herpetologists
of this period. The Crocodiles, especially, which hitherto
(strange to say, even in Cuvier's classification) had been placed
as one of the families of Saurians, now commence to be separated
from them. MERREM (Versuch eines Systems der
Amphibien, Marburg, 1820, 8vo) distinguishes two
classes of " Amphibians," Pholidota and Batrachia.
The Pholidota (or Reptiles) are divided into three orders, distin-
guished chiefly by osteological and splanchnological characters:
1. TESTUDINATA.
2. LORICATA ( = Crocodiles).
3. SQUAMATA (=Oppel's Squamata, excluding Crocodiles).
Merrem's subdivision of the Squamata into (i) Gradientia
( = limbed Lacertilia), (2) Repentia ( = limbless Lacertilia), (3)
Serpentia (= Snakes and Amphisbaena), (4) Incedentia ( = Chirotes),
and (5) Predentia ( = Chamaeleons) was based chiefly on the modi-
fications of the limbs, and not adopted by his successors. The
greater part of his work is occupied with a synopsis of all the
species of Reptiles known, each being shortly characterized by a
diagnosis; but, as only a small proportion (about one hundred and
seventy) were known to him from autopsy, this synopsis has all the
faults of a compilation.
LATREILLE, who commenced the study of reptiles as early as
1801, had kept pace with the progress of science when he
published, in 1825, his Families naturelles du regne
animal (Paris, 1825, 8vo). He separated the Batra-
chians as a class from the Reptiles, and the latter he divides into
two sections only, Cataphracta and Squamosa in the former
Crocodiles being associated with the Chelonians. He bases this
view on the development of a carapace in both, on the structure
of the feet, on the fixed quadrate bone, on the single organ of
copulation. None of the succeeding herpetologists adopted a
combination founded on such important characters
except J. E. GRAY, who, however, destroyed Latreille's
idea of Cataphracta by adding the Amphisbaenians 2 as a third
order.
A mass of new materials now began to accumulate from all
parts of the world in European museums. Among others, Spix
had brought from Brazil a rich spoil to the Munich Museum,
and the Bavarian Academy charged JOH. WAGLER
to prepare a general system of reptiles and batra-
chians. His work, 3 the result of ten years' labour, is a simple but
lasting monument to a young naturalist, 4 who, endowed with
an ardent imagination, only too frequently misinterpreted the
evidence of facts, or forced it into the service of preconceived
ideas. Cuvier had drawn attention to certain resemblances in
1 Bull. Sci. Soc. Philomat., July 1816.
2 Catalogue of the Tortoises, Crocodiles and Amphisbaenians in the
Collection of the British Museum (London, 1844, i6mo), p. 2.
8 Naturliches System der Amphibien mil vorangehender Classifica-
tion der Saugethiere und Vogel ein Beilrag zur vergleichenden
Zoologie (Munich, 1830, 8vo).
4 Wagler was accidentally killed three years after the publication
of his System.
Latrellle.
Oray.
some parts of the osseous structure of Ichthyosaurus and Ptero-
dactylus to dolphins, birds, crocodiles, &c. Wagler, seizing
upon such analogical resemblances, separated those extinct
Saurians from the class of Reptiles, and formed of them and the
Monotremes a distinct class of Vertebrates, intermediate between
mammals and birds, which he called Gryphi. We must admit
that he made free use of his imagination by defining his class of
Gryphi as " vertebrates with lungs lying free in the pectoral
cavity; oviparous development of the embryo (within or)
without the parent; the young fed (or suckled?) by the parents."
By the last character this Waglerian class is distinguished from
the reptiles.
Reptiles (in which Wagler includes Batrachians) are divided
into eight orders: Testudines, Crocodili, Lacertae, Serpentes,
Angues, Caeciliae, Ranae and Ichthyodi. He has great merit in
having employed, for the subdivision of the families of lizards,
the structure of the tongue and the mode of insertion of the teeth
in the jaws. On the other hand, Wagler entirely failed in arrang-
ing snakes in natural families, venomous and non-venomous
types being mixed in the majority of his groups.
L. FITZINGER was Wagler's contemporary; his first work*
preceded Wagler's system by four years. As he says in the
preface, his object was to arrange the reptiles in Ptt*~
" a natural system." Unfortunately, in order to later.
attain this object, Fitzinger paid regard to the most superficial
points of resemblance; and in the tabula affinitatum generum
which he constructed to demonstrate " the progress of nature "
he has been much more successful in placing closely allied
generic forms in contiguity than in tracing the relationships
of the higher groups. That table is prepared in the form of
a genealogical tree, but Fitzinger wished to express thereby
merely the amount of morphological resemblance, and there is
no evidence whatever in the text that he had a clear idea of
genetic affinity. The Batrachians are placed at the bottom
of the scheme, leading through Hyla to the Geckos (clearly
on account of the digital dilatations) and through Caecilia to
Amphisbaena. At the top Draco leads through Pterodactylus
to the Bats (Pteropus), Ichthyosaurus to the Cetaceans (Del-
phinus), Emys to the Monotremes, Testudo to Manis, and the
Marine Turtles to the Divers and Penguins.
In Fitzinger's system the higher groups are, in fact, identical with
those proposed by Merrem, while greater originality is shown in
the subdivision of the orders. He differed also widely from Wagler
in his views as to the relations of the extinct forms. The order
of Loricata consists of two families, the Ichthyosaurpidea and Croco-
diloidea, the former comprising Iguanodon, Plesiosaurus, Sauro-
cephalus and Ichthyosaurus. In the order Squamata Lacertilians
and Ophidians are combined and divided into twenty-two families,
almost all based on the most conspicuous external characters:
the first two, viz. the Geckos and Chameleons, are natural enough,
but in the three following Iguanoids and Agamoids are sadly
mixed, Pterodactyles and Draco forming one family; Megalo-
saurus, Mosasaurus, Varanus, Tejus, &c., are associated in another
named Ameivoidea; the Amphisbaenidae are correctly defined;
the Cplubroidea are a heterogeneous assemblage of thirty genera;
but with his family of Bungaroidea Fitzinger makes an attempt to
separate at least a part of the venomous Colubrine Snakes from the
Viperines, which again are differentiated from the last family, that
of Crotaloidea.
If this little work had been his only performance in the
field of herpetology his name would have been honourably
mentioned among his fellow-workers. But the promise of his
early labours was not justified by his' later work, and if
we take notice of the latter here it is only because his
name has become attached to many a reptile through the
pedantic rules of zoological nomenclature. The labours of
Wiegmann, Mttller, Dumeril and Bibron exercised no influence
on him, and when he commenced to publish a new system of
reptiles in 1843,' f which fortunately one fasciculus only
appeared, he exhibited a classification in which morphological
facts are entirely superseded by fanciful ideas of the vaguest
kind of physiosophy, each class of vertebrates being divided
s Neue Classification der Reptilien nach ihren naturlichen Ver-
wandtschaften (Vienna, 1826, 4to).
Systema Reptilium (Vienna, 1843, 8vo).
140
REPTILES
[HISTORY
fl
va -
into five " sense " series, and each series into three orders
one comprising forms of superior, the second of medium anc
the third of inferior development. In the generic arrangemenl
of the species, to which Fitzinger devoted himself especially
in this work, he equally failed to advance science.
We have now arrived at a period distinguished by the appear-
ance of a work which superseded all its predecessors, which
formed the basis for the labours of many succeeding years
and which will always -remain one of the classical monuments
of descriptive zoology the Erpetologie generate ou histoire
naturelle complete des reptiles of A. M. C. DUMERIL and
G. BIBRON (Paris, 8vo). The first volume appeared in
1834, and the ninth and last in 1854. No naturalist of
that time could have been better qualified for the tremendous
undertaking than C. Dumeril, who almost from the first year
of half a century's connexion with the then largest collection
of Reptilia had chiefly devoted himself to their study. The
task would have been too great for the energy of a single man;
it was, therefore, fortunate for Dumeril that he found a most
devoted fellow-labourer in one of his assistants, G. Bibron, whose
abilities equalled those of the master, but who, to the great
loss of science, died (in 1848) before the completion of the work.
Dumeril had the full benefit of Bibron's knowledge for the
volumes containing the Snakes, but the last volume, which
treats of the Tailed Batrachians, had to be prepared by Dumeril
alone.
The work is the first which gives a comprehensive scientific
account of reptiles generally, their structure, physiology and
literature, and again each of the four orders admitted by the
authors is introduced by a similar general account. In the
body of the work 121 Chelonians, 468 Saurians, 586 Ophidians
and 218 Batrachians are described in detail and with the greatest
precision. Singularly enough, the authors revert to Brong-
niart's arrangement, in which the Batrachians are co-ordinate
with the other three orders of reptiles. This must appear
all the more strange as Von Baer 1 in 1828, and J. Miiller 2 in 1831,
had urged, besides other essential differences, the important
fact that no Batrachian embryo possesses either an amnion
or an allantois, like a reptile.
4. Period of the Separation of Reptiles and Batrachians as
Distinct Classes or Subclasses. In the chronological order
which we have adopted for these historical notes, we had to
refer in their proper places to two herpetologists, Blainville
and Latreille, who advocated a deeper than merely ordinal
separation of Reptiles from Batrachians, and who were followed by
J. /nailer F. S. Leuckart. But this view only now began to find
and more general acceptance. J. MULLER and STANNIUS
ID/OS. were guided in their classification entirely by ana-
tomical characters, and consequently recognized the wide gap
which separates the Batrachians from the Reptiles; yet they
considered them merely as subclasses of the class Amphibia.
The former directed his attention particularly to those forms
which seemed to occupy an intermediate position between
Lacertilians and Ophidians, and definitely relegated Anguis,
Pseudopus, Acontias to the former, and Typhlops, Rhinophis,
Tortrix, but also the Amphisbaenoids to the latter. Stannius
interpreted the characteristics of the Amphisbaenoids differ-
ently, as will be seen from the following abstract of his. classi-
fication: 3
SUBCLASSIS: AMPHIBIA MONO PNOA (Leuckart).
SECT. i. STREPTOSTYLICA (Stann.). Quadrate bone arti-
culated to the skull; copulatory organs paired, placed out-
side the cloacal cavity.
ORDOI. OPHIDIA.
Subordo I. EURYSTOMATA or MACROSTOMATA (Mull.).
The facial bones are '.loosely connected to admit of
great extension of the wide mouth.
Subordo 2. ANGIOSTOMATA or MICROSTOMATA (Mull.).
Mouth narrow, not extensile; quadrate bone attached
to the skull and not to a mastoid.
1 Enlwicklungsgeschichte der Thiere, p. 262.
2 Tiedemann s Zeitschrift fur Physiologie, vol. iv. p. 200.
3 Siebold and Stannius, Handbuch der Zootomie Zootomie der
Amphibien (2nd ed., Berlin, 1856, 8vo).
ORD02. SAURIA.
Subordo i. AMPHISBAENOIDEA.
Subordo 2. KIONOCRANIA (Stann. )= Lizards.
Subordo 3. CHAMAELEONIDEA.
SECT. 2. MONIMOSTYLICA (Stann.). Quadrate bone sutur-
ally united with the skull; copulatory organ simple, placed
within the cloaca.
ORDO i. CHELONIA.
ORDO 2. CROCODILIA.
This classification received the addition of a fifth Reptilian
order which with many Lacertilian characters combined im-
portant Crocodilian affinities, and in certain other respects
differed from both, viz. the New Zealand Hatteria, which
by its first describers had been placed to the Agamoid Lizards.
A. GttNTHER, 4 who pointed out the characteristics of this
reptile, considered it to be co-ordinate with the other four
orders of reptiles, and characterizes it thus:
Rhynchocephalia. Quadrate bone suturally and immovably
united with the skull and pterygoid; columella present. Kami
of the mandible united as in Lacertilians. Temporal region with
two horizontal bars. Vertebrae amphicoelian. Copulatory organs,
none.
5. Period of the Recognition of a Class of Reptilia as Part of
the Sauropsida. Although so far the discovery of every new
morphological and developmental fact had prepared naturalists
for a class separation of Reptiles and Batrachians, it was left
to T. H. Huxley to demonstrate, not merely that the weight of
facts demanded such a class separation, but that the reptiles
hold the same relation to birds as the fishes to Batrachians.
In his Hunterian Lectures (1863) he divided the vertebrates into
Mammals, Sauroids and Ichthyoids, subsequently substituting
for the last two the terms Sauropsida and Ichthyopsida. 6 The
Sauropsida contain the two classes of birds and reptiles, the
Ichthyopsida those of Batrachians and fishes.
6. Period of the Consideration of Skeletons of Extinct Reptiles.
SIR R. OWEN, while fully appreciating the value of the osteological
characters on which Huxley based his division, yet Q
admitted into his consideration those taken from the
organs of circulation and respiration, and reverted to Latreille's
division of warm- and cold-blooded (haematothermal and
haematocryal) vertebrates, thus approximating the Batrachians
to reptiles, and separating them from birds. 6 The reptiles (or
Monopnoa, Leuck.) thus form the highest of the five subclasses
into which, after several previous c'assifications, Owen 7 finally
divided the Haematocrya. His division of this subclass, however,
nto nine orders, makes a considerable step in the progress of
lerpetology, since it takes into consideration for the first time
the many extinct groups whose skeletons are found fossil. He
shows that the number of living reptilian types bears but a small
aroportion to that of extinct forms, and therefore that a sys-
tematic arrangement of the entire class must be based chiefly
upon osteological characters. His nine orders are the follow-
ng:
a. ICHTHYOPTERYGIA (extinct) Ichthyosaurus.
b. SAUROPTERYGIA (extinct) Plesiosaurus, Pliosaurus, Notho-
saurus, Placodus.
:. ANOMODONTIA (extinct) Dicynodon, Rhynchosaurus, Ouden-
odon.
d. CHELONIA.
e. LACERTILIA (with the extinct Mosasaurus).
f. OPHIDIA.
[.CROCODILIA (with the extinct Teleosaurus and Streptospon-
dylus).
h. DINOSAURIA (extinct) Iguanodon, Scelidosaurus and Megalo-
saurus.
'. PTEROSAURIA (extinct) Dimorphodon, Rhamphorhynchus and
Pterodactylus.
Owen was followed by Huxley and E. D. Cope, who, however,
restricted still mttre the selection of classificatory characters by
elying for the purposes of arrangement on a few parts of the
4 " Contribution to the Anatomy of Hatteria (Rhynchocephalus
Owen)," in Phil. Trans. (1867), part ii.
6 An Introduction to the Classification of Animals (London, 1869,
vo), pp. 104 seq.
6 Anatomy of Vertebrates (London, 1866, 8vo), vol. i. p. 6.
' Op. cit. p. 16.
GENERAL CHARACTERS]
REPTILES
141
Huxley.
skeleton only. They attempted a further grouping of the
orders which in Owen's system were merely serially enumerated
as cosubordinate groups. HUXLEY used for this purpose
almost exclusively the position and character of the
rib-articulations to the vertebral centra, the orders themselves
being the same as in Owen's system:
A. PLEUROSPONDYLIA. Dorsal vertebrae devoid of trans-
verse processes and not movable upon one another, nor are the ribs
movable upon the vertebrae. A plastron. Order I, CHELONIA.
B. The dorsal vertebrae (which have either complete or rudi-
mentary transverse processes) are movable upon one another, and
the ribs upon them. No plastron.
a. The dorsal vertebrae have transverse processes which are
either entire or very imperfectly divided into terminal
facets (ERPETOSPONDYLIA).
a. Transverse processes long; limbs well developed, pad-
dles; sternum and sternal ribs absent or rudiment-
ary. Order 2, PLESIOSAURIA (= Sauropterygia, Ow.).
jS. Transverse processes short.
aa. A pectoral arch and urinary bladder. Order 3,
LACERTILIA.
66. No pectoral arch and no urinary bladder. Order
4, OPHIDIA.
b. The dorsal vertebrae have double tubercles in place of trans-
verse processes (PEROSPONDYLIA). Limbs paddle-shaped.
Order 5, ICHTHYOSAURIA ( = Ichthyopterygia, Ow.).
c. The anterior dorsal vertebrae have elongated and divided
transverse processes, the tubercular being longer than the
capitular division (SucnOSPONDYLlA).
o. Only two vertebrae in the sacrum. Order 6, CROCO-
DILIA.
(8. More than two vertebrae in the sacrum.
00. Manus without a prolonged ulnar digit.
aa. Hind limb Saurian. Order 7, DICYNODON-
TIA (= Anomodontia, Ow.).
/S/3. Hind limb Ornithic. Order 8, ORNITHO-
SCELIDA ( = Dinosauria, Ow.).
66. Manus with an extremely long ulnar digit. Order
9, PTEROSAURIA.
COPE, 1 by combining the modifications of the quadrate and
supporting bones with the characters used by Huxley, further
developed Owen's classification, separating the
Pythonomorpha and Rhynchocephalia as distinct orders
from the Lacertilia. He eventually 2 elaborated the following
classification, based entirely on osteological characters:
I. The quadrate bone immovably fixed to the adjacent elements
by suture.
A. Scapular arch external to ribs; temporal region with a
complex bony roof ; no longitudinal postorbital bars.
A tabular and supramastoid bones and a presternum;
limbs ambulatory; vertebrae amphicoelous. Order I,
COTYLOSAURIA.
AA. Scapular arch internal to ribs ; temporal region with com-
plex roof and no longitudinal bars.
A presternum; limbs ambulatory. Order 2, CHELYDO-
SAURIA.
AAA. Scapular arch internal to ribs; sternum extending below
coracoids and pelvis; one postorbital bar.
No supramastoid ; a paroccipital ; clavicle not articulating
with scapula. Order 3, TESTUDINATA.
AAAA. Scapular arch external to ribs; one longitudinal post-
orbital bar (Synaptosauria).
A supramastoid and paroccipital bones ; ribs two-headed
on centrum; carpals and tarsals not distinct in form
from metapodials; vertebrae amphicoelous. Order 4,
ICHTHYOPTERYGIA.
A supramastoid; paroccipital not distinct; a postorbito-
squamosal arch ; ribs two-headed ; a clavicle; obturator
foramen small or none ; vertebrae amphicoelous. Order
5, THEROMORA.
No supramastoid ; paroccipital not distinct ; a quadrato-
jugal arch; scapula triradiate; no clavicle; ribs one-
headed. Order 6, PLESIOSAURIA.
AAAAA. Scapular arch external to ribs; two longitudinal post-
orbital bars (paroccipital arch distinct) (Archosauna).
a. A supramastoid bone.
Ribs two-headed; a clavicle and interclavicle ; aceta-
bulum closed; no obturator foramen; ambulatory;
vertebrae amphicoelous. Order 7, PELYCOSAURIA.
aa. No supramastoid.
1 Proc. Amer. Assoc. for the Advancement of Science, loth meeting
(Cambridge, 1871, 8vo), pp. 230 sq.; Amer. Naturalist (1889), vol.
xxiii. p. 863.
'Syllabus of Lectures on the Vertebrata (Philadelphia, 1898, 8vo),
P- 54-
O.sAorn.
Ribs two-headed; interclavicle not distinct; external
digits greatly elongated to support a patagium for flight.
Order 8, ORNITHOSAURIA.
Ribs two-headed; no interclavicle; acetabulum open;
ambulatory. Order 9, DINOSAURIA.
Ribs two-headed; an interclavicle; acetabulum closed;
ambulatory. Order 10, LORICATA.
Ribs one-headed; an interclavicle; acetabulum closed,
a large obturator foramen; ambulatory. Order n,
RHYNCHOCEPHALIA.
II. The quadrate bone loosely articulated to the cranium and at
the proximal end only (Streptostylica).
No distinct supramastoid, nor opisthotic; one or no post-
orbital bar; scapular arch, when present, external to
ribs; ribs one-headed. Order 12, SQUAMATA.
While this classification was being considered and prepared,
both Cope and G. Baur made a special study of the bones which
surround the quadrate and arch over the biting muscles in the
various groups of reptiles. This led to a series of discussions
which ended in the idea, that the class could be most naturally
divided into two great subclasses, the one culminating in
tortoises and mammals, the other in crocodiles, lizards, snakes
and birds. Professor H. F. OSBORN in 1903 * therefore
proposed the following classification :
Subclass SYNAPSIDA. Primarily with single or undivided temporal
arches. Giving rise to the mammals through some unknown
member of the Anomodontia.
Orders Cotylosauria, Anomodontia, Testudinata and Sauropterygia.
Subclass DIAPSIDA. Primarily with double or divided temporal
arches. Giving rise to the birds through some unknown type
transitional between Protorosauria and Dinosauria.
Orders Diaptosauria (= Protorosauria, Pelycosauria and Rhyn-
chocephalia), Phytosauria (=Belodon, &c.), Ichthyosauria, Crocoduia,
Dinosauria, Squamata and Pterosauria.
The most exhaustive and modern general work on reptiles is
by Dr C. K. HOFFMANN in Bronn's Klassen und Ordnungen des
Thierreichs (1879-90). A most useful and less technical
treatise is the volume on Amphibia and Reptiles contri-
buted by Dr H. Gadow to the Cambridge Natural History
(London, 1902). (A. C. G.; A. S. Wo.)
II. GENERAL CHARACTERS OF THE CLASS REPTILIA
Reptiles, as known in the existing world, are the modified,
and in many respects degenerate, representatives of a group of
lung-breathing vertebrate animals which attained its maximum
development in the Mesozoic period. So far as can be judged
from the skeleton, some of the members of this group then living
might have become mammals by very slight change, while
others might as readily have evolved into birds. It is therefore
probable that the class Reptilia, as now understood, comprises
the direct ancestors both of the Mammalia and Aves. Assuming
that its extinct members, which are known only by skeletons,
were organized essentially like its existing representatives, the
class ranks higher than that of the lowest five-toed vertebrates
(class Batrachia) in the investment of the foetus by two
membranous envelopes (the amnion and allantois), and in the
total absence of gills even in the earliest embryos. It ranks
below both the Mammalia and Aves in the partial mixture of
the arterial blood with the venous blood as it leaves the heart,
thus causing the organism to be cold-blooded; it also differs
both from Mammalia and Aves in retaining a pair of aortic
arches, of which only the left remains in the former, while the
right one is retained in the latter. No feature in the endoskeleton
is absolutely distinctive, except possibly the degeneration of the
parasphenoid bone, which separates the Reptilia from the
Amphibia. In the exoskeleton, however, the epidermis forms
horny scales, such as never occur in Amphibia, while there are
no traces of any structures resembling either hairs or feathers,
which respectively characterize Mammalia and Aves.
There is little doubt that true reptiles date back to the latter
part of the Palaeozoic period, but at that epoch the Amphibia
approached them so closely in the characters of the skeleton that
it is difficult to distinguish the members of the two classes
among the fossils. Some of the Palaeozoic Amphibia a few of
the so-called Labyrinthodonts are proved to have had well-
developed gill-arches in their immature state, while there are
conspicuous marks of slime-canals on their skulls. Others are
1 Mem. American Mus. Nat. Hist. (November 1903), vol. i. art. viii.
142
REPTILES
[GENERAL CHARACTERS
merely regarded as Amphibia because they closely resemble the
genera which are proved to have been gill-breathers when
immature. All these genera, however, so far as known, agree
with the existing Amphibia in the production of their large
parasphenoid bone as far forwards as the vomers to form a
rigid and complete basicranial axis (fig. i, A). Those genera
of the upper, bar, some members of this series eventually pass
into the order Squamata (Lacertilia+Ophidia), in which the
quadrate bone is completely exposed and loosely attached to
the skull (fig. 2, E); other reptiles exhibiting a similar modi-
fication may readily have acquired the typical Avian skull
(fig. 2, F) by the loss of the upper and the retention of the lower
temporal bar in question.
In view of these and other palaeontological con-
siderations, the Reptilia may be classified into orders as
follows:
ORDERS OF CLASS REPTILIA
1. Anompdontia. Bones of postero-lateral region of
skull forming a complete roof over the temporal and
masseter muscles, or contracted into a single broad zygo-
matic arch, leaving a superior-temporal vacuity. Pineal
foramen present. Ribs completely or imperfectly double-
headed. No abdominal ribs. A large separately ossified
epicoracoid. Limbs for support as well as progression;
third and fourth digits with not more than three phalanges.
Dermal armour feeble or absent. Range. Permian and
Triassic.
2. Chelonia. -Postero-lateral region of skull as in Anomo-
dontia, except bones of ear-capsule more modified. No
pineal foramen. Ribs single-headed. No sternum. Pectoral
and pelvic arches unique in being situated completely inside
the ribs. No epicoracoid. Abdominal ribs replaced by
three or four pairs of large plates, which, with the clavicles
and interclayicle, form a plastron. Limbs only for pro-
gression; third and fourth digits with not more than three
phalanges. A regular dorsal carapace of bony plates in-
After Credner. After C. W. Andrews. timately connected with the neural spines, and ribs of
FlG -T, I -^ A ' Palat of Palaeozoic Amphibian (Archegosaurus dechem). ^^ to nine dorsa i vertebrae. Range. Upper Triassic to
B, ralate ot Mesozoic Reptile (Plesiosaurus macrocepnalus). Recent
b.occ, basioccipital; 6s, basisphenoid ; eept, ectopterygoid ; i.pt, inter- 3 . Sauropterygia. Bones of postero-lateral region of
pterygoid vacuity; j, jugal; mx. maxilla; pas, parasphenoid ; pi, palatine ; skull contracted into a single broad zygomatic arch, leaving
pmx, premaxilla; ft, pterygoid; pt. nar, posterior nares; qu, quadrate; a superior-temporal vacuity. Pineal foramen present. No
s.o, suborbital vacuity; v, vomer. " ' ' -L
which less resemble the typical Labyrinthodonts are charac-
terized by the reduction of the parasphenoid bone so that it no
longer reaches the vomers; in these animals the weakened skull
exhibits a secondary basicranial axis formed by the approxima-
tion of the pterygoids to the median line (fig. i, B). The
latter condition is universal in existing reptiles, and may there-
fore perhaps be regarded as a diagnostic feature. If so, the
oldest known undoubted reptile is Palaeohatteria, from the
Lower Permian of Saxony.
In the structure of the skull Palaeohatteria is much like the
existing Sphenodon, the cheek-plates which cover the temporal
and masseter muscles on each side being pierced by two great
vacuities, one superior-temporal, the other lateral-temporal.
The majority of the earliest reptiles, however, either resemble the
Labyrinthodonts in having the biting muscles completely
covered with a roof of bony plates, or exhibit a slight shrinkage
of this investment so that a superior-temporal vacuity appears.
As the various groups or orders become differentiated, this
shrinkage or reduction continues, while the shape of the ossify-
ing ear-capsule changes, and the squamosal bone, which covers
the organ of hearing in the fishes, and presumably also in the
Palaeozoic Batrachia, is gradually thrust outwards from all
connexion with this capsule except at its hinder angle. The
resultant modifications are diagrammatically represented in
fig 2. In one series of orders, comprising the Anomodontia,
Chelonia, Sauropterygia and Ichthyopterygia (fig. 2, B, C),
the superior- temporal vacuity (s) first appears, and the cheek-
plates in the broad temporal arch thus formed may be variously
fused together, sometimes even irregularly perforated showing
at first, indeed, the usual inconstancy of a new and not com-
pletely established feature. From the earliest members of this
series of reptiles, palaeontology seems to demonstrate that the
Mammalia (with one robust temporal arcade or zygomatic arch)
ajose. In a second series, comprising the orders Rhyncho-
cephalia, Dinosauria, Crocodilia and Ornithosauria (fig. 2, D) ;
the broad arch of cheek-plates is regularly pierced by a lateral-
temporal vacuity, which leaves a narrow bar above, another
narrow bar below, and uncovers the middle part of the quadrate
bone. By the constant loss of the lower, and the frequent loss
fused ^ cra i vertebrae. All dorsal ribs single-headed,
articulating with transverse processes of the neural arches.
Abdominal ribs forming dense plastron. Apparently no sternum.
Cpracoid, pubis and ischium in form of much-expanded plates.
Limbs modified as paddles, with not more than five digits, of which
the third and fourth always have more than three phalanges; all
digits usually consisting of numerous phalanges. No dermal armour.
Range. Upper Triassic to Cretaceous.
4. Ichthyppterygia. Bones of postero-lateral region of skull
contracted into a single broad zygomatic arch, leaving a superior-
temporal vacuity. Pineal foramen present. Vertebral centra short
and deeply biconcave, with feeble neural arches which are almost
or completely destitute of zygapophyses. No fused sacral vertebrae.
Cervical and dorsal ribs double-headed, articulating with tubercles
on the vertebral centra. Abdominal ribs forming dense plastron.
Apparently no sternum. Coracoid an expanded plate, probably
with cartilaginous epicoracoid. Pelvis very small, not connected
with vertebrae. Limbs modified as paddles, with digits of very
numerous short phalanges, which are closely pressed together,
sometimes with supplementary rows of similar ossicles. No dermal
armour. A vertical triangular caudal fin, not supported by skeletal
rays. Range. Triassic to Cretaceous.
5. Rhynchocephalia. Bones of postero-lateral region of skull
contracted into two slender zygomatic bars, leaving a superior-
temporal and a lateral-temporal vacuity, and partly exposing the
quadrate bone from the side. Pineal foramen present or absent.
Ribs single-headed. Abdominal ribs present. Sternum present.
Epicoracoid cartilaginous. Limbs only for progression; third and
fourth digits with four or five phalanges. Dermal armour feeble or
absent. Range. Lower Permian to Recent.
6. Dinosauria. Postero-lateral region of skull as in Rhyncho-
cephalia. No pineal foramen. Cervical and dorsal ribs double-
headed. Rarely abdominal ribs. Sternum present, but apparently
no clavicular arch. Limbs for support as well as progression ; third
and fourth digits with four and five phalanges respectively. Dermal
armour variable. Range. Triassic to Cretaceous.
7. Crocodilia. Postero-lateral region of skull as in Rhyncho-
cephalia. No pineal foramen. Cervical and dorsal ribs double-
headed. Abdominal ribs present. Sternum present; also inter-
clavicle, but no clavicles. Limbs only for progression on land or
swimming; third and fourth digits with four or five phalanges.
Dermal armour variable. Range. Lower Jurassic to Recent.
8. Ornithosauria. All bones extremely dense, light and hollow,
the organism being adapted for flight. Postero-lateral region of
skull as in Rhynchocephalia. No pineal foramen. Cervical and
dorsal ribs double-headed. Abdominal ribs present. Sternum
present, and keeled for attachment of pectoral muscles; no clavi-
cular arch. Fifth digit of hand much elongated to support a wing-
... c * f it TT! _ J !!_. f I_1_ XT
membrane, but with" only four phalanges. Hind limb feeble,
dermal armour. Range. Lower Jurassic to Cretaceous.
No
GENERAL CHARACTERS]
REPTILES
9. Squamata. Bones of postero-lateral region of skull much
reduced and partly absent, never forming more than a slender
superior-temporal bar, thus completely exposing the quadrate,
which is only loosely attached to the cranium at its upper end.
Pineal foramen present. Ribs single-headed. No abdominal ribs.
Sternum present when there are limbs. Limbs, when present, only
for progression; third and fourth digits at least with more than
three phalanges. Dermal armour feeble or absent. Range.
Cretaceous to Recent.
Order i. ANOMODONTIA. The Anomodonts are so named in
allusion to the peculiar and unique dentition of the first-dis-
covered genera. They are precisely intermediate between the
and India, but they are best represented in the Karoo formation
(Permian and Triassic) of South Africa. The Pariasauria most
closely resemble the Labyrinthodont Amphibia, but have a single
occipital condyle. Pariasauria itself is a massive herbivorous
reptile, with a short tail, and the limbs adapted for excavating
in the ground. It is known by several nearly complete skeletons,
about 3 metres in length, from South Africa and northern
Russia. Elginia, found in the Elgin sandstones of Morayshire,
Scotland, is provided with horn-like bony bosses on the skull.
Another apparently allied genus (Otocoelus) has a carapace
suggesting that it may be an ancestral Chelonian. The Therio-
n.
'gu,. sq.
From A. S. Woodward, Outlines of Vertebrate Palaeontology.
FIG. 2. Diagram of the Cranial Roof in a Labyrinthodont Amphibian, various types of Reptiles, and a Bird. A, Labyrin-
thodont Amphibian (Mastodonsaurus giganteus). B, Generalized Anomodont or Sauropterygian, passing with slight
modification into the Chelonian (sutures dotted to denote inconstancy in fusion of elements). C, Ichthyosaurus. D,
Generalized Rhynchocephalian, Dinosaurian, Crocodilian, or Ornithosaurian. E, Generalized Lacertilian, often losing
even the arcade here indicated. F, Generalized Bird.
fr, frontal; j, jugal; /, lateral temporal vacuity; la, lachrymal; mx, maxilla; n, narial opening; na, nasal; o, orbit;
pa, parietal; pmx, premaxilla; prf, prefrontal; plf, postfrontal; pto, postorbital; q.j, quadrato-jugal; qu, quadrate;
s, supratemporal vacuity; s.t, supratemporals and prosquamosal ; sq, squamosal. Vacuities shaded with vertical lines,
cartilage bones dotted.
Labyrinthodont Batrachia and the lowest or Monotreme
Mammalia. They flourished at the period when the former are
known to have reached their culmination, and when the latter
almost certainly began to appear. Many of them would, indeed,
be regarded as primitive Mammalia, if they did not retain a
pineal foramen, a free quadrate bone, and a complex mandible.
The term Theromorpha or Theromora is thus sometimes applied
to the order they represent. So far as known, they are all
land-reptiles, with limbs adapted for habitual support of the
body, and their feet are essentially identical with those of
primitive mammals. Most of them are small, and none attain a
gigantic size. They first appear in the Permian of Europe and
North America, and also occur in the Triassic both of Europe
dontia exhibit the marginal teeth differentiated (in shape) into
incisors, canines and molars (fig. 3). They have two occipital
condyles, as in mammals. They seem to have been all carni-
vorous, or at least insecu . orous, but the malariform teeth vary
much in shape in the different genera. Cynognathus (fig. 3) and
Lycosaurus have cutting teeth, while Trilylodon and Gompho-
gnathus possess powerful grinders. The Dicynodontia have one
pair of upper tusks or are toothless: their occipital condyle is
trefoil-shaped, as in Chelonia. Dicynodon itself occurs in the
Karoo formation of S. Africa, while other genera are represented
in India, N. Russia and Scotland.
Order i. CHELONIA. This order occurs first in the Upper
Triassic of Wiirttemberg, where a complete " shell" has been
144
REPTILES
[GENERAL CHARACTERS
found (Proganochelys) . Its members are proved to have been
toothless since the Jurassic period, and have only changed very
From A. S. Woodward, Outlines of Vertebrate Palaeontology.
FIG. 3. Skull of an Anomodont (Theriodont) Reptile (Cynognathus
crateronotus), one- fifth natural size. Karoo formation (Permian
or Triassic), South Africa.
d, dentary; j, jugal; l.t.f, incipient lateral temporal vacuity;
la, lachrymal; mx, maxilla; na, nasal; orb, orbit; pa, parietal;
pmx, premaxilla; prf, prefrontal; pto., postorbital; ptf, post-
frontal; s.t, supratemporal (prosquamosal) ; sq, squamosal.
slightly since their first appearance. The marine turtles seem
to have first acquired elongated paddles and vacuities in the
shell during the Cretaceous period, and the Trionychia, destitute
of epidermal shields, apparently arose at the same time.
Order 3. SAUROPTERYGIA. These are amphibious or aquatic
reptiles (fig. 4). The head is comparatively small in most
Flo. 4. Plesiosaurus rostratus: restoration of skeleton by W. G. Ridewood.
Lower Lias, Dorsetshire.
genera, and the neck is usually elongated though not flexible.
The tail is insignificant, generally short, and both pairs of
paddles seem to have been concerned in progression. The order
appears to have arisen from a group of land-reptiles, for its
earliest members, from the Triassic of Europe (Lariosaurus)
and from the Permo-Carboniferous of S. Africa (Mesosaurus) and
Brazil (Slereoslernum) , are all amphibious animals. They are
comparatively small, and their limbs are only just becoming
paddle-like. The skull suggests affinities with the terrestrial
effective paddles with elongated digits, and as the genera are
traced upwards in the geological formations it is possible to
observe how .the arches supporting the limbs become more rigid
until the maximum of strength is reached. A few genera, such
as Pliosaurus from the Jurassic and Polyptychodon from the
Cretaceous of Europe, are distinguished by their relatively large
head and stout neck. Some of the largest Upper Jurassic and
Cretaceous species must have been 10 metres in length. They
were cosmopolitan in their distribution, but became extinct
before the dawn of the Tertiary period.
Order 4. ICHTHYOPTERYGIA. The Ichthyosaurians are all
fish-shaped, with a relatively large head and very short neck.
Both pairs of paddles are retained, but the hinder pair is usually
very small, and locomotion seems to have been chiefly effected
by a large caudal fin. This fin, as shown in impression by certain
fossils from Wiirttemberg and Bavaria, is a vertical, triangular,
dermal expansion, without any skeletal support except the
hindermost part of the attenuated vertebral column, which
extends along the border of its lower lobe (fig. 5). Another
triangular fin, without skeletal support, is known to occur on the
back, at least in one species (fig. 5). Some of the genera are
proved to have been viviparous.' Like the Sauropterygia, the
Ichthyopterygia appear to have originated from terrestrial
ancestors, for their earliest Triassic representatives (Mixosaurus)
have the teeth less uniform and the limbs slightly less paddle-
shaped than the latter genera. In this connexion it is noteworthy
that their hollow conical teeth exhibit curious infoldings of the
wall, like those observed in many Labyrinthodonts, while their
short, biconcave vertebrae almost exactly resemble those of
the Labyrinthodont Mastodonsaurus and its
allies. As the Ichthyosaurs are traced up-
wards in geological time, some genera become
almost, or quite, toothless, while the paddles
grow wider, and are rendered more flexible
by the persistence of cartilage round their
constituent bones (Ophthalmosaurus). They
were cosmopolitan in distribution, but dis-
appeared from all seas at the close of the
Cretaceous period. The largest forms, with
a skull 2 metres in length, occur in the Lower
Lias.
Order 5. RHYNCHOCEPHALIA. These are small lizard-shaped
reptiles, which have scarcely changed since the Triassic period.
Though now represented only by Sphenodon or Hatteria, which
survives in certain islands off New Zealand, in the Mesozoic
epoch they ranged at least over Europe, Asia and North America.
They comprise the earliest known reptile, Palaeohatteria, from
the Lower Permian of Saxony, which differs from the Triassic
and later genera in having an imperfectly ossified pubis and
ischium, more numerous abdominal ribs, and the fifth metatarsal
FIG. 5. Ichthyosaurus quadriscissus : outline of specimen showing dorsal and caudal fins, about one-sixth natural size. Upper
Lias, Wurttemberg. (After E. Fraas.) The irregularities behind the triangular dorsal fin are torn pieces of skin.
Anomodontia, and the shape of the scapula seems to show some
connexion with the Chelonia. The truly aquatic Sauropter-
ygians of the Jurassic (fig. 4) and Cretaceous periods possess most
bone normal. They are also represented in the Permian, chiefly
of North America, by the so-called Pelycosauria, which have
sharp teeth in sockets, and are remarkable for the extreme
GENERAL CHARACTERS]
REPTILES
elongation of the spines of their cervical and dorsal vertebrae
(Dimetrodon, fig. 6). They seem to include various Triassic
From Prof. E. C- Case's Revision of the Pelycosauria of North America, by
permission of the Carnegie Institution of Washington.
FIG. 6. Dimetrodon incisivus\ restoration of skeleton by E. C. Case,
about one-eighteenth natural size.
genera (e.g. Aelosaurus, Belodon), which may perhaps belong to
the ancestral stock of the Dinosauria and Crocodilia. Other
Triassic genera (Hyperodapedon, Rhynchosaurus)
scarcely differ from Sphenodon, except in the denti-
tion and in the absence of the pineal foramen in the
skull. In the late Cretaceous and early Eocene
periods one genus (Champsosaurus) was truly aquatic,
with gavial-shaped head.
Order 6. DINOSAURIA. The dinosaurs are land
reptiles which flourished on all the continents during
the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, in the interval
between the decline of the Anomodontia and the
dominance of the Mammalia. They first appeared
as carnivorous reptiles in the Triassic period in
Europe, India, S. Africa, and N. America, but after-
wards comprised numerous massive herbivores in
nearly all parts of the world except the Australian
and New Zealand regions. The skeleton in the
carnivorous dinosaurs, or Theropoda, is of very light
construction, the vertebrae and limb bones being
hollow, with thin, dense walls and often perfectly
fitting joints. The fore limbs are small, and the
hind limbs are adapted for running, jumping or
hopping on the toes. The sabre-shaped cutting
teeth are fixed in sockets, and all the claws are
sharp. Anchisaurus and Hallopus, from the Trias
of N. America, and Scleromochlus from the Elgin
sandstones of Scotland, are comparatively small
animals. Ceratosaurus and Megalosaurus, from the
Jurassic of North America and western Europe re-
spectively, must have attained a length of from 5 to
6 metres. Tyrannosaurus, from the Cretaceous of
Montana, U.S.A., has a skull more than a metre in
length. The herbivorous Dinosaurs of the suborder
Ornithopoda resemble the Theropoda in general
shape, but are heavier in build, with a pelvis con-
structed more nearly on the plan of that of a run-
ning bird. It has, indeed, been suggested that
certain arboreal Dinosaurs of bipedal gait may have
been the ancestors of the class Aves. The best-
known Ornithopod is Iguanodon (fig. 7), from the
Wealden of W. Europe, with species from 5 to 10 metres in
length. Claosaurus, from the Cretaceous of N. America, is
nearly similar, and is represented by at least one complete skele-
ton in the Yale University Museum. There are also members of
the same group with a heavy armour of bony plates and spines,
sometimes termed Stegosauria. Stegosaurus itself occurs in
the Upper Jurassic of Colorado, and Omosaurus, from the
Kimmeridge and Oxford clays of England, is a nearly similar
reptile. Polacanthus, from the Wealden of the Isle of Wight,
has the hip-region armoured with a continuous bony shield.
Triceratops (fig. 8) and its allies, from the Upper Cretaceous
(Laramie) of western N. America, are the latest members of the
group, with a bony frill over the neck, a pair of bony horn-
cores above the eyes, and a median bony horn-core on the
nose. The skull with the bony frill sometimes measures nearly
two metres in length. Another suborder of herbivorous Dino-
saurs, that of Sauropoda, comprises the largest known land
animals of any age, some measuring from 17 to 25 metres in
total length. They have a small head, long neck, and long
tail, and must have been quadrupedal in gait. Their teeth
are adapted for feeding on succulent water weeds, perhaps
with an admixture of small animals living among these;
and their vertebrae are of very light construction, while the
ribs are raised high on the neural arches to increase the size
of the body cavity, perhaps for unusually large lungs or air
sacs. Their massive limbs have five toes, of which the three
inner alone bear outwardly curved claws. Diplodocus and
Brontosaurus, from the Jurassic of Wyoming and Colorado,
U.S.A., are the best-known genera. Atlanlosaurus, from the
same formation, is usually noteworthy for si2e. Cetiosaurus,
from the Jurassic of England, is also known by large parts of
the skeleton in the British Museum and the Oxford Museum,
indicating species nearly 20 metres in length.
FIG. 7. Iguanodon bernissartensis: restoration of skeleton by O. C. Marsh,
one-eightieth natural size. Wealden, Bernissart, Belgium.
FIG. 8. Triceratops prorsus: restoration of skeleton by O. C. Marsh,
one-eightieth natural size. Cretaceous, Wyoming.
Order 7. CROCODILIA. Typical crocodiles can be traced
downwards to the Lower Lias at the base of the Jurassic
146
REPTILES
[GENERAL CHARACTERS
formations, but all the Jurassic and some of the Cretaceous genera
have the secondary bony plate less extended backwards than
that in the Tertiary and existing genera, while their vertebrae
have flattened or concave ends, instead of exhibiting a ball-
and-socket articulation. Some of the Upper Jurassic crocodiles
(Metriorhynchus) were more truly aquatic than any now living,
with the fore limbs degenerate, the hind limbs much enlarged
for swimming, and the dermal armour lacking. The end of
the vertebral column is bent downwards, as in Ichthyosaurus,
so they doubtless possessed a similar triangular tail-fin. Typical
crocodiles and alligators date back to the close of the Cretaceous
period, and they did not become extinct in Europe until the
beginning of the Miocene period. Remains of an extinct
alligator (Diplocynodon) are common in the Upper Eocene
sands of the Hordwell cliffs, Hampshire.
Order 8. ORNITHOSAURIA. The flying reptiles or Ptero-
dactyls (fig. 9) are completely evolved at their earliest known
FIG. 9. Pterodactylus spectabilis, natural size, from the Litho-
graphic Stone, h, humerus; ru, radius and ulna; me, metacarpals ;
pt, pteroid bone; 2, 3, 4, digits with claws; 5, elongated digit for
support of wing-membrane; st, sternum, crest not shown; is,
ischium; pp, prepubis. The teeth are not shown. (After H. von
Meyer.)
appearance in the Lower Lias (Dimorphodon), and exhibit
little essential change as they are traced upwards through the
Mesozoic formations. The latest Cretaceous genera, however,
comprise the largest species, which have been found in Europe,
N. America and Brazil. Some of these (Pteranodon) are tooth-
less, and their wings are so large that for adequate support the
pectoral arch is fixed to the vertebrae like a pelvis. The wings
occasionally have a span of from 5 to 6 metres. The wing-
membranes are only known in the European Jurassic genus,
Rhamphorhynchus (fig. 10), found well preserved in the fine-
grained lithographic stone of Bavaria. In this genus there is
also a rhomboidal flap of membrane at the end of the tail.
Order 9. SQUAMATA. The ancestors of the lizards and snakes
can only be traced back definitely to the latter part of the
Cretaceous period. They were then represented by two'
suborders of aquatic reptiles, the Dolichosauria and Pythono-
morpha(or Mosasauria), which are in many respects intermediate
between the existing Lacertilia and Ophidia. The Dolichosauria,
from the Upper Cretaceous of Europe, are small and snake-like
in shape, but with completely formed limbs. The Pythono-
morpha are known from Europe, N. and S. America and New
Zealand, and sometimes attained a very large size, the typical
Mosasaurus camperi from Maastricht being about 15 metres in
length. Their limbs are powerful paddles. Their trunk and
FIG. 10. Rhamphorhynchus phyllurus, from the Solenhofen
Lithographic Stone, one-fourth natural size, with the greater part
of the wing-membranes preserved, x, caudal membrane; st,
sternum; h, humerus; sc, scapula and coracoid; wm, wing-
membrane. (After O. C. Marsh.)
tail are often much elongated, so that their shape is snake-like,
as shown by Clidastes (fig. n), from the Chalk of Kansas, U.S.A.
The Lacertilia and Ophidia, so far as known, are exclusively
Tertiary and Recent reptiles. Marine snakes (Palaeophis) occur
in the Eocene of the London and Hampshire basins.
AUTHORITIES. General Works on Extinct Reptiles. K. A. v.
Zittel, Handbuch der Palaeontologie, vol. iii. (Munich, 1887-1889).
H. A. Nicholson and R. Lydekker, Manual of Palaeontology,
vol. ii. (Edinburgh, 1889). R. Lydekker, Catalogue of the Fossil
Reptilia and Amphibia in the British Museum, vols. i.-iv. (London,
1888-90). A. S. Woodward, Outlines of Vertebrate Palaeontology
(Cambridge, 1898). K. A. v. Zittel, Text-book of Palaeontology, ed.
C. R. Eastman, vol. ii. (London, 1902). Anomodontia: R. Owen.
Catalogue of the Fossil Reptilia of South Africa in the Collection of the
British Museum (London, 1876). E. D. Cope, " The Reptilian
Order Cotylosauria," Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. vol. xxxiv. (1896),
p. 436, and vol. xxxv. (1896), p. 122. E. T. Newton, " Some New
Reptiles from the Elgin Sandstones," Phil. Trans., vol. 1848 (1893), p.
431. Various papers by R. Owen in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1876-
1884, by H. G. Seeley in Phil. Trans. (1889-1895), and by R. Broom
in Proc. Zool. Soc., Ann. S. African Museum and Trans. S. African
Phil. Soc. (from 1900 onwards). Chelonia: G. Baur, " Bemerkungen
iiber die Phylogenie der Schildkroten," Anal. Anzeiger, vol. xii.
(1896), p. 561. Technical papers by F. A. Quenstedt in Wurtt.
Jahresh. vol. xlv. (1889), p. 120 (Proganochelys). G. R. Wieland
in Amer. Journ. Sci. ser. 4, vol. ii. (1896), p. 399 (gigantic Cretaceous
leathery turtle), and E. C. Case, Journ. Morphol. vol. xiv. (1897),
ANATOMY]
REPTILES
p. 21 (ditto). Sauropterygia: G. A. Boulenger, "On a Notho-
saurian Reptile from me Trias of Lombardy, apparently referable
to Lariosaurus," Trans. Zool. Soc. vol. xiv. (1896), p. i. H. G.
Seeley, " The Nature of the Shoulder Girdle and Clavicular
Arch in Sauropterygia," Proc. Roy. Soc. vol. li. (1892), p. 119,
FIG. n. Skeleton of Clidastes. (After Cope.)
and vol. liv. (1893), p. 160. Ichthyopterygia: 'E. Fraas, Die
Ichthyosaurier der suddeutschen Trias- und Jura-Ablagerungen
(Tubingen, 1891). J. C. Merriam, " Triassic Ichthyosauria," Mem.
Univ. California, vol. i. No. I (1908). Also technical papers by
E. Fraas on fins in Wiirtt. Jahresh. (1894), p. 493, and Foldtani
Kozlony, vol. xxviii. (Budapest, 1898), p. 169. Rhynchocephalia:
G. A. Boulenger, " On British Remains of Homoeosaurus, with
Remarks on the Classification of the Rhynchocephalia," Proc. Zool.
Soc. (1891), p. 167. J. H. McGregor, r ' The Phytosauria," Mem.
Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. vol. ix. pt. ii. (1906) E. C. Case, Revision
of the Pelycosauria of North America (Carnegie Institution, Washing-
ton, 1907). Technical papers by H. Credner in Zeitschr. deutsch.
geol. Ges. vol. xl. (1888), p. 488 (Palaeohatteria) , T. H. Huxley in
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xliii. (1887), p. 675 (Hyperodapedon) ,
and L. Dollo in Bull. Soc. Belg. Geol. vol. v. (1891), Mem. p. 151
(Champsosaurus). Dinosauria: O. C. Marsh, " The Dinosaurs
of North America," Sixteenth Ann. Rep. U.S. Geol. Survey (1896).
Technical papers by L. Dollo in Bull. mus. roy. d'hist. nat. Belg.
vols. i.-iii. (1882-84) (Iguanodon), O. C. Marsh in Amer. Journ. Sci.
ser. 3, vol. 1. (1895), pi. viii. (restorations), J. B. Hatcher in Mem.
Carnegie Museum, vol. i. No. I (1901), and W. J. Holland in Mem.
Carnegie Museum, vol. ii. No. 6 (1906). Crocodilia: T. H. Huxley,
" On Stagonolepis robertsoni, and on the Evolution of the Croco-
dilia," Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxi. (1875), P- 4 2 3- E. Koken,
" Thoracosaurus macrorhynchus, Bl., aus der Tuffkreide von Maas-
tricht," Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Ges. (1888), p. 754. E. Fraas,
" Thattosuchia," Palaeontogr. vol. xlix. (1902), p. I. L. Dollo,
" Premiere note sur les crocodiliens de Bernissart," Bull. mus.
roy. d'hist. nat. Belg. vol. ii. (1883), p. 309. G. A. Boulenger,
Catalogue of the Chelonians, Rhynchocephalians and Crocodiles in
the British Museum (London, 1889). Ornithosauria: K. A. von
Zittel, " Ueber Flugsaurier aus dem lithographischen Schiefer,"
Palaeontogr. vol. xxix. (1882), p. 49. E. T. Newton, " On the
Skull, Brain and Auditory Organ of a New Species of Pterosaurian,"
Phil. Trans, vol. 1793 (1888), p. 503 H. G. Seeley, Dragons of
the Air (London, 1901). Technical papers by O. C. Marsh in Amer.
Journ. Sci. ser. 3, vol. xxiii. (1882), p. 251 (wing-membranes), S. W.
Williston in Kansas Univ. Quarterly, vol. vi. (1897), p. 35 (restora-
tion of Pteranodon), and G. F. Eaton in Amer. Journ. Sci. ser. 4,
vols. xvi., xvii. (1903-4). Squamata: R. Owen, " On the Rank
and Affinities of the Reptilian Class of the Mosasauridae, Gervais,"
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxiii. (1877), p. 682, and vol. xxxiv.
(1878), p. 748. G. A. Boulenger, Catalogue of the Lizards in the
British Museum, vols. i.-iii. (London, 1885-87); Catalogue of the
Snakes in the British Museum, vols. i., ii. (London, 1893-94).
Technical papers by A. Kornhuber in Abh. k. k. geol. Reichsanst.
Wien. vol. v. (1873), No. 4, and vol. xvii. (1893), No. 3 (Dolicho-
sauria), F. Noppsa in Beitr. Palaont. Oesterr.-Ungarns,\o\. xxi.(igo8),
and S. W. Williston in Kansas Univ. Quarterly, vols. i., ii., vi.
(1892-1897) (Mosasauria). (A. S. Wo.)
III. ANATOMY OF REPTILES
The Skull.
Sphenodon has the most primitive and still most complex
skull, the salient features of which it is easy to derive from
Stegocephalian and early, generalized reptilian conditions;
whilst in other directions, mostly by reduction, the skull of this
" living fossil " affords the key to that of all the other groups
of at least recent reptiles. The main features are the following.
There are, in the temporal region, three complete bony arches,
the supra-, infra-, and post-temporal, which subdivide the whole
temporal fossa into four foramina. The supratemporal bridge
is formed by the squamosal and post-orbital, the latter (/in
fig. 12) being continued forwards and fused with the post-frontal.
These three bones,
with the parietal, .
enclose the supra-
temporal foramen.
The postorbital
joins an ascending
branch of the jugal,
both together form-
ing the hinder
border of the orbit,
and this is bordered
below chiefly by the
maxillary. The pos-
teriortemporal
bridge is formed
by the parietal and
squamosal, extends
laterally over the
quadrate and encloses a wide space between itself and the
buttress-like transverse expansion of the lateral occipital
After Giinther. FIG. 12. Skull of Sphenodon.
i, Ventral aspect; 2, lateral aspect; 3, lateral aspect of mandible,
or. articular; bo, basioccipital ; bs, basisphenoid; c, coronoid; CO.,
columella auris; d, dentary; /, postorbital; m, maxilla; n, nasal;
pa, parietal; pi, palatine; pm, premaxilla; pr, prefrontal; ps,
postf rental; pt, pterygoid; q, quadrate in the upper figure,
quadrato-jugal in the middle figure; qj, jugal; s, squamosal; sp,
splenial ; v, vomer.
bone (these " parotic processes " are made up of the lat.
occipital, parotic and opisthotic bones); this is the post-
temporal foramen. The space enclosed between this occipital
buttress, the quadrate and the pterygoidal support of the
latter represents the wide and large cavity of the middle ear,
23
148
REPTILES
[ANATOMY
and as such is crossed by the auditory columellar chain. The
infra-temporal bridge or jugal arch is formed by the jugal (qj in
fig. 12), which joins the descending process of the squamosal,
and the quadrato-jugal, which is very small and partly fused with
the lateral side of the quadrate. Now, between the quadrate on
the one side and the squamoso+quadrato-jugal+jugal on the
other, is enclosed a gap, met with only in Sphenodon of recent
reptiles. This fourth, or quadrato-squamosal foramen, with its
squamoso-quadrato-jugal bridge, is, as a rule, not mentioned,
being too small to be obvious. The quadrate is very firmly
fixed. On the ventral side of the cranium we notice the broad
and long bony palate, the large vomers, and the pterygoids
meeting in the middle line; aside of the vomers are the long
posterior nares; posteriorly the pterygoids diverge to rest upon
short basi-sphenoid processes, and they articulate by short
flanges with the quadrates.
'The occipital condyle is kidney-shaped, triple, composed of
the basi and the lateral occipitals. The dorsal median roof of the
cranium is formed by the paired parietals, near their anterior
symphysis with the large pineal foramen, the paired frontals,
nasals and premaxillaries. The outer nares are surrounded
by the premaxillaries, maxillaries and nasals. Prefrontals and
postfrontals exist. There is a complete cartilaginous, inter-
orbital septum, and a cranial columella, a pair of upright
buttresses arising in the alisphenoidal walls, connecting the
parietals with the pterygoids. The hyoid apparatus consists of
a narrow base, with three pairs of arches; of these the first
or hyoid arch is variously connected with the cranium near the
paroccipital process, or with the extracolumella (see Middle
Ear, below) ; the others are a long and stout pair of first and a
smaller pair of second branchial arches.
Crocodiles. The temporal region is still bridged over by three
arches, dividing the whole fossa into three, very much as in
Sphenodon. The supratemporal foramen is bordered by the
parietal, postfrontal (postorbital absent) and squamosal. The
posttemporal foramen is very much reduced, sometimes to a
narrow passage between the parietal, occipitals and squamosal,
because the latter bone forms an extensive suture with the
paroccipital process. The infratemporal or lateral fossa is wide
and rather shallow, bordered above by the postfrontal and
squamosal, in front by the postfrontal and jugal, below by the
jugal and quadrato-jugal, behind by the latter, the quadrate,
tip of the paroccipital and the squamosal. The quadrato-jugal
being long and in an almost horizontal position, being wedged
in between the jugal and nearly the whole length of the lateral
edge of the quadrate, and there being no squamoso-quadrato-
jugal bridge, the fourth foramen of Sphenodon is absent. The
middle-ear cavity is reduced to a complicated system of narrow
passages; one for the passage of the extra-columellar-mandi-
bular string of the auditory chain (see Ear, below), between the
quadrate, paroccipital and lateral occipital bones; another
passage (Eustachian) opens in the roof of the mouth, between
basioccipital and basisphenoid ; a .third joins that of the other
side and forms with it a median opening between the same
bones, just behind the posterior pterygoid border of the choanae.
These nares, being in the recent crocodiles shifted as far back
as possible, communicate with the outer nostrils by very long
passages, formed by the whole length of the pterygoids, palatines,
maxillaries, vomers and pre-maxillaries, all of which form a long
median suture. But this long bony palatal roof is interrupted
by a pair of large palatal foramina, bordered usually by palatine,
pterygoid, ectopterygoid, or transverse bone and maxillary.
On the dorsal side of the cranium we notice the parietals fused
into an unpaired bone, without a pineal hole and the likewise
unpaired frontal. There are a pair of postfrontals, prefrontals
and lacrymals perforated by the naso-lacrymal duct. The
nasals vary much in length, mostly in conformity with that of
the maxillaries; as a rule they reach the short premaxillaries;
but not always the nasal groove. (For taxonomic detail see
under CROCODILE.)
The occipital condyle is formed mainly by the basioccipital,
which always borders part of the foramen magnum, but the
lateral occipitals each send a flange to it, which in immature
specimens still partakes of the articulation with the atlas. The
opisthotic and epiotic bones fuse early with the lateral and with
supraoccipital bones; only the prootic remains longer as a
separate element, anteriorly with a large hole for the exit of the
third branch of the trigeminal nerve. The basisphenoid is
scarcely visible, being overlaid by the pterygoids. The pre-
sphenoid is larger, continued forwards and upwards into the
inter-orbital septum, which remains mostly cartilaginous. Near
the anterior and upper margin of the pre-sphenoid is a large notch
on either side for the passage of the optic nerve, the three eye-
muscle nerves and the first branch of the trigeminal. The place
of the orbitosphenoids is taken by membrane or cartilaginous
continuations of the interorbital septum, but the alisphenoids
are large and abut upwards against the frontals and with a lateral
flange against the postfrontals. These send down a conspicuous
process which forms sutures with an upward process of the jugal
and another of the ectopterygoid; it is this compound pillar
which partly divides the orbit from the infratemporal or lateral
fossa. The size of these and the upper temporal fossae stand in
an inverse ratio to each other. The upper fossae are still
comparatively large in the long-snouted Gavialis and Tomis-
toma, whilst these holes almost completely disappear in the
alligators, namely, in the broad- and short-snouted members of
the order, which chew their prey. In extinct Crocodilians the
upper fossae were the larger. The temporo-mandibular muscle
which lifts or shuts the lower jaw arises from the walls of the
upper fossa, passes beneath the jugal-arch and is inserted upon
the supra-angular portion of the lower jaw. In the more recent
crocodiles this muscle is more and more superseded by the
pterygo-mandibular muscle, which, arising chiefly from the dorsal
surface of the much-broadened pterygoid, fills the widened space
between the latter and the quadrate, and is inserted into the outer
surface of the angular bone. The arrangement of this muscle
secures a more advantageous leverage of the jaw, and is capable
of more powerful development than the other, which is con-
sequently on the wane a nice illustration of onward, ortho-
genetic evolution. The dentary bones of the under jaw form a
suture, later a symphysis; this is very long in the long-snouted
genera, in which the splenials likewise form a long symphysis;
in the others the mandibular symphysis is much shorter and the
splenials remain widely separated. The articular bone is short,
forms a transverse cup for the quadrate, or a saddle-shaped cup,
and is perforated by the Siphonium (see below under Ear). The
angle is upturned, formed by the articular, angular and,
laterally, by the supra-angular bone; the opercular or counter-
part of the splenial lies on the outer side, forming part of the
anterior border of the oval foramen in the jaw.
The Chelonian skull agrees in many important features with
that of Sphenodon and of the crocodiles, but it is composed of
fewer bones, the ectopterygoids, lacrymals and postorbitals
being absent, often also the nasals, unless they are fused with the
prefrontals. The vomer is unpaired and forms a septum between
the nasal passages, which, except in Sphargis, are ventrally
roofed over to a variable extent by wings sent out by the
palatines, joining the sides of the vomer. Most of the con-
figurations of the other cranial bones are well represented in the
accompanying figures. The palatines form a continuous broad
floor with the pterygoids, which are extensively and firmly
joined to the quadrates and to the basisphenoid. There are no
Eustachian tubes. The occipital condyle is distinctly triple and
the basioccipital is frequently excluded from the foramen
magnum. The lateral occipitals early send out a pair of stout
wings, the ventral of which joins a stout ventrilateral process
of the basioccipital, both forming a thick knob especially in
Chelone, and a dor,solateral wing, which broadly joins the large
opisthotic bone. This connects the lateral occipital and the
supraoccipital with the upper portion of the quadrate. On the
top of the quadrate and upon the lateral dorsal portion of this
compound transverse process (which of course corresponds to
the paroccipital process of crocodiles, &c.) lies the squamosal,
about which more presently. The two wings of the lateral
ANATOMY]
REPTILES
149
occipital, part of the opisthotic, the quadrate, and part of the I the parietals. They represent of course the columellae cranii or
pterygoids, form the bony borders of the middle ear- cavity, | pterygoidal columellae; if they are of alisphenoidal origin the
term epipterygoids is a misnomer; the same applies
to these structures in other reptiles. Through the
space enclosed by the pterygoid, basioccipital,
opisthotic and quadrate, enters the cranial carotid
artery, sometimes piercing the posterior rim of the
pterygoid; then the canal runs along the dorsal side
of this bone and opens near the cranial columella.
The arcades over the temporal region are most vari-
able. Potentially Chelonians possess all the three
arcades of the crocodiles, but it so happens that
never more than one fenestra is present. The
false roof over the temporal region is most complete
in Sphargis and in the Chelonidae. Excepting
Sphargis the supraoccipital extends far beyond the
back of the cranium in shape of a long unpaired
crest, which never diverges, or sends out lateral
processes, but it is joined, and partly overlaid for a
great part of its length, by the parietals in Chelonidae
and Sphargis. In these genera the much-enlarged
parietal, the equally large postfrontal, with the
squamosal behind, the jugal below, and a large
quadrato-jugal, form one continuous bony roof over
the whole temporal fossa, which is widely open
behind, the space being bordered by supraoccipital,
opisthotic, squamosal and parietal. All other
FIG. 13. Dorsal aspect of skull of
Testudo tabidala (from nature), an,
anterior nares; /, frontal, on either
side of which are the orbits, bounded
behind by ps, the postfrontal; bo,
basioccipital; ep, epiotic; so, supra-
occipital ; 9, quadrate ; s, squamosal ;
pa, parietal; po, periotic bones.
FIG. 14. Ventral surface of skull of Tes-
tudo tabulate, (from nature), bo, basi-
occipital ; bs, basisphenoid ; ep, epiotic ; Chelonians show a great reduction of this roof.
m, maxilla; pi, palatine; pm, pre-
maxilla; pt, pterygoid; q, quadrate;
g_/',quadrato-jugal; so, supraoccipital.
which is open behind; through it extends horizontally the
columellar rod, received with its outer portion by a notch on the
posterior side of the quadrate. This is of very complicated
shape. Its outer margins form most of the tympanic frame;
the posterior margins being curved backwards leave a wide notch
behind in the Cryptodira and in Sphargis, but in the Pleurodira
this part of the quadrate is transformed into a trumpet, the rim
of which, forming a complete ring, carries the tympanic mem-
brane. The tympanic cavity thus formed often leads into a
deep recess which extends into the hollowed-out squamosal
(e.g. in Testudo) towards the opisthotic and bears some resem-
blance to the intricate tympanic recesses which pervade that
region of the crocodile's skull. With its upper anterior and
aji
FIG. 15. Side view of skull of Testuao tabulata (from nature).
an, angular; ar, articular; d, dentary; f, frontal; j, jugal; m,
mandible; n, naso-prefrontal ; pa, parietal; pi, palatine; ps,
postfrontal; q, quadrate; qj, quadrato-jugal.
inner portion the quadrate joins the large prootic bone which is
usually completely fused with the rest of the opisthotic, but in
Sphargis it remains separate, and in this turtle the sutures
between the otic bones and the supraoccipital also persist. In
front of the prootics the bony lateral walls of the brain-case end
in Sphargis, but in most of the other Chelonians bony ali-
sphenoids are represented by a pair of epipterygoids which rest
upon short upward processes of the pterygoids and are joined by
much longer, rather thin, but broad descending lamellae from
The parietal does not send out dorsolateral expan-
sions; and the postfrontal likewise forms no ex-
pansions. It joins the rather short malar, forming
the posteriororbital bridge, which posteriorly is
connected by the quadrato-jugal with the upper
portion of the quadrate and with the squamosal. The latter
rests upon the quadrate and is in no connexion with the parietal.
Consequently the whole temporal fossa is quite open. The hori-
zontal bridge or arcade is to a certain extent homologous with the
infra-temporal arcade. All the bones which border the temporal
fossa vary much in extent. The greatest reduction has taken
place in Cistudo and in Geoemyda, the latter an Indian genus of
Testudinidae, in which the quadrato-jugal is lost, leaving a wide
gap in the horizontal arcade. The Chelonians form an instruc-
tive parallel to mammalian conditions by the broad contact of
the squamosal with the malar, e.g. in Chelone, whilst the quad-
pm
FIG. 1 6. Dorsal Aspect of Skull of Chelys matamata. bo, basi-
occipital; eo, exoccipital; /, frontal; j, jugal; m, maxilla; pm,
premaxilla; pa, parietal; pr, prefrontal; ps, postfrontal; pt,
pterygoid; q, quadrate; s, squamosal; so, supraoccipital.
rato-jugal, having in all Chelonians lost its original ventral
connexion with the jugal, may actually get lost as in all the
REPTILES
[ANATOMY
Lacertilia. The zygomatic arch of the Mammalia is formed
(cf. also Agamidae) out of the supratemporal arch of Sphenodon,
null
FIG. 17. Ventral Aspect of Skull of Chelys matamata. bo, basi-
occipital; bs, basisphenoid ; mdl, mandible; oh, opisthotic;
pi, palatine; pm, premaxilla; po, prootic; pb, pterygoid; g,
quadrate; s, squamosal; v, vomer.
FIG. 18. Lateral Aspect of Skull of Chelys matamata. an, an-
gular; ar, articular; bo, basioccipital ; d, dentary; op, opisthotic;
m, maxilla; pa, parietal; pm, premaxilla; pr, pref rental; ps,
postfrontal; pt, pterygoid; q, quadrate; s, squamosal; sg,
supra-angular.
after the loss of the postorbital element and of the quadrato-
jugal, the squamosal gaining connexion with the upper, not
posterior and ventral, branch of the jugal or malar bone.
The mandibular halves form a complete osseous symphysis,
the only instance in reptiles; all the other elements retain their
sutures. The articular portion of the articular bone forms
several shallow cups and a slight anterior knob, best developed
in Chelone. The angular bone does not help to form the posterior
upper angle. The coronoid, or complementary element, is
often small; the supra-angular and the splenial or opercular
are always present, mostly also a pre-splenial wanting in
Testudinidae (cf. G. Baur).
The hyoid apparatus is well developed, and sometimes
assumes large dimensions, especially in Chelys. The two pairs
of " horns " are the first and second branchial arches, whilst
the hyoid arches are reduced to a pair of small, frequently only
cartilaginous nodules, attached near the anterior corners of the
basis linguae, which generally fuses with the os entoglossum in
the tip of the tongue. In Chelydidae the long median basal or
copular piece forms a semi-canal for the reception of the trachea.
In the skull of the Lacertilia the arcades over the temporal
region vary much in composition and numbers. There are at
most two arcades and two windows. First the posttemporal
arcade, enclosing the posttemporal fenestra, which is framed
mainly by the large paroccipital process below and the long
parietal process above, both meeting distally, and the quadrate
is carried by the paroccipital process. In the corner, in front,
where the three bones meet, lies the squamosal, connecting
parietal and quadrate. This squamosal, when not too much
reduced, has an upper parietal and an anterior horizontal arm ;
the latter is essential for the formation of the second horizontal
arcade, which makes the lower border of the supra-temporal
window. The infra-temporal arcade, namely a quadrato- jugal
+jugal arch, is absent in all Lacertilians owing to the complete
absence of the quadrato-jugal element.
In Heloderma and Geckos the posttemporal is the only arcade.
In the Amphisbaenids and in Aniella, practically also in
Anelytropsis, all the arcades are lost. All the other families
FIG. 19. Skull of Chlamydosaurus kingii (old male), showing
much differentiated teeth. I, ventral aspect; 2, posterior;
3, profile, showing the enormous process at the hinder end of the
lower jaw.
of lizards and the chameleons have two arcades. We begin the
description of the horizontal arcade with those families in which
it is most complete, and most like that of Sphenodon. In
Varanus it is formed by four bones. The postfrontal is short;
to it is attached the postorbital, which sends a long horizontal
process to join the squamosal J splint, and this connects with the
1 There is a much-debated question of the homologies of the one
or two elements, both apparently membrane bones, which connect
the upper end of the quadrate with the parietal and with the supra-
temporal arch. The question becomes acute in the snakes, whether
the single element connecting skull and quadrate has to be called
squamosal or supratemporal. Space forbids here to expound the
matter, which has been very ably reviewed by S. W. Williston
(" Temporal Arches in the Reptilia," Biolog. Bulletin, vii. No. 4,
1904, pp. 175-192 ;\i. also F. W. Thyng, Tufts College Studies, II.
2, 1906). About ten different names have been applied to these two
elements, and two, namely, squamosal and supratemporal, are
being used quite promiscuously. When only one element is present,
the present writer uses the term squamosal, and there are reasons
making it probable that this element is the squamosum of mammals.
When both elements are present, the more ventral or lateral of the
two is termed squamosal, that which always helps to form the
ANATOMY]
REPTILES
upper anterior end of the quadrate; between the quadrate,
the squamosal and the long parietal process lies the likewise
splint-like supratemporal, attached by most of its length to the
parietal process. The jugal has only one arm, and this connects
the maxilla with the postorbital, completing the posterior
orbital border. There is a wide gap between jugal and quadrate.
In Tejidae the arcade is the same, but the squamosal reaches the
jugal, both meeting the postorbital. In Lacerta the arcade is
essentially the same, but the window is completely filled up by
the postfrontal, which extends so far back as to reach the supra-
temporal. In the Agamidae the
arcade is strong and simplified.
Postfrontal and postorbital are
represented by one forked piece.
This squamosal and the post-
frontal mass are connected by the
upper, much up-curved end of- the
jugal, which is thrust between
them. This arrangement is
further emphasized in Iguana, the
upper end of the jugal being much
enlarged so as to form the greater
portion of the arcade, and keeping
the postfrontal mass and the
simple squamosal widely asunder.
In Heloderma post- and prefrontals
are in contact with each other,
FIG. 20. Dorsal aspect of separating the frontal bone from
skMotHelodermahorridum. the orbit; the jugal joins only
/,frontal;j,jupl;/,lachry- th pre f ront al, and there is no
mal ; m, maxilla ; n, nasal; ^ , j t_ .
pa, parietal, pm, premax- further arcade whatever. A
ilia ; pr.prefrontal ; ps, post- vestige of a supratemporal (?)
frontal; pt, pterygoid; g, lies on the outside of the base
quadrate;*, squamosal; so, of the squamosa i between 5 and
supraoccipital. . ,.
q in fig. 20.
The chameleons are peculiar. The posttemporal arcade,
spanning a wide space, is formed by a long process of the supra-
temporal - squamosal,
which is directed up-
and backwards to join
the parietal, which ex-
tends back by a long
unpaired process. The
horizontal arch is broad
and short, squamosal
and postfrontal, form-
ing a broad suture;
below they are joined
by the jugal; above
the suture lies, in cham-
eleon, a tiny piece,
perhaps a vestige of
the dislodged post-
orbital.
The jugal bones,
to continue the descrip-
tion of the appendi-
7> r
FIG. 21. Skull of Chamaeleon vulgaris.
ag, angular; ar, articular; bs, basisphe-
noid; d, dentary ; j, jugal; m, maxilla;
me, median ethmoid ; p l and f?, parie-
tals; pi, palatine; pr, prefrontal; pt,
pterygoid ; q, quadrate ; sg, supra-angu-
lar; so, supraoccipital; sq, squamosal.
cular parts of the skull, are firmly joined to lateral processes
of the pterygoids by the ectopterygoids; further forwards
they are extensively connected with the maxillaries. These
rest against strong transverse palatine processes. The pal-
atines form a medium symphysis; posteriorly they diverge
together with the pterygoids, which articulate with the quad-
supratemporal bridge, generally with the postorbital, sometimes
also with the jugal. The more dorsal element is mentioned as
supratemporal; it is always smaller, and mostly restricted to the
corner between the squamosal and the parietal process against
which it rests. Either of these two elements articulate with the
quadrate. Both elements are present in Labyrinthodonts and in
most of the extinct groups of reptiles; among recent forms in
Lacertidae, Varanidae, Tejidae; one three-armed piece in Sphenodon,
chameleons and crocodiles, without, in Sphenodon at least, any trace
of a compound nature; one piece, forked, in Agamidae; one simple
piece in most of the other Lacertilia, and in snakes.
rates and with the basisphenoid by a pair of strong basiptery-
goid processes. A slender vertical rod of bone, the columella
cranii, arises from the dorsal surface of each pterygoid and,
passing at a distance from the cranial capsule, is sutured to a
short lateroventral process of the parietals Such a pair of
columellje exists in nearly all Lacertilia (distinguished by many
systematists as Kionocrania) with the exception of the chame-
leons and the Amphisbaenidae. In many lizards, however,
this columella, or epipterygoid, does not quite reach the parietal,
leaning instead against the prob'tic; possibly it has been evolved
out of the alisphenoid, and Chelonians seem to support this
view. The premaxillary bone is single, except in the Skinks
and in some Geckos; ventrally it touches the vomers which
vary much in size; they are always paired although suturally
connected; posteriorly they pass into, and fuse with, the
palatines before these send off their maxillary processes. Be-
tween the vomer and its maxillary is a longitudinal hole. Often,
e.g. in Lacerta, the vomers enclose a median hole near their
anterior end, for Jacobson's organ. Dorsally the premaxilla
sends a median process backwards to the nasals. These are
paired, and fuse together only in Uroplates and in Varanus.
The external nasal fossae are sometimes very large, and their
anterior half appears blocked by the ossified turbinals, e.g. in
Varanus and Tejus. Prefrontals are always present, often
fused with the lacrymals; in Heloderma, in Aniella and in
chameleons the prefrontals extend so far back as to meet the
postfrontals, excluding thereby the frontals from the orbital
rim. The frontals are either paired, as in Varanus, Lacertidae,
Heloderma, Anguidae, Scincidae.Anelytropsidae, Aniella, Amphis-
baenidae, and in some Geckoninae; or they are fused into one
bone, as in the Eublepharinae, chameleons, Tejidae, Iguanidae,
Agamidae, Xenosaurus. The parietals are double in the
Geckos, in Uroplates and Xantusia; in all the others they
form one coossified mass, generally with a pineal foramen,
except in Eublepharinae, Amphisbaenidae, Tejidae, in Aniella
and other degraded forms. In the majority the pineal fora-
men lies in the middle of the parietal, but in the Iguanidae it
is near the frontal, and actually in the frontal in chameleons.
As regards the brain-case, there is a cartilaginous inter-
orbital septum, connected posteriorly with the slender, bony
presphenoid; ventraUy on to this is fused a vestige of the
parasphenoid, a narrow and thin splint which sometimes can
be dislodged. The whole of the anterior wall of the brain-case
is membranous, excepting a pair of separate ossifications,
which do but rarely touch any of the cranial bones, as frontal,
parietal or prootics. The ossifications are irregular in shape,
each sending out a downward process which curves inwards
almost to meet its fellow; between these issue the olfactory
lobes. W. K. Parker recognized them as the alisphenoids;
E. D. Cope named them postoptics, and remarked that in
Sphenodon they coexist with an orbitosphenoid bone. The
prootic has a notch in its anterior lateral margin for the passage
of the trigeminal nerve. The opisthotic portion of the petrosal
mass is intimately fused with the lateral occipital bones and
their paroccipital process, and sometimes, e.g. Tejus, encloses
with them many intricate recesses of the middle ear-chamber,
which extend also into hollow and swollen thick downward
processes of the basioccipital. These cavities of both sides
communicate with each other through the cancellous substance
of the basioccipital and basisphenoid. There are no Eustachian
tubes opening into the mouth through the base of the skull.
The occipital condyle is tripartite, the lateral occipitals
partaking of the articulation; very rarely, e.g. in Amphis-
baenidae (see fig. 22), the basioccipital portion is so much
reduced that the skull articulates by two very broad condyles.
The halves of the under jaw are but loosely united, either
by ligament only or by an at least very movable suture. The
jaw is compound and the numerous constituent bones mostly
retain their sutures. Besides the dentary and articular, angular
and supra-angular on the lateral side, and the opercular
or splenial on the inner side, there lies on the dorsal side the
coronoid, six pairs in all. The posterior angle of the jaw
152
REPTILES
[ANATOMY
is always formed by the articular bone, not by the angular
which lies on the ventral side, about the middle of the
jaw; it is fused
with the articular
in Geckos, some
Tejidae, Amphis-
baenidae, and
some other bur-
rowing kinds. The
splenial is absent
in chameleons;
near the vanish-
ing point in some
of the Agamidae.
The coronoid is
always present,
for the insertion
o f masseter
muscles. In the
pleurodont lizards
the outer wall of
the dentary forms
a ledge, against
the inner side of
which are fixed
the teeth with
cementum.
The snakes'
skull shows many
peculiarities, and
most of the bones
of the cranial capsule fuse together without sutures. The
occipital condyle is triple, the lateral occipitals and the basi-
occipital taking equal share in its composition; the basioccipital
is excluded from the foramen magnum; frequently one common
epiphysial pad covers this tripartite condyle. The supra-
occipital is likewise excluded from the margin of the foramen
magnum by the lateral occipitals. The basisphenoid is prolonged
forwards into a long presphenoidal rostrum, on the upper sur-
face of which the trabeculae cranii, which persist as cartilages,
extend forwards to blend with the median ethmoidal cartilage.
There are no ali- and no orbitosphenoids, their places being
taken by downward extensions of the frontal bones, which
descend to this sphenoidal rostrum and then turn inwards
to meet together on the floor of the cranial cavity. There is
consequently no interorbital septum. The parietals also de-
scend laterally, but unite with the basisphenoid by suture. On
e.a.
3
FIG. 22. Skull of Monopeltis sphenorhynchus.
I , dorsal aspect ; 2, ventral aspect ; 3, lateral
aspect ; 4, posterior aspect, ar articular ; bs,
basisphenoid ; d, dentary ;/, frontal ; m, max-
illa; n, nasal; oc, oc, occipital condyles; of,
occipital foramen ; pal, palatine ; pa, parietal ;
pm, premaxilla; ptg, pterygoid; q, quadrate;
so, supraoccipital ; sq, squamosal ; v, vomer.
FIG. 23. Skull of Python sebae. ar, articular; ca, columella
auris ; d, dentary ; /, frontal ; m, maxilla ; p, parietal ; pm, pre-
maxilla; po, prootic; pr, prefrontal; ps, postfrontal; pt, ptery-
goid; q, quadrate; s, squamosal; t, transversum; tb, turbinal.
the base of the skull we note various processes for the insertion
of ventral cervicooccipital muscles, much used during the
act of vigorous striking. Boidae have a long sphenoidal ridge
and thick basipterygoid processes; others have one or more
median knobs or crests, and the Viperidae have a very pro-
minent and large ridge. The parietals fuse together into an
unpaired mass whence arises mostly a strong median crest
which projects a little beyond the occiput; there is no parietal
or pineal foramen. There are paired frontals, postfrontals,
f.
/ pr
FIG. 24. Skull of Vipera nasicornis. ar,
articular; ca, columella auris; d, dent-
ary ; /, frontal ; m, maxilla ; pf, poison fang ;
pm, premaxilla; pr, prefrontal; ps, post-
frontal ; pt, pterygoid ; q, quadrate ; s, squa-
mosal ; /, transversum or ectopterygoid.
prefrontals and
nasals; the latter
are said to coossify
in Charina only.
The position of the
prefrontals is vari-
able. In the boas,
for instance, they
meet, separating the
nasals from the
frontals; they are
in contact with the
nasals in the boas,
burrowing snakes
and- in Xenopeltis,
but more or less
widely separated
from them, and
often from each other, in the Colubridae and Viperidae. The
premaxillary is single-, and only in Glauconiidae connected
with the maxillaries; in the others it is but loosely connected
with the ethmoidal end of the skull, for instance, with the
turbinals, which are osseous and well developed in pythons.
The whole appendicular apparatus is most loosely attached
to the skull, at least in the typical snakes, and since they do not
chew their prey but only hook it in, so to speak, during the act
of swallowing, the whole apparatus is as movable as possible.
The whole palatal apparatus shows many modifications, but
the maxillaries, palatines and pterygoids always remain widely
asunder, and from the mid-line. Some of the modifications,
so far as they are used for taxonomic purposes, are mentioned
in the article SNAKES: Classification. In the majority of snakes
the maxillaries form the borders of the mouth, and they are but
loosely attached to the other bones, to their palatine processes,
to the palatines, and with their posterior ends, by the ectoptery-
goids to the pterygoids. In the Viperidae the maxillaries are
much shortened and articulate extensively with the prefrontals;
they can be erected, or rather pushed forwards, by the ectoptery-
goids (see SNAKES); they are not connected with the palatines.
The pterygoids diverge posteriorly and articulate loosely with
the quadrates; in the original condition the articulation is near
the distal end of the quadrate, e.g. in Boidae, and the pterygoids
may form an additional attachment with the mandibles; in the
Viperidae the pterygoids are somewhat shortened and are attached
to about the middle of the quadrate shafts; in the Amblycepha-
lidae they are still shorter and do not reach these bones. The
ectopterygoids are lost by the burrowing Typhlopidae and Glau-
coniidae. The quadrate is always extremely movable; besides
being in a most curious way connected with the outer end of the
columellar rod (see below, Ear), it is suspended from the skull
by the squamosal. The squamoso-quadrate connexion is very
loose; that of the squamosal with the skull varies much. In
the majority of snakes it slides quite freely upon the parietal;
it is much longer than the quadrate in the boas, much shorter
than the elongated and slender quadrate in most of the poisonous
snakes. Lastly, in most of the ancient burrowing snakes, e.g.
Typhlops, Glaucoma, Ilysia and Uropeltis, the squamosal has
worked its way into the cranial wall so that the quadrate, itself
also much shortened, rests directly upon the cranium.
The Vertebral Column.
The vertebrae of all reptiles are gastrocentrous, that is to say.
the centra or bodies of the vertebrae are formed by the originally
paired, interventral cartilages, while the basiventrals are reduced,
persisting either as so-called intercentra or wedge-bones, or as
intervertebral pads, or disappearing altogether; the basidorsal
elements form the neural arch. At the earlier stages of develop-
ment the gastrocentrous vertebrae behave in the same way as
in the Urodela, except that the interdorsal pair of elements is
suppressed from the beginning (the very elements which in
ANATOMY)
REPTILES
Stegocephali and most Anura form the centre), therefore the
typical batrachian vertebrae are notocentrous. If the re-
maining three pairs of constituent elements of each vertebra
(the neural arch, the centrum and the intercentra) remain
separate, the vertebrae are called temnospondylous (rifjivu,
I cut, <rir6v8v\os, a vertebra) . If the neural arches and the centra
are suturally united, or are fused with each other, the vertebrae
are called stereospondylous (artptfa, solid). In many fossil
reptiles most or many of the vertebrae are temnospondylous;
in most of the recent Amniota 1 they are consolidated, but the
atlas or first vertebra remains usually in a relatively primitive
condition, and is temnospondylous but for the usual modification
that its centrum becomes attached to that of the second vertebra
and forms its odontoid process. The composition of gastrocent-
rous vertebrae is best illustrated by the first and second cervical
vertebrae of crocodiles, whence by reduction and fusion the
structure of every other vertebra can be explained. We have
only to add that the ribs are genetically derived from lateral
outgrowths of the basiventral elements, whilst the chevron bones
are mere ventral outgrowths from the same basal cartilages.
The most primitive vertebral column is that of the Geckos. The
is* CJ e f,
7 ^ 8 '/- 9 10
FIG. 25. Composition of Vertebrae of Reptiles. In all the
figures the right side looks towards the head.
i. Diagram showing the relative position of the four pairs of arcualia
which constitute a complete quadripartite vertebra. B.D., Basi-
dorsal; B.V., basiventral; I.D., interdorsal; I.V., interventral, shaded
vertically in all figures; N., position of axil of the spinal nerve, i.e.
behind the neural arch of its vertebra. 2, 3. Side views of the
constituent cartilaginous blocks of a caudal vertebra (2) and a trunk
vertebra (3) of Archegosaurus, as typical examples of temnospondyl-
ous quadripartite and tripartite vertebrae. For comparison with
Reptilian vertebrae. 4. Temnospondylous tripartite vertebra of
the trunk of Eryops, a Permian reptile. 5. Composition of the
second vertebra of a crocodile. 6. A vertebra of which the vasi-
ventrals are reduced to an " interventrum." 7. Side view of the
first and second : cervical vertebra of a crocodile. 8. The same
analysed. Nl, N2 and N3, position of the first, second and third
spinal nerves; S.D., occasionally called Proatlas, the detached
spinous process, or supradorsal, of the atlas or first vertebra. 9.
The first three vertebrae of Sphenodon. 10. The complete atlas
vertebra of an adult Trionyx, still typically temnospondylous.
vertebra consists chiefly of a large neural arch which rests broadly
upon the centrum; this is a tube, more or less calcified and
ossified, with a narrow waist in the middle, widening head- and
tailwards. The tube is hollow, the chorda dorsalis passing
through the whole column, and there are ho proper joints
between the centra, which are amphicoelous. Between the
centra lies a separate element, the so-called intercentrum, which
is ring-shaped and acts as an interarticular pad instead of a
joint. The first of these rings forms the ventral half of the atlas
ring; the second is attached to the cranial surface of the second
centrum, and produces, like some of the next following ones, a
vertical median blade of bone, a true hypapophysis. Such
intercentra exist throughout the length of the vertebral column;
in the tail they are enlarged and carry a pair of chevrons, which
are cartilaginous and have the tendency of fusing by superficial
1 There remained a flaw in the correctness of the view that the
bodies of the amniotic vertebrae are formed by the paired interven-
tral pieces, since the bodies were known always to appear from the
first as unpaired, cartilaginous masses, until G. B. Howes found
them to consist of a right and left pair in the embryos of Sphenodon.
FIG. 26. Vertical section of
four (7th to loth) caudal
vertebrae of Sphenodon. a,
line passing through the
middle of centrum and
through part of the neural
arch, where the vertebrae
break off. (After Gunther.)
ossification on to the caudal ends of the centrum next in front,
to which they do not belong genetically. Exactly in the middle
of each vertebra the thin shell of the centrum forms a cartil-
aginous septum, of what is often wrongly called chordal car-
tilage. When this septum is complete, and this seems to be
the normal condition in the tail, the chorda is here rent
asunder, otherwise it is only constricted. This septum is but
slightly invaded by ossification, and consists of large cells
which retain the appearance of young or embryonic cartilage.
It coincides exactly with the line of transverse division of
most of the caudal vertebrae into
an anterior and a posterior half,
the division gradually extend-
ing right through the bone of
the neural arch. The same kind
of division, and from the same
causes, exists in Sphenodon
and in many lizards, in fact
in all those reptiles which can
reproduce their broken-off tail.
It is from the septal cartilage
that the regeneration starts*
(fig. 26).
Sphenodon also has biconcave vertebrae owing to the per-
sistence of the chorda dorsalis in the intervertebral region!
otherwise the vertebrae are solid. Intercentra occur from the
atlas regularly into the tail, where they carry chevron bones.
The atlas-ring (fig. 25, 9) is composed of the first intercentrum
and a pair of neural arches which remain quite separate and
carry on the dorsal side a pair of ossicles, the disconnected
supradorsal elements of the atlas, erroneously supposed to be
the remnants of the " proatlas."
Crocodiles. Remnants of the chorda persist in the middle of
the centra, which, in recent species, are mostly precocious, and
with a convex knob behind, but the first caudal is strongly
biconvex. Cartilaginous intercentral rings, pads or menisci,
occur throughout the column; in the tail they carry chevrons.
For the instructive detail of the composition of the first and
second cervical vertebrae see fig. 25, 7 and 8. Some of the
posterior neck and anterior thoracic vertebrae have an unpaired
hypapophysis arising from the centrum. The vertebrae have
the usual processes, viz. spinous process, a pair of anterior and
posterior zygapophyses arising from the neural arch, diapophyses
likewise from this arch for the articulation with the tubercular
portion of the rib; short parapophyses from the centra for the
capitular ends of the ribs; the transverse processes of the
1 2th vertebra, and following, carry the whole rib, and are like
the processes of the lumbar vertebrae diapapophyses; the
so-called transverse processes of the tail are mainly the anchy-
losed or fused ribs themselves.
Chelonians. The vertebrae are sometimes in the various
regions of the same column opistho-pro-or amphicoelous, or even
biconvex. Intercentra occur regularly on the first two or three
cervicals, and on the tail as paired or unpaired nodules, or as
chevrons, which articulate mostly with the previous centra and
occasionally fuse with them. Intercentral, fibrocartilaginous
disks occur regularly, mostly in the shape of rings; the first is
the transverse ligament of the atlas-ring. In the Trionychidae
(fig. 25, 10), but also in some other tortoises, the various pieces
of the atlas do not anchylose, and the first centrum remains also
movably attached to the second, although it sometimes carries,
1 Regeneration of the tail can take place in Sfhenodon, all Geckos,
Anguidae, Gerrhosauridae, Lacertidae, most Scincidae, and in many
Tejidae and Iguanidae; certainly not in chameleons, Varanus,
Agamidae, snakes, crocodiles and tortoises. Often the tail is so
brittle and the muscular cones are so loosely connected that part
can be thrown off by the muscular exertion of the creature itself.
The reproduced tail is, however, only a sham tail, since neither
centra nor arches, but only a non-segmented rod or tube of fibro-
cartilage is produced. It is, however, invested with new muscles
and with skin, but the scales often differ considerably from those of
the normal organ, sometimes showing reversion to an ancestral
form. For further detail see G. A. Boulenger, P.Z.S. (1888), p. 351,
and (1891), p. 466.
154
REPTILES
[ANATOMY
and fuses with, the second intercentral piece. The entire atlas
remains in a primitive, typically temnospondylpus condition.
On the other hand, in some Pleurodira, e.g. Platemys and Chelys,
all the constituent parts of the atlas coossify and form a com-
plete, solid vertebra, which articulates by a concave-convex
joint with the true centrum of the second vertebra. The
normal number of cervical vertebrae is eight in all Chelonians.
The last cervical has sometimes, e.g. Chelydra, a very peculiar
shape with strangely modified articular facets, in correlation
with the retractile neck. The neural spines of the trunk verte-
brae broaden out and fuse with the neural plates of the carapace.
A tertiary modification takes place in many Pleurodira with
the reduction of the neurals by the costal plates, which then
meet in the dorsal line and cover the neural spinal processes.
The caudal vertebrae are often much reduced in size, although
not always in numbers, when the tail is very short, as in the
marine turtles. In various species of Testudo about half a dozen
of the last caudal vertebrae fuse together into a veritable
urostyle, which is covered with a claw- or nail-shaped sheath
of horn. In some of the gigantic tortoises of Mauritius this
caudal vertebral complex is fully 3 in. long and 2 in. broad, of
an extraordinary appearance.
The vertebrae of the Lacertae, or Lizards proper, are a direct
further development of those of Sphenodon. The chorda dis-
appears; the vertebrae are procoelous, with an articulating
knob behind. Intercentrals, in the shape of osseous, unpaired
nodules or wedges, persist on most of the cervical vertebrae;
they are absent in the trunk and reappear in the tail, either
as wedges or with chevrons. The first intercentral forms the
central half of the atlas, with the neural half of which it is con-
nected by suture. The second fuses mostly with the cranial
end of the second centre and with the caudal and ventral surface
of the odontoid, forming a downward-directed hook. Fre-
quently the fusion remains incomplete, or the wedges may
completely merge into the epistropheal mass without leaving
any outward traces. Boulenger has made the important
observation that the intercentra of the tail are sometimes paired,
e.g. in Heloderma. When the caudal vertebrae are strongly
procoelous, the knob is very long and the chevrons are attached
to its neck, having shifted on to the vertebra in front, while
their basal intercentral piece, or pieces, remain in the original
position. In Ophisaurus the chevrons are absolutely fused with
the caudal ends of the centra and thus assume a superficial
resemblance to the vertebrae of Urodela. The splitting of the
tail-vertebrae and regeneration have been described on a previous
page. The trunk-vertebrae of the Tejidae and the larger
Iguanidae possess additional articulating processes and facets,
besides the usual processes. The Zygosphene is a wedge-shaped
process with two articular facets, which projects forward from
the anterior side of each neural arch. The Zygantrum forms a
corresponding excavation with a pair of articular surfaces on the
hinder side of the arch. The crests on the tail and trunk of
many lizards, e.g. Iguanidae, are entirely tegumentary structures
and not supported by the axial skeleton, except in some chame-
leons, e.g. Ch. cristatus, and in the peculiar genus Brookesia;
in these the accessory much-complicated processes are enor-
mously elongated and support the high cutaneous crest which
arises from the back, especially in B. ebenaud.
The. vertebrae of the snakes are procoelous (figs. 27,
28, 29). Besides the zygapophyses, they have zygosphenes on
the neural arches; the ribs articulate with the parapophyses.
Long, unpaired hypapophyses arise from the centre of the
anterior neck and trunk vertebrae to a variable extent. In
Dasypeltis and Rhachiodon a considerable number of these
processes perforate the oesophagus and act as crushers of the
shell of the eggs which these snakes swallow. The often-
repeated statement that these processes are capped with enamel
is erroneous. The caudal vertebrae are devoid of chevron
bones, but they carry paired hypapophyses, and they have
transverse processes which also are generally bent downwards.
Lastly, the numbers of vertebrae composing the whole column
and its various regions. In the snakes we can distinguish only
between atlas and epistropheus, trunk and tail. The numbers
vary exceedingly, in the trunk up to several hundred.
FIG. 27. Lateral aspect
of two trunk vertebrae
of Python, a, articular
processes of the zyga-
pophyses ; na, neural
arches ; ns, neural
spines; t, parapophyses.
zs. zygosphene.
FlG. 28. Posterior aspect
of a trunk vertebra of
Python (from nature),
a, zygapophyses; 6, ball
on the surface of the
centrum ; /, parapo-
physis; zg, zygantrum.
The tail may contain only a few,
e.g. in the burrowing Typhlops,
Glaucoma, Uropeltis; or it may be
very long, as for instance in Boa.
There is no obvious reciprocal cor-
relation between the length of the
trunk and the tail. In the other
orders of reptiles the neck is well ^ . .
, , , i , rlG. 20. Anterior aspect
marked, except in the snake-shaped of ^ trunlc vertebra of
lizards. If we define as first thoracic
vertebra that which is the first con-
nected with the sternum, all those
anterior being cervical, the neck-
vertebrae number 5 in chameleons, 7 in Sphenodon, 8 in
the Chelonians and in the lizards, with the exception of the
majority of Varanus, which have 9 like the Crocodilia.
THE NUMBER OF VERTEBRAE OF SOME SPECIMENS IN THE
MUSEUM OF ZOOLOGY, CAMBRIDGE, ENGLAND
Python (from nature).
a > zygapophyses; c, cup
" 08 f the
u
Thoracic.
!i
ao:
X
M
Ii
E
Lumbar
ribless.
Serial
Numbers
of the
Sacral
Vertebrae.
Caudal.
Sphenodon punctatum
Crocodilus vulgaris .
Alligator mississippien.
7
9
9
3.4
5
5
15 o
3
3
ri4in
2
2
all.
5
5
26, 27
25,26
25.26
3
33
40
Gavialis gangeticus .
9
7
2
3
3
25,26
33
Chelone viridis .
8
9
o
I9,2O,2I
l6+py-
gostyle
Macrolernys temmincki
8
9
O
o
i
19, 2O
27
Chelys matamata
8
8
o
17, 18
!7
Varanus niloticus
8
4
4
II
2
30,31
75 +
ii giganteus
9
2
i
16
I
3. 3 1
99
Iguana tuberculata .
8
4
2-3
10-9
I
26, 27
46
Uromastix spinipes .
8
4
I
ii
O
25,26
24
Trachysaurus rugosus
6
4
I
25
O
37.38
7+py-
*ostyleof
about 6
Cyclodus gigas .
7
4
2
21
o
35.36
o
Lacerta viridis .
7
3
2
15
28,29
40 +
Ophisaurus apus
o
o
O
o
55, 56
o
Chamaeleo vulgaris .
5
2
I
12
2
23, 24,
50
Rhampholeon spectrum
5
I
3
8
2
2O, 21
i?
The ribs, having arisen as lateral, separated off processes from
the basiventral elements, show many modifications in their
proximal attachments. These can be best studied on the
skeleton of a young crocodile (fig. 25, 7 and 8). The first pair
of ribs is very long and broad, attached to the unpaired ventral
piece of the atlas-ring; the tubercular portion is indicated by a
very small rugosity. The second pair of ribs is still larger; the
capitulum attached to the second intercentral piece which fuses
with the odontoid process; the tubercular process is weak or
represented only by a ligamentous connexion with a small knob
of the odontoid process; consequently the tuberculum has
shifted its attachment away from the second vertebra. The
other cervical, and the anterior thoracic, ribs have complete
ANATOMY]
REPTILES
155
capitular and tubercular processes, which, articulating with
the bodies and with dorsolateral processes of the neural
arches of their vertebrae,
enclose typical transverse
canals. In the posterior
thoracic region ^he ribs
are attached entirely to
transverse processes of
't cf the neural arches, both
ep capitular and tubercular
portions having left the
bodies or centra; the
same arrangement pre-
vails in the tail, but the
ribs are very short and
soon fuse with the pro-
cesses. The two sacral
ribs are very thick,
FIG. 30. Lateral aspect of Three Thor- articulating with the
acic Vertebrae of Crocodilus vulgaris centra and the bases of
(after Mi vart). c, cup on the anterior their neural arch, and
cula'of ribs; u, uncinate processes; the intervertebral Joint !
IT, dorsal or vertebral portions of In Sphenodon the first
the ribs; re, ventral or sternal card- three ribs are repre-
laginous portions of ribs. sented by bands of CQn
nective tissue only, with similar attachments as in crocodiles.
The other cervical ribs are osseous; their short capitula retain
their partly intercentral attachment, while the tubercula are
carried by low processes of the centra. In the thorax both
capitulum and tuberculum merge into one facet, which is
gradually shifting farther tailwards and upwards until the
attachment reaches them, and then lies upon the neuro-central
suture. The first caudal vertebrae also possess ribs, very short
and soon fusing with the diapophyses of the neural arches. In the
cervical region of the Chelonia the ribs seem to be absent. In
the thorax they retain their primitive intercentral position
throughout life, assuming (except the first pair, which remains
short and least modified) an absolutely intervertebral position.
From the lumbar or presacral region backwards the capitula
are gradually shifting upon short processes of the centra, until
in the tail the vestigial ribs are carried by the diapophyses of
the neural arches. In Sphargis (fig. 31) all the ribs are free; in
the other Chelonians
the ribs, generally in
the recent species,
flatten and become sur-
rounded by the grow-
ing membrane bone
of the dorsal plates,
and the cartilage of the
ribs (except the capit-
ular and neck portion
FIG. 31. -Three Vertebrae of Sphargi* of the rib which cannot
coriacea. c, vertebral centra ; , neural be got at by the dermal
arches; r, ribs. bones) undergoes a pro-
cess of calcification.
Ultimately this is resorbed and its place is taken by the dermal
bone, which forms, so to speak, a cast of the rib. Several of the
short presacral ribs, and of course the postsacrals, are not drawn
into these enormous changes, although the carapace covers,
and indirectly affects, them.
Certain changes initiated in Sphenodon are more marked in
the ribs of the Lacertilia; cervical ribs are often long in the lower
neck. In the trunk the capitular portions are often much
reduced, and in these cases the ribs are suspended mainly by
their tubercular portions, usually from the diapophyses of the
neural arches near the anterior end.
In the snakes all the vertebrae, from the second cervical to
the tail, carry ribs. These are very movable, articulating
with a rather large, more or less vertically placed facet, which is
borne by the parapophysis or transverse process; sometimes the
rib retains traces of the original division into a capitular and
tubercular portion. The ribs of the snakes, although long,
consist only of their dorsal portions. In snake-shaped lizards,
e.g. Pseudopus, rather long ribs begin with the fourth vertebra.
Uncinate processes are developed only in Sphenodon and in the
Crocodilia. They are not homologous structures, arising in the
former from, the posterior margin of the middle of the dorsal
portions of the ribs, overlapping the shaft of the next following
rib; in the crocodiles they arise out of the middle portion of the
ribs, remaining cartilaginous, whilst the middle portion codssifies
with the dorsal. Only in Sphenodon and Crocodiles the thoracic
ribs consist of three successive pieces; in the Lacertilia they
consist only of the dorsal and the ventral or costosternal. The
latter remain cartilaginous, or they calcify, but they never
ossify.
The sternum and further modifications of the ribs of the trunk.
The sternum of most reptiles consists (i) of an anterior portion
(presternum, Parker; prosternum, Fiirbringer; mesosternum of
Gegenbaur), which is generally broad, more or less rhomboid
and carries the shoulder-girdle, and on its posterior sides several
pairs of ribs; (2) of a posterior portion (mesosternum and xiphi-
sternum of Parker; xiphisternum of Furbringer; metasternum of
Gegenbaur), which is narrow, sometimes metameric, carries
several pairs of ribs, and generally divides into a right and left
xiphoidal half, each of which is continued into one or more ribs.
These ribs tend to lose their connexion, and in these cases the
sternum ends in two typical xiphoid processes. The distinction
between pre- and metasternum is arbitrary. In Sphenodon the
broad sternal plate carries only three pairs of ribs, the 8th to
toth, and there is no xiphisternum. The other ribs of the trunk
are long and compound, but they remain free and do not approach
the mid-line. From the posterior edge of the sternum to the
pelvis extends the complicated parasternum, embedded in the
abdominal wall; it is composed of about two dozen sets of
abdominal ribs, each set containing a right and a left and a
median chevron-shaped piece. In the Crocodilia the presternum
carries only two or one pair of ribs, always that of the loth
vertebra. The narrow, more or less metameric metasternum
carries seven or eight ribs, the last one to three being xiphoidal.
The post-thoracic ribs gradually decrease in length; about three
presacral vertebrae have no ribs, and so are typically lumbar.
The sacral ribs are generally the 25th and 26th in Crocodilus
and Alligator; sometimes the 24th and 2$th in Gavialis. The
parasternum consists of only seven or eight transverse sets, each
composed of two right and two left narrow splint-bones. All
these parasternal elements belong to the category of dermal
bones, together with those of the plastron of tortoises, inherited
from Stegocephalian conditions.
The Lacertilia present an almost endless variety. The
presternum is rhomboid and broad; it carries from three to six
pairs of ribs, mostly four or five; the first thoracic rib is that of
the pth vertebra, the only exceptions being the chameleons with
only five cervical vertebrae, and Varanus, which has usually
nine cervicals like the crocodiles. The last cervical rib in these
long-necked lizards is very long and has all the appearance of
having but recently severed its connexion with the sternum.
The presternum of Lacertilia sometimes has a window, e.g.
some species of Lacerla, Phrynosoma, Iguana, or a pair of
windows, e.g. Agama, Liolepis, Goniocephalus. The xiphi-
sternum carries a variable number of ribs; it is either scarcely
distinguished from the anterior plate, or it is long, and in these
cases either double, e.g. Iguana, Gerrhonolus, Varanus, Zonurus,
Agama, Cyclodus, Lacerta; or single, e.g. Zonosaurus. The post-
sternal ribs shorten gradually in the majority of the Lacertae,
and there is sometimes a ribless lumbar vertebra, e.g. in Iguana;
in many Lacertilia, however, the ventral cartilaginous halves
of the ribs are connected with those of the other side, either
by ligaments, or they join together, forming complete hoops
of thin cartilages. Such ribs occur in all Geckones and Cha-
meleons, but also in many Iguanidae, Scincidae, and even 'in
the Anelytropidae; their numbers vary much, from 27 in the
Scincoid Aconlias meleagris, 7-10 in Polychrus, 8 in Chamaeleo
i 5 6
REPTILES
[ANATOMY
vulgaris, 4 or 5 in Anolis, to 1-3 in some other iguanids, skinks
and geckos. Uroplates fimbriatus has 14, and the last four
pairs are separated from the dorsal portions of their ribs;
similar discontinuity occurs in geckos, the median portions
bearing a striking, although not fundamental, resemblance to
parasternal ribs.
In the lizards with much reduced fore limbs, the sternum
loses its connexion with the ribs from behind forwards; two
sternal ribs existing in the Tejid
^^s ^^ v^ ^0 Ophiodes and in the Scincoid
! ' ' Acontias, one only in Pygopus,
FIG. 3 2.-Rudimcnts of pec- none in Ophisaums s Pseudo-
toral arch i, of Acontias P us and Anguis (in the latter one
meleagris; 2, of Typhlo- rib is still connected in the
saurus aurantiacus (after embryo). The sternum is like-
wise quite free in Chirotcs in spite
of its functional limbs; the sternum is still a large plate, with
a window, and ending in two long, xiphoid processes.
Lastly, the sternum has vanished without a trace, as in the
snakes, in some species of Acontias, in the Anelytropidae,
Dibamus and Aniella (Fiirbringer). In the limbless genera
of Amphisbaenidae the sternum is very much reduced; in
Trogonophis alone it is still represented by a narrow trans-
verse bar connecting the ossicular vestiges of the shoulder-girdle;
in the other genera the sternum has shrunk to a pair of
nodules or to a single nodule.
The pectoral or shoulder-girdle in its completest condition
consists of a right and left scapula, coracoid, precoracoid and
clavicles, and an unpaired interclavicle or episternum. The
dorsal portion of the scapula remains cartilaginous, with or
without calcification, and is usually distinguished as supra-
scapula. The ventral portion of the precoracoidal and cora-
coidal mass remains likewise more or less cartilaginous, rather
unnecessarily distinguished as epicoracoid. Ossification begins
near the glenoid cavity and thence spreads, eventually with
the formation of a dorsal and a ventral centre. The resulting
suture separates the dorsal or scapular from the ventral or
coraco-precoracoidal mass. A kind of landmark, not always
reliable, between coracoid and precoracoid is the exit of the
supra-coracoidal nerve. The ventral margins of the coracoids
articulate in tenon and mortice fashion with the antero-lateral
margins of the sternum. The interclavicle, usually T-shaped,
is a dermal bone and rests upon the ventral side of the girdle.
The paired clavicles, sometimes fused together, rest upon the
anterior end of the interclavicle and extend transversely to the
acromial process of the scapula; the detail of the attachments
varies much.
The girdle is most complete in Sphenodon and in Lacertilia.
In Sphenodon the coracoid forms one continuous mass with
the precoracoid, without further differentiation; the clavicles
are fused with the interclavicle into one T-shaped mass, the
cross-arms of which are attached to the acromia by ligaments.
In the lizards (except Heloderma) the much-broadened central
and anterior halves of the girdle are fenestrated; the windows,
always closed by membranes, are bordered by bony processes,
distally by unossified cartilage. The first window to appear,
or the most constant, lies between the coracoid and its pre-
coracoid; in Anguis it is the only window, in this case not a
primary feature. In other lizards, e.g. Uromaslix, a second
window occurs between precoracoid and scapula, and even
a third window can appear in the scapula itself, causing in
many Iguanidae, e.g. Amblyrhynchus (see fig. 33, ms.), the so-
called mesoscapula; an analogous window within the coracoid
produces the mesocoracoid; unnecessary distinctions of little
morphological value considering the great variability of these
fenestrations in closely allied genera.
The chameleons have lost the clavicles and the interclaviclp,
and the scapula, which is very slender and long, is devoid of
an acromial process. The coracoid forms one mass with the
precoracoid, through the middle of which passes the supra-
coracoidal nerve; the coracoids articulate by their whole
bases with the sternum.
Geckos possess a complete shoulder-girdle; the ventral por-
tion shows, e.g. Hemidactylus, three pairs of windows; only
FIG. 33. Sternum and Shoulder-Girdle of Amblyrhynchus subcris-
tatus (after Steindachner). cl, clavicle; co, coracoid; h, humerus;
ic, interclavicle; me, mesocoracoid; ms, mesoscapula; pc, pre-
coracoid ; i, scapula ; st, sternum.
one in Uroplates. In the latter the interclavicle is much re-
duced; the clavicles meet each other and are slender rods.
In the Geckoninae and Eublepharinae the ventral halves of
the clavicles are dilated and possess each a foramen; the inter-
clavicle is cross-shaped.
In the more or less limbless genera of lizards the shoulder-
girdle is much reduced. In Chirotes, which still has functional
fore limbs, the clavicles and the interclavicle are absent, the
coracoids are not divided from the precoracoids; in the limb-
less Amphisbaenidae the girdle is reduced to a pair of cylindrical
ossicles in Amphisbaena, Blanus and Trogonophis; no vestiges
exist in Rhineura, Lepidosternon and Anops.
Foramina in the broadened clavicles occur also in various
Lacertae, for instance in the Iguanid Lacmanctus, in the Scin-
coid Trachysaurus, in Plestiodon, Zonasaurus and in Lacerta
simonyi, but not in L. agilis. In Mabuia the median portions
are especially broad and show each two foramina. Their pres-
ence can be of but very doubtful taxonomic value.
The girdle of the Crocodiles is considerably simplified.
Scapula and coracoidae, movably united, at least in younger
specimens. The precoracoid is slightly indicated by a process
of the coracoid, which is perforated by the supra-coracoidal
nerve near the glenoid cavity. Clavicles are absent. The
interclavicle is reduced to a long, flat splint-bone, which is
firmly fused on to the sternal cartilage. The Chelonian shoulder-
girdle shows several very remarkable modifications. Instead
of lying outside the trunk, it has been transferred into the cavity
of the trunk, the carapace with the ribs covering it from the
outside. An explanation of the changes implied in this trans-
position is still extant. Chelonians are, moreover, the only
reptiles besides Pterosauria in which the scapula is attached
to the skeleton of the trunk. The scapulae stand in a more
or less vertical position, and their dorsal end rests against the
inside of the nuchal plate, where this is sutured to the first
neural and the first costal plate, a little in front of and side-
wards from the first short rib. From near its ventral end the
scapula sends oft" a long process, which converges transversely
with its fellow. This process, the clavicle(I) or the precora-
coid of many authors, is the acromial process, the Plesiosauri
giving the clue as to how an acromion can assume such an
abnormal position. The coracoid, with a suture between it
and the scapula, is very long and extends horizontally back-
wards, not meeting that of the other side. The sternum being
ANATOMY]
REPTILES
absent, and clavicles and interclavicles forming the epi-and
endo-plastral elements of the plastron, the shoulder-girdle is
nowhere in contact with the skeleton except at its dorsal end.
The Fore Limbs. The humerus has near its upper end a median
process, and at a variable distance a lateral process, near which
is the biceps-fossa. Above the radial or outer condyle exists
a foramen for the passage of the radial nerve in Sphenodon, in
the Lacertilia, and 'in many Chelonians, e.g. Cholone and Sphargis;
such an ectepicondylar foramen is absent in crocodiles. Above
the ulnar condyle exists, but only in Sphenodon, the entepi-
condylar foramen, for the passage of the nervus medianus and
brachial vessels. Thus Sphenodon alone possesses both foramina,
the crocodiles neither.
Ulna and radius always remain distinct; the former is
generally the stouter although not always the larger bone. The
carpus may contain as many as 12 separate elements:
ulnare, intermedium, radiale, 2 centralia, a pisiform on the
ulnar and a small nodule in a corresponding position on the
medial side, and 5 distal carpals. In Sphenodon the centralia
are sometimes fused into one, and the radial nodule is absent;
the numbers of phalanges are, 2, 3, 4, 4 and 3 proceeding from
the first to the fifth finger. The carpus of the Chelonia is like-
wise primitive, with various unimportant reductions; Chelydra
possesses one or two centralia, whilst pisiform and extra radial
are absent; both these bones are present in Emys, but the
centrale fuses with the radial carpal, and the fourth and fifth
distal carpal are fused together. In Testudo the pisiform is small;
intermedium, centrale and radiale are represented by one bone
only, and the first, second and third distal carpals are fused,
whilst the two remaining are free. In the marine turtles the
fore limbs are transformed into paddles; the ulna is considerably
shorter than the radius; all the normal nine carpal elements
remain distinct; the pisiform is much enlarged, helping to
increase the paddling surface, and it has moved from the ulnar
carpal to the side of the fifth distal carpal. The three middle
fingers and toes have mostly 3 phalanges; the pollex and hallux
have always 2 ; the number of phalanges of the fifth finger
varies from 3 to i, of the fifth toe from 2 to o. The greatest
reduction occurs in Testudo and its allied genera of typical
land-tortoises, Homopus, Pyxis and Cinixys, the formula for the
fingers being 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 or i, and 2, 2, 2, 2, o for the toes. In
Pelomedusa all the fingers possess 2 free phalanges only, owing to
fusion of the first and second phalanges with each other.
Considerable advance is marked by the Crocodiles. The
intermedium and centrale are lost, the pisiform is small, ulnar
and radiale are considerably elongated and enlarged. Of the
distal carpals the two last are fused into one bone, and the
three first, together with the central, are transformed into a
pad-like cartilaginous and ligamentous piece between the large
radial and the first and second finger, to which the pad is firmly
attached. The other fingers articulate with the " humatum."
The result of the whole arrangement is the formation of two
main joints, one between fore arm and carpus, the other inter-
carpal. The number of phalanges is 2, 3, 4, 4, 3.
The conditions prevailing in Lacertilia are connected with
those of Sphenodon. The intermedium is lost, the other normal
carpalia are present, also the pisiform; the first distal carpal
is much reduced and the correspondingly enlarged radial carpal
comes into articulating contact with the first metacarpal. The
numbers of phalanges are 2, 3, 4, 4, and 2 or 3 for the fifth finger.
The hand of the chameleons is most modified; the first three
fingers form an inner bundle opposed to the outer or fourth and
fifth fingers; in correlation herewith the third and fourth distal
carpals are fused into one rather large mass; the other elements
remain free, and A. Stecker has found a small intermedium
present in the young, in a position which indicates that its
subsequent absence is due to loss, not fusion with neighbouring
elements.
The Pelvic Girdle. The ilium is attached to the vertebral
column by' means of the two sacraljribs. 1 The ischia and the
1 In all reptiles, except a few fossil groups, the ilio-sacral connexion
is post-acetabular, i.e. it lies in a transverse plane tailwards from
pubic bones join the ilium at the acetabulum, which is not
perforated, except in crocodiles. The ischia and pubes invariably
form symphyses at their ventral ends, except the so-called pubes
of the crocodiles, and these two symphyses are further con-
tinuous with each other, dividing the pubo-ischiadic space into
a right and left foramen obturatum of very variable size. They
are small and round in Testudo, divided by a broad, bony bridge,
larger in Chelone, separated by a chiefly ligamentous, partly
cartilaginous string; largest they are in Sphenodon and in the
Lacertilia. Frequently the symphysial portion at the anterior
end of the pubic symphysis remains cartilaginous, unpaired,
e.g. in most Chelonians and Lacertilians, comparable with the
epipubis of Urodela. A corresponding cartilage, the os cloacae
or hypoischium, is continued backwards, from the ischiadic
symphysis towards the vent, serving for the attachment of
sphincter muscles; it occurs in many lizards and tortoises.
In the Chelonians the pubic bones are generally much stronger
than the ischia, and they send out each a strong lateral pubic
process, directed forwards and outwards; the obturator nerve
passes through the wide obturator foramen. In the pleuro-
dirous tortoises the ends of the ilia and those of the lateral
processes of the pubes are much broadened and firmly anchy-
losed with the posterior costal plates and with the xiphiplastron
respectively. The whole pelvis, like the shoulder-girdle, lies
inside the body. The pelvis of Sphenodon is essentially like
that of the Lacertilia. The pubes are slender ; they send out a
pair of lateral processes, near the base of which the obturator
nerve pierces the shaft of its pubis. This lateral process is the
homologue of the long, slender pubis of birds. The chameleons'
pelvis is peculiar. The pubes are devoid of lateral processes,
but from their anterior end arises a pair of small cartilages, in
a transverse direction; their ends are connected by ligament
with the median anterior portion of the ischiadic symphysis.
The crocodilian pelvis is very aberrant. The ilium is broad
and sends two processes to the acetabulum, which retains a
foramen; the posterior process articulates movably with the
ischium; the preacetabular process fuses in very young speci-
mens with a separate, ossifying, cartilaginous piece, which then
forms a rough joint with the anterior portion or process of the
ischium, which closes the acetabulum on its ventral side. To this
anterior ischiadic process is attached the freely-movable, club-
shaped bone, generally called pubis. The homologies of these
club-shaped bones and of the small bone mentioned above are
not clear. The club-shaped bones remain asunder; the ischia
form a long and firm symphysis. The obturator nerve passes
out of the pelvis between the ischium and the club-shaped bone,
close to the posterior margin of the latter.
The posterior limbs show essentially the same composition
as the fore limbs, but the modifications in the various reptilian
orders are much greater. The femur has generally a well-
marked neck. Fibula and tibia remain distinct; the former
usually shows a reduction in thickness. In the tarsus we
observe never more than two proximal tarsal elements, a re-
duction due either to the suppression of the intermedium or to
its enlargement and concomitant loss of the tibial element.
The least-modified foot-skeleton is that of the Chelydridae, the
lowest Chelonians. The proximal row is composed of a fibulare,
and a much larger piece articulates with both tibia and fibula,
the " astragalus" ; the centrale is present; the first three distal
tarsals remain separate, each carrying a toe. The fused fourth
and fifth tarsals carry the fourth toe, and, laterally attached,
the hook-shaped fifth metatarsal. Chelone shows the same
arrangement, except that the centrale is fused with the astra-
galus; in Testudo, Emys, the fibulare, astragalus and centrale
are fused into one broad mass, with the result of forming a cruro-
tarsal and an intertarsal joint. The same arrangement reached
by the Testudinidae is universal in the Lacertae, with the further
modification that the three first distal tarsals fuse on to the
proximal ends of their respective metatarsals. Most aberrant
is the tarsus of Chameleons, in which the first and second toe
one passing through the acetabulum. In birds it is likewise post-
in mammals pre-acetabular.
i 5 8
REPTILES
[ANATOMY
form a bundle opposed to the rest; the fibulare and tibiale are
fused into one bone; the fused fifth and fourth distal tarsals form
a very large half-globular piece for the three outer toes, whilst
the second toe is carried by the third distal tarsal, besides which
there are three more small cartilages, one of which may be the
displaced second tarsal or the still independent central. The
tarsus of Sphenodon is like that of typical lizards, but none of its
distal tarsals are fused on to metatarsals. The Crocodilian foot
marks an advance. The astragalus is large, articulating well
with tibia and fibula, and against the fibulare, which forms a
typical, heel-shaped calcaneum. The fifth and fourth distal
tarsals carry the fourth toe and the hook-shaped fifth meta-
tarsal to which the fifth toe is reduced. The third, second and
first distal tarsalia scarcely contain osseous nodules; they form
together a wedge-shaped cartilaginous pad between the astra-
galus and the first and second toes. This attachment of the
distal tarsals to the metatarsals reminds us of the Lacertilian
condition, the result in either case being a still more marked
intertarsal joint in addition to the cruro-tarsal.
Most well-footed reptiles retain all the five toes; only the
crocodiles and a few tortoises have lost all the phalanges of the
fifth toe. The phalangeal numbers are in the Lacertilia 2, 3, 4,
5 and 3 in the fifth toe; in chameleons 2, 3, 4, 4, 3; in most
tortoises 2, 3, 3, 3, 2; but in Homo pus, Pyxis and Cinixys 2, 2,
2, 2, o; in the crocodiles 2, 3, 4, 4, o. The embryos of crocodiles
are said to be hyperphalangeal; i.e. as many as 7 phalanges on
the fourth; 5 or 6 on the fifth finger; 6 on the fourth toe, and
there are traces of the fifth toe. In the adult the fourth toe
remains without a claw. Burrowing and living in sand, or humus,
is in many lizards correlated with reduction of the limbs and
their girdles. The vestiges of the hind limbs come to lie as near
the vent as possible. The
reduction occurs in various
families, independently.
In most cases the fore
limbs disappear first, but
in the Amphisbaenidae,
FIG. 34. Vestiges of pelvic limb i, cf. Chirotes, and in the
of Lialis bartonii; 2, of Anguis fra- Tejidae, the reverse takes
gilis; 3, of Amphisbaenafuliginosa. place. Whilst degeneracy
f, femur ; il ilium ; ip, iliopectineum ; of the shoulder . girdle is
p, pubis; t, tibia. , , , , ,
delayed long after the loss
of the anterior limbs, that of the pelvic arch precedes the loss
of the hind limbs. Cope has drawn up a tabular statistic of
the loss of digits, limbs and
their girdles on pp. 202-3 f
his work, Crocodiles, Lizards
and Snakes of North America
(Washington, 1900). The
peculiar hind limbs of the
Dibamidae are described in
the article LIZARD.
The majority of snakes
have lost all traces of the
limbs and their girdles, ex-
cept the so-called Peropoda
(see SNAKES: Classification).
The vestiges of a Boa and
of a Glauconia are shown in
fig. 35-
^
r
FIG. 35. i, Vestigial pelvis and
limb of Glauconia macrolepis.
2, The same parts of Boa (after
Fiirbringer). /, lemur; il, ilium ;
ip, bone called " iliopectineum "
by Fiirbringer; p, pubis; t, tibia.
Tegumenlary System.
The skin of reptiles is characterized by the strong development
of its horny stratum; on the outside of it exists a thin cuticular
or epitrichial layer. An important feature in most lizards and
in the snakes is the existence of a " subepirdemoidal " or transi-
tional kyer which is produced by the migration of ectodermal
cells into the cutis. The immigration takes place during the
embryonic development, observed first by Kerschner, who,
however, misinterpreted the process. Pigment cells, black
chromatophores also, make their first appearance in the epiderm
and then migrate into the transitional stratum, as has been first
correctly stated by F. Maurer. The horny stratum is shed
periodically, several times during the year, and as one entire
piece in snakes and a few lizards, e.g. Anguidae; in most lizards,
chameleons, geckos and in Sphenodon the thin, transparent
colourless layer comes off in flakes. In crocodiles it is not shed
except for the usual wear and tear, nor in tortoises, although in
some e.g. Chrysemys, a periodical peeling of the large shields
has been observed.
In all reptiles the cutis is raised into papillae, or folds. When
the papillae are small the skin appears granular; when they are
large, flat, mostly imbricating, they form scales; when they are
very broad-based and still larger, they are called scutes or
shields. The overlying epidermal covering partakes of these
elevations, often e.g. in many snakes, with a very fine system of
ridges of its own. Such a scale, cutis and horny sheath, may
form spikes, or crests. They all have only basal growth. Thus,
for instance, a shield of a tortoise-shell is a much flattened scale,
or cone, with the apex more or less in the centre, surrounded
by marginal ridges which indicate the continuous additional
growth at the base. The central " areola " represents in fact
the size of the shield at the time of hatching.
Of very common occurrence is the development of bone in
the cutaneous portion of the scales; such osteoderms occur in
many lizards, very strongly developed in the scutes of the
crocodiles, especially on the back; they also occur in the skin
of tortoises especially on their legs and on the tail, and they
probably constitute the peculiar shell of Sphargis, the leathery
turtle (see TORTOISE). Sphenodon and chameleons are devoid
of such osteoderms, in geckos they are likewise absent, but
calcifications occur in their tubercular skin. A similar process
seems to have produced the egg-tooth of crocodiles and tortoises
(see under Teeth below). Calcareous deposits, or at least
deposits of guanine and more commonly of carbonate of lime,
play a considerable role in the skin of lizards and snakes. These
waste products of the metabolism are always deposited within
cells, and a favourite place is the subepidermal layer. In
combination with superimposed yellow or red pigment, and with
the black chromatophores as a foil, partial or complete screen
to the light, as the case may be, these mineral deposists are to a
great extent answerable for the colours and their often mar-
vellous changes in the skin (see CHAMELEON).
Peculiar pits in the scales of snakes and crocodiles are
described under Sense-Organs below.
The skin of reptiles is very poor in glands, but the few which
exist are well developed. Crocodiles possess a pair of glandular
musk bags which open by rather large slits on the under jaw,
against the inner side of the jaw. Another pair of musk glands
are the anal glands. During great excitement all these glands
can be everted by the crocodiles. Sphenodon and snakes have
only the anal pair. Water tortoises have inguinal glands, which
secrete a strongly scented fluid, opening near the posterior rim
of the bridge. Trionyx has additional glands opening near
the anterior part of the plastron. Peculiar glandular structures
are the femoral pores of many lizards. They lie in a line from
the inner side of the knee to the anterior margin of the anal
region, to which they are restricted in the limbless Amphis-
baenidae. Each pore leads into a subcutaneous pocket , sometimes
with slightly acinous side chambers, the walls of which produce
a smeary, yellowish matter consisting chiefly of the debris of
disintegrated cells which dries or hardens on the surface in the
shape of a little projecting rod. They occur in both sexes, but
are most active in males during the pairing season. Their use
is unknown. It would be far-fetched to liken them to fore-
runners of the sebaceous portions of milk glands, although not
so imaginary as to see in them and in the sensory pits of snake
scales the foreruriners of the mammalian hairs!
Claws, scarcely indicated in Batrachia, are fully developed in
all limbed reptiles. The base is sunk into the skin like our
own finger nails; the dorsal and ventral halves are differenti-
ated into a harder, more curved dorsal sheath-like portion, and
into the beginning of a sole, especially in crocodiles and in
blunt-toed tortoises. The first claw to be reduced is that of
ANATOMY]
REPTILES
the fifth digit. The claws of many geckos are " retractile," like
those of cats; the adhesive lamellae on the under side of their
digits have already been described (see GECKO).
Nervous System.
The hemispheres are still much longer than broad, and pass,
especially in lizards, gradually into the olfactory lobes,
into which continue the ventricles of the hemispheres.
The dorsal walls of these are thin, especially in crocodiles,
although they possess already a considerable amount of grey
matter. The basal masses of the fore-brain bulge into the
roomy ventricles like cushions. Fibres referable to a corpus
callosum are scarcely separated from those of the still much
stronger anterior commissure. The epiphysis comes to the
surface between the hinder parts of the hemispheres. The
pineal eye is described below under Sense Organs. The hypo-
physis has tyit a shallow infundibulum. The mid-brain shows
a pair of dorsal globular swellings, each with a cavity; they
separate the hemispheres from the cerebellum. Of the hind-
brain, the middle portion is by far the largest; although the
dorsal wall of this cerebellum is thick, and rich in grey matter,
it's surface is still quite smooth and it shows no trace of an
arbor vitae. It covers but a small portion of the wide fourth
ventricle.
The spinal cord shows a brachial and a lumbar longitudinal
swelling, especially marked in tortoises, but without a rhom-
boidal sinus. The cord is continued into the end of the tail.
The cranial nerves of the reptiles agree in their arrangement
and distribution more with those of birds and mammals than
with those of the Batrachia. The facial nerve sends a palatine
branch to the palate and to the superior maxillary of the trige-
minus, and a strong mandibular branch joins the third of the
trigeminal, and further ramifications supply the sphincter
muscle of the neck. The vagus and glossopharyngeus leave
the cranium separately. The vagus then goes towards the
heart, which in the
/f Sauropsida is far re-
moved from the head,
and there possesses
another ganglion, vari-
ously called ganglion
trunci vagi or g.
nodosum. It is con-
nected by a nerve
with the large gang-
lion supremum of the
sympathetic. From
FIG. 36. Brain of Locertoogito. (After Ley- tne cardiac ganglion,
dig.) i, Dorsal aspect; 2, vertical longi- and from the con-
tudinal section, cb, cerebellum; ch, tinuation
cerebral hemisphere; m, medulla oblon- vagus are sen (-
gata ; olf, olfactory lobes ; on, optic nerve ;
opl, optic lobes; p, pineal body or several branches
epiphysis ; py, base of pituitary body. sue cession, which,
having to pass below
or tailwards from the transverse carotic, aortic and Botal-
lian vessels, have to take again a headward course to the
larynx and pharynx; a side branch enters the heart by its
truncus. The main mass of the vagus then supplies
lungs, stomach and further viscera. The accessory or nth
cranial nerve arises with about half a dozen roots which extend
often beyond the second cranial nerve; they collect into a
thin stem which leaves the cranium together with the vagus,
with which it is often fused; it supplies the cucullaris s. trarepius
muscle.
The hypoglossus arises by two ventral roots, leaving the
skull by two holes through the lateral occipital bone, near
the condyle. The united stem is invariably joined by strong
branches from cervical nerves, always from the first, mostly
also from the second, sometimes also from the third. The details
vary much; occasionally there are three cranial roots and
foramina, and then only the first cervical joins the hypo-
glossus; this often fuses with the glossopharyngeal or with
the
nff
the vagus. In the broad and well-muscularized tongue of the
crocodiles the right and left hypoglossal branches form a com-
plete ansa, an arrangement in which A. Schneider saw the
infraoesophageal nerve ring of Invertebrata!
The spinal nerves each issue behind, or through, the neural
arch of the vertebra to which they belong genetically. The
first spinal, or suboccipital, nerve has no dorsal roots, and,
having lost its vertebra, an apparently anomalous arrangement
has come to pass, in this way, that there are x cervical vertebrae,
but x + i cervical nerves, a condition prevailing in, and char-
acteristic of, all Amniota. The hypoglossal-cervical plexus is
separated from the brachial plexus by several metameres,
according to the length of the neck. The brachial plexus
is composed of about 5 nerves; the variations have been studied
chiefly by M. Fiirbringer. It is interesting to note that the
brachial plexus still persists in snakes, although they have
completely lost the anterior girdle and the limbs (Albertina
Carlsson). A disturbance in the pelvic region likewise indi-
cates in snakes the former existence of a pelvic or lu.mbo-sacral
plexus, which in limbed reptiles is composed of about 5 nerves,
the last of which is weak and in many cases (by no means the
rule) issues between the two sacral vertebrae, sending one
branch to the ischiadic, another to the public plexus which
supplies the cloacal region. (For details of these plexuses see
the papers by Mivart, Jhering and Gadow.)
The sympathetic system shows considerable modifications
in the various orders and even families of the reptiles. In the
neck region, in Sphenodon and most lizards it is', on the right
and left side, composed of two portions. One, more lateral
and placed deeply, runs along the side of the vertebral column,
starting from the first and second spinal nerves, with which
it is connected by. so-called rami communicantes; it is not con-
nected with the other spinal nerves until it reaches, in the
thorax, the first stem of the brachial plexus, and hereabout
lies the so-called second thoracic ganglion. The other, super-
ficial and more ventral, portion arises from the petrosal gan-
glion of the glossopharyngeal, and from the vagus ganglion, and
then forms a long loop which joins the second thoracic gan-
glion. In its long course it sometimes, e.g. in Varanus, forms
one common stem with the vagus before it splits off. At a
variable distance, but not far above the heart, the vagus pos-
sesses a big swelling, the ganglion trunci vagi, and the sym-
pathetic stem, in the same level, or farther down, has likewise
a large ganglion, the g. supremum vagi, or first thoracic gan-
glion. The vagus ganglion receives several nerve strands from
this big sympathetic ganglion, and then divides as described
above.
In the crocodiles the deep portion of the sympathetic begins
at the vagus and extends in rope-ladder fashion into the thorax,
there being, as in birds, regular transverse communicating
branches with the spinal nerves, and the longitudinal strands
run through the transverse foramina between the capitular and
tubercular portions of the cervical ribs. The other, ventral, por-
tion starts by a right and a left branch from the vagus ganglia,
but both branches unite at once into one unpaired stem, which
is deeply embedded in the middle line between the ventral
muscles of the cervical vertebrae. Very thin branches connect
this unpaired stem with the right and left sympathetic portions ;
small ganglia are embedded in the unpaired nerve.
The so-called second thoracic ganglion is in reality a compound
of all the sympathetic ganglia of the four or five metameres of
the brachial plexus. It forms the point of juncture of the deep
and the superficial cervical sympathetic portions. From the
posterior region of the thorax backwards the right and left
strands run along their side of the vertebral column, with a
communicating branch and a ganglion for each metamere;
sometimes one or more successive ganglia are combined, for
instance near the cloaca. After having supplied the latter, the
sympathetic system appears exhausted and is continued into the
tail by but a very thin strand, which runs between the caudal
vein and artery. The best illustrations of the sympathetic
system are those by Vogt (neck of crocodile), J. G. Fischer (many
i6o
REPTILES
[ANATOMY
lizards), H. Gadow (cloaca of crocodile), J. F. v. Bemmelen
(Sphenodon and others), W. H. Gaskell and H. Gadow (heart of
tortoise).
Sense Organs.
1. Tegumentary Organs of some Tactile or other Sense. Reptiles
possess apparently no traces of those tegumentary sense organs
which, belonging to the domains of the trigeminal and vagus
nerves, have spread far over the body in fishes and batrachia.
They were developed by those classes in correlation with their
essentially aquatic life. This does not apply to the reptiles
which, as a class, are of absolutely terrestrial origin. Never-
theless all recent reptiles possess numerous low sense-organs,
" tactile bodies," in most parts of the skin, connected with
the regional, spinal nerves. They are most obvious in snakes,
appearing as one or more little colourless spots near the apex of
each scale on the back. The spot is formed by a little cluster
of epidermal cells, connected with a sensory nerve. Their
lowest stage they show in Sphenodon and in lizards, whilst in
crocodiles they have reached a higher stage, at the bottom of
the pit, since the tactile bodies, mostly several together, have
sunk into the cutis, below the epiderm, forming a little pit,
mostly near to the anterior margin of the flat scutes. They are
most obvious on the belly of crocodiles, whilst in the American
alligator such pits are scarcer, not because the organs are
absent, but because these have sunk still farther into the skin.
The last stage is that met with in tortoises, which possess such
tactile bodies in considerable numbers in the softer subepidermal
layers, beneath the large horny shields which themselves show no
traces of them.
2. Taste. The respective organs do not seem to have been
investigated. That they exist is amply proved by the careful
predilection for certain kinds of food which is shown especially
by vegetarian tortoises and lizards, independent of smell.
Many lizards are, for instance, very fond of sugar.
3. Nose. The sense of smell is well developed in all rep-
tiles. In none is the olfactory organ degraded; that the nasal
passages, the nose itself, are never degraded is explained by the
fact that all reptiles invariably breathe through the nose, except
snakes during the act of swallowing their prey. The nostrils,
always paired, are frequently provided with valves, to shut out
the water, or sand. In some water tortoises, e.g. Trionyx,
Chelys, the nostrils are prolonged into a soft, unpaired proboscis.
Double tubes exist in the snake Herpeton (see SNAKES, Opis-
thoglypha). The nostril leads into an antrum or vestibulum,
this again into the nasal cavity proper, at the dorsal farther end
enters the olfactory nerve, whilst ventrally it leads into the naso-
laryngeal duct, with its posterior narial opening, or choana.
The ducts are short in snakes and lizards, the choanae lying in the
front part of the palate, but in tortoises and crocodiles they are
placed far backwards, as has been described under Skull above.
Into the nasal cavity projects, from the septum, a concha, least
developed in tortoises, most in lizards and snakes. Crocodiles
show a beginning of separation into several conchae as in birds
and mammals. A large nasal gland lies against the lateral, or
ventral, side of the outer wall of the nasal cavity, into which also
opens the naso-lacrymal duct. Jacobson's organ, of uncertain
function, is present in most reptiles. It is paired. In tortoises
it is still placed within its nasal cavity, against the median wall,
and is still nothing but a recess of the same and its mucous
lining. In lizards and snakes the organ has become completely
separated from the nasal cavity, lying below it and opening,
each by a separate passage, into the palate mouth, close to or still
within the choanae. In snakes it is mushroom-shaped, with a
very short stalk. It lies immediately below the floor of the
nasal capsule, and the membranous wall of the cavity on which
it lies is covered and protected by a bone, commonly called the
turbinal, which extends out from the median nasal system to
the maxilla. In crocodiles these organs are vestigial and soon
disappear:
4. Ear. In crocodiles the outer ear lies in a recess, dorsally
overhung by the lateral edge of the bony squamoso-frontal
bridge; it carries a flap of skin, provided with muscles, to close the
ear tightly. In lizards the outer ear is quite unprotected, and
when the meatus is very short and wide, the drum is quite
exposed. No reptiles possess cartilages comparable to the
mammalian outer ear. Sphenodon, chameleons, snakes have
no outer ear, the skin passing over the region. So also in
tortoises, but in some of the aquatic kinds its position is well
indicated by softer and thinner skin; in others, for instance
marine turtles, a thick leathery plug, or a bigger scale
marks the former position. In various lizards, chiefly burrow-
ing in sand, the ear passage is very narrow, or closed. The
middle ear or tympanic cavity is quite obliterated in snakes,
Amphisbaenas and some other snake-shaped lizards. In
Anguis may exist individual traces. The cavity communicates
with the mouth. In lizards the communication is a wide recess,
lined with black pigment, so that in these creatures the whole
auditory chain can easily be inspected from the oppned mouth.
In tortoises the recesses are contracted into the Eustachian
tubes, each of which opens by a separate aperture into the roof
of the mouth. In the crocodiles part of the cavities is trans-
formed into an intricate system of canals and passages. The two
Eustachian tubes open together in the mid-lines protected by a
valve, between the basioccipital and basisphenoid; thence arises
a median passage which with lateral arms and loops extends
upward through the occiput into the cranial roof, communicating
with the tympanic cavity, and further continued through the
quadrates and beyond into the mandibles, by the siphonium.
In spite of the obliterated tympanic cavity of snakes, and the
closed up outer ear passage and absence of a tympanic membrane
in snakes and tortoises, these creatures can hear very well. The
same applies to Sphenodon, but it seems doubtful whether
chameleons can hear.
Through the whole middle ear, from the fenestra ovalis to the
drum-membrane, stretches the chain of auditory ossicles or
cartilages, partly attached to the posterior wall by the common
lining membrane. The arrangement appears simplest in
snakes, in chameleons and in tortoises, not because it is primitive
but because it is so much reduced, partly in correlation with the
abolition of the outer ear. In these creatures the columella
goes as a bony, slender rod straight to the middle of the quadrate,
against which it leans, or with which it articulates by a short
piece of cartilage, the extra-columella. Here the whole chain
ends. It looks like a proof that columella = stapes, extra-
columella = incus, and quadrate= malleus; or, with the usual
ignoring of the little extra-columellar piece, that quadrate =
incus, Gegenbaur's favourite impossibility. In those lizards
which have a tympanic membrane conditions are far less reduced.
The extra-columellar piece sends out three distal processes; one
leans on to the middle of the tympanic membrane, the second
usually is fastened to the bony dorsal rim of the meatus, the
third is directed downwards and is continued as a thin ligament
towards the inner angle of the articular of the mandible, but "
before reaching this it comes to grief, being squeezed in between
the quadrate and the posterior end of the pterygoid. The
hyoid proper is of no account in snakes and tortoises, since
it is reduced to very short distal pieces attached to the base
of the tongue; but in lizards it remains in its original length, or
it even lengthens, and shows many vagaries in its position and
attachments. In embryos of Sphenodon and lizards it arises from
near the junction of the columella with the extra-columella. It
becomes very long, too long for the available space (perhaps
correlated with lingual functions), and it forms a high loop,
thereby causing the peculiar loop of the chorda tympani; the
upward bend of the hyoid becomes connected with the parotic
process of the cranium. Next aborts the portion between this
connexion and the original proximal end of the hyoid, near the
columellar mass. The upper end of the hyoid either remains
attached to the parotic process (various lizards and Sphenodon)
whence the lingual apparatus remains suspended, or the hyoid,
having broken loose, leaves a little cartilage, Versluy's cartilage,
behind, at the end of the parotic process, and the hyoid horn
remains free, in the majority of lizards. In Sphenodon, whilst
ANATOMY]
REPTILES
161
passing the distal portion of the extra-columella, part of the
hyoid fuses with it, often forming thereby a little hole, the
remnant of imperfect fusion.
In the crocodiles the arrangement is at first complete and
diagrammatically clear, not obscured by vagaries of the hyoid,
which is free and much reduced. In the embryo the large
extra-columellar cartilage, abutting against the tympanic
membrane, and with another process against the quadrate,
sends its third, downward, process as a thick rod of cartilage
to the posterior inner angle of the mandible with which it is
directly in cartilaginous continuity. It was W. K. Parker's
mistake to call this cartilage the cerato-hyal. In young embryos
it looks like an upward continuation of Meckel's cartilage, much
resembling mammalian conditions. But in nearly ripe embryos
this cartilage is already reduced to a string of connective tissue,
cartilage remaining only at the upper end, and where this string
enters the mandible lies the siphonium, the tube which connects
the air cavities of the mandible with the Eustachian passages,
the long connecting channel becoming side by side with the
extracolumellar-mandibular ligament embedded into a canal
of the quadrate, so that in older stages, and above all in the
adult, the proper display of the whole arrangement requires a
FIG. 37. Diagram showing Evolution cf the Ossicular Chain of the
Ear. I. Hyostylic Elasmobranch. H, hyoid; Hrn, hyomandible;
M, mandible; P Q, palatoquadrate. 2. Lacertilian. Co, colu-
mella or stapes; and E, extra-columella with supra-, extra- and
infra- " stapedial " processes. 3. Hypothetic stage between 2
and 4, Sphenodon. Par = parotic bone. 5. Lacertilian. Parotic pro-
cess with a piece of cartilage at its end, remnant of piece of the
hyoid ; connexion of intra-stapedial process with mandible vanish-
ing. 6. Embryo of Crocodile. Continuous cartilaginous connexion
of extra-columella with Meckel's cartilage. 7. Embryonic
Mammal; for comparison. Cd, the new condyle, articulating
with Sq, squamosal; Cor, coronoid process; quadrate trans-
forming into tympanic ring.
little anatomical skill. The whole string, whether cartilaginous
or ligamentous, which connects the downward extracolumellar
process with the articulare, is of course homologous with the
continuation of Meckel's cartilage into the malleus of foetal and
young mammals; and the chain of bones and cartilages between
the auditory capsule, fenestra ovalis, and the proximal part of
the mandible is also homologous wherever such a chain occurs;
lastly, fenestra ovalis and membrana tympani are fixed points.
Consequently columella=stapes, extracolumella of Sauropsida=
lentiform+incus+malleus of Mammalia.
The inner ear has been studied minutely and well by C. Hasse,
E. Clason and G. Retzius. It is enclosed by the periotic bones.
The fenestra rotunda is surmounted by the opisthotic, the fenestra
ovalis by the same and by the pro-otic, and this protects also
the anterior vertical semicircular canal. The posterior canal is
opisthotic, the horizontal is pro- and opisthotic. The anterior
canal is the largest of the three, a feature characteristic of the
Sauropsida. The lagena, with its own acoustic papilla, begins
to show a basilar membrane with papilla, at the expense of
that in the sacculus. In Sphenodon and lizards a slight curving
of the lagena indicates the beginning of a cochlea, and a scala is
developed in crocodiles, but neither cochlea nor scala is specially
twisted. The endo-lymphatic ducts end as closed sacs, in lizards
and snakes, in the roof of the skull, between the occipital and
parietal bones. They reach an enormous development in many
geckos, where they form large twisted sacs beneath the skin,
covering the sides of the neck, which then assumes a much
swollen appearance. They contain white otolithic masses, with
lymph. It is remarkable that the extent of these sacs varies
not only in allied species, but even individually, independent of
sex and age, although they are naturally liable to increase with
age.
5. Eyes are present in all reptiles, although in many of the
burrowing snakes and lizards they may be so completely covered
by the skin as to have lost their function. Most reptiles have
upper and lower lids, moved by palpebral muscles, and a third
lid, the nictitating membrane, which can be drawn over the front
of the cornea from the inner angle obliquely up and backwards.
Its mechanism is simplest in lizards. A muscle, a split from the
retractor muscle of the eyeball, arises from the posterior part of
the orbit, is attached to the posterior wall of the eyeball, and
there forms a pulley for the long tendon which arises from the
median side of the orbit and passes over the back of the ball
forwards into the nictitating [membrane. Contraction of this
muscle draws the membrane backwards and over the eye. In
crocodiles and tortoises the tendon of the nictitating membrane
broadens out into a muscle (M. pyramidalis), which arises from
the median side of the posterior portion of the ball; above the
optic nerve it crosses over the broad insertion of the retractor
of the ball, without being much guided by it, although this
muscle by its contraction slightly prevents the nictitating tendon
and muscle from touching the optic nerve.
It is easy to recognize the mechanism of birds as a combina-
tion of the two types just described; their ,musc. quadrates s.
bursalis is of course the single muscle of the lizards, but now
restricted to, and broadened out upon, the eyeball.
Special Modifications of the Lids. In the snakes the upper and
lower lids are reduced to the rim, and the nictitating membrane
has become the permanent cover, which protects the eye like a
watch-glass, leaving between itself and the cornea a space,
drained by the naso-lacrymal duct, and behind this space the
eyeball moves as freely as in other animals. A similar arrange-
ment exists in tb,e true geckos, not in the Eublepharidae, which
still possess the outer lids. In some lizards, especially such as
live in deserts, the middle of the lower lid has a transparent
disk, and it is always the lower lid which is drawn over the eye,
the upper in nearly all Sauropsida being much smaller and less
movable; for instance, some specimens of the Lacertine genus
Eremias in Africa and India. In the Indian genus Cabrita, and
in Ophiops of Africa and India, the lower lid is permanently
fused with the rim of the shrunken upper lid and forms a trans-
parent window superficially looking like that of the snakes.
Exactly the same arrangement has been developed by A Uepharus,
one of the Scincidae.
The eyeball is provided with the usual rectus and obliquus
muscles, in addition to a retractor oculi. Apparently all reptiles
possess a pair of Harderian or nictitating glands, which open in
front, in the nasal, inner corner, and lacrymal glands which
open likewise into the conjunctival sac, but near the outer or
temporal corner. The secretion of both is drained off through
the lacrymal canals, which in lizards open below in the outer
wall of the posterior nares; in snakes they open into the
mouth by a narrow aperture on the inner side of the pala-
tine bone.
The walls of the anterior half of the sclerotic of lizards,
tortoises and Sphenodon contain numerous cartilaginous or
osseous plates, which imbricate in ring shape; they are absent
in snakes and crocodiles. Internally the eye of most reptiles
possesses at least traces of a pecten; very small indeed in
tortoises, or in crocodiles where it is represented by only a few
mosslike, pigmented vessels. In many lizards these vessels,
arising from near the optic nerve, form a network which extends
right up to the posterior side of the lens; in others, especially
in Iguanidae, is developed a typical, large pecten, deeply
pigmented with black, fan-shaped or umbrella-shaped, some-
times folded. In chameleons it is a short cone; apparently
xxm. 6
REPTILES
[ANATOMY
quite absent in Sphenodon. A falciform process and other
remnants of a campanula are absent. In most of those reptiles
which have but a rudimentary pecten, the retina is supplied by
hyaloid vessels which spread over the surface of the vitreous
body; such superficial vessels disappear with a greater develop-
ment of the pecten, and the retina receives a choroid supply;
special retinal arteries from the a. centralis retinae, and veins,
exist in snakes.
Ciliary processes of the choroid are usually small, a proper
ciliary body being least' developed in crocodiles; all reptiles
have a ciliary muscle. The shape of the contracted pupil varies
from round to a vertical slit; the latter is most marked in
Sphenodon.
The retina shows usually a fovea centralis, sometimes but
slightly indicated by a shallow depression; it is well marked
in chameleons. The retina contains only cones, rods being
absent; fat-drops on the apex of the cones are common; their
usual colours are green and blue.
6. The pineal, median or parietal eye is the terminal organ of
the epiphysis of the brain, with which it is connected by a
nerve-containing string. Among recent reptiles it exists in
Sphenodon and in the Lacertilia, with vestiges in snakes. It is
embedded in the median parietal foramen. Externally its
presence is generally marked by the scales being arranged in a
rosette, with a transparent central scale. The organ itself is
distinctly a dioptric apparatus, with all the essential features of
an eye; a pigmented retina of the arthropodous simple type
surrounds an inner chamber which is nearly filled by a cellular
globular mass which projects into it from above; this is the
so-called lens, in reality much more like the corpus vitreum in
its still cellular condition, while the real lens has to be looked
for in the superimposed tissue. The whole organ is best
developed in Sphenodon, even in the adult; but whether it is
still functional, and what its function is, remain unknown.
The throwing of a beam of light upon this eye, by means of a
lens, produces no effect. Whilst in Sphenodon the " lens " is
rather dull and the efferent nerve is still present, in various
lizards the " lens " is more perfect, but the nerve is degenerated.
We conclude that the whole organ is now without the least visual
function, whilst in various extinct groups of reptiles and Stego-
cephali it was fully developed. It has been well investigated by
de Graaff, W. B. Spencer and A. Bendy.
The Muscular System.
A useful account of the differentiation of the muscles in the
main reptilian groups, with their almost endless modifications
in correlation with walking, climbing, swimming, gliding and
burrowing, with limbs complete or absent, would fill several
pages of this article and would necessitate many illustrations.
The literature is great; it comprises many good detailed de-
scriptions of various kinds of reptiles, and several monographs.
M. Fiirbringer has devoted a whole series to the muscles of the
neck, shoulder-girdle and fore limbs. Hand in hand with these
investigations went that of the innervation, without which
myology would lack scientific value. The present writer has
devoted much time to the muscles and nerves of the pelvis and
hind limbs, and has, in tabular form, compared them with those
of other vertebrates. The results of all these labours are rather
disappointing, except for the study of myology as such, which
raises many interesting questions. Broadly speaking, the muscles
of typical reptiles, crocodiles and lizards are more highly
differentiated (by no means always more numerous, but more
individualized by origin and insertion, the behaviour of the
tendons), more effectively disposed according to mechanical
principles, than in Batrachia, and less than in birds and mammals.
This can easily be proved, whether we take for comparison the
muscles of the neck, of the larynx or hyoid, or limbs. Lowest.in
general stands Sphenodon, next to it the lizards, highest the
crocodiles, while tortoises and snakes show the greatest reduction
and specialization. In the tortoises it is the non-yielding box of
carapace and plastron which has caused great changes within the
region of the trunk proper. First, all the epiaxial muscles have
vanished; the same applies to the costal muscles; but traces of
dorso-lateral muscles occur on the inside of the posterior half of
the carapace, extending as a longitudinal system from one
transverse process to the next in many of the lower aquatic
tortoises, as perfectly useless vestiges; or more striking, these
muscles exist in the young, and disappear with age, for instance
in Testudo. Secondly, it is rather surprising that the rigid
shell has offered so little or no inducement to the muscles of the
girdles, neck and tail to transfer their origins upon it. Thirdly,
the retractile neck of the typical cryptodirous tortoises is
correlated with a pair of long retractor muscles, which in the
shape of a pair of broad, vertical ribbons (between which is
received the S-kinked neck) extend far back along the vertebral
column, almost to the level of the pelvis.
In snakes, owing to the loss of limbs and girdles, only the spinal
and costal muscles remain, besides of course those of the abdomen
and the visceral arches. The vestigial muscles of the limbless
lizards and of the peropodous snakes have been monographed by
Fiirbringer in much detail without great results.
Respiratory Organs.
All reptiles breathe by lungs, and they possess no vestiges
of gills, not even during their embryonic stages, although
gill clefts are invariably present in the embryo. Nor does
any part of the outer skin assist respiration, as is so commonly
the case in Batrachia; yet, strictly speaking, the lungs are
not the only organs of respiration in the class of reptiles,
since various tortoises possess additional breathing apparatus
in the anal sacs and in certain recesses of the throat, to be
mentioned farther on.
The Larynx, instead of lying at the bottom and. far back
in the throat, as in the Batrachia, is considerably moved for-
wards so as to rest upon the hyoid and to project into the
pharyngeal cavity. A pair of arytenoid cartilages, enclosing
the glottis, rest upon several more or less fused tracheal cartil-
ages, which thus represent the cricoid, but there is no thyroid
cartilage. A small process from the anterior median edge of
the cricoid is the beginning of an epiglottis. Vocal chords
are indicated by lateral projecting folds of the inner membran-
ous lining of the larynx, and are in a few cases effective in
producing a voice. Crocodiles and alligators have a powerful,
loud, bellowing voice; many tortoises utter weak, piping
sounds, especially during the pairing season; and also various
lizards can emit a feeble squeak, for instance, Psammodromus
hispanicus, and the geckos. Sphenodon, at least the males,
can grunt. Snakes have no voice; they can only hiss like
all other reptiles, but a curious modification exists in the
larynx of the North American Coluber s. Pityophis, e.g. C.
melanoleucus: the epiglottis is more enlarged, and laterally
compressed so that the hissing sound is much strengthened
by the vibration of the epiglottis. The larynx possesses a
constrictor and a dilator muscle, which arise from the ary-
tenoids and from the cricoid respectively, and are attached
to the hyoid. Chameleons have bladder-shaped sacs which
can be filled with air from a slit immediately below the larynx.
For further modifications see G. Tornier.
The Trachea is furnished with cartilaginous rings and semi-
rings, which extend to the lungs. As a rule the trachea is
straight; in Crocodilus americanus it forms a loop; and similar
curvings occur in various tortoises in correlation with the
retractile neck. The two bronchi are shortest in Sphenodon,
very long in most tortoises, where they begin frequently already
half down the neck. In Sphargis most of the trachea is divided
by a longitudinal partition. It is an advance upon amphibian
conditions that the bronchus enters its lung no longer at its
apex, since an anterior, pre-bronchial lung-portion has come
into existence. This is still very short in Sphenodon, while in
crocodiles, tortoises and in the highly developed Varanidae
the bronchus enters near the middle of its lung, so that the
anterior portion is nearly as long as the posterior. The shape
of the trunk influences that of the lungs. In the snake-shaped
forms, both snakes and lizards alike, the lungs have become
ANATOMY1
REPTILES
very asymmetrical, one of them being much larger than th
other, which is often quite aborted.
The simplest form of lungs is that of Sphenodon; the pre
bronchial part is still small. Each lung is still a sac with on
large lumen, the walls being honeycombed. In the lizard
the walls are more spongy, and several septa begin to extent
more or less far from the walls into the lumen, towards eacl
bronchus. Some of these septa begin to cut the lung intc
lobes, especially in Varanus and in chameleons. In the latte
exists a further specialization, a side-departure, in the shapi
of several long, hollow processes which are sent out from the
posterior portions of the lungs and extend far into the body
cavity and between the viscera. By means of them these
creatures can " blow " themselves out. They are of mor
phological interest since they are first stages of air-sacs so
marvellously developed in birds, and possibly also in various
Dinosaurs. In the Amphisbaenids the left lung alone remains
The lungs of crocodiles have reached a considerably higher
stage. They alone in reptiles are, on the ventral side, com-
pletely shut off from the viscera by a pleural, partly mus-
cularized, membrane. From each bronchus extend a number
of broad septa towards the periphery, dividing the originally
single lumen into many chambers, perhaps a dozen, from the
walls of which wide secondary or parabronchial canals extend
into the alveolar meshwork, in very regular arrangement, in
series like organ-pipes.
The lungs of the tortoises are, in adaptation to the peculiar
shape of the body, stowed away along the back, as far as the
pelvis, and only their ventral surface is covered by a strong
peritoneal membrane which receives muscular, diaphragmatic
fibres. The inner division of the lungs into chambers has pro-
gressed so much that a sort of mesobronchus has become dis-
cernible; the arrangement of the side-bronchi is far less regular
than in crocodiles; the whole lung is much more honeycombed,
meshy and spongy.
The mechanism of breathing of tortoises is not such a puzzle
as it is sometimes stated to be. Of course the rigid box of the
trunk excludes any costal, or abdominal breathing, but by pro-
truding the limbs or the neck, piston-like, an effective vacuum
is produced in the box. Moreover, the throat is distended and
worked considerably by the unusually large and very movable
hyoid apparatus, by which air is pumped into the lungs.
The lungs of the snakes are very thin-walled, with a very
wide lumen, and only for about the first half from the heart
backwards the walls are alveolar enough for actual respiratory
function, while towards the blind end the sacs are so thin and
sparsely vascularized that they act mainly as reservoirs of a large
amount of air. Frequently their posterior portions receive
blood vessels not from the pulmonary arteries but directly from
those of the trunk. In correlation with tKe long, cylindrical
body, the lungs are much elongated and they are not equally
developed. The asymmetry shows great differences in the
various groups, consequently the asymmetry has been developed
independently in those groups. It is usually stated that the
left lung is much smaller than the right. This is but rarely
the case. The most recent observations are those of E. D.
Cope (Proc. Am. Phil. Soc. (1894), xxxiii. 217). In Boidae
both lungs are large, although unequal: the left or more
dorsally placed one being the larger. In Ilysia the right is
functional, the left is ventral and vestigial. In Rhinophis the
right is very small, the left larger. In Glaucoma and Typhlops
the right lung alone is developed: the left is^juite aborted. In
Colubridae the left lung alone is functional, while the right is
vestigial. There is no trace of the right in Elapinae and Hydro-
phinae and most Viperidae. In the Colubridae the right, or
ventral, lung is, when present at all, reduced to a length of
from 2-5 mm., and it then communicates with the anterior
portion of the left lung by a foramen, in level of the heart,
whilst the right bronchus is aborted.
A further complication is the so-called tracheal lung, which is
present in Typhlopidae, Ungalia of the Boidae, in Chersydrus of
the Acrochordinae, in the Hydrophinae and Viperidae. This
163
peculiar organ is a continuation of the anterior portion of the
functional lung, extending far headwards, along the trachea,
with the lumen of which it communicates by numerous openings.
In Chersydrus this mysterious organ is " composed of coarse
cells and without lumen, extends from the heart to the head,
and is discontinuous with the true lung; the trachea communi-
cates with it by a series of symmetrical pores on each side."
In Typhlops it extends likewise from the heart to the throat, as
a cellular body but without lumen or connexion with either
trachea or lung.
Thyroid and Thymus.
The Thyroid of the reptiles is a single, unpaired organ,
placed ventrally upon the trachea and one or other of the arterial
trunks, more or less distant from the heart. In snakes it lies
on the mid-line near the heart; a little farther up in Sphenodon;
still farther in lizards, and chameleons near the root of their
gular sac. In tortoises it is globular, at the division of the
carotic trunk. In crocodiles it is bilobed.
The Thymus is paired. It is largest in crocodiles, extending
on either side of nearly the whole neck, along the carotids and
jugulars. In the tortoises they are much shorter; in Sphenodon
and lizards are two pairs, more or less elongated; in the snakes
are sometimes as many as three pairs, elongated but small,
attached to the carotis near the heart. As usual the thymus
bodies become much reduced with age.
The Spleen.
The Spleen varies much in shape and position. In lizards
it is mostly roundish, elongated in Sphenodon, and placed
near the stomach; in crocodiles it lies in the duodenal loop
behind the pancreas; similarly situated in snakes, but in
the tortoises it is much concentrated, large and attached to
the hind-gut.
The Body Canty.
The body cavity of the reptiles is subdivided into several sacs
or cavities by serous membranes of peritoneal origin. The
number of these subcavities differs much in the various groups.
The pericardial sac is always complete. In tortoises the lungs
are retro-peritoneal, a dense serous membrane spreading over
their ventral surface from the walls of the carapace forwards
to the liver and shutting off a saccus hepato-pulmonalis from
the rest of the peritoneal cavity. Snakes possess, besides the
modifications mentioned above, separate chambers for the
stomach, right and left liver, and for the gut, whilst the pleural
cavities as such have been destroyed. In lizards a " post-hepatic
septum " divides liver, lungs and heart from the rest of the
ntestines. This transverse vertical septum is best developed,
almost complete, in some of the Tejidae, in others it seems to be
more imperfect, and it is probably a further development of the
uspensorial ligament of the liver, which is ultimately inserted
upon the ventral wall of the body.
The subdivisions have reached their highest development in
he crocodiles, there being, besides the pericardial and the two
)leural cavities and the usual peritoneal room, a right and left
icpato-pericardiac, an hepato-gastric, and an hepato-pulmonal
ac. The caudal and ventral edges of these liver-sacs are fused
in to the ventral body-wall, thus producing a complete trans-
verse partition, headwards of which lie the lungs, liver and
icart. This partition, morphologically not homologous with
he mammalian diaphragm, more resembling the imperfect
tructure in birds, acts, however, as a perfect diaphragm, since
: is well furnished with muscular fibres. These are attached
o its whole periphery, with centripetal direction, especially
n the ventral half. These fibres are transgressors upon this
eptum from a broad sheet of muscles, which, inserted together
ith the septum upon the body-wall, arise from the iliac bones,
fie pubes, and the greater portion of the last pair of abdominal
ibs. This broad muscular sheet, covering the intestines, is
be so-called abdominal diaphragm or peritoneal muscle. Its
ontinuation upon the transverse septum is the crocodilian
muse, diaphragmaticus, and in functional effect very similar
164
REPTILES
[ANATOMY
to that of the Mammalia, whilst the abdominal diaphragm
undoubtedly causes abdominal respiration. We have seen
that these crocodilian conditions do not stand quite alone, but
are connected with simpler features in the other reptiles. Two
recent, very lengthy papers have been written on this subject
by I. Bromann (1904) and by F. Hochstetter (1906), besides two
in 1902 by G. Butler.
The Heart.
The Heart of all reptiles is removed from the head and is
placed well in the thorax, in the Varanidae even a little beyond
it. Only in snakes the heart lies headwards from the hilus of
the lungs, not cauda'lwards, generally at about the end of the
first fifth of the body. The batrachian conus arteriosus is
reduced, one set of semilunar valves guarding the entrances
into the truncus arteriosus which now issues directly from the
heart. A sinus venosus exists still in Sphenodon and Chelonians,
in which it may even receive separate hepatic veins, but in
crocodiles, lizards and snakes the sinus as such exists no
longer, forming part of the right atrium. All the hepatic veins
enter the stem of the posterior vena cava, which henceforth
enters the heart as inferior vena cava. This, the largest, and
the right and left anterior vena cavae, are the only three veins
which enter the right atrium. Into the left open the two pul-
monary veins. Right and left atrium have in all reptiles a
complete septum between them. The ventricular portion shows
considerable steps towards the differentiation into a right and
a left ventricle, but the partition is very incomplete in tortoises,
lizards and snakes, quite complete only in the crocodiles. The
most important character of the reptilian heart, absolutely
diagnostic of it, is the fact that the systemic vessel which leaves
the right ventricle turns to the left to form the left aorta, while
the stem which comes from the left ventricular half arches over
to the right as the right aorta. It is not at all necessary to
conclude that this fact excludes the reptiles from the mammalian
ancestry and to hark back to conditions as indifferent as are
those of the batrachia. The Foramen Panizzae shows the way
to a solution, how ultimately all the arterial blood from the
left ventricle may pass, first through the root of the right arch,
then through this hole into the left, whilst the rest of the right
arch, and the root of the left, obliterate. The difficulty is not
much greater than that of deriving the birds' condition from
the reptilian. The Foramen Panizzae, which exists only in
the Crocodilia, lies exactly where the right crosses dorsally over
the left aorta. The whole is not the last remnant of the originally
undivided truncus, as is taught generally, but it is a new foramen,
a hole dug by the left arterial blood into the venous right aorta.
According to the recent observations made by F. Hochstetter
the foramen comes into existence in a very late embryonic
stage.
Whilst the batrachian single ventricle possesses only one
ostium ventriculare or outlet into the truncus, in the reptiles
the inter-atrial. septum extends considerably downwards into
the base of the ventricle, so as to produce a right and a left
niche, and correspondingly two ostia instead of one. The atrio-
ventricular valves are still membranous, even in crocodiles;
attached to them are muscles, trabeculae carneae, from the
very trabecular walls of the ventricle; they are especially
spongy in tortoises. By means of the arrangement of some of
these trabeculae, perhaps still more through the confluence of
their basal portions, an imperfect ventricular septum is initiated.
Certainly even in tortoises, which represent the lowest stage,
the venous blood is received into and sent out by the same right
side of the ventricle, while the arterial blood is correspondingly
managed and dodged by the left side. That there is not very
much mixture of the two kinds of blood, in spite of the wide
communication in the ventricle, is further due to the peristaltic
systole and diastole of the various divisions of the heart. The
heart of Chelonians is broader than long. In correlation with
the very much flattened body of Trionyx and its allied genera,
the whole heart is dislodged from the middle line, far over to the
right side; the vessels of the left side are correspondingly much
elongated and have to cross the neck, trachea and oesophagus.
The apex of the heart is attached to the pericardium by a special
ligament in the Crocodilia and in many Chelonia, e.g. Testudo,
but it is absent in Clemmys. Sometimes this little ligament
sends a tiny blood vessel into the liver.
Arterial System.
Crocodiles. The left aorta crosses obliquely beneath the right
and gives off only the coeliac, just before joining the right aorta
in the level of the eighth thoracic vertebra. The aorta
descendens sends off, besides intercostals and other segmentals
into the body-wall, the mesenteric, right and left iliac, a pair of
renal and ischiadics, a cloacal and the caudal artery. The right
aorta forms the main root of the a. descendens. Close to the
heart it sends off two coronaries and a short carotis primaria
which divides at once into two anonymae, the left of which is the
stronger. The right anonyma divides into the subclavia and
collateralis colli, the left into subclavia and carotis subverte-
bralis. Each subclavia sends off an a. vertebralis communis,
which runs headwards and, with another longer branch, down-
wards, giving off intercostals, and then joins the descending
aorta.
Tortoises. The left aorta is rather more separated from the
truncus, which it crosses ventrally in an oblique forward direc-
tion; it sends off a left cardiac to stomach and oesophagus,
a coeliac and mesenteric, and then a communicating branch
to the right aorta. The a. descendens gives off paired supra-
renals, spermatics, very large iliacs, then a pair of renals,
hypogastrics and the caudal. Each iliac artery divides into a
recurrent intercostal anastomosing with the axillaries, an
epigastric (sending off the crural and anastomosing with
thoracics and humerals), and other arteries to abdominal
muscles and to the shell. The hypogastrics supply the cloacal
region and then continue as the ischiadics. But there are many
anastomoses which cause great variation in the different
tortoises. The right aorta sends off a right cardiac, the coronary,
and the right and left anonymae which are quite symmetrical,
each dividing into subclavia and carotis; in the angle lies the
thymus.
Lizards. Two common carotids arise either side by side, or
by one carotis primaria, from the right aortic root. In the
majority each common carotis ascends the neck and then divides
into the vessels for the head and another branch which turns
back and goes into the descending part of the aortic arch. In
chameleons two carotid stems ascend the neck and there is no
recurrent vessel. In the Varanidae the two common carotids
start from a long carotis primaria; there is no recurrent vessel.
The vertebral arteries come from the origin of the subclavians
and run to the head in a very lateral position. The subclavian
arteries (which occur also in limbless lizards) arise far away from
the carotids out of the descending arch of the right aorta, in a
level often far behind the heart. " Anonymous " arteries are
consequently absent in lizards.
Snakes. The left aorta is stronger than the right, both com-
bining soon to form the descending aorta. Owing to the absence
of fore limbs and shoulder-girdle the conditions are much simpli-
fied. In most snakes the right aorta sends off but one strong
carotic vessel which represents the left carotis communis whilst
the right is much reduced or even quite absent; further, there is
only one vertebral artery, which either runs along the right side
of the vertebral column or it divides soon into a right and a
left vessel along the neck. In conformity with the reduction
of one lung there is usually but one pulmonary vessel.
Venous System.
Crocodiles. Elach, right and left, anterior vena cava is com-
posed of a subclavian (axillary and external jugular), an internal
jugular, common vertebral and an internal mammary vein.
The posterior vena cava is composed of the two revehent renals,
veins from the genital glands and ducts, revehent veins of the
suprarenals (which, like birds, still have a portal system), and
the big vein from the fat body. Thus the vena cava posterior
ANATOMY]
REPTILES
165
perforates the right liver, receiving from it many hepatic reve-
hent veins and also the big revehent vessel from the left lobe;
next it receives the coronary vein and then enters the heart
as inferior vena cava. The portal vein arises out of the
coccygo-mesenteric (which comes out of the bifurcation of the
caudal), collecting the blood from most abdominal viscera and
from the thorax and breaks up in the right liver. The rest of
the venous system is rather complicated. The big caudal vessel
divides near the vent, receives an unpaired cloacal and a rectal
vessel, and goes off to the right and left, each of which trunks
receives an ischiadic and an inter-sacral vein and then divides
into the v. renalis advehens which breaks up in the kidney, and
the abdominal vein. The latter are interesting; they run in the
abdominal wall, receive the obturator and other pelvic veins,
intervertebrals and intercostals, the crurals, and the epigastrics
out of the body- wall. Then these two abdominals (Rathke's
internal epigastrics) go to the liver, which they enter to either
side of the gall bladder, collecting also blood from the stomach
and from the vertebral column. Both break up in the liver.
Consequently all the blood from " below the heart " passes
through some portal system renal or hepatic except that
which comes from the genital glands and ducts and from the fat
body.
Tortoises. The venous system much resembles that of the
crocodiles, but many and wide anastomoses, especially on the
inside of the carapace and plastron, exist between often distant
vessels, so that one lucky injection may fill the whole system.
There are three advehent renal veins which collect on the back
of their kidney into one stem; they dissolve completely into a
portal system, and leave the kidney on its ventral surface as one
v. renalis revehens. The right and left then form the v. c.
posterior which perforates the posterior margin of the right liver,
then headwards of the liver takes up the hepatic and enters the
heart. The three pairs of afferent renal veins are composed as
follows. The externa collects from the shell and the abdominal
muscles; the posterior collects along the rectum from the genital
glands, the bladder, and from parts of other pelvic viscera; the
anterior comes from the anterior part of the shell and runs back-
wards to the kidney, with frequent anastomoses with the other
advehent renal veins. The abdominals arise, as in the crocodiles,
with the external advehent renal from the lateral continuation
of the bifurcated caudal, which takes up vessels from the pelvis,
the shell and the crural. The abdominal itself takes up a
femoral vein, vessels from the abdominal and pelvic muscles,
and from the plastron, and then dives into the body-cavity,
receives veins from the fore limbs, and enters the right lobe of
the liver, there to break up.' The hepatic portal collects from the
intestinal tract, spleen and pancreas. Consequently in tor-
toises all the blood from below the heart passes through some
portal system.
The most important peculiarity of the Lizards is the condition of
the abdominal veins ; they combine into a single stem (after having
collected the blood from the fat body and from the ventral
body- wall of the pelvic region) which dives into the body-cavity
to join, embedded in the ventral hepatic ligament, the left
branch of the portal vein. The chief characteristic of the
abdominal is that it does not communicate directly with the
caudal, and that it forms an unpaired stem. The renal portal
system receives its blood from the tail, the hind limbs, the
abdominal wall and the urine-genital organs, all the blood
passing into a right and a left advehent vein. The suprarenal
portal system drains from the abdominal wall and the supra-
renal bodies, and issues into the revehent renals. These, with
some intervertebrals and with hepatics, constitute the inferior
vena cava.
Lymphatic System.
The lymphatic vessels frequently accompany the big arteries
of the trunk, either surrounding them with a meshwork or
ensheathing them completely, .especially in tortoises. The
lymphatics from the head and neck combine with stems which
accompany the veins of the fore limbs; they join the thoracic
ducts and these open into the brachio-cephalic veins, as they do in
birds. The lymph from the tail flows into the ischiadic veins
or into the advehent renal veins. Reptiles possess only a posterior
pair of lymph-hearts; they are placed near the root of the tail
against the ends of one of the transverse processes. In snakes
they lie in a space protected by the ribs and transverse processes
of the original sacral vertebrae. Lymph glands proper are
not developed in reptiles, except in the shape of the so-called
mesenteric^gland of crocodiles.
Blood.
The red corpuscles are invariably oval, and, since they still
possess a nucleus, biconvex. Numerous measurements have
been made by G. Gulliver (P.Z.S., 1845, pp. 93-102), their long
and short axes range between 0-015-0-023 and 0-000-0-21 mm.
respectively. That means to say they are very much larger
than those of mammals, considerably larger than those of most
birds, and in turn much smaller than those of amphibia.
Digestive System.
Teeth. All the groups of recent reptiles have teeth, except the
tortoises, which have lost even embryonic traces of them. In
the under jaw they are restricted to the dentary bones. In the
upper they are almost universal in the maxilla and premaxilla,
although the latter has lost them in most of the snakes. The
pterygoids are toothed in most snakes and in a few lizards, e.g.
Lacerta and Iguana. The palatines are toothed -in Sphenodon
and in some lizards.
Only the young of Sphenodon and the chameleons have a few
small teeth on the vomer. The teeth themselves consist of
dentine with a cap of enamel and with cementum around their
base. In the crocodiles they are planted into separate alveoles
in the maxilla, premaxilla and under jaw. In lizards they are
either pleurodont, i.e. they stand in a series upon a longitudinal
ridge which projects from the lingual side of the supporting bone,
or they stand upon the upper rim of the bone, acrodont. In
either case they are, when full grown, cemented on to the bone.
Acrodont are amongst lizards only the Agamidae; the Tejidae
are intermediate, almost acrodont. All the snakes and Sphe-
nodon are acrodont. The latter is in so far peculiar as its broad-
based, somewhat triangular teeth are much worn down in old
specimens; originally there are several in the premaxilla, but the
adults bite with the somewhat curved-down portions of the
premaxillaries themselves, or with what remains of the anchy-
losed bases of the original teeth, which then, together with the
bone, look like a pair of large chisel-shaped incisors. The
lateral edges of the palatines of Sphenodon likewise carry teeth,
those of the mandibles fit into a long slit-like space between
the palatine and the maxillary teeth. This is a unique arrange-
ment. Further, it is surprising that in this old, Rhyncho-
cephalian type the supply of teeth has become exhausted, whilst
in the other recent reptiles the supply is continuous and appar-
ently inexhaustible. The new teeth lie on the lingual side of the
old set, and long before the new tooth is finished part of the
base of its older neighbour is absorbed, so that the pulp-cavity
which persists in nearly all reptilian teeth becomes free. Ulti-
mately the old tooth is pushed off and the new is cemented into
its place. In the crocodiles it has come to pass that several
sets of teeth are lodged more or less into one another's bases.
Where crocodiles and alligators collect habitually the ground
is sometimes found strewn with thousands of teeth, large and
small, every creature shedding about seventy teeth many times
during its long life.
Some or all teeth of various families of lizards and snakes
have a more or less pronounced groove or furrow along their
anterior convex curve. The usefulness of this furrow in facili-
tating the entering of saliva into the bitten wound is merely
incidental, but this preformed feature has in many snakes
been improved into a fearful weapon. In the Opisthoglypha
a few of the most posterior teeth in the maxilla are enlarged,
have deeper furrows, and lie in the vicinity of the poison ducts.
In the Proteroglypha one or two of the most anterior maxillary
i66
REPTILES
[ANATOMY
(after Bocourt).
teeth are enlarged and furnished with a deep groove for the
reception of poison. In the Solenoglypha or Viperidae the
enlarged teeth of the Opisthoglypha
have moved to the front, owing to re-
duction of the anterior portion of the
maxilla. The latter, much shortened,
moves with the firmly anchylosed poison
fang upon the prefrontal as its pivot,
being pushed forward, or " erected," by
the ectopterygoid bone, which con-
nects it with the pterygoid, and this
in turn can be moved forwards and
backwards, together with the quad-
i, rate. (See fig. 24, skull of Vtpera
antero - internal as- nasicornis and the diagram of the
pect of the tooth, mechanism in article SNAKES.) In
SngTudinaT^oove^he still unfinished fang the furrow
2, postero- external 1S open, later the edges close together
aspect of the_ same and the end of the duct of the gland
tooth, showing a it se lf is surrounded by the substance
Tna7 rowe g " of the growing basal portion of the tooth,
so that the furrow is converted into
a canal continuous with that of the gland. The poison is
now sure to be projected into the very deepest part of the
wound with the precision of a surgical instrument. The Pro-
teroglypha, with their long, non-erectile maxillae, bite, or, like
Elaps, deliberately chew their victim; the Viperidae rather
strike with the mouth widely open. The teeth of snakes and
lizards are often of irregular size; but it is rare that a kind of
differentiation into incisors, canines and molars occurs. In
many lizards, especially in Iguanidae, some teeth are multi-
cuspid, trilobed, or somewhat serrated; in Tiliqua, universally
known as Cyclodus, most of the hinder teeth are roundish
crushers.
Lizards and snakes are born with an " egg-tooth " which
is lost a day or two after hatching. Its function is the filing
through of the eggshell. This tooth, always unpaired, is in
Tropidonotus natrix one millimetre long and half a millimetre
broad at its base, which rests upon a middle depression of the
premaxillary bone; it stands forward above the mouth and
is curved upwards. In crocodiles and tortoises the same effect
is produced by another organ, which, as in birds, lies well out-
side the mouth on the top of the end of the snout and consists
of a little cone of calcified epidermis.
Tongue. The tongue of the crocodiles is very broad and flat,
and with nearly its whole broad base attached to the floor of the
mouth; however, in its whole circumference its edge is well
marked, and it arises on its hinder border as a transverse fold
which meets a similar fold descending from the palate in front
of the posterior nares. By these folds the mouth can be com-
pletely shut off from the nasal passages into the trachea. The
upper surface of the tongue contains several dozen large flat
papillae, each with a central pit-like opening; it is not known
whether they are gustatory organs. Besides scarce mucous
glands on the tongue, there is an absence of salivary glands
in the mouth. The tongue of tortoises is likewise short, broad,
and not protractile, and there appears to be only a sublingual
gland; the surface of the tongue is 'covered with velvety papillae
in the terrestrial, with larger folds in the marine Chelonians.
In the Lacertilia the tongue presents a number of variations
which have been referred to as diagnostic characters of the
various families of LIZARDS (q.ii.). The chief modifications
are the following: Either flat and broad, not protractile, e.g.
Agamidae; or the body of the tongue is somewhat cylindrical,
elongated, and the whole organ can be protruded; lastly, the
anterior half of the tongue, which can be protruded, is retractile
or telescoped into the posterior portion, e.g. Anguidae. Jn
nearly all cases the posterior dorsal end of the body of the
tongue is well marked off by a margin raised above the root,
a character which does not occur in any snake. The upper
surface is either smooth or curved with velvety, flat, or scaly,
always soft, papillae. In the majority the tip of the tongue
is bifid, either slightly niched or deeply bifid. The tips con-
tain tactile corpuscles, although sometimes covered with a
horny epithelium. The most specialized is the tongue of
the chameleon. The body of this tongue is very thick, club-
shaped, fleshy and full of large mucous glands which cover it
with a sticky secretion. The base or root is very narrow,
composed of extremely elastic fibres and supported by a much
elongated copular piece of the hyoid. This elastic part is,
so to speak, telescoped over the style-shaped copula, and the
whole apparatus is kept in a contracted state like a spring in
a tube. A pair of wide blood vessels and elastic bands extend
from the base into the thick end, which in an ordinary chame-
leon can be shot out to a distance of about 8 in.
The tongue of the snakes is invariably slender, smooth and
almost entirely retractile into its posterior sheath-like portion.
It is always bifid and contains many tactile and other
sensory corpuscles by which these creatures seem to investi-
gate. The tongue is always protruded during excitement.
How this is done is not very obvious, since the hyoid apparatus
itself is much reduced. There is a niche in the middle of the
rostral shield to permit protrusion of the tongue whilst the mouth
is shut, and probably herewith is correlated the almost uni-
versal absence of teeth in the premaxilla. The tongue and
the larynx are placed very far forwards in the mouth and,
during the act of swallowing, the larynx approaches the chin,
or it may even protrude out of the mouth to secure breathing
during the often painfully protracted act.
Of Glands, sublingual glands are of general occurrence in
reptiles; they open near the root or in the sheath of the tongue.
Labial glands seem to be absent in crocodiles and tortoises,
but upper and lower labial glands exist in lizards and snakes,
generally in considerable numbers. Heloderma is the only
lizard in which some of these glands those along the lower
jaw produce a poisonous secretion, each small gland conducting
its secretion towards the base of one of the somewhat furrowed
teeth. In the snakes, upper and lower labial glands are well
developed for salivation. It is the upper series which attracts
our interest by its eventual modification into the deadly poison
glands. Probably the saliva of most snakes, like their serum,
possesses toxic properties. In most of the harmless Colubrine
snakes the glands extend in a continuous series from behind
the premaxilla along the whole of the upper jaw, with numer-
ous openings. In the Opisthoglypha a gradual differentiation
takes place into an anterior, middle and posterior portion;
the middle, extending from below and behind the eye back-
wards, is the thickest and yellowish in colour; behind it follows
a small portion, reddish grey like the anterior portion, with
which it is more or less continuous below the middle complex.
Thus, still rather indifferent, is Dryophis. In Dipsas, e.g.
D. fusca, the middle portion has become predominant; some
of its enlarged ducts lead to the pair of posterior, enlarged and
well-grooved, maxillary teeth. It is this middle portion which
becomes the characteristic poison gland with one long duct.
The gland itself retains its position; all the other upper labials,
except the anterior series, abort. In the Viperidae the poison
duct opens near the base of the perforated fangs, which, owing
to the shortening of the anterior portion of the maxilla with
its teeth, have come to be the only teeth in the upper jaw. In
the Elapine, still more in the Hydrophine snakes, the position
of the gland and its duct is the same, but the duct has been
carried past the smaller harmless teeth which stand in the
maxilla and open at the base of the anterior maxillary teeth.
The effect is the same, although the poison fangs are not
homologous, in the one case the most posterior, in the other
the most anterior, of the maxillary series. In Doliophis, one of
the Malay genera of Elapine snakes, each poison gland sends
an enormously elongated recess far into the body-cavity. (For
some other details see SNAKES; VIPER; and RATTLESNAKE.
The best account of the buccal glands and teeth of poisonous
snakes is that by G. S. West, P.Z.S., 1895, pp. 812-826.)
Stomach, &c. In lizards and in Sphenodon the wide pharynx
and oesophagus passes gradually into the stomach, which is
ANATOMY]
REPTILES
167
more or less spindle-shaped, never transversely placed. The
walls of the stomach are thrown into longitudinal folds which
contain the specific gastric glands, whilst glands are absent in
the oesophagus, excepting scattered and very simple slime
glands. The circular muscular fibres of the stomach are much
stronger than the longitudinal fibres. The end of the stomach
is generally marked by a pyloric valve. The walls of the mid
gut are said to be devoid of glands. The end gut, marked by
a circular valve, is considerably wider and there is a caecum,
mostly left-sided, largest in leaf-eating lizards, rarely absent, as,
for instance, in Anguis. The absorbent portion of the rectum
is always strongly marked off from the cloaca by a circular fold
or sphincter, which projects into the widened coprodaeum of the
cloaca. In those lizards which, like Varanus, have no urinary
bladder, there are two successive sphincters, marking off two
chambers, one, the upper or innermost, for the reception of the
faeces, the lower for that of the urine. In adult crocodiles the
stomach is transformed into a gizzard; it is more or less oval,
with a wide fundus and with two opposite apo-neurotic or
tendinous disks whence radiate the muscular fibres. The
muscular walls remain, however, comparatively thin, like those
of birds of prey. There is a distinct pyloric stomach and then
follows the pylorus. The inner lining of the stomach is velvet-
like with numerous gastric glands which form groups with net-
like interstices. There is a distinct duodenal loop which contains
the pancreas. The more convoluted mid gut is lined with net-like
meshes which farther back assume a longitudinal zigzag arrange-
ment; towards the end gut the walls become quite smooth,
but in the end gut the walls again show a very narrow-meshed
structure. None of these folds of the mid and hind gut is said
to contain digestive glands; they seem to be entirely absorbent.
The oesophagus of most tortoises shows longitudinal folds with
very numerous mucous glands. In the Chelonidae the pharynx
and adjoining part of the gullet are covered with little tubercles
upon each of which opens a small gland. Farther down they
give way to large, more or less conical papillae, which assume a
considerable size, point backwards, and are covered with a
somewhat horny epithelium. Similar conical, horny papillae
exist also in Sphargis, in which the oesophagus, moreover, makes
a long loop half round the stomach before passing into it, an
absolutely unique feature. The transition into the stomach
is quite gradual. The latter is strongly muscular, partly
transversely placed, and possesses often a very distinct pyloric
stomach. In Chelone conical papillae extend into the cardiac
portion. In the majority of tortoises the inner lining shows
longitudinal folds with numerous small glands, mucous and
gastric, but their distribution differs much in the various
families and even genera. The lining of the mid gut shows
either longitudinal folds or a network, without glands, except
in some cases, Lieberkiihn crypts, e.g. in Trionyx, not in Testudo
and Chelone. The hind gut begins suddenly, but there is no
caecum; its inner walls contain numerous glands in Testudo,
Emys, not in Chelys, Trionyx, Cinosternum.
In the snakes the oesophagus is very thin-walled and passes
imperceptibly into the stomach, which continues in a longitudinal
direction, scarcely wider in the middle. Its muscular coating
is surprisingly weak. There is a small pyloric portion. Mucous
and especially long-bodied gastric glands are numerous. The
wall of the mid gut carries numerous papillae variably arranged,
velvet-like, or densely crowded little blades supported by
longitudinal or by meshy folds. The hind gut is short, often
constricted into several successive chambers, mostly smooth
inside; there is a short, rather wide caecum which seems best
developed in Viperidae; sometimes absent. The total length
of the snakes' gut is always short, there being only short folds
possible or necessary in the body cavity, which itself is of extra-
ordinary length. Yet, while in Typhlops the gut is almost
straight, it forms numerous convolutions in Torlrix.
Whilst in all other reptiles the gut, at least stomach, liver and
mid gut, are suspended by the mesentery from the vertebral
column and hang free into the body cavity, in some snakes,
especially often described in Boa and Python, the body cavity
is cut up into numerous spaces, by peritoneal folds which connect
neighbouring twists of the canal into bundles and attach them
to the ventral surface of the body-wall. Probably the gut is
thereby secured against dislocations in adaptation to the
peculiar twisting contortions of the body, especially in the act
of climbing. The mesentery of reptiles is remarkable for the
possession of smooth, non-striated, muscular fibres. In most
lizards, not in other orders, the peritoneum so far as it covers
the abdominal cavity shows a deep black pigmentation; this
pigment is situated in the connective tissue, not in the epithelial
layer; it stops suddenly towards the thorax. In some lizards,
e.g. in Anguis, the black pigment extends, more or less scattered,
upon the mesentery and thence upon the intestines. The same
pigment colours the pharynx with its recesses entirely black in
many lizards. There is no compensating correlation between
this internal pigment and that in the outer skin.
The Liver of lizards is more or less bilobed; more so in
crocodiles; while in tortoises the broad right and left lobes are
connected by a narrow isthmus. In the snakes it is much
elongated and extends from the heart backwards along the right
side of the oesophagus, closely connected in its long course
with numerous short branches into, or from, the inferior vena
cava and the portal vein. A gall bladder is always present.
The ducts into and from the cyst sometimes form a complicated
network, for instance in Varanus (F. E. Beddard); the bile is
carried by one or more ducts into the duodenal portion of the
mid gut. The microscopic structure of the reptilian liver has
been compared with that of monotremes by M. Fiirbringer.
The Pancreas is a compact body attached to the duodenal
region, which surrounds it by a loop i i the crocodiles, as is the
case in birds and mammals.
The Cloaca of the reptiles shows a great advance upon the
simple batrachian arrangement. It is no longer one common
chamber, but consists of three successive chambers with the
further tendency of separating the temporary retention and the
passage of the faecal, urinary and genital products from each
other. The arrangement is simplest and most typical in the
lizards. There is first the proctodaeum or vestibulum of the
cloaca, epiblastic in origin. ' Its outer boundary is formed by
the cloacal lips, covered so far by the usual scaly integument.
Just within this chamber arise the paired copulatory organs,
and, when they are present, as in Sphenodon and snakes, the
two anal glands. Secondly, the urodaeum, middle or urino-
genital chamber, hypoblastic in origin. It is separated from .
the proctodaeum by a more or less circular fold which is pro-
vided with sphincter muscles, which form the true vent, and
this is always round; whilst the outermost opening in lizards
and snakes is a transverse slit. Farther inwards, headwards,
the urodaeum is shut off by another circular fold, generally very
well marked, especially in its dorsal half, which is higher and
thicker. Into the dorsal, and innermost, recess of this urodaeum
open the genital and urinary ducts; on the ventral side arises
the urinary bladder. The whole chamber is always empty,
being only a passage room, and in the female the copulatory
chamber. The urine is of course collected in the bladder;
when this is absent the fluid is pressed into the third chamber,
the coprodaeum, which is often subdivided into two, or even
three, successive rooms by circular folds. This coprodaeum
serves for the temporary storage of the faeces, eventually mixed
with the urine. Micturition and defaecation are in most
lizards two successive separate acts.
The snake's arrangement is a side-departure of that prevailing
in lizards. The urodaeum is transformed into a dorsal recess
into which open above the oviducts, while the ureters open
below, in the caudal corner. A horizontal fold imperfectly
shuts off the wide urino-genital chamber or recess from the
ventral half of the original urodaeum. The coprodaeum is
marked above and below by strong sphincters. There is no
urinary bladder.
In crocodiles the protodaeum is rather shallow, but long;
from its ventral wall arises the unpaired copulatory organ,
the basal investing membranes of which continue into the ventral
i68
REPTILES
[ANATOMY
half of the uro-proctodaeal fold, near which open the male
ducts. Very young crocodiles possess a typical middle chamber
or urodaeum, into the dorso-lateral corners of which open the
ureters, but soon the strong circular fold between urodaeum
and coprodaeum disappears completely, so that both chambers
now form one large oval room, which is used solely for the
storage of the urine, there being no bladder. The faeces are
kept in the not specially dilated rectum.
The cloacal arrangement of the Chelonia is a further develop-
ment of early crocodilian conditions, but it has become rather
complicated and shows a surprising resemblance to that which
still prevails in the Monotremes. The proctodaeum is deep
and very long, especially in the males. From its innermost
and ventral walls arises the large copulatory organ. From the
urodaeum is separated off a deep ventral recess into which open
the ureters and the genital ducts, and it is continued by a long
neck into the large bladder. Between the dorsal wall of this
recess and the ventral wall of the main portion of the urodaeum
arises a horizontal fold which, diverging, is continued on to the
investing skin of the penis, helping to form the edges of the deep
longitudinal furrow on its morphologically dorsal surface. If
the lips of this furrow were closed, urine and all the genital
products would pass through this urethral canal, but in reality
only the semen is conducted through it (the furrow during the
state of turgescence being transformed into a closed tube),
whilst urine and eggs escape through the wide slit near its
inner end. This is an arrangement almost the same as that
of Ornithorhynchus. The urodaeum is separated from the
rectum by a strong sphincter, and there is, as in the crocodiles
and mammals, no special coprodaeum. The Chelonian urodaeum
is further complicated by the occurrence of a pair of large anal
sacs, thin-walled diverticula on the dorsal side. Such sacs,
not to be confounded with the anal glands of other reptiles,
exist in many water tortoises, especially in the Chelydidae,
also in various aquatic Testudinidae, e.g. Emys, in Platy sternum,
and sometimes in Trionyx; they are absent in the Chelonidae
and in the typically terrestrial tortoises. These sacs have highly
vascularized walls and a considerable layer of circular and
longitudinal non-striped muscular fibres; their inside is some-
times villous, never glandular. They are incessantly filled and
emptied with water through the vent, and act as additional
respiratory organs, like a kind of water lungs. When such a
tortoise is suddenly taken out of the water it squirts out a
stream of water, which is not, as is usually supposed, the urine
from the bladder.
In connexion with the cloaca may be mentioned the frequent
occurrence of peritoneal canals. In the tortoises their abdominal
openings are situated in a recess of the peritoneal cavity close
to either side of the neck of the bladder; in the females they
extend as funnels, generally blind, into the cloaca on or near
the base of the clitoris. In the males they extend, without
having communication with the cavities of the corpora cavernosa,
and without ramifications, as canals along the dorsum penis
and either terminate blindly in the glans (Testudo, Chelone),
or they open, each by a small orifice, in the groove at the base of
the glans. In crocodiles these canals are short and open near the
base of the copulatory organ, protected by a small papilla. They
are present in both sexes, but are still closed in newly hatched
and very immature specimens. In an adult Nile crocodile they
are wide enough to pass an ordinary lead pencil. The function
of these outlets from the body cavity is obscure. ,In Sphenodon
the writer has found them as closed funnels which project as
soft papillae into the proctodaeum a little to the right and left
and caudalwards from the urino-genital papillae.
Urinary Organs.
The kidneys of the reptiles show, like those of the birds
and mammals, a considerable advance upon those of the
Batrachia. They are, in the adult, represented entirely by the
metanephros; the segmental tubes have no longer any nephro-
stomes opening into the body cavity, not even during any
time of their development, and it has come to a complete
separation of the efferent genital ducts from the kidneys and
from their ureters. Yet these differences are but of degree,
there being a continuous bridge from Batrachian to Lacer-
tilian conditions. In Lacerta, for instance, in which these
features have been studied most thoroughly, the mesonephros
continues as the only functional excretory organ during the
first year of the young creature until and during its first hiber-
nation, when the formation of the metanephros takes place,
and with it the complete separation of the vasa deferentia
from the kidneys. Until then the segmental canals remain
in the male as common carriers of semen and urine, at least
morphologically, not physiologically, since in the immature
there is no occasion for the conduction of semen. The kidneys
of these young lizards show precisely the same arrangement
as- that of the Batrachia, excluding the Discoglossidae.
Clearly the metanephros is developed from, and is part of, the
posterior portion of the mesonephros, the glomeruli of which no
longer open into the segmental duct, but become connected with
a new canal, the future ureter, which sprouts from the distal
portion of the segmental duct and grows headwards. Or let
us put these important changes in another way. Since there are
originally several segmental ducts (permanent in the male newt)
which tailwards more and more lose their connexion with the
testes, until in the posterior portion of the mesonephros
they become entirely urinary ducts, the hindmost of these
sprouts (in lizards postembryonic, much earlier in birds and
mammals) independently, but at the same time as the neigh-
bouring mass of the mesonephros, the growing glomeruli of
which then connect with the sprouting processes of the ureter.
Phylogenetically and ontogenetically it is evident enough that
the kidneys are essentially one organ, the anterior portion of
which is the oldest and decays, whilst farther backwards new
and more differentiated portions continue to grow. Pro-, meso-
and metanephros and successive wave-like stages of the same
organ with morphological and functional continuity, until the
next, improved portion is ready. It is important that in the
Discoglossidae, especially in the male Alyles, an arrangement has
come to pass which much resembles that of the Amniota. The
mesonephros has, by a simple contrivance, become a metane-
phros, provided we define the former as a kidney which is still
connected with true segmental ducts.
The supra-renal bodies, adrenals, head-kidneys or Nebennieren,
are yellowish bodies which lie more in connexion with the
generative glands than with the kidneys, always closely attached
to the vena cava posterior just above the kidneys. They are
very elongated in the snakes, in a ro-foot python they measure
about one inch in length; they are flattened in tortoises, roundish
in crocodiles.
In all reptiles the kidneys are retroperitoneal, and they do not
project into the body cavity. Their position is different in the
various groups, and their general shape is much affected by the
shape of the body. In the Ophidia they are much elongated, and
of course far in front of the pelvic region, which has been moved
to the cloaca. They are placed asymmetrically, the right
extending farthest forwards. They consist of many transverse
lobes, sometimes in such a way as to appear spirally twisted.
Each terminates considerably in front of the cloaca. Each
ureter begins at the anterior end of the kidney, and thence
proceeds on its inner and dorsal border, receiving ducts from the
interspaces of the numerous lobes. In the male each ureter
opens upon a papilla, together with the vas deferens; in the
female the ureter is joined by a blind canal, the vestige of the
male duct. No snake has a urinary bladder. The urinary
excretion is white, chalky, consisting mainly of uric acid in
crystals, with very little fluid.
In the Lacerttlia the kidneys are more posteriorly placed than
in snakes. They lie between the pelvis and the cloaca and are
generally close together, sometimes partly fused with each other.
Only in the Amphisbaenids the right kidney extends more
forwards. They are usually transversely furrowed. The
ureters open dorso-laterally into the urodaeum upon papillae as
in the snakes. In the females the remnants of the segmental
ANATOMY]
REPTILES
169
ducts, or vestigial representatives of the vasa efferentia,areoften
of considerable length, persistent in chameleon and Uromastix,
much reduced in geckos, or disappearing with age as in Lacerta.
The urine of most lizards contains much solid uric acid, which
is retained in the urodaeum and voided as a rather solid, white
mass, not united with the faeces. Those which have a greater
amount of fluid urine have a bladder which receives the fluid
portion. The opening of this bladder is on the ventral side of the
cloaca, not in direct connexion with the ureters. The bladder
is very rarely absent, e.g. in Varanidae and Amphisbaenidae.
The Crocodilia have the kidneys placed below the pelvis; their
surface shows meandering convolutions separated by furrows.
The ureters are for the greater part of their length deeply sunk
into the substance of the kidneys, which they leave near the
hinder ends, to run freely for a short distance along the dorsal
sides of the cloaca, and they open, each separately, and away
from the vasa deferentia, into the dorsal side of the urodaeum,
which, together with the coprodaeum, forms a large oval chamber,
and this being filled with the very fluid urine, functionizes instead
of the absent bladder.
In Chelonia the kidneys lie in the pelvis, short and thick, more
or less trihedral; the surface is marked with many shallow
meandering grooves and fewer deeper furrows. Each ureter,
composed of several large successive canals, leaves its kidney
near the inner hinder end, and then runs free for a short space,
crossing the gut to open into the neck of the urinary bladder,
which arises ventrally out of the urodaeum, which itself has
become a recess of the cloaca. The bladder is large, often more
or less two-horned, attached to the pelvic wall by a peritoneal
fold, and it contains very fluid urine.
The kidneys of Sphenodon are very small and far removed
from the generative organs. The ureters open," each close to
the vas deferens of its side, beneath a little papilla, on the dorsal
side, rather near the midline of the urodaeum, whence arises
a long-necked bladder.
Reproductive System.
The Ovaries are always in pairs, placed headwards at a distance
from the kidneys in Sphenodon, lizards and snakes; in the
latter the right ovary lies farther forward. In tortoises, and
especially in the crocodiles, where they are very long and much
twisted or lobated, they are situated close to the kidneys and
even accompany them. The ovaries of lizards and snakes con-
tain many and large lymph spaces; those of the other reptiles
are much denser in structure. The ripening eggs always cause
them to assume the shape of a bunch of grapes. The oviducts are
each held by a peritoneal fold which arises from near the dorsal
midline. The abdominal ostia are long slits and are turned
towards the side, away from the ovaries. The walls of the ducts
gradually become thicker, glandular and much folded. Whilst
the ripe eggs, often in considerable numbers, receive their shell,
each egg lies in a separate chamber; in the geckos, which lay
only one pair of eggs, the two respective chambers have become
permanent features. In Sphenodon each oviduct opens together
with the ureter of its side near the dorsomedian line of the
urodaeum. In most lizards the two oviducts and the two
ureters have four separate openings in the dorsal wall of the
rather deep dorsal recess of the urodaeum. But in Lophura
both oviducts unite (like the ureters) and have only one opening,
which is placed a little nearer towards the pelvis than the
urinary opening, but they are divided by a longitudinal septum
which extends almost to their common orifice. In the snakes
the oviducts likewise open into the dorsal recess, sometimes by a
common ostium, which is provided with a strong sphincter. The
whole recess acts like a vagina for the reception of one of -the
copulatory organs. The oviducts of the crocodiles open in a
decidedly ventral position, on either side close to the base of the
clitoris, a considerable distance from the openings of the ureters.
In the tortoises the oviducts open separately into a wide ventral
urino-genital sinus, at the base of the neck of the bladder.
The Testes correspond in position with the ovaries; in
snakes and Amphisbaenids the right is placed farther head-
wards than the left. The usual shape is elongated, sometimes
pointed forwards. The Epididymis is sometimes of the same
size as the testis and then consists of many meandering con-
volutions of the vas deferens which is composed of several
canals from the testis. The convolutions are held together by a
peritoneal lamella. Towards the cloaca they become much
smaller and shorter, and the vas deferens passes along the median
side of the ureter. In Sphenodon these open separately, each
near and below the same papilla near which opens the ureter of
the same side. In most lizards the vas deferens unites with its
ureter into one short canal which opens beneath or upon a small
papilla in the upper corner of the urodaeal recess, far away from
the penis. In snakes vas deferens and ureter of each side are
likewise commonly united. In the crocodiles each vas deferens
passes from the dorsal side of the cloaca to the ventral side, not
accompanied by the ureter, and opens into the blind sac which
forms the basal continuation of the deep groove on the dorsal
side of the penis. In the tortoises the epididymis is very large
and the vas deferens is also much convoluted; each opens
separately near the neck of the large urinary bladder close to
the backward continuation of the deep longitudinal groove of
the copulatory organ.
Remnants of the Miillerian ducts run parallel with the vasa
deferentia, and similar remnants of the Wolffian ducts accompany
the oviducts in crocodiles and tortoises, least degenerated of
course in young specimens. Such reciprocal vestiges occur
most likely also in lizards, and in female snakes a. vestige of the
male duct joins its ureter. In a nearly adult male Sphenodon the
present writer missed the female remnants.
The copulatory organs show very important modifications.
Sphenodon is the only recent reptile which is devoid of such an
organ; its imperfect substitute is an unpaired, thin, but high
membranous fold which arises from the dorsal middle of the
circular fold between urodaeum and coprodaeum. During
copulation this part of the cloaca is probably everted to secure
conception, a striking resemblance to the arrangement found
in the Caecilia. The organs of all lizards and snakes are paired,
in their quiescent state withdrawn into deep pockets which
open on the right and left posterior corners of the proctodaeum
or outer chamber of the
cloaca, which for this reason
has assumed the shape of
a transverse slit in all
lizards and snakes. Hence
these have sometimes been
called Plagiotremata. Each
organ can be everted and
tucked in like the linger
of a glove, a muscle being
attached to the inside of
the apex; when everted, the
muscle extends through the
length of the organ; each
muscle arises from the ven-
tral side of several trans-
verse processes of the tail FIG. 39. Mate copulatory organs of
. , Lacerta aguis (after Leydig).*i, *,
vertebrae, at a consider- organs O f right and f e ft sioVs
able distance from the between them is the anal aperture;
cloaca. In the embryo each PP, preanal plate,
organ arises as a conical protuberance, or papilla, which
projects out of the vent. Later it becomes inverted. Prob-
ably this ontogenetic feature recapitulates the phylogeny
of these organs, which have to be looked upon as swell-
ing flaps or portions of the walls of the cloaca which were pro-
truded during copulation, and which in time borrowed, and
specialized, muscular fibres from the ventral tail muscles. On
the outer everted side of each organ is a furrow for the reception
of the semen. The apex is either single or more or less deeply
bifurcated, each arm being followed by the likewise divided
furrow. The outer investing membrane of these > very muscular
erectile bodies is epidermal; often, especially in snakes, pro-
vided with numerous papillae, folds or other excrescences. In
xxm. 6 a
ff*
REPTILES
[ANATOMY
many snakes these are spiny and hard, but according to Leydig
this hardness is not due to a horny substance but to the deposi-
tion of calcifying matter. E. D. Cope has investigated the
almost endless minor modifications of these penial features and
uses them for taxonomic purposes in the snakes. Vestiges of
these organs occur in females of snakes and lizards. Close to
these organs of the snakes lies a pair of anal glands of some size,
which pour their very offensive secretion through an opening
close to the base of each penis. The same glands occur in the
same position in Sphenodon, which has no copulatory organs,
and in crocodiles they appear as evertible musk glands. Hence
J. E. V. Boas, not knowing of their existence in both sexes of
snakes, tried to homologize them with the paired penes of
reptiles, an error which has been repeated in C. Gegenbaur's
Lehrbuch, vol. ii. p. 533.
The crocodiles and tortoises possess a single, median copula-
tory organ; it lies on the ventral or anterior end of the cloaca,
the outer opening of which is therefore a longitudinal slit,
hence the term ucthotremata. In the crocodiles the organ is
attached to the caudal corner of the ischiadic symphysis by a
strong and roundish fibrous band, which arises single from the
ventral sides and forms partly the continuation of the two
fibrous halves of the organ; the bulk of the crura, comparable
to corpora cavernosa, is not attached to the pelvis, as generally
stated, but projects backwards towards and into the pelvic
cavity. This portion is especially rich in venous cavernosities.
The outer coating of the glans possesses various papillary pro-
jections, which are furnished with sensory, hedonic corpuscles.
On the morphologically dorsal side of the organ, not on the
dorsum penis, is a deep groove which ends towards the crura
in a blind sac, into the farther corner of which open the vasa
deferentia. In a full-grown Nile crocodile the whole organ
is about 10 in. long. In young females up to a total length
of 3 or 4 ft. the clitoris is nearly of the same size as the male
organ, but it remains stationary and appears very smaU in
large specimens.
The organ of the tortoises is essentially of the same type
as that of the crocodiles, but it is nowhere directly attached
to the pelvis or to any other skeletal part. The whole organ,
when withdrawn, lies in a ventral, long recess of the wide outer
cloacal chamber, and its crura extend so far back as to form
the continuation of the ventral and lateral walls of the recessus
which is continued into the neck of the urinary bladder. Its
orifice and those of the seminal ducts are enclosed by the walls
of the deep groove which runs along the underside of the organ.
This is always of considerable size, surprisingly large in Trionyx.
The clitoris is small, sometimes tiny.
The sexual act is extremely prolonged in Chelonians and
still more so are the preliminaries, but in crocodiles it is the
deed of a few seconds. Lizards and snakes insert only one
side.
There remains the question whether the unpaired organ
of the crocodiles and tortoises, which is the prototype of the
mammalian organ in every essential point, and the paired
organs of the lizards and snakes, are to a certain extent homo-
logous organs in so far as they can both be derived from the
same indifferent condition. With this view we assume that
originally the protrusible walls of the outer cloacal chamber
became specialized into a right and left imperfect intromittent
organ, that subsequently, in lizards, those hemipenes were
shifted back towards the tail and were henceforth bound to
develop separately, while , in the crocodiles, tortoises, mammals
and birds the two primitive lateral evertile flaps approached
each other towards the ventral anterior side of the cloaca,
and that this led to a fusion, beginning probably at the basal
part, which at the same time was farther withdrawn from the
surface and secured the reception of the sperma from both
vasa deferentia into one canal. This hypothesis has been
objected to by Boas, but accepted by Gegenbaur (p. 538) after
having been rejected on p. 533 of his Lehrbuch.
The Fat bodies belong at least physiologically to the genera-
tive system. They are placed outside the peritoneum. In
lizards they appear as two masses in the pelvic region, the
black peritoneal lining covering only their dorsal side. They
consist of a network of arteries and connective tissue, the
meshy spaces of which are filled with " fat "; they each receive
an artery from the femoral vessel which enters them in the
inguinal region; the veins collect into the abdominal. In
snakes the fat bodies are very long, extending from the cloaca
to the liver. Tortoises seem to have only traces of them, but
in Sphenodon and in crocodiles they resemble those of lizards.
The peculiar organ suspended from the right abdominal wall
of crocodiles, variously mentioned as mesenteric gland or body,
or fatty spleen, by Butler, is possibly related to the same
category. The fat bodies of reptiles are sometimes vaguely
alluded to as hibernating bodies; like the fat bodies which are
attached to the generative glands of Amphibia they do not
become reduced during the eventual hibernation but are largest
before the pairing season, by the end of which they are
exhausted, looking reddish or grey after the loss of their stores
of fat and probably other important contents
The Embryonic Development.
Fertilization of the egg always takes place internally, and
the egg containing a large amount of food-yolk is of course
meroblastic. It is sufficient to mention that many lizards,
some chameleons and many snakes (not Sphenodon, geckos,
crocodiles and Chelonians) retain their, in these cases very
thin-shelled, eggs in the oviducts until the embryo is 'ready
to burst the egg-membrane during the act of parturition or
immediately after it. Such species are usually called ovo-
viviparous, although there is no difference between them and
other viviparous creatures, for instance the marsupials.
The majority of reptiles are oviparous and the egg is enclosed
in a strong parchment shell, with or without calcareous
deposits. Only gas exchange can take place between such
an egg and the outside, and it loses by evaporation, whilst in
the batrachian egg various other exchanges are easy through
the thin membrane. The salamander embryo, within its thin
egg-membrane, even grows to a size many times larger than
the original egg, it does not only breathe, but it is also nourished
through the gills, and by some means or other the waste
products are partly eliminated without filling the bladder.
The amphibia are born as larvae and live as such for a long
time, often in a most imperfect condition. Nothing of all
this applies to the reptile, which leaves the egg as a perfect
little imago. A great amount of yolk supplying the material,
and a large " bladder " to receive the waste products and to
act as respiratory organ, have made this possible. That the
allantois and the amnion behave precisely in the same way
in the mammals with their much reduced yolk, only testifies to
the superior value of these organs, and after all there is no
difference in this respect between a monotreme and a reptile.
These two organs seem to have come into existence with the
reptiles and constitute the most reliable diagnostic feature
between higher and lower vertebrates. All reptiles, birds
and mammals have a navel, a feature unknown and impossible
in Batrachia and fishes. A few remarks on these important
embryonic organs may not be superfluous, especially concerning
their possible origin.
Whilst the urinary bladder of the Batrachia remains within
the body throughout the embryonic stage, this organ undergoes
in the higher vertebrates, reptiles, birds and mammals, con-
siderable modifications, and it assumes, henceforth as Allantois,
new important functions besides that of being the receptacle
of the embryonic urine. The development of the Allantois is
in -intimate causal connexion with that of the Amnion. All
the Allantoidea are also Amniota and vice versa, but the term
Amniota is preferable, since the basal portion of the Allantois
remains in the adult as the urinary bladder, as an organ hence-
forth equivalent to and homologous with that of the Anamnia.
The primary feature seems to be the allantois which leaves the
body cavity, remains without the amniotic folds, even after
these have enclosed the body within the amniotic bag, and
ANATOMY]
REPTILES
171
then spreads nearly all over the. inner side of the egg-shell
Having thus come into the closest possible contact with the
atmospheric air, the vessels of the allantois can exchange their
carbon dioxide for oxygen and the allantois becomes the re-
spiratory organ of the embryo. Herewith stands in direct
correlation the complete absence of any internal and of externa.
gills in the embryonic reptiles. The blood vessels of the allan-
tois are fundamentally the same as those of the batrachian
bladder, namely, branches from the pelvic arteries (later hypo-
gastrics) and veins which return from the base of the bladder
to the abdominal wall and thence to the liver.
In the normal reptilian egg, surrounded by its non-yielding
shell, space is absolutely limited, and whilst the yolk is being
diminished and increased secretion of urine distends the bladder,
this soon protrudes out of the body cavity proper into the
extra-embryonal coelomatic space between the true amnion and
the false amnion or serous membrane. It fills this space so
far as the yolk-sac allows it. It seems reasonable to suppose
that this growth of the allantois has been one of the causes of
the caudal amniotic fold; the sinking of the embryo into the
space of the diminishing yolk-sac is no doubt another cause,
but the fact remains that the amnion is the chief hindrance to
the closing of the body-wall at the region of the future navel.
The life-histories of embryonic development are the domain
of the embryographers. They are the imperfect accounts of
the ways and means (often crooked and blurred, owing to short
cuts and in adaptation to conditions which prevail during the
embryonic period) by which the growing creature arrives at
those features which form the account of the anatomical structure
of the adult. Comparative anatomy, with physiology, alone
lead through the maze of the endless embryonic vagaries and
afford the clues for the reconstruction of the real life-history
of an animal and its ancestry. For detail the reader is referred
to numerous papers quoted in the list of literature, and to the
various text-books, above all to the Handbuch d. vergleichenden
Entwicklungsgeschichle d. Wirbelthiere, edited by O. Hertwig,
Berlin.
AUTHORITIES ON ANATOMY: Bibliography. The appended list
of papers (many with shortened titles) represents but a fraction of
the enormous literature dealing with the anatomy of reptiles.
Special stress has been laid upon the more recent publications. A
great amount of information, general and detailed, is contained in
Bronn's Klassen u. Ordnungen d. Thierreichs, the three volumes
concerning reptiles having been written by C. K. Hoffmann (Leipzig,
1878-1890) ; E. D. Cope's Crocodilians, Lizards and Snakes of North
America, U.S. Nat. Mus., Washington, 1900; H. Gadow's " Am-
phibia and Reptiles," vol. xiii. of The Cambridge Natural History
(London, 1901) ; above all in C. Gegenbaur's Vergleichende Anatomie
d. Wirbelthiere (Leipzig, 1898-1901).
Skeletal. J. F. v. Bemmelen, " Schaedelbau v. Dermochelys
coriacea," Festschr. f. Gegenbaur (1896); E. Gaupp, " Morphologic d.
Schaedels," Morpholog. Arbeiten (1894), iv. pp. 77-128, pis.; ibid.
(" Problems Concerning the Skull "),Anat.Ergebn. (1901), x. pp. 847-
looi. W. K. Parker," Skull of Lacertilia," Phil. Trans. 170 (1880), pp.
595-640, pis. 37745 ; " of Tropidonotus," ibid. (1879), 169, pp. 385-417,
pis.; "Crocodilia," Trans. Zool. Soc. (1885), xi. pp. 263310, pis.;
"Chamaeleons," ibid. (1885), xi. pp. 77-195, pis. 15-19.; F.
Siebenrock, " Kopfskclet d. Scincoiden, Anguiden u. Gerrhosaur-
iden," Ann. Nat. Hofmuseum (Wien, 1892), vii. 3. Of the enormous,
still increasing, literature concerning the homologies of the auditory
ossicles, a few only can be mentioned; the papers by Kingsley and
Versluys contain most of the previous literature : W. Peters,
several most important papers in Monatsber. Ak. Wiss. (Berlin,
2ist Nov. 1867, 5th Dec. 1867, 7th Jan. 1869, i?th Jan. 1870,
I5th Jan. 1874). H. Gadow, " Modifications of the First and Second
Visceral Arches, and Homologies of the Auditory Ossicles," Phil.
Trans. 179 (1888), B. pp. 451-485, pis. 71-74; " Evolution of the
Auditory Ossicles," Anal. Anz. (1901), xix. No. 16. J. Versluys,
" Mittlere u. aussere Ohrsphare d. Lacertilia u. Rhynchocephalia,"
Zool. Jahrb. Anal. (1898), 12, pp. 161-406, pis. (most exhaustive
and careful) ; ibid., " Entwickl. d. Columella auris b. Lacertiliern,"
ibid. (1903), 18, pp. 107-188, pis. (. S. Kinsrslev, "The Ossicula
auditus," Tufts College Studies, No. 6 (1900). E. Gaupp, " Columella
auris," Anal. Anz: (1891), vi. p. 107. T. H. Huxley, " The Repre-
sentatives of the Malleus and Incus of the Mammalia in the other
Vertebrata," P.Z.S., 1869. W. K. Parker, " Struct, and Develop-
ment of Crocodilian Skull," Trans. Zool. Soc. (1883), xi., especially
pis. 68 and 69. H. Gadow," Evolution of the Vertebral Column of
Amphibia and Amniota," Phil. Trans. (1896), 136, pp. 1-57 (with a
list of ninety-three papers). G. B. Howes and H. H. Swmnerton,
" Development of the Skeleton of Sphenodon," Trans. Zool. Soc.
(1901), xvi. pp. 1-86, pis. 1-6. G. A. Boulenger, Catalogue of
Chelonians, Rhynchocephalians and Crocodiles, Brit. Mus. 1889-
Cat. of Lizards (3 vols., 1885-1887); Cat. of Snakes (3 vpls., 1893-
1896); these volumes contain a great body of ostcological obser-
vations, ignored by most compilers of anatomical text-books;
" Osteol. of Heloderma, and Vertebrae of Lacertilia," P.Z.S
pp. 109-118 (1891). L. Calori, "Skeleton of Varanus, Lacerta,"
Mem. Ace. Set. Instil. Bologna (8, 1857, and 9, 1859). E. D. Cope,
" Osteology of Lacertilia, Proc. Am. Phil. Soc. (1892), 30, pp.
185-221; "Degeneration of Limbs and Girdles," Journ.
Morph. (1892), vii. pp. 223-244. E. Ficalbi, Osteologia del Plati-
datttlo (Pisa, 1882). A. Goette, " Beitrage z. Skeletsystem," Arch,
micr. Anal. (1877), 14, pp. 502-620. A. GQnther, '' Anatomy of
Hattena," Phil. Trans. (1867), 157, pp. 595-629, pis. S. Orlandi,
1 Note anatomiche s. Macrosincus, Atti S. Lig. (Geneva, 1894), v. 2 ;
Skelet d. Seine. Anguid. Gerrhosaurid," Ann. Naturhist. Hofmus.
(1895)- x. pp. 17-41; " Skelet d. Agamidae," Sitzb. Ak. Wiss. Wien
(1895), 104, pp. 1089-1196. F. Siebenrock, " Skelet v. Brookesia,"
Sitzb. Ak. Wiss. Wien (1893), 102, pp. 71-118; "Skelet v. Uro-
plates," Annal. Naturhist. Hofmuseum (1892), vii. pp. 517-536,
1893; "Skelet d. Lacertiden," Sitzb. Ak. Wiss. Wien (1894), 102,
pp. 203-292. C. Smalian, " Anat. d. Amphisbaenid," Zeitschr. wiss.
Zool. 11885), 42, pp. 126-202. A. Voeltzkow, " Biolog. u. Entwickl.*
von Crocodiles," Abh. Senckenb. Ges. (1899), 26, pp. 1-150, 17 pis.
E. A. Case, " Osteology and Relationships of Protostega," Journ.
Morph. (1897), xiv. pp. 21-60. H. Goette, " Entwickl. des Carapax
d. Schildkroeten," Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. (1899), 66, pp. 40-434, pis.
O. P. Hay, " Morphogeny of Chelonian Carapace," Amer. Nat.
(1898), 32, pp. 929-948. G. Baur, " Morphol. Unterkiefer d. Rept.,"
Anat. Anz. (1896), xi. pp. 410-415. M. Fiirbringer, " Brustschulter-
apparat und Schultermuskeln. Reptilien," Jena Zeitschr. (1900),
34, pp. 215-718, pis. 13-17 (with a list of many titles of papers con-
cerning reptiles ; and a new, unsatisfactory classification of the whole
class). C. K. Hoffmann, " Becken d. Amphib. u. Reptil.," Niederl.
Arch. f. Zool., iii. E. Mehnert, " Beckenguertel d. Emys lutaria,"
Morph. Jahrb. (1890), 16, pp. 537-57L pH; " Os hypoischium, &c.
d. Lidechsen, Morph. Jahrb. (1891), 17, pp. 123-144, pi. W. K.
Parker, " Shoulder Girdle and Sternum," Roy. Soc. London, 1868.
A. Rosenberg, " Development of Skeleton of Reduced Limbs,"
Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. (1873), 23, pp. 116-170, pis. A. Sabatier.
Comparaison des ceintures et des membres ant. et post," Mem.
Ac. Montpellier (1880), xix. C. Gegenbaur, Untersuch. 2. verg. Anat.,
I. Carpus u. Tarsus " (1864), II. " Schulterguertel " (1865) (the most
important monographs). A. Banchi, " Parafibula," Monitore Zool.
Italiano (1900), xi. No. 7 (A nodule ][ between femur and fibula in
Lacerta). G. Baur, " Carpus u. Tarsus d. Reptil.," Anatom. Anzeig.
iv. No. 2. G. Born, " Carpus u. Tarsus d. Saurier," Morph. Jahrb.
(1876), 2, pp. 1-26, pi. A. Carlsson, " Gliedmassenreste bei Schlan-
gen, Svensk. Vetensk. Ac. Handlingar, ii. (1886). A. Johnson,
' Development of Pelvic Girdle," Q.J.M.S. (1883), 23, pp. 399-411.
G. Kehrer, " Carpus u. Tarsus," Ber. Naturf. Ges. (Freiburg, i. 1886).
W. Kuekenthal, " Entwickl. d. Handskelets des Crocodiles," Morph.
Jahrb. (1892), 19, pp. 42-55. H. F. Sauvage, " Membre anterieur
du Pseudopus, Ann. Sci. Nat.-Zool. 7. art. 15 (1878). A. Sleeker,
" Carpus u. Tarsus bei Chamaeleon," Sitzb. Ak. Wtss. (1877), 75, 2,
pis. R. Wiedersheim, GliedmassenskeleU, Schulter u. Beckenguertel
t"~" _uv-i -j\-nii, vjfn>u./f*t*-ooc-f*o/v^*-^-*- f . >t rt ill tr r 14* JJt L Kt rl ffHt fli t
(Jena, 1892). K. Baechtold, #6er dte Giftwerkzeuge der Schlangen
(Tubingen, 1843). A. Duges, " Venin de 1'Heloderma," Jubil. Soc.
Biol. (1899), pp. 34-137. D. F. Weinland, " On the Egg-tooth of the
Snakes, Proc. Essex Institute (Salem, 1856); and in Wurttemb.
Jahresheft. Verein vaterl. Naturk. (1856). G. S. West, " Buccal Glands
and Teeth of Poisonous Snakes," P.Z.S. (1895), pp. 812-826, pis.
44-46.
Tegumentary. A. Batelli, " Bau der Reptilienhaut," Arch. mikr.
Anat. (1880), 17, pp. 346-361, pis. J. E. V. Boas, " Wirbelthier-
cralle," Morph. Jahrb. (1894), xxi. pp. 281-311, pis. A. Haase,
' Bau d. Haftlappen bei den Geckotiden,'" Arch. Naturg. (1900), 61,
pp. 321-345, pis. R. Keller, " Farbenwechsel d. Chamaeleons,"
Arch. ges. Physiol. (1895), 61, pp. 123-168. C. Kerbert, " Haut der
Reptilien," Arch. mikr. Anat. (1876), 13, pp. 205-262. F. Maurer,
Epidermis und ihre Abkoemmlinge (Leipzig, 1895). F. Schaefer,
' Schenkeldruesen d. Eidechsen, Arch. Naturg (1902), 68, pp.
27-64, pis. F. Todaro, Ricerche f. nel labor, di anal, norm, di Roma
,1878), II. i. F. Toelg, " Drusenartige Epidermoidalorgane d.
Eidechsen u. Schlangen, Arb. Zool. Inst. Wien (1904), 15, pp.
119-154, pis.
Nervous System. J. F. Bemmelen, "Beitr. Kenntnissd. Halsgegend
>ei Reptilien Mededeel," Natura Artis Magistra (Amsterdam, 1887).
^. Edinger, " Zwischenhirn d. Reptilien," Abh. Senckenb. Ges. (1899),
20, pp. 161-197, P' S - J- G. Fischer, " Gehirnnerven d. Saurier,"
Abhandl. Naturwiss. Verein, Hamburg, II. (1852), pp. 115-212
with many excellent illustrations). M. Fiirbringer, " Spino-
occipital Nerven," &c., Festschr. f. Gegenbaur, iii. (1896). S. P.
Gage, " Brain of Trionyx," Proc. Am. Micr. Soc. (1895), xvii.
pp. 185-222. E. Gaupp, " Anlage d. Hypophyse b. Sauriern,"
Arch. mikr. Anat. (1893), 42, pp. 569-680. Giuliani, " Struttura d.
midolla spinale d. Lacerta viridis, Ric. Lab. di Anat. Roma, ii.
*. Grimm, " Riickenmark v. Vipera berus," Arch. Anat. Phys. (1864),
172
REPTILES
[DISTRIBUTION
pp. 502-51 1, pi. 12. C. L. Herrick, " Brain of Certain Reptiles," Journ.
comp. Neural. (1891), i. pp. 1-36, iii. (1893), pp. 77-106, 119-140,
with many plates. 0. D. Humphry, " Brain of Chelydra," Journ.
comp. Neural. (1894), pp. 73-116. H. v. Jhering, Das peripherische
Nervensystem (410, Leipzig, 1873), pis. St G. Mivart and R. Clarke,
" Sacral Plexus of Lizards, &c.," Trans. Linn. Soc. Zool. i. (1877),
PP- 5'3~53 2 i P' S - 66, 67. H. F. Osborn, " Origin of the Corpora
callosa," Morph. Jahrb. xii. pp. 530-543. H. Rabl-Rtickhard,
" Centralnervensystem d. Alligator," Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. (1878),
xxx. pp. 336-373, pis. 19 and 20. " Python," ibid. (1894), Iviii. pp.
694-717, pi. 41. G. Ruge, " Peripher. Gebiet. d. N. facialis " (masti-
cator muscles, &c.), Festschr. f. Gegenbaur (1896), iii. L. Stieda,
" Centralnervensystem d. Emys," Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. (1875), xxv. PP-
361-408.
Sense Organs. R. Hoffmann, " Thraenenwege d. Vogel u. Reptil.,"
Zeitschr. f. Naturw. (Nat. Verein Sachsen u. Thuring., 1882).
C. Rose, " Nasendriise u. Gaumendriisen d. Crocodils," Anat.
Anz. (1893), viii. pp. 745-751. C. Ph. Sluitez, " Jacobson's Organ v.
Crocodilus," Inat. Anz. (1892), vii. pp. 540-545. O. Seydel, " Nasen-
hohle u. Jacobson's Organ d. Schildkroten,' Festschr. f. Gegenbaur
(1896), ii. B. Solger, " Nasenwand u. Nasenmuschelw. d. Reptil.,"
Morph. Jahrb. (1876), i. pp. 467-494, pi. E. Beraneck, " Parietal-
auge d. Rept.," Jen. Zeitschr. (1887), xxi. pp. 374-410, pis.; ibid.,
Anat. Anz. (1893), No. 20. P. Francotte, " L'CEil parietal, &c.
chez les Lacertiliens," Mem. couronnb Ac. Belgique (1898), 55, No. 3.
H. W. de Graaf, Structure and Development of the Epiphysis in Amph.
and Rept. (Leiden, 1886; written in Dutch). W. B. Spencer,
" Presence and Structure of the Pineal Eye in Lacertilia," Q.J.M.S.
(1886), 27, pp. 165-237, 7 pis. H. Strahl u. E. Martin, " Entwickl.
d. Parietalauges b. Anguis u. Lacerta, " Arch. f. Anat. u. Phys.
(1888), pp. 146-165, pi. 10. A. Dendy, " Development of Parietal
Eye of Sphenodon," Q.J.M.S. (1899), 42, pp. 1-87 and pp. 111-153,
13 plates. H. Miiller, Schriften z. Anat. u. Physiol. d. Auges, edit.
O. Becker (Leipzig, 1872). E. Ficalbi, " Palpebralapparat d.
Schlangen u. Geckonen," Alt. Soc. Tosc. Pisa, ix. C. K. Hoff-
mann, " Anatomie d. Retina d. Amph. Rept. u. Vogel. Niederl.,"
Arch. Zool. (1875), iii. M. Borysiekiewicz, Retina v. Chamaeleo
vulgaris (Leipzig, 1889), 7 pis. M. Weber, " Nebenorgane d. Auges
d. Reptil.," Arch. f. Naturg. (1897), 43. E. Clason, " Gefiororgan
d. Eidechsen," Anatom. Studien (Leipzig, 1873). C. Hasse, " Gehor-
organ d. Krokodile," &c., ibid; " Gehororgan d. Schildkroeten,
von Tropidonotus natrix," ibid. G. Retzius, Gehororgan d. Wir-
belthiere, i. (Stockholm, 1881).
Muscles. -O. C. Bradley, " Muscles of Mastication of Lacertilia,"
Zool. Jahrb. Anat. (1902), 18, pp. 475-488. M. Furbringer, " Ver-
gleich. Anatomie d. Schultermuskeln," Jena Zeitschr. (1873), vii.
muskeln d. Crocod. Eidechs. Schildkroeten," Morph. Jahrb. (1882),
vii. pp. 57-100, pi.; " Myologie d. hinteren Extremitaet d. Rep-
tilien," ibid. (1882), vii. pp. 327-466, pis. G. M. Humphrey,
" Muscles of Pseudopus," Journ. An. Phys. (1872), vii. G. Killian,
" Ohrmuskeln d. Crocodile," Jen. Zeitschr. (1890), xxiv. pp. 632-
656, pi. F. Maurer, " Ventrale Rumpfmuskulatur d. Reptil.,"
Festschr. f. Gegenbaur (1896), i. St G. Mivart, " Muscles of Iguana,"
P.Z.S. (1867), p. 766; " of Chamaeleon," ibid. (1870), p. 850. N.
Ros6n, " Kaumuskeln d. Schlangen u. Giftdruese," Zool. Anz.
(1906), 28, pp. 1-7. A. Sanders, " Muscles of Platydactylus,"
P.Z.S. (1870), p. 413; " of Liolepis," ibid. (1872), p. 154; " of Phry-
rosoma," ibid. (1874), p. 71; F. Walther, " Visceralskelett u. Mus-
kulatur b. Amph. u. Rept.," Jen. Zeitschr. (1887), xxi. pp. 1-45, pis.
Respiratory System. F. E. Beddard, " Trachea and Lungs of
Ophiophagus bungarus," P.Z.S. (1903), pp. 319-328. G. Butler,
' Suppression of one Lung in various Reptiles," ibid. (1895),
Turtle," Proc. Am. Ass. Adv. Sci. (1884), pp. 316-318; and Amer.
Nat. (1886), xx. pp. 233-236. J. Henle, Vergl. anal. Beschreibung
d. Kehlkopfes (1839). F. Siebenrock, " Kehlkopf u. Luftroehre d.
Schildkroeten," Sitzb. Ak. Wien (1899), 108, pp. 563-595, pis.
G. Tornier, " Kopflappen u. Halsluftsaecke bei Chamaeleonen,"
Zool. Jahrb. Anat. (1904), 21, pp. 1-40, pis. D. Bertelli, " Pieghe
dei reni primitivi nei Rettili. Contribute allo sviluppo del dia-
framma," Atti Soc. Toscan (Pisa, 1896), 15, (1898), 16. I. Bromann,
Entwicklung d. Bursa omentalis und aehnlicher Recessbildungen
(Wiesbaden, 1904). G. Butler, " Subdivision of Body-cavity in
Lizards, Crocodiles and Birds," P.Z.S. (1892), pp. 452-474, 4 pis.;
" Subdivision of Body-cavity in Snakes," ibid. (1892), pp. 477-
497, pi. 6; " The Fat Bodies of the Sauropsida," ibid. (1889),
p. 602, pis. 59-60. F. Hochstetter, Scheidewandbildungen in d.
Leibeshohle der Krokodile, Voeltzkow, Reise in Ostafrika, vol. iv.
pp. 141-206, pis. 11-15 (Stuttgart, 1906).
Vascular System. F. E. Beddard, various papers on vascular
system of Ophidia and Lacertilia, P.Z.S. (1904); "Notes on
Anatomy of Boidae," ibid. (1903), pp. 107-121. F. E. Beddard
and P. C. Mitchell, " Structure of Heart of Alligator," ibid.
(1895). A. Greil, " Herz u. Truncus arteriosus d. Wirbelthiere
Reptilien," Morph. Jahrb. (1903), 31, pp. 123-310, pis. O. Grosser
and E. Brezina, " Entwickl. Venen d. Kopfes u. Halses bei Reptil.,"
Morph. Jahrb. (1895), pp. 289-325, pis. 20 and 21. F. Hochstetter,
several important papers on vascular system of reptiles, Morph.
Jahrb. (1891, 1892, 1898, 1901); ibid., " Blutgefass-System,"
O. Hertwig's Entwickl. d. Wirbelthiere (Jena, 1902) ; " Blutgefaess-
System d. Krokodile," Voeltzkow, Reise in Ostafrika (Stuttgart,
1906, iv.). A. Langer, " Entwickl. Bulbus cordis bei Amph. u.
Rept.," Morph. Jahrb. (1894), pp. 40-67. J. Y. Mackay, " Arterial
System of Vertebrates, homologically considered," Memoirs and
Memoranda in Anatomy (London and Edinburgh, 1889), i. B.
Panizza, Sopra il sistema linfatico dei rettili (Pavia, 1833). C.
Roese, " Vergl. Anat. d. Herzens d. Wirbelthiere," Morph. Jahrb.
(1890), 16, pp. 27-96, pis. A. Sabatier, Etudes sur le cceur el la
circulation centrale (Paris, 1873); " Transformat. du syst^me
aortique," Ann. Sc. Nat. Ser. (1874), 5, J. 19. H. Watney, " Minute
Anatomy of Thymus," Phil. Trans. (1882), 173, pp. 1063-1123,
pis. 83-95.
Urino-genital System. J. E. V. Boas, " Morphol. d. Begattungs-
organe d. Wirbelth.," Morph. Jahrb. (1891), xvii. pp. 171-287,
pi. 16. J. Budge, " Das Harnreservoir d. Wirbelthiere," Neu
Vorpommern, Mittheil. 7 (1875), pp. 20-128, pi. W. R. Coe and
B. W. Kunkel, " Reproduct. Ore. of Aniella," Amer. Natural. (1904),
38, pp. 487-490. H. Gadow, Cloaca and Copulatory Organs of
the Amniota, Phil. Trans. B. (1887), pp. 5-37, pis. 2-5. K.
Hellmuth, " Kloake u. Phallus d. Schildkroeten u. Krokodile,"
Morph. Jahrb. (1902), 30, pp. 582-613. F. v. Moeller, " Urogenital-
system d. Schildkroeten," Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., 65, pp. 573-598,
pis. F. W. Pickel, " Accessory Bladders of Testudmata," Zool.
Bull. (1899), ii. pp. 291-301. F. Schoof, Zur Kenntniss d. Vro-
genitalsystems d. Saurier. Arch. f. Naturg. (1888), 54, p. 62. P.
Unterhoessel, " Kloake u. Phallus d. Eidechsen u. Schlangen,"
Morph. Jahrb. (1902), 30, pp. 541-581. O. Schmidtgen, " Cloake
und ihre Organe bei Schildkroter," Zool. Jahrb. (1907), pp. 357-412,
pl. 32- 33- (H. F. G.)
IV. DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE
This zoo-geographical review deals only with modern reptiles.
We begin with a survey of the faunas of some of the most obvious
land-complexes which bear close resemblance to the now
classical " regions " of P. L. Sclater and A. R. Wallace. None of
these " regions " has definable frontiers, and what acts as a bar to
one family may be totally ignored by another. According to the
several orders of reptiles the world is mapped out in very different
ways. The African fauna does not stop at the Suez Canal,
nor even at the Red Sea; there is a transitional belt notice-
able in the countries from Syria to Arabia, Persia and India.
To the north, Indian influence extends right into Turkestan,
or vice versa; the Central Asiatic fauna passes into that of India.
On the Chinese side prevailing conditions are still almost un-
known; Wallace's line is more or less rigidly respected by
Trionychidae, hooded Elaps, vipers and Lacertidae, while it has
not the slightest influence upon crocodiles, pit vipers, Varanidae,
Agamidae, &c. In the western hemisphere we have a grand
illustration of the interchange of two faunas and of the fact
that it is neither a narrow strait nor an equally narrow isthmus
which decides the limitation of two regions. Central America
and the Antilles form one complex with S. America. The nearctic
region ends at the edge of the great Mexican plateau, which
itself is a continuation o.f the north continent. Many nearctic
forms have passed southwards into the tropics, even into far-
off S. America, but the majority of the southerners, in their
northern extension, have been checked by this plateau and have
surged to the right and left along the Pacific and Atlantic
tropical coastlands. The present writer happens to have made
a special study of this part of the world (cf. "The Distribution of
Mexican Amphibians and Reptiles," P.Z.S., 1905, pp. 191-294);
the N. and S. American faunas have therefore been more fully
treated in the following review of the various faunas. No
doubt others can be treated in a similar manner, but the physical
features between N. and S. America are unique, and the results
are closely paralleled by those of the fauna of birds. The
narrow and long neck of the isthmus of Panama (once no doubt
much broader) is no boundary; if the meeting of N. and S.
had taken place there, that narrow causeway would be crowded,
and this is not the case.
NEW ZEALAND. The only recent reptiles are Sphenodon (q.v.),
which testifies to the great age of these islands; about half a dozen
Scincidae of the genus Lygosoma, members of a cosmopolitan
family; and some few geckos, e.g. Naultinus, of a family of great
DISTRIBUTION]
REPTILES
I 73
age, world-wide distribution and with exceptional facilities of
distribution.
AUSTRALIAN REGION. Of crocodiles only C. johnstoni in N.
Australia and Queensland; C. porosus on the N. coast, and occur-
ring on various Pacific islands, as far E. as the Fiji Islands. Tor-
toises are represented only by the pleurodirous Chelydidae, e.g.
Chelodina; they are absent in Tasmania and on the Pacific islands.
New Guinea possesses the aquatic Carettochelys, sole type of a
family.
The bulk of the Lacertilian fauna is composed of skinks, geckos,
agamoids and Varanidae, with the addition of a small family
which is peculiar to the region, the Pygopodidae. A peculiar type,
Dibamus, inhabits the borderlands, namely, New Guinea, the
Moluccas, Celebes and the Nicobar Islands; and, finally, a single
iguanoid, Brachylophus, is common in the Fiji Islands; how it
came there, or how it survived its severance from the American
stock, is a mystery. The skinks are in this region more highly
developed and more specialized than in any other part of the world ;
they exceed in numbers the geckos, which generally accompany the
skinks in their range over the smaller islands of the Pacific; in these
islands members of these two families represent the whole of the
Lacertilian fauna. The Australian agamoids are chiefly peculiar
and partly much differentiated forms (e.g. Moloch and Chlamy-
dosaurus), but some have distinct affinities to, or are even identical
with, Indian genera. The Varanidae are also closely allied to
Indian species.
Of snakes, amounting to about one hundred species only, we note
about one dozen Typhlopidae, and of Pythoninae simply Python,
and the Boine Enygrus on the islands from New Guinea to Fiji.
There are but surprisingly few innocuous colubrine snakes, scarcely
a dozen, and all belonging to Indian genera. The bulk of the
snakes belong to the poisonous Elapinae, all of genera peculiar to
the region, e.g. Acanthophis, Pseudechis, Notechis. Such a prepon-
derance of poisonous over harmless snakes is found nowhere else
in the world. Tasmania is tenanted by poisonous snakes only.
In Australia we meet, therefore, with the interesting fact that,
whilst it is closely allied to S. America, but totally distinct from
India by its Chelonians, its lizards and colubrine snakes connect
it with this latter region. With regard to the other Ophidians,
they have their nearest allies partly in India, partly in Madagascar,
partly in S. America; and the character of the Australian snake
fauna consists chiefly in its peculiar composition, differing thereby
more from the other equatorial regions than those do among them-
selves. Wallace's line marks the boundary between India and
Australia only as far as Chelonians are concerned, but it is quite
effaced by the distribution of lizards and snakes. Thus in ftew
Guinea lizards of the Indian region are mixed with Pygopodidae,
and an island as far E. as Timorlaut is inhabited by snakes, some of
which are peculiarly Indian, whilst the others are as decidedly
Australian. The islands N. of New Guinea and of Melanesia are
not yet occupied by the Ophidian type, and only species of Enygrus
have penetrated eastwards as far as the Low Archipelago, whilst
the Fiji Islands and the larger islands of Melanesia have sufficiently
long been raised above the level of the sea to develop quite peculiar
genera of snakes.
INDIAN REGION. Of Crocodilia C. paluslris, the " mugger " or
marsh crocodile, and C. porosus; Gavialis gangeticus; Tomistoma
schlegeli in Borneo, Malacca and Sumatra. Of tortoises Platy-
sternum megacephalum, type of a family from Siam to S. China;
many Trionychidae and Testudinidae, mostly aquatic; whilst the
terrestrial Testudo is very scantily represented. One species which
is common in the Indian peninsula (T. stellata) is so similar to an
African species as to have been considered identical with it; the
Burmese tortoise is also closely allied to it, and the two others
extend far into western-central Asia. Thus this type is to be
considered rather an immigrant from its present headquarters,
Africa, than a survivor of the Indian Tertiary fauna, which com-
prised the most extraordinary forms of land tortoises. Wallace's
line marks the E. boundary of Trionyx; species of this genus are
common in Java and Borneo, and occur likewise in the Philippine
Islands, but are not found in Celebes, Amboyna or any of the other
islands E. of Wallace's line. Agamidae are exceedingly numerous,
and are represented chiefly by arboreal forms, e.g. Draco (g.f.) is
peculiar to the region, Ceratophora and Lyriocephalus exclusively
Ceylonese; terrestrial forms, like Agama and Uromastix, inhabit
the hot and sandy plains in the N.W., and pass uninterruptedly
into the fauna of western-central Asia and Africa. The Geckonidae,
Scincidae and Varanidae are likewise well represented, but without
giving a characteristic feature to the region by special modification
of the leading forms except the gecko Ptychozoon homalocephalum
in Malaya. The Lacertidae are represented by one characteristic
genus, Tachydromus Ophiops and Cabrita being more developed
beyond the limits assigned to this region. Finally, the Euble-
pharidae and Anguidae, families whose living representatives are
probably the scattered remains of once widely and more generally
distributed types, have retained respectively two species in W.
India, and one in the Khasi Hills, whilst the presence of a single
species of chameleon in S. India and Ceylon reminds us again of the
relations of this part of the fauna to that of Africa.
The Indian region excels all the other tropical countries in the great
variety of genuine types and numbers of species of snakes. Boulenger 1
recognizes 267 species, i.e. about one-fifth of the total number of
snakes known. India is the only country in the world possessing
viperine, crotaline and elapine poisonous snakes (their proportion
to harmless snakes being about I : 10), e.g. Vipera russeui, the
" dabpia " (see VIPER) ; Lachesis, e.g. gramineus, an arboreal
pit viper; Naja tripudians, the cobra; Bungarus coeruleus, the
" krait " ; CaUophis ; and Hydrpphinae along the coasts of the
whole region. Several sub-families and families are peculiar to
the region: the Uropeltidae with Rhinophis in southern India,
and Uropeltis confined to Ceylon; Ilysiidae in Ceylon and Malay
Islands, elsewhere only in S. America; the opisthoglyphous Elachis-
todon westermanni of Bengal ; the Homalopsmae, with many species
from Bengal to N. Australia; further the Amblycephalidae;
Xenopeltis unicolor, sole type of a family; and the Acrochordinae,
a sub-family of aglyphous Colubridae, ranging from the Khasi
Hills to New Guinea. Of other Colubridae, we notice numerous
Tropidonotus, Coronella and Zamenis, the latter one of the most
characteristic types of the warmer parts of Eurasia. Tree-snakes,
e.g. Dipsas and Dendrophis, are common. Of other families we note
a great number of Typhlopidae, of which T. braminus occurs even
on Christmas Island. Lastly various species of Python, but no
Glauconiidae, the only family not represented in the Indian region,
which claims the Uropeltidae, Xenopeltidae and Amblycephalidae
as peculiar to itself.
Giinther remarks that to this region Japan has to be referred.
This is clearly shown by the presence of species olOphites.Callophis,
Trimeresurus s. Lachesis, Tachydromus, characteristically Indian
forms, with which species of Clemmys, Trionyx, Gecko, Halys,
and some Colubrines closely allied to Chinese and Central Asiatic
species are associated. Halys is a central Asiatic pit viper. The
few reptiles inhabiting the northern part of Japan are probably
of palaearctic origin.
THE AFRICAN CONTINENT. Of crocodiles, C. vulgaris in the E.,
C. cataphractus and Osteolaemus tetraspis in the W. There are many
Chelonians, especially small land tortoises of Testudo, and with
Cinyxis which is peculiar to this continent ; the freshwater Clemmys
only in the N.W. corner; several genera of the pleurodirous Pelo-
medusidae, Pelomedusa galeata, which is equatorial and southern,
with an outlying occurrence in the Sinai peninsula, and Sternothaerus
with several tropical and southern species; of Trionychidae the
tropical Cycloderma and Cyclanorbis peculiar to the country, and
the large Trionyx triunguis which ranges from the Senegal and
Congo into the Nile system with its big lakes, but occurring also in
Syria.
Of Lacertilia the geckos and skinks, and the typically old world
families of Lacertidae and Varanidae are well represented; also
Amphisbaenidae ; Gerrhosauridae and Zonuridae, peculiar to Africa
and Madagascar; a few Eublepharinae and a few of the so-called
Anelytropidae in West Africa. But the most important feature
of this Lacertilian fauna is the almost universal distribution of
chameleons in numerous and some highly specialized forms, Chame-
leon and Rhampholeon. We note the entire absence of Iguanidae
and of Anguidae, the latter represented by Ophisaurus only in the
north-western corner.
Of snakes only one sub-family is peculiar, the Rhachiodontinae
with the sole species Dasypeltis scabra, the egg-swallowing snake.
Many Typhlopidae and Glauconiidae, but no Ilysiidae; large
pythons, Eryx in the N., and a boa, Pelophilus fordt in the W. of
Africa. Of poisonous snakes there is an abundance, notably the
Viperinae have their centre in this continent; besides Echis, which
is also Indian, there are peculiar to the continent Bitis, the puff-
adder, Causus, Atractaspis, Cerastes, and Atheris which is an arboreal
genus, all lof which see under VIPER. The pit vipers are entirely
absent. Elapinae are numerous, e.g. hooded cobras like Naja
haje and Sepedon the " ringhals." Many opisthoglyphous tree
snakes and a considerable number of innocuous colubrines, e.g.
Lycodon, Psammophis and Coronella or closely allied genera all also
in India, but Cpluber-\ike forms and Tropidonotus are very scantily
represented, chiefly in the N.
On the whole the reptilian fauna of Africa is not rich, considering
the huge size of the continent, but this may be accounted for by the
great expanse of desert in the N. half and of veld in the S. Lastly,
the enormous central forests are still scarcely explored.
MADAGASCAR and certain other islands have a fauna which is as
remarkable for its deficiencies as it is for its present forms. The
following well-defined groups are absent: Trionychidae and Chely-
didae; Agamidae, Lacertidae, Anguidae, Amphisbaenidae, Varanidae
and Eublepharinae; all the Viperidae and Elapinae, so that this
large island enjoys perfect absence of poisonous snakes, not counting
the practically harmless opisthoglyphous tree snakes; there are
further no pythons and no ilysias.
The actual fauna consists of: Crocodilus vulgaris, which is said
to be extremely abundant; of Chelonians, Pelomedusa galeata and
1 The same authority enumerates 536 species of reptiles for
British India, i.e. about one-sixth of all the recent species of reptiles
(Fauna of British India, edit. W. T. Blanford, London, 1890).
174
REPTILES
[DISTRIBUTION
Sternothaerus, both also in Africa, Podocnemis, which elsewhere
occurs in South America onty, and several Testudinidae ; of these
Pyxis is peculiar to Madagascar, while Testudo has furnished the
gigantic tortoises of Aldabra, the Seychelles, and recently extinct
in Mauritius and Madagascar. Of lizards are present a few Gerrho-
sauridae and Zonuridae, both African types; the remarkable
occurrence of two iguanid genera Chalarodon and Hoplurm, both
peculiar to the island; skinks, many geckos, and Uroplates, sole
type of the Uroplatinae and an abundance of chameleons, of the
genera Chameleon, with Ch. parsoni, the giant of the family, and the
small species of Brookesia, a genus peculiar to Madagascar. Of
snakes we note Typhlopidae and Glauconiidae, and the remarkable
occurrence of Boinae, two of the genus Boa (Pelophilus), one of
Corallus on the main island and Casarea on Round Island. There
opisthoglyphous mostly arboreal snakes, and the rest are
jcuous colubrines, some few with Indian and African affinities,
are
innocuous
e.g. Zamenis s. Ptyas, more with apparently S. American relation-
ship, or at least with resemblance in taxonomic characters.
An analysis of this peculiarly compound and deficient fauna
gives surprising results, namely, the almost total absence of affinity
with the Indian region, close connexion with Africa by the posses-
sion of Gerrhosauridae, Zonuridae, Chameleons and Pelomedusidae;
lastly, the presence of several tree boas, of Podocnemis and of Iguani-
dae, i.e. families and genera which we are accustomed to consider
as typically neo-tropical. Peculiar to Madagascar, autochthonous
and very ancient, is only Uroplates. Ancient are also the tortoises,
chameleons, geckos, boas, typhlops, gerrhosaurids and zonurids.
The absent families may be as ancient as the others, but most of
them, notably Varanus, lacertids and agamids are of distinctly
northern, palaeotropical origin, and we can conclude with certainty
that they had not spread into S. Africa before Madagascar and its
satellites became severed from the continent.
EUROPE AND TEMPERATE ASIA. The present reptilian fauna
of this vast area is composed almost entirely of the leavings of those
groups which are now flourishing with manifold differentiations
under more genial climes, in Africa and India. Fossils, none too
numerous, tell us that it was not always thus, since crocodiles,
alligators and long-snouted gavials, all the main groups of chelo-
nians, iguanoids, &c., existed in England, the crocodilians persisting
even towards the end of the Tertiary period.
There are no crocodiles now in the Eurasian sub-region, excepting
small survivors in the Jordan basin, on the borderland of Africa;
but the Yang-tse-Kiang is inhabited by an alligator, A. sinensis, while
all its congeners are now in America. This finds, to a certain
extent, a parallel in Trionyx, of which one species lives in the Eu-
phrates basin, likewise borderland, and another, T. maacki, in rivers
of N. China, e.g. in the Amoor. Of other Chelonians we note several
species of Testudo, two of them European; Emys europaea, chiefly
in Europe, with the other species E. blandingi in the eastern United
States ; and a few species of Clemmys, a truly periarctic genus.
Of Lacertilia we exclude the chameleon. Of geckos Hemidac-
tylus turcicus extends from Portugal to Karachi; Platydactylus
facetanus is at home in most S. Mediterranean countries; Teratos-
cincus is peculiar to the steppes and deserts of Turkestan and
Persia; other geckos in the transitional region from Asia Minor
to India. Of Lacertae we have Anguidae, Agamidae, Lacertidae,
Amphisbaenidae and Scincidae, most of them in Europe represented
by but one or two species. Thus Blanus cinereus in Mediterranean
countries, Asia Minor and Syria, represents the Amphisbaenidae
which are found nowhere else in Europe or Asia, but plentiful in
Africa and both Americas. Of the Anguidae, Anguis fragilis is
peculiar to Europe, Ophisaurus apus in S.E. Europe, another in
Indo-Burman countries, with the rest of the species in N. America.
Of Scincidae few in Europe, e.g. Chalcides s. Seps s. Gongylus, others
from Asia Minor eastwards, e.g. Scincus, and Ablepharus in Turke-
stan. Agamidae do not occur in Europe but they exist in considerable
numbers from Asia Minor and Turkestan to China, with Phryno-
cephalus peculiar to central Asia. Lastly, the Lacertidae, of which
several species of Lacerta, Psammodromus, Acanthodactylus in
Europe, but the majority in Africa and warmer parts of India; in
a similar manner the Manchurian forms are related to Chinese.
The total number of palaearctic snakes amounts to about sixty,
the majority living in the Mediterranean countries and in W. Asia.
One Typhlops in the Balkan peninsula and in W. Asia, in Persia
also Glauconia ; Eryx jaculus extends into Greece from S.W. Asia
as sole representative of the Boidae. Several vipers, the common
viper, V. berus, from Wales to Saghalien Island, V. aspis, V. latastei
and V. ammodytes in S. Europe; a pit viper, Ancistrodon. e.g. halys,
in the Caspian district, thence this genus through China and again in
N. America. Echis extends N. into Turkestan. The Indian cobra
ranges N. to Transcaspia and far into China. All the other snakes
belong to the aglyphous and opisthoglyphous Colubridae; of the
latter Coelopeltis is peculiar to S. Europe and S.W. Asia; Macro-
protodon cucullatus to S. Spain, the Balearic Islands and N. Africa;
Tephrometoppn peculiar to Turkestan and neighbouring countries;
none extending into E. Asia. Of the aglyphous coiubrines the most
characteristic genus is Zamenis incl. Zaocys, very widely spread and
including more species than any other palaearctic genus; several
species of the wide-ranging genus Tropidonotus, besides Coluber.
with Rhinechis scalaris in S.W. Europe. There are, besides, other
genera, especially in the debatable countries of S.W. Asia, Persia
and Afghanistan, and speaking generally the colubrines show less
affinity to African than to Indian forms, just as we should expect
from the prevailing geographical conditions. If it were not for the
N.W. corner of Africa and portion of its N. coast, the European
fauna would have very little in common with Africa.
NORTH AMERICA. Of this huge continent only the United States
and Mexico come into consideration, since N. of 45 latitude reptilian
life is very scarce. The area, however, with these restrictions, is
larger than the Indian and Malay countries, and larger than the
Australian region. Yet the fauna is comparatively poor, very poor
indeed, if it were not for Mexico and the Sonoran province, which
seems to be the ancient centre of distribution of much of the present
typically N. American fauna.
Characteristic of the area is the abundance of Chelonians and
Iguanidae, to which Tejidae have to be added in the S.; equally
characteristic is the complete absence of Pleurodirous Chelonians,
of Chameleons, Agamidae, Lacertidae, Varanidae and Viperinae.
The fauna is composed as follows: Crocodilia, with Crocodilus
americanus and Alhgator mississigpiensis in the S. Of Chelonians
the Chelydridae, peculiar to the E. half but for the reappearance of
a species of Chelydra in Central America; many Cinosternidae like-
wise almost peculiar to the area; of Testudinidae an abundance of
freshwater forms, notably Chrysemys, and Emys in common with
Europe, whilst terrestrial tortoises are extremely scanty, namely
one species of Testudo, T. polyphemus, the gopher, and two of
Cistudo, e.g. C. Carolina; lastly, two Trionyx in the whole of the
Mississippi basin and thence N. into Lake Winnipeg, 51 N. Lacer-
tilia: Geckos are very scarce; N. America has received only
Sphaerodactylus notatus from the Antilles into Florida, and Phyllo-
dactylus tuberculosus into California from the Pacific side of Mexico ;
Eublepharinae are absent. Of Iguanidae we have a typically
Sonoran set, e.g. Crotaphytus, Holbrookia, Uta, Phrynosoma, Scelo-
porus, and a S. set of which only Anolis extends out of the tropics.
It is significant that only a few species of Sceloporus and Phrynosoma
extend into the United States, although far N.; of the large genus
Anolis only A. carolinensis enters Texas to Carolina. Sceloporus
may be called the most characteristic genus of Sonoraland and
Mexico. Of the tropical family of Tejidae only Cnemidophorus,
with many species in Mexico, a few in the adjoining N. states, and
with C. sexlineatus over the greater part of the Union. Anguidae:
Ophisaurus ventralis in the United States; the other species in the
Old World. Diploglossus peculiar to mountains of Mexico. Gerrho-
notus, the main genus, centred in Mexico, but G. coeruleus ranges
from Costa Rica along the Pacific side right into British Columbia,
the most northern instance of a New World reptile.
Xenosaurus grandis of Mexican mountains is the monotype of a
family, and the same would apply to Heloderma (H. suspectum, the
Gila monster of the hottest lowland parts of Arizona and New
Mexico; and H. horridum of Mexico) if it were not for Lanthanotus
of Borneo. Scincidae: of this cosmopolitan family America
possesses the smallest number, and it is significant that the number
of species decreases from N. to S. ; Eumeces from Minnesota and
Massachusetts through Mexico, with many species, and Lygosoma s.
Mocoa laterale from S.E. and Central States to Mexico. Xantusiidae,
a small family, is composed of a N. or Sonoran and a S. or Central
American-Antillean group; e.g. Xantusia of the deserts of Nevada
and California. Aniella, monotype of a family of California to El
Paso, Texas, i.e. peculiar to Sonoraland, Amphisbaenidae with
Rhineura in Florida and the marvellous Chirotes in Lower California
and the Pacific side of Mexico ; the other members of this family
are tropical so far as America is concerned.
Snakes: of Typhlopidae only Anomalepis mexicana, peculiar to
Nueyo Leon; of Glauconiidae several extending N. into Texas and
Florida. Boinae continue N. as the arenicolous Lichanura of Lower
California and Arizona, and the likewise arenicolous Charina boltae
which extends from California to the state of Washington; the
other members of the family are all tropical, extra-regional. Of
Viperidae only pit vipers occur, but of them rattlesnakes cover the
whole of the habitable area; Ancistrodon, without a rattle, e.g. the
moccasin snake and the water viper, has other species in central
and E. Asia. Of Elapinae, far into the E. United States only the
genus Elaps with a few species, of which E. fulvius, the commonest,
ranges from S. Brazil far into the S. and E. states. A few opis-
thoglyphous, terrestrial, snakes just enter the United States from
Mexico, e.g. Trimorphodon. Of aglyphous colubrines species of
genera like or resembling Tropidonotus, Coronella and Coluber, in-
cluding Pityophis and Spilotes, are abundant, the latter being very
characteristic; Ischnognathus and Contia, Ficimia and Zamenis
likewise are clearly nearctic, or Sonoran.
The Greater Antilles have essentially neotropical, i.e. Central
American and S. American affinities, but there is also some Sonoran
infusion. There is Crocodilus americanus; no Chelonians are
natives except one or two Chrysemys. Of Lacertilia, geckos are
abundant; of Iguanidae several arboreal forms, notably the large
Iguana, and Metopoceras of Haiti, and Cyclura, both peculiar;
of Anguidae Celestus, peculiar, but closely allied to Diploglossus;
of Xantusiidae the peculiar genus Cricosaura s. Cricolepis. Of
DISTRIBUTION]
REPTILES
Amphisbaenidae Amphisbaena itself occurs in Puerto Rico and on
the Virgin Islands. Of Tejidae only Ameiva, not Cnemidophorus.
Snakes: a Typhlops in Puerto Rico; of boas Epicrates, Ungtuia and
Corallus, the latter re-occurring in Madagascar. Absent are:
Viperidae, Elapinae and Opisthoglyphs; of aglyphous colu-
bnncs the Central American genera Urotheca, Dromicus, Drymobius
and Leptophis; the genera of distinctly northern origin.
SOUTH AND CENTRAL AMERICA. The fauna is very rich. It
is advisable first to mention those groups which are either confined
to Central America (including the hot lowlands of Mexico), e.g. the
Dermatemydidae, Eublephannae, Anelytropsis and the aglyphous
colubrines: Urotheca, Dromicus, Drymobius, Leptophis, Rhadinea,
Streptophorus, or which, from their N. centre have sent some genera
into Central America, or beyond into the S. continent : e.g. Chelydra
rossignoni, ranging from Guatemala to Ecuador; one Cinosternum
extending into Guiana; Testudo labulata, the only terrestrial
tortoise of S. America, besides the gigantic creatures of the Gala-
pagos Islands; a few Eublepharinae reaching Ecuador; of Anguidae
Gerrhonotus coeruleus, extending S. to Costa Rica; of Scincidae,
Mabuia and Lygosoma, which extend far into S. America, and the
same applies to the Amphisbaenidae. Immigrants from the N. are
probably also the Iguamdae, although they have found a congenial
home in the S. countries, where they are now represented by an
abundance of genera and species, e.g. Laemanctus and Corytho-
phanes of Mexico, Anolis, Iguana, Basiliscus, Ctenosaura,Polychrus,
Hoplurus, Chalarodon. Amongst snakes the following appear to
be of N. origin: Boidae (with the Pythonine Loxocaemus mcolor in
Mexico), in spite of their great development of boas and anacondas
in the S. ; certainly Crotalinae, of which only one species, C. terrificus,
is found in S. America; further, some aglyphous colubrines, which
have sent a few species only into Central, and still fewer into
S. America,* e.g. Tropidonotus, Ischnognathus, Contia* Ficimia,
Coluber, Spilotes, Pityophis, Coronella* and Zamenis.
After these numerous restrictions we should expect the genuine
autochthonous fauna of the S. American continent to be very
scanty, especially if we remember those important Old World groups
which are absent in America, e.g. Varanidae, Lacertidae, Agamidae
and chameleons, and that Central and S. America have no Triony-
chidae. The oldest S. American reptilian fauna is composed as
follows. It is the only part of the world which possesses Chelydidae
in abundance, e.g. of Chelys the Matamata, Hydromedusa, and of
Pelomedusidae, Podocnemis, which re-occurs in Madagascar. Cro-
codilia are represented by Crocodilus americanus and C. moreleti
in the N. and by about five species of Caiman. Of Lacertilia geckos
are rather few, mostly in the N.W. of the continent, more numerous
in Central America and the Antilles. The Tejidae are clearly a
neotropical family, with several dozen genera in S. America; of all
these, only Ameiva and the closely allied Cnemidophorus extend
through and beyond Central America: Ameiva into the E. and W.
hot lands of Mexico and into the Antilles, Cnemidophorus through
Mexico far into most of the United States with a few species. Of
snakes there is an abundance. Typhlopidae and Glauconiidae are
well represented. Of aglyphous colubrines many genera, some of
these extending northwards into Mexico, but not to the Antilles,
e.g. Atractes, Tropidodipsas, Dirosema, Geophis, Xenodon.
Opisthoglypha are very numerous in genera and species both in
S. and Central America, whence many of the arboreal forms extend
into the hot countries of Mexico, while a few terrestrials have
spread over the plateau and thence into the United States, none
entering the Antilles; such typical neotropical genera are Himan-
todes, Leptodira, Oxyrhopus, Erythrolamprus, Conophis, Scolecophis,
Homalocranium, Petalognathus, Leptognathus. Most of the Ambly-
cephalidae are neotropical, the others in S.E. Asia. Of Elapinae
only the genus Elaps occurs, but with many species. Of the Cro-
talinae, Lachesis is the essentially neotropical genus, with many
species, some of which enter the hot lands of Mexico, e.g. L. lansbergi
s. lanceolatus, a very widely distributed species, the only pit viper
which has entered the Lower Antilles.
The above survey of the world shows that but very few of the
principal families of reptiles are peculiar to only one of the main
regions." The occurrence of some freak, constituting a little
family or sub-family by itself in some small district, and therefore
put down as peculiar to a whole wide region, cannot be much of
a criterion, e.g. Rhachiodon, Elachistodon, Acrochordinae, Uroplates,
Xenosaurus, Heloderma, Aniellidae, Dibamus, A'nelytropidae,
Platysternum. They are not characteristic of large countries, but
rather local freaks. Quite a number of very ancient families have
such a wide distribution that they also are of little critical value,
notably the peropodous snakes, which have survivors in almost any
tropical country; such cosmopolitans are also geckos and skinks.
A difficulty which is ever present in such zoogeographical in-
vestigations is the uncertainty as to whether our zoological families
and sub-families and even genera are genuine units, or heterogeneous
compounds, as for instance the Anelytropidae, of which degraded
skinks there is one in Mexico, two others in W. Africa. Heloderma
in Mexico and Lanthanotus in Borneo are both without much doubt
descendants of some Anguid stock, but when we now combine them,
in deference to our highest authority, as one family, we thereby
raise the tremendous problem of the present distribution of this
Antilles.
South
America.
North
America.
Eurasia.
1
II
If
.9
<
Chelydridae * .
o .
.|_
_|_
O
o
o
o
o
Testudinidae .
s
_|_
_j_
_J-
o
Chelydidae . .
o
_|_
O
o
o
o
o
Pelomedusidae
o
ij-
o
-j-
-)-
o
o
Trionychidae
o
-)_
_)-
b
-)-
o
Chamaeleonidae
o
o
o
_)_
^_
o
Varanidae
o
o
_J_
o
Agamidae
o
-)-
_)-
o
-i r
-(-
Iguanidae
-J-
^_
_)-
o
-)_
o
Lacertidae
o
o
-j_
o
o
Zonuridae )
Gerrhosauridae )
o
o
o
o
+
+
o
o
Anguidae
-)-
-)-
-)-
-l_
-)-'
-)-
Amphisbaenidae
Tejidae ....
1
+
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Pygopodidae .
Viperinae
o
o
o
o
o
Crotalinae
o
-)-.
J.
+'
o
o
-J-
o
Elapinae
o
+
+
+'
+
o
+
+
family. Boas and pythons are likewise not above suspicion, cf.
some boas in Madagascar and the python Loxocaemus in Mexico.
The opisthoglyphous col j brines are almost certainly not a natural
group, not to speak of numerous genera of the aglyphous assembly.
To avoid arguing in a circle, such doubtful units had better be
avoided whilst building hypotheses.
G. Pfeffer has recently endeavoured to show by an elaborate
careful paper (" Zoogeographische Beziehungen Siidamerikas," Zool.
Jahrb., Suppl. viii., 1905), " that nearly all the principal groups of
reptiles, amphibians and fishes had formerly a universal or sub-
universal distribution, and that therefore it is not necessary to
assume a direct land connexion of S. America with either Africa or
Australia, with or without an Antarctic." Many cases of such a
former universal distribution are undoubtedly true, but the question
remains how the respective creatures managed to attain it.
For true characterization of large areas we must resort to the
combination of some of the large wide-ranging families, and equally
important is the absence of certain large groups; both to be
selected from the following table.
1 Including the related Dermatemydidae and Cinpsternidae.
2 With an exception.
' Entering, or in the borderland.
4 Mediterranean countries.
6 Rhineura; formerly wider distribution.
6 In Asia.
Deductions from this table show, for instance, that Australia is
quite sufficiently characterized by the possession of Chelydidae
and Varanidae; Madagascar by the presence of chameleons and
Pelomedusidae. On the other hand, the separation of the whole of
Africa from Asia, or the diagnosis of the palaearctic " region," would
require the combination of several positive and negative characters.
Chelonians are very diagnostic, expressed by the following com-
binations of families:
America as a whole: Chelydridae and Cinosterridae and Der-
matemydidae.
N. America: Chelydridae and Trionychidae, but only E. of the
Rockies.
S. America : Chelydidae and Pelomedusidae.
Africa : Trionychidae and Pelomedusidae.
Madagascar: Pelomedusidae and Testudinidae.
India and Eurasia: Trionychidae and Testudinidae.
Australia : Chelydidae only.
That the Chelonians are regionally so very diagnostic that their
main families are still in rational agreement with the main divisions
of land, is perhaps due, first, to their being an ancient group; secondly,
to their limited means of distribution (none across the seas, omitting
of course Cheloniidae, &c.); and lastly, to their being rather in-
different to climate. Note, for instance, Trionyx ferox from the
Canadian lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, Cinosternum pennsylvanicum
from New York to New Orleans. It may be taken for certain
that wherever a Testudo occurs as a genuine native, it has got there
by land, be the locality the Galapagos, Aldabra, Madagascar or
some Malay islands. The Trionychidae reveal themselves as of
periarctic origin, being debarred from Australia, Madagascar and
the neotropical region (alleged from Eocene Patagonia). Testu-
dinidae are cosmopolitan, excluding Australia, and practically also
the Antilles; and Testudo is most instructive with its almost similar
distribution; but something has gone wronjf with this genus in
America, where it flourished in mid-Tertiary times.
Pleurodira are less satisfactory than they appear to be from a
merely statistical point of view. The Pelomedusidae, being known
from European Trias and from nearctic cretaceous formations,
176
REPTON REPUBLIC
may have had a world-wide distribution; but Chelydidae may
well have centred in an antarctic continent. Chelydridae were
periarctic and have disappeared from Eurasia; N. American
offshoots are the Cinosterridae and Dermatemydidae, the latter now
restricted to Central American countries.
CrocodUia, probably once universal, afford through the Chinese
alligator an instance of the original intimate connexion of the
whole holarctic region, paralleled by many other animals which
now happen to be restricted to E. Asia and to eastern N. America.
Lacertilia are less satisfactory for short diagnoses. America
alone combines Iguanidae and Tejidae :
N. America: Iguanidae, Anguidae, Tejidae (and Rhineura in
Florida).
S. America: Iguanidae, Anguidae, Tejidae and many Amphis-
baenidae.
Africa and Madagascar: Chameleons and Zonuridae and Gerrho-
sauridae.
Madagascar : Chameleons and Iguanidae.
India: Varanidae, Agamidae and Lacertidae, all of which also
in Africa.
Australia alone has Pygopodidae.
The Lacertilia are now distributed upon principles very different
from those of the tortoises. According to the lizards the world is
divided into an E. and a W. half. The W. alone has Iguanidae
and Tejidae, the E. alone that important combination of Varanidae
and Agamidae. Further subdivision is in most cases possible only
by exclusion, e.g. exclusion of Lacertilia and chameleons from
Australia; of Varanidae and Agamidae from Madagascar. Lizards
are rather susceptible to climatic conditions, infinitely more than
water tortoises.
As regards Ophidia, America has Crotalinae and Elapinae, but no
Viperinae. Eurasia and India alone combines Viperinae, Crotalinae
and Elapinae. Africa, Viperinae and Elapinae but no Crotalinae.
Australia only Elapinae. Madagascar none of these groups.
The Viperinae must have had their original centre in the palae-
arctic countries, and they have been debarred only from Australia
and Madagascar. Both vipers and pit vipers are still in Asia,
but true vipers are absent in America, with their fullest develop-
ment now in Africa, whilst pit vipers went E., covering now the
whole of America, and having developed the rattlesnakes in Sonora-
land. The Elapinae are undoubtedly of Asiatic origin; they have
overrun Africa, were too late for Madagascar, but early enough for
Australia, where they are only poisonous snakes; and only one
genus, Elaps, has got into, or rather, has differentiated in America,
in the S. of which it is abundant.
Opisthoglypha are useless for our purpose; they are cosmopolitan,
with the exception of Australia, but probably they have one
ancient centre in S. America, and another in the old world.
Amblycephalidae afford another of those curious instances of
apparent affinity between S.E. Asia and Central America; paral-
leled by Pelamis bicolor, which ranges from Madagascar to Panama,
while all the other Hydrophinae belong to the Indian Ocean and
the E. Asiatic seas. Aglyphous Colubrines show undoubted
affinity between N. America and Eurasia; the whole group is
absolutely cosmopolitan, and many of the genera, e.g. Coluber,
Tropidonotus and Coronella, have proved their success by having
acquired an enormous range. Snakes have comparatively few
enemies, and they possess exceptional means of distribution. It
is rare for a terrestrial species to have such a wide range as Crotalus
terrificus, from Arizona to Argentina, or as the India cobra, which,
like the tiger, is equally at home in Malay islands, Manchuria and
Turkestan.
The tortoises divide the habitable world into a S. and a N. world,
much as do the anurous Batrachians; the lizards split it into an
E. and a W. hemisphere. The poisonous snakes, the most recent
of reptiles in their full development and distribution, allow us to
distinguish between Australia, America and the rest of the world.
(H. F. G.)
REPTON, a village in the S. parliamentary division of Derby-
shire, England, 8 m. S.W. of Derby, on the Midland railway.
Pop. (1901) 1695. It is famous for its school, founded in 1557
by Sir John Port, of the neighbouring village of Etwall, which has
valuable entrance scholarships, and two leaving exhibitions to
the universities annually. The number of boys is about 300.
The school buildings are modern, but incorporate considerable
portions of an Augustinian priory established in 1 1 7 2 . There was
an ecclesiastical establishment on this site in the 7th century,
the first bishop of Mercia being established here. This was
destroyed by the Danes in 874. In the second half of the loth
century, during the reign of Edgar, another church was founded.
The existing parish church of St Wystan retains pre-Conquest
work in the chancel, beneath which is a remarkably fine vaulted
crypt, probably dating from the reign of Edgar, its roof sup-
ported on fluted columns. The monastery was dissolved by
Henry VIII.
REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-
wealth), a term now universally understood to mean a state,
or polity, in which the head of the government is elective, and
in which those things which are the interest of all are decided
upon by all. This is notoriously a very modern interpretation
of the term. In the ancient world of Greece and Rome the
franchise was in the hands of a minority, who were surrounded
by, and who governed, a majority composed of men personally
free but not possessed of the franchise, and of slaves. Modern
writers have often used respublica, and literal translation, as
meaning only the state, even when the head was an absolute
king, provided that he held his place according to law and ruled
by law. " Republic," to quote one example only of many, was
so used by Jean Bodin, whose treatise, commonly known by its
Latin name De Republica Libri Sex, first appeared in French
in 1577- Englishmen of the middle ages habitually spoke of
the commonwealth of England, though they had no conception
that they could be governed except by a king with hereditary
right. The coins of Napoleon bear the inscription "Republique '
franQaise, Napoleon Empereur." Except as an arbitrary term
of art, or as a rhetorical expression, " republic " has, however,
always been understood to mean a state in which the head
holds his place by the choice of his subjects. Poland was
a republic because its king had in earlier times to be accepted,
and in later times was chosen by a democracy composed of
gentry. Venice was a republic, though after -the "closing of
the great council " the franchise was confined to a strictly
limited aristocracy, which was itself in practice dominated by a
small oligarchy. The seven states which formed the confederation
of the United Netherlands were republics from the time they
renounced their allegiance to Philip II., though they chose to be
governed by a stadtholder to whom they delegated large powers,
and though the choice of the stadtholder was made by a small
body of burghers who alone had the franchise. The varieties
are many. What, however, is emphatically not a republic is a
state in which the ruler can truly tell his subjects that, the
sovereignty resides in his royal person, and that he is king, or
tsar, " pure and absolute," by the grace of God, even though he
may hasten to add that " absolute " is not " despotic," which
means government without regard to law. The case of Great
Britain, where the king reigns theoretically by the grace of God,
but in fact by a parliamentary title and under the Act of Settle-
ment, is, like the whole British constitution, unique.
There is in fact a fundamental incompatibility between the
conceptions of government as a commonwealth and as an
institution based on a right superior to the people's will. Where
the two views endeavour to live together one of two things must
happen. The ruler will confiscate the rights of the community
to himself and will become the embodiment of sovereignty,
which is what happened in most of the states' of Europe at the
close of the middle ages; or the community, acting through
some body politic which is its virtual representative, will
confine the head of the government to denned functions.
The question of representation is dealt with separately (see
REPRESENTATION), but the conception of a republic in
which all males, who do not belong to an inferior and
barbarous race, share in the suffrage is one which would
never have been accepted in the ancient or medieval world,
for it is based on a foundation of which they knew nothing,
the political rights of man. When the Scottish reformer
John Knox based his claim to speak on the government of
the realm on the fact that he was " a subject born within the
same " he advanced a pretension very new to his generation.
But it was one which was fated to achieve a great fortune. The
right of the subject, simply as a member of the community, to a
voice in the commimity in which he was born, and on which his
happiness depended, implied all " the rights of man " as they
were to be stated by the American Declaration of Independence,
and again by the French in 1789. As they could be vindicated
only by revolt against monarchical governments in the old
world and the new, and as they were incompatible with all the
convictions which make monarchy possible, they embodied
REPUBLICAN PARTY
177
themselves in the modern democratic republics of Europe and
America. It is a form of government not much more like the
republic of antiquity and the middle ages than the French sans-
culottes was like Harmodius and Aristogeiton, whom he admired
for being what they most decidedly were not believers in
equality and fraternity. But it does, subject to the imper-
fections of human nature, set up a government in which all,
theoretically at least, have a voice in what concerns all.
REPUBLICAN PARTY. Of the three important American
parties which have called themselves Republican, 1 this article
deals only with that one which was organized during the years
1854 to 1856 and has been in control of the government of the
United States during the larger portion of the half century
since the presidential election of 1860
Origin and Character. Sectionalism, the movement which
tended to break the Union into two separate republics, one
based on free labour, the other on that of slaves, had gained
before the middle of the rpth century such headway as to
compel a reconstruction of the party system. The beginning
of this reconstruction was heralded by the rise of the Liberty
party (?..), in 1840, its completion by the disruption in 1860
of the Democratic party along sectional lines, and the election
of Abraham Lincoln by a sectional vote.
The event which determined the date of the birth of the
Republican party was the repeal by the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of
1854 of that provision of the Compromise of 1820 which excluded
slavery from national territory N. of the geographical line 36 30'
and the formal substitution in that bill of " squatter " for national
sovereignty, in deciding the question of slavery in the Territories.
The enactment of this bill introduced a new and highly critical
stage in the relations between North and South. Down to
1850 the differences of the two sections over slavery had always
been arranged by mutual concessions. In 1854 this expedi-
ent was set aside. Without giving anything in return, Douglas
and his supporters took from the free-labour section an invalu-
able barrier against the extension of slavery: and through the
doctrine of " squatter sovereignty " denied to Congress the
power to erect such barriers in the future. But this only hast-
ened a crisis that could not have been greatly delayed. Cal-
houn had already discerned the true source and deadly nature
of the growing sectional estrangement, and Lincoln was soon
to utter the prophetic words: " This government cannot
endure permanently, half slave and half free."
The immediate result of the agitation over the repeal was
to convince a large number which soon became a majority
of the best citizens of the North, irrespective of party, that the
restriction of slavery was essential to the well-being both of the
North and of the Union as a whole. In order to give effect
to this conviction it was necessary to form a new party. The
agitation which prepared the way for its rise began in Congress
during the debates on the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, and spread
thence throughout the North. The West was more quickly
responsive than the East. But everywhere large elements
of the existing parties came together and agreed to unite in
resisting the extension of slavery. Before the discussion of
the repeal in Congress had reached its later stages, a mass
meeting of Whigs, Democrats and Free Soilers at Ripon, Wis-
consin, resolved that if the Kansas-Nebraska Bill should pass:
" They would throw old party organizations to the winds and
organize a new party on the sole issue of the non-extension
of slavery." The name Republican was formally adopted at
a state convention of the new party held at Jackson, Michigan,
on the 6th of July 1854, and by other Western state conven-
tions on the 1 3th of the same month.
The great majority of the new party had been either Whigs
or Democrats. In two cardinal points they were agreed,
namely, opposition to slavery and belief in the national, as
opposed to the federative, nature of the Union. In other
points there was at the beginning much disagreement. For-
1 The party organized by Thomas Jefferson; the National
Republicans, 1824-1834; and the Republican party of the present
tunately the issues on which there was agreement overshadowed
all others long enough to bring about a fusing of the two ele-
ments. It was the union of the Whig who believed in making
government strong and its sphere .wide, with the Democrat
who believed in the people and th~e people's control of govern-
ment, that made the Republican party both efficient and popular.
History. Before its advent to power, from 1854 to 1860,
the tasks of the Republican party were three: to propagate
the doctrine of slavery restriction by Congressional action; to
oppose the extension of slavery under the operation of the
doctrine of squatter sovereignty; and to obtain control of
the Federal government. In each it was successful. Through-
out the North and under such leaders as Seward, Lincoln, Chase,
Sumner, Henry Ward Beecher and Horace Greeley, all the
resources of the press, the platform, the pulpit and (an institu-
tion then powerful but now forgotten) the lyceum or citizens'
debating club, were fully enlisted in the propaganda. Other
events that turned to the advantage of the Republicans were
the brutal assault upon Charles Sumner in the Senate Chamber
in 1856, the Ostend Manifesto, advising in the interest of
slavery the acquisition of Cuba by force if Spain should refuse
to sell, the enforcement sometimes brutal and always hateful
of the Fugitive Slave Law (q.v.), and the quarrel of Douglas
with the administration and the South over the application of
squatter sovereignty to Kansas. On the other hand, the decision
of the Supreme Court in the case of Dred Scott, which the Re-
publicans refused to accept as good law, and the raid of John
Brown at Harper's Ferry, which they condemned,' brought them
into serious embarrassment.
In the prosecution of the third task, the attainment of office,
the party followed wise counsels and was fortunate. In its
first national platform, that of 1856, the party affirmed its
adherence to the principles of Washington and Jefferson,
denied the constitutional right of Congress or a Territory to
establish slavery, and declared that it was " both the right and
duty of Congress to prohibit in the Territories those twin relics
of barbarism, polygamy and slavery." At the close of the
resolutions there was a demand for government aid to a Pacific
railway and for the improvement of rivers and harbours.
The platform of 1860 was more comprehensive. It added to
the planks of the first, an arraignment of the administration
and the Dred Scott decision, and demands for a protective
tariff and a homestead act. Although the popular vote for
Abraham Lincoln was more than a half-million greater than
that for John C. Fremont, the party's candidate in 1856, never-
theless it was the disruption of the Democratic party that made
the Republican triumph possible. On the other hand, the
Republican party was the strongest member of the new party
system as reorganized on the sectional principle. Moreover,
in character and purpose, as well as numerical strength, it was
better qualified than its rivals to meet the impending crisis.
The War Period, 1861-1865. Between the election of Mr
Lincoln in November 1860, and his inauguration on the following
4th of March, seven of the slave-holding states seceded, formed
a Confederacy and withdrew their representatives from the
national legislature. All attempts to arrange a compromise
failed. The vacillation of President Buchanan, and the position
taken in his annual message that the national government had
no right to coerce a seceding state, gave strong support to the
disunion movement. These events forced upon the Republican
party a change of policy Hitherto its efforts had been directed
chiefly to excluding slavery from the Territories. Now the
first duty was to save the Union from disruption. In order to
do this it was necessary to unite the North, and to bring to
the support of the Union a large proportion of those border
slave states, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee
and Missouri, in which there was considerable Union sentiment.
Hence the party laid aside completely the earlier issue of slavery
restriction and accepted as the sole issue of the hour the main-
tenance of the Union. Indeed, in order to secure more easily
the co-operation of loyal Democrats, it even gave up its own
name for a time and called itself the Union party.
REPUBLICAN PARTY
During the early period of the war the President checked all
efforts on the part of zealous subordinates, civil and military,
to make the war for the Union even incidentally a war upon
slavery. In his efforts to unionize the border states Mr Lincoln
in March 1862 urged that Congress should co-operate with any
state in providing for a voluntary, gradual and compensated
emancipation. Congress acceded, but not one of the border
states would undertake emancipation. Many of the Republican
leaders rejected the border state policy of the President and
urged a more radical course towards slavery. In replying to
Horace Greeley, who voiced the discontent in a public letter, to
which he gave the title, The Prayer of Twenty Millions of People,
Mr Lincoln in August 1862 wrote: " My paramount object is
to save the Union and not either to save or destroy slavery."
But as evidence accumulated that slavery was a strong
military support of the Confederacy the policy of destroying
slavery as a means of saving the Union grew in favour. To
this policy Mr Lincoln on the 22nd of September 1862 com-
mitted himself, the Republican party and the cause of the
Union. The first response was distinctly unfavourable. The
immediate effect was " to unite the South and divide the
North." A considerable element of the Democratic party
became disloyal, while the party as a whole opposed all measures
looking to the destruction of slavery. The autumn elections
greatly reduced the Republican majority in Congress. But the
new policy steadily gained ground until the Republican party
in its third national convention, which met on the 7th of June
1864, resolved: " that as slavery was the cause and now
constitutes the strength of this rebellion, justice and national
safety demand its utter and complete extirpation from the soil
of the republic." In the following year slavery was finally
abolished by the Thirteenth Amendment.
On the Republican party, since it had an effective majority
in each house of Congress, rests the responsibility for the legisla-
tion of the war period. The theory of loose construction of
the Constitution was accepted. Throughout the Civil War,
Congress, proceeding upon this theory, made prompt provision
for the prosecution of the war. It passed Legal Tender Acts;
it established a system of national banks; greatly raised the
tariff rates; and in order to hasten the settlement of the Far
West and to make that section an integral part of the Union,
it passed a Homestead Act and an act providing for a railway to
the Pacific. For a time, while disloyalty was most rife in the
North, there was a sharp curtailment of the rights of the
individual citizen through the suspension, initiated by the
President 'and approved by Congress, of the writ of Habeas
Corpus. Most of the acts, which their opponents held to be
violations of the Constitution, were in general acts of question-
able utility. The results of the war, which came to a close early
in 1865, vindicated in a signal way the principles, policies
and leadership of the Republican party. It had saved the
Union; it had established the national character of the Union
so firmly as to bring to an end the doctrine of the right of
secession; and it had destroyed slavery.
The party had been singularly fortunate in its founders and
leaders. Of these three were pre-eminent: Horace Greeley,
William H. Seward and Abraham Lincoln Greeley in the field
of journalism, Seward in the two realms of idealistic and practical
politics, and, greatest of all, Abraham Lincoln who won and held
the people.
Reconstruction. The larger tasks of the period from the close
of the Civil War in '1865 to the inauguration of Rutherford B.
Hayes in 1877 were three: first, to accomplish with the least
possible disturbance the transition from war to peace; second,
to settle certain matters of dispute with France and England
that had arisen during the progress of the war; arid third, to
reconstruct the South. Full responsibility for the way in which
these tasks were discharged rests upon the Republican party,
for it was in control of the presidency and the Senate throughout
the period and of the House until December 1875. In the first and
second it was notably successful. The soldiers of North and South
returned at once to the fields of productive labour. The colossal
war establishment was quickly reduced to the requirements
of peace. The French withdrew from Mexico. The Alabama
Claims were submitted to arbitration. But the reconstruction
of the South proved difficult in the extreme. The strain of a
prolonged and exhausting war, the upheaval of emancipation,
and the utter collapse of the Confederate government, had
thrown the elements of social, economic and civil life in the
South into almost hopeless disorder. To restore these to normal
relations and working was but part of the task; the other and
more important part was to apply those methods of reconstruc-
tion which would tend to make one nation out of hitherto
discordant sections. In his third annual message, Dec. 8th, 1863,
Lincoln brought forward the so-called presidential plan of
reconstruction. This was rejected on the ground that recon-
struction was a Congressional rather than an executive function;
and on the 4th of July 1864 Congress passed a bill making
Congress instead of the president the chief agent in the work
of reconstruction. President Johnson adopted Lincoln's plan,
and put it into operation with such vigour that when Congress
met in December 1865 all the states that had seceded were quite
or nearly ready to demand the readmission of their represen-
tatives to the House and Senate.
From the standpoint of party the situation was highly critical.
The men whom the newly reconstructed states had sent to
Washington represented the old South and would naturally
join the opposition. Although the ratification of the Thirteenth
Amendment, which abolished slavery, was assured, and a fort-
night later was officially proclaimed, nevertheless the recon-
structed legislatures were busy enacting police regulations
which, in the opinion of most Republicans, threatened to re-
enslave the freedmen. With an earnestness like that which the
party in earlier days had shown in opposing the extension of
slavery, it now resolved to secure full civil rights to the freedmen.
Another consideration of great weight in shaping party policy
was the need of maintaining the rights of Congress against
executive encroachment. Owing to the war and Lincoln's
masterful personality, the presidency had gained in prestige
at the expense of Congress. The tendency thus established
would be strengthened to a dangerous degree, it was thought,
if the President were to take the leading part in reconstructing
as well as in saving the Union. There now took place within the
party a change of great importance. Hitherto the conservatives,
represented by such leaders as Lincoln and Seward, had always
won in struggles with the radical elements; but now the tide
changed, and the radicals who were more narrowly national and
more strongly partisan gained control, and ruled the party to the
end of the period. This revolution within the Republican party
between the years 1865 and 1867 was fostered by a marked re-
crudescence of sectional feeling in the North, and by the character
of the successor of President Lincoln and of the party leaders in
Congress. President Johnson while eminently patriotic and
courageous, was tactless and imprudent to the last degree. Mr
Sumner, the leader of the Senate, was not conciliatory in manner,
and while incapable of revengeful feeling seemed more con-
siderate of the freedman than of the Southern white. Thaddeus
Stevens, whose influence over the House of Representatives was
stronger than that of Sumner over the Senate, regarded the South
as " a conquered province," and his personal feelings towards the
ruling class of the South were harshly vindktive. The policy
adopted by the Republican majority in each house of Congress
was to refuse admission to the men chosen by the states that
had been reconstructed under the presidential plan, until a joint-
committee of both houses should investigate conditions in the
South. In this rebuff there was distinct intimation of a purpose
to set aside altogether the reconstructive work of the President.
Congress proceeded at once to enact measures to continue and
extend the earlier temporary provision for helpless freedmen
whom emancipation had set adrift, and to give them full
civil rights. By passing the Fourteenth Amendment in June
1866 Congress committed itself to the policy of securing the
civil rights of the negro by constitutional guarantee. Each of
these acts was vetoed by the President, between whom and
REPUBLICAN PARTY
Congress political disagreement ripened soon into bitter enmity.
As the quarrel developed Congress ignored the recommendations
of the President, repassed by the requisite majority and without
due consideration of his objections each measure that he
vetoed, took from him the power to remove subordinates which
had been exercised by his predecessors, deprived him of his
constitutional rights as commander-in-chief of the army, and
finally in 1868 undertook to drive him from office by impeach-
ment.
In 1867 Congress, under the control of the radical wing of the
Republican party, set aside nearly all reconstructive work that
had been accomplished previously and put into execution a plan
of its own, under which the Southern States were reconstructed
anew and admitted to representation in Congress between the
years 1867 and 1870. Inevitable consequences of the Con-
gressional plan of reconstruction were: first, the erection of
state governments that were inefficient, corrupt, ruinously
wasteful and shamefully oppressive; second, the extreme
demoralization of the freedmen suddenly transformed from
slaves into rulers of their former masters; third, the demoraliza-
tion, in many cases also extreme, of the great body of the Southern
whites by the expedients to which they resorted in order to
escape from the rule of the freedman, led by the " Carpet
Bagger " his Northern, and the " Scalawag " his Southern, white
ally; fourth, the alienation of the white and coloured races in the
South, an alienation which was to each a source of immeasurable
evils; fifth, the speedy overthrow on the withdrawal of military
support of the governments set up under the Congressional
plan, and the creation of a South " solid " in resentful opposition
to the North and the Republican party. And sixth, as the out-
come of all these results, an unfortunate delay in reuniting
North and South. The Republican party suffered during this
period a moral decline, seen in the frequent efforts to gain party
advantage by kindling anew the earlier sectional animosities,
a growing arrogance, the increasing weight of the partisan and
spoilsman in party management, and the widespread corruption
that came to light in the " scandals " of the second administra-
tion of General Grant. The mismanaged Liberal Republican
movement of 1870-1872 was a reaction against this moral
decline and a protest against the Southern policy of the party
and its support of the " Spoils " system. The service of the
Liberal Republicans consisted mainly in the aid they gave to
the reform of the Republican party and in the influence they
exerted to induce the Democratic party to accept the results of
the war.
But despite the warnings it received, the prestige it had gained
during the war and the popularity of President Grant, the
Republican party lost ground steadily during the second half
of the period. In the election of 1874 the Democratic party
gained control of the House of Representatives; and in the
election of 1876 came within a hair's breadth of winning the
presidency.
Election of Mr Hayes to that of Mr McKinley, 1876-1896.
During these twenty years the subsidence of old and the rise of
new issues led to a reconstruction of the party system, which,
although less radical than that of 1840 to 1860, brought into
existence several new parties and changed in important respects
the character and policies of those already in the field. From
the standpoint of party history the chief interest of these twenty
years lies in the answer to the question, How did the discredited
Republican party secure in 1896 a new and prolonged lease of
power? The task was not easy. The reconstruction policy
of the party had alienated many Northern supporters and had
made the South solidly Democratic. The prevalence of the
spoils system and the scandals of the second administration
of General Grant had hurt the prestige of the party as a
guardian of public morals and of the national honour. What
gave the Republicans a fighting chance were: its record down
to the close of the Civil War; its proven aptitude for the
tasks of government; and the growth among the people of a
more vital national feeling which turned instinctively to the
party that had saved the nation. Despite these substantial
advantages over their Democratic rivals the Republicans lost
the presidential elections of 1884 and 1892, and the entire
Democratic party some Republicans agreeing has always
held that a just decision of the contested election of 1876
would have seated Samuel J. Tilden, the Democratic candi-
date, instead of Mr Hayes. In the Senate the Republicans
were in a majority during fourteen years. In the House,
whose members are chosen by popular vote, these figures
were reversed, the Democrats having control during fourteen
years. In each of five successive presidential elections,
those of 1876, 1880, 1884, 1888 and 1892, the Democratic
popular vote was larger than the Republican. Marked features
of the party situation were- the apparent similarity for a time
of the principles of the two great parties, the influence on
their policy exerted by the stronger minor parties, and the rise
of the Mugwumps (not strictly a party), who claimed the right to
vote for the best candidate independently of party and were in
the main of Republican origin.
Of the issues of the period one, the reform of the civil service,
was served by both of the great parties with imperfect fidelity.
Each of the Republican presidents, Hayes, Garfield, Arthur and
Harrison gave it efficient and steadfast support; and so did
Cleveland, the Democratic president, although under stronger
pressure from party hunger. The same was true in the case of
the more important questions of foreign policy and, to a degree
in its early stage, of the question of silver coinage. It was not so
with the treatment of the South. President Hayes_ withdrew the
national troops from S. Carolina and Louisiana and thus brought
to an end Federal military interference with state governments.
For this course a considerable section of the Republican party gave
him thereafter a support which was half-hearted and inconstant.
Further disaffection resulted from efforts to reform the civil
service of New York which brought the President into conflict
with the powerful Republican party machine in that state. 1 The
high character of the President and his firm, wise and upright
course raised the reputation of the party. His veto of the Silver
Bill and the resumption of specie payments tended to the same
result. The failure in 1889 of the third term movement for
General Grant worked for the health of the party. The struggle of
President Garfield with New York spoilsmen and his assassina-
tion by a disappointed office-seeker, gave a fresh impetus to the
movement for the reform of the civil service. President Arthur
maintained the high standard established by Presidents Hayes
and Garfield.
In the election of 1884 the old parties were competitors for the
confidence of the conservative and reforming elements of the
country. Mr Blaine, the Republican candidate, who in
brilliancy, popularity, patriotism, and disappointing personal
fortunes recalled the Whig leader, Henry Clay, lost the election
by a narrow margin because, while meeting the requirements of
the conservatives, he had lost in a measure the confidence of
the reformers.
In the election of 1888 Mr Cleveland, by making tariff reform
the issue, turned the manufacturing interests to the support of Mr
Harrison, the candidate of the Republicans, who thereby won the
election. Mr Harrison, while not personally popular, maintained
the best traditions of his Republican predecessors. The highly
protective McKinley tariff, frarhed in obedience to the people's
mandate in 1888, proved somewhat disappointing, and in the
election of 1892, Mr Cleveland, as the champion of lower tariff
rates, was successful for the second time. Mr Cleveland, at the
beginning of his second term, secured the repeal of the act for the
purchase of silver, and thus strengthened himself with the con-
servatives of both parties. Democratic defection in the Senate
nullified largely the downward revision of the tariff urged by
the President and supported by the House.
The election of 1896 marked the close of the period of party
1 In the course of this conflict, which continued to disturb the
harmony of the Republican party until the death of President
Garfield, the term " Stalwarts was used to designate the supporters
of Senator Conkling, who was in control of the Republican machine
in New York state, and the term " Half-Breeds " to designate the
supporters of the administration.
i8o
REQUENA REQUEST, LETTERS OF
readjustment. The leading issue was the free coinage of silver
under conditions which would have made the monetary standard
silver instead of gold, and would have lowered its value. The
Democratic convention repudiated Mr Cleveland, accepted free
coinage, and nominated W. J. Bryan. The Republicans, at the
cost of a formidable party defection, endorsed the gold standard
and a highly protective tariff, and nominated William McKinley,
whose record and character made him an exceptionally strong
candidate. In doing this the Democratic organization became
the party of radicalism, the Republican, the party of conservat-
ism. The committal of the Republican party to the mainten-
ance of the gold standard far more than its continued support
of high protection, established its position in the reconstructed
party system. In doing this it allied its fortunes with those of
all the property-holding classes of the country, while retaining
in a high degree the confidence of the wage-earners.
Period 1897-1910. During this period there was first a rapid
recovery from economic depression, and then ten years of almost
unexampled prosperity, followed by two years of moderate
depression. But the period is chiefly memorable for the war
of 1898 with Spain; for the oversea territorial expansion that
followed; for the rise of the so-called policy of imperialism; for
the assumption of a far more prominent international role; for
wide-reaching measures of internal reform; and, lastly, for the
establishment of the policy of conserving the natural resources
of the nation.
Throughout this period the Republican party had undis-
puted control of the national government. One of the earliest
acts in the administration of Mr McKinley was the enactment
in 1897 of the highly protective Dingley Tariff. The provision
for Reciprocity proved at first of little use. But the need of
foreign markets for the rapidly growing output of manufactured
products, the rising demand that the interests of the home
consumer, as well as those of the producer, should be considered,
and the conviction that high protection fostered monopolies,
brought about a change of sentiment in the party. Mr McKin-
ley, in his last speech, made at the Buffalo Exposition on the
5th of September 1901, gave voice to this change: " The period
of exclusiveness is past. The expansion of our trade and com-
merce is the pressing problem. Commercial wars are unpro-
fitable. A policy of good will and friendly trade relations
will prevent reprisals. Reciprocity treaties are in harmony
with the spirit of the times. Measures of retaliation are not."
These views gained headway against the strenuous opposition
of the "stand-patters," 1 until revision of the tariff down-
ward was demanded in the platform of 1908, and achieved to
.a moderate degree in the Tariff Act of 1909. The party has
also fulfilled its promise to establish the gold monetary standard
on a firm basis. During the war with Spain and in meeting
the new problems of colonial empire, the Republican party
has again justified its reputation for efficiency. Not less
noteworthy has been the policy of the party, initiated and
urged by President Theodore Roosevelt and developed by
President W. H. Taft for the regulation of railways and all
corporations and trusts engaged in interstate business. The
latest important event in the history of the Republican party
is the rise of the " Insurgents," a group of senators and
congressmen whose professed aims are to resist centralization
in both party and national government, to lessen the influ-
ence of the money power over public policy, to regulate tariff
schedules largely in the interest of the consumer, and in brief
to emphasize anew the subordination of party and government
to the will and service of the people.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. See Francis Curtis, History of the Republican
Party (2 vols., New York, 1904); J. F. Rhodes, History of the
United States from the Compromise of 1850 (ibid., 1893-1904);
J. W. Burgess, The Middle Period (New York, 1897), The Civil
War and the Constitution (ibid., 1899), and Reconstruction and the
Constitution (ibid., 1902); T. C. Smith, The Parties and Slavery,
1851-1859 (ibid., 1906) ; Henry Wilson, Rise and Fall of the Slave
Power in America (3 vols., Boston, 1872-77); J. G. Blaine, Twenty
1 Those members of the" Republican party who would maintain
-as far as possible the high protective duties of the Dingley Tariff.
Years of Congress (2 vols., Norwich, Conn., 1884-1886); Horace
Greeley, The American Conflict (2 vols., Hartford, 1864-66);
J. G. Nicolay and John Hay, Abraham Lincoln, A History (10 vols.,
New York, 1890); J. T. Morse, Life of Lincoln (2 vols., Boston,
1893); F. Bancroft, Life of W. H. Seward (New York, 1900);
H. E. Von Hoist, Political and Constitutional History of the United
States (Chicago, 1899); and E. Stanwood, History of the Presidency
(Boston, 1898). (A. D. Mo.)
REQUENA, a town of E. Spain, in the province of Valencia;
on the left bank of the river Magro, and on the railway
from Valencia to Utiel. Pop. (1900) 16,236. The town was
formerly a Moorish fortress, occupying a strong position in the
mountainous region of Las Cabrillas (3400 ft). It is dominated
by the ancient citadel of the Moors, and still has traces of the
original town walls. There are three ancient parish churches;
San Nicolas, the oldest, dates from the I3th century, but was
partly restored in 1727. Near the town are the sulphurous
springs of Fuentepodrida. The chief industries are the cultiva-
tion of grain, fruit and saffron, and the manufacture of wine
and silk.
REQUESENS, LUIS DE ZUNIGA Y (? -1576), Spanish
governor of the Netherlands, had the misfortune to succeed
the duke of Alva (q.v.) and to govern amid hopeless difficulties
under the direction of Philip II. His early career was that
of a government official and diplomatist. In 1563 he gained
the king's confidence as his representative at Rome. In 1568
he was appointed lieutenant-general to Don John of Austria
during the suppression of the Morisco revolt in Granada, and
he also accompanied Don John during the Lepanto campaign,
his function being to watch and control his nominal commander-
in-chief, whose excitable temperament was distrusted by the
king. Philip must have been satisfied with Requesens, for
he named him viceroy in Milan, a post usually given to a great
noble. Requesens was only " a gentleman of cloak and sword "
(caballero de capa y espada), though by the king's favour he
was " grand commander " of the military order of Santiago
in Castile. He was credited with having shown moderation
at Milan, but it is certain that he came into sharp collision
with the archbishop, Saint Charles Borromeo, who took up
the cause of his flock. His docility rather than his capacity
marked him out to succeed Alva. The king wished to
pursue a more conciliatory policy, without, however, yielding
any one of the points in dispute between himself and the
revolted Netherlanders. Requesens came to Brussels on the
I7th of November 1573, and till his death on the 5th of March
1576 was plunged into insuperable difficulties. With an empty
treasury and unpaid mutinous troops, no faculty could have
helped Requesens to succeed; and he was only an honest
official who was worn out in trying to do the impossible.
AUTHORITIES. Documentor InMitos para la historia de Espana
(Madrid, 1892); and Nueva Coleccion de documentos, vols. iv. and v.
(Madrid).
REQUEST, LETTERS OF. The legal terms "letters
rogatory," or " of request " (commission rogatoire), express a
request made by one judge for the assistance of another in
serving a citation, taking the deposition of a witness, executing
a judgment, or the performance of any other judicial act. The
later law of Rome imposed a duty of mutual assistance on the
courts of the Empire, and this was extended to the courts of
different states when, and so far as, Roman law came to rule
the modern world. Consequently, outside ecclesiastical law
(see below), the only trace of such a practice to be found in
England or the United States, independent of statutory enact-
! ment, is in the admiralty doctrine that the sentence of a foreign
court of admiralty may be executed on letters of request from
the foreign judge or on a libel by a party for its execution. See
the authorities collected by Sir R. Phillimore in The City of
Mecca, 5 P.D. 28. The need of assistance in taking the deposi-
tions of witnesses outside their jurisdiction was long in being
felt by the British and United States courts, because they
issued commissions for that purpose to private persons, some-
times to foreign judges in their private capacities. But an
increasing sensitiveness as to the rights of sovereignty led to
REQUESTS, COURT OF RESEARCH
181
objection being taken to the execution of such commissions by
persons who in that employment were officers of courts foreign
to the countries in which they acted, besides which those com-
missions could give no power to compel the attendance of
witnesses abroad. Consequently both in the mother country
and in the United States acts have been passed empowering
the courts to issue commissions for taking evidence to colonial or
foreign courts, and to execute such commissions when received
by them from the courts of the colonies or of foreign countries.
The British statutes are 13 Geo. III. c. 63; i Will. IV.
c. 22; 3 & 4 Viet. c. 105, 6 & 7 Viet. c. 82, 22 Viet. c. 20 and
49 & 49 Viet. c. 74. But neither in England nor in the United
States have commissions of the old kind been entirely disused.
In the practice under the Anglo-American statutes, the leading
rules are that all the acts of the judge whose services are
required, and all things done before him, are governed by the
law of the country in which the execution takes place (locus
regit actum), while the admissibility of the evidence and all else
which concerns the conduct of the action is governed by the
law of the country in which it is pending (lex fori). Details
may be seen for England and the United States in the usual
books of practice, and in Wharton's Conflict of Laws (and ed.,
1881), 722-31, and Sir R. Phillimore's International Law
(3rd ed., 1889), v. 4, 882-85; f r other countries in von Bar's
Private International Law, translated by Guthrie (2nd ed., 1892),
39 1 ) 39 2 ) 409, 410. In ecclesiastical law, letters of request
are issued for the purpose of sending causes from one court to
another. Where a diocesan court within a province has juris-
diction over the parties concerned, the plaintiff may apply to
the judge of such court for letters of request, in order that the
cause may be instituted either in the court of arches or the
chancery court of York, as the case may be. When the judge
of the diocesan court consents to sign such letters and they have
been accepted by the judge of the higher court, a decree issues
under his seal, calling upon the defendant to answer to the
plaintiff in the suit instituted against him. Letters of request
are also issued for other purposes, being sometimes sent from
one judge to another to request him to examine witnesses who
are out of the jurisdiction of the former, but in that of the
latter; to enforce a monition, &c.
REQUESTS, COURT OF, a minor court of the king's council
in England, under the presidency of the lord keeper of the
privy seal. Its possible origin has been assigned to an order
in council of 1390 directing the lords of the council to form a
committee to examine the petitions of the humble people. Its
jurisdiction was chiefly equitable, and owing to the small expenses
of procedure it grew in popularity, especially for cases not of
sufficient importance to bring into the court of chancery itself.
Under Wolsey the court was fixed permanently at Whitehall.
The judges of the court were styled masters of requests. In
the reign of Queen Elizabeth there were two masters ordinary
and two masters extraordinary. In James I.'s reign there were
four masters ordinary. In Henry VIII.'s reign the judges of
the court had ceased to be privy councillors, and towards the
end of Elizabeth's reign the court incurred the hostility of the
common law courts, as having neither a statutory nor prescriptive
title to jurisdiction. Notwithstanding a decision in 1598 as
to the illegality of its jurisdiction, and subsequent decisions
to the same effect in the reigns of James I. and Charles I., it
continued to flourish until the suppression of the Star Chamber
in 1640 virtually put an end to it. Although it sat until 1642,
and masters of requests were appointed even after the Restora-
tion, it ceased to exercise judicial functions. There were also
courts of requests or, as they were sometimes called, courts of
conscience, established in London in the reign of Henry VIII.
with jurisdiction in matters of debt under forty shillings. These
courts were extended in the reigns of George I. and George II.
to various places in England, but they were abolished by an
act of 1846 (County Courts Act), which established in their
place the tribunal of the county court (q.v.).
REQUIEM, the name of a solemn mass for the dead (Missa
pro defunctis) in the Roman Church, appointed to be sung on
All Souls' Day, in memory of all " faithful departed," at funeral
services, and at the anniversaries of the death of particular
persons. The name is taken from the first words of the Introit,
Requiem aeternam dona eis, Domine. The term is specially
applied to the musical setting of the mass. The most celebrated
Requiem Masses are those of Palestrina, Mozart and Cherubini.
The word has been also used of memorial services held in honour
of a deceased person in churches other than the Roman.
REREDOS (Anglo-Fr. areredos, from arere, behind, and dos,
back), an ornamental screen of stone or wood built up, or
forming a facing to the wall behind an altar in a church.
Reredoses are frequently decorated with representations of the
Passion, niches containing statues of saints, and the like. In
England these were for the most part destroyed at the Reforma-
tion or by the Puritans later; a few medieval examples, however,
survive, e.g. at Christchurch, Hants. In some large cathedrals
e.g. Winchester, Durham, St Albans, the reredos is a mass of
splendid tabernacle work, reaching nearly to the groining. In
small churches the reredos is usually replaced by a hanging or
parament behind the altar, known as a dossal or dorsal. (See
also ALTAR.) For the legality of images on reredoses in the
Church of England, see IMAGE.
The use of the word reredos for the iron or brick back of an
open fire-place is all but obsolete.
RESCHEN SCHEIDECK. This Alpine pass is in some sort
the pendant of the Brenner Pass, but leads from the upper valley
of the Inn or Engadine to the upper valley of the Adige. It
is but 4902 ft. in height. Near the summit is the hamlet
of Reschen, while some way below is the former hospice of
St Valentin auf der Haid, mentioned as early as 1140. Start-
ing from Landeck, the carriage road runs up the Inn valley to
Pfunds, whence it mounts above the gorge of Finstermunz to
the village of Nauders (27^ m.) where the road from the Swiss
Engadine falls in (53$ m. from St Moritz). Thence the road
mounts gently to the pass, and then descends, with the infant
Adige, to Mais (15$ m.), whence the pass is sometimes wrongly
named Malserheide. The road now descends the upper Adige
valley, or Vintschgau, past Meran (37$ m.) to Botzen (20 m. from
Meran, or 100 m. from Landeck) where the Brenner route is
joined. (W. A. B. C.)
RESCUE (in Middle Eng. rescous, from O. Fr. recousse,
Low Lat. rescussa, from reexcussa, reexcutere, to shake off again,
re, again, ex, off, quatere, to shake), the forcible setting at liberty
of a person or thing. To constitute the legal offence of rescue,
the person rescued must be in the custody of a constable or
private individual, but in the latter case the rescuer must know
that the prisoner is in lawful custody. The punishment for
the offence is fine and imprisonment, with or without hard
labour, if the party rescued has not been convicted of the offence
for which he was in custody. But if the prisoner has been
imprisoned on a charge of, or under sentence for, high treason,
felony or misdemeanour, the rescue is high treason, felony or
misdemeanour. The punishment for a felonious rescue may be
penal servitude for not more than seven or less than three years,
or imprisonment for not more than two years, with or without
hard labour. The forcible rescue of goods legally distrained or
the rescuing of cattle by pound breach are misdemeanours
indictable at common law, but the more usual procedure is a
civil action under 2 W. & M. c. 5, s. 3 (1690), which makes an
offender liable for treble damages.
RESEARCH (O. Fr. recerche, from recercher, re- and cercer,
mod. chercher, to search; Late Lat. circare, to go round in a
circle, to explore), the act of searching into a matter closely
and carefully, inquiry directed to the discovery of truth, and
in particular the trained scientific investigation of the principles
and facts of any subject, based on original and first-hand
study of authorities or experiment. Investigations of every
kind which have been based on original sources of knowledge
may be styled " research," and it may be said that without
" research " no authoritative works have been written, no
scientific discoveries or inventions made, no theories of any
value propounded; but the word also has a somewhat restricted
i8 2
RESENDE, ANDRE DE RESHT
meaning attached to it in current usage. It is applied more
particularly to the investigations of those who devote them-
selves to the study of pure as opposed to applied science, to
the investigation of causes rather than to practical experiment;
thus while every surgeon or physician who treats an individual
case of cancer may add to our sum of knowledge of the disease,
the body of trained investigators which is endowed by the
Cancer Research Fund are working on different lines. Again,
the practical engineers who are building aeroplanes, and those
who are making practical tests by actual flight in those machines,
cannot be called "researchers"; that term should be con-
fined to the members, for example, of the scientific committee
appointed by the British Government in 1909 to make investiga-
tions regarding aerial construction and navigation. Further,
the term is particularly used of a course of post-graduate study
at a university, for which many universities have provided
special Research Studentships or Fellowships. These act as
endowments for a specific period, and are conditional on the
holder devoting his time to the investigation at first hand of
some specified subject.
RESENDE, ANDRE DE (1498-1573), the father of archae-
ology in Portugal, began life as a Dominican friar, but about
1540 passed over to the ranks of the secular clergy. He spent
many years travelling in Spain, France and Belgium, where he
corresponded with Erasmus and other learned men. He was
also intimate with King John III. and his sons, and acted as
tutor to the Infante D. Duarte. Resende enjoyed considerable
fame in his lifetime, but modern writers have shown that he is
neither accurate nor scrupulous. In Portuguese he wrote:
(1) Historia da antiguidade da cidade de Ewra (ibid. 1553);
(2) Vida do Infante D. Duarte .(Lisbon, 1789). His chief Latin
work is the De Antiquitatibus Lusilaniae (Evora, 1593).
See the " Life " of Resende in Farinha's Collecfao das antiguidades
de Evora (1785), and a biographical-critical article by Rivara in
the Revista Litteraria (Oporto, 1839), iii. 340-62; also Cleynarts,
Latin Letters. (E. PR.)
RESENDE, GARCIA DE (1470-1536), Portuguese poet and
editor, was born at Evora, and began to serve John II. as a page
at the age of ten, becoming his private secretary in 1491. He
was present at his death at Alvor on the 25th of October 1495.
He continued to enjoy the same favour with King Manoel, whom
he accompanied to Castile in 1498, and from whom he obtained
a knighthood of the Order of Christ. In 1514 Resende went to
Rome with Tristao da Cunha, as secretary and treasurer of the
famous embassy sent by the king to offer the tribute of the East
at the feet of Pope Leo X. In 1516 he was given the rank of a
nobleman of the royal household, and became escrivao de fazenda
to Prince John, afterwards King John III., from whom he
received further pensions in 1525. Resende built a chapel in
the monastery of Espinheiro near Evora, the pantheon of the
Alemtejo nobility, where he was buried.
He began to cultivate the making of verses in the palace of
John II., and he tells us how one night when the king was in
bed he caused him (Resende) to repeat some " trovas " of Jorge
Manrique, saying it was as needful for a man to know them as to
know the Pater Noster. Under these conditions, Resende grew
up no mean poet, and moreover distinguished himself by his
skill in drawing and music; while he collected into an album
the best court verse of the time. The Cancioneiro Geral, probably
begun in 1483 though not printed until 1516, includes the com-
positions of some three hundred fidalgos of the reigns of kings
Alphonso V., John II. and Manoel. The main subjects of its
pieces are love, satire and epigram, and most of them are written
in the national redondilha v.erse, but the metre is irregular and
the rhyming careless. The Spanish language is largely employed,
because the literary progenitors of the whole collection were
Juan de Mena, Jorge Manrique, Boscan and Garcilasso. As a
rule the compositions were improvised at palace entertainments,
at which the poets present divided into two bands, attacking
and defending a given theme throughout successive evenings.
At other times these poetical soirees took the form of a mock
trial at law, in which the queen of John II. acted as judge.
Resende was much twitted by other rhymesters on his corpulence,
but he repaid all their gibes with interest.
The artistic value of the Cancioneiro Geral is slight. Con-
ventional in tone, the greater part are imitations of Spanish
poets and show no trace of inspiration in their authors. The
Cancioneiro is redeemed from complete insipidity by Resende
himself, and his fine verses on the death of D. Ignez de Castro
inspired the great episode in the Lusiads of Camoens (<?..).
Resende is the compiler of a gossiping chronicle of his patron
John II., which, though plagiarized from the chronicle by Ruy
de Pina (q.v.), has a value of its own. The past lives again in
these pages, and though Resende's anecdotes may be unim-
portant in themselves, they reveal much of the inner life of the
1 5th century. Resende's Miscellanea, a rhymed commentary
on the most notable events of his time, which is annexed to his
Chronicle, is a document full of historical interest, and as a poem
not without merit. The editions of his Chronicle are those of
1545, I5S4, 1596, 1607, 1622, 1752 and 1798.
His Cancioneiro appeared in 1516, and was reprinted by Kausler
at Stuttgart in 3 vols., 1846-52. A new edition has recently come
from the university press at Coimbra. For a critical study of his
work, see Excerptos, seguidos de uma noticia sobre sua vida e obras,
um juizo critico, apreciac.ao de bellezas e defeitos e estu&o da lingua,
by Antonio de Castilho (Paris, 1865). Also As sepulturas do
Espinheiro, by Anselmo Braamcamp, Freire Lisbon, 1901, passim,
especially pp. 67-80, where the salient dates in Resende's Hie are
set out from documents recently discovered ; and Dr Sousa Viterbo,
Diccionario dos Architects . . . Portuguezes, ii. 361-74. (E. PR.)
RESERVATION (Lat. reseniare, to keep back), the act or
action of keeping back or withholding something. There are
some technical uses of the term. In English law " reservation "
is used of the retention by the vendor or lessor, in a conveyance
or lease, of some right or interest, which without such reservation
would have passed to the purchaser or tenant; such " reserva-
tions " usually are concerned with rights of way or other ease-
ments or sporting rights. In ecclesiastical usage, the term is
applied to the practice of preserving unconsumed a portion of
the consecrated elements after the celebration of the Eucharist.
For the history of this practice and its usage in the Roman,
Greek and English churches, see EUCHARIST, Reservation of the
Eucharist. In the Roman Church, where the pope retains for
himself the right to nominate to certain benefices, that action is
termed, technically, "reservation." When in making a state-
ment, taking an oath, &c., a person qualifies that statement in
his mind, or withholds some fact, word or expression which, if
expressed, would materially alter the effect of his statement or
oath, such qualification is termed a " mental reservation," or,
in the technical language of casuistry, " mental restriction "
(see LIGUORI). The system of providing special tracts of land
exclusively for the tribes of American Indians, adopted in the
United States of America and in Canada, is known as the Reser-
vation system, and such tracts are styled Indian Reservations.
(See UNITED STATES and CANADA.)
RESHT, the capital of the province of Gilan in Persia, in
37 17' N., and 49 36' E., on the left bank of the Siah-rud (Black
river), which is a branch of the Sefid-rud (White river), and flows
into the Murdab, lagoon of Enzeli. The distance from Enzeli,
the port of disembarcation from Russia, on the S. shore of the
Caspian, to Resht is 14 m. in a direct line, and is accomplished in
an open boat, or (since 1892), depth of water permitting, in a
small steamboat to Pir-i-Bazar and thence 6 m. on a good road
by carriage. Resht has a population of 60,000 and is the residence
of English, Russian, French and Turkish consuls and the seat of
the governor-general of the province of Gilan. The town is
situated in low, malarious ground, and was originally buried in
jungle, but the Russians during their occupation of the place in
1 7 2 3-34 cleared much timber and jungle and made some open
spaces. The houses are red-tiled and raised from the ground,
with broad verandahs and overhanging eaves. Conflagrations
are frequent, particularly in the months of January and De-
cember, when hot, dry winds resembling the Form of the Alps
come down from the snow-capped Elburz. A good carriage
RESIDENCE RESORCIN
183
road constructed and worked by a Russian company and
opened to traffic in 1899 connects Resht with Teheran via
Kazvin.
The value of trade probably exceeds 2,000,000, principal
exports being rice, raw silk, dry fruit, fish, sheep and cattle,
wool and cotton, and cocoons, the principal imports sugar,
cotton goods, silkworm " seed " or eggs (70,160 worth in
1906-7), petroleum, glass and china. The trade in dried silk-
worm cocoons has increased remarkably since 1893, when only
76,150 Ib valued at 6475 were exported; during the year
1 906-7 ending 2oth March, 2, 717, 540 Ib valued at 238,000 were
exported. There are telegraph and post offices and branches of
the Imperial Bank of Persia and Banque d'Escompte.
ENZELI, the port of Resht in the S.E. corner of the Caspian,
is 14 m. N. of Resht, in 37 29' N., 49 28' E. Pop. 4000.
Between it and other ports in the Caspian communication is
maintained by the mail-steamers of the Caucasus and Mercury
Steam Navigation Company and many vessels of commercial
firms with head offices chiefly at Baku. (A. H.-S.)
RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell,
reside), in general, a place of abode. In law, it usually means
continuance in a place. The ordinary meaning of the word has
been defined as " the place where an individual eats, drinks and
sleeps, or where his family or his servants eat, drink and sleep "
(R. v. North Curry, 1825, 4 B. & C. 959). For certain purposes,
however, a man may be said to have his residence not only
where he sleeps, but also at his place of business. See ABODE ;
DOMICILE. In ecclesiastical law residence is the continuance
of a spiritual person upon his benefice. As a general rule, it is
necessary for every rector or vicar to reside within his parish,
even though there may be no house of residence annexed to the
benefice. But under certain circumstances the bishop of the
diocese may grant a licence of non-residence (Pluralities Act
1836).
RESIDENT, a political agent or officer representing the
Indian government in certain native states in India. He resides
in the state and advises on all matters of government, legislative
or executive. Residents are divided into three classes or ranks.
In certain other dependencies or protectorates of the British
Empire the representative of the government is termed a resident
or political agent, notably in Nepaul, Aden, Sarawak, British
North Borneo, &c. In general, where the state to which a
resident is attached is not an independent one, he exercises
consular and magisterial functions.
For " Resident " as the title of a diplomatic agent see DIPLO-
MACY.
RESIDUE (through the French, from the Lat. residuum, a
remainder, from residere, to remain), in law, that which remains
of a testator's estate after all debts and legacies are discharged,
and funeral, administration and other expenses paid. The
person to whom this residue or surplus is left is termed the
residuary legatee; should none be mentioned in the will the
residue goes to the next of kin (see EXECUTORS AND ADMINI-
STRATORS; LEGACY; WILL).
RESIN (through O.Fr. resine, modern resine, from Lat.
resina, probably Latinized from Greek pijni'ij, resin), a secretion
formed in special resin canals or passages of plants, from many
of which, such as, for example, coniferous trees, it exudes in
soft tears, hardening into solid masses in the air. Otherwise it
may be obtained by making incisions in the bark or wood of
the secreting plant. It can also be extracted from almost all
plants by treatment of the tissue with alcohol. Certain resins
are obtained in a fossilized condition, amber being the most
notable instance of this class; African copal and the kauri
gum of New Zealand are also procured in a semi-fossil con-
dition. The resins which are obtained as natural exudations
are in general mixtures of different, peculiar acids, named the
resin acids, which dissolve in alkalis to form resin soaps, from
which the resin acids are regenerated by treatment with acids.
They are closely related to the terpenes, with which they occur
in plants and of which they are oxidation products. Examples
of resin acids are abietic (sylvic) acid, CaVL&Oi, occurring in
colophony, and pimaric acid, CjoHaoOj, a constituent of gallipo
resin. Abietic acid can be extracted from colophony by means
of hot alcohol; it crystallizes in leaflets, and on oxidation
yields trimellitic, isophthalic and terebic acid. Pimaric acid
closely resembles abietic acid into which it passes when dis-
tilled in a vacuum; it has been supposed to consist of three
isomers. Resins when soft are known as oleo-resins, and when
containing benzoic or cinnamic acid they are called balsams.
Other resinous products are in their natural condition mixed
with gum or mucilaginous substances and known as gum-resins.
The general conception of a resin is a noncrystalline body,
insoluble in water, mostly soluble in alcohol, essential oils, ether
and hot fatty oils, softening and melting under the influence of
heat, not capable of sublimation, and burning with a bright but
smoky flame. A typical resin is a transparent or translucent
mass, with a vitreous fracture and a faintly yellow or brown
colour, inodorous or having only a slight turpentine odour and
taste. Many compound resins, however, from their admixture
with essential oils, are possessed of distinct and characteristic
odours. The hard transparent resins, such as the copals,
dammars, mastic and sandarach, are principally used for
varnishes and cement, while the softer odoriferous oleo-resins
(frankincense, turpentine, copaiba) and gum-resins contain-
ing essential oils (ammoniacum, asafoetida, gamboge, myrrh,
scammony) are more largely used for therapeutic purposes and
incense. Amber (q.v.) is a fossil resin.
RESOLUTION, a word used in the two main senses, separa-
tion and decision, of the verb " to resolve " (Lat. resolvere, to
loose, unfasten), to separate anything into its constituent
elements or component parts, hence, through the subsidiary
meaning of to clear up doubts or difficulties, to settle, determine.
The principal applications of the term in its first sense are to the
separation of a body into its component parts by chemical
process, or, to the eye, by the lens of a microscope or telescope;
similarly, in mathematics, to the analysis of a velocity, force,
&c., into components. In the second sense, beyond the general
meaning of determination, firmness of character, a " resolution "
is specifically a decision of opinion formally submitted to a
legislative or other assembly and adopted or rejected by votes.
RESORCIN (meta-dioxybenzene), C 6 H4(OH) 2 , one of the
dihydric phenols. It is obtained on fusing many, resins
(galbanum, asafoetida, &c.) with caustic potash, or by the
distillation of Brazil-wood extract. It may be prepared
synthetically by fusing meta-iodophenol, phenol meta-sulphonic
acid, and benzene meta-disulphonic acid with potash; by the
action of nitrous acid on meta-aminophenol; or by the action
of 10% hydrochloric acid on meta-phenylene diamine (J. Meyer,
Ber., 1897, 30, p. 2569). Many ortho and para-compounds of
the aromatic series (for example, the brom-phenols, benzene
para-disulphonic acid) also yield resorcin on fusion with caustic
potash. It crystallizes from benzene in colourless needles which
melt at 119 C. and boil at 276-5 C. (L. Calderon), or 280 C.
(C. Graebe), and is readily soluble in water, alcohol and ether,
but insoluble in chloroform and carbon bisulphide. It reduces
Fehling's solution, and ammoniacal silver solutions. It does
not form a precipitate with lead acetate solution, as the isomeric
pyrocatechin does. Ferric chloride colours its aqueous solution
a dark violet, and bromine water precipitates tribromresorcin.
Sodium amalgam reduces it to dihydroresorcin, which when
heated to 150-160 C. with concentrated baryta solution gives
7-acetylbutyric acid (D. Vorlander); when fused with caustic
potash, resorcin yields phloroglucin, pyrocatechin and diresorcin.
It condenses with acids or acid chlorides, in the presence of
dehydrating agents, to oxyketones, e.g. with zinc chloride and
glacial acetic acid at 145 C. it yields resacetophenone
(HO) 2 C 6 H3-CO-CH3 (M. Nencki and N. Sieber, Jour. prak. Chem.,
1881 [2], 23, p. 147). With the anhydrides of dibasic acids
it yields fluoresceins (?..). When heated with calcium chloride-
ammonia to 200 C. it yields meta-dioxydiphenylamine (A.
Seyewitz, Bull. Soc. Chim., 1800 [3], 3, p. 811). With sodium
nitrite it forms a water-soluble blue dye, which is turned red by
acids, and is used as an indicator, under the name of lacmoid
184
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
[ANATOMY
(M. C. Traub and C. Hock, 5er.,'i884, 17, p. 2615). It condenses
readily with aldehydes, yielding with formaldehyde, on the
addition of. a little hydrochloric acid, methylene diresorcin
[(HO)2-C 6 H 3 ] 2 -CH2, whilst with chloral hydrate, in the presence
of potassium bisulphate, it yields the lactone of tetra-oxydiphenyl
methane carboxyh'c acid (J. T. Hewitt and F. G. Pope, Jour.
Chem. Soc., 1897, 71, p. 1084). In alcoholic solution it con-
denses with sodium acetoacetate to form /3-methylumbelliferone,
CioHgOs (A. Michael, Jour. prak. Chem., 1888 [2], 37, 470).
With concentrated nitric acid, in the presence of cold concen-
trated sulphuric acid, it yields trinitro-resorcin (styphnic acid),
which forms yellow crystals, exploding violently on rapid
heating.
In medicine, resorcin, which is official in the United States
under the name of resorcinol, was formerly used as an anti-
pyretic, but it has been given up. The dose is 2 to 8 grs.
Used externally it is an antiseptic and disinfectant, and is
used 5 to 10% in ointments in the treatment of chronic skin
diseases such as psoriasis and eczema of a sub-acute character.
Weak, watery solutions of resorcin (10 or 15 grs. to the ounce)
are useful in allaying the itching in erythematous eczema. A
2% solution used as a spray has been used with marked effect
in hay fever and in whooping-cough. In the latter disease
10 minims of the 2% solution has been given internally. It
has also been employed in the treatment of gastric ulcer in
doses of 2 to 4 grs. in pill, and is said to be analgesic and
haemostatic in its action. In large doses it is a poison causing
giddiness, deafness, salivation, sweating and convulsions. It
is also worked up in certain medicated soaps. Mono-acetyl
resorcin, CH4(OH)-O-COCH 3 , is used under the name of
" euresol."
Resazurin, CizHvNOi, obtained by the action of nitrous acid on
resorcin (P. Weselsky and R. Benedikt, Monats., 1880, I, p. 889),
forms small dark red crystals possessing a greenish metallic
glance. When dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid and
warmed to 210 C., the solution on pouring into water yields a
precipitate of resorufin, CuHyNOs, an pxyphenoxazone, which is
insoluble in water, but is readily soluble in hot concentrated hydro-
chloric acid, and in solutions of caustic alkalis. The -alkaline
solutions are of a rose-red colour and show a cinnabar-red fluor-
escence. A tetrabromresorufin is used as a dye-stuff under the name
of Fluorescent Resorcin Blue.
Thio'resorcin is obtained by the action of zinc and hydrochloric
acid on the chloride of benzene meta-disulphonic acid. It melts
at 27 C. and boils at 2^3 C. Resorcin disulphonic Acid
(Hp)2C6H 2 (HSO.Oj, is a deliquescent mass obtained by the
action of sulphuric acid on resorcin (H. Fischer, Monats., 1 88 1,
2, p. 321). It is easily soluble in water and decomposes when
heated to 100 C.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM, (i). ANATOMY The respiratory
tract consists of the nasal cavities, the pharynx, the larynx, the
trachea, the bronchi and the lungs, but of these the two first
parts have been treated in separate articles (see OLFACTORY
SYSTEM and PHARYNX).
The larynx is the upper part of the air tube which is specially
modified for the production of notes of varying pitch, though
it is not responsible for the whole of the voice. Its frame-
work is made up of several cartilages which are moved on one
another by muscles, and it is lined internally by mucous mem-
brane which is continuous above with that of the pharynx and
below with that of the trachea or windpipe. The larynx is
situated in the front of the neck and corresponds to the fourth,
fifth and sixth cervical vertebrae. For its superficial anatomy
see ANATOMY, Superficial and Artistic.
The thyroid cartilage (see fig. i) is the largest, and consists
of two plates or alae which are joined in the mid-ventral line.
At the upper part of their junction is the thyroid notch and just
below that is a forward projection, the pomum Adami, best
marked in adult males. From the upper part of the posterior
border of each ala the superior cornu rises up to be joined
to the tip of the great cornu of the hyoid bone by the lateral
thyro-hyoid ligament, while from the lower part of the same
border the inferior cornu passes down to be fastened to the
cricoid cartilage by the crico-thyroid capsule. From the upper
border of each ala the thyro-hyoid membrane runs up to the
hyoid bone, while near the back of the outer surface of each
the oblique line of
the thyroid cartilage f( Epiglottis
runs downward and
forward.
The cricoid. carti-
lage (see figs, i and
2) is something like
a signet ring with
the seal behind; its
lower border, how-
ever, is horizontal.
To the mid-ventral
part of its upper
border is attached
the mesial part of
the crico - thyroid
membrane, which
attaches it to the
lower border of the
thyroid cartilage
though the lateral
parts of this mem-
brane pass up in-
ternally to the
thyroid Cartilage .After D. J. Cunningham, from Cunningham's Tot-Book
and their upper _ D ,, **"** . ..
f- t,A n t *ii FIG. I. Profile View of the Cartilages and
free edges form the Ligaments of the Larynx.
true vocal cords. On
the summit of the signet part of the cricoid are placed
the two arytenoid cartilages (see fig. 2), each of which
Hyoid bone
.Cartilago
triticea
Thyro-byoid
membrane
Superior cornu
of thyroid
cartilage
'uperior
tubercle on the-
ala of thyroid
cartilage
Oblique lint
Inferior tubercle
Inferior cornu of
thyroid cartilage
.Crico-lhyroid
membrane
Cricoid cartilage
Hyoid bone
Cartilage triticea
,1'hyro-epiglottidean
ligament
Superior cornu of
thyroid cartilage
rtilage of Santorini
Arytenoid cartilage
Muscular process of
arytenoid cartilage
Inferior cornu of
thyroid cartilage
After D. J. Cunningham, from Cunningham's Text-boot of Anatomy.
FIG. 2. Cartilages and Ligaments of Larynx, as seen from behind.
forms a pyramid with its apex upward and with an
anterior posterior and internal or mesial surface. The base
articulates with the cricoid by a concave facet, surrounded
by the crico-arytenoid capsule, and the two arytenoids are
able to glide toward or away from one another, in addition
to which each can rotate round a vertical axis. From the
front of the base a delicate process projects which, as it is
attached to the true vocal cord, is called the vocal process,
while from the outer part of the base another stouter process
ANATOMY]
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
185
/Hyoid bone
Hyo-epiglottidean figamcnt
Thyro-hyoid membrane
Thyroid cartilage
Elevation produced by
cuneiform cartilage
.False vocal cord
Pliiltrum ventriciili
Elevation produced ty
itrytenuid c.irulage
Laryngeal sinus
True vocal cqrd
rytenoid muscle
-Proces^us vocalis
Cricoid cartilage
Cricoid cartilage
attaches the two crico-arytenoid muscles and so is known as
the muscular process. Above each arytenoid are two smaller
cartilages known as the cornicula laryngis or cartilages of San-
torini and the cuneiform cartilages, but they are not of any
practical importance.
The epiglottis (see fig. 3), on the other hand, is a very important
structure, since it forms a lid to the larynx in swallowing: only
the box moves up to
the lid instead of the
lid moving down to
the box. It is leaf-
shaped, the stalk
|,Cartiiage of epigiottii (thyro-epiglottid can
.Fatty pad ligament) being at-
tached to the junc-
tion of the thyroid
cartilages inside the
larynx, while the
anterior surface of
the leaf is closely
attached to the root
of the tongue and
body of the hyoid
bone. The posterior
or laryngeal surface
is pitted for glands,
and near the point
where the stalk joins
the leaf is a con-
vexity which is
known as the cus-
hion of the epiglottis.
All the cartilages of
the larynx are of
the hyaline variety
except fhe epi-
glottis, the corni-
cula laryngis and
the cuneiform carti-
lages, which are
yellow elastic. The
result is that all except these three tend to ossify as middle
age is approached.
The muscles of the larynx are: (i) the crico-lhyroids, which are
attached to the lower border of the thyroid and the .anterior
part of the cricoid, by pulling up which they make the upper part
of the signet, with the arytenoids attached to it, move back
and so tighten the vocal cords. (2) The thyro-arytenoids (see
fig. 4), which run back from the-junction of the thyroid alae to
the front of the arytenoids and side of the epiglottis; they pull
the arytenoids toward the thyroid and so relax the cords.
(3) The single arytenoideus muscle, which runs from the back of
one arytenoid to the other and approximates these cartilages.
(4) The lateral crico-arylenoids (see fig. 4) which draw the muscular
processes of the arytenoids forward toward the ring of the
cricoid and, by so doing, twist the vocal processes, with the
cords attached, inward toward one another; and (5) the posterior
crico-arytenoids (see fig. 4) which run from the back of the signet
part of the cricoid to the back of the muscular processes of the
arytenoid and, by pulling these backward, twist the vocal
processes outward and so separate the vocal cords. All these
muscles are supplied by the recurrent laryngeal nerve, except
the crico-thyroid which is innervated by the external branch
of the superior laryngeal (see NERVES, Craniaf).
The mucous membrane of the larynx is continuous with that of
the pharynx at the aryteno-epiglottidean folds which run from the
sides of the epiglottis to the top of the arytenoid cartilages (see
(fig. 3). To the outer side of each fold is the sinus pyriformis
(see PHARYNX). From the middle of the junction of the alae
of the thyroid cartilage to the vocal processes of the arytenoids
the mucous membrane is reflected over, and closely bound to,
the true vocal cords which contain elastic tissue and, as has
After D. J. Cunningham, from Cunningham's Text-Book
of A nalomy.
FIG. 3. Mesial Section through Larynx to
show the outer wall of the right half.
been mentioned, are the upper free edges of the lateral parts
of the crico-thyroid membrane. The chink between the two
Epielotii, Aryteno-.plglotiid.an muscle
Hyoid
Cuneiform cartilage
Thyro-epiglollidean mind*
Thyro-hyoid mi-mbrane
Saccule of larynx
Muscular process of
arytenoid cartilage
Thyro-arytenoid muscle
Thyroid cartilage
Crico-arytenoideus lateral!!
Crico-arytenoideus pouicus
Crico-ihyroid membrane
ricoid curtilage
After D. J. Cunningham, from Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy.
Fie. 4. Dissection of the Muscles in the Lateral Wall
of the Larynx. The right ala of the thyroid
cartilage has been removed.
true vocal cords is the glottis or rima glotlidis. Just above the
true vocal cords is the opening into a recess on each side which
runs upward and backward and is known as the laryngeal
saccule; its opening is the laryngeal sinus. The upper lip of
this slit-like opening is called the false vocal cord.
The mucous membrane is closely bound down to the epiglottis
and to the true vocal cords, elsewhere there is plenty of sub-
mucous tissue in which the products of inflammation may
collect and cause " oedema laryngis," a condition which is
mechanically prevented from passing the true vocal cords. In
the upper part of the front and sides of the larynx and over the
true vocal cords the mucous membrane is lined by squamous
epithelium, but elsewhere the epithelium is of the columnar
ciliated variety: it is supplied by the superior laryngeal branch
of the vagus nerve and above the glottis is peculiarly sensitive.
The Trachea or windpipe (see fig. 5) is the tube which carries
the air between the larynx and the bronchi; it is from four to
four and a half inches long and lies partly in the neck and partly
in the thorax. It begins where the larynx ends at the lower
border of the sixth cervical, and divides into its two bronchi
opposite the fifth thoracic vertebra. The tube is kept always
open by rings of cartilage, which, however, are wanting behind,
and, as it passes down, it comes to lie farther and farther from
the ventral surface of the body, following the concavity of the
thoracic region of the spinal column. In the whole of its
downward course it has the oesophagus close behind it, while in
front are the isthmus of the thyroid, the left innominate vein,
the innominate artery and the arch of the aorta. On each side
of it and touching it is the vagus nerve.
The cervical part of the tube is not much more than an inch
in length, but it can be lengthened by throwing back the head.
This, of course, is the region in which tracheotomy is performed,
and it should be remembered that in children, and sometimes
in adults, the great left innominate vein lies above the level of
the top of the sternum.
In transverse section the trachea is rather wider from side to
side than from before backward. In life the former measure-
ment is said to be about 12-5 mm. and the latter n mm. It
is made up of an external fibre-elastic membrane in which the
cartilaginous rings lie, while behind, where these rings are
wanting, is a layer of unstriped muscle which, when it contracts,
i86
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
[ANATOMY
draws the hind ends of the rings together and so diminishes the
calibre of the tube. Inside these is plentiful submucous tissue
Thyroid cartilage
rico-lhyroid membrane
Cricoid cartilage
Part of trachea covered by
Uthmus of thyroid body
Common carotid artery
Eparterial bronchus
Hyparterial bronchus
Hyparterial
bronchi
Pulmonary arteiy
After D. J. Cunningham, from Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy.
FIG. 5. The Trachea and Bronchi. The thyroid body is indicated
by a dotted line.
containing mucous glands and quantities of lymphoid tissue,
while the whole is lined internally by columnar ciliated epithelium.
The Bronchi (see fig. 5) are the two tubes into which the
trachea divides, but, since the branches, which these tubes
give off later, are also called bronchi, it may be clearer to speak
of primary, secondary and tertiary bronchi. Each primary
bronchus runs downward and outward, but the right one is
more in a line with the direction of the trachea than the left.
The right primary bronchus has also a greater calibre than the
left because the right lung is the larger, and for these two reasons
when a foreign body enters the trachea it usually enters the
right bronchus.
The first secondary bronchus comes off about an inch from
the bifurcation of the trachea on the right side and, as it lies
above the level of the pulmonary artery, it is known as the
eparterlal bronchus. On the left side the first branch is about
two inches from the bifurcation and, like all the remaining
secondary bronchi, is hyparterial: the left primary bronchus
is therefore twice as long as the right. After the eparterial
secondary bronchus is given off the direction of the right primary
bronchus is carried on by the hyparterial secondary bronchus,
and this, just before reaching the hilum of the lung, divides
into upper and lower tertiary bronchi, while the left lower
secondary hyparterial bronchus does not divide before reaching
the hilum of its lung. Into the hilum or root of the right lung,
therefore, three bronchial tubes enter, while on the left side
there are only two. The firmly rooted habit of associating the
term bronchi with those parts of the main tubes which lie between
the bifurcation of the trachea and the point where the first
branch comes off makes it very difficult to suggest a nomen-
clature which calls up any picture of the actual state of things
to the mind. Certainly the classification into primary, secondary
and tertiary bronchi only goes a very little way toward this,
and it should be realized that, call them what we may, there
are two long tapering tubes which run from the bifurcation of
the trachea to the lower and back part of each lung, and give
off a series of large ventral and small dorsal branches. The
upper part of each of these long tubes or stem bronchi is outside
the lung and in the middle mediastinum of the thorax, the
lower part embedded in the substance of the lung. The structure
of the bronchi is practically identical with that of the trachea.
(See G. S. Huntington's " Eparterial Bronchial System of the
Mammalia," Am. Journ. Med. Sci. (Phila. 1898). See alsa
Quain's Anatomy, London, last edition.)
The Lungs are two pyramidal, spongy, slate-coloured, very
vascular organs in which the blood is oxygenated. Each lies
in its own side of the thorax and is surrounded by its own pleural
cavity (see COELOM and SEROUS MEMBRANES), and has an apex
which projects into the side of the root of the neck, a base which
is hollowed for the convexity of the diaphragm, an outer surface
which is convex and lies against the ribs, an inner surface
concave for the heart, pericardium and great vessels, a sharp
anterior border which overlaps the pericardium and a broad,
rounded posterior border which lies at the side of the spinal
column. Each lung is nearly divided into two by a primary
fissure which runs obliquely downward and forward, while the
right lung has a secondary fissure which runs horizontally
forward from near the middle of the primary fissure. The left
lung has therefore an upper and lower or basal lobe, while the
right has upper, middle and lower lobes. On the inner surface
of each lung is the root or hilum at which alone its vessels,
nerves and ducts (bronchi) can enter and leave it. The structures
contained in the root of each lung are the branches and tribu-
taries of (i) the pulmonary artery, (2) the pulmonary veins,
(3) the bronchi, (4) the bronchial arteries, (5) the bronchial veins,
(6) the bronchial lymphatic vessels and glands, (7), the pulmonary
plexuses of nerves. Of these the first three are the largest and,
in dividing the root from in front, the veins are first cut, then
the arteries and last the bronchi. As has been pointed out
already, the eparterial bronchus on the right side is above
the level of the artery, but all the others (hyparterial) are on a
lower level.
The bronchial arteries supply the substance of the lung;
there are usually two on each side, and they lie behind the
bronchi. The blood which they carry is chiefly returned by
the pulmonary veins bringing oxidized blood back to the heart,
so that here there is a normal and harmless mixture of arterial
and venous blood. If there are any bronchial veins (their
presence is doubted by some, and the writer has himself carefully
but unsuccessfully searched for them several times), they open
into the azygos veins of their own side. The bronchial lymphatic
vessels lie behind the pulmonary vessels and open into several
large glands which are black from straining off the carbon left
in the lungs from the atmosphere.
There is an anterior and posterior pulmonary plexus of nerves
on each side, the fibres of which are derived from the vagus and
the upper thoracic ganglia of the sympathetic.
Structure of the Lungs. As the bronchi become smaller and
smaller by repeated division, the cartilage completely surrounds
them and tends to form irregular plates instead of rings they
are therefore cylindrical, but when the terminal branches (lobular
bronchi) are reached, the cartilage disappears and hemispherical
bulgings called alveoli occur (fig. 6 A). At the very end of
PHYSIOLOGY]
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
eacli lobular bronchus is an irregular chamber, the atrium
(fig. 6 At), and from this a number of thin-walled sacs, about
i mm. in diameter, open
out. These are called
the infundibula (fig. 6 I),
and their walls are
pouched by hemispherical
air-cells or alveoli like
those in the lobular
bronchi. Each lobular
bronchus with its atrium
and infundibula forms
what is known as a lobule
of the lung, and these
FIG. 6. Diagram of Two Lobules of the lobules are separated by
Lung. B. Bronchus. A. Alveolus. I. connective tissue, and
Infundibulum. L.B Lobular bron- their outlines are evident
chus. At. Atnum. Lob. Lobule. c ., ,
on the surface of the lung.
The muscular tissue, which in the larger tubes was confined
to the dorsal part, forms a complete layer in the smaller; but
when the lobular bronchi are reached, it stops and the mucous
membrane is surrounded by the elastic layer. In the lobular
bronchi, too, the lining epithelium gradually changes from the
ciliated to the stratified or pavement variety, and this is the
only kind which is found in the infundibula and alveoli. Sur-
rounding each alveolus is a plexus of capillary vessels so rich
that the spaces between the capillaries are no wider than .the
capillaries themselves, and it is here that the exchange of gases
takes place between the air and the blood.
Embryology. The respiratory system is developed from the
ventral surface of the foregut as a long gutter-like pouch which
reaches from just behind the rudiment of the tongue to the
stomach. Limiting the anterior or cephalic end of this is a
fl-shaped elevation in the ventral wall of the pharynx which
separates the ventral ends of the third and fourth visceral bars
and is known as the furcula; it is from this that the epiglottis,
ary teno-epiglottidean folds and arytenoid cartilages are developed.
Later on the respiratory tube is separated from the digestive
by two ridges, one on each side, which, uniting, form a transverse
partition. In the region of the furcula, however, the partition
stops and here the two tubes communicate. The caudal end
of the respiratory tube buds out into the two primary bronchi,
and the right one of these, later on, bears three buds, while the
left has only two; these are the secondary bronchi, which keep
on dividing into two, one branch keeping the line of the parent
stem to form the stem bronchus, while the other goes off at an
angle. By the repeated divisions of these tubes the complex
" bronchial tree " is formed and from the terminal shoots the
infundibula bud out. The alveoli only develop in the last three
months of foetal life. The thyroid cartilage is probably formed
from the fourth and fifth branchial bars, while the cricoid seems
to be the enlarged first ring of the trachea. Before birth the
lungs are solid and much less vascular than after breathing is
established. Their slaty colour is gradually gained from the
deposit of carbon from the atmosphere. (For further details
see Quain's Anatomy, vol. i., Lond. 1908.)
Comparative Anatomy. It has been shown (see PHARYNX)
that in the lower vertebrates respiration is brought about by
the blood vessels surrounding the gill clefts. In the higher
fishes (Ganoids and Teleosteans) the " swim bladder " appears
as a diverticulum from the dorsal wall of the alimentary canal,
and its duct (d. pneumaticui) sometimes remains open and at
others becomes a solid cord. In the former case it is probable
that the blood is to some extent oxidized in the vascular wall
of this bladder. In the Dipnoi (mud-fish) the opening of the
swim bladder shifts to the ventral side of the pharynx and the
bladder walls become sacculated and very vascular, so that,
when the rivers are dried up, the fish can breathe altogether
by means of it. In the S. American and African species of
mud-fish the bladder or lung, as it may now be called, is divided
by a longitudinal septum in its posterior (caudal) part into right
and left halves. In this sub-class of Dipnoi, therefore, a general
187
agreement is seen with the embryology or ontogeny of Man's
lungs. In the Amphibia the two lungs are quite separate though
they are mere sacculated bags without bronchi. A trachea,
however, appears in some species (e.g. Siren) and a definite
larynx with arytenoid cartilages, vocal cords and complicated
muscles is established in the Anura (frogs and toads). In most
of the Reptilia the bag-like lungs are elaborated into spongy
organs with arborizing bronchi in their interior. From the
crocodiles upward a main or stem bronchus passes to the caudal
end of the lung, and from this the branches or lateral bronchi
come off. The larynx shows little advance on that of the Anura.
The respiratory organs of birds are highly specialized. The
larynx is rudimentary, and sound is produced by the syrinx, a
secondary larynx at the bifurcation of the trachea; this may
be tracheal, bronchial or, most often, tracheo-branchial. The
lungs are small and closely connected with the ribs, while from
them numerous large air sacs extend among the viscera, muscles
and into many of the bones, which, by being filled with hot air,
help to maintain the high temperature and lessen the specific
gravity of the body. This pneumaticity of the bones is to a
certain extent reproduced by the air sinuses of the skull in
crocodiles and mammals, and it must be pointed out that the
amount of air m the bones does not necessarily correspond with
the power of flight, for the Ratitae (ostriches and emeus) have
very pneumatic bones, while in the sea-gulls they are hardly
pneumatic at all.
In mammals the thyroid cartilage becomes an important
element in the larynx, and in the Echidna the 'upper and lower
parts of it, derived respectively from the fourth and fifth
branchial bars, are separate (R. H. Burne, Journ. Anal, and
Phys. xxxviii. p. xxvii.). The whole larynx is much nearer the
head than in Man, and in young animals the epiglottis is
intra-narial, i.e. projects up behind the soft palate. This pre-
vents the milk trickling into the larynx during suckling, and
is especially well seen in the Marsupials and Cetacea, though
evidences of it are present in the human embryo. In the lower
mammals an inter-arytenoid cartilage is very frequent (see J.
Symington, " The Marsupial Larynx," /. Anal, and Phys.
xxxiii. 31, also " The Monotreme Larynx," ib. xxxiv. 90).
The lungs show a good deal of variation in their lobulation;
among the porcupines as many as forty lobes have been counted
in the right lung, while in other mammals no lobulation at all
could be made out. The azygous lobe of the right lung is a
fairly constant structure and is situated between the post-caval
vein and the oesophagus. It is supplied by the terminal branch
of the right stem bronchus and, although it is usually absent in
Man, the bronchus which should have supplied it is always to be
found. (F, G. P.)
(2) PHYSIOLOGY
So far as is known, the intake of oxygen, either free or combined,
and the output of carbon dioxide, are an essential part of the
life of all organisms. The two processes are so closely associated
with one another that they are always included together under
the designation of respiration, which may thus be defined as the
physiological process which is concerned in the intake of oxygen
and output of carbon dioxide. According to the evidence at
present available, it is only within living cells that the respiratory
oxygen is consumed and the carbon dioxide formed. The mere
conveying of oxygen from the surrounding air or water to these
cells, and of carbon dioxide from them to the air or water, is,
however, in itself a complex process in the higher animals; and
accordingly an account of animal respiration naturally falls into
two divisions, the first of which (I.) is concerned with the manner
in which oxygen and carbon dioxide are conveyed to and from
the living tissues, and the second (II.) with the consumption of
oxygen and formation of carbon dioxide by the living tissues
themselves.
I. In all the more highly organized animals there are special
respiratory organs: the lungs in the higher vertebrates; the
gills in fishes; the tracheae in insects; and various rudimentary
forms of lungs or gills in other higher invertebrates. In the
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
[PHYSIOLOGY
present article attention will be specially confined to the case of
the higher vertebrates, and in particular to man.
Air is brought into the lungs by the movements of breathing
(see above, Movements of Respiration). Oxygen from this
air passes through the delicate lining membrane of the air-cells
of the lungs into the blood, where it enters into loose chemical
combination with the haemoglobin of the red corpuscles (see
BLOOD). In this form it is conveyed onwards to the heart, and
thence through the arteries to the capillaries, where it again
parts from the haemoglobin, and passes through the capillary
walls to the tissues, where it is consumed. Carbon dioxide
passes out from the tissues into the blood in a corresponding
manner, enters into loose combination as bicarbonate, and
possibly in other ways, in the blood, and is conveyed by the
veins to the lungs, whence it passes out in the expired air.
Pure atmospheric air contains 20-93% of oxygen, -03% of
carbon dioxide and 79-04% of nitrogen (with which is mixed
about 0.9 % of argon) . The dried expired air in man contains
about 3-5% of carbon dioxide and 17% of oxygen, so that
roughly speaking the carbon dioxide is increased by about
3 - 5% an d the oxygen diminished by 4%. Expired air as it
leaves the body contains about 6% of moisture, compared with
usually about i % in the inspired air. The added moisture and
higher temperature of expired air make it decidedly lighter than
pure air.
Owing to the unpleasant effects often produced in badly
ventilated rooms it was for long supposed that some poisonous
volatile ' ' organic matter " is also given off in the breath. Careful
investigation has shown that this is not the case. The un-
pleasant effects are partly due to heat and moisture, and partly
to odours which are usually not of respiratory origin. The
carbon dioxide present in the air of even very badly ventilated
rooms is present in far too small proportions to have any
sensible effect.
The average volume of air inspired per minute by healthy
adult men during rest is about 7 litres or -25 cub. ft. In
different individuals the frequency of breathing varies con-
siderably from about 7 to 25 per minute, the depth of each
breath varying about inversely as the frequency. During mus-
cular work the volume of air breathed may be six or eight times
as much as during rest. The volume of carbon dioxide given
off varies from about half a cubic foot per hour during complete
rest to 5 cub. ft. during severe exertion, but averages about
0-9 cub. ft. per hour, and will reach or exceed i cub. ft. per
hour during even very light exertion. The volume of oxygen
consumed is about a seventh greater than that of the carbon
dioxide given off.
The breathing is regulated from a nervous centre situated
in the medulla oblongata, which is the lowest part of the brain.
If this centre is destroyed or injured the breathing stops and
death rapidly results. From the respiratory centre rhythmic
efferent impulses proceed down the motor nerves supplying
the diaphragm, intercostals and other respiratory muscles.
Afferent impulses through various nerves may temporarily
affect the rhythm of the respiratory centre. Of these afferent
impulses by far the most important are those which proceed up
the vagus nerve from the lungs themselves. On distention of
the lungs with air the inspiratory impulses from the respiratory
centre are suddenly arrested or " inhibited "; on the other hand,
collapse of the lung strongly excites to inspiratory effort. On
section of the vagus nerve these effects disappear, and the
breathing becomes less frequent and much more laboured.
The vagus nerve is thus the carrier of both inhibitory and
exciting stimuli.
As the physiological function of breathing is to bring oxygen
to and remove carbon dioxide from the blood, it would naturally
be expected that breathing would be regulated in accordance
with the amount of oxygen required and of carbon dioxide
formed; but until quite recently the actual mode of regulation
was by no means clear. It was commonly supposed that
afferent nervous impulses in some way regulated the otherwise
automatic action of the centre, want of oxygen or excess of
COj in the blood being only an occasional and relatively unim-
portant factor in the regulations. The phenomenon of "apnoea"
or complete cessation of natural breathing which occurs after
forced breathing, was attributed mainly to the already
mentioned distension effect through the vagus nerves. To ga
further back still, it was even supposed that the rate and depth of
breathing, and the percentage of oxygen in the inspired air,
determine the consumption of oxygen and formation of carbon
dioxide in the body, just as the air-supply to a fire determines
the rate of its combustion. This old belief is still often met
with for instance, in the reasons given for recommending
" breathing exercises " as a part of physical training.
It is evident that if the breathing did not increase correspond-
ingly with the greatly increased consumption of oxygen and
formation of COj which occurs, for instance during muscular
work, the percentage of oxygen in the air contained in the lung
cells or alveoli (alveolar air) would rapidly fall, and the per-
centage of carbon dioxide increase. The inevitable result
would be a very imperfect aeration of the blood. Investigation
of the alevolar air has furnished the key to the actual regulation
of breathing. Samples of this air can be obtained by making
a sudden and deep expiration through a piece of long tube, and
at once collecting some of the air contained in the part of this
tube nearest the mouth. By this means it has been found that
during normal breathing at ordinary atmospheric pressure the
percentage of carbon dioxide (about 5-6% on an average for
men) is constant for each individual, though different persons
vary slightly as regards their normal percentage. The breathing
is thus so regulated as to keep the percentage of carbon dioxide
constant; and under normal conditions this regulation is
surprisingly exact. The ordinary expired air is a mixture of
alveolar air and air from the " dead space " in the ah- passages.
The deeper the breathing happens to be, the more alveolar air
there will be in the expired air, and the higher, therefore, the
percentage of carbon dioxide in it, so that the expired air is
not constant in composition, though the alveolar air is. If air
containing 2 or 3 % of carbon dioxide is breathed, the breathing
at once becomes deeper, in such a way as to prevent anything
but a very slight rise in the alveolar carbon dioxide percentage.
The difference is scarcely appreciable subjectively, except during
muscular exertion. The effect of i% of carbon dioxide in the
inspired air is so slight as to be negligible, and there is no founda-
tion for the popular belief that even very small percentages of
carbon dioxide are injurious. With 4 or 5 % or more of carbon
dioxide, however, much panting is produced, and the alveolar
carbon dioxide percentage begins to rise appreciably, since
compensation is no longer possible. As a consequence, headache
and other symptoms are produced. If, on the other hand, the
percentage of carbon dioxide in the alveolar air is abnormally
reduced by forced breathing, the condition of apnoea is produced
and lasts until the percentage again rises to normal, but no longer.
Forced breathing with air containing more than about 4% of
carbon dioxide causes no apnoea, as the alveolar carbon dioxide
does not fall.
If oxygen is breathed instead of air there is no appreciable
change in the percentage of carbon dioxide in the alveolar air,
and no tendency towards apnoea. Want of oxygen is thus
not a factor in the regulation of normal breathing. During
muscular work the depth and frequency of breathing increase in
such a way as to prevent the alveolar carbon dioxide from rising
more than very slightly. It is still the carbon dioxide stimulus
that regulates the breathing, although with excessive muscular
work other accessory factors may come in to some extent.
Under increased barometric pressure the percentage of
carbon dioxide in v the alveolar air no longer remains constant;
it diminishes in proportion to the increase of pressure. For
instance, at a 'pressure of 2 atmospheres it is reduced to
half, and at 6 atmospheres to a sixth; while at less than
normal atmospheric pressure it rises correspondingly unless
symptoms of want of oxygen begin to interfere with this rise.
These results show that it is not the mere percentage, but
the pressure (or " partial pressure ") of carbon dioxide in the
PHYSIOLOGY]
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
189
alveolar air that regulates breathing. The pressure exercised
by the carbon dioxide in the alveolar air is of course propor-
tional to its percentage, multiplied by the total atmospheric
pressure. It follows from this law that at a pressure of
6 atmospheres i% of carbon dioxide in the inspired air would
have the same violent effect as 6% at the normal pressure of
i atmosphere. To take a concrete practical application, if a diver
whose head was just below water were supplied with sufficient
air to keep the carbon dioxide percentage in the air of his helmet
down to 3% at most, he would be quite comfortable. But if,
with the same air supply as measured at surface, he went down
to a depth of 170 ft., where the pressure is 6 atmospheres, he
would at once experience great distress culminating in loss of
consciousness, owing, not to the pressure of the water, which
has trifling effects, but to the pressure of carbon dioxide in the
air he was breathing. The air supply must be increased in
proportion to the increase of pressure if these effects are to be
avoided, and ignorance of this has led to the common failure
of diving work at considerable depths.
The foregoing facts enable us to understand the regulation
of breathing under normal conditions. The pressure of carbon
dioxide in the alveolar air evidently determines that of the
carbon dioxide in the arterial blood, and the latter in its turn
determines the carbon dioxide pressure in the respiratory centre,
which is very richly supplied with blood. The centre itself is
extremely sensitive to the slightest increase or diminution in
carbon dioxide pressure; and thus it is that the alveolar carbon
dioxide pressure is so important. That the stimulus of carbon
dioxide is from the blood and not through nerves is proved by
many experiments. The function of the vagus nerves in regulat-
ing the breathing is apparently to, as it were, guide the centre
in the expenditure of each separate inspiratory or expiratory
effort; for as soon as inspiration or expiration is completed the
inspiratory or expiratory effort is cut short by impulse pro-
ceeding up the vagus nerve, and much waste of muscular work
and risk of injury to the lungs is thereby prevented.
Under ordinary conditions the regulation of carbon dioxide
pressure in the alveolar air ensures at the same time a normal
pressure of oxygen, since absorption of oxygen and giving off
of carbon dioxide normally run parallel to one another. If,
however, air containing abnormally little oxygen is breathed,
the normal relation between oxygen and carbon dioxide in the
alveolar air is disturbed. A similar state of affairs is brought
about by any considerable diminution of atmospheric pressure.
Not only does the partial pressure of oxygen in the inspired air
fall, but this fall is proportionally much greater in the alveolar
air; and the effects of want of oxygen depend on its partial
pressure in the alveolar air. It has been known for long that
any great deficiency in the proportion of oxygen in the air
breathed increases the depth and frequency of the breathing;
but this effect is not apparent until the percentage of oxygen
or the barometric pressure is reduced by more than a third,
which corresponds to a reduction of more than half in the
alveolar oxygen pressure. In contrast with this an increase of
a fiftieth in the alveolar carbon dioxide pressure has a marked
effect on the breathing. Along with the increased breathing
caused by deficiency of oxygen there is more or less blueness
of the skin and abnormal effects of various kinds, such as partial
loss of sensibility, memory and power of thinking. Long
exposure often causes headache, nausea, sleeplessness, &c.
a train of symptoms known to mountaineers as " mountain
sickness." That the primary cause of " mountain sickness " is
lack of oxygen owing to the low atmospheric pressure there is
not the slightest doubt. Lack of oxygen is thus not only an
important, but also an abnormal form of stimulus to the re-
spiratory centre, since it is accompanied by quite abnormal
symptoms. A further analysis of the special effect of lack of
oxygen on the respiratory centre has shown that this effect
still depends on the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the
alveolar air. The lack of oxygen appears, in fact, to have
simply increased the sensitiveness of the centre to carbon
dioxide, so that a lower partial pressure of carbon dioxide
excites the centre, and the breathing is correspondingly increased.
By prolonged forced breathing so much carbon dioxide is washed
out of the body that the subsequent apnoea lasts until the
oxygen in the alveolar air is nearly exhausted. The subject
of the experiment becomes very blue in the face and is partially
stupefied by want of oxygen before he has any desire to breathe.
The probable explanation of these facts is that want of oxygen
does not itself excite the centre, but that some substance
very probably lactic acid, which is known to be formed abundantly
is produced abnormally in the body during exposure to want
of oxygen and aids the carbon dioxide in exciting the centre.
It is known that the blood becomes less alkaline at high altitudes,
and that acids in general excite the centre. A person on a high
mountain thus gets out of breath much more easily than at
sea-level. The extra stimulus to the centre during work still
comes from the extra carbon dioxide formed, but has a greater
effect than usual on the breathing. If the extra stimulus came
directly from want of oxygen the person on the mountain would
probably turn blue and lose consciousness on the slightest exertion.
By analysing the alveolar air it can be shown that after a time
even a height of 5000 to 6000 ft., or a diminution of only a
sixth in the barometric pressure, distinctly increases the sensitive-
ness of the respiratory centre to carbon dioxide, so that there
seems to be a slow accumulation of acid in the blood. The
effect also passes off very slowly on returning to normal pressure,
although the lack of oxygen is at once removed.
The blueness of the skin (" cyanosis ") produced by lack of
oxygen is due to the fact that the haemoglobin of the red
corpuscles is imperfectly saturated with oxygen. Haemo-
globin which is fully saturated with oxygen has a bright red
colour, contrasting with the blue colour which it assumes
when deprived of oxygen. According to the existing evidence
the saturation of the haemoglobin is practically complete
under normal conditions in the lungs, or when thoroughly
shaken at the body temperature and normal atmospheric
pressure with air of the same composition as normal alveolar
air. As the partial pressure of the oxygen in this air falls,
however, the saturation of the haemoglobin becomes less
and less complete, and the arterial blood assumes a more and
more blue tinge, which imparts a blue or leaden colour to
the skin, accompanied by the symptoms, already referred to,
of lack of oxygen. Normal arterial blood in man yields
about 19 volumes of physiologically available oxygen for
each 100 volumes of blood. Of these 19 volumes about 185 are
loosely combined with the haemoglobin of the red corpuscles,
the small remainder being in simple solution in the blood.
Venous blood, on the other hand, yields only about 12 volumes.
The combination of haemoglobin with oxygen is only stable
in the presence of free oxygen at a pressure of about that in
normal alveolar air. As this pressure falls the compound
is progressively dissociated. From this it can be readily
understood why the blood loses its oxygen in passing through
the tissues, which are constantly absorbing free oxygen, and
regains it in the lungs. The marked effects produced by
abnormal deficiency in the pressure of oxygen in the alveolar
air are also readily intelligible; for even although the arterial
blood still contains sufficient oxygen to cover the normal
difference between the oxygen content of arterial and that of
venous blood, yet this oxygen is given off to the tissues less
readily i.e. at a lower pressure, and thus fails to supply their
demands completely. It is evident also that in pure air at
normal pressure increased ventilation of the lungs does not
appreciably increase the supply of oxygen to the blood, whereas
in air largely deprived of its oxygen, or at low pressure, the
increased alveolar oxygen pressure produced by deep breath-
ing helps greatly in saturating the blood with oxygen, and
may thus relieve the symptoms of want of oxygen. Hence
it is that the increased sensitiveness of the respiratory centre
to carbon dioxide, and consequent increased depth of breath-
ing, at high altitudes compensates to a large extent for de-
ficiency in the oxygen pressure. Addition of carbon dioxide
to the inspired air produces exactly the same result. Indeed
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
[PHYSIOLOGY
Professor Angelo Mosso was led by observation of 'the beneficial
effects of carbon dioxide at low atmospheric pressure to attri-
bute mountain sickness to lack of carbon dioxide, a condition
which he designated by the word " acapnia. " When impure
air is vitiated, not only by deficiency of oxygen, but also by
carbon dioxide, the carbon dioxide causes panting, which not
only gives warning of any danger, but prevents the alveolar
oxygen percentage from falling in the way it would do if the
carbon dioxide were absent. In this way the carbon dioxide
greatly lessens the danger. To give instances, air progressively
and very highly vitiated by respiration is much less likely to
cause danger if the carbon dioxide is not artificially absorbed,
and not nearly so dangerous as the great diminution of atmo-
spheric pressure (and consequently of oxygen pressure) which
occurs in a very high balloon ascent. Indeed the dangers of
a very high balloon ascent are notorious, and a number of
deaths or very narrow escapes are on record.
Just as oxygen forms a dissociable compound with the
haemoglobin of the blood, so does carbon dioxide form dis-
sociable compounds. One of' these compounds appears to be
with haemoglobin itself, and another is sodium bicarbonate,
which is far more easily dissociated in the blood than in a
simple watery solution, owing to the presence of proteid and
possibly other substances which act as weak acids and thus
help the dissociation process. The whole of the carbon di-
oxide can therefore be removed from the blood by a vacuum
pump, just as {.he whole of the oxygen can. Venous blood
contains roughly speaking about 40 volumes of carbon di-
oxide per 100 of blood, and arterial blood about 34 volumes.
Of this carbon dioxide only about 3 volumes can be in free solu-
tion, the rest being loosely combined. The conveyance of carbon
dioxide from the blood to the lungs is thus readily intelligible,
as well as the fact that any increase or diminution of the pres-
sure of carbon dioxide in the alveolar air will naturally lead
to a damming back or increased liberation of carbon dioxide
from the blood, and that by forced breathing carbon dioxide
can be washed out of the blood to such an extent that a pro-
longed cessation of natural breathing (apnoea) follows, since
even in the venous blood the partial pressure of carbon di-
oxide has become too low to excite the respiratory centre.
It will be evident from the foregoing that in order to supply
efficiently the respiratory requirements of the tissues not only
must the breathing, but also the circulation, be suitably regu-
lated. In hard muscular work the consumption of oxygen
and output of carbon dioxide may be increased eight or ten
times beyond those of rest. Unless, therefore, the blood
supply to the active tissues were correspondingly increased,
deficiency of oxygen would at once arise, since the amount
of oxygen carried by a given volume of the arterial blood is
very limited, as already explained. It is known that the
supply of blood to each organ is always increased during its
activity. This increase can, for instance, readily be seen
and measured in the case of contracting muscles or secreting
glands; and the volume and frequency of the pulse are greatly
increased during muscular work. But while it is evident
enough that the flow of blood through the body is determined
in accordance with the metabolic activities of each tissue,
our knowledge is as yet very scanty as to the means by which
this determination is brought about. Probably, however,
carbon dioxide may be nearly as important a factor in the
regulation of the circulation as in that of breathing. Just as
the rate of breathing was formerly supposed to determine,
and not to be determined by, the fundamental metabolic
processes of the body, so the circulation was supposed to be
another independent determining factor; and under the
influence of these mechanistic conceptions the direction of
investigation into the phenomena of respiration and circula-
tion has been largely diverted to side issues.
Since the circulation, no less than the breathing, is con-
cerned in the supply of oxygen to and removal of carbon
dioxide from the tissues, it can readily be understood that
defective circulation, such as occurs, for instance, in uncom-
pensated valvular affections of the heart, may affect the
breathing and hinder the normal respiratory exchange. Con-
versely, also, defects in the aeration or oxygen-carrying power
of the blood may be compensated for by increase in the cir-
culation. For instance, in the very common condition known
as anaemia, where the percentage of haemoglobin, and con-
sequently the oxygen-carrying power of the blood, is often
reduced to a third or less, the respiratory disturbances may
be so slight that the patient is going about his or her ordinary
work. A miner suffering from the now well-known " worm-
disease," or ankylostomiasis (q.v.), may be working under-
ground, or a housemaid suffering from chlorosis may be doing
her work, with only a third of the normal oxygen-carrying
power of the blood. There seems to be no doubt that in such
cases an increased rate of blood circulation compensates for the
diminished oxygen-carrying power of the blood. It is well
known that at high altitudes a gradual process of adaptation
to the low pressure occurs, and the shortness of breath and
other symptoms experienced for the first few days gradually
become less and less. This adaptation is partly, at least,
due to a marked increase in the percentage of haemoglobin in
the blood, though probably circulatory and perhaps other com-
pensatory changes are also involved.
In connexion with respiration the action of certain poisons
is of great interest. One of these, carbon monoxide, is of very
common occurrence, and causes numerous cases of poisoning.
Like oxygen, it has the property of combining with the haemo-
globin of the blood, but its affinity for haemoglobin is far more
strong than that of oxygen. In presence of air containing as
little as -05 % of carbon monoxide, the haemoglobin will become
about equally shared between oxygen and carbon monoxide,
so that, since air contains 20.9% of oxygen, the affinity of
carbon monoxide for haemoglobin may be regarded as about
400 times greater than that of oxygen. The blood of a person
breathing even a small percentage of carbon monoxide may
thus become gradually saturated to a dangerous extent, since
the haemoglobin engaged by the carbon monoxide is for the
time useless as an oxygen-carrier. Air containing more than
about 0.1% of carbon monoxide is thus more or less dangerous
if breathed for long; but the blood completely recovers in the
course of a few hours if pure air is again breathed. The
poisonous action of carbon monoxide can be abolished by placing
the animal exposed to it in oxygen at an excess pressure of
about an atmosphere. The reason for this is that, in consequence
of the increased partial pressure of the oxygen, the amount of
this gas in free solution in the blood is greatly increased in
accordance with Dalton's law, and becomes sufficient to supply
the tissues with oxygen quite independently of the haemoglobin.
Even at ordinary atmospheric pressure the extra oxygen
dissolved in the blood when pure oxygen is breathed is of con-
siderable importance. Carbon-monoxide poisoning is the chief
cause of death in colliery explosions and fires, and the sole cause
in poisoning by lighting gas and fuel gas of various kinds. Its
presence in dangerous proportions may be readily detected with
the help of a small bird, mouse or other small warm-blooded
animal. In such animals the respiratory exchange is so rapid
that symptoms of carbon-monoxide poisoning are shown far
more quickly than in man. The small animal can thus be em-
ployed in mines, &c., to indicate danger from carbon monoxide.
A lamp is useless for this purpose. There are various other
poisons, such as nitrites, chlorates, dinitrobenzol, &c., which
act by disabling the haemoglobin, and so cutting off the oxygen
supply to the tissues.
Between the air in the air-cells of the lungs and the blood
of the lung capillaries there intervenes nothing but a layer of
very thin, flattened cells, and until recently it was very generally
believed that it was by diffusion alone that oxygen passes inwards
and carbonic acid outwards through this layer. Similar simple
physical explanations of processes of secretion and absorption
through living cells have, however, turned out to be incorrect in
the case of other organs. It is known, moreover, that in the
case of the swimming-bladder of fishes oxygen is secreted into
PHYSIOLOGY]
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
191
the interior against enormous pressure. Thus, in the case of a
fish caught at a depth of 4500 ft., the partial pressure of the
oxygen present in the swimming bladder at this depth was 127
atmospheres, whereas the partial pressure of oxygen in sea-water
is only about 0-2 atmosphere. Diffusion can therefore have
nothing to do with the passage of gas inwards, which is known to
be under the control of the nervous system. The cells lining
the interior of the swimming bladder are developed from the
same part of the alimentary tract as those lining the air-cells
of the lungs, so that it seems not unlikely that the lungs should
possess the power of actively secreting or excreting gases. The
question whether such a power exists, and is normally exercised,
has been investigated by more than one method; and although
it is not possible to go into the details of the experiments, there
can be no doubt that the balance of the evidence at present
available is in favour of the view that diffusion alone is incapable
of explaining either the absorption of oxygen or the excretion
of carbon dioxide through the lining cells of the lungs. The
partial pressure of oxygen appears to be always higher, and of
carbon dioxide often lower, in the blood leaving the lungs than
in the air of the air-cells; and this result is inconsistent with the
diffusion theory. As to the causes of the passage of oxygen and
carbonic acid through the walls of the capillaries of the general
circulation, we are at present in the dark. Possibly diffusion
may explain this process.
II. Although we cannot trace the exact changes which occur
when oxygen passes into living cells, yet it is possible to obtain
a clear general view of the origin and destiny of the material
concerned in the process, and of the physiological conditions
which determine it.
The oxidizable material within the body consists, practically
speaking, of proteids (albumen-like substances, with which the
collagen of connective tissue may be included), fats and carbo-
hydrates (sugars and glycogen). All of these substances contain
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in known, though different,
proportions, and the former also contains a known amount
of nitrogen and a little sulphur. Nitrogen is constantly leaving
the body as urea and other substances in the urine and faeces;
and a small but easily measurable proportion of carbon passes
off in the same manner. The rest of the carbon passes out as
carbon dioxide in respiration. Now carbohydrates and fats
are oxidized completely in the body to carbon dioxide and water.
This follows from the fact that, practically speaking, no other
products into which they might have been converted leave the
body except carbon dioxide and water. Moreover, a given
weight of carbohydrate requires for its oxidation a definite
weight of oxygen, and produces a definite weight of carbon
dioxide. There is thus a definite relation between the weight
of oxygen used up and the weight of carbon dioxide formed in
this oxidation. The same is true for the oxidation of fat and
of proteid, allowing in the latter case for the fact that the
nitrogen, together with part of the carbon and hydrogen, passes
out as urea, &c., in an incompletely oxidized form. From all
this it follows that if we measure over a given period (i) the
discharge of nitrogen from the body, (2) the intake of oxygen
and (3) the output of carbonic acid, we can easily calculate
exactly what the ultimate destiny of the oxygen has been, and
at the ultimate expense of what material the carbonic acid has
been formed. What the intermediate stages may have been we
cannot say, but this in no way affects the validity of the calcula-
tion. If, during the period of measurement, food is taken, the
basis of the calculation is still substantially the same, as the
oxidizable material in food consists of practically nothing else
except proteids, carbohydrates and fats.
Liberation of Energy. From experiments made outside the
body, we know that in the oxidation of a given weight of proteid,
carbohydrate or fat, a definite amount of energy is liberated.
In the article on DIETETICS it is shown that precisely the same
liberation of energy occurs in the living body, due allowance
being made for the fact that the oxidation of proteid is not
quite complete. The following table shows the respiratory
quotients (the respiratory quotient being the ratio between
Substance oxidized.
Respiratory
quotient.
Calories per
gramme of
COj pro-
duced.
Calories per
gramme of
oxygen
consumed.
Proteid
Fat
Cane-sugar .
78
7i
I -00
2-78
3-35
2-59
3.00
3-27
3-56
the volume of carbon dioxide .formed and that of oxygen used
up) and energy expressed in units of heat (calories) liberated
per gramme of carbon dioxide produced and oxygen consumed
in the living body during the oxidation of proteid, fat and a
typical carbohydrate:
In the oxidation of non-living substances the rate varies,
within wide limits, according to that at which oxygen is
supplied. Thus a fire burns the faster the more air is supplied,
and the higher the percentage of oxygen in the air. It was for
long believed that in the living body also the rate of oxidation
must vary according to the oxygen supply. It has been found,
however, that this is not the case. Provided that a certain
minimum of oxygen is present in the air breathed, or in
the blood supplied to the tissues, it is, practically speaking,
indifferent whether the oxygen supply be increased or diminished:
only a certain amount is consumed. It might be supposed that
the reason for this is that the available oxidizable material in
the body is limited, and that if the food supply were increased
there would be a corresponding increase in the rate of oxidation.
This hypothesis is apparently supported by the fact that,
when an increased supply of proteid is given as food, the amount
of nitrogen discharged in the urine is almost exactly corre-
spondingly increased, so that evidently the oxidation of proteid
increases correspondingly with the supply. Similarly, when
carbohydrate food is given, the alteration in the respiratory
quotient shows that more carbohydrate than before is being
oxidized. Closer investigation in recent times has, however,
brought out the very striking fact that, if oxidation be measured
in terms of energy liberated by it in the body, it makes but
little difference, other things being equal, whether the animal
is fasting or not. If more proteid or carbohydrate is oxidized
at one time, correspondingly less fat is oxidized, but the total
energy liberated as heat, &c., in the body is about the same,
unless the diet is very excessive, when there is a slight increase
of oxidation. Even after many days of starvation, the rate of
oxidation per unit of body weight has been found to remain sensibly
the same in man. When more food is taken than is required, the
excess is stored up, 'chiefly in the form of fat, into which carbo-
hydrate and possibly also proteid are readily converted in the
body. When less food is taken than is needed, the stock of fat is
drawn upon, and supplies by far the greater proportion of the
energy requirements of the body.
During the performance of muscular work oxidation is greatly
increased, and may amount to ten times the normal or more.
Even the slight exertion of easy walking increases oxidation to
three times. When the energy represented by the external
work done in muscular exertion is compared with the extra
energy liberated by oxidation inthe body, it is found, as would
be expected, that the latter value largely exceeds the former.
In other words, much of the energy liberated is wasted as heat.
Nevertheless the muscles are capable of working with less waste
than any steam or gas engine. In the work of climbing, for
instance, it has been found in the case of man that 35 % of
the energy liberated is represented in the work done in raising
the body. Muscular work, if at all excessive, leads to fatigue,
and consequent rest. On the other hand, unnatural abstinence
from muscular activity leads to restlessness and consequent
muscular work. Hence on an average of the twenty-four hours
the expenditure of energy by different individuals, with different
modes of life, does not as a rule differ greatly.
The rate of oxidation per unit of body weight varies consider-
ably according to size and age. If we compare different warm-
blooded animals, we find that the rate of oxidation is relatively
192
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
[MOVEMENTS
to their weight far higher in the. smaller ones. In a mouse or
small bird, for instance, the rate is about twenty times as great
as in a man. The difference is in part due to the fact that the
smaller an animal is the greater is its surface relatively to its
mass, and consequently the more heat does it require to keep
up its temperature. The smaller animal must therefore produce
more heat. Even in cold-blooded animals, however, oxidation
appears to be more rapid the smaller the animal. In the case
of man, oxidation is relatively more than twice as rapid in
children than in adults, and the difference is greater than would
be accounted for by the difference in the ratio of surface to mass.
Allowing for differences in size, oxidation is about equally rapid
in men and women.
It was for long believed that the special function of respiratory
oxidation was (i) the production of heat, and (2) the destruction
of the supposed " waste products." Further investigation has,
however, tended to show more and more clearly that in reality
respiratory oxidation is an essential and intimate accompani-
ment of all vital activity. To take one example, secretion and
absorption, which were formerly explained as simple processes
of filtration and diffusion, are now known to be' accompanied,
and necessarily so, by respiratory oxidation in the tissues con-
cerned. The respiratory oxidation of an animal is thus a very
direct index of the activity of its vital processes as a whole.
Looking at what is known with regard to respiratory oxidation,
we see that what is most striking and most characteristic in
it is its tendency to persist to remain on the whole at about
a normal level for each animal, or each stage of development
of an animal. The significance of this cannot be over-estimated.
It indicates clearly that just as an organism differentiates itself
from any non-living material system by the manner in which
it actually asserts and maintains its specific anatomical structure,
so does it differentiate itself from any mere mechanism by the
manner in which it asserts and maintains its specific physiological
activities.
AUTHORITIES. For further general information the reader may
be referred to the sections by Pembrey and by Gamgee in Schafer's
Handbook of Physiology, vol. i., and by Bohr in Nagel' s Handbuch
der Physiologic, vol. i. The following additional references are to
recent investigations: Regulation of Breathing, Haldane and
Priestley, Journal of Physiology, xxxii. 225 (1905). Respiration
at High Altitudes and Effects of Want of Oxygen, Zuntz, Loewy,
Caspari, and M tiller, Das Hohenklima (1905) ; Boycott and Haldane,
Ward, and Haldane and Pouhon, Journal of Physiology, -axxvii.(lQo8).
Respiration at High Pressures, " Report to the Admiralty of the
Committee on Deep Diving " (1907). Respiratory Exchange and
Secretion, Barcroft, Journal of Physiology, xxvii. 31 (1901); Bar-
croft and Brodie, Journal of Physiology, xxvii. 18, and xxxiii. 52
(1905). Excretion of CO 2 by the Lung Epithelium, Bohr, Zentral-
blaUfiir Physiologic, xxi. 337 (1907). " Normal Alveolar CO 2 Pressure
in Man," Mabel Fitzgerald and J. Haldane in Physiological Journal
(1905). (J. S. H.)
(3) MOVEMENTS OF RESPIRATION
Normal Respiration. If the naked body of a person asleep
or in perfect inactivity be carefully watched, it will be found
that the anterior and lateral walls of the chest move rhythmi-
cally up and down, while air passes into and out of the nostrils
(and mouth also if this be open) in correspondence with the
movement. If we look more closely we shall find that with
every uprising of the chest walls the membranous intercostal
portions sink slightly as if sucked in, while at the same time
the flexible walls of the abdomen bulge as if protruded by some
internal force. If respiration be in the slightest degree hurried,
these motions become so marked as to escape the attention of
no one. The elevation of the chest walls is called inspiration,
their depression expiration. Inspiration is slightly shorter
than expiration, and usually there is a slight pause or momentary
inaction of the chest between expiration and the following
inspiration. Apparatuses for measuring the excursion of a
given point of the chest wall during respiration are called
thoracometers or stethometers. Apparatuses for recording the
movements of the chest are called stethographs or pneumo-
graphs.
Frequency of Respiration. The frequency of respiration
during perfect rest of the body is 16 to 24 per minute, the
pulse rate being usually four times the rate of respiration;
but the respiratory rhythm varies in various conditions of
life. The following are the means of many observations made
by Lambert Adolphe Quetelet (1796-1874): at the age of one
year the number of respirations is 44 per minute; at 5
years, 26; from 15 to 20 years, 20; from 25 to 30, 16; from
30 to 50, 18-1. Muscular exertion always increases the fre-
quency of respiration. The higher the temperature of the
environment the more frequent is the respiration. Paul Bert
(1833-1886) has shown that with higher atmospheric pressures
than the normal the frequency of respiration is diminished
while the depth of each inspiration is increased. The frequency
of respiration diminishes until dinner-time, reaches its maximum
within an hour of feeding, and thereafter falls again; if dinner
is ^omitted, no rise of frequency occurs. The respiratory act
can be interrupted at any stage, reversed, quickened, slowed
and variously modified at will, so long as respiration is not
stopped entirely for more than a short space of time; beyond
this limit the will is incapable of suppressing respiration.
Depth of Respiration. The depth of respiration is measured
by the quantity of air inspired or expired in the act; but
the deepest expiration possible does not suffice to expel all
the air the lungs contain. The following measurements have
been ascertained, and are here classified according to the con-
venient terminology proposed by John Hutchinson (1811-1861).
(i) Residual air, the volume of air remaining in the chest
after the most complete expiratory effort, ranges from 100
to 130 cub. in. (2) Reserve or supplemental air, the
volume of air which can be expelled from the chest after
an ordinary quiet expiration, measures about 100 cub. in.
(3) Tidal air? the volume of air taken in and given out at
each ordinary respiration may be stated at about 20 cub.
in. (4) Complemental air, the volume of air that can be
forcibly inspired over and above what is taken in at a normal
inspiration, ranges from about 100 to 130 cub. in. By
vital capacity, which once had an exaggerated importance
attached to it, is meant the quantity of air which can be ex-
pelled from the lungs by the deepest possible expiration after
the deepest possible inspiration; it obviously includes the
complemental, tidal and reserve 'airs, and measures about
230 cub. in. in the Englishman of average height, i.e.
5 ft. 8 in. (Hutchinson). It varies according to the height,
body weight, age, sex, position of the body and condition as to
health of the subject of observation.
Vital capacity is estimated by means of a spirometer, a gradu-
ated gasometer into which air may be blown from the lungs.
The residual air, which for obvious reasons cannot be actually
measured, may be estimated in the following way (Emil Harless,'
1820-1862; Louis Grehant, b. 1838). At the end of ordinary
expiration, apply the mouth to a mouthpiece communicating
with a vessel filled with pure hydrogen, and breathe into and
out of this vessel half a dozen times until, in fact, there is
reason to suppose that the air in the lungs at the time of the
experiment has become evenly mixed with hydrogen. Then
ascertain by analysis the proportion of hydrogen to expired
air in the vessel and estimate the amount of the air which the
lungs contained by the following formula:
: 100 ;
v(ioo-p)
P
where V= volume of air in the lungs at the time of experiment,
v = volume of the vessel containing hydrogen, p = proportion of
air to hydrogen in the vessel at the end of the experiment. V,
then, is the volume of air in the lungs after an ordinary expira-
tion; that is, it includes the residual and the reserve air; if
we subtract from this the amount of reserve air ascertained
by direct measurement, we obtain the 100-130 cub. in. which
Hutchinson arrived at by a study of the dead body.
Volume of Respiration. -It is clear that the ventilation of
the lungs in ordinary breathing does not merely depend on
MOVEMENTS]
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
193
the quantity of air inspired at each breath, but also on the
number of inspirations in a given time. If these two values
be multiplied together we get what might be called the volume
of respiration (Athmungsgrosse, Isidore Rosenthal, b. 1836),
in contradistinction to depth of respiration and frequency of
respiration. Various instruments have been devised to
measure the volume of respiration, all more or less faulty for
the reason that they compel respiration under somewhat ab-
normal conditions (Rosenthal, Gad, Peter Ludwig, Panum
(1820-1885), Ewald Hering (b. 1834). From the data ob-
tained we may conclude that the respiratory volume per
minute in man is about 366 cub. in. (6000 cub. centim.).
In connexion with this subject it may be stated that, after
a single ordinary inspiration of hydrogen gas, 6-10 respirations
of ordinary air must occur before the expired air ceases to
contain some trace of hydrogen.
Types of Respiration. The visible characters of respiration
in man vary considerably according to age and sex. In men,
while there is a moderate degree of upheaval of the chest,
there is a considerable although not preponderating degree
of excursion of the abdominal walls. In women the chest
movements are decidedly most marked, the excursion of the
abdominal walls being comparatively small. Hence we may
distinguish two types of respiration, the costal and the ab-
dominal, according to the preponderance of movement of
one or the other part of the body wall. In forced respiration
the type is costal in both sexes, and so it is also in sleep. The
cause of this difference between men and women has been
variously ascribed (a) to constriction of the chest by corsets
in women, (b) to a natural adaptation to the needs of child-
bearing in women, and (c) to the greater relative flexibility
of the ribs in women permitting a wider displacement under
the action of the inspiratory muscles.
Certain Concomitants of Normal Respiration. If the ear
be placed against the chest wall during ordinary respiration
we can hear with every inspiration a sighing or rustling sound,
called " vesicular," which is probably caused by the expansion
of the air vesicles; and with every expiration a sound of a
much softer sighing character. In children the inspiratory
rustle is sharper and more pronounced than in adults. If a
stethoscope be placed over the trachea, bronchi or larynx,
so that the sounds generated there may be separately com-
municated to the ear, there is heard a harsh to-and-fro sound
during inspiration and expiration which has received the
name of " bronchial."
In healthy breathing the mouth should be closed and the
ingoing current should all pass through the nose. When
this happens the nostrils become slightly expanded with each
inspiration, probably by the action of the M. dilatatores naris.
In some people this movement is hardly perceptible unless
breathing be heavy or laboured. As the air passes at the
back of the throat behind the soft palate it causes the velum
to wave very gently in the current; this is a purely passive
movement. If we look at the glottis or opening into the larynx
during respiration, as we may readily do with the help of a
small mirror held at the back of the throat, we may notice
that the glottis is wide open during inspiration and that it
becomes narrower by the approximation of the vocal chords
during expiration. This alteration is produced by the action
of the laryngeal muscles. Like the movements of the nostril,
those of the larynx are almost imperceptible in some people
during ordinary breathing, but are very well marked in all
during forced respiration.
The Mechanics of Respiration. The thorax is practically
a closed box entirely filled by the lungs, heart and other struc-
tures contained within it. If we were to freeze a dead body
until all its tissues were rigid, and then were to remove a
portion of the chest wall, we should observe that every corner
of the thorax is accurately filled by some portion or other
of its contents. If we were to perform the same operation of
removing a part of the chest wall in a body not first frozen
we should find, on the other hand, that the contents of the
thorax are not by any means in such circumstances bulky
enough to fill up the space provided for them. If we were
to measure the organs carefully we should find that those
which are hollow and whose cavities communicate with the
regions outside the thorax are all larger in the frozen corpse
than in that which was not frozen. In other words, the organs
in the thorax are distended somewhat in order that they may
completely fill the chest cavity; and the nature of this curious
and important condition may best be illustrated by the simple
diagrams, figs. 7 and 8 (from Hermann's Physiologic des
FIG. 7.
FIG. 8.
Menschen), where t is the trachea, / the lung, the auricle
of the heart, k the ventricle, i an intercostal space with its
flexible membranous covering. When the interior of the
vessel is rendered vacuous by exhaustion through the tube
o, the walls of the lungs and heart are expanded until the
limits of the containing vessel are accurately filled, while all
flexible portions of the walls of the vessel (corresponding to
the intercostal membranes and the diaphragm of the thorax)
are sucked inwards.
From this description it follows that the lungs, even when
the thorax is most contracted, are constantly over-distended,
and that, when the cause of this over-distension is removed,
the lungs, being elastic, collapse. It further follows that
if the thorax is dilated, the flexible hollow organs it contains
must perforce be still more distended a distension which in
the case of the lungs is followed by an indrawing of air through
the trachea in all cases where the trachea is open. Thus,
as the act of respiration is primarily a dilatation of the thorax,
the part played by the lungs is, as Galen knew, a purely passive
one.
How is dilatation of the thorax effected? It has been pointed
out that the rib-planes decline from the horizontal in two
directions, viz. from behind forwards, and from the antero-
posterior mesial plane outwards; a glance at fig. 9 will make
this double sloping clear to the reader. It has, moreover,
been explained that the diaphragm arches upwards into the
thorax in such a manner that the lateral parts of the arch
are vertical and in contact with the inner face of the thoracic
walls. This being the structure of the thorax, the enlarge-
ment of its cavity is brought about (i) by raising the rib-
planes until they approach the horizontal, and (2) by depressing
the diaphragm and making its rounded dome more cone-like
in outline. A moment's consideration will show how these
actions enlarge the boundaries of the thorax, (a) When the
postero-anterior slope of the rib-planes is diminished by the
raising of the anterior ends of the ribs, the whole sternum
is thrust upwards and forwards, and the antero-posterior
diameter of the thorax is increased, (b) When the lateral
slope of the rib-planes is diminished by the ribs being moved
xxra. 7
194
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
[MOVEMENTS
From Hermann's Handbuch.
FIG. 9. Showing Slope of Ribs.
upwards about an axis passing through their sternal and
vertebral extremities, it is evident that the lateral diameter
of the thorax must be
increased, (c) When the
muscular portion of the
diaphragm contracts, the
curves of its dome-like
shape are straightened,
the whole diaphragm
comes to look more conical
on section, and the ap-
position of its lateral parts
to the inner surface of the
thorax is destroyed; the
two apposed surfaces are
drawn apart much as the
leaves of a book might be,
and a space is formed
between them, into which
some portion of the lung
slips, (d) When the dia-
phragm descends it draws
with it the whole con-
tents of the thorax; in-
asmuch as the contents as
a whole are conical in
shape with the apex up-
ward and are fitted into
'.the conical space of the
thoracic cavity, it is clear that the descent of the contents
will tend to create a space between them and the thoracic
walls; for each stratum of lung, &c., which is adapted to
fit a certain level of thorax, will thereby be brought into a
lower and (as the thorax is conical) a more spacious level.
Hence the descent of the diaphragm causes a much greater
enlargement of the thorax than is measured by the mere
elongation of the vertical diameter. In this manner the thorax
is distended and air is drawn into the lungs. The contraction
of the thorax in expiration is brought about by the return
of the ribs and diaphragm to their original position of rest.
How the Inspiratory Movements are Produced. The Rib Move-
ments. These are caused by the contraction of muscles which
are fixed either to the central axis of the body (including
under that term the head and vertebral column) or to some
point rendered sufficiently stable for the purpose by the action
of other adjuvant muscles. Thus the M. levatores costarum
arise from the transverse processes of the 7th cervical and eleven
upper dorsal vertebrae, and are attached to the ribs below in
series; the M. scaleni spring from the cervical vertebrae, and
are attached to the anterior parts of the first and second ribs;
the M. sternocleido-mastoidei arise from the side and back of the
skull, and are inserted into the upper part of the sternum and the
clavicle; the M. pectoralis minor arises from the coracoid
process of the scapula, and is inserted into the anterior ends of
some of the ribs; the M. serratus posticus superior arises from
certain of the cervical and dorsal vertebrae, and is inserted into
the posterior part of certain of the ribs; the M. cervicalis
ascendens (part of the M. erector spinae) arises from certain
of the cervical vertebrae, and is inserted into the posterior part
of certain ribs. The M. serratus magnus and the M. pectoralis
major, which are affixed on the one hand to the upper arm and
to the scapula respectively, and on the other to the ribs and to
the sternum respectively, may in certain elevated positions of
the arm and shoulder act as inspiratory muscles. When all
these muscles contract, the ribs are raised in the twofold way
already described, some pulling up the anterior ends of the
ribs, and others causing the arched ribs to rotate about an axis
passing through their vertebral and sternal joints.
In addition to the muscles just enumerated, the M. inter-
costales externi are undoubtedly inspiratory muscles. Every
external intercostal muscular fibre between a pair of ribs must,
when it contracts, of necessity raise both ribs, as is clearly shown
by the accompanying diagram (fig. 10). Here a' b' must be
snorter than ab, for if angle BAa = , then
a6 2 = AB I +(B6-Aa) J -|-2AB(B6-Aa)cos x;
hence ab will be larger the smaller the angle x, for the cosine
increases as the angle diminishes.
FIG. 10.
Fie. n.
By a similar geometrical treatment of the question it may be
shown that the internal intercostal muscles when they contract
must of necessity depress both the ribs to which they are
attached. If the angle BAc' = *(fig. n), then
B cos r>
hence c'd' will be larger the larger the angle x.
The case, however, is not so clear with reference to the anterior
portions of the internal intercostals which lie between the
cartilages; for it is evident that these fibres have the same
direction with regard to the sternum as an axis as the external
intercostals have with regard to the vertebral column as an
axis; that is to say, the geometrical diagram in fig. 10 applies
to the inter-cartilaginous internal intercostals as perfectly as it
does to the inter-osseous parts of the external intercostals, the
inference being that the inter-cartilaginous internal intercostals
tend to elevate the pair of ribs between which they stretch.
The geometrical argument is, however, overborne by physio-
logical experiment: Martin and Hart well have observed in the
dog and the cat that the internal intercostals throughout their
whole extent contract (not synchronously) but alternately with
the diaphragm; hence we must conclude that their function
throughout is not inspiratory like that of the diaphragm, but
expiratory.
The Movements of the Diaphragm. The muscular fibres of
the diaphragm are arranged in a radial manner, or, more strictly
speaking, in a manner like the lines of longitude on a terrestrial
globe. The central tendon of the diaphragm corresponds to
the pole of such a globe. The contraction of the fibres is ex-
pended on straightening the longitudinal curves rather than on
pulling down the central tendon to a lower level; in fact, the
central tendon moves very little in ordinary respiration.
How the Expiratory Movements are Produced. The action
of inspiration disturbs many organs from the position of rest
into which gravity and their own physical properties have
thrown them. The ribs and sternum are raised from the position
of lowest level; the elastic costal cartilages are twisted; the
elastic lungs are put upon the stretch; the abdominal organs,
themselves elastic, are compressed and thrust against the
elastic walls of the belly, causing these to bulge outwards. In
short the very act of inspiration stores up, as it were, in sundry
ways the forces which make for expiration. As soon as the
inspiratory muscles cease to act these .forces come into play, and
the position of rest or equilibrium is regained. It is very doubtful
whether any special expiratory muscles are called into action
during ordinary respiration. The internal intercostals may in
man be exercised in ordinary expiration (although they are
certainly not so exercised in the dog and the cat); but in
laboured expiration many muscles assist in the expulsive effort.
The muscles forming the belly-walls contract and force the
abdominal contents against the relaxed diaphragm in such a
manner as to drive it farther and farther into the thorax. At
the same time by their attachment to the lower edge of the
PATHOLOGY]
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
thorax these same muscles pull down the ribs and sternum. The
M. triangularis sterni, which arises from the back or thoracic
aspect of the sternum and lower costal cartilages and is inserted
into the costal cartilages higher up, can obviously depress the
ribs. So also can the M. serratus posticus inferior, which arises
from the thick fascia of the loins and is inserted into the last
four ribs. So also can the M. quadratus lumborum, which
springs from the pelvis and is attached to the last rib. Indeed
there is hardly a muscle of the body but may be called into play
during extremely laboured respiration, either because it acts on
the chest, or because it serves to steady some part and give a
better purchase for the action of direct respiratory muscles.
Certain Abnormal Forms of Respiration.
Coughing. There is first a deep inspiration followed by
closure of the glottis. Then follows a violent expiratory effort
which bursts open the glottis and drives the air out of the lungs
in a blast which carries away any light irritating matter it may
meet with. The act is commonly involuntary, but may be
imitated exactly by a voluntary effort.
Hawking, or Clearing the Throat. In this act a current of air
is driven from the lungs and forced through the narrow space
between the root of the tongue and the depressed soft palate.
This action can only be caused voluntarily.
Sneezing. There is first an inspiration which is often un-
usually rapid; then follows a sudden expiration, and the blast is
directed through the nose. The glottis remains open all the
time. The act is generally involuntary, but may be more or
less successfully imitated by a voluntary effort.
Snoring is caused by unusually steady and prolonged inspira-
tions and expirations through the open mouth, the soft palate
and uvula being set vibrating by the currents of air.
Crying consists of short deep inspirations and prolonged
expirations with the glottis partially closed. Long-continued
crying leads to sobbing, in which sudden spasmodic contractions
of the diaphragm cause sudden inspirations and inspiratory
sounds generated in larynx and pharynx.
Sighing is a sudden and prolonged inspiration following an
unusually long pause after the last expiration.
Laughing is caused by a series of short expiratory blasts
which provoke a clear sound from the vocal chords kept tense
for the purpose, and at the same time other inarticulate but
very characteristic sounds from the vibrating structures of the
larynx and pharynx. The face has a characteristic expression.
This act is essentially involuntary, and often is beyond control;
it can only be imitated very imperfectly.
Yawning is a long deep inspiration followed by a shorter
expiration, the mouth, fauces and glottis being kept open in a
characteristic fashion. It is involuntary, but may be imitated.
Hiccough is really an inspiration suddenly checked by closure
of the glottis; the inspiration is due to a spasmodic contraction
of the diaphragm. The closure of the glottis generally leads
to a characteristic sound. (A. G.*) .
(4) PATHOLOGY OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
In the following article we have to give an account of the
more important pathological processes which affect the lungs,
pleurae and bronchial tubes. In the aetiology of pulmonary
affections, the relations between the lungs and the external air,
and also between them and the circulatory system, are im-
portant. The lungs are, so to speak, placed between the right
and left cavities of the heart, and the only way for the blood
to pass from the right ventricle to the left side of the heart,
except in cases of a patent foramen ovale or other congenital
defect forming a communication between the two sides of the
organ, is by passing through them. The result is that not only
may they become diseased by foreign material carried into them
by the blood, but any obstruction to the flow of blood through
the left side of the heart tends sooner or later to engorge or con-
gest them, and lead to further changes. Through the nose and
mouth they are in direct connexion with the external atmo-
sphere. Hence the variable condition of the air as regards
temperature, degree of moisture, and density, is liable to produce
directly various changes in the lungs, or to predispose them to
disease; and the contamination of the air with various patho-
genic germs and irritating particles in the shape of dust, is a
direct source of many lung affections.
Bronchitis, or inflammation of the mucous membrane of the
bronchial tubes, has been generally attributed to exposure
to atmospheric changes. It occurs with great frequence in the
extremes of life, and it is in early childhood and in old age that
it is more liable to be fatal. Bronchitis may often follow
exposure to cold, but that low temperature in itself is not
sufficient to cause it is shown by the fact that the crews of
arctic expeditions have been singularly free from diseases usually
attributed to cold, but on their return to moist germ-laden
atmospheres have at once been affected. Children reared in
heated rooms with lack of ventilation are peculiarly susceptible
to attacks on the slightest change of temperature. Bronchitis
is also frequently caused by cardiac and renal diseases, and by
the extension of inflammatory diseases of the upper air passages
(as rhinitis, laryngitis or pharyngitis), while blockage of the
nasal passages by adenoid or other growths may, by causing
persistent mouth-breathing, lead to bronchial infection. Before
the bacterial origin of disease was understood, bronchitis was
attributed solely to what is termed " catching cold, " and the
exact relation of the chill to the bacterial infection is still
unknown. It is probable that the chilling of the surface of the
body by exposure causes congestion of the mucous membrane,
the presence of a virulent micro-organism being then all that is
required to produce bronchitis. It is generally accepted that in
persons living in the pure air of the country the small bronchi
and air-cells are sterile (Barthel in the Zentralblatt ftir Bakterio-
logie, vol. xxiv.). Bacteria are arrested on their way by the
leucocytes of the nasal mucous membrane and by the vibration
of the ciliated epithelium of the upper air passages. The mucous
membrane of the upper bronchi is, however, tenanted by various
micro-organisms such as the diplo-bacillus of Friedlander,
bacillus coli communis, micrococcus tetragenus, &c., and it is
considered by William Ewart that these organisms may in
certain conditions of their host become virulent. " Specific "
bronchitis occurs in the course of a specific infective disease
(e.g. influenza, measles or whooping cough) and is due to the
specific micro-organism gaining access by the mucous membrane
of the respiratory tract. Cases have been known in which the
diphtheria bacillus has been so localized. In glanders, small-pox,
syphilis and pemphigus, the infective micro-organism is carried
to the bronchi by the blood stream. In common or " non-
specific" bronchitis, streptococci, pneumococci and staphylococci
are found in the sputum together with Friedlander's bacillus
and the bacillus coli communis. Microscopically the bronchi
show hyperaemia of the mucous and submucous coats, and the
whole wall becomes infiltrated with polymorphonuclear
leucocytes and round cells. Many cells undergo mucoid de-
generation, and there is abundant epithelial proliferation. A
large quantity of mucus is secreted by the glands, and the
lumen of the bronchi contains an exudate consisting of mucus,
degenerated leucocytes and cast-off epithelial cells.
In the rare form of bronchitis known as fibrinous or plastic
bronchitis a membranous exudate is formed which forms casts
of the bronchi, which may be coughed up. The casts vary from
an inch to six or seven inches in length, with branches corre-
sponding to the divisions of the bronchi from which they come.
The cast consists of mucus and fibrin in varying proportions.
The exact pathology of this variety is still undetermined.
Bronchitis may affect the whole bronchial tract, or more
especially the larger or the smaller tubes. It may occur as an
acute or as a chronic affection. In the acute form the inflamma-
tion may remain limited to the bronchial tubes and gradually
subside, or it may lead to inflammation of the surrounding lung
tissue, giving rise to disseminated foci of inflammation of greater
or less extent throughout the lungs (catarrhal or broncho-
pneumonia). This is a common complication of bronchitis,
especially where the smaller tubes are affected, and is more
196
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
[PATHOLOGY
frequently seen in children than adults. In cases of chronic
bronchitis the affection, as a rule, begins as a slight ailment during
the winter, and recurs in succeeding winters. The intervals of
freedom from the trouble get shorter, and in the course of a
few years it persists during the summer as well as the winter
months. A condition of chronic bronchitis is thus established.
The persistent cough which this occasions is one of the chief
causes of the development of the condition of emphysema, where
there is a permanent enlargement of the air-cells of the lungs
with an atrophy of the walls of the air vesicles. The emphysema
occasions an increase in the shortness of breath from which the
person had previously suffered, and later, in consequence of
the greater difficulty with which the blood circulates through the
emphysematous lungs, the right side of the heart becomes
dilated, and from that we have the development of a general
dropsy of the subcutaneous tissues, and less and less perfect
aeration of the blood.
The death rate from bronchitis in England and Wales during
1908 was: males 1102, females 1083 per million living. The
death rate for the five years 1901-1905 was 1237 per million for
all sexes. The death rate for the twenty years 1888-1908 con-
sistently showed a slight decline.
Diseases of Occupations. We all inhale a considerable amount
of carbonaceous and other foreign particles, which in health are
partly got rid of by the action of the ciliated cells lining the
bronchial tubes, and are partly absorbed by cells in the wall of
the tubes, and carried in the lymph channels to the bronchial
lymphatic glands, where they are deposited, and cause a more
or less marked pigmentation of the tissues. Part of such pig-
ment is also deposited in the walls of the bronchial tubes and the
interstitial tissue of the lungs, giving rise to the grey appearance
presented by the lungs of all adults who live in large cities.
In certain dusty occupations, such as those of stone masons,
knife-grinders, colliers, &c., the foreign particles inhaled cause
trouble. The most common affection so produced is chronic
bronchitis, to which becomes added emphysema. In some cases
not only is bronchitis developed, but the foreign particles lead
to an increase of the fibrous tissue round the bronchi and in the
interstitial tissue of the lungs, and so to a greater or lesser extent
of fibroid consolidation. As this fibrous tissue may later under-
go 'softening and cavities be formed, a form of consumption is
produced, which is named according to the particular occupation
giving rise to it; e.g. stonemasons' phthisis, knife-grinders'
phthisis, colliers' phthisis. It should, however, be pointed out
that these dusty occupations are probably not so frequently the
cause as was at one time taught of these simple inflammatory
fibroid changes in the lungs with their subsequent cavity for-
mation; individuals engaged in such occupations are apt to
suffer from a chronic tuberculosis of the lung associated with
the formation of much fibrous tissue, and the occupation simply
predisposes the lung to the attacks of the tubercle bacillus.
The term pneumonia is frequently used of different forms
of inflammation of the lungs, and includes affections which
run different clinical courses, present diverse appear-
ances after death, and probably have different excit-
ing causes. It would be better if the term acute
pneumonia or pneumonic fever were reserved for that form of
acute inflammation of the lungs which is usually characterized
by sudden onset, and runs an acute, course, which terminates
generally by crisis from the fifth to the tenth day, the inflam-
mation leading to the consolidation by fibrinous effusion of
the greater part or whole of one lobe of a lung. Acute pneu-
monia usually occurs in a sporadic form, and is most prevalent
in the United Kingdom from November to March. Occasion-
ally it is epidemic, and there is evidence to show that
sometimes it is an infective disease. There is great difficulty,
however, in being quite certain that the occurrence of the
disease in those who have been attending upon or brought
into intimate connexion with sufferers from pneumonia is
the result of infection, for such cases may be due to an epidemic
of the disease, or to the various individuals attacked having
been exposed to the same cause.
Formerly acute croupous or lobar pneumonia was thought
to be due to "catching cold"; we now know it to be an
infectious disease resultant on the invasion of one or more
specific micro-organisms. The chief micro-organisms which
have been found to be present during an attack of acute pneu-
monia are the micrococcus lanceolatus or pneumococcus of
Frankel and Weichselbaum, which is found in the inflamed
lung in a large majority of cases and is capable of produc-
ing pneumonia when inoculated into guinea-pigs. Sternberg
demonstrated the presence of the pneumococcus in the saliva
of healthy individuals; it tends, however, in this case to vary
in form. The micro-organism differs in virulence in given
strains; thus one epidemic may be more severe than another;
and it tends to increase in virulence in its passage through
the human subject. The exact conditions necessary for the
production of increased virulence in the organism causing an
attack of lobar pneumonia are not yet determined, but are
usually ascribed to lowered states of the health and to atmo-
spheric conditions. The pneumococcus produces in the
human organism an intracellular toxin, but the question as
to whether it can also produce a soluble toxin in the living
body is still debated. The difficulty of obtaining sufficient
quantities of the toxins of this organism has prevented the
production of antisera of high potency. In lower animals,
less potent sera have proved successful in protecting against
a fatal dose of pneumococci. The change effected by the
administration of a serum is produced by causing a change in
the pneumococci, which causes them to be more easily destroyed
by the phagocytes. The element which brings about this
change is termed an opsonin; see BLOOD and BACTERIOLOGY
(ii). The bacillus pneumoniae of Friedlander is also said to
be found in a certain percentage of cases, but a number of
observers deny its presence in pure culture in primary croupous
pneumonia.
Unlike many acute diseases, pneumonia does not render a
person less liable to future attacks; on the contrary, those
who have been once attacked must be looked upon as more
prone to be affected again. Acute pneumonia usually attacks
the whole or greater part of one lobe of one lung, but more
than one lobe may be affected, or both lungs may be involved.
The disease produces a solid and airless condition of the affected
part owing to a fibrinous exudation taking place into the air-
cells and smaller bronchial passages. In favourable cases
the exudation is partly absorbed and partly expectorated,
and the lung returns to its normal healthy condition; in others,
death may ensue from the extent of lung affected, or from
the spread of the inflammation to other parts, as for instance
the pericardium or meninges of the brain. In such cases it is
interesting to note that the same micro-organism has been found
in the inflammatory exudation in the pericardium or on the
meninges as in the pneumonic lung; probably the organism
had been absorbed from the lung, and was the cause of the
secondary inflammations. In cases of death from uncom-
plicated pneumonia a very variable extent of lung is involved.
In some cases this result may be ascribed to the weakness of
the individual and especially of the heart, but in others the
virulence of the micro-organisms and the toxins which they
have produced is probably the more correct explanation. The
improvement in a patient suffering from pneumonia usually
commences suddenly, with a rapid fall in the temperature.
The day on which this " crisis" takes place varies, but most
commonly it appears to be the seventh from the initial rigor
(22 % of the cases, Jiirgensen). It may, however, occur a
few days earlier or later, being observed in about 74% between
the fifth and the ninth day of the disease (Jiirgensen).. The
disease occasionally ends in the formation of an abscess, in
gangrene, or in fibroid induration of the lung, but these ter-
minations are rare.
The death rate of acute pneumonia for England and Wales
in 1908 was 1383 per million living of the population.
Broncho-pneumonia. It is usual to recognize a form of inflam-
mation of the lungs which differs from the above lobar pneumonia.
PATHOLOGY]
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
197
and in which small patches of consolidation are usually scattered
throughout the lower lobes of both lungs. This broncho- or
catarrhal 1 pneumonia is usually preceded by an attack of bronchitis,
to which it bears an intimate relation. In some cases the small
foci of inflammation may run together so as to affect the greater
part of a lobe of a lung, and the distinction between such a form
of broncho-pneumonia and lobar pneumonia presents such diffi-
culties in the view of some observers, that they have refused to
recognize any essential difference between the two. Usually,
however, it is not difficult to distinguish the two affections both
clinically and anatomically. Broncho-pneumonia is especially
seen as a complication of bronchitis, and while it more frequently
attacks children than young adults, it is not uncommon in old
people, especially secondary to bronchitis. It is frequent in children
after acute infectious fevers, especially measles and diphtheria,
and in cases of whooping-cough. It differs from the above-mentioned
pneumonia in that it does not usually attack the whole of a lobe
of a lung, but occurs in small disseminated patches more especially
throughout the lower lobe of both lungs. The accompanying
fever is more irregular than in the preceding form, and the disease
usually runs a more prolonged course. It is an extremely fatal
affection in both the very young and old. Young persons who have
suffered from it are not unfrequently attacked by pulmonary
tuberculosis subsequently. It must be admitted that we are even
less certain of its bacteriology than we are of that of lobar pneu-
monia. In some cases Frankel's pneumococcus is found, and in
others various other micro-organisms. Many of the latter are
doubtless saprophytic, and are not the essential cause of the disease,
but it is not probable that any one particular form of organism
accounts for all forms of broncho-pneumonia.
The bacteriology of broncho-pneumonia presents no one
micro-organism which can be definitely said to cause the disease.
The micro-organism most frequently found, either alone or
associated with other bacteria, is the pneumococcus, which
occurred in 67% of a series investigated by Wollstein. Other
organisms found are the streptococcus, particularly in broncho-
pneumonia following infectious fevers, the staphylococcus
aureus and albus, and Friedlander's bacillus. In some cases
the bacillus influenzae alone has been found, and the Klebs-
Loffler bacillus in cases following upon diphtheria. When the
disease is associated with pulmonary tuberculosis the tubercle
bacillus is found.
The tuberculous virus, the tubercle bacilli, may gain entrance
to the lungs through the inspired air or by means of the blood
or lymph currents. Also in some cases it has been
demonstrated that tubercle bacilli may infect the
glands of the mesentery following the ingestion of
the milk of tuberculous cattle. In this the Government Com-
missions of Great Britain and Germany as well as the United
States Bureau of Animal Industry confirm the findings of
private investigators. It may be well here to summarize the
views generally held as to infection. In the first place, the
doctrine of inherited disease is discredited, and the doctrine
of specific susceptibility is in doubt. Infants are known to
be extremely susceptible, and this susceptibility lessens with
increasing age, adults requiring prolonged exposure. As a
mode of infection the sputum of diseased persons is of great
importance. Infected food, especially milk, comes next,
together with food infected by flies; and the mother's milk
is a minor source. Infection is not often received through
the skin, but most frequently through the mucous membrane
of the mouth, air passages and intestine; occasionally the
infection is alveolar. Pulmonary tuberculosis is often second-
ary to a latent lymphatic form. The tubercle bacillus was
discovered by Koch in 1882, and since then it has become
generally accepted that the bacillus varies in type. The
bacilli have been classified by A. G. Foullerton into (a) occur-
ring in fishes and cold-blooded animals, (6) in birds, (c) in
rats, (d) in cattle, (e) in man. Exactly how far they
1 The term catarrhal pneumonia has been usually regarded as
synonymous with the term broncho-pneumonia, and this usual
nomenclature has been maintained in the present article. We must,
however, recognize that all simple acute broncho-pneumonias are
not purely catarrhal in the strict pathological sense. For instance,
a considerable amount of fibrinous exudation is not unfrequently
present in the patches of broncho-pneumonia, and some of the cases
of septic broncho-pneumonia can scarcely be accurately termed
catarrhal.
are interchangeable and can affect the human race is not
definitely settled. They may be different varieties of the
same species caused by differentiated strains of a common
stock, or may be distinct but generically allied species. Von
Behring considers that the bovine type may undergo modifica-
tion in the human body, a theory which may lead to a complete
change in our beb'efs in the mode of entry of the bacillus. Re-
cent investigators have put forward the view that the tubercle
bacillus is not a bacterium, but belongs to the higher group
known as streptotricheae or mould fungi.
The action of the tubercle bacillus upon the tissues, like
most other infectious agents, gives rise to inflammatory pro-
cesses and anatomical changes, varying with the mode of entry
and virulence of the micro-organism. The most character-
istic result is the formation throughout the lungs in the form
of small scattered foci forming the so-called miliary tubercles.
Such miliary tuberculosis of the lungs is frequently only a
part of a general tuberculosis, a similar tuberculous affection
being found in other organs of the body. In other cases the
lungs may be the only or the principal seat of the affection.
The source whence the tuberculous virus is derived varies in
different cases. Old tubercular glands in the abdomen, neck
and elsewhere, and tuberculous disease of bones or joints, are
common sources whence tubercule bacilli may become ab-
sorbed, and occasion a general dissemination of miliary tubercles
in which the lungs participate. Where the source of infection
is an old tuberculous bronchial gland or a focus' of old tubercle
in the lung, the pulmonary organs may be the only seat of the
development of miliary tuberculosis for a time; but even
then, if life is sufficiently prolonged, other parts of the
body become- involved. Acute miliary tuberculosis of the
lungs is not infrequently a final stage in the more chronic
tuberculous lesions of the different forms of pulmonary
phthisis.
In pulmonary phthisis, or consumption, the disease usually
commences at the apex of one lung, but runs a very variable
course. In a large majority of cases it remains confined to
one small focus, and not only does not spread, but undergoes
retrograde changes and becomes arrested. In such cases
fibrous tissue develops round the focus of disease and the
tuberculous patch dries up, often becoming the seat of the
deposit of calcareous salts. This arrest of small tuberculous
foci in the lung is doubtless of very frequent occurrence, and
in post mortem examinations of persons who have died from
injuries or various diseases other than tubercle it is common
to find in the lungs arrested foci of tubercle, which in the
majority of instances have never been suspected during life,
and probably have occasioned few, if any, symptoms. It has
been shown that in more than 37% of persons, over 21 years
of age, dying in a general hospital of various diseases, there
is evidence of arrested tubercle in the lungs. As such persons
are chiefly drawn from the poorer classes, among whom tubercle
is more common than among the well-to-do, this high percentage
may not be an accurate indication of the frequency with which
pulmonary tubercle does become arrested. It does, however,
show that the arrest and the healing of tuberculosis of the
lungs is by no means unfrequent, and that it occurs among
those who are not only prone to become infected, but whose
circumstances are least favourable to the arrest of the disease.
These facts indicate that the human organism does offer a
resistance to the growth of the tubercle bacilli.
A focus of pulmonary tubercle may become arrested for
a time and then resume activity. In many cases it is difficult
to say why this is so, but often it is clearly associated with
a lowering in the general health of the individual. It can-
not be too strongly insisted that the arrest of a tuberculous
focus in the lung is a slow process and requires a long time.
Commonly a person in the early stage of phthisis goes away
to a health resort, and in the course of a few weeks or months
improves so much that he returns to a densely populated
town and resumes his former employment. In a short time
the disease shows renewed activity, because the improved
198
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
[PATHOLOGY
conditions were not maintained long enough to ensure the com-
plete arrest of the disease.
Instead of the tuberculous focus becoming arrested, it may
continue to spread. The original focus and the secondary
ones are at first patches of consolidated lung. Later, their
central parts soften and burst into a bronchus; then the
softened portion is coughed up, and a small cavity is left,
which tends gradually to increase in size by peripheric ex-
tension and by merging with other cavities. This process is
repeated again and again, and sooner or later the other lung
becomes similarly affected. At any stage of the softening
process the blood vessels may become involved and give rise
by rupture to a large or a small haemorrhage (haemoptysis).
It not unfrequently happens that such haemoptysis may
be the first symptom that seriously attracts attention. At a
later period haemorrhage frequently takes place in large or
small amounts from the rupture of vessels, which frequently
are dilated and form small aneurysms in the walls of cavities.
A fatal termination may be hastened by the absorption by
means of the blood vessels and lymphatics of the tuberculous
virus from some of the foci of disease, and the occurrence
therefrom of a local miliary tuberculosis of the lungs or a
general tuberculosis of other organs. The rapidity with which
the destructive process spreads throughout the lung varies con-
siderably. We therefore recognize acute phthisis, or galloping
consumption, and chronic phthisis. In the acute cases the soften-
ing progresses rapidly and is associated with the development
of very little fibrous tissue; probably various forms of micro-
organisms other than the tubercle bacilli assist in the rapid
softening. In the more chronic cases there is development
of much fibroid tissue, and the disease is associated with periods
of temporary arrest of the tubercular process.
The expectoration from cases of pulmonary phthisis contains
tubercle bacilli, and is a source of danger to healthy individuals,
in whom it may produce the disease. Attendance on persons
suffering from pulmonary phthisis involves very little risk of
infection if proper care is taken to prevent the expectoration be-
coming dry and disseminated as dust; perfect cleanliness is there-
fore to be insisted upon in the rooms inhabited by a phthisical
person. The tubercle bacilli soon lose their virulence in the presence
of fresh air and sunshine, and therefore these agents are not only
desirable for the direct benefit of the phthisical patient, but also
are agents in preventing the development of fresh disease in healthy
individuals.
Although the tubercle bacilli are the essential agents in the
development of pulmonary tuberculosis, there are other conditions
which must be present before they will produce the disease. It
is probable that large numbers of individuals are exposed to the
action of tubercle bacilli which gain entrance to the pulmonary
tract, and yet do not give rise to the disease, because the conditions
of their growth and multiplication do not exist. In such cases we
may consider that the seed is present, but that the soil is unsuit-
able for its growth. Certain families appear more predisposed to
tuberculosis than others.
The most important circulatory disturbances met with in
the lungs are those seen in cases of dilated heart, with or with-
out disease of the mitral valve, when engorgement
gesiioa. f t ' ie pulmonary vessels sets up a condition of venous
engorgement of the lungs. This may lead to various
changes. After it has lasted a variable time, and if it is very
intense, serous transudation occurs into the substance of the
lung and the alveoli, and thus a condition of pulmonary dropsy
or oedema is established. The venous engorgement also pre-
disposes the subjects of such heart affections to bronchitis
and pneumonia. In disease of the mitral valve, in cardiac
dilatation and in simple feebleness of the heart, such as is
seen in old age and after debilitating fevers, especially typhoid,
there is commonly developed a venous congestion of the bases
of the lungs, forming the so-called hypostatic congestion of
those organs, and to this is frequently added pneumonia.
In long-standing cases of pulmonary congestion brought about
by disease of the mitral valve and dilatation of the heart,
a certain amount of fibrous tissue may be found in the inter-
stitial tissue of the lungs, and from transudation of certain
elements of the blood we get the formation in the newly formed
fibrous tissue of blood pigment. In these cases blood pigment
is found in the cells, in the pulmonary alveoli, and such cells
also carry the pigment into the interstitial tissue. This con-
dition constitutes the state known as brown induration of the
lungs. Acute congestion of the lungs occurs as part of the
first stage of pneumonia. It also probably exists during
violent exertion, and may possibly be brought about by
excitement.
Another circulatory disturbance of great importance is
that arising from blocking of the pulmonary artery or its
branches by an embolus or a thrombus. Where the Embolita ,
obstruction takes place in the main vessel, death aa a
rapidly ensues. Where, however, a small branch of Tbrom-
the vessel is occluded, as frequently occurs from a bo *'*-
coagulum forming in the right side of the heart, or in the
pulmonary vessels in cases of disease of the mitral valve,
or in dilatation of the heart, or from the detachment of a
small vegetation from disease of the tricuspid or pulmonary
valves, a haemorrhagic exudation takes place, forming a
patch of consolidation in the lung (haemorrhagic infarcl). As
this haemorrhagic exudation takes place not only into the
substance of the lung, but also into the bronchial tubes, such
lesions are usually associated with spitting of blood (haemop-
tysis). The increased tension produced in the pulmonary
vessels in cases of mitral disease may also probably lead to
the formation of haemorrhagic exudations into the lungs,
apart from the occurrence of embolism or thrombosis. Usually
the occurrence of pulmonary embolism and the formation of
haemorrhagic infarcts in the lungs mark an important epoch
in the course of a case of heart disease. It usually occurs
at a late stage of the affection, and not unfrequently contri-
butes materially to a fatal termination. It is probable that
many of the cases of pneumonia and pleuritic effusion, coming
on in cases of valvular heart disease and of cardiac dilatation,
owe their origin to an embolus and to the formation of a haemor-
rhagic infarct.
The term asthma is commonly applied to a paroxysmal
dyspnoea of a special type which is associated with a variety
of conditions. In true spasmodic asthma there
may be no detectable organic disease, and the par-
oxysms are generally believed to be due to a nervous influence
which, acting upon the bronchial muscles, produces a spasm
of the tubes, or, acting through the vaso-motor branches of
the sympathetic, produces a congestion of the bronchial mucous
membrane. The most probable theory is that lately advanced,
that it is caused by a profound toxaemia. An organism has
been isolated, which is said to be the cause of certain cases of
asthma, and the fact that benefit has been said to follow
treatment by a vaccine is in favour of this view. The exciting
cause may not be at all apparent, even on the most careful obser-
vation and examination of the sufferer, but in other cases the
attacks may be brought about by some reflex irritation. Nasal
polypi and other diseases of nasal mucous membrane have
been shown in some cases to be a cause of asthma. Irritation
of the bronchial mucous membrane appears to be one of the
most common, but it is usually difficult to say exactly in what
the irritation consists.
The sputum in true asthma is typical, consisting of white
translucent pellets like boiled tapioca. These pellets consist
of mucus arranged in a twisted manner and known as Cursch-
mann spirals; they also contain Charcot-Leyden crystals,
degenerated epithelium and leucocytes, of which the majority
are eosinophiles. The spirals consist of a central solid thread
round which the mucus is arranged in spiral form. The twisting
has been attributed to a rotatory motion of the cilia, helped by
the spasm of the, bronchial muscles. Allied to true asthma is
the bronchial asthma frequently met with in the subjects of
bronchitis and emphysema. In such cases the irritation evi-
dently proceeds from the inflamed bronchial mucous membrane.
Hay asthma is the variety in which the pollen of certain plants,
especially grasses, is the exciting cause of the paroxysms. In
cardiac feebleness, in valvular disease of the heart, and in cardiac
dilatation, we may get dyspnoeic attacks of a more or less
SURGERY]
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
199
paroxysmal nature, to which the term cardiac asthma has been
applied. Similarly, to a form of dyspnoea met with occasionally
as a manifestation of uraemia in chronic Bright's disease the
term of renal asthma has been given.
Pleurisy, or inflammation of the pleura, is a very common
affection, and is met with under different forms. In many
_. rf instances we have simply the pouring out, over a
greater or less area of the surface of the pleura,
of a fibrinous exudation which may become absorbed or
undergo organisation, a certain amount of thickening of the
pleura, and adhesions of the two layers resulting. Such cases
form the group known as cases of dry pleurisy. In other
instances a greater or lesser amount of serous exudation takes
place into one or other pleural cavity, forming the cases of
serous pleuritic effusion. In others the exudation into the
pleural cavity is purulent, giving rise to the condition known
as empyema or purulent pleuritic effusion. The occurrence
of dry pleurisy is probably very frequent, and leads to small
pleural adhesions which cause little or no inconvenience. In
post-mortem examinations of persons who have died from
various diseases it is common to find such pleural adhesions
present, although they have never been suspected during life.
Pleurisy in one or other of the above forms may come on in a
person apparently in good health (idiopathic pleurisy), or it may
follow a fracture of the ribs or other injury to the chest. It is
not uncommonly secondary to some other disease; thus it is
almost a constant accompaniment of acute lobar pneumonia.
In such cases the effusion is most commonly a simple fibrinous
one, which with the subsidence of the primary disease is in
great part absorbed. In other cases of pneumonia we get a
certain amount of serous effusion into the pleura; and some-
times, especially in children, the pneumonia is followed by the
development of an empyema. Pleurisy with effusion is also
frequently a complication of valvular heart disease and dilatation
of the heart, and in such cases is often associated with the forma-
tion of superficial pulmonary infarcts. It is also seen in many
other diseases of the lungs. For instance, in chronic pulmonary
phthisis pleuritic adhesions over various parts of the lungs are
the rule; and we also frequently get serous effusion into the
pleura as a complication of the various forms of pulmonary
tuberculosis. Purulent effusion is less common in phthisis,
but it is the rule where the pleura is perforated by the necrosis
of a tuberculous focus in the lung and the establishment of a
communication between the pleura and a tuberculous cavity
and the bronchial tubes (pyopneumonothorax) , a combination in
which there is both air and pus in the pleural cavity. Secondary
pleurisy is also seen in an extension of the disease from neigh-
bouring parts, as from peritonitis, sub-diaphragmatic abscess,
and suppuration in the liver or spleen. As a secondary disease,
pleurisy is also known in the course of various forms of nephritis,
rheumatism, and the acute specific diseases.
Cases formerly classed as idiopathic pleurisy are now known
to be caused by certain micro-organisms. These vary in rela-
tion to the character of the effusion. The most frequent is the
tubercle bacillus, which is generally present in sero-fibrinous
effusions. In this case the pleurisy is really secondary to a
possibly unrecognized tuberculous infection either of the lung
or pleura. In purulent effusions the pneumococcus may occur
as a pure infection, or the streptococcus pyogenes or the staphy-
lococcus may be present. Mixed infections occur in 21% of
purulent effusions, and varieties of other organisms, such as the
influenza bacillus, the typhoid bacillus, the Klebs-Loffler
bacillus and the colon bacillus, have been occasionally found.
There are at least five types of pulmonary emphysema;
(1) hypertrophic, idiopathic or large-lunged emphysema;
(2) senile or small-lunged emphysema; (3) compensatory
emphysema; (4) acute vesicular emphysema; (5) interstitial
or interlobular emphysema. Two points are usually admitted:
that emphysema appears only in lungs that are congenitally
weak, and that the exciting cause is increased intra vesicular
tension. When one or more lobules are cut off from the working
part of the lung the neighbouring vesicles become distended.
Should the plugging of the lobule remain permanent, typical
emphysema results. This happens in illnesses inducing violent
respiratory efforts, such as chronic bronchitis, whooping cough
and asthma. In large-lunged emphysema the lung is excessively
large, and does not collapse on opening the chest wall. Micro-
scopically two lesions are notable. The septa between the
vesicles are atrophied, many have disappeared and the vesicles
have coalesced; the loss in lung tissue diminishes the vascular
field of the lung and tends to imperfect aeration, whence the
dyspnoea. The elastic tissue of the lung is also lost. In small-
lunged emphysema there is a condition of senile atrophy. The
lung is smaller than normal, and the intravesicular septa are
destroyed. In this case the primary cause is atrophy of the
bronchi, and increased air pressure is not a factor. Com-
pensatory emphysema is that which develops in a portion of a
lung in which the other portion is the seat of a lesion, such as
pneumonia. Occasionally it is merely physiological, but some-
times here too the septa undergo atrophic changes. Acute
vesicular emphysema is hardly a pathological variety, and is
really rapid distension coming on during an attack of asthma
or angina pectoris. The variety is temporary only. Interstitial
emphysema is characterized by the presence of air in the inter-
stitial connective tissue of the lung. It is usually due to rupture
of the air vesicles during paroxysms of coughing.
(T. H.*; H. L. H.)
(5) SURGERY OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
About the middle of the loth century, Manuel Garcia demon-
strated the working of the vocal cords in the living subject, by
placing a flat mirror of about the size of a shilling at the back of
the mouth, and throwing strong light on to it from a concave
mirror fixed upon the observer's forehead. By the use of a
laryngoscope and a cocaine spray the most irritable throat can
now be made tolerant of the presence of the small mirror, and
thus the medical man is enabled to make a prolonged and
thorough examination of the interior of the larynx and even to
perform delicate operations upon it. Foreign bodies which have
become caught in the larynx can thus be seen and extracted,
and small growths can be satisfactorily removed even from
the vocal cords themselves.
A foreign body in the air-passages may be impacted above the
vocal cords, and the prompt thrusting down of a finger may
dislodge it and save the person from death by suffocation. If
there is doubt as to the site of the impaction, and the symptoms
are urgent (as is likely to be the case) immediate laryngotomy
should be done. In this operation a tube is introduced through
the crevice which can easily be felt in the middle line of the neck,
between the thyroid and cricoid cartilages. The procedure is
easily and quickly accomplished. It is, moreover, of ten resorted
to when the surgeon is about to perform some extensive opera-
tion in the mouth which must needs be accompanied by free
haemorrhage. Laryngotomy having been done, and the
pharynx having been plugged with gauze, the air passages can
be kept free of blood during the whole operation.
If the foreign body be such a thing as a button, cherry-stone,
sugar-plum or coin, it may at once set up alarming symptoms
of spasmodic suffocation. But when the first alarm has quieted
down, the attacks are likely to be only occasional, as when the
article, drawn up with the expired air, comes in contact with
the under aspect of the vocal cords. It may be that in a violent
fit of coughing it will be expelled, but, if not, the surgeon must
be at hand ready to perform tracheotomy when the urgency of
the symptoms demands it. Tracheotomy is the making of an
opening into the trachea, the air-tube below the larynx. It is
unsafe to leave a child with a foreign body loose in its windpipe,
on account of the risk of sudden and fatal asphyxia. Possibly
the X-rays may show its exact position and give help in its
removal. But, in any case, the safest thing will be to perform
tracheotomy and to leave the edges of the opening into the
windpipe wide asunder, so that the object may be coughed out
the nurse being on guard all the while. The operation of
tracheotomy is sometimes urgently called for in the case in
200
RESPITE RESTOUT
which the air-way has become blocked by a child having sucked
hot water from the spout of a kettle or teapot, or in the case
of obstruction by the swelling of the acute inflammation of
laryngitis or of diphtheria. Should the air-way through the
larynx become narrowed by the presence of a growth which
does not diminish under the influence of iodide of potassium, the
question may arise as to whether it should be dealt with by
splitting the thyroid cartilage and holding the wings apart, or
by the removal of the whole larynx. For such growths are often
malignant. If the wide infection of the lymphatic glands of
the neck suggests that no radical operation should be undertaken,
a bent silver tube may be introduced below the growth (trache-
otomy) in order to provide for the entrance of air. This will get
over the difficulty of breathing, but it cannot, of course, do more
than that.
Acute laryngitis is very often due to diphtheria. The symptoms
are those of laryngeal obstruction, together with constitutional
disturbances of various kinds. The old-fashioned nurse called
the disease " croup " a term devoid of scientific meaning (see
DIPHTHERIA). In an ordinary catarrhal case, leeches and
fomentations may suffice, though sometimes tracheotomy or
intubation is called for. But if bacteriological examination
shows the presence of diphtheritic bacilli, antitoxin must at
once be injected. (See also LUNG.) (E.G.*)
RESPITE (O. Fr. rcspit, modern repit, Lat. respectus, regard,
consideration, respicere, to look back at), properly a delay, given
for the further consideration of some matter, hence relief. In
law the term is used of the postponement of the immediate
execution of the law in criminal cases, e.g. by binding a con-
victed prisoner over to come up for judgment when called upon,
or when a case is "respited" from one quarter sessions to
another. The word is loosely used in the sense of a " reprieve "
(?..).
RESPOND, in architecture, the term given to the half-pier
or semi-detached column at the end of a range of piers or columns
carrying an architrave or arcade. In Greek temples the respond
is known as the anta. The term is also given to the wall pilaster
which in Roman and Renaissance work is frequently placed
behind the detached columns forming the decoration of a
wall.
RESPONDENT (from Lat. respondere, to answer), strictly,
one who answers; in law one called upon to answer a petition
or other proceeding. In a matrimonial cause the defendant in
the suit is called the respondent. The defendant to a quarter
sessions appeal is called the respondent, and so generally in
appeals is the party, whether plaintiff or defendant, against
whom the appeal is brought.
REST (O. Eng. rast, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic
forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Ruste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta,
league, i.e. resting or stopping place), a cessation from active
or regular work, hence a time of relief from mental or manual
labour. Specific meanings are for an interval of silence in music,
marked by a sign indicating the length of the pause; for the
forked support with iron-shod spike carried by the soldier till
the end of the i7th century as a rest for the heavy musket;
and for the support for the cue in billiards to be used when the
striking ball is out of reach of the natural rest formed by the
hand. In the medieval armour of the horsed man-at-arms, and
later in the armour of the tournament, a contrivance was fixed to
the side of the body-armour near the right arm-pit, in which the
butt-end of the lance was placed to prevent the lance being driven
back after striking the opponent at full charge; hence a knight,
as a preliminary to the charge, " laid his lance in rest." This
" rest" is a shortened form of " arrest," to check, stop, as is
seen by the French equivalent, anil. Further, " rest," that
which remains over and above, is derived from the' French
rester, to remain over, Lat. restare, to remain, literally, to stay
behind. The principal specific use of this word is in com-
merce for the balance of undivided profit; it has thus always
been the term used by the Bank of England for that which in
other banks and companies is called the " reserve " (Hartley
Withers, The Meaning of Money (1909), p. 298). The Bank of
England " rest " is never allowed to fall below 3,000,000
(see BANKS AND BANKING).
RESTIF, NICOLAS EDME (1734-1806), called RESTIF DE LA
BRETONNE, French novelist, son of a farmer, was born at Sacy
(Yonne) on the 23rd of October 1734. He was educated by the
Jansenists at Bicetre, and on the expulsion of the Jansenists
was received by one of his brothers, who was a cure. Owing to
a scandal in which he was involved, he was apprenticed to a printer
at Auxerre, and, having served his time, went to Paris. Here he
worked as a journeyman printer, and in 1 760 he married Anne or
Agnes Lebegue, a relation of his former master at Auxerre. It
was not until five or six years after his marriage that Restif
appeared as an author, and from that time to his death, on the
2nd of February 1806, he produced a bewildering multitude of
books, amounting to something like two hundred volumes, many
of them printed with his own hand, on almost every conceivable
variety of subject. Restif suffered at one time or another the
extremes of poverty and was acquainted with every kind of
intrigue. He drew on the episodes of his own life for his books,
which, in spite of their faded sentiment, contain truthful pictures
of French society on the eve of the Revolution. The most
noteworthy of his works are Le Pied de Fanchette, a novel (1769) ;
Le Pornographe (1769), a plan for regulating prostitution which is
said to have been actually carried out by the Emperor Joseph II.,
while not a few detached hints have been adopted by continental
nations; Le Paysan peroerti (1775), a novel with a moral purpose,
though sufficiently horrible in detail; La Vie de man pere (1779);
Les Contemporaines (42 vols., 1 780-1 785) , a vast collection of short
stories; Ingenue Saxancour, also a novel (1785); and, lastly,
the extraordinary autobiography of Monsieur Nicolas (16 vols.,
1794-1797; the last two are practically a separate and much less
interesting work), in which at the age of sixty he has set down
his remembrances, his notions on ethical and social points, his
hatreds, and above all his numerous loves, real and fancied. The
original editions of these, and indeed of all his books, have long
been bibliographical curiosities owing to their rarity, the beautiful
and curious illustrations which many of them contain, and the
quaint typographic system in which most are composed. In
1795 he received a gratuity of 2000 francs from the government,
and just before his death Napoleon gave him a place in the
ministry of police, which he did not live to take up.
Restif de la Bretonne undoubtedly holds a remarkable place in
French literature. He was inordinately vain, of extremely relaxed
morals, and perhaps not entirely sane. His books were written
with haste, and their licence of subject and language renders them
quite unfit for general perusal.
The works of C. Monselet, Retif de la Bretonne (1853), and P.
Lacroix, Bibliographie et iconographie (1875), J. Assezat's selection
from the Contemporaines, with excellent introductions (3 vols., 1875),
and the valuable reprint of Monsieur Nicolas (14 vols., 1883-1884),
will be sufficient to enable even curious readers to form a judgment
of him. His life, written by his contemporary Cubieres-Palmezeaux,
was republished in 1875. See also Eugen Diihren, Retif de la
Bretonne, der Mensch, der Schriftsteller, der Reformator (Berlin, 1906),
and a bibliography, Retif-Bibliothek (Berlin, 1906), by the same
author.
RESTOUT, JEAN (1692-1768), French painter, born at
Rouen on the 26th of March 1692, was the son of Jean Restout,
the first of that name, and of Marie M. Jouvenet, sister and pupil
of the well-known Jean Jouvenet. In 1717, the Royal Academy
having elected him a member on his work for the Grand Prix,
he remained in Paris, instead of proceeding to Italy, exhibited at
all the salons, and filled successively every post of academical
distinction. He died on the ist of January 1768. His works,
chiefly altar-pieces (Louvre Museum), ceilings and designs for
Gobelin tapestries, were engraved by Cochin, Brevet and
others; his diploma picture may still be seen at St Cloud.
His son, JEAN BERNARD RESTOUT (1732-1797), won the Grand
Prix in 1758, and on his return from Italy was received into the
Academy; but his refusal to comply with rules led to a quarrel
with that body. Roland appointed him keeper of the Garde
Meuble, but this piece of favour nearly cost him his life during
the Terror. The St Bruno painted by him at Rome is in the
Louvre.
RESTRAINT RETAINER
2OI
RESTRAINT (from " to restrain," Lat. restringere, to hold
back, prevent), in law, a restriction or limitation. The word is
used particularly in three connexions: i. Restraint on Anticipa-
tion. Although it is a principle of English law that there can
be no restriction of the right of alienation of property vested in
any person under an instrument, equity makes an exception in
the case of a married woman, and has laid down the rule that
property may be so settled to the separate use of a married
woman that she cannot, during coverture, alienate it or anticipate
the income. Restraint on anticipation attaches only during
coverture and is therefore removed on widowhood, but it may
attach again on remarriage. By the Conveyancing Act 1881,
s. 39, a court may however, if it thinks fit, by judgment or order
bind a married woman's interest in her property, with her
consent, if it appears to be for her benefit, notwithstanding that
she is restained from anticipating.
2. Restraint of Marriage. A gift or bequest to a person may
have a condition attached in restraint of marriage. This
condition may be either general or partial. A condition in
general restraint of marriage is void, as being contrary to public
policy, although a condition in restraint of a second marriage
is not void. A condition in partial restraint of marriage is
valid, and may be either to restrain marriage with a particular
class of persons, e.g. a papist, a domestic servant, or a Scotsman,
or under a certain age.
3. Restraint of Trade. A contract in general restraint of
trade is void as being against public policy. In the leading
caseof Mitchell v. Reynolds, 1711, i Smith L.C., it was laid down
that " it is the privilege of a trader in a free country, in ah 1
matters not contrary to law, to regulate his own mode of carry-
ing it on according to his own discretion and choice. If the law
has regulated or restrained his mode of doing this, the law must
be obeyed. But no power short of the general law ought to
restrain his free discretion." It has been suggested that the
rule dates from a time when a covenant by a man not to exercise
his own trade meant a covenant not to exercise any trade at
all every man being obliged to confine himself to the trade
to which he had been apprenticed. However, contracts which
are only in partial restraint of trade are good. A contract not
to carry on the business of an ironmonger would be bad; but a
contract made by the seller of an ironmonger's business not to
compete with the buyer would be good. To make such a contract
binding it must be founded on a valuable consideration and must
not go beyond what is reasonably necessary for the protection
of the other party. This is the tendency also of the law in the
United States.
See Matthew on Restraint of Trade (1907).
RESZKE, JEAN DE (1850- ), operatic singer, was born
at Warsaw on the i4th of January 1850. His parents were
Poles; his father was a state official and his mother a capable
amateur singer, their house being a recognized musical centre.
After singing as a boy in the Cathedral of Warsaw, he studied
law in the university there, but in a few years he abandoned
this and went to Italy to study singing. He made his first
public appearance, as a baritone, at Venice in January 1874,
as Alfonso in La Favorita, and in the following April he sang
for the first time in London, appearing at Drury Lane Theatre,
and a little later in Paris. He was not entirely successful and
retired for a further period of study, during which his voice
gained remarkably in the upper register; so that when he made
his first reappearance at Madrid in 1879 it was as a tenor, in
the title-role of Robert le Diable. Jean de Reszke's great fame
as a singer dates from this time. For several seasons he sang
regularly in Paris, and he reappeared at Drury Lane in 1887 as
Radames. In the next year he was again in London, this time
at Covent Garden as Vasco da Gama; this appearance was
mainly responsible for the revival of the opera as a fashionable
amusement in London. He appeared in London nearly every year
from this date until 1900. In 1891 he visited America, and from
1893 to 1899 he was welcomed each year at the Metropolitan
Opera House in New York. Jean de Reszke's most successful
parts were the title-r&le of Le Cid, which was written for him by
Massenet, and those of Romeo, Lancelot in Elaine, and Lohengrin,
Walther von Stolzing, Siegfried and Tristan in Wagner's operas.
In 1904 illness compelled him to retire from the stage, and he
subsequently divided his time between teaching singing in Paris
and breeding race-horses in Poland.
Jean de Reszke's younger brother, EDOUARD, born at Warsaw
on the 23rd of December 1855, is also famous as an operatic
singer. He appeared for the first time in Paris in April 1896,
and has since sung with his brother for many seasons both in
London and in New York. His magnificent bass voice and
admirable technique earned him fame in such parts as those of
Mephistopheles in Faust, Charles V. in Marchetti's Don Qiovanni
d' A ustria, Walter in Tell, the Count in Sonnambula, Prince Gudal
in Demonio, and Hans Sachs, King Mark, Hunding and Hagen
in Wagner's operas.
RETABLE (Fr. ritable, a shortened form derived from Med.
Lat. retrotabidum) , a term of ecclesiastical art and architecture,
applied in modern English usage to an altar-ledge or shelf,
raised slightly above the back of the altar or communion table,
on which are placed the cross, ceremonial candlesticks and
other ornaments. Retables may be lawfully used in the church
of England (Liddett & Beale, 1860, 14 P.C.).
Foreign usage of the term, as in French, is different, and where
the word is kept with this foreign application, the distinction
should be observed. The Med. Lat. retrotabulum (modernized re-
tabulum) was applied to an architectural feature set up at the back
of an altar, and generally taking the form of a screen framing a
picture, carved or sculptured work in wood or stone, or mosaic,
or of a movable feature such as the famous Pala d' Oro in St Mark's,
Venice, of gold, jewels and enamels. The foreign " ratable " is,
therefore, what should in English be called a " reredos " (g..), though
that is not in modern usage a movable feature.
RETAIL, the sale of goods or commodities in small quantities
to the immediate consumer, opposed to a sale wholesale or
in gross. The O. Fr. retaille, from which the word is taken,
meant a piece cut off, from tailler, to cut, Med. Lat. taleare,
Lat. lalea, a rod, cutting for planting. The English meaning
appears in Anglo-French and in the Italian retaglio, selling by
the piece. The other meaning of " retail," to repeat a story,
is a transferred sense of an early meaning, " to sell at second
hand." The Latin source is also seen in the related words
"entail," "tailor," "detail" and "tally."
RETAINER (from " retain," Lat. retinere, to hold back,
keep), properly the act of retaining or keeping for oneself,
or a person or object which retains or keeps; historically, a
follower of a house or family, and particularly used of armed
followers attached to the barons of the middle ages. John
Cowell, in The Interpreter (1607), defines " retainer " as a
" servant not meniall nor familiar, that is, not continually
dwelling in the house of his lord or master, but onely using or
bearing his name or livery."
Retainer of Counsel. When it is considered desirable
by a litigant that the services of any particular counsel (bar-
rister) should be obtained for the conduct of his case, it is
necessary to deposit with counsel a form of retainer together
with the necessary fee in cash, from which time counsel is
bound to give the party who has thus retained him the first
call on his services in the matter in which he has been retained.
Retainers are either general or special. A general retainer is
one which retains counsel for all proceedings in which the
person retaining is a party, and lasts for the joint lives of client
and counsel. If any other person offers a special retainer
or brief against the general retainer, counsel must give the
general retainer notice of such offer and if after a reasonable
time the general retainer does not himself specially retain
or brief counsel, the general retainer is forfeited. A special
retainer is one which only applies to some particular cause
or action. It can only be delivered after the action is begun,
and gives the client a right to the services of counsel throughout
the course of the action, and counsel is entitled to be briefed on
all occasions to which the retainer applies. Retainer rules
were drawn up in 1901 by the Bar Committee, read by the Bar
Council and approved by the Attorney-General and the Council
xxm. 7 a
202
RETALIATION RETHEL
of the Incorporated Law Society in 1902. They may be found
in the Annual Practice.
Retainer of Debt. In connexion with the administration
of an estate under a will, it is the right of the personal repre-
sentative whether executor or administrator of a deceased
person to retain legal assets which have come into his hands
towards the payment of a debt due to himself as against
creditors of an equal degree, and this even though his debt is
barred by the Statutes of Limitation. The privilege arose in
all probability from the inability of the representative to sue
himself, though it has been suggested that it is merely a corollary
to the right of the representative to prefer one creditor to
another of equal degree. 1 The principle of retainer is not
looked upon with favour by courts of equity, and consequently
it has long been the rule that there is no right to retain out of
equitable assets. It was thought that the effect of the Land
Transfer Act 1897 was to make all the assets of the deceased
legal assets, and so extend the privilege to reality which had till
then been exempt; this view, however, has been repudiated by
the courts of equity, and it must now be taken that there is
still no right to retain out of real estate. 2 It is a rule of the
probate division to require a creditor administrator, to whom
letters of administration are granted, to enter into a bond with
two sureties not to prefer himself. This course, however, is
not followed where administration is granted to a person as next
of kin who happens also to be a creditor.
The privilege is not lost by judgment for an account being
given in a suit by other creditors for the administration of
assets, and the representative may retain out of assets which
come to his hand subsequent to such judgment. On the other
hand, the appointment of a receiver deprives the representative
of his right except as regards assets which come to his hands
prior to the appointment of the receiver.
RETALIATION, repayment of like with like, especially the
return of hostile action, injuries or wrongs by similar action or
injury, as in the primitive theory of punishment, an " eye for
an eye," " tooth for a tooth." The Late Lat. retaliare was formed
from tails, such as, of the same quality as ; and this source also
gave talio, talionis, the name of this type of punishment. (See
PUNISHMENT, THEORY or, and ROMAN LAW, The Twelve Tables.)
A special form of retaliation is familiar in the imposition of
differential import duties against the goods of a particular
country (see TARIFFS and PROTECTION).
RETENE (methyl isopropyl phenanthrene), Ci 8 Hi 8 , a hydro-
carbon present in the coal-tar fraction, boiling above 360 C.;
it also occurs in the tars obtained by the distillation of resinous
woods. It crystallizes in large plates, which melt at 98-5 C. and
boil at 390 C. It is readily soluble in warm ether and in hot
glacial acetic acid. Sodium and boiling amyl alcohol reduce
it to a tetrahydroretene, ^whilst if it be heated with phos-
phorus and hydriodic acid to 260 C. a dodecahydride
is formed. Chromic acid oxidizes it to retene quinone,
phthalic acid and acetic acid. It forms a picrate which melts
at 123-124 C.
RETFORD (officially EAST RETFORD), a market town and
municipal borough in the Bassetlaw parliamentary division of
Nottinghamshire, England, 1385 m. N. by W. from London by
the Great Northern railway, the station being a junction with
the Great Central railway. Pop. (1901) 12,340. The church
of St Swithin dates from the I3th century, but was rebuilt
in 1658 by a brief granted by Richard Cromwell. Modern
buildings are the town hall, the corn exchange, the court house,
and the covered markets. There is a large trade in corn and
cheese, and the town possesses iron foundries, paper and corn
mills, and india-rubber works. The town is governed by a
mayor, 6 aldermen, and 18 councillors. Area, 4656 acres.
The situation of Retford (Redforde, Ratford), near one of the
Roman roads and on the river Idle, where there was possibly a
ford, may account for its origin. In 1086 the archbishop of York
1 Per Jessel, M.R. Talbot v. Frere (1879), L.R. 9. C.D. 568, 574.
2 In re Williams; Holder v. Williams (1904), I Ch. 52.
owned a mill at Retford, and Roger de Rusli had rights here.
Retford was a borough by prescription, and was in the hands of
the crown when, in 1276, Edward I. granted it to the burgesses
in fee-farm with the right of electing bailiffs. This charter was
confirmed by Edward III., Henry VI. and Elizabeth. In 1607
James I. granted a charter of incorporation to the bailiffs and
burgesses, under which the town was governed until 1835, when
it was reincorporated under a mayor. East Retford returned two
members to parliament in 1315, and again from 1572 till 1885,
when it was disfranchised. Henry III. granted the burgesses
an eight-days' fair at Holy Trinity, altered by Edward II. to
St Gregory. Edward III. granted a six-days' fair at St Margaret,
and Henry VI. a four-days' fair at St Matthew. Fairs are now
held in March, June, July and December. The market held on
Saturdays by prescription was sanctioned by Edward III. and
still exists.
RETHEL, ALFRED (1816-1859), German historical painter,
was born at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1816. He very early showed an
interest in art, and at the age of thirteen he executed a drawing
which procured his admission to the academy of DUsseldorf.
Here he studied for several years, and produced, among other
works, a figure of St Boniface which attracted much attention.
At the age of twenty he removed to Frankfort, and was selected
to decorate the walls of the imperial hall in the Romer with
figures of famous men. At the same period he produced a
series of designs illustrative of Old Testament history. Four
years later he was the successful competitor for the work of
ornamenting the restored council house of his native city with
frescoes depicting prominent events in the career of Charlemagne,
but the execution of this work was delayed for some six years.
Meanwhile Rethel occupied himself with the production of easel
pictures and of drawings; and in 1842 he began a striking series
of designs dealing with the " Crossing of the Alps by Hannibal,"
in which the weird power which animates his later art becomes
first apparent. In 1844 Rethel visited Rome, executing, along
with other subjects, an altar-piece for one of the churches of
his native land. In 1846 he returned to Aix, and commenced
his Charlemagne frescoes. But mental derangement, remotely
attributable, it is believed, to an accident from which he suffered
in childhood, began to manifest itself. While he hovered between
madness and sanity, Rethel produced some of the most striking,
individual and impressive of his works. Strange legends are
told of the effect produced by some of his weird subjects. He
painted " Nemesis pursuing a Murderer " a flat stretch of land-
scape, with a slaughtered body, while in front is the assassin speed-
ing away into the darkness, and above an angel of vengeance.
The picture, so the story goes, was won in a lottery at Frankfort
by a personage of high rank, who had been guilty of an undis-
covered crime, and the contemplation of his prize drove him
mad. Another design which Rethel executed was " Death the
Avenger," a skeleton appearing at a masked ball, scraping
daintily, like a violinist, upon two human bones. The drawing
haunted the memory of his artist friends and disturbed their
dreams; and, in expiation, he produced his pathetic design of
" Death the Friend." Rethel also executed a powerful series of
drawings " The Dance of Death " suggested by the Belgian
insurrections of 1848. It is by such designs as these, executed in
a technique founded upon that of Durer, and animated by an
imagination akin to that of the elder master, that Rethel is
most widely known. He died at DUsseldorf on the ist of
December 1859.
His picture of " Peter and John at the Beautiful Gate of the
Temple," is preserved in the Leipzig Museum, and his " St Boni-
face " and several of his cartoons for the frescoes at Aix in the
Berlin National Gallery. His Life, by Wolfgang Muller von
Konigswinter, was published in 1861. See also Art Journal,
November 1865.
RETHEL, a tow v n of N. France, capital of an arrondissement
in the department of Ardennes, on the right bank of the Aisne
and the Ardennes canal, 31 m. S.W. of Mezieres by rail. Pop.
(1906) 5254. The church of St Nicholas was formed by the
amalgamation of two churches, the oldest of which dates from
the 1 3th century. Rethel has a subprefecture, a tribunal of
first instance, a board of trade arbitration, a chamber of arts
and manufactures and a school of agriculture, and carries on
REUNITE RETZ, CARDINAL DE
wool-spinning, the weaving of light woollen fabrics, and the
manufacture of millboard and farm implements.
Rethel (Castrum Retectum), of Roman origin, was from the end of
the loth century the seat of a countship which passed successively
to the families of Flanders, Burgundy, Cleves, Foix and Gonzaga.
In 1581 it was erected into a duchy in favour of the latter. In 1663
it was sold by Charles VI. de Gonzaga to Mazarin, whose family
held it till the Revolution.
REUNITE (Gr. far'ani, resin), a general name applied to
various resins, particularly those from beds of brown coal,
which are near amber in appearance, but contain little or no
succinic acid. It may conveniently serve as a generic name,
since no two independent occurrences prove to be alike, and
the indefinite multiplication of names, no one of them properly
specific, is not to be desired.
RETINUE (O. Fr. retenue, from retenir, Lat. retenere, hold back,
retain), a body of persons " retained " in the service of a noble
or royal personage, a suite of " retainers." Such retainers
were not in the domestic service of their lord, but were his
" livery " and claimed his protection. They were a source
of trouble and abuse in the I5th and early i6th century (see
LIVERY and MAINTENANCE).
RETORT (Lat. retorquere, to twist or turn back), a word used
in two distinct meanings: (i) a sharp reply, answer to an
argument, statement or charge; (2) a vessel used in chemistry
and manufacture. The chemical retort is a flask-shaped or
bulbous vessel made of glass, earthenware or metal, with a neck,
bent downwards, which leads to a receiver; such vessels are
particularly used for distillation (q.v.). The name is also given
to the apparatus, varying in size and shape, used in the dis-
tinctive distillation of various substances, such as coal, in the
manufacture of gas (q.v.).
RETREAT (O. Fr. retrete, mod. retraite, from Lat. retrahere,
to draw back), a withdrawal, especially of a body of troops
after a defeat or in face of a superior enemy. In military
usage " retreat " is also the term for a signal, given by bugle
and drum at or about sunset. It is the last general signal
before " tattoo." In religious usage, a " retreat " is a period
and place set apart for prayer, self-examination and other
spiritual exercises. Such " retreats " conducted by a director
have long been the practice in the Roman Church. They were
introduced into the English Church by Pusey. The word is
also used of an institution or home where insane persons or
habitual inebriates may be treated. For the law relating to
" licensed retreats " for inebriates, see INEBRIETY, LAW OF.
RETRENCHMENT (Fr. retrenchement, an old form of
retranchement, from retrancher, to cut down, cut short), an act
of cutting down or reduction, particularly of expenditure;
the word is familiar in this, its most general sense, from the
motto of the Gladstonian Liberal party in British politics,
" Peace, Retrenchment and Reform." A special technical use of
the term is in fortification, where it is applied to a work or series
of works constructed in rear of existing defences in order to bar
the further progress of the enemy should he succeed in breach-
ing or storming these. A modern example may be found in
the siege of Port Arthur in 1904. When early in the siege
Fort Panlung fell into the hands of the Japanese, the Russians
connected up the two adjacent first-line forts to a fort in the rear
by means of new works, the whole forming a rough semicircle
facing the lost fort. This retrenchment prevented the Japanese
from advancing, and remained in the hands of the defenders
up to the fall of the whole line of forts.
RETRO-COGNITION (from Lat. retro, back, cognitio, the
acquiring of knowledge), a word invented by F. W. H. Myers
to denote a supposed faculty of acquiring direct knowledge
of the past beyond the reach of the subject's ordinary memory.
The alleged manifestations of the faculty are of several kinds,
of which the most important are as follows: (i) There are
many recorded cases in which an impression has been received
in dream or vision representing some recent event shipwreck,
death-bed scene, railway accident outside the knowledge of
the percipient. (2) Analogous to the transmission of habits
203
and physical peculiarities in particular families, it is alleged
that there are also cases of the transmission of definite memories
of scenes and events in the life of some ancestor. (3) It is
asserted that pictures of past scenes may be called up in certain
cases by the presence of a material object associated with those
scenes e.g. a vision of the destruction of Pompeii by a piece
of cinder from the buried city, or the scene of a martyrdom
by a charred fragment of bone the percipient being unaware
at the time of the nature of the object. For this supposed
faculty the American geologist, Professor Denton, has suggested
the name " psychometry." There are also cases recorded in
which pictures of historical scenes unknown to the seer have
been described in the crystal. (4) Some spirit mediums profess
to realise incidents belonging to their previous incarnation.
Thus Flournoy's medium, H61ene Smith, represented herself
as having been successively incarnated as a Hindoo Princess,
Simandini, and as Marie Antoinette, and gave vivid descriptions
of scenes in which she had figured in these capacities.
It will be gathered that the facts afford little warrant for the
assumption of a faculty of retro-cognition. The cases described
in the first class, though apparently exhibiting knowledge not
within the range of the percipient's ordinary faculties, hardly
call for such an extreme hypothesis. In the other cases the result
recorded may plausibly be attributed to the imagination of the
percipient, working upon hints given by bystanders, or aided
by the emergence of forgotten knowledge.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. See W. Denton, The Soul of Things (Wellesley,
Mass., U.S.A., 1863) ; F. W. H. Myers, article' " The Subliminal
Self " in Proc. S. P. R. vol. xi.; Human Personality (London, 1903);
Th. Flournoy, Des Indes a la planete Mars (Geneva, 1900).
(F. P.)
RETROGRADE (from the Lat. retro, backwards, gradiri,
to go), in astronomy, the direction of the apparent motion of a
planet from E. to W. ; the opposite of its regular motion around
the sun, and due to the motion of the earth.
RETZ, SEIGNEURS AND DUKES OF. The district of Retz
or Rais, in S. Brittany, belonged in early times to a house
which bore its name, and of which the eldest branch became
extinct in the i3th century in the Chabot family. From the
Chabot family the lordship passed to the Lavals. Gilles de
Laval, sire de Retz (1404-1440), the comrade-in-arms of Joan
of Arc and marshal of France, gave himself over to the most
revolting debauchery, and was strangled and burned at Nantes.
The barony of Retz passed successively to the families of
Tournemine, Annebaut and Gondi. In 1581 it was erected
into a duchy in the peerage of France (duchi-pairie) for Albert
de Gondi, marshal of France and general of the galleys. Pierre
de Gondi, brother of the first due de Retz, became bishop of
Paris in 1570 and cardinal in 1587. He was succeeded by his
nephews, Henri (d. 1622) and Jean Francois de Gondi (d. 1654),
for whom the episcopal see of Paris was erected into an arch-
bishopric in 1622, and by his great-nephew, Jean Francois Paul
de Gondi, the famous cardinal de Retz. With the death of the
last male of the house of Gondi in 1676 the duche'-pairie became
extinct ; the lordship passed to the house of Neuville-Villeroy.
(M. P.*)
RETZ, JEAN FRANCOIS PAUL DE GONDI, CARDINAL DE
(1614-1679), French churchman and agitator, was born at
Montmirail in 1614. The family was one of those which had been
introduced into France by Catherine de' Medici, but it acquired
great estates in Brittany and became connected with the noblest
houses of the kingdom. It may be added that Retz himself
always spelt his designation " Rais." He was the third son,
and according to Tallemant des Reaux was made a knight of
Malta on the very day of his birth. The death of his second
brother, however, destined him for a closer connexion with the
church. The family of Retz had military traditions, but it had
also much church influence, and, despite the very unclerical
leanings of the future cardinal, which were not corrected by the
teachings of his tutor St Vincent de Paul, the intentions of his
family never varied respecting him. By unanimous consent
his physical appearance was not that of a soldier. He was
204
REUBEN REUCHLIN
short, near-sighted, ugly and exceptionally awkward. Retz,
however, despite the little inclination which he felt towards
clerical life, entered into the disputes of the Sorbonne with
vigour, and when he was scarcely eighteen wrote the remarkable
Conjuration de Fiesque, a little historical essay, of which he drew
the material from the Italian of Augustine Mascardi, but which
is all his own in the negligent vigour of the style and the audacious
insinuation, if nothing more, of revolutionary principles. Retz
received no preferment of importance during Richelieu's life,
and even after the minister's death, though he was presented to
Louis XIII. and well received, he found a difficulty in attaining
the coadjutorship with reversion of the archbishopric of Paris.
But almost immediately after the king's death Anne of Austria
appointed him to the coveted post on All Saints' Eve, 1643.
Retz, who had, according to some accounts, already plotted
against Richelieu, set himself to work to make the utmost
political capital out of his position. His uncle, who was old,
indolent and absurdly proud, had lived in great seclusion;
Retz, on the contrary, gradually acquired a very great influence
with the populace of the city. This influence he gradually
turned against Mazarin. No one had more to do than Retz with
the outbreak of the Fronde in October 1648, and his history
for the next four years is the history of that confused and, as a
rule, much misunderstood movement. Of the two parties who
joined in it Retz could only depend on the bourgeoisie of Paris.
The fact, moreover, that although he had some speculative
tendencies in favour of popular liberties, and even perhaps of
republicanism, he represented no real political principle, in-
evitably weakened his position, and when the break up of the
Fronde came he was left in the lurch, having more than once in
the meanwhile been in no small danger from his own party.
One stroke of luck, however, fell to him before his downfall.
He was made cardinal almost by accident, and under a mis-
apprehension on the pope's part. Then, in 1652, he was arrested
and imprisoned, first at Vincennes, then at Nantes; he escaped,
however, after two years' captivity, and for some time wandered
about in various countries. He made his appearance at Rome
more than once, and had no small influence in the election of
Alexander VII. He was at last, in 1662, received back again
into favour by Louis XIV. and on more than one occasion
formally served as envoy to Rome. Retz, however, was glad
in making his peace to resign his claims to the archbishopric
of Paris. The terms were, among other things, his appointment
to the rich abbacy of St Denis and his restoration to his other
benefices with the payment of arrears.
The last seventeen years of Retz's life were passed partly in
his diplomatic duties (he was again in Rome at the papal
election of 1668), partly at Paris, partly at his estate of Com-
mercy, but latterly at St Mihiel in Lorraine. His debts were
enormous, and in 1675 he resolved to make over to his creditors
all his income except twenty thousand livres, and, as he said, to
" live for " them. This plan he carried out, though he did not
succeed in living very long, for he died at Paris on the 24th
August 1679. One of the chief authorities for the last years of
Retz is Madame de Sevigne, whose connexion he was by marriage.
Retz and La Rochefoucauld, the greatest of the Frondeurs
in literary genius, were personal and political enemies, and each
has left a portrait of the other. La Rochefoucauld's character
of the cardinal is on the whole harsh but scarcely unjust, and
one of its sentences formulates, though in a manner which has a
certain recoil upon the writer, the great defect of Retz's conduct :
" II a suscite les plus grands desordres dans 1'etat sans avoir
un dessein forme de s'en prevaloir." He would have been less,
and certainly less favourably, remembered if it had not been
for his Memoirs. They were certainly not written till the last
ten years of his life, and they do not go further than the year
1655. They are addressed in the form of narrative to a lady
who is not known, though guesses have been made at her identity,
some even suggesting Madame de Sevigne herself. In the be-
ginning there are some gaps. They display, in a rather irregular
style and with some oddities of dialect and phrase, extraordinary
narrative skill and a high degree of ability in that special art
of the 1 7th century the drawing of verbal portraits or characters.
Few things of the kind are superior to the sketch of the early
barricade of the Fronde in which the writer had so great a
share, the hesitations of the court, the bold adventure of the
coadjutor himself into the palace and the final triumph of the
insurgents. Dumas, who has drawn from this passage one of
his very best scenes in Vingt ans apres, has done little but throw
Retz into dialogue and amplify his language and incidents.
Besides these memoirs and the very striking youthful essay of
the Conjuration de Fiesque, Retz has left diplomatic papers,
sermons, Mazarinades and correspondence in some considerable
quantity.
The Memoirs of the cardinal de Retz were first published in a
very imperfect condition in 1717 at Nancy. The first satisfactory
edition was that which appeared in the twenty-fourth volume of
the collection of Michaud and Poujoulat (Paris, 1836). They were
then re-edited from the autograph manuscript by Ge'ruzez (Paris,
1844), and by Champollion-Figeac with the Mazannades, &c. (Paris,
1859). In 1870 a complete edition of the works of Retz was begun
by M. A. Feillet in the collection of Grands crivains. The editor
dying, this passed into the hands of M. Gourdault and then into
those of M. Chantelauze, who had already published studies on the
connexion of St Vincent de Paul with the Condi family, &c. (1882).
(G. SA.)
REUBEN, a tribe of Israel named after the eldest " son "
of Jacob and of Leah. Both the meaning of the name (see Gen.
xxix. 32) and the history of the tribe are extremely obscure. In
one version of the story of Joseph, Reuben appears in a some-
what favourable light (Gen. xxxvii. 22, 29, xlii. 37), but in
Gen. xxxv. 22 he is charged with a grave offence, which in
Gen. xlix. 4 is given as a reason why the tribe which called
him father did not take in Hebrew history the place proper to
its seniority (cp. i Chron. v. i). Dathan and Abiram were
Reubenites (Num. xvi.; Deut. xi. 6), and in Deut. xxxiii. 6 the
tribe appears as threatened with extinction. In Judg. v. 1 5 seq.
it is described as a pastoral tribe which took no share in the
patriotic movement under Barak and Deborah. The district
allotted to Reuben (Josh. xiii. 15-23; Num. xxxii. 37 seq.) is
detailed in late passages which have little historical value for
the age to which they are attributed. The tribe is represented
as settled E. of the Jordan on the Moabite border, but no mention
is made of it in the inscription of the Moabite king Mesha
(see GAD; MOAB). The references to the tribe's wars against
Arabians (i Chron. v. 10, 18 sqq.) in the time of Saul have
caused much fruitless speculation.
For mythological elements in the tribe's history, see especially
E. Stucken, Mittheil. d. vorderasiat. Gesell. (1902), pt. iv. pp. 46 sqq. ;
and for a full discussion of the biblical data, see H. W. Hogg, Ency.
Bib. s.v., also E. Meyer, Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstdmme,
pp. 530 sqq.
REUCHLIN, JOHANN (1455-1522), German humanist and
Hebraist, was born on the 22nd of February 1455 at Pforzheim
in the Black Forest, where his father was an official of the
Dominican monastery. In, the pedantic taste of his time the
name was graecicized by his Italian friends into Capnion, a
form which Reuchlin himself uses as a sort of transparent mask
when he introduces himself as an interlocutor in the De Verbo
Mirifico. For his native place Reuchlin always retained an
affection; he constantly writes himself Phorcensis, and in the
De Verbo he does not forget to ascribe to Pforzheim his first
disposition to letters. Here he began his Latin studies in the
monastery school, and, though in 1470 he was a short time in
Freiburg, that university seems to have taught him little.
Reuchlin's career as a scholar ^appears to have turned almost
on an accident; his fine voice gained him a place in the house-
hold of Charles I., margrave of Baden, and by-and-by, having
already some reputation as a Latinist, he was chosen to accom-
pany to the university of Paris Frederick, the third son of the
prince, a lad some years his junior, who was destined for an
ecclesiastical career. This new connexion lasted but a year or
so, but it determined the course of Reuchlin's life. He now
began to learn Greek, which had been taught in the French
capital since 1470, and he also attached himself to the leader
of the Paris realists, Jean Heynlin, or a Lapide (d. 1496), a
REUCHLIN
205
worthy and learned man, whom he followed to the vigorous
young university of Basel in 1474. At Basel Reuchlin took
his master's degree (1477), and began to lecture with success,
teaching a more classical Latin than was then common in
German schools, and also explaining Aristotle in Greek. His
studies in this language had been continued at Basel under
Andronicus Contoblacas, and here too he formed the acquaint-
ance of the bookseller, Johann Amorbach, for whom he prepared
a Latin lexicon (Vocabularius Breviloquus, ist ed., 1475-76),
which did good service in its time and ran through many editions.
This first publication and Reuchlin's account of his teaching at
Basel in a letter to Cardinal Adrian (Adriano Castellesi) in
February 1518 show that he had already found the work which
in a larger sphere occupied his whole life. He was no original
genius, but a born teacher. But this work of teaching was not
to be done mainly from the professor's chair. Reuchlin soon
left Basel to seek further Greek training with George Hieronymus
at Paris, and to learn to write a fair Greek hand that he might
support himself by copying MSS. And now he felt that he
must choose a profession. His choice fell on law, and he was
thus led to the great school of Orleans (1478), and finally to
Poitiers, where he became licentiate in July 1481. From Poitiers
Reuchlin went in December 1481 to Tubingen, with the inten-
tion of becoming a teacher in the university, but his friends
recommended him to Count Eberhard of Wurttemberg, who
was about to journey to Italy and required an interpreter.
Reuchlin was selected for this post, and in February 1482 left
Stuttgart for Florence and Rome. The journey lasted but a
few months, but it brought the German scholar into contact
with several learned Italians, especially at the Medicean Academy
in Florence; his connexion with the count became permanent,
and after his return to Stuttgart he received important posts
at Eberhard's court. About this time he appears to have
married, but little is known of his married life. He left no
children; but in later years his sister's grandson Melanchthon
was almost as a son to him till the Reformation estranged them.
In 1490 he was again in Italy. Here he saw Pico della Mirandola,
to whose Cabbalistic doctrines he afterwards became heir, and
also made the friendship of the pope's secretary, Jakob Questen-
berg, which was of service to him in his later troubles. Again
in 1492 he was employed on an embassy to the emperor Frederick
at Linz, and here he began to read Hebrew with the emperor's
Jewish physician Jakob ben Jehiel Loans. He knew something
of this language before, but Loans's instruction laid the basis of
that thorough knowledge which he afterwards improved on his
third visit to Rome in 1498 by the instruction of Obadja Sforno
of Cesena. In 1494 his rising reputation had been greatly
enhanced by the publication of De Verbo Mirifico.
In 1496 Eberhard of Wurttemberg died, and enemies of
Reuchlin had the ear of his successor, Duke Eberhard. He was
glad, therefore, hastily to follow the invitation of Johann von
Dalberg (1445-1503), the scholarly bishop of Worms, and flee
to Heidelberg, which was then the seat of the " Rhenish Society."
In this court of letters Reuchlin's appointed function was to
make translations from the Greek authors, in which his reading
was already extremely wide. Though Reuchlin had no public
office as teacher, and even at Heidelberg was prevented from
lecturing, he was during a great part of his life the real centre
of all Greek teaching as well as of all Hebrew teaching in
Germany. To carry out this work he found it necessary to
provide a series of helps for beginners and others. He never
published a Greek grammar, though he had one in MS. for use
with his pupils, but he put out several little elementary Greek
books. Reuchlin, it may be noted, pronounced Greek as his
native teachers had taught him to do, i.e. in the modern Greek
fashion. This pronunciation, which he defends in Dialogus de
Recta Lai. Graecique Serm. Pron. (1519), came to be known, in
contrast to that used by Erasmus, as the Reuchlinian.
At Heidelberg Reuchlin had many private pupils, among
whom Franz von Sickingen is the best known name. With the
monks he had never been liked; at Stuttgart also his great
enemy was the Augustinian Conrad Holzinger. On this man he
took a scholar's revenge in his first Latin comedy Sergius, a
satire on worthless monks and false relics.
Through Dalberg, Reuchlin came into contact with Philip,
elector palatine of the Rhine, who employed him to direct the
studies of his sons, and in 1498 gave him the mission to Rome
which has been already noticed as fruitful for Reuchlin's pro-
gress in Hebrew. He came back laden with Hebrew books,
and found when he reached Heidelberg that a change of govern-
ment had opened the way for his return to Stuttgart, where his
wife had remained all along. His friends had now again the
upper hand, and knew Reuchlin's value. In 1500, or perhaps
in 1502, he was given a very high judicial office in the Swabian
League, which he held till 1512, when he" retired to a small estate
near Stuttgart.
For many years Reuchlin had been increasingly absorbed in
Hebrew studies, which had for him more than a mere philological
interest. Though he was always a good Catholic, and even
took the habit of an Augustinian monk when he felt that his
death was near, he was too thorough a humanist to be a blind
follower of the church. He knew the abuses of monkish religion,
and was interested in the reform of preaching as shown in his
De Arte Predicandi (1503) a book which became a sort of
preacher's manual; but above all as a scholar he was eager that
the Bible should be better known, and could not tie himself to
the authority of the Vulgate. The key to the Hebraea veritas
was the grammatical and exegetical tradition of the medieval
rabbins, especially of David Kimhi, and when_ he had mastered
this himself he was resolved to open it to others. In 1506
appeared his epoch-making De Rudimentis Hebraicis grammar
and lexicon mainly after Kimhi, yet not a mere copy of one
man's teaching. The edition was costly and sold slowly. One
great difficulty was that the wars of Maximilian I. in Italy
prevented Hebrew Bibles coming into Germany. But for this
also Reuchlin found help by printing the Penitential Psalms
with grammatical explanations (1512), and other helps followed
from time to time. But his Greek studies had interested him
in those fantastical and mystical systems of later times with
which the Cabbala has no small affinity. Following Pico, he
seemed to find in the Cabbala a profound theosophy which might
be of the greatest service for the defence of Christianity and the
reconciliation of science with the mysteries of faith an unhappy
delusion indeed, but one not surprising in that strange time of
ferment. Reuchlin's mystico-cabbalistic ideas and objects were
expounded in the De Verbo Mirifico, and finally in the De Arte
Cabbalistica (1517).
Unhappily many of his contemporaries thought that the first
step to the conversion of the Jews was to take from them their
books. This view had for its chief advocate the bigoted Johann
Pfefferkorn (1460-1521), himself a baptized Hebrew. Pfeffer-
korn's plans were backed by the Dominicans of Cologne; and
in 1509 he got from the emperor authority to confiscate all
Jewish books directed against the Christian faith. Armed with
this mandate, he visited Stuttgart and asked Reuchlin's help
as a jurist and expert in putting it into execution. Reuchlin
evaded the demand, mainly because the mandate lacked certain
formalities, but he could not long remain neutral. The execu-
tion of Pfefferkorn's schemes led to difficulties and to a new
appeal to Maximilian. In 1510 Reuchlin was summoned in the
name of the emperor to give his opinion on the suppression of
the Jewish books. His answer is dated from Stuttgart, October 6,
1510; in it he divides the books into six classes apart from
the Bible which no one proposed to destroy and, going through
each class, he shows that the books openly insulting to Chris-
tianity are very few and viewed as worthless by most Jews
themselves, while the others are either works necessary to the
Jewish worship, which was licensed by papal as well as imperial
law, or contain matter of value and scholarly interest which
ought not to be sacrificed because they are connected with
another faith than that of the Christians. He proposed that the
emperor should decree that for ten years there be two Hebrew
chairs at every German university for which the Jews should
furnish books. The other experts proposed that all books
2O6
REUMONT REUNION
should be taken from the Jews; and, as the emperor still hesi-
tated, the bigots threw on Reuchlin the whole blame of their
ill success. Pfefferkorn circulated at the Frankfort fair of 1511
a gross libel (Handspiegel wider und gegen die Juden) declaring
that Reuchlin had been bribed; and Reuchlin retorted as
warmly in the Augenspiegel (1511)' His adversary's next move
was to declare the Augenspiegel a dangerous book; the Cologne
theological faculty, with the inquisitor Jakob von Hochstraten
(d. 1527) took up this cry, and on the yth of October 1512 they
obtained an imperial order confiscating the Augenspiegel.
Reuchlin was timid, but he was honesty itself. He was
willing to receive corrections in theology, which was not his
subject, but he could riot unsay what he had said; and as his
enemies tried to press him into a corner he met them with open
defiance in a Defensio contra Calumniator es (1513). The uni-
versities were now appealed to for opinions, and were all against
Reuchlin. Even Paris (August 1514) condemned the Augen-
spiegel, and called on Reuchlin to recant. Meantime a formal
process had begun at Mainz before the grand inquisitor, but
Reuchlin by an appeal succeeded in transferring the question
to Rome. Judgment was not finally given till July 1516; and
then, though the decision was really for Reuchlin, the trial was
simply quashed. The result had cost Reuchlin years of trouble
and no small part of his modest fortune, but it was worth the
sacrifice. For far above the direct, importance of the issue was
the great stirring of public opinion which had gone forward.
And if the obscurantists escaped easily at Rome, with only a half
condemnation, they received a crushing blow in Germany. No
party could survive the ridicule that was poured on them in the
Epistolae Obscurorum Virorum, the first volume of which written
chiefly by Crotus Rubeanus appeared in 1514, and the second
by Ulrich von Hutten in 1517. Hutten and Franz von Sickingen
did all they could to force Reuchlin's enemies to a restitution
of his material damages; they even threatened a feud against
the Dominicans of Cologne and Spires. In 1520 a commission
met in Frankfort to investigate the case. It condemned
Hochstraten. But the final decision of Rome did not indemnify
him. The contest ended, however; public interest had grown
cold, absorbed entirely by the Lutheran question, and Reuchlin
had no reason to fear new attacks. Reuchlin did not long
enjoy his victory in peace. In 1519 Stuttgart was visited by
famine, civil war and pestilence. From November of this
year to the spring of 1321 the veteran statesman sought refuge
in Ingolstadt and taught there for a year as professor of Greek
and Hebrew. It was forty-one years since at Poitiers he had
last spoken from a public chair; but the old man of sixty-five
had not lost his gift of teaching, and hundreds of scholars
crowded round him. This gleam of autumn sunshine was again
broken by the plague; but now he was called to Tubingen and
again spent the winter of 1521-22 teaching in his own systematic
way. But in the spring he found it necessary to visit the baths
of Liebenzell, and here he was seized with jaundice, of which he
died on the 3oth of June 1522, leaving in the history of the new
learning a name only second to that of his younger contemporary
Erasmus.
The authorities for Reuchlin's life are enumerated in L. Geiger,
Johann Reuchlin (1871), which is the standard biography. The
controversy about the books of the Jews is well sketched by D. F.
Strauss, Ulrich von Hutten. See also S. A. Hirsch, " John Reuchlin,
the Father of the Study of Hebrew among the Christians," and his
" John Pfefferkorn and the Battle of Books," in his Essays (London,
1905). Some interesting details about Reuchlin are given in the
autobiography of Conrad Pellicanus (q.v.), which was not published
when Geiger's book appeared. See also the article on Reuchlin in
Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie, and literature there cited.
(W. R. S.)
REUMONT, ALFRED VON (1808-1887), German scholar and
diplomatist, the son of Gerhard Reumont (1765-1829), was born
on the 1 5th of August 1808 and was named Alfred after the
English king, Alfred the Great. Educated at the universities of
Bonn and Heidelberg, he obtained a position in Florence through
the influence of an Englishman, William Craufurd, but soon he
entered the Prussian diplomatic service and was employed in
Florence, in Constantinople and in Rome. He also spent some
time in the Foreign Office in Berlin. From 1851 to 1860 he
represented his country in Florence. Reumont was the friend
and adviser of Frederick William IV. In 1879 he founded the
Aachener Geschichtsverein, and having spent his concluding
years at Bonn and at Aix-la-Chapelle, he died in the hitter city
on the 27th of April 1887. f
Reumont's numerous writings deal mainly with Italy, in which
country he passed many years of his life. On the history of Florence
and of Tuscany he wrote Tavole cronologiche e sincrone delta storia
fiorentina (1841; Supplement, 1875); Geschichte Toscanas seit dent
Ende des florentinischen Freistaats (Gotha, 1876-77); and Lorenzo
de' Medici (Leipzig, 1874, and again 1883). This last book has been
translated into English by R. Harrison (1876). He remembered
his connexion with Florence when he wrote Romische Briefe von
einem Florentiner (Leipzig, 1840-44), and his residence in Rome
was also responsible for his Geschichte der Stadt Rom (3 vols., 1867-70).
Turning his attention to the history of Naples, he wrote Die Carafa
von Maddaloni: Neapel unter spanischer Herrschaft (1851; Eng.
trans., 1854), and more general works on Italian history are: Beit-
rage zur italienischen Geschichte (6 vols., Berlin, 1853-57), and
Charakterbilder aus der neueren Geschichte Italiens (1886). More
strictly biographical in their nature are: Die Jugend Caterinas de'
Medici (1854), which has been translated into French by A. Baschet
(1866); '-Die Grafin von Albany (1860) and a life of his close
friend Capponi, Gino Capponi, ein Zcit- und Lebensbild (Gotha, 1880).
His Ganganelli: Papst Clemens XIV., seine Briefe und seine Zeit
(Berlin, 1847) is valuable for the relations between this pope and
the Jesuits. Other works which may be mentioned are Zeitgenossen,
Biografien und Charakteristiken (Berlin, 1862); Bibliografia dei
lavori pubblicati in Germania sulla storia d' Italia (Berlin, 1863);
Biographische Denkblatter nach personlichen Erinnerungen (Leipzig,
1878); and Saggi di storia e letteratura (Florence, 1880). Reumont s
other important work, one which he was peculiarly fitted to write,
was his Aus Friedrich Wilhelms IV. gesunden und kranken Tagen
(Leipzig, 1885).
See H. Htiffer, Alfred von Reumont (Cologne, 1904) ; and the same
writer's article in the Allgemeine Deutsche Biographic, Band xxviii.
(1880).
REUNION, known also by its former name BOURBON, an
island and French colony in the Indian Ocean, 400 m. S.E. of
Tamatave, Madagascar, and 130 S.W. of Port Louis, Mauritius.
It is elliptic in form; its greatest length is 45 m. and its greatest
breadth 32 m., and it has an area of 965 sq. m. It lies between
20 51' and 21 22' S. and 55 15' and 55 54' E.
The coast-line (about 130 m.) is little indented, there are no
natural harbours and no small islets round the shore. The
narrow coast-lands are succeeded by hilly ground which in
turn gives place to mountain masses and tableland, which
occupy the greater part of the island. The main axis runs
N.W. and S.E., and divides the island into a windward (E.)
district and a leeward (W.) district, the dividing line being
practically that of the watershed. The form of the mountains
is the result of double volcanic action. First there arose from
the sea a mountain whose summit is approximately represented
by Piton des Neiges (10,069 ft.), a denuded crater of immense
proportions, and at a later date another crater opened towards
the E., which, piling up the mountain mass of Le Volcan, turned
what was till then a circle into an ellipse. The oldest erupted
rocks belong to the type of the andesites; the newest are
varieties of basalt. The two massifs are united by high table-
lands. In the older massif the most striking features are now
three areas of subsidence the cirques of Salazie, Riviere des
Galets and Cilaos which lie N.W. and S. of the Piton des
Neiges. The first, which may be taken as typical, is surrounded
by high almost perpendicular walls of basaltic lava, and its
surface is rendered irregular by hills and hillocks of debris fallen
from the heights. Towards the S. lies the vast stratum of
rocks (150 to 200 ft. deep) which, on the 26th of November
1875, suddenly sweeping down from the Piton des Neiges and
the Gros Morne (a " shoulder " of the piton), buried the little
village of Grand Sable and nearly a hundred of its inhabitants.
Besides the Piton des Neiges and the Gros Morne the chief
heights in this part of the island are the pyramidical Cimandef
(7300 ft.), another shoulder of the piton, and the Grand Bernard
(9490 ft.), separating the cirques of Mafate and Cilaos.
The second massif, Le Volcan, is cut off from the rest of the
island by two " enclosures," each about 500 or 600 ft. deep.
REUNION
207
The outer enclosure runs across the island in a N. and S. direc-
tion; the inner forms a kind of parabola with its arms (Rempart
du Tremblet on the S. and Rempart du Bois Blanc on the N.)
stretching E. to the sea and embracing not only the volcano
proper but also the great eastward slope known as the Grand
Brflle. The 30 m. of mountain wall round the volcano is per-
haps unique in its astonishing regularity. It encloses an area
of about 40 sq. m. known as the Grand Enclos. There are
two principal craters, each on an elevated cone, the more
westerly, now extinct, known as the Bory Crater (8612 ft.),
after Bory de St Vincent, the geologist, and the more easterly
called the Burning Crater or Fournaise (8294 ft.). The latter
is partially surrounded by an " enclosure " on a small scale
with precipices 200 ft. high. Eruptions, though not infrequent
(thirty were registered between 1735 and 1860), are seldom
serious; the more noteworthy are those of 1745, 1778, 1791,
1812, 1860, 1870, 1881. Hot mineral springs are found on the
flanks of the Piton des Neiges; the Source de Salazie (discovered
in 1831) lies 2860 ft. above sea-level, has a temperature of 90,
and discharges 200 to 220 gallons per hour of water impregnated
with bicarbonate of soda, and carbonates of magnesium and
lime, iron, &c.; that of Cilaos (discovered in 1826) is 3650 ft.
above the sea with a temperature of 100; and that of Mafate
2238 ft. and 87.
Vertically Reunion may be divided into five zones. The
first or maritime zone contains all the towns and most of the
villages, built on the limited areas of level alluvium occurring
at intervals round the coast. In the second, which lies between
2600 and 4000 ft., the sugar plantations made a green belt
round the island and country houses abound. The third zone
is that of the forests; the fourth that of the plateaus, where
European vegetables can be cultivated; and above this extends
the region of the mountains.
Climate. The year divides into two seasons that of heat and
rain from November to April, that of dry and more bracing weather
from May to October. The prevailing winds are from the S.E.,
sometimes veering round to the S., and more frequently to the
N.E.; the W. winds are not so steady (three hundred and seven
days of E. to fifty-eight of W. wind in the course of the year). It
is seldom calm during the day, but there is usually a period of
complete repose before the land wind begins in the evening.
Several years sometimes pass without a cyclone visiting the island;
at other times they occur more than once in a single " winter."
The raz de maree occasionally does great damage. On the leeward
side of the island the winds are generally from the W. and S.W.,
and bring little rain. Mist hangs almost all day on the tops of the
mountains, but usually clears off at night. On the coast and lower
zones on the windward side the mean temperature is about 73 F.
in the " winter " and 78 F. in the " summer." On the leeward
side the heat is somewhat greater. In the Salazie cirque the mean
annual average is 66 F.; at the Plaine des Palmistes 62" F. The
rainfall is very heavy on the windward side, some stations registering
160 in. a year, while on the " dry " side of the island not more than
50 in. are registered. On the mountain heights snow falls every
year, and ice is occasionally seen. In general the island is healthy,
but fever is prevalent on the coast.
Fauna and Flora. The fauna of Reunion is not very rich in
variety of species. The mammals are a brown maki (Lemur mongoz,
Linn.) from Madagascar, Pteropus edwardsii now nearly extinct,
several bats, a wild cat, the tang or tamec (Centetes setosus, Denn.),
several rats, the hare, and the goat. Among the more familiar
birds are the " oiseau de la vierge " (Muscipeta borbonica), the tec-
tec (Pratincola sybilla), Certhia borbonica, the cardinal (Fpudia
madagascariensis), various swallows, ducks, &c. The visitants
from Madagascar, Mauritius and even India, are very numerous.
Lizards and frogs of more than one species are common, but there
is only one snake (Lycodon aulicum) known in the island. Various
species of Gobius, a native species of mullet, Nestis cyprinoides,
Osphronamus olfax and Doules rupestris are among the freshwater
fishes. Turtles, formerly common, are now very rare.
In the forest region of the island there is a belt, 4500-5000 ft.
above the sea, characterized by the prevalence of dwarf bamboo
(Bambusa alpina) ; and above that is a similar belt of Acacia
heterophylla. Besides this last the best timber-trees are Casuarina
laterifolia, Foetida mauritiana, Imbricaria petiolaris, Elaeodendron
orientale, Calophyllum spurium (red tacamahac), Term.ina.lia bor-
bonica, Parkin speciosa. The gardens of the coast districts display
a marvellous wealth of flowers and shrubs, partly indigenous and
partly gathered from all parts of the world. Among the indigenous
varieties may be noted the vacoa (Pandanus utilis) and the aloe.
A species of coffee plant is also indigenous. Fruits grown in the
island are: the banana, the coco-nut, bread-fruit and jack-fruit,
the bilimbi, the carambola, the guava, the litchi, the Japanese
medlar, the mango-steen, the tamarind, the Abelmoschus esculentus,
the chirimoya, the papaya, &c. Forests originally covered nearly
the whole island ; the majority of the land has been cleared by the
inhabitants, but there are still some 200 sq. m. of forest land and the
administration has in part replanted the higher districts, such as
Salazie, with eucalyptus and caoutchouc trees.
Inhabitants. The inhabitants are divided into various classes,
the Creoles, the mulattoes, the negroes, and Indians and other
Asiatics. The Creole population is descended from the first French
settlers, chiefly Normans and Bretons, who married Malagasy
women. Later settlers included European women, but the presence
of non-European blood is so commo_n among the Creoles that the
phrase " Bourbon white " was given in Mauritius to linen of doubt-
ful cleanness. Three kinds of Creoles are recognized those of the
towns and coasts, those of the mountains, and the petits Creoles,
originally a class of small farmers living in the uplands, now reduced
to a condition of poverty and dependence on the planters. The
Creoles blancs de miles, the typical inhabitants of the island, are in
general of a somewhat weak physique, quick-witted and of charming
manners, brave and very proud of their island, but not of strong
character. The mixed races tend to approximate to a single type,
one in which the European strain predominates. The Creole
patois is French mixed with a considerable number of Malagasy
and Indian words, and containing many local idioms. The popu-
lation, about 35,000 towards the close of the 1 8th century, was in
1849, at the period of the liberation of the slaves, 120,000, of whom
60,800 were newly freed negroes. Thereafter coolies were intro-
duced from India, and in 1870 the population had increased to
212,000. In 1882 the government of India ceased to authorize
the emigration of coolies to Reunion, and in consequence of that
and other economic causes the population decreased. In 1902
the inhabitants numbered 173,315. Of these 13,492 were British
Indians, 4496 Malagasy, 9457 foreign-born negroes, and 1378
Chinese. Of the native born the Creoles numbered about 3000, the
remainder being negroes or of mixed race. Among the Indian
Copulation the males are as three to one to the females, and the
irth-rate is lower than the death-rate.
Towns and Communication. St Denis, the capital of the island,
lies on _the N. coast. It had in 1902 a population of 27,392. It
is built in the form of an amphitheatre, and has several fine public
buildings and centrally, situated botanic gardens. It is the seat
of a bishopric, a court of first instance and an appeal court. It
has an abundant supply of pure water. The only anchorage for
vessels is an open roadstead. St Pierre (pop. 28,885), the chief
town on the leeward side of the island, has a small artificial harbour.
Between St Pierre and St Denis, and both on the leeward shore,
are the towns of St Louis (pop. 12,541) and St Paul (pop. 19,617).
A few miles N. of St Paul on the S. side of Cape Pointe des Galets
is the port of the same name, the only considerable harbour in the
island. It_ was completed in 1886 at a cost of 2,700,000, covers
40 acres, is well protected, and has 28 ft. of water. A railway
serving the port goes round the coast from St Pierre, by St Paul,
St Denis, &c., to St Benoit (a town on the E. side of the island with
a pop. of 12,523), a distance of 83! m. This line is carried through
a tunnel nearly 6| m. long between La Possession and St Denis.
Besides the railway the lower parts of the island are well provided
with roads. There is regular steamship communication between
Pointe des Galets, Marseilles, Havre and Madagascar. Telegraphic
communication with all parts of the world was established in 1906
when a cable connecting Reunion with Tamatave and Mauritius
was laid.
Industries. The Sugar Plantations. The area of the cultivated
lands is estimated at 148,200 acres (or 230 scj. m.), of which 86,450
acres are under sugar-cane, the remainder being under either maize,
manioc, potatoes, haricots, or coffee, vanilla and cocoa. The
sugar-cane, introduced in 1711 by Pierre Parat, is now the staple
crop. In the l8th century the first place belonged to coffee (intro-
duced from Arabia in 1715) and to the clove tree, brought from the
Dutch Indies by Poivre at the risk of his life. Both are now culti-
vated on a very limited scale. Vanilla, introduced in 1818, was not
extensively cultivated till about 1850. Bourbon vanilla, as it is
called, is of high character, and next to sugar is the most important
article of cultivation in the island. There are small plantations
of cocoa and cinchona; cotton-growing was tried, but proved un-
successful.
The sugar industry has suffered greatly from the competition
with beet sugar and the effects of bounties, also from the scarcity
of labour, from the ravages of the phylloxera (which made its
appearance in 1878) and from extravagant methods of manu-
facture. It was not until 1906 that steps were taken for the creation
of central sugar mills and refineries, in consequence of the com-
pulsory shutting down of many small mills. Rum is largely dis-
tilled and forms an important article of export. There are also
manufactories for the making of geranium essence, St Pierre being
the centre of this industry. Other articles exported are aloe fibre
and vacoa casks. The mineral wealth of the island has not been
208
REUS REUSCH, F. H.
exploited, except for the mineral springs which yield waters highly
esteemed. Almost all the products of the island are exported,
so that the import trade is very varied. Cattle are imported from
Madagascar; rice, the chief article of food, from Saigon and India;
petroleum, largely used in manufactories, from America and Russia;
almost everything else comes from France, to which country go
the great majority of the exports. Over 75 % of the shipping is
under the French flag.
Commerce. The total trade amounted in 1860 to the value of
4,464,000 (the highest during thecentury); in 1900, to 1,533,240.
In 1905 the imports were valued at 727,000 and the exports at
428,000. Of the imports 500,000 were from France or French
colonies; of the exports 388,000 went to France or French colonies.
The currency consists of notes of the Banquede la Reunion (guaran-
teed by the government) and nickel token money. Neither the notes
nor the nickel money have any currency outside Reunion; the rate
of exchange varies from 5 to 20 %.
Administration and Revenue. Reunion is regarded practically
as a department of France. It sends two deputies and one senator
to the French legislature, and is governed by laws passed by that
body. All inhabitants, not being aliens, enjoy the franchise, no
distinction being made between whites, negroes or mulattoes, all
of whom are citizens. At the head of the local administration is
a governor who is assisted by a secretary-general, a procureur
general, a privy council and a council-general elected by the
suffrages of all citizens. The governor has the right of direct
communication and negotiation with the government of South
Africa and all states east of the Cape. The council-general has wide
powers, including the fixing of the budget. For administrative
purposes the island is divided into two arrondissements, the Wind-
ward, with five cantons and nine communes, and the Leeward,
with four cantons and seven communes. The towns are subject
to the French municipal law. The revenue, largely dependent on
the prosperity of the sugar trade, declined from an average of
163,765 in the five years 1895-99 to an average of 147 ,225 in the
five years 19004. For the same periods the average colonial
expenditure, which includes the loss incurred in maintaining the
harbour and railway, increased from 224,508 to 225,088. De-
ficits are made good by grants from France.
History. Reunion is usually said to have been first discovered in
April 1513 by the Portuguese navigator Pedro Mascarenhas, and his
name, or that of Mascarene Islands, is still applied to the archi-
pelago of which it forms a part; but it seems probable that it must
be identified with the island of Santa Apollonia discovered by
Diego Fernandes Pereira on the 9th of February 1507. It was
visited by the Dutch towards the close of the i6th century, and
by the English early in the 1 7th century. When in 1638 the island
was taken possession of by Captain Gaubert, or Gobert, of Dieppe, it
was still uninhabited; a more formal annexation in the name of
Louis XIII. was effected in 1643 by Jacques Pronis, agent of the
Compagnie des Indes in Madagascar; and in 1649 Etienne de
Flacourt, Pronis's more eminent successor, repeated the ceremony
at a spot which he named La Possession. He also changed the
name of the island from Mascarenhas to Bourbon. By decree of
the Convention in 1793, Bourbon in turn gave place to Reunion,
and, though during the empire this was discarded in favour of lie
Bonaparte, and at the Restoration people naturally went back to
Bourbon, Reunion has been the official designation since 1848.
The first inhabitants were a dozen mutineers deported from
Madagascar by Pronis, but they remained only three years (164649).
Other colonists went thither of their own will in 1654 and 1662. In
1664 the Compagnie des Indes orientates de Madagascar, to whom a
concession of the island was granted, initiated a regular colonization
scheme. Their first commandant was Etienne Regnault, who in
1689 received from the French crown the title of governor. The
growth of the colony was very slow, and in 1717 there were only
some 2000 inhabitants. It is recorded that they lived on excellent
terms with the pirates, who from 1684 onward infested the neigh-
bouring seas for many years. In 1735 Bourbon was placed under
the governor of the tie de France (Mauritius), at that time the illus-
trious Mah6 de Labourdonnais. The Compagnie des Indes orien-
tates gave up its concession in 1767, and under direct administration
of the crown liberty of trade was granted. The French Revolution
effected little change in the island and occasioned no bloodshed;
the colonists successfully resisted the attempts of the Convention
to abolish slavery, which continued until 1848 (when over 60,000
negroes were freed), the slave trade being, however, abolished in
1817. During the Napoleonic wars Reunion, like Mauritius, served
the French corsairs as a rallying place from which attacks on Indian
merchantmen could be directed. In 1809 the British attacked the
island, and the French were forced to capitulate on the 8th of July
iSip; the island remained in the possession of Great Britain
until April 1815, when it was restored to France. From that period
the island has had no exterior troubles. The negro population,
upon whom in 1870 the Third Republic conferred the full rights of
French citizenship including the vote, being unwilling to labour in
the plantations, the immigration of coolies began in 1860, but in
1882 the government of India prohibited the further emigration
of labourers from that country, in consequence of the inconsiderate
treatment of the coolies by the colonists. Reunion has also suffered
from the disastrous effects of cyclones. A particularly destructive
storm swept over the island in March 1879, and in 1904 another
cyclone destroyed fully half of the sugar crop and 75% of the
vanilla crop.
See A. G. Garsault, Notice sur la Reunion (Paris, 1900), a mono-
graph prepared for the Paris exhibition of that year; E. Jacob de
Cordemoy, Etude sur Vile de la Reunion, geographic, richesses natur-
elles, &c. (Marseilles, 1905); W. D. Oliver, Crags and Craters;
Rambles in the island of Reunion (London, 1896); C. Keller, Natur
und Volksleben der Insel Reunion (Basel, 1888); J. D. Brunei,
Histoire de f association generate des francs Creoles de file Bourbon
(St Denis, Reunion, 1885); Trouette, L'lle Bourbon pendant la
periode revolutionnaire (Paris, 1888). Of earlier works consult
Demanet, Nouv. Hist, de I'Afrique fran^aise (1767); P. U. Thomas,
Essai de statistique de file Bourbon (1828); Dejean de la Batie,
Notice sur file Bourbon (1847); J. Mauran, Impressions dans un
voy. de Paris a Bourbon (1850); Maillard, Notes sur file de la Re-
union (1862); Azema, Hist, de file Bourbon (1862). The geology
and volcanoes of Reunion were the object of elaborate study by
Bory de St Vincent in 1801 and 1802 (Voyages dans les quatre prin-
cipales ties des mers d'Afrique, Paris, 1804), and have since been
examined by R. yon Drasche (see Die Insel Reunion, &c., Vienna,
1878, and C. Velain, Descriptions geologique de . . . file de la Reunion
. . ., Paris, 1878). The best map is Pau Lepervanche's Carte de la
Reunion 1-100,000 (Paris, 1906).
REUS, a city of N.E. Spain, in the province of Tarragona,
on the Saragossa-Tarragona railway, 4 m. N. of Salou, its port
on the Mediterranean. Pop. (1900) 26,681. Reus consists of
two parts, the old and the new, separated by the Calle Arrabal,
which occupies the site of the old city wall. The old town
centres in the Plaza del Mercado, from which narrow and
tortuous lanes radiate in various directions; the new one dates
from about the middle of the i8th century, and its streets are
wide and straight. There is an active trade in the agricultural
products of the fertile region around the city. The local
industries developed considerably between 1875 and 1905, and
the city has important flour, wine and fruit export houses.
There is a model farm belonging to the municipality in the
suburbs. Reus has excellent primary, normal and higher-
grade state schools, many private schools, an academy of fine
arts and a public library. The hospitals and foundling refuge,
the institute and the town hall are handsome modern buildings.
The earliest records of Reus date from about the middle of
the i3th century. Its modern prosperity is traced to about
the year 1750, when a colony of English settled here and estab-
lished a trade in woollens, leather, wine and spirits. The
principal incidents in its political history arose out of the
occurrences of 1843 (see SPAIN, History), in connexion with
which the town received the title of city, and Generals Zurbano
and Prim were made counts of Reus. The city was the birth-
place of General Prim (1814-1870) and of the painter Mariano
Fortuny (1830-1874).
REUSCH, FRANZ HEINRICH (1823-1900), Old Catholic
theologian, was born at Brilon, in Westphalia, on 4th December
1823. He studied general literature at Paderborn, and theology
at Bonn, Tubingen and Munich. The friend and pupil of
Dollinger, he took his degree of Doctor in Theology at Munich,
the university of which Dollinger was so long an ornament.
He was ordained priest in 1849, a "d was immediately after-
wards made chaplain at Cologne. In 1854 he became Privat-
dozent in the exegesis of the Old Testament in the Catholic
Theological Faculty at Bonn; in 1858 he was made extra-
ordinary, and in 1861 ordinary, professor of theology in the
same university. From 1866 to 1877 he was editor of the
Banner Theologisches Literaturblatt. In the controversies on
the Infallibility of the Pope, Reusch attached himself to
Dollinger's party, and he and his colleagues Hilgers, Knoodt
and Langen were interdicted by the archbishop of Cologne in
1871 from pursuing their courses of lectures. In 1872 he was
excommunicated. For many years after this he held the post
of Old Catholic cure of Bonn, as well as the position of vicar-
general to the Old Catholic Bishop Reinkens, but resigned both
in 1878, when, with Dollinger, he disapproved of the permission
to marry granted by the Old Catholic Church in Germany to
its clergy. From that time he retired into lay communion.
REUSCH, H. H. REUSS
209
but continued to give lectures as usual in the Old Catholic
Faculty of Theology in the university of Bonn, and to write
on theological subjects. He was made rector of that university
in 1873. In 1874 and 1875 he was the official reporter of
the memorable Reunion Conferences held at Bonn in those
years and attended by many distinguished theologians of the
Oriental and Anglican communions.
Reusch was a profound scholar, an untiring worker and a
man of lovable character. Among his voluminous works were
contributions to the Revue Internationale de theologie, a review
started at Bern at the instance of the Old Catholic Congress at
Lucerne. He wrote also works on the Old Testament; a
pamphlet on Die Deutschen Bischofe und der Aberglaube; and
another on the falsifications to be found in the treatise of
Aquinas against the Greeks; as well as essays on the history of
the Jesuit Order, and a book of prayers. But his fame will
mainly rest on the works which he and Dollinger published
jointly. These consisted of a work on the Autobiography of
Cardinal Bellarmine, the Geschichte der M oralstreitigen in der
Romisch-Katholischen Kirche sell dem XVI. Jahrhundert, and
the Erorterungen uber Leben und Schriften des hi. Liguori.
During the last few years of his life he was smitten with paralysis.
He died on the 3rd of March 1900, leaving behind him in manu-
script a collection of letters to Bunsen about Roman cardinals
and prelates, which has since been published. (J. J. L. *)
REUSCH, HANS HENRIK (1852- ), Norwegian geologist,
was born at Bergen on the sth of September 1852. He was
educated at Christiania, Leipzig and Heidelberg, and graduated
Ph.D. at Christiania in 1883. He joined the Geological Survey
of Norway in 1875, and became Director in 1888. He is dis-
tinguished for his researches on the crystalline schists and the
Palaeozoic rocks of Norway. He discovered Silurian fossils
in the highly altered rocks of the Bergen region; and in 1891
he called attention to a palaeozoic conglomerate of glacial origin
in the Varanger Fiord, a view confirmed by Mr A. Strahan
in 1896, who found glacial striae on the rocks beneath the
ancient boulder-bed. Reusch has likewise thrown light on
the later geological periods, on the Pleistocene glacial pheno-
mena and on the sculpturing of the scenery of Norway. Among
his separate publications are Silur fossiler og pressede Kon-
glomeraler (1882); Del nordlige Norges Geologi (1891).
REUSS, AUGUST EMANUEL VON (1811-1873), Austrian
geologist and palaeontologist, the son of Franz Ambrosius
Reuss (1761-1830), was born at Bilin in Bohemia on the Sth
of July 1811. He was educated for the medical profession,
graduating in 1834 at the university of Prague, and afterwards
practising for fifteen years at Bilin. His leisure was devoted to
mineralogy and geology, and the results of his researches were
published in Geognostische Skizzen aus Bohmen (1840-44) and
Die Versteinerungen der Bohmischen Kreideformation (1845-46).
In 1849 he gave up his medical practice, and became professor
of mineralogy at the university of Prague. There he estab-
lished a fine mineralogical collection, and he became the first
lecturer on geology. In 1863 he was appointed professor of
mineralogy in the university of Vienna. He investigated
the Cretaceous fauna of Gosau, and studied the Crustacea,
including entomostraca, the corals, bryozoa, and especially
the foraminifera of various geological formations and countries.
He died at Vienna on the 26th of November 1873.
REUSS, EDOUARD GUILLAUME EUGENE (1804-1891),
Protestant theologian, was born at Strassburg on the i8th of
July 1804. He studied philology in his native town (1819-22),
theology at Gottingen under J. G. Eichhorn; and Oriental
languages at Halle under Wilhelm Gesenius, and afterwards at
Paris under Silvestre de Sacy (1827-28). In 1828 he became
Privatdozent at Strassburg. From 1829 to 1834 he taught
Biblical criticism and Oriental languages at the Strassburg
Theological School; he then became assistant, and afterwards,
in 1836, regular professor of theology at that university. The
sympathies of Reuss were German rather than French, and
after the annexation of Alsace to Germany he remained at
Strassburg, and retained his professorship till, in 1888, he retired
on a pension. Amongst his earliest works were: De libris
veteris Testamenli dpocryphis plebi non negandis (1829), Ideen
zur Einleitung in das Evangelium Johannis (1840) and Die
J ohanneische Theologie (1847). In 1852 he published his
Hisloire de la theologie chrttienne au siecle apostolique, which was
followed in 1863 by L'Histoire du canon des sainles (critures dans
I'iglise chrttienne. In 1874 he began to publish his translation
of the Bible, La Bible, nouvelle traditction avec commenlaire. It
was the criticism and exegesis of the New Testament which
formed the subject of Reuss's earlier labours in 1842, indeed,
he had published in German a history of the books of the New
Testament, Geschichte der heiligen Schriften N. Test. ; and though
his own views were liberal, he opposed the results of the Tubingen
school. After a time he turned his attention also to Old Testa-
ment criticism, for which he was especially fitted by his sound
knowledge of Hebrew. In 1881 he published in German his
Geschichte der heiligen Schriften A. Test., a veritable encyclopaedia
of the history of Israel from its earliest beginning till the taking
of Jerusalem by Titus. He died at Strassburg on the isth of
April 1891.
Reuss belonged to the more modern section of the Liberal
party in the Lutheran Church. His critical position was to
some extent that of K. H. Graf and J. Wellhausen, allowing for
the circumstances that he was in a sense their forerunner, and
was actually for a time Graf's teacher. Indeed, he was really
the originator of the new movement, but hesitated to publish
the results of his studies. For many years Reuss edited with
A. H. Cunitz (b. 1812) the Beitriige zu den theologischen Wissen-
schaften. With A. H. Cunitz and J. W. Baum (1809-1878),
and after their death alone, he edited the monumental edition
of Calvin's works (38 vols., 1863 ff.). His critical edition of
the Old Testament appeared a year after his death. His son,
ERNST RUDOLF (b. 1841), was in 1873 appointed city librarian
at Strassburg.
See the article in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie, and cf.
Otto Pfleiderer, Development of Theology in Germany since Kant
(1890).
REUSS, the name of two small principalities of the German
empire, called Reuss, elder line, or Reuss-Greiz, and Reuss,
younger line, or Reuss-Schleiz-Gera. With a joint area of
441 sq. m. they form part of the complex of Thuringian states,
and consist, roughly speaking, of two main blocks of territory,
separated by the Neustadt district of the duchy of Saxe- Weimar.
The more southerly, which is much the larger of the two portions,
belongs to the bleak, mountainous region of the Frankenwald
and the Vogtland, while the northern portion is hilly, but fertile.
The chief rivers are the Weisse Elster and the Saale. About
35% of the total surface is occupied by forests, while about
40% is under tillage and about 19% under meadow and
pasture. Wheat, rye and barley are the principal crops grown,
and the breeding of cattle is an important industry.
Reuss-Greiz, with an area of 122 sq. m., belongs to the larger
of the two divisions mentioned above, and consists of three
large and several small parcels of land. On the whole, the soil
is not favourable for agriculture, but the rearing of cattle is
carried on with much success. About 63% of the inhabitants
maintain themselves by industrial pursuits, the chief products
of which are the making of woollen fabrics at Greiz, the capital,
and of stockings at Zeulenroda. Other industries are machine-
building, printing and the making of paper and porcelain. In 1905
the population of the principality was 70,603 . The constitution of
Reuss-Greiz dates from 1867, and provides for a representative
chamber of twelve members, of whom three are appointed by
the prince, while two are chosen by the landed proprietors,
three by the towns and four by the rural districts. The revenue
and expenditure amount to about 76,000 a year, and there is no
public debt. The reigning prince is Henry XXIV. (b. 1878),
but as he is incapable of discharging his duties, these are now
undertaken by a regent.
Reuss-Schleiz-Gera, with an area of 319 sq. m., includes part
of the southern and the whole of the northern of the two main
divisions mentioned above; it touches Bavaria on the south
210
REUTER, F.
and Prussian Saxony on the north. The former portion is
known as the Oberland and the latter as the Unterland. Owing
to the fertility of the Unterland, quite one-quarter of the people
are supported by agricultural pursuits, although there is also
much industrial activity. The chief industrial product consists
of woollen goods, and the manufacture centres in the capital
Gera, the largest of the six towns of the principality. Other
industries are jute-spinning, dyeing and brewing, and the
manufacture of musical instruments, chemicals, tobacco,
cigars, porcelain and machinery. A considerable trade is
carried on in these goods and also in timber, cattle and slate.
Iron is mined in the Oberland, and large quantities of salt are
yielded by the brine springs of Heinrichshall. In 1905 Reuss-
Schleiz contained 144,584 inhabitants. Its annual revenue
and expenditure amount to about 129,000, and in 1908 it had
a public debt of 52,027. The constitution, which rests on
laws of 1852 and 1856, provides for a representative assembly
of 1 6 members which possesses limited legislative powers, the
administrative duties being discharged by a cabinet of three
members. The reigning prince is Henry XIV. (b. 1832), but
since 1892 his duties have been undertaken by a regent. The
states of Reuss return one member each to the Bundesrat, and
one each to the Reichstag of the German empire.
History. The history of Reuss stretches back to the times
when the German kings appointed vogts, or bailiffs (advocati
imperil), to administer their lands. One of these vogts was a
certain Henry, who died about 1120, after having been entrusted
by the emperor Henry IV. with the vogtship of Gera and of
Weida, and he is generally recognized as the ancestor of the
princes of Reuss. His descendants called themselves lords of
Weida, and some of them were men of note in their day, serving
the emperors and German kings and distinguishing themselves
in the ranks of the Teutonic order. The land under their rule
gradually increased in size, and it is said that the name of
Reuss was applied to it owing to the fact that one of its princes
married a Russian princess, their son being called " der Russe,"
or the Russian. Another version is that the prince received
this sobriquet because he passed many years in Russia. The
district thus called Reuss was at one time much more extensive
than it is at present, and for some years its rulers were margraves
of Meissen. In 1564 the family was divided into three branches
by the sons of Henry XVI. (d. 1535). One of these became ex-
tinct in 1616, but the remaining ones are those of Reuss-Greiz
and Reuss-Schleiz-Gera, which are flourishing to-day. Although
there have been further divisions these have not been lasting,
and the lands of the former family have been undivided since
1768 and those of the latter since 1848. The lords of Reuss
took the title of count in 1673 ; and the head of the elder line became
a prince of the Empire in 1778, and the head of the younger
line in 1806. In 1807 the two princes joined the Confederation
of the Rhine and in 1815 the German confederation. In 1866
Reuss-Greiz was compelled to atone for its active sympathy
with Austria by the payment of a fine. In 1871 both princi-
palities became members of the new German empire. The
princes of Reuss are very wealthy, their private domain including
a great part of the territory over which they rule. In the
event of either line becoming extinct, its possessions will fall
to the other.
A curious custom prevails in the house of Reuss. The male
members of both branches of the family all bear the name of
Henry (Heinrich), the individuals being distinguished by
numbers. In the elder line, according to an arrangement made
in 1701, the enumeration continues until the number one
hundred is reached when it begins again. In the younger line
the first prince born in a new century is numbered I., and the
numbers follow on until the end of the century when they
begin again. Thus Henry XIV. of Reuss younger line, who
was born in 1832, was the son of Henry LXVII. (1789-1867),
the former being the i4th prince born in the igth century, and
the latter the 67th prince born in the i8th.
See B. Schmidt, Die Reussen, Genealogie des Gesamthattses Reuss
(Schletz, 1903); H. von Voss, Die Ahnen des reussischen Hauses
(Lobenstein, 1882); C. F. Collmann, Reussische Geschichte. Das
Vogtland im Mittelalter (Greiz, 1892), and O. Liebmann, Das Staats-
recht des Furstenthums Reuss (1884).
REUTER, FRITZ (1810-1874), German novelist, was born
on the 7th of November 1810, at Stavenhagen, in Mecklenburg-
Schwerin, a small country town where his father was burgo-
master and sheriff (Stadtrichter), and in addition to his official
duties carried on the work of a fanner. He was educated at
home by private tutors and subsequently at the gymnasiums
of Friedland in Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and of Parchim. In
1831 he began to attend lectures on jurisprudence at the uni-
versity of Rostock, and in the following year went to the university
of Jena. Here he was a member of the political students' club,
or German Burschenschaft, and in 1833 was arrested in Berlin
by the Prussian government; although the only charge which
could be proved against him was that he had been seen wearing
its colours, he was condemned to death for high treason. This
monstrous sentence was commuted by King Frederick William III.
of Prussia to imprisonment for thirty years in a Prussian
fortress. In 1838, through the personal intervention of the
grand-duke of Mecklenburg, he was delivered over to the
authorities of his native state, and the next two years he spent
in the fortress of Domitz, but in 1840 was set free, an amnesty
having been proclaimed after the accession of Frederick William
IV. to the Prussian throne.
Although Reuter was now thirty years of age, he went to
Heidelberg to resume his legal studies; but he soon found it
necessary to return to Stavenhagen, where he aided in the
management of his father's farm. After his father's death,
however, he abandoned farming, and in 1850 settled as a
private tutor at the little town of Treptow in Pomerania. Here
he married Luise Kunze, the daughter of a Mecklenburg pastor.
Reuter's first publication was a collection of miscellanies,
written in Plattdeutsch, and entitled Lauschen un Riemels
("anecdotes and rhymes," 1853; a second collection followed
in 1858). The book, which was received with encouraging
favour, was followed by Polterabendgedichte (1855), and De
Reis' nah Belligen (1855), the latter a humorous poem describing
the adventures of some Mecklenburg peasants who resolve to
go to Belgium (which they never reach) to learn the secrets of
an advanced civilization. In 1856 Reuter left Treptow and
established himself at Neubrandenburg, resolving to devote his
whole time to literary work. His next book (published in 1858)
was Kein Husung, an epic in which he presents with great force
and vividness some of the least attractive aspects of village life
in Mecklenburg. This was followed, in 1860, by Hanne Niite
un de liitte Pudel, the best of the works written by Reuter in
verse. In 1861 Reuter's popularity was largely increased by
Schurr-Murr, a collection of tales, some of which are in High
German, but this work is of slight importance in comparison
with the series of stories, entitled Olle Kamellen (" old stories
of bygone days "). The first volume, published in 1860, con-
tained Woans ick tau'ne Fru kam and Ut de Franzosentid. Ut
mine Festungstid (1861) formed the second volume; Ut mine
Stromtid (1864) the third, fourth and fifth volumes; and Dorch-
Iduchting (1866) the sixth volume all written in the Plattdeutsch
dialect of the author's home. Woans ick tau 'ne Fru kam is a
bright little tale, in which Reuter tells, in a half serious half
bantering tone, how he wooed the lady who became his wife.
In Ut de Franzosenlid the scene is laid in and neai Stavenhagen
in the year 1813, and the characters of the story are associated
with the great events which then stirred the heart of Germany
to its depths. Ut mine Festungstid is of less general interest
than Ut de Franzosenlid, a narrative of Reuter's hardships
during the term of his imprisonment, but it is not less vigorous
either in conception or in style. Ut mine Stromtid is by far
the greatest of Reuter's writings. The men and women he
describes are the men and women he knew in the villages and
farmhouses of Mecklenburg, and the circumstances in which he
places them are the circumstances by which they were surrounded
in actual life. As in Ut de Franzosentid he describes the deep
national impulse in obedience to which Germany rose against
REUTER, BARON DE REVAL
211
Napoleon, so in Ut mine Slromtid he presents many aspects of
the revolutionary movement of 1848.
In 1863 Reuter transferred his residence from Neubranden-
burg to Eisenach; and here he died on the I2th of July 1874.
In the works produced at Eisenach he did not maintain the high
level of his earlier writings.
Reuter's Samtliche Werke, in 13 vols., were first published in 1863-
68. To these were added in 1875 two volumes of Nachgelassene
Schriften, with a biography by A. Wilbrandt; and in 1878 two
supplementary volumes to the works appeared. A popular edition
in 7 vols. was published in 187778 (last edition, 1902); there are
also editions by K. F. Miiller (18 vols., 1905), and W. Seelmann(7 vols.,
1905-6). See O. Glagau, F. Reuter und seine Dichtuneen (1866;
2nd ed., 1875); H. Ebert, F. Reuter und seine Werke (1874);
F. Latendorf, Zur Erinnerung an F. Reuter (1879); K. T. Gadertz,
Reuter- Studien (1890); by the same, A us Reuters alien und jungen
Tagen (3 vols., 1894-1900); Briefe F. Reuters an seinen Vater,
edited by F. Engel (2 vols., 1895); A. Romer, F. Reuter in seinem
Leben und Schaffen (1895); G. Raatz, Wahrheit und Dichtung in
Reuters Werken (1895); E. Brandes, Aus F. Reuters Leben (1899);
K. F. Miiller, Der Mecklenburger Volksmund und F. Reuters Schriften
(1902). A complete bibliography of F. Reuter will be found in the
Niederdeutsche Jahrbuch for 1896 and 1902.
REUTER, PAUL JULIUS, BARON DE (1821-1899), founder of
Reuter's News Agency, was born at Cassel, Germany. At the
age of thirteen he became a clerk in his uncle's bank at Gottingen,
where he chanced to make the acquaintance of Professor Gauss,
whose experiments in telegraphy were then attracting some
attention. Reuter's mind was thus directed to the value of
the speedy transmission of information, and in 1849, on the
completion of the first telegraph lines in Germany and France,
he found an opportunity of turning his ideas to account. There
was a gap between the termination of the German line at Aix-
la-Chapelle and that of the French and Belgian lines at Verviers.
Reuter organized a news-collecting agency at each of these
places, his wife being in charge of one, himself at the other, and
bridged the interval by a pigeon-post. On the establishment
of through telegraphic communication, Reuter endeavoured to
start a news agency in Paris, but finding that the French govern-
ment's restrictions would render the scheme unworkable,
removed in 1851 to England and became a naturalized British
subject. The first submarine cable between Dover and
Calais had just been laid, and Reuter opened an office in
London for the transmission of intelligence between England
and the continent. At first, however, his business was practi-
cally confined to the transmission of private commercial telegrams
to places not connected with the new telegraph system. He
appointed agents at the various telegraph termini on the con-
tinent to take these despatches off the wires and forward them
by rail or pigeon-post to the addresses. Simultaneously he
endeavoured to induce the English papers to publish the foreign
news telegrams supplied by his various agents. These efforts
were for some years unsuccessful, until in 1858 The Times
published the report of an important speech by Napoleon III.
forwarded by Reuter's Paris agent. Reuter now extended his
sphere of operations all over the world, and in 1859 obtained
leave for the presence of representatives at the headquarters of
the Austrian and French armies during the war. In 1866 he
laid down a special cable from Cork to Crookhaven, which
enabled him to circulate news of the American Civil War several
hours before the steamer could reach Liverpool. A concession
for a cable beneath the North Sea to Cuxhaven was granted
him by the king of Hanover in 1863, and in the same year a
concession was granted him for a cable between France and
the United States, the line being worked jointly by Reuter
(whose business had just been converted into a limited liability
company) and the Anglo-American Telegraph Company. In
1872 he obtained from the shah of Persia an exclusive concession
to develop the internal resources of that country, but the con-
cession was annulled and its privileges transferred to the Im-
perial Bank of Persia. Reuter was in 1871 given the title of
baron by the duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, and by a special
grant of Queen Victoria he and his heirs were authorized to have
the privileges of this rank in England. Baron Reuter died at
Nice on the 25th of February 1899.
REUTERHOLM. GUSTAF ADOLF, BARON (1756-1813),
Swedish statesman. After a brief military career he was ap-
pointed Kammerherr to Sophia Magdalena, queen consort of
Gustavus III., and subsequently became intimately connected
with the king's brother, Charles, then duke of Sudermania. He
remained in the background throughout the reign of Gustavus
III., whom he constantly opposed and by whom he was im-
prisoned along with the other malcontents in 1789. He was
abroad at the time of the king's death, but a summons from
his friend, now duke regent, speedily recalled him, and in 1793
he was made a member of the council of state and one of the
" lords of the realm." At first he seemed inclined to adopt a
liberal system, and reintroduced the freedom of the press. He
did this solely, however, to reverse the Gustavian system, and
persecuted the stalwarts of the late king (e.g. G. M. Armfelt,
J. K. Toll) with a petty vindictiveness which excited general
disgust. Towards the end of the regency, Reuterholm inclined
towards an alliance with Russia on the basis of a marriage
between the young king, Gustavus IV., and the empress
Catherine's granddaughter, Alexandra Pavlovna, an alliance
frustrated by the bigotry of the intended groom. At home the
Swedish government ended as ultra-reactionary, owing to an
insignificant riot in Stockholm which so alarmed Reuterholm
that he threatened all printers who printed anything relating
to the constitutions of the French republic or the United States
of America with the loss of their privileges. In March 1795 he
closed the Swedish Academy because A. G. Silfverstolpe in his
inaugural address had ventured to disapprove of the coup d'etat
of 1789. On the accession of Gustavus IV. (November ist,
1796) Reuterholm was expelled from Stockholm. For the next
twelve years he lived abroad under the name of Tempelcrentz.
After the revolution of 1809 he returned to Sweden, but was
denied all access to Charles XIII., and quitted his country for
good. He died in Schleswig on the 27th of December 1813.
See Sv'eriges'Historia (Stockholm, 1877-1881), vol. v. (R. N. B.)
REUTLIN6EN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of
Wiirttemberg, situated on the Echatz, an affluent of the Neckar,
near the base of the Achalm and 36 m. by rail S. of Stuttgart.
Pop. (1905) 23,850. It is a quaintly built town, with many
picturesque houses and a fine Gothic church of the i3th and
i4th centuries dedicated to St Mary, which was restored in
1893-1901; it contains in the choir a replica of the Holy
Sepulchre and a sculptured stone font, and has a tower 240 ft.
high. Reutlingen has three other Evangelical churches, a
Roman Catholic church, a town hall, and several monuments,
including one to the emperor William I. and another to Friedrich
List. The industries of the town are numerous, and include the
spinning and weaving of cotton, dyeing and bleaching; also the
manufacture of leather, machinery, furniture, shoes, paper,
clothing, hardware, bricks, beer and woollen goods. Hops,
vines and fruit are grown in the neighbourhood. Reutlingen
has several schools and educational establishments, including
a celebrated pomological institute. It is also famous as the place
where Pastor Gustav Werner (1800-1887) founded his Christian
Socialist refuge, which has become widely known in philanthropic
circles.
Reutlingen, which is first mentioned in 1213, became a free im-
perial town in the 1 3th century and was fortified by the emperor
Frederick II., remaining loyal to him and to his son, Conrad IV.
A member of the league of Swabian towns, its citizens defeated
Count Ulrich of Wurttemberg on the I4th of May 1377. Later it
joined the Swabian League and was favoured by the emperor Maxi-
milian I. It came into the possession of Wurttemberg in 1802. An
explosion which took place on the J7th of December 1852 destroyed
many houses in the town.
See Rupp, Aus der Vorzeit Reutlingens und seiner Umgegend
(Stuttgart, 1869); Hochstetter, Fuhrer durch Reutlingen und
Umgebung (Reutlingen, 1901); and Zwiesele, Geognostischer Fuhrer
in der Umgegend von Reutlingen (Stuttgart, 1897).
REVAL, or REVEL (Russ. Revel, formerly Kolyvan;
Esthonian, Tallina and Tannilin), a fortified seaport town of
Russia, capital of Esthonia, situated on a bay on the S. coast
of the gulf of Finland, 230 m. W. of St Petersburg by rail.
Pop. (1900) 66,292, of whom half were Esthonians and 30%
212
REVEILLE REVELATION, BOOK OF
Germans. The city consists of two parts the Domberg
or Dom, which occupies a hill, and the lower town on the beach.
The Dom contains the castle (first built in the I3th century,
rebuilt in 1772), where the provincial administration has its
seat, and a cathedral (1894-1900) with five gilded domes. It
has its own administration, separate from that of the lower
town. The church of St Nicholas, built in 1317, contains many
antiquities of the former Roman Catholic times and old German
paintings. The Dom church contains many interesting shields,
as also the graves of the circumnavigator Baron A. J. von
Krusenstern (1770-1846), of the Swedish soldiers Pontus de
la Gardie (d. 1585) and Carl Horn (d. 1601), and of the
Bohemian Protestant leader Count Matthias von Thum (1580-
1640). The church of St Olai, first erected in 1240, and often
rebuilt, was completed in 1840 in Gothic style; it has a bell
tower 456 ft. high. The oldest church is the Esthonian, built
in 1219. The public institutions ' include a good provincial
museum of antiquities; an imperial palace, Katharinenthal,
built by Peter the Great in 1719; and very valuable archives,
preserved in the town hall (i4th century). The pleasant
situation of the town attracts thousands of people for sea-
bathing. It is the seat of a branch board of the Russian
admiralty and of the administration of the Baltic lighthouses.
Its port has a depth of 4 to 6 fathoms, and a roadstead 35 m.
wide, which freezes nearly every winter. The exports consist
chiefly of grain, timber, flax, hides, wool, a species of anchovy,
and hemp, and the imports of manufactured goods and machinery.
The value of the aggregate trade amounts to an average of seven
to nine millions sterling annually. Ther is considerable trade
with Finland. Baltic Port, 30 m. W., is a sort of annex to the
port of Reval.
The high Silurian crag now known as Domberg was early
occupied by an Esthonian fort, Lindanissa. In 1219 the Danish
king Valdemar II. erected here a strong castle and founded the
first church. In 1228 the castle was taken by the Livonian
Knights, but nine years later it returned to the Danes. About
the same time Lubeck and Bremen merchants settled there, and
their settlement became an important seaport of the Hanseatic
League. It was fortified early in the i4th century, and in 1343
sustained a siege by the revolted Esthonians. Valdemar III.
sold Reval and Esthonia to the Teutonic Knights in 1346, but
on the dissolution of the order, in 1561, Esthonia and Reval
surrendered to the Swedish king Erik XIV. A great conflagra-
tion in 1433, the pestilence of 1532, the bombardment by the
Danes in 1569, and the Russo-Livonian War, destroyed its
trade. The Russians besieged Reval twice, in 1570 and 1577.
It was still an important fortress, having been enlarged and
fortified by the Swedes. In 1710 it was surrendered to Peter
the Great, who immediately began the erection of a military
port for his Baltic fleet. His successors continued to fortify
the access to Reval from the sea, large works being undertaken,
especially in the early years of the igth century.
REVEILLfi (Fr. reveilles, imperative of reveiller, to awaken,
Lat. re- and vigilare, to watch), the signal by call of bugle or
beat of drum to announce to soldiers the time to awake and
begin duty.
REVELATION, BOOK OF, in the Bible, the last book of the
New Testament.
Title. According to the best authorities K CA (in the sub-
scription) 2, 8, 82, 93, the title of this book is airoKa^v^Ls 'Iwavvov.
Some cursives (i, 14, 17, 25, 28, 31, 38, 51, 90, 91, 94, 97)
read dir. (+ TOV ayiov i, 25, 28, 31, 38, 51, 90, 94) 'luavvov TOV
0oX6yoir, Q and 12, (or. T. TOV 0eo\. Kal tva-yfiKiarov; P and
42,^ <for. TOV airoffTo\ov "I. Kal tuayyeXiorou 'The word " apoc-
alypse " gives the current title not only to this book, but to a
large body of Jewish and Christian writings. This is one of the
first instances of its use in this sense in existing literature. An
earlier use is probably to be found in the title of the Syriac
Apocalypse of Baruch, which =7pa<i) -rijs a7ro/caXi^os TOV fiapovx
vlov TOV NTjptffu. The title is different from what the New Testa-
ment use of the term would have led us to expect, i.e. 'AiroKaXw/'ts
'IijcroO, which are indeed the opening words of this book. With
the latter phrase we might compare Gal. i. 12, where we
have (foroKoXiV'ews 'IriaovXpiaTov, " revelation from Jesus Christ."
For the book is a revelation made by Gcd to Jesus Christ, who
through His angel made it known to John for transmission to
the churches. Instead of this the Church substituted the name
of the disciple through whom the message was delivered for
that of his Master, and designated our Apocalypse " The
Apocalypse of John." This title was familiar before the end
of the 2nd century.
MSS. and Versions. There are six uncials, K, A, C, P, Q, i,
the last of which has not been edited or collated. Of the rest,
P and Q are imperfect. The known cursives amount to 229,
according to von Soden (Die Schriften des Neuen Testamentes,
I. i. 289). There are six ancient versions of various values.
(a) The best is the Latin, which is found in the Old Latin
(g h m and the text used by Primasius) and the Vulgate, of which
there are eight MSS. written between the 6th and 1 5th centuries.
(b) The Syriac version appears in two forms, the Philoxenian
(A.D. 508), recently discovered and edited by Gwynn, and the
Harclean (A.D. 616). The true Peshitta did not contain the
Apocalypse, (c) The Armenian version. The Apocalypse was
admitted to the canon, according to Conybeare, in the 1 2th century
through the influence of Nerses, who revised an older version
traceable to the opening of the 5th century, (d) The Egyptian
version is found in two forms, i.e. the Bohairic and Sahidic.
The former has been edited by Horner, who is now also engaged
on an edition of the latter. (e,f) The Ethiopic and Arabic
versions have not yet been critically edited.
External Evidence and Canonicity, 2nd Century. It is possible
that the Apocalypse was known to Ignatius, Eph. xv. 3
(Rev. xxi. 3); Philad. vi. i (Rev. iii. 12). Some have thought
also that Barnabas (vi. 13, xxi. 3) was acquainted with our text,
but this is highly improbable. Andreas of Caesarea mentions
Papias as attesting the credibility of Revelation, and cites two
of his remarks on Rev. xii. 7. The fact that Eusebius does not
mention Revelation among the New Testament books known to
Papias (H.E. iii. 39) may be due to the historian's unfriendly
attitude to the book. Moreover, Papias may be one of the
presbyters to whom, as having actually seen John, Irenaeus
(v. 30 = Eusebius, H.E.v. 8) appealson behalf of the number 666.
From these possible and highly probable references we pass on
to the clear testimony of Justin Martyr, who is the first to declare
that Revelation is by " John, one of the Apostles of Christ "
(Dial. Ixxxi. 15), and a book of canonical standing (i. 28). In
the latter half of this century it meets with very wide recogni-
tion. Thus a treatise of some description was written upon it
by Melito of Sardis in Asia Minor (Eus. H.E. iv. 26), and quoted
by the anti-Montanist Apollonius (H.E. v. 18) and Theophilus
of Antioch (H.E. iv. 24). In Carthage its currency is proven
by the references of Tertulh'an, and the phraseology of the Acts
of Perpetua and Felicitas ( 4, 12); in Alexandria by the
citations of Clement (Paed. i. 6. 36; ii. 10. 108, &c.); in Rome
by its inclusion in the Muratorian canon, and in Gaul by its
use in the Epistle of the churches of Vienne and Lyons (Eus.
H.E. v. 10. 58), and in Irenaeus, who defends the apostolic
authorship of the Revelation of John (Haer. iv. 14. i, 17. 6, 18.6,
20. n, 21. 3; v. 26. i, &c.).
But in certain quarters the authority of the book was denied.
Thus Marcion rejected it on the ground of its Jewish character
(Tertullian, c. Marcion, iv. 5) , and the Alogi assigned both Revela-
tion and the Gospel to Cerinthus (Epiphanius, Haer. li. 3).
This attitude is more widely represented hi the next century.
Third Century. The attack on Revelation was resumed by
abler antagonists in this century. The objections of the Alogi
were restated and maintained by the Roman presbyter Caius
in his controversy with the Montanist Proclus (Eus. H.E. ii. 25. 6;
iii. 28. 2), but met with such overwhelming refutation at the
hands of Hippolytus (see Gwynn, Hermathena, vi. 397-418)
that no church writer in the West subsequently except Jerome
seriously called in question the authorship of our book.
Dionysius of Alexandria (A.D. 255) wrote a moderate and
effective criticism, in which he rejects the hypothesis of the
REVELATION, BOOK OF
213
Cerinthian authorship and urges that it was not written by
the apostle, on the ground of its difference in language, style
and contents from the other Johannine writings. Its author
was some inspired man bearing the same name as the son of
Zebedee. The arguments of Dionysius were repeated by Eusebius,
who ascribed the work to the presbyter John mentioned by
Papias (Eus. H.E. iii. 39) and was in doubt whether he should
place Revelation among the spurious (wWa)works (H.E. iii. 25.4)
or the accepted (6jnoXo7ouju < a).
Eastern Church. In the Eastern Church the views of Diony-
sius and Eusebius were generally accepted. With the exception
of Methodius and Pamphilus the book was not received by
Eastern scholars. Thus it was either not mentioned or dis-
owned by Cyril of Jerusalem, Chrysostom, Theodore of Mop-
suestia, Theodoret and Amphilochus of Iconium. It is absent
from the so-called Synopsis of Athanasius, the Stichometry of
Nicephorus, the List of Sixty Books and other authoritative
documents. It formed no part of the Peshitta New Testament .
It was apparently unknown to Ephraem. Even when later
it found a place in the Philoxenian and Harclean versions it
never became a familiar book to the Syrian Churches, while it
was unhesitatingly rejected by the Nestorian and Jacobite
Churches.
But though the Syrian Church maintained this unconciliatory
attitude to the book, opposition to it began gradually to dis-
appear in the rest of the East. Thus it came to be acknow-
ledged by Athanasius, Isidore of Pelusium, Gregory of Nyssa,
and others. Commentaries on the book were written by
Andreas, archbishop of Caesarea, in the sth century, and Arethas
in the pth.
Western Church. In the Western Church, Revelation was
accepted by all writers from Hippolytus onward with the
exception of Jerome, who relegated it to the class lying between
the canonical and apocryphal. The authenticity of the book
was unquestioned thenceforward till the Reformation, when
the view of Jerome was revived by Erasmus, Carlstadt, Luther
and others under various forms. In the Lutheran Church this
opposition lasted into the next century, but in the Reformed
it gave way much earlier. That Revelation has retained its
place in the canon is due not to its extravagant claims to in-
spiration or its apocalyptical disclosures, but to its splendid
faith and unconquerable hope, that have never failed to awake
the corresponding graces in every age of the Church's history.
The History of Interpretation. This is a most fruitful subject,
and the study of it helps to settle other related questions. We
first of all might divide the methods of interpretation into two
classes: I. Methods which presuppose the literal unity of the
book; II. Methods which presuppose some breach of this unity
either in the plan of the book as a whole or in some of its details.
I. Methods presupposing the Literal Unity of the Book. Where
the book was accepted the problem of its interpretation was
differently dealt with according to the age and environment of
the interpreter. The book was first taken in a severely literal
sense, and particularly in its. chiliastic doctrine.
i. Chiliastic Interpretation. Revelation was held to teach
chiliasm, or the doctrine of the literal reign of 1000 years.
Amongst the chiliasts were Cerinthus, Papias, Justin, Irenaeus,
Hippolytus, Tertullian and Victorinus. 1 When the Church
obtained the mastery of the world this method came naturally
to be abandoned in favour of a spiritualistic interpretation, to
which we shall presently refer. But the growing secularism of
the Church led to a revival of the former method in the beginning
of the 1 3th century amongst the Franciscans. Thus Joachim
of Floris in his Expositio magni abbatis loachimi in Apoc.
teaches that Babylon is Rome, the Beast from the Sea Islam,
the False Prophet the heretical sects of the day, and that on
the close of the present age which was at hand the millennium
would ensue. This method of interpretation was pursued to
extravagant lengths by other Franciscans and was subsequently
1 The oldest Latin commentary was written by this scholar (ob.
303). He was the first in extant literature to interpret certain
passages in Revelation of Nero.
adopted by the Protestant reformers, who could justify their
identification of the papacy with the Antichrist from books
written within the Roman communion. Joachim was the first
to apply the " recapitulation " theory to Revelation.
ii. Spiritualistic Interpretation. The founder of this school of
interpretation was Ticonius the Montanist (floruit A.D. 380),
though he followed therein the precedent set by Origen. His
interpretation is on the whole mystical. Historical fulfilments,
if not excluded, are not sought for. The millennium is the
period between the first and second comings of Christ. The
method of Ticonius was dominant in the Church down to the
middle ages, amongst his followers being such notable church-
men as Augustine, Primasius, Cassiodorus, Bede, Anselm.
iii. Universal Historical Method of Interpretation. A counter-
attempt over against Joachim to interpret Revelation in the
light of history was made by Nicolas of Lyra (1329, in his
Poslitla), following (?) therein the lead of Petrus Aureolus(i3i7).
Here for the first time a consistently elaborated world-historical
interpretation is carried out from the reign of Domitian to
Lyra's own period. Under this method might be classed the
expositions of Luther, Osiander, Striegel, Flacius, Gerhard and
Calovius; and English writers such as Napier, Mede and
Newton. Throughout these later commentaries a strong
antipapal interest which identified the pope with the Antichrist
holds a central place a doctrine which, as we have seen, goes
back historically to the immediate disciples of Joachim and
like-minded Franciscans.
iv. Contemporary-Historical Method. Under- the stress of the
Protestant attack there arose new methods on the papal side,
and their authors were the Spanish Jesuits, Ribeira (ob. 1591)
and Alcasar (ob. 1614). With these writers we have the be-
ginning of a scientific method of interpretation. They approach
the book from the standpoint of the author and seek the clue
to his writings in the events of his time. It is from these scholars
that subsequent writers of Revelation have learnt how to study
this book scientifically. 2 This method was adopted and
developed by Grotius, 3 Hammond, Clericus, Semler, Corredi
and Eichhorn, Liicke, Bleek and Ewald, and the consciousness
that Rome and not Jerusalem was the object of attack in
Revelation became increasingly clear in the works of these
scholars. The work of Ramsay, The Letters to the Seven
Churches (1904), is a pure representative of this method.
v.-vii. Continuously Historical, Eschatological 4 and Symbolical
Methods. These methods are now generally regarded as un-
scientific, and call for no further notice here save to mention
that the first was upheld by Hengstenberg, Ebrard, Maitland,
Elliott, &c. ; the second by Kliefoth, Beck, Zahn, and the third
by Auberlen, Luthardt, Milligan and Benson.
The learned Cambridge Commentary by Swete (The Apoc-
alypse of John, 2nd ed., 1907) makes use of several of the
methods of interpretation enumerated above. Thus Dr Swete
writes (p. ccxviii) of his work: " With the ' preterists ' (con-
temporary-historical) it will take its stand on the circumstances
of the age and locality to which the book belongs, and will
connect the greater part of the prophecy with the destinies of
the empire under which the prophet lived; with the ' futurists '
(eschatological) it will look for fulfilments of St John's pregnant
words in times yet to come. With the school of Auberlen and
Benson it will find in the Apocalypse a Christian philosophy of
history; with the ' continuous-historical ' school it can see
1 The Jesuit Juan Mariana was the first after Victorinus to explain
" the wounded head " as referring to Nero. This interpretation
was introduced into Protestant exegesis by Corrodi.
1 The beginnings of the literary-critical method are to be found in
Grotius. Starting from the different dates assigned by tradition to
the exile to Patmos and the different chronological relations implied
in the book itself, he conjectured that the Apocalypse was composed
of several works of St John, written in different places and at different
times, some before, some after A.D. 70. Herein he was followed by
Hammond and Lakemacher, but the idea was before its time and
practically died stillborn.
_ 4 Or futurist. While it is impossible to interpret the Apocalypse
scientifically as a whole by the eschatological method, there are un-
doubtedly some sections in it which must be so interpreted.
214
REVELATION, BOOK OF
in the progress of events ever new illustrations of the working
of the great principles which are revealed. And ... it will
gladly accept all that research and discovery can yield for the
better understanding of the conditions under which the book
was written." The chief value of this very scholarly book is
to be found in its textual side.
The greater number of the methods discussed above have
made no permanent contribution to the exegesis of Revelation;
the method among them that has done most in this direction
is the contemporary-historical. But, though this method has
been applied in its fullness, and that by the keenest exegetes,
there remains a consciousness that it has failed to solve many
of the problems of the book. In many important points,
however, its upholders are agreed, i.e. that the book is directed
against Rome, that Nero redivivus is to be recognized in the
wounded head, that the number 666 denotes Nero Caesar, and
that in chap. xi. the preservation of the temple is foretold.
Consequently the date of the composition of the book is placed
before A.D. 70. Against the date assigned to the opening
verses of this chapter modern scholars can make no objection,
but, if this be the date of the entire work, then many passages
in it are hopelessly inexplicable; for the latter just as certainly
demand a date subsequent to A.D. 70 as xi. 1-2, a date prior to
it. If, therefore, the possibilities of exegesis were exhausted in
the list of methods already enumerated, science would have
to put the New Testament Apocalypse aside as a hopeless
enigma. But there is no such impasse. For in the New
Testament Apocalypse there is not that rigid consistency and
unity in detail that the past presupposed. The critical studies
of recent years have shown that most of the Old Testament
prophetical books are composite. And this holds true in no
less a degree of most of the Jewish apocalypses. Such works
are to be explained on what might be called the " fragmentary
hypothesis." Other books, like the Ethiopic Enoch, exhibit a
series of independent sources connected more or less loosely
together. Such are to be explained on the " sources hypo-
thesis." Others, like the Ascension of Isaiah, betray the handi-
work of successive editors, and are accordingly to be explained
on the " redaction hypothesis." Now modern scholars have
with varying success used in turn these three hypotheses with
a view to the solution of the problems of the New Testament
Apocalypse. To these we shall now address ourselves.
II. Methods Literary-Critical presupposing some Degree of
Compositeness in the Book.
i. Redaction Hypothesis. Suggestions, as we have already
observed, had been made in this direction, but it was not till
Weizsacker (Theol. Lilteraturzeitung, 1882, p. 78 seq.) reopened
the question that the problem was seriously undertaken. In
the same year his pupil Volter (Die Entstehung der Apok., 1882,
1885) put forward the bold theory that the original Apocalypse
consisted of i. 4-6, iv. i-v. 10, vi. 1-17, vii. 1-8, viii. 1-13,
ix. 1-21, xi. 14-19, xiv. 1-3, 6, 7, xiv. 14-20, xviii. 1-24, xix. 1-4,
xix. 5-ioa, which he assigned to the year A.D. 66 (so the second
edition). To this the original author added as an appendix x.
i-xi. 13, xiv. 8, xvii. 1-18, in A.D. 68-70. The work under-
went three later redactions at the hands of successive editors
in the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian. Instead of the above
complex theory this writer now offers another (Die O/enbarung
Johannis, 1904),' in which he distinguishes an apocalypse of
John, A.D. 65, i. 4-6, iv. i-v. 10, vi. i-vii. 8, viii.-ix., xi. 14-19,
xiv. 1-3, 6-7, xiv. 14-20, xviii. i-xix. 4, xix. 5-10 (pp. 3-56),
an apocalypse of Cerinthus A.D. 70, x. i-n, xvii. 1-18, xi. 1-13,
xii. 1-16, xv. 5-6, 8, xvi. 1-21, xix. n-xxi. 8, xxi. 9-xxii. 6
(pp. 56-129), a redaction of the work in A.D. 114-15, i. 7-8,
v. 6b, 11-14, vii. 9-17, xii. n, i8-xiii. 18, xiv. 4-5, 0-12, xv.
1-4, 7, xvi. igb, xvii. 14, 16, 17, xxi. 14, 22-27, xxii. 1-2, 8-9
(pp. 129-48), and certain additions, i. 1-3, 9-iii. 22, xiv. 13,
xvi. 15, xxii. 7, 10-20, made in the time of Hadrian (pp. 148-171).
First of all it should be observed that Volter was the first to
1 Besides the works mentioned here Volter wrote two other works
on the Apocalypse: Die Offenbarung Johannis, 1886; Das Problem
der Apokalypse, 1893.
call attention to the radical difference in outlook between
vii. 1-8 and vii. 0-17 a difference now generally recognized.
Next it is noteworthy that in the second scheme here given
Volter has abandoned his theory of a redaction hypothesis
in favour of a sources hypothesis+a redactor. The earlier view
of Volter was rejected on every side: the later will not prove
more acceptable, though individual suggestions of this scholar
will be occasionally helpful. The problem was next dealt
with by Vischer (Die O/enbarung Johannis, eine Judische
Apokalypse in Christlicher Bearbeitung, 1886, 2nd ed., 1895),
who took iv. i-xxii. 5 to be a Jewish apocalypse revised and
edited by a Christian, to whom he assigned i.-iii., v. 0-14, vii.
0-17, xi. 8b, xii. u, xiii. 9, 10, xiv. 1-5, 12, 13, xvi. 15, xvii.
14, xix. 9, 10, I3b, xx. 4b-sa, 6, xxi. sb-8, i4b, xxii. 6-21,
together with some isolated expressions and all references to
the Lamb. This scheme met with a better reception than that
of Volter, but it also has failed to solve the problem. In 1891
Erbes (Offenbarung Johannis, 1891) maintained that the book
was entirely of Christian origin. The groundwork was written
about A.D. 62. In this an editor incorporated a Caligula
apocalypse, and a subsequent editor revised the existing work
in many passages and made considerable additions, especially
in the later chapters. Another attempt, mainly from this
standpoint, has recently been made by J. Weiss of Marburg
(Offenbarung des Johannis, 1904). This writer seeks to estab-
lish the existence of an original Christian apocalypse written
before A.D. 60. This included (see p. in) i. 4-6 (7, 8), 9-19,
ii.-vii., ix., xii. 7-12, xiii. 11-18, xiv. 1-5, 14-20, xx. 1-15, xxi.
1-4, xxii. 3-5, 8 sqq. With this a Jewish apocalypse (x.-xi. 13,
xii. 1-6, 14-17, xiii. 1-7, xv.-xix., xxi. 9-27 see p. 115), written
A.D. 70, was incorporated by the redactor. This latter apocalypse
consisted of a series of independent prophecies which appeared
to have the same crisis in view. This redactor, moreover, was
the first who gave to the Apocalypse the character of an attack
on the Roman Empire and the imperial cult by means of a
series of small additions. In the above work we have a com-
bination of the redaction and sources hypotheses.
ii. Sources Hypothesis. The same year Weyland (Theol.
Tijdsch., 1886, 454-70; Omiverkings en Compilatie-Hypothesen
toegepast op de Apoc. van Johannis, 1888) advanced the theory
of two Jewish sources (x and a), which were subsequently
worked over by a Christian redactor. Such a theory as that
just mentioned hopelessly fails to account for the linguistic
unity of the book.
A very elaborate form of this theory was issued in 1884
(O/enbarung Johannis) by Spitta, who found three main
sources in the Apocalypse. First, there was the primitive
Christian apocalypse embracing the letters and the seals written
by John Mark soon after A.D. 60, i. 4-6, 9-19, ii. i-iii. 22,
iv.-vi., viii. i, vii. 9-17, xix. gb, 10, xxii. 8, 10-13, J 6a, 17, i8a,
2ob-2i. Secondly, the trumpet source of the time of Caligula
(circa 40), vii. 1-8, viii. 2-ix., x. 1-7, xi. 15, 19, xii.-xiii. 18,
xiv. i-n, xvi. 13-20, xix. 11-21, xx. 1-3, 8-15, xxi. i, 5a, 6a.
Thirdly, the vials source from the time of Pompey (circa 63),
x. ib, 2a, 8a, 9b, io-n, xi. 1-13, isb, 17, 18, xiv. 14-20,
xv. 2-6, 8, xvi. i 12, 173, 21, xvii. i-6a, xviii. 1-23, xix. 1-8,
xxi. 9-xxii. 3a, 15. The rest of the book is from the hands of
the redactor.
In 1891 Schmidt resolved the book into three independent
sources which were put together by a redactor (Anmerkungen
Uber d. Komposition der Offenb. Johannis).
In 1895 Briggs (Messiah of the Apostles, 1895) developed this
theory to a still more extreme degree.
iii. Fragment Hypothesis. The previous theories have brought
to light and emphasized the fact that within the Apocalypse
there are passages^ inconsistent with the tone and character of
the whole. But, notwithstanding this fact, the Apocalypse
gives a strong impression of its unity. Thus apparently the
only remaining theory which can account for both these pheno-
mena is that at which we have now arrived, i.e. the fragment
hypothesis. To Weizsacker we owe the first statement of this
theory: In 1882 (Theol. Litteraturz. pp. 78-9) he suggested
REVELATION, BOOK OF
215
that while the book is a unity the author made free use of older
materials. Later, in his Apostolic Age (1886, 2nd ed. 1892), he
specifies these additions as vii. 1-8 (A.D. 64-66), x.-xi. 1-13
(circa A.D. 67), xii. i-n, 12-17 (circa 69), xiii. (time of Vespasian),
xvii. (time of Domitian).
Sabatier (Les Origines litter aires . . . de I' apocalypse, 1888)
regards the book as a unity into which its author had intro-
duced older Jewish materials not always consistent with their new
contexts, such as xi. 1-13, xii.-xiii., xiv. 6-20, xvi. 13, 14, 16,
xvii. i-xix. 2, xix. n-xx. 10, xxi. 9-xxii. 5. The author wrote x.
with a view to adapting xi. 1-13 to its new context. Schoen
(L'Origine de I' apocalypse, 1887) attached himself in the main
to the scheme of Sabatier. Both these writers assign the
Apocalypse to the reign of Domitian.
The labours of these scholars, though to the superficial student
they seem to prove that everything is possible and nothing
certain, have certainly thrown great light on the literary
character of the Apocalypse. Though differing in detail, they
tend to show that, while the book is the production of one author,
all its parts are not of the same date, nor are they one and all
his first-hand creation. For many of the facts, the discovery of
which we owe to the literary critics, have made the assumption
of an absolute unity in the details of the Apocalypse a practical
impossibility. Incongruities manifest themselves not only
between certain sections and the main scheme of the book, but
also between these and their immediate contexts. These sections
are vii. i-8a, xi. 1-13, xii., xiii., xvii., xviii., xx., xxi. 9-xxii. 5.
Some of these sections (xi., xii., xiii., xvii.) contain elements
that cannot be explained from any of the above methods. The
symbols and myths in these are not the creation of the writer,
but borrowed from the past, and in not a few instances the
materials are too foreign to his subject to lend themselves to
his purpose without the help of artificial and violent expedients.
For the elucidation of these foreign elements a new method
the traditional-historical is necessary, and to the brilliant
scholar Gunkel we owe its origination.
iv. Traditional-historical Method. Gunkel (Schopfung und
Chaos in Urzeit und Endzeit; eine religionsgeschichtliche Unler-
suchung ilber Gen. I und Joh. 12, 1895) opened up new lines of
investigation. He criticizes sharply (pp. 173 sqq., 233 sqq.)
former methods of interpretation, and with the ardour of a
discoverer of a new truth seeks to establish its currency through-
out the entire field of apocalyptic. To such an extreme does
he carry his theory that he denies obvious references to his-
torical personages in the Apocalypse, when these are clothed in
apocalyptic language. Thus he refuses to recognize Nero in
the beast and its number. But apart from its extravagances,
his theory has undoubted elements of truth. It is true that
tradition largely fixes the form of figures and symbols in apoca-
lyptic. Yet each new apocalypse is to some extent a reinter-
pretation of traditional material, which the writer uses not
wholly freely but with reverence from the conviction that they
contained the key to the mysteries of the present and the past.
From this standpoint it may be argued that every apocalypse
is in a certain sense pseudonymous; for the materials are not
the writer's own, but have come down to him as a sacred deposit
full of meaning for the seeing eye and the understanding heart.
On the other hand, since much of the material of an apocalypse
is a reinterpretation, it is necessary to distinguish between its
original meaning and the new turn given to it in the Apocalypse.
At times details in the transmitted material are unintelligible
to our author, and these in some cases he omits referring to
in his interpretation. The presence of such details is strong
evidence of the writer's use of foreign material.
As an illustration of his theory Gunkel seeks at great length to
establish the Babylonian origin of chap. xii. of the Apocalypse.
His investigation tends to show that in the course of tradition
cosmological myths are transformed into eschatological dogmas.
The above method was adopted by Bousset in his work Der
Antichrist in der Uberlieferung des Judenthums, des Neuen
Testaments, und der alien Kirche (1895), in which he sought to
show that a fixed tradition of the Antichrist originating in
Judaism can be traced from New Testament times down to the
middle ages, and that this tradition was in the main unaffected
by the Apocalypse, though in chap. xi. the Apocalypse shows
dependence on it. Next in 1896 he published his commentary
Die 0/enbarung Johannis (2nd ed. 1906). In this work he
availed himself of the results of the past and followed the three
approved methods the contemporary-historical, the fragment-
ary and the traditional-historical.
Julicher (Einleitung in das Neue Testament 4 , 1901, pp. 204-29)
adopts the same three methods of interpretation.
Holtzmann (Einleitung in das N.T. 1 , 1892; Hand-Commenlar 1 ,
1893; Lehrbuch der NTlichen Theol., i. 463-76) holds mainly to
the contemporary-historical method in his earlier works, though
recognizing signs of a double historical background; but in his
last work the importance of tradition as a source of the writer's
materials is fully acknowledged.
In 1902 O. Pfleiderer in the second edition of his Urchristentum
(1902, pp. 281-335) abandoned his former view on the Apocalypse
and followed essentially the lines adopted by Bousset, though
the details are differently treated.
In the same year Porter's able article on " Revelation "
appeared in Hastings' Bible Dictionary (iv. 239-66), and in
1905 his still fuller treatment of the same theme in The Mes-
sages of the Apocalyptical Writers, 169-294. To these works the
present writer is indebted for many a suggestion.
A small commentary (no date) by Anderson Scott follows in
some measure the lines laid down in Bousset and Porter.
Psychological Method. It might be supposed that all possible
methods had now been considered, and that a combination
of the three methods which have established their validity
in relation to the interpretation of the Apocalypse would be
adequate to the solution of all the problems of the book, but this
is not so; for even when each in turn has vindicated the pro-
vinces in the book that rightly belong to it, and brought intelligi-
bility into these areas, there still remain outlying regions which
they fail to illumine. It is not indeed that these methods have
not claimed to solve the questions at issue, but that their
solutions have failed to satisfy the larger body of reasonable
criticism. The main problem, which so far has not been satis-
factorily solved, may be shortly put as follows: Are the visions
in the Apocalypse the genuine results of spiritual experiences, or
are they artificial productions, mere literary vehicles of the
writer's teaching? Weizsacker unhesitatingly advocates the
latter view. But the serious students of later times find them-
selves unable to follow in his footsteps. The writer's belief in
his prophetic office and his obvious conviction of the inviolable
sanctity of his message make it impossible to accept Weizsacker's
opinion. Nor is it possible to accept Gunkel's theory in Schop-
fung und Chaos as an adequate explanation, who explained
the author's conviction of the truth of his message as spring-
ing always from the fact that he was dealing with traditional
material. This theory, which we have already dealt with in
other connexions, is undoubtedly helpful, but here we require
something more, and Gunkel has in consequence of Weinel's
work (Wirkungen des Geistes und der Geisler, 1899) subsequently
acknowledged that actual spiritual experiences lie behind some
of the visions in apocalyptic (Kautzsch, Pseud, des A.T., ii.
341 sqq.). The fact of such visionary experience can hardly
be questioned: the only difficulty lies in determining to what
extent it underlies the revelations of apocalyptic. For a short
discussion of this question we might refer to Bousset 's OJfen-
barung Johannis*, pp. 8 sqq., and Porter's article on " Revela-
tion " in Hastings' Bible Dictionary, iv. 248 sqq.
Methods of Interpretation. As a result of the preceding in-
quiry we conclude that the student of the Apocalypse must
make use of the following methods the contemporary-
historical, the literary-critical (fragmentary hypothesis), the
traditional-historical and the psychological. Each of these
has its legitimate province, and the extent of this province can
in most cases be defined with reasonable certainty.
Plan and Detailed Criticism of the Book. Two theories have
been advanced to explain the plan and order of the book. The
2l6
REVELATION, BOOK OF
first of these is the recapitulation theory which Tyconius originated
and Augustine adopted, and which has been revived in later
times by Hofmann, Hengstenberg and others. This theory holds
that no progress is designed in the successive visions of the seven
seals, the seven trumpets and the seven bowls; for that in the
vision of the seals we have already an account of the last judg-
ment (vi. 12-17) and the blessed consummation (vii. 9-17).
Thus the three groups form parallel accounts and contain the
same or closely related material. But such a view is in conflict
with the fact that the Apocalypse exhibits a steady movement
from a detailed account of the condition of actual individual
churches on an ever-widening sweep to the catastrophes that
will befall every nation and country till at last evil is finally
overthrown and the blessedness of the righteous consummated.
Accordingly later exegetes * hold that the seventh in each series is
unfolded in the series of seven that follows. But to this theory
also it has been objected (Holtzmann, Hand-Commentar. p. 294)
that the bowls are in the main a repetition in parts weaker, in
others stronger of what has already been put forward in the
trumpets; that before the seventh member of each hebdomad
there is a pause occasioned by the insertion of visions of a
different nature; that the final judgment has already been
depicted in vi. 17, and yet further descriptions recur in x. 6, 7,
xi. 15-18, xiv. 7, xix. n: the temple in heaven is opened in
xi. 19 and yet again in xv. 5: heaven itself has already been
rent in sunder in vi. 12-17, an( l ve t i n vu i. 7-12 is supposed to
be in its ancient order: all green grass is burnt up in viii. 7,
yet in ix. 4 the locusts are not permitted to injure the grass,
and other like inconsistencies.
The impossibility of logically carrying out either theory has
given rise to doubts as to the unity of the book. Holtzmann
(Hand-Comment. 295) represents its structure as follows:
i. 1-8 . . Introduction,
i. 9-iii. 22 . . Group of seven letters.
iv.-v. 14 . . Heavenly scene of the Vision,
vi. 1-17 . . Six seals.
vii. 1-17 . . The sealed and the blessed,
viii. 1-5 . . The emergence of the trumpets
from the seventh seal,
viii. 6.-ix. 21 . Six trumpets.
x. i-xi. 14 . Destiny of Jerusalem.
xi. 15-19 . . The seventh trumpet.
xii. i-xiv. 5 . The great visions of the three
chief enemies and of the
Kingdom of the Messiah,
xiv. 6-20 . . Return to the earlier connexion,
xv. i-xvi. i . Transition to the bowls,
xvi. 2-21 . . Seven bowls.
xvii. i-xix. 10 The great Babylon.
xix. u-xx. 15 Final catastrophes.
xxi.-xxii. 5 . The New Jerusalem,
xxii. 6-21 . . Conclusion.
It is noteworthy that the sections on the right hand correspond
in the main to the elements which have been those to which
1 Swete divides the Apocalypse first of all into forty-two minor
sections. Next he groups these sections into fourteen larger masses
of apocalyptic matter, and by a process of synthesis seeks to arrive
at the plan on which the author constructed his book. In so doing
he points out that we become conscious of a great cleavage which
practically divides the book into two parts, i. cj-xi. 14 and xii. I-
xxii. 5, independently of the prologue and greeting, i. 1-8, and
the epilogue and benediction, xxii. 6-21. A further study of the
leading thoughts of the above parts enables him to set forth the
scheme of the book as follows :
PROLOGUE AND GREETING, i. 1-8.
Part I. Vision of Christ in the midst of the churches, i. 9-iii. 22.
Vision of Christ in Heaven, iv. i v. 14.
Preparations for the End, vi. I-xi. 19.
Part II. Vision of the Mother of Christ (i.e. the Church) and her
enemies, xii. i xiii. 18.
Preparations for the End, xiv. l-xx. 15.
Vision of the Bride of Christ arrayed for her husband,
xxi. l-xxii. 5.
Epilogue and benediction, xxii. 6-21.
the latest critics have assigned either an earlier date or a different
authorship.
Chaps, i.-iii. These chapters open with a prologue, i. 1-3,
which defines the source, character and contents of the book,
followed by a greeting, i. 4-8, in which the writer salutes the
Seven Churches of Asia. Having so introduced his work the
author describes a vision of the ascended Christ, i. 9-20, who
sends His messages to the angels of the Seven Churches, ii.-iii.
With the conclusion of these epistles the Apocalypse proper really
begins. But the way has been prepared for it. Its contents
are " the things which must quickly happen," i. i. The visions
are not for John's personal benefit, but for transmission to-
the church at large, i. n, and the writer is bidden to write down
what he has seen and " the things which are and the things
which shall be hereafter," i. 19.
iv.-vi. The first three chapters show great artistic skill, and
the power of the artist is no less conspicuous in what follows.
First of all John is bidden to come up into heaven and see the
things that should be hereafter, the vision of iv. i. Then he
beholds the Almighty on His throne surrounded by the four and
twenty elders and the four living creatures. Before Him they
all bow in worship and acknowledge that by Him were created
all things and of His own free will were all created. In the
next chapter (v.) the seer has a vision of a roll in the hand of Him
that sat on the throne which none could open or look upon, till
the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the mighty one with seven horns
and seven eyes, appeared. Before Him all the elders and the
living creatures fell down and acknowledged that He had power
to open the seven seals thereof, and their song was re-echoed
by every thing alike in heaven and earth. The contrast be-
tween these two chapters and those that follow is striking in the
extreme. The time of the seer's vision is one of direst need.
The life and death struggle between the church and the empire
has now entered on its final stage, and fear and trouble and woe
are rife in the hearts of the faithful. But when the seer is
exalted to heaven he sees no trace of the turmoil on earth. The
vision of the Almighty is full of majesty and peace. All things
do Him service; for all are the free creation of His will. The
next vision serves to connect the Source and Sustainer of all
things with the world and its history. The closing of the inter-
mediate stage of the history of created things is committed to
the Christ who will also be Lord of the age to come. The future
of the saints is assured: what can avail against Him that hath
" glory and dominion for ever and ever " the wild attacks of
Rome and even of Satan and his hosts ? The Lamb that was
slain has taken upon Himself the burden of the world's history.
In vi. we have the opening of the six seals, and the horrors
of the future begin. The choice of three series of seven seals,
seven trumpets and seven bowls, to form the framework in
which the history of the last woes is to be given, shows the same
hand that addressed the churches as seven. But between the
sixth and seventh seals and the sixth and seventh trumpets
the connexion is more or less disturbed by the insertion of certain
interludes containing material foreign in certain aspects to the
Apocalypse. These are vii. 1-17 and x. i-xi. 14.
vii. 1-17. These verses, which interrupt the plan of the book,
fall into two independent fragments, 1-8 and 9-17, which are
inconsistent in their original meaning with each other. For
while 1-8 was most probably a Jewish apocalyptical fragment and
strongly particularistic, 9-17 is clearly universalist in character
and is probably from the hand of our author. The foreign
origin of vii. 1-8 may be concluded with Spitta, Bousset and
others from the fact that the four winds, which in vii. i are said
to be held fast lest they should break in elemental fury on land
and sea, are not let loose or referred to in the subsequent narrative,
and also from the mention of the 144,000 Israelites of the twelve
tribes, to whom no further reference is made; for these can no
more be identified with the countless multitudes in vii. 0-17
than with those who are " sealed " in ix. 4 sq. nor with the
144,000 in xiv. i; for in both these cases the sealed are not Jews
but elect Christians. The object of both fragments was to
encourage the faithful in the face of the coming strife. In the
REVELATION, BOOK OF
latter, in which the Apocalyptist looks forward prophetically to
the issue, the assurance held out is of ultimate victory, but of
victory through death or martyrdom. In the former (Jewish
or Christian- Jewish fragment) the sealing seemed to have carried
with it the assurance of deliverance from physical death, as in
Ezek. ix. 4 sqq. But in its new context this meaning can hardly
be retained. Not improbably the sealing means to our author
the preservation not from death, but through death from
unfaithfulness, and the number 144,000 would signify mystically
the entire body of true Christians, which formed the true people
of God.
Chapter vii., then, interrupts the development of the author's
plan, but the interruption is deliberate. He wishes to encourage
the persecuted church not only to face without fear, but also to
meet with triumphant assurance the onset of those evils which
would bring panic and despair on the unbelieving world.
viii.-ix. These chapters, though presenting some minor
difficulties, do not call for discussion here. They recount the
six partial judgments which followed the opening of the seventh
seal and the blasts of the six trumpets.
x.-xi. 1-13. This section bristles with difficulties. Chapter x.
forms an introduction to xi. 1-13. In it the prophet receives
a new commission, x. 1 1 : " Thou must prophesy again over many
peoples and nations and tongues and kings." This new com-
mission explains his departure from the plan pursued in the
earlier chapters of developing the seventh in each series into a
new series of seven. The seer has a vision of the seven thunders,
but these he is bidden to seal and not commit to writing. He
is instead to write down the new book of prophecies. The end
is at hand. It is noteworthy that in the earlier visions it was
Christ who spoke to the seer. Here and in the later visions,
especially those drawn from foreign sources, it is an angel.
In xi. 1-13 we have a characteristic illustration of our author's
dependence on* traditional materials and his free adaptation
of them to meanings other than originally belonged to them.
For it is generally agreed among critics that xi. 1-13 is borrowed
from Jewish sources, and that this fragment really consists of
two smaller fragments, xi. 1-2 and xi. 3-13. The former oracle
referred originally to the actual. Temple, and contained a pre-
diction of the preservation of the Temple. It must have been
written before A.D. 70 and probably by a Zealot. 1 But our
author could not have taken it in this literal sense if he wrote
after A.D. 70 or even anterior to that date, owing to the explicit
declaration of Christ as to the coming destruction of Jerusalem.
The passage, then, must have a spiritual meaning, and its purpose
is the encouragement of the faithful by the assurance of their
deliverance not necessarily from physical death but from the
dominion of the evil one. In xi. 3-13 we have another Jewish
fragment of a very enigmatic character. Bousset has shown
with much probability that it is part of the Antichrist legend.
The prophecy of the two witnesses and their martyrdom belongs
to this tradition. The fragment was apparently written before
A.D. 70, since it speaks of the fall of only a tenth of the city,
xi. i3. 2 The significance of this fragment in our author's use of
it is similar to that of xi. 1-2. The details defy at present
any clear interpretation, but the incorporation of the fragment
may be due in general to the emphasis it lays on the faithful
witness, martyrdom and resurrection of the saints.
xi. 14-19. The seventh trumpet, xi. 15, ushers in the third
woe, xi. 14. Its contents are given in xii.-xx. In xi. 15-19 the
seer hears great voices in heaven singing a triumphal song in
anticipation of the victory that is speedily to be achieved. This
song forms a prelude to the chapters that follow.
1 The Zealots occupied the inner court of the Temple during its
siege by the Romans.
2 The linguistic evidence, as Bousset has pointed out, confirms
the critical conclusion that xi. 1-13 were independent sources. For
whereas in ix.-x. the verb almost regularly begins the sentence and
object follows the verb, in xi. 1-13 the object frequently precedes
the verb and the subject nearly always. The order of the genitive
in xi. 4 is elsewhere unknown in the Apocalypse, and in xi. 2, 3 the
construction of OIOOKCU followed by xai instead of infinitive or Iva. is
unique in this book.
217
xii. This is the most difficult chapter in the book. Its main
intention in its present context is apparently to explain Satan's
dominion over the world and the bitterness of his rage against
the church and against Christ. Christ, indeed, escapes him and
likewise the Jewish Christians (" the woman," xii. 16) but " the
rest of her seed," xii. 17 (the Gentile Christians?), are exposed to
his fury. But his time is at hand; together with his hosts he
has been cast down from heaven, and on the earth he " hath but
a short time." The attribution of the seven heads and ten horns
to the dragon, xii. 3, points forward to Rome, which is regarded
as a temporary incarnation of Satan, xiii. i, xvii. 3.
But, though a few of the leading thoughts of this chapter
may be obvious, we are plunged into problems that all but defy
solution when we essay to discover its origin or interpret its
details. Most scholars are agreed that this chapter is not, except
in the case of a few sentences, the work of our author. In
other words, it has been taken over from pre-existing material
either Christian or Jewish and the materials of which it is
composed are ultimately derived from non-Jewish sources
either Babylonian, Greek or Egyptian and bore therein very
different meanings from those which belong to them in their
present connexion. Furthermore, the materials are fragmentary
and the order irregular.
(a) First of all, the chapter is not the free creation of a Chris-
tian writer. Such an one could never have so represented the
life of Christ a child persecuted by a dragon and carried off to
God's throne. No mention of Christ's earthly life and cruci-
fixion. Furthermore, the victory over Satan is ascribed to
Michael. Again, a Christian could not represent Christ as the
son of the wife of the sun-god; for such is the natural inter-
pretation of the woman crowned with the twelve stars and
with her feet upon the moon. Finally, even if " the woman "
who is the mother of Christ be taken to be the ideal Israel in the
beginning of the chapter, at its close she is clearly the Christian
community founded by Him. We conclude, therefore, that the
present chapter is not the work of our author. There are,
however, traces of his hand. Thus 7-12, which is really a
Jewish fragment recounting the victory of Michael over Satan,
has to a certain degree been adapted to a Christian environment
by the insertion of the lob-n.
(b) The order is not original. The flight of the woman is
mentioned in verse 6 to a place of refuge prepared for her by
God. Then comes an account of the casting down of Satan
from heaven. Then again in 13-16 the flight of the woman
is described. This fact has been variously accounted for by
different critics. Wellhausen regards 1-6 and 7-14 as doublets,
and differentiates two actions in the original account which are
here confused. Spitta takes verse 6 to be an addition of the
redactor, which describes proleptically what follows, while Gunkel
sees in 6 and 7-16 parallel accounts. In any case we should
probably agree with the contention of J. Weiss, supported by
Bousset in the second edition of his commentary, that 7-12 is a
fragment of a Jewish apocalypse, of which lobn is an addition
of our author. Next that 6 is a doublet of 13 sqq. What
then is to be made of 1-5, 13-17? Different explanations have
been offered. Giyikel 3 traces it to a Babylonian origin. He
urges that an adequate explanation is impossible on the assump-
tion of a Jewish or Christian origin. At the base of this account
lies the Babylonian myth of the birth of the sun-god Marduk,
his escape from the dragon who knows him to be his destined
destroyer, and the persecution of Marduk's mother by the
dragon. But Gunkel's explanation is an attempt to account
for one ignotum per ignolius; for hitherto no trace of the myth
of the sun-god's birth and persecution and the flight into the
wilderness has been found in Babylonian mythology. More-
over, Gunkel no longer lays emphasis on the Babylonian, but
merely on the mythical origin of the details. A more satis-
factory explanation has been offered by Dieterich (Abraxas,
117 sqq.), who finds in this chapter an adaptation of the birth
of Apollo and the attempt of the dragon Pytho to kill his mother
3 Schopfung und Chaos 3, Religionsgesch. Verstandniss d. N.T.,
54 sqq.
218
REVELATION, BOOK OF
Leto, because it was foretold that Leto's son would kill the
dragon. Leto escapes to Ortygia, which Poseidon covers with
the sea in order to protect Leto. Here Apollo is born, who
four days later slays the dragon. Yet another explanation from
Egyptian mythology is given by Bousset (Ojfenbarung Johannis,
and ed., pp. 354, 355) in the birth of the sun-god Horus.
Here the goddess mother is represented with a sun upon her
head. Typhon slays Horus. Hathor, his mother, is persecuted
by Typhon and escapes to a floating island with the bones of
Horus, who revives and slays the dragon. 1 There are obvious
points of similarity, possibly of derivation, between the details
in our text and the above myths, but the subject cannot
be further pursued here, save that we remark that in the sun
myth the dragon tries to kill the mother before the child's birth,
whereas in our text it is after his birth, and that neither in the
Egyptian nor in the Greek myth is there any mention of the
flight into the wilderness.
The insertion of the alien matter 7-12 between 1-5 and 13-17
may be due to our author's wish to show that the expulsion of
Satan from heaven after Christ's birth and ascension to heaven
was owing in some measure to Christ, although he has allowed
Michael's name to remain in the borrowed passage, 7-12 a fact
which shows how dependent the writer was on tradition.
xiii. In this chapter we have the two beasts 2 which symbolize
respectively Rome and the Roman provincial priesthood of the
imperial cult. Thus the world powers of heathen statesmanship
and heathen religion are leagued in a confederacy against the
rising Christian Church. Against these the church is not to
attempt to use physical force; its only weapon is to be passive
endurance and loyalty to God.
That this chapter must be interpreted by the contemporary-
historical method is now generally admitted. Even Gunkel
is obliged to abandon his favourite theory here, though he
contests strongly the recognition of any allusion to Nero.
Various solutions have been offered as to the seven emperors
designed by the seven heads of the beast, xiii. i. But the
details of this passage are not sufficiently definite to determine
the question here. It will return in chapter xvii. There are,
however, two facts pointing to a late date. The first is the
advanced stage of development of this, the Neronic-Antichrist
legend. One of the heads " is smitten unto death," but is healed
of the death stroke. This points, we may here assume, to the
Nero rediweus legend, which could not have arisen for a full
generation after Nero's death, and the assumption receives
large confirmation from the most probable interpretation of
the enigmatical words, xiii. 18, " the number of the beast . . .
is six hundred and sixty six." Four continental scholars,
Fritzsche, Senary, Hitzig and Reuss, independently recognized
that Nero was referred to under the mystical number 666.
For by transliterating Kaiaop Ntpd)v into Hebrew i ">?
and adding together the sums denoted by the Hebrew letters
we obtain the number 666. This solution is confirmed by the
fact that it is possible to explain by it an ancient (Western?)
variant for the number 666, i.e. 616. This latter, which is
attested by Irenaeus (v. 30. i), the commentary of Ticonius,
and the uncial C, can be explained from the Latin form of the
name Nero, which by its omission of the final n makes the sum
total 616 instead of 666.
The above solution may be regarded as established, though
several scholars, as Oscar Holtzmann (Stade's Geschichte des
Volkes Israel, ii. 661), Spitta and Erbes, have contended that
616 was the original reading (Yaios Kourap=6i6) and that
'On the possibility of other points of contact between the
Apocalypse and Egyptian mythology, see Mrs Grenfell's article,
" Egyptian Mythology and the Bible," in the Monist (1906), pp.
169-200.
z In xiii. 2 the description of the beast unites the features of the
four beasts in Daniel's vision (vii.). It is clear that our author
identified the fourth beast (vii. 23) with Rome, as did also the
author of 4 Ezra xii. 10. But this was not the original significance
of the fourth beast, for the author of Daniel referred thereby to the
Greek empire; but, since the prophecy was not realized, it was
subsequently reinterpreted, and applied, as we have observed, to
Rome.
chapter xiii. was part of a Jewish apocalypse written under
Caligula between the years 39 and 41. But this Caligula
hypothesis cannot be carried out unless by a vigorous use of
the critical knife, in the course of which more than a third of
the chapter is excised. Moreover the number 616 is too weakly
supported to admit of its being recognized as the original.
The figure of the first beast presents many difficulties, owing
to the fact that it is not freely invented but largely derived
from traditional elements and is by the writer identified with
the seventh wounded head. The second beast, signifying the
pagan priesthood of the imperial cult, called " the false
prophet " in xvi. 13, appears to be an independent development
of the Antichrist legend.
xiv -xvi. These chapters contain a vision of Christ on Mount
Zion and the 144,000 of the undefiled that follow Him, xiv. 1-5,
the last warnings relating to the harvest and vintage of the
world, xiv. 6-20: the vision of the wrath of God in the out-
pouring of the seven bowls containing the seven last plagues,
xv.-xvi.
In the above section most critics are agreed that xiv. 14-20
originally represented the final judgment and was removed
from its rightful place at the close of an apocalypse to its
present position. In its original setting " the one like unto a
Son of Man, having on his head a golden crown " (xiv. 14),
undoubtedly designated the Messiah, but the transformation
of the final judgment into a preliminary act of judgment by a
redactor, necessarily brought with it the degradation of the
Son of Man to the level of a mere angel. Some critics hold
that this apocalypse was the apocalyptic groundwork, but
Bousset is of opinion that it stood originally in connexion with
xi. 1-13.
As regards xvi. the views of critics take different directions,
but that of Bousset followed by Porter seems the most reason-
able. This is that this chapter forms an introduction to xvii.,
which was an independent fragment. The writer throws this
introduction into his favourite scheme of seven acts, in this
case symbolized by seven bowls. The earlier verses, 2-11, do
not amount to much beyond a repetition of what is found in
viii.-ix., save that as a preparation for xvii. references are
inserted to the beast and his worshippers (ver. 2) and to Rome
(ver. 10). In xvi. 12-16 is a revised form of an older tradition.
xvii. This chapter presents great difficulties, especially if
with the older and some of the recent exegetes we regard it as
written at the same time and by the same author. Even so
strong an upholder of the unity of the book as Swete is ready
to admit that portions of xvii., as well as of xiii., show signs of
an earlier date than the rest of the book. He writes: " The
unity of the Book . . . cannot be pressed so far as to exclude
the possibility that the extant book is a second edition of an
earlier work, or that it incorporates earlier materials, and
either hypothesis would sufficiently account for the few indica-
tions of a Neronic or Vespasianic date that have been found
in it " (Apoc. of St John" 1 , p. civ.). This chapter cannot be
interpreted apart from the Neronic myth. Of this there appear
to be two stages attested here. Of the earlier we have traces
in xvii. 16-17 an d xvi. 12, where there are allusions to Nero's
confederacy with the Parthian kings with a view to the destruc-
tion of Rome. Of the later stage, when the myth of Nero
redivivus was fused with that of the Antichrist, we have at-
testation in xvii. 8, 12-14, where Nero is regarded as a demon
coming up from the abyss to war not with Rome but with
Christ and the elect. This development of the Neronic myth
belongs to the last years of the ist century, and is decidedly
against a Vespasianic date. To meet this difficulty a recent
interpreter Anderson Scott though he assigns the book to
the year A.D. 77, is yet willing to admit that the book though
composed in the reign of Vespasian was " reissued with additions
by the same hand after the death of Domitian" (Revelation, p. 56).
Our author represents himself as writing under the sixth
emperor. Five have already died, the seventh is yet to come,
to be followed by yet an eighth, who is one of the seven (i.e.
Nero). In order to arrive at the date here implied, we can
REVELATION, BOOK OF
219
begin the reckoning from Julius Caesar or Augustus, we can
include or exclude Galba, Otho and Vitellius, and, finally, when
we have drawn our conclusions from these data, there remains
the possibility that the book was after all not written under
the sixth emperor, but was really a vaticinium ex eventu. Ac-
cording to the different methods pursued, some have concluded
that Nero was the sixth emperor, and thus dated the Apocalypse
before A.D. 70; others Vespasian, and yet others Domitian.
No solution of the difficulties of the chapter is wholly satis-
factory, but the best yet offered seems to be that of Bousset
(0/enbarung 2 , 410-18). He holds that 1-7, o-n, 15-18,
belong to an original source, which was written in the reign of
Vespasian and represents the earlier stage of the Neronic myth.
To a reviser in Domitian's reign we owe 8, 12-14 and 6b, a clause
in 9, ima. 8pij . . . airrZv, and another in 1 1, 8 fy K.a.1 OVK tara>. If
the clause <ctu in TOV ai/naros rSiv fMprvfxav 'Irjaov in 6 is an addition,
then he thinks the source was Jewish and the " blood of the
saints " was that shed at the destruction of Jerusalem, and the
forecast of the author related to the destruction of Rome.
When the reviser recast the passage it dealt not with the
destruction of Jerusalem, but with the persecution of the
Christians. Nero was now a demonic monster from the abyss,
and the ten kings no longer Parthians but ghostly helpers of
Nero. The destruction of Rome has now become a secondary
event: the reviser's thought is fixed on the final strife between
the Lamb and the Antichrist.
xviii.-xix. 10. This section describes in prophetic language
borrowed almost wholly from Isaiah and Jeremiah the coming
judgment of Rome, and gives the ten lamentations of the kings
and the merchants and the seamen over her, and the thanks-
givings in heaven for her overthrow.
xix. 11-21. The victory of the warrior Messiah over the two
beasts, the Roman Empire and the imperial cultus and the
kings of the earth. Many of the ideas set forth in earlier
chapters here coalesce and find their consummation. The
Messiah, whose birth and escape from the dragon was recounted
in xii. 5, and who was to rule the nations with a rod of iron, at
last appears in discharge of His office. The beast and the false
prophet who are described in xiii. are cast alive into the lake
of fire, and the kings of the earth who had assembled for this
conflict, xvi. 14, xvii. 14, were slain by the sword of Him that
sat on the horse.
The conception of the Messiah may be Jewish: at all events
it is not distinctively Christian. The title " Word of God "
can hardly be said to establish any connexion with the prologue
of the Fourth Gospel; for the conceptions of the Messiah in
that Gospel and in these chapters belong to different worlds
of thought.
It is to be observed that our author follows the apocalyptic
scheme of two judgments which is first attested about 100 B.C.
The first judgment precedes the establishment of the temporary
Messianic kingdom, as here in xix. 19-21; and the final judg-
ment follows at its close, as here in xx. 7-10.
xx. 1-6. The millennium, or the period between the first
and final judgments, when Christ, with His chosen, reigns and
Satan is imprisoned. Rome has been overthrown, but, as
Rome is only the last secular manifestation of Satan, there is yet
the final struggle with Satan and his adherents. But the time
for this struggle has not yet arrived. Satan is bound 1 and cast
into the abyss, and the kingdom of Christ and of the martyrs
and faithful confessors established for a thousand years. Thus
it is shown that evil will be finally overcome; for that the true
and ultimate power even in this world belongs to Christ and
those that are His.
The main features of this section have been borrowed from
Judaism. The Messianic kingdom was originally conceived of
as of everlasting duration on the present earth, but about 100 B.C.
this idea was abandoned and the hopes of the faithful were
directed to a temporary earthly kingdom of 400 or 1000 years
or of indefinite duration (see R. H. Charles, Critical History of
1 This idea appears as early as the 2nd century B.C. Cf. Test.
Levi xviii. 12.
the Doctrine of a Future Life, pp. 201-4, 261, 286, 288). More-
over, the expectation that the saints would rise to share in the
blessedness of this kingdom is also found in Judaism, 4 Ezra
vii. 28 (op. cit. p. 285).
xx. 7-10. Release of Satan and final assault on the city
of God by the hosts of Gog and Magog at the instance of Satan.
Satan and the beasts condemned to eternal torment.
xx. 11-14. The Final Resurrection and Judgment.
xxi. 1-8. The new heavens and the new earth. The language
in this and the following section is highly figurative; but as
Porter has well remarked: " Figurative language is the only
language in which we can express our hope of heaven, and no
figures can have greater power to suggest this hope than those
taken from the literal longings of exiled Israel for the recovery
of its land and city."
xxi. g-xxii. 5. The vision of the New Jerusalem. There
are several grounds for regarding this section as an independent
source possibly of Jewish origin and subsequently submitted to a
Christian revision. This view is taken by Vischer, Weyland,
Spitta, Sabatier, J. Weiss, Bousset and others. Our author
has incorporated it as describing the consummation of the
prevision contained in xi. 15-18, in which he foresaw the time
when the kingdom of the world would become the kingdom of
our Lord and of His Christ, and the saints should enter on their
reward. Moreover, he has already hinted at its contents in
xix. 7 and xxi. 2, where he speaks of the church as a bride and the
marriage supper of the Lamb. But the section betrays incon-
sistent conceptions. The standpoint of the heavenly Jerusalem
is abandoned in xxi. 24-27, xxii. 2, and the context implies an
earthly Jerusalem to which the Gentiles go up as pilgrims.
Outside the gates of this city are unclean and abominable things.
These inconsistencies are best explained by the hypothesis that
our author was drawing upon a literary fixed tradition. The
doublets in xxi. 23 and xxii. sb, in xxi. 25 and xxii. 53, and
in xxi. 27 and xxii. 3, point in the same direction. Various
additions were introduced, according to Bousset, by the last
redactor, such as the frequently recurring reference to the
Lamb, xxi. 9, 22, 23, 27, xxii. i, 3. In xxii. 3 the fact that the
words " of the Lamb " are an addition is clear from the context;
for, after the clause " the throne of God and of the Lamb shall
be therein " the singular follows, " His servants shall do Him
service."
xxii. 6-21. The conclusion. The promises are sure, the
end is near and the judgment at hand. The words of the book
are the message of Christ Himself and are inviolable.
Unity. From the preceding sections it follows that we
cannot ascribe a strict literary unity to the book. The book
is most probably the work of a single author, but it was not
written wholly at one date, nor have all the parts come directly
from one brain. We have several good grounds, for regarding
vii. 1-8, xi. 1-13, xii., xiii., xvii., as wholly or in part independent
sources, which our author has laid under contribution and
adapted more or less adequately to his purpose. He appears to
have taken over with but slight modification xx. and xxi.
9-xxii. 5. Furthermore, while certain fragments such as xi. 1-2
presuppose a date anterior to A.D. 70, others, as xvi. 12 and
xvii. 12, require a date not later than Vespasian's time;
other parts of xvii. postulate a Vespasianic date as the earliest
admissible, and, finally, the composition of the book in its
present form cannot be placed before the closing years of
Domitian. But to this question we shall return presently.
Nevertheless, the book exhibits a relative unity; for, whatever
digressions occur in the development of its theme, the main
object of the writer is never lost sight of. This relative unity
is manifested also in the uniform character of the language, a
uniformity, however, which is occasionally conspicuous by its
absence in the case of independent sources, as in xi. 1-13. The
author or the final redactor has impressed a certain linguistic
character on the book, which differentiates it not only from all
secular writings of the time, but also from all the New Testa-
ment books, including the Johannine. And yet the Apocalypse
shows in many of its phrases an undoubted affinity to the latter
220
REVELATION, BOOK OF
a fact which requires for its explanation the assumption that the
book emanated from certain literary circles influenced by John.
Date. There are many indications of the date, which may be
summarized as follows: (a) Condition of the Asian churches.
(6) Persecution of the church, (c) Attitude of the author to
Rome, (d) The Antichrist legend, (e) Primitive tradition and
its confirmation through the discovery of references in the
text to certain edicts of Domitian. As a result of these con-
siderations we may arrive at the date of the work with almost
greater certainty than that of any other New Testament book.
(a) Condition of the Churches. Christianity appears to have
already had a long history behind it. The fact that St Paul
founded the church of Ephesus seems to have been forgotten.
The earliest zeal has passed away and heathen ways of thought
and life are tolerated and practised at Pergamum and Ephesus,
and faith is dying or dead at Laodicea and Sardis. These
phenomena belong to a period considerably later than the time
of Nero.
(V) Persecution of the Church. Persecution is the order of the
day. Each of the seven letters concludes with praise of those
who have been victorious therein. There had been isolated
instances of persecution at Ephesus, ii. 3, Philadelphia, iii. 8, 10,
and at Smyrna, ii. 9, and of an actual martyrdom at Pergamum,
ii. 13. But now a storm of persecution was about to break upon
the universal church, iii. 10, and in the immediate future.
Already the seer beholds the destined number of the martyrs
complete, vi. 9-11: the great multitude whom no man could
number, clothed in white before the throne of God, vii. 9: he
exhorts his readers to patient endurance unto death, xiv. 12,
and already sees them as victors in heaven, xv. 2. Over the
true witnesses and martyrs he pronounces the final beatitude
of the faithful: " Blessed are those who die in the Lord,"
xiv. 13.
Such an expectation of persecution is inexplicable from
Nero's time. There is not a trace of any declaration of war
on the universal church in his period such as the Apocalyptist
anticipates and in part experiences. Christian persecution
under Nero was an imperial caprice. The Christians were
attacked on slanderous charges of superstition and secret
abominations, but not as a church. Not till the last years of
Domitian is it possible to discover conditions which would
explain the apprehensions and experiences of our writer. So
far as we can discover, no persecution was directed against
Christians as Christians till Domitian's time. In the year
A.D. 92 Flavius Clemens was put to death and his wife banished,
on the ground that they were adherents of the new faith. Thus
the temper of the book on this question demands some date
after A.D. 90. It marks the transition, from the earlier tolerant
attitude of Rome towards Christianity, to its later hostile
attitude.
(c) Attitude of the Author towards Rome. In earlier times the
church had strongly impressed the duty of loyalty to Rome,
as we see from the Epistle to the Romans and i Peter. This
was before the pressure of the imperial cult was felt by the
Christian church. But in the Apocalypse we have the experi-
ences of a later date. The writer manifests the most burning
hatred towards Rome and the worship of its head the beast
and the false prophet, who are actual embodiments of Satan.
Such an attitude on the part of a Christian is not explicable
before the closing years of Domitian; for, apart from Caligula,
he was the first Roman emperor who consistently demanded
divine honours.
(d) The Antichrist Legend. We find at least two stages of the
Neronic and Antichrist myth in the Apocalypse. The earliest
form is not attested here, that Nero had not really been slain,
but would speedily return and destroy his enemies. The first
pretender appeared in A.D. 69, and was put to death in Cythnus.
The second stage of this legend was that Nero had taken refuge
in the Far East, and would return with the help of his Eastern
subjects for the overthrow of Rome. Two pretenders arose in
conformity with this expectation among the Parthians in
A.D. 80 and 88. This widespread expectation has left its
memorial in our book in xvi. 12 and in xvii. 16-17, which point
to the belief that Rome would be destroyed by Nero and the
Parthian kings. Finally, in xiii. and xvii. 8, 12-14, we have
a later phase of the myth, in which there is a fusion of the
Antichrist myth with that of Nero redivivus. This fusion could
hardly have taken place before the first half of Domitian's reign,
when the last Neronic pretender appeared. As soon as the
hope of the living Nero could no longer be entertained, the way
was prepared for this transformation of the myth. The living
Nero was no longer expected to return from the East, but Nero
was to be restored to life from the abyss by the dragon, i.e.
Satan. This expectation is recounted in xiii., but it appears
most clearly in the additions to xvii. Thus in xvii. 8 the
reference to Nero redivivus as the Antichrist is manifest: " The
beast that thou sawest was, and is not, and is about to come
up out of the abyss and to go into perdition." 1 Thus again we
are obliged to postulate a date not earlier than A.D. 90 for the
book in its present form.
(e) Primitive Church Tradition and its Confirmation through the
Discovery of References in the Text to Certain Edicts of Domitian.
The earliest external evidence is practically unanimous in
ascribing the Apocalypse to the last years of Domitian. The
oldest testimony is that of Irenaeus v. 30. 3 : Si' tKtivov &v kppidrj
TOV Kai rrjv 'AiroKaXu^ic ewpcuoroj olbt jap Trp6 TroXXoD xpovov
opa.07j, AXXa ffxfSov eiri TTJS iftutrepas ytvtas, irpos rip reXei -rijs
AOIMTULVOV apxys. The rest of the patristic evidence from
Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Victorinus, Eusebius and
Jerome will be found in Swete's Apocalypse of St John" 1 ,
xcix. seq. Though a few later authorities, such as Epiphanius
and Theophylact, assign the book to earlier or later periods,
the main body of early Christian tradition attests the date
of its composition in the closing years of Domitian. Not-
withstanding, on various critical grounds, Baur, Hilgenfeld,
Lightfoot, Westcott, Hort and Beyschlag assigned the book
to the reign of Nero, or to the years immediately following
his death, while Weiss, Dusterdieck and Mommsen assign it
to the time of Vespasian. When, however, we combine the
preceding arguments with that of the early church tradition,
the evidence for the Domitian date outweighs that for any
other. And this conclusion receives remarkable confirmation
from a recent fact brought forward by S. Reinach in an article
in the Revue archeologique, ser. III. t. xxxix. (1901), pp. 350-74,
and reprinted in Cultes, mythes et religions, ii. 356-80 (1906).
This fact explains a passage which has hitherto been a total
enigma to every expounder, i.e. vi. 6: "A choenix of wheat for
a denarius, and three choenikes of barley for a denarius, and
the oil and the wine hurt thou not." Swete writes here: " The
voice fixes a maximum price for the main food-stuffs. The
denarius . . . was the daily wage . . . and a choenix of wheat
1 Verse 1 1 postulates either a Vespasianic or Domitianic date:
" And the beast that was, and is not, is himself also an eighth,
and is of the seven; and he goeth into perdition." In verse IO
it is stated that five of the seven had fallen, " the one is and another
is not yet come, and when he cometh he must continue a little
while." If we reckon from Augustine and omit Galba, Otho and
Vitellius, each of whom reigned only a few months, we arrive at
Vespasian. The vision, therefore, belongs to his reign, A.D. 69-79.
Verse ii, with the exception of the words "which was and is not,"
leads to the identification of the eighth with Nero redivivus. But
what then is to be made of the above reckoning when it was taken
over by the Apocalyptist who wrote in Domitian's reign ? Some
scholars are of opinion that this writer identified Domitian with
the eighth emperor, the Nero redivivus, the beast from the abyss.
But this is unlikely, notwithstanding the fact that even some
pagan writers, such as Juvenal, Pliny and Martial (?), traced a
resemblance between Domitian and Nero. On the other hand,
if we refuse to accept this identification, and hold that the beast
from the abyss is yet to come, any attempt at a strict exegesis of
the text plunges us io hopeless difficulties. For Domitian in that
case would be the sixth, and the preceding five would have to begin
with Galba a most improbable supposition. But futhermore,
since this new reckoning would exclude Nero, how could the
eighth be said to be one of the seven, i.e. Nero ? Bousset thinks
that_the Appcalyptist, knowing not what to make of this reckoning,
left it standing as it was and attempted a new interpretation of the
seven heads by taking them to refer to the seven hills of Rome in
the addition he made to verse 9.
REVELATION, BOOK OF
221
the average daily consumption of the workman. . . . Barley
was largely the food of the poor." According to the words
just quoted from the Apocalypse, there was to be a dearth of
grain and a superfluity of wine; the price of the wheat was to
be seven times the ordinary, according to Reinach's com-
putation, and that of the barley four times. This strange
statement suggested some historical allusion, and the discovery
of the allusion was made by Reinach, who points out that
Domitian by an edict in A.D. 92 prohibited the planting of new
vineyards in Italy, and ordered the reduction of those in the
provinces by one-half. As Asia Minor suffered specially under
this edict, an agitation was set on foot which resulted in the
revocation of the edict. In this revocation the Apocalyptist
saw the menace of a famine of the necessaries of life, while
the luxuries would remain unaffected. From his ascetic stand-
point the revocation of the edict could only pander to drunken-
ness and immorality. Reinach's explanation of this ancient
crux interpretum, which has been accepted by Harnack, Bousset,
Porter, Sanday, Swete and others, fixes the earliest date of the
composition of the Apocalypse as A.D. 93. Since Domitian
died in 96, the book was therefore written between A.D. 93
and 95.
Author. Before entering on the chief data which help towards
the determination of this question, we shall first state the author's
standpoint. His book exhibits a Christianity that is as
Harnack (Ency. Brit?, xx. 498) writes" free from the law,
free from national prejudices, universal and yet a Christianity
which is independent of Paul. . . . The author speaks not at
all of the law 1 the word does not occur in his work; he looks
for salvation from the power and grace of God and Christ alone
. . . nowhere has he made a distinction between Gentile and
Jewish Christians. . . . The author of the Apocalypse has cast
aside all national religious prejudices." The writer is not
dependent, consciously or unconsciously, on the Pauline teaching.
He has won his way to universalism, not through the Pauline
method, but through one of his own. He has no serious prefer-
ence for the people of Israel as such, but only for the martyrs
and confessors, who shall belong to every tribe and tongue and
people and nation (vii. 9 seq.). The unbelieving Jews are " a
synagogue of Satan " (ii. 9).
Yet, on the other hand, our author's attitude to the world
reflects the temper of Judaism rather than that of Christianity.
He looks upon the enemies of the Christian Church with uncon-
cealed hatred. No prayer arises within his work on their
behalf, and nothing but unalloyed triumph is displayed
over their doom. The Christian duty of love to those that
wrong us does not seem to have impressed itself on our
Apocalyptist.
Is the Apocalypse pseudonymous? All the Jewish apocalypses
are pseudonymous, and all the Christian with the exception of
the Shepherd of Hermas. Since our book undoubtedly belongs
to this category, the question of its pseudonymity must arise.
In the articles on Apocalyptic Literature and Apocryphal
Literature (qq.v.) we have shown the large lines of differentia-
tion between apocalyptic and prophecy. The chief ground for
resorting to pseudonymous authorship in Judaism was that the
belief in prophecy was lost among the people. Hence any writer
who would appeal to them was obliged to do so in the name of
some great figure of the past. Furthermore, this belief that
prophecy had ceased led the religious personalities of the later
time to authenticate their message by means of antedated
prophecy. They procured confidence in their actual predictions
by appealing to the literal fulfilment of such antedated prophecy.
In such literature we find the characteristic words or their
equivalents: " Seal up the prophecy: it is not for this genera-
tion," which are designed to explain the late appearance of the
works in which they are found. But this universal character-
istic of apocalyptic is almost wholly lacking in the New Testa-
ment Apocalypse. The vaticinium ex eventu plays but a very
1 His freedom from legal bondage is as undeniable as his univer-
salism. He lays no further burden on his readers than those re-
quired by the Apostolic Decree of Acts xv. 28 seq.
small part in it. Moreover, the chief ground for the develop-
ment of a pseudonymous literature was absent in the early
Christian church. For with the advent of Christianity prophecy
had sprung anew into life, and our author distinctly declares that
the words of the book are for his own generation (xxii. 10).
Hence we conclude that the grounds are lacking which would
entitle our assuming a priori that the Apocalypse is pseudony-
mous.
Was the Author the Son of Zebedee, the Apostle? The evidence
of the book is against this assumption. The writer demands
a hearing as a prophet (xxii. 6), and in no single passage makes
any claim to having been an apostle. Nay more, the evidence
of the text, so far as it goes, is against such a view. He never
refers to any previous intercourse with Christ such as we find
frequently in the Fourth Gospel, and when he speaks of " the
twelve apostles of the Lamb " (xxi. 14) he does so in a tone that
would seem to exclude him from that body. Here internal and
external evidence are at strife; for from the time of Justin
pnwards the Apocalypse was received by the church as the work
of the Apostle John (see Swete, op. til?, p. clxxv). If the writer
of the Fourth Gospel was the Apostle John, then the difficulties
for the assumption of an apostolic authorship of the Apoca-
lypse become well-nigh insuperable. Nay more, the difficulties
attending on the assumption of a common authorship of the
Gospel and Apocalypse, independently of the question of the
apostolic authorship of the Gospel, are practically insuperable.
Some decades ago these difficulties were not insurmountable,
when critics assigned a Neronic date to the Apocalypse and a
Domitianic or later date to the Gospel. It was from such a
standpoint conceivable that the thoughts and diction of the
writer had undergone an entire transformation in the long
interval that intervened between the composition of the two
books, on the supposition that both were from the same hand.
But now that both books are assigned to the last decade of the
ist century A.D. by a growing body of critics, the hypothesis of
a common authorship can hardly be sustained. The validity of
such an hypothesis was attacked as early as the 4th century by
Dionysius of Alexandria in the fragment of his treatise wtpl
Trayye\iuv, in Eusebius, H.E. vii. 24 seq. His arguments, as
summed up by Swete (op. cit., p. cxiv seq.), are as follows:
" John the Evangelist abstains from mentioning his own name,
but John the Apocalyptist names himself more than once at
the very outset of his book, and again near its end. Doubtless
there were many who bore the name of John in the early Christian
communities; we read, for instance, of ' John, whose surname
was Mark,' and there may have been a second John in Asia, since
at Ephesus, we are told, there were two tombs said to be John's.
. . . Again, while the Gospel and the Epistle of John show marks
of agreement which suggest a common authorship, the Apocalypse
differs widely from both in its ideas and in its way of expressing
them; we miss in it the frequent references to 'life,' 'light,'
' truth,' ' grace ' and ' love ' which are characteristic of the Apostle
and find ourselves in a totally different region of thought. . . .
Lastly, the linguistic eccentricities of the Apocalypse bar the
way against the acceptance of the book as the work of the
Evangelist. The Gospel and the First Epistle are written in
correct and flowing Greek, and there is not a barbarism, a solecism,
or a provincialism in them; whereas the Greek of the Apocalypse
is inaccurate, disfigured by unusual or foreign words and even
at times by solecisms."
All subsequent criticism has more or less confirmed the con-
clusions of Dionysius. On the other hand, it is impossible to
ignore the signs of a relationship between the Apocalypse and
the Gospel in the minor peculiarities of language. 2 These,
Swete holds, " create a strong presumption of affinity " between
the two books, while Bousset infers that they " justify the assump-
tion that the entire circle of Johannine writings spring from
circles which stood under the influence of the John of Asia
Minor."
We conclude, therefore, that the Gospel and the Apocalypse
2 See Bousset, Ofenbarung Johannis*, pp. 177-179; Swete*, pp.
cxxv-cxxix.
222
REVELS, MASTER OF THE REVENTLOW
are derived from different authors who moved in the same
circles. 1
As regards the John mentioned in the Apocalypse, he is now
identified by a majority of critics with John the Presbyter,
and further the trend of criticism is in favour of transferring
all the Johannine writings to him, or rather to his school in
Asia Minor. 2
For an independent discussion of the authorship of the Fourth
Gospel, see JOHN, GOSPEL or ST. (R. H. C.)
REVELS, MASTER OF THE. 3 The history of the Revels
office has an interesting place in that of the English stage (see
also DRAMA, and THEATRE). Among the expenses of the royal
Wardrobe we find provision made for tunicae and viseres in
1347 for the Christmas ludi of Edward III.; during the reign
of Henry VII. payments are also recorded for various forms of
court revels; and it became regular, apparently, to appoint a
special functionary, called Master of the Revels, to superintend
the royal festivities, quite distinct from the Lord of Misrule (q.v.) .
In Henry VII.'s time beseems to have been a minor official of the
household. In Henry VIII.'s time, however, the post became
more important, and an officer of the Wardrobe was permanently
employed to act under the Master of the Revels. With the
patent given to John Farlyon in 1534 as Yeoman of the Revels,
what may be considered as an independent office of the Revels
(within the general sphere of the lord chamberlain) came into
being; and in 1544 Sir Thomas Ca warden received a patent
as Master of the Revels, he being the first to become head of
an independent office, Magister Jocorum, Revelorum et Mascorum
omnium et singularium nostrorum iiulgariter nuncupatorum
Revells and Masks. Cawarden was Master till 1559. Soon after
his appointment, the office and its stores were transferred to a
dissolved Dominican monastery at Blackfriars, having previously
been housed at Warwick Inn in the city, the Charterhouse, and
then at the priory of St John of Jerusalem in Clerkenwell, to
which a return was made after Cawarden's death. Sir Thomas
Benger succeeded Cawarden, and Edmund Tylney followed him
(1579-1610); it was the appointment of the latter's nephew,
Sir George Buck, as deputy-master, with the reversion to the
mastership, which led to so much repining on the part of the
dramatist, John Lyly, who was himself a candidate. Under
Tylney, the functions of Master of the Revels gradually
became extended to a general censorship of the stage,
which in 1624 was put directly in the hands of the lord
'There are several analogies in Jewish literature. Thus the
Testaments of the XII. Patriarchs a universalist work and the
Book of Jubilees a particularistic work are from different authors,
though they are written within a few years of each other by Phari-
sees and use much common material. Similarly with regard to
the Apocalypse of Baruch and 4 Ezra.
2 Several converging lines of testimony tend to prove that John
the son of Zebedee was, like his brother James, put to death by the
Jews. First, we have the express testimony of Papias to this
effect, which is preserved in George Hamartolus and in an epitome
of Philip of Side. Attempts have been made to explain away
this testimony by Lightfoot, Harnack, Drummond, and Bernard
(Irish Church Quarterly, 1908, 52 sqq.). Secondly, Papias' s testi-
mony receives support from Jesus's own words in Mark x. 39;
for, as Wellhausen remarks on this passage, " the prophecy refers
not only to James but also to John; anqif it had remained only
half fulfilled, it would hardly have kept its place in the Gospel."
The third strand of evidence is found in the Martyrologies, Cartha-
ginian, Armenian and Syrian. Bernard (op. cit.) has tried to
prove that the Martyrologies do not imply the martyrdom but
only the faithful .witness of John. Finally, Clement of Alexandria
(Bousset, Die Offenbarung, p. 38) furnishes evidence in the same
direction; for in Clem. Alex. Strom, iv. 9, 71, the Gnostic Herac-
leon gives a list of the Apostles who had not been martyred, and
these were: " Matthew, Philip, Thomas and Levi " (corrupt for
Lebbaeus). If we accept this evidence, the martyrdom cannot
have been later than A.D. 69, and may have been considerably
earlier. In either case such a fact, if it is a fact, is against an
Apostolic origin of the Johannine writings. John the Presbyter
is in that case " the disciple whom Jesus loved " and the founder of
the Johannine school in Asia Minor. But the question is still at
issue.
3 The word " revel " meant properly a noisy or riotous tumult
or merry-making, and is derived from O. Fr. reveler, to rebel, to riot,
make a noise; Lat. rebellare.
chamberlain, thus leading to the licensing act of 1737 (see
DRAMA).
See E. K. Chambers, The Mediaeval Stage (1904); and his Notes
on the History of the Revels Office under the Tudors (1906), with
authorities quoted.
REVELSTOKE, an incorporated town of British Columbia,
on the Columbia river and the Canadian Pacific railway, 381 m.
E. of Vancouver. Pop. (1007) 3526. It is the capital of
Kootenay county, and the shipping centre for the mining and
lumbering district. It contains large railway shops, several
breweries, and saw and shingle mills.
REVENTLOW, CHRISTIAN DITLEV FREDERICK, COUNT
(1748-1827), Danish statesman and reformer, the son of Privy
Councillor Christian Ditlev Reventlow, born on March n, 1748.
After being educated at the academy of Soro and at Leipzig,
Reventlow, in company with his younger brother Johan Ludwig
and the distinguished Saxon economist Carl Wendt (1731-1815),
the best of cicerones on such a tour, travelled through Germany,
Switzerland, France and England, to examine the social, eco-
nomical and agricultural conditions of civilized Europe. A
visit to Sweden and Norway to study mining and metallurgy
completed the curriculum, and when Reventlow in the course
of 1770 returned to Denmark he was an authority on all the
economic questions of the day. In 1774 he held a high
position in the Kammerkollegiet, or board of trade, two years
later he entered the Department of Mines, and in 1781 he was a
member of the Overskatledirectionen, or chief taxing board. He
had, in 1774, married Frederica Charlotte von Beulwitz, who
bore him thirteen children, and on his father's death in 1775
inherited the family estate in Laaland. Reventlow overflowed
with progressive ideas, especially as regards agriculture, and he
devoted himself, heart and soul, to the improvement of his
property and the amelioration of his serfs. Fortunately, the
ambition to play a useful part in a wider field of activity than he
could find in the country ultimately prevailed. His time came
when the ultra-conservative ministry of Hoegh Guldberg was
dismissed (April i4th, 1784) and Andreas Bernstorff, the states-
man for whom Reventlow had the highest admiration, returned
to power.
Reventlow was an excellently trained specialist in many
departments, and was always firm and confident in those
subjects which he had made his own. Moreover, he was a man
of strong and warm feelings, and deeply religious.
The condition of the peasantry especially interested him. He
was convinced that free labour would be far more profitable
to the land, and that the peasant himself would be better if
released from his thraldom.
His favourite field of labour was thrown open to him when, on
the 6th of August 1784, he was placed at the head of the Rente-
kammeret, which took cognisance of everything relating to
agriculture. His first step was to appoint a small agricultural
commission to better the condition of the crown serfs, and
amongst other things enable them to turn their leaseholds into
freeholds. Observing that the Crown Prince Frederick was also
favourably disposed towards the amelioration of the peasantry,
Reventlow induced him, in July 1786, to appoint a grand
commission to take the condition of all the peasantry in the
kingdom into immediate consideration. This celebrated
agricultural commission continued its labours for many years,
and introduced a whole series of reforms of the highest import-
ance. Thus the ordinance of 8th June 1787 modified
the existing leaseholds, greatly to the advantage of the
peasantry; the ordinance of 2oth June 1788 abolished
villenage and completely transformed the much-abused hmeri
system whereby the feudal tenant was bound to cultivate his
lord's land as well a^ his own; and the ordinance of 6th December
1799, which did away with hmeri altogether. Reventlow
was also instrumental in starting the public credit banks, for
enabling small cultivators to borrow money on favourable
terms. In conjunction with his friend, Heinrich Ernst Schim-
melmann (1747-1831), he also procured the passing of the
ordinances permitting free trade between Denmark and Norway,
REVENUE REVERIE
223
the free importation of corn from abroad, and the abolition of
the mischievous monopoly of the Iceland trade.
But the financial distress of Denmark, the jealousy of the
duchies, the ruinous political complications of the Napoleonic
period, and, above all, the Crown Prince Frederick's growing
jealousy of his official advisers, which led him to rule, or rather
misrule, for years without the co-operation of his Council of
State all these calamities were at last too much even for
Reventlow. On 7th December 1813 he received his dismissal
and retired to his estates, where, after working cheerfully
among his peasantry to the last, he died on the nth of
October 1827.
See Adolph Frederik Bergsoe, Grey. C. D. F. Reventlows
Virksomhed (Copenhagen, 1837); Louis Theodor Alfred Bobe,
Efterl, Papirer fra den Reventlowske FamMekreds (Copenhagen,
1895-97).
REVENUE (O. Fr. revenu, from revenir, to return), income,
return, or profit; more particularly the receipts from all
sources of a government or state. The revenue of a state is
largely made up of taxation, and the general principles of taxes
are discussed in TAXATION and FINANCE. In some countries
the public or state domain may contribute substantially to the
revenue, as do the crown forests in Russia, while in other
countries important contributions are made from the state
railways, post and telegraph services, &c. For the historical
development of the English revenue see ENGLISH FINANCE,
and for other countries see the sections on finance in the articles
dealing with the various countries. In the United Kingdom
the term inland revenue is used to denote that part of the
revenue which is derived from death duties, stamps and other
taxes, such as income tax, land tax, inhabited house duty, &c.
The Board of Inland Revenue is a special department of the
English civil service, with headquarters at Somerset House.
The Board consists of a chairman, deputy chairman, and
two commissioners, with joint secretaries, assistant secretaries
and a staff of officials. The other important department
engaged in the collection of the English revenue is the Board
of Customs and Excise. The excise department was formerly
a branch of the inland revenue, but was amalgamated with the
customs department on the ist of April 1909. The Board of
Customs and Excise is constituted as is the Board of Inland
Revenue.
In the United States the greater proportion of the national
revenue ($547,086,992 out of $663,217,677 in 1909) is derived
from customs and internal revenue. The internal revenue
consists for the most part of receipts from taxes on spirits,
tobaccos and fermented liquors. In 1909 the amount derived
from customs revenue was $300,977,438, and internal revenue,
$246,109,554.
REVERE, PAUL (1735-1818), American engraver and patriot,
was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the ist of January 1735.
He had a meagre schooling, and in his father's shop learned
the trade of a gold- and silversmith. In 1756 he was second
lieutenant of artillery in the expedition against Crown Point,
and for several months was stationed at Fort Edward, in New
York.- He became a proficient copper engraver, and engraved
several anti-British caricatures in the years before the War of
Independence. He was one of the Boston grand jurors who
refused to serve in 1774 because parliament had made the
justices independent of the people for their salaries; was a
leader in the Boston Tea Party; was one of the thirty North
End mechanics who patrolled the streets to watch the move-
ments of the British troops and Tories; and in December 1774
was sent to Portsmouth, New Hampshire, to urge the seizure
of military stores there, and induced the colonists to attack
and capture Fort William and Mary one of the first acts of
military force in the war. His midnight ride from Charlestown
to Lexington on the iSth-igth of April 1775, to give warning
of the approach of British troops from Boston, is Revere's most
famous exploit; it is commemorated by Longfellow, who,
however, has " paid little attention to exactness of fact "
(Justin Winsor). In 1775 Revere was sent by the Massachusetts
provincial congress to Philadelphia to study the working of the
only powder mill in the colonies, and although he was allowed
only to pass through the building, obtained sufficient informa-
tion to enable him to set up a powder mill at Canton. He was
commissioned a major of infantry in the Massachusetts militia
in April 1776; was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-colonel
of artillery in November; was stationed at Castle William,
defending Boston harbour, and finally received command of
this fort. He served in an expedition to Rhode Island in 1778,
and in the following year participated in the unsuccessful
Penobscot expedition. After his return he was accused of
having disobeyed the orders of the commanding officer, was
tried by court-martial, and was acquitted. After the war he
engaged in the manufacture of gold and silver ware, and became
a pioneer in the production in America of copper plating and
copper spikes for ships. In 1795, as grandmaster of the Masonic
fraternity, he laid the cornerstone of the new State House in
Boston, and in this year also founded the Massachusetts Charit-
able Mechanic Association, becoming its first president. He
died in Boston on the icth of May 1818.
See Charles F. Gettemy, The True Story of Paul Revere (Boston,
1905)-
REVERE, a township and a coast resort of Suffolk county,
Massachusetts, U.S.A., immediately N.E. of Boston on Massa-
chusetts Bay. Pop. (ipio, U.S. census), 18,219. Area,
4-56 sq. m. The township is served by the Boston & Maine
and the Boston, Revere Beach & Lynn railways, and by several
electric railways connecting iwith Boston, -Chelsea, Lynn,
Maiden, and Medford. Revere Beach, a crescent-shaped beach
of white sand extending from the promontory of Winthrop on
the S. to the Point of Pines on the N., is a popular bathing
resort, and has been called the Coney Island of Boston. The
township has a Carnegie library and a handsome town hall.
The first settlement here was made about 1626, and, under the
name of Rumney Marsh, it was a part of Boston until 1739,
when it became a part of the new township of Chelsea. The
northern part of Chelsea was organized as the township of
North Chelsea in 1846; part of it was separated as Winthrop
in 1852; and in 1871 the name North Chelsea was changed
to Revere, in honour of Paul Revere.
REVEREND (Lat. reverendus, gerundive of revereri, to
revere, pay respect to), a term of respect or courtesy, now
especially used as the ordinary prefix of address to the names
of ministers of religion of all denominations. The uses of Med.
Lat. reverendus do not confine the term to those in orders;
Du Cange (Gloss, s.v.) defines it as titulus honorarius, etiam
mulieribus potioris dignitatie concessus, and in the isth century
in English it is found as a general term of respectful address.
The usual prefix of address of a parson was " sir," representing
Lat. dominus (see SIR), or " master." It has been habitually
used of the parochial clergy of the Church of England since
the end of the i7th century. It is not, however, a title of
honour or dignity, and no denomination has any exclusive
right to use it. A faculty was ordered to be issued for the
erection of a tombstone, the inscription on which contained
the name of a Wesleyan minister prefixed by "reverend";
this the incumbent had refused (Keat v. Smith, 1876, i P.D. 73).
In the Church of England deans are addressed as " very
reverend," bishops as " right reverend," archbishops as " most
reverend." The Moderator of the Church of Scotland is also
styled " right reverend."
REVERIE, a condition of mental abstraction, a fit of musing,
a "brown study" ("brown" in the sense of "gloomy," and
not to be referred to Germ. Braune, brow). The word appears
in the i4th or isth centuries in its original meaning in Old
French, of joy, delight, also wildness, anger. The French rever,
later resver, modern river, to dream, meant originally to wander
in speech or thought, and is derived from the Lat. rabiare,
cf. " rabies," " rage " and " rave." The French reverie (resverie)
was adopted again in the i7th and i8th centuries as meaning
a state of dreaminess; thus Locke (Essay on the Human Under-
standing, 1695, ii. xix.) says: " When ideas float in our minds
224
REVIEW REWA
without any reflection or regard of the understanding, it is that
which the French call resvery; our language has scarce a word
for it."
REVIEW (Fr. revue, from revoir, to see again, Lat. re and
videre), an inspection or critical examination; it is chiefly used
as a military or naval term for an inspection on a large or formal
scale of a fleet or body of troops by the sovereign or other person
holding a high official position, or for a critical account of a
recently published literary work in a magazine or periodical.
The earliest use of the word for the title of such a periodical
was in the paper begun by Defoe in 1704, the full title of which
was A Review of the A/airs of France and of all Europe, as influ-
enced by that Nation (see PERIODICALS and NEWSPAPERS). In
France there is a particular application of the term revue or,
more fully, revue de fin d'annie to a form of dramatic performance,
acted or sung, in which the chief events of the past year, and
the personages who have been prominently before the public,
are satirically and critically passed under review. Attempts
have been made to trace such performances to an early origin.
In their modern form, however, they date from the reign of
Louis Philippe. L'Ani84ietl'an 1941, by the brothers Cogniard,
was one of the earliest.
REVILLAGIGEDO, an isolated, uninhabited group of rocky
islands in the N. Pacific, lat. 18 N., long. 112 W., belonging
to Mexico, and forming part of the state of Colima. They are
about 420 m. from the Mexican coast and comprise the large
island of Socorro (San Tomas), 24 m. long by an average of
9 m. wide, and the three widely separated islets of San Benedicto,
Roca Partida and Clarion, with a total area of 320 sq. m.
The island of Socorro has an extinct volcano 3660 ft. high. The
islands have certain remarkable zoological features, comprising
several birds and reptiles allied to those of the Mexican main-
land but differing from them in species. The archipelago
derives its name from the Spanish viceroy who governed Mexico
from 1746 to 1755.
REVILLE, ALBERT (1826- ), French Protestant theo-
logian, was born at Dieppe on the 4th of November 1826.
After studying at Geneva and Strassburg, he became in 1849
pastor at Lunerai near Dieppe, and in 1851 of the Walloon
Church "at Rotterdam, where he remained until 1872. In 1880
he was made professor of the history of religions in the College
de France at Paris. Six years later he was appointed president
of the section of religious studies in the Ecole des hautes etudes
at the Sorbonne. He is one of the leaders of the French school
of advanced critical theology.
Works, Besides contributing to the Revue de theologie (Paris),
the Revue de I'histoire des religions (Paris), the Revue des deux
mondes, the following works are important: Manuel d'histoire
comparee de la philosophie et de la religion (1859; Eng. trans.,
1864); Histoire du dogme de la divinite de Jesus Christ (1869, 3rd
ed., 1904; Eng. trans., 1905); Prolegomenes de I'histoire des re-
ligions (1881, 4th ed., 1886; Eng. trans., 1884); Theodore Parker,
sa vie et ses ceuvres (1865; Eng. trans., 1865, and ed., 1877);
Lectures on the Origin ana Growth of Religion as illustrated by the
native religions of Mexico and Peru (the " Hibbert Lectures " for
1884); Jesus de Nazareth (1897, I2th ed., 1906).
His son, JEAN REVILLE, was born on the 6th of November
1854, studied at Geneva, Paris, Berlin and Heidelberg, and
became professor of patristic literature and secretary of the
section of religious studies in the cole des hautes etudes at
the Sorbonne. In 1884 he became co-editor of the Revue de
I'histoire des religions (Paris).
His books include: La Doctrine du lo^os (1881); La Religion a
Rome sous les Sevbres (1886); Les Origines de I' episcopal (1895);
and Le Protestantisme liberal, ses origines, sa nature, sa mission
(1903; Eng. trans., 1903).
REVOLUTIONARY TRIBUNAL, THE (le tribunal revolu-
tionnaire) , a court which was instituted in Paris by the Convention
during the French Revolution for the trial of political offenders,
and became one of the most powerful engines of the Terror. The
news of the failure of the French arms in Belgium gave rise in
Paris to popular movements on the 9th and loth of March 1793,
and on the loth of March, on the proposal of Danton, the
Convention decreed that there should be established in Paris
an extraordinary criminal tribunal, which received the official
name of the Revolutionary Tribunal by a decree of the 29th of
October 1793. It was composed of a jury, a public prosecutor,
and two substitutes, all nominated by the Convention; and
from its judgments there was no appeal. With M. J. A. Hermann
as president and Fouquier-Tinville as public prosecutor, the
tribunal terrorized the royalists, the refractory priests and all
the actors in the counter-revolution. Soon, too, it came to
be used for personal ends, particularly by Robespierre, who
employed it for the condemnation of his adversaries. The
excesses of the Revolutionary Tribunal increased with the
growth of Robespierre's ascendancy in the Committee of Public
Safety; and on the loth of June 1794 was promulgated, at his
instigation, the infamous Law of 22 Prairial, which forbade
prisoners to employ counsel for their defence, suppressed the
hearing of witnesses and made death the sole penalty. Before
22 Prairial the Revolutionary Tribunal had pronounced 1220
death-sentences in thirteen months; during the forty-nine days
between the passing of the law and the fall of Robespierre
1376 persons were condemned, including many innocent
victims. The lists of prisoners to be sent before the tribunal
were prepared by a popular commission sitting at the museum,
and signed, after revision, by the Committee of General
Security and the Committee of Public Safety jointly. Although
Robespierre was the principal purveyor of the tribunal, we
possess only one of these lists bearing his signature. The
Revolutionary Tribunal was suppressed on the 3ist of May
1795. Among its most celebrated victims may be mentioned
Marie Antoinette, the Hebertists, the Dantonists and several
of the Girondists. Similar tribunals were also in operation in
the provinces.
See H. A. Wallon, Histoire du tribunal revolutionnaire de Paris
(Paris, 6 vols., 1880-82); E. Campardon, Le Tribunal revolution-
naire de Paris (Paris, 2nd ed., 2 vols., 1866) ; C. Berriat Saint-
Prix, La Justice revolutionnaire a Paris, Bordeaux, Brest, Lyon,
Nantes, . . . (Paris, 1861), and La Justice revolutionnaire (aout
1792-prairial an II.) d'apres des documents originaux (Paris, 1870);
also G. Len6tre, Le Tribunal revolutionnaire (1908). For a biblio-
graphy of its records see M. Tourneux, Bibliog. de la ville de Paris
. . . (1890, vol. i. Nos. 3925-3974)-
REWA, or RIWA, a native state of Central India in the Bagel-
khand agency. It is the only large state in Bagelkhand, and the
second largest in Central India, having an area of about 13,000
sq. m. It is bounded N. by the United Provinces, E. by Bengal
and S. by the Central Provinces. On the W. it meets other
petty states of Bagelkhand. Rewa is divided into two well-
defined portions. The northern and smaller division is the
plateau lying between the Kaimur range of hills and that
portion of the Vindhyas known as Binjh, which overlook the
valley of the Ganges. This plateau is for the most part culti-
vated and well peopled; rich harvests both of kharif and rabi
crops are generally obtained. Water is plentiful, and the
country is full of large tanks and reservoirs, which, however,
are not used for irrigation purposes; the only system of wet
cultivation which has any favour with the villagers is that of
bunds, or mounds of earth raised at the lower ends of sloping
fields to retain the rain water for some time after the monsoon
rains cease. The country to the S. of the Kaimur hills com-
prises by far the largest portion of the state; but here cultiva-
tion is restricted to the valley between the hills and the Sone
river, and to a few isolated patches in scattered parts of the
forest wastes. The principal river is the Sone, which flows
through the state in a N.E. direction into Mirzapur district.
Another important river is the Tons, but neither is navigable.
The annual rainfall averages about 41 in. The population in
1901 was 1,327,385, showing a decrease of 12% in the decade.
Many of the inhabitants of the hilly tracts are Gonds and Kols.
Estimated revenue, 200,000. The staple crops are rice,
millets and wheat; but more than one-third of the area is
covered with forests, yielding timber and lac.
The S. of the state is crossed by the branch of the Bengal- Nagpur
railway from Bilaspur to Katni, which taps the Umaria coal-field.
The state suffered from famine in 1896-^97, and again to a less
REWA KANTHA REYER
225
extent in 18991900; but on both occasions adequate measures
of relief were provided.
The state first came under British influence in 1812. The chief,
Venkat Raman Singh, was born in 1876, succeeded in 1880 and
was created G. C.S.I, in 1897. During his minority the administra-
tion was reformed. He is Rajput of the Baghela branch of the
Solanki race, and is descended from the founder of the Anhilwara
Patan dynasty in Gujarat.
The town of Rewa is 131 m. S. of Allahabad. Pop. (1901) 24, 668.
It has a high school, also the Victoria and zenana hospitals and
a model gaol. The political agent for Bagelkhand resides at
Satna, on the East Indian railway: pop. (1901) 7471.
REWA KANTHA, a political agency or collection of native
states in India, subordinate to the government of Bombay. It
stretches for about 150 m. between the plain of Gujarat and
the hills of Malwa, from the river Tapti to the Mahi, crossing
the Nerbudda or Rewa, from which it takes its name. The
number of separate states is 61, many of which are under
British jurisdiction. The only important one is Rajpipla
(q.v.). It includes also five second-class states entitled Chota
Udaipur, Bariya, Sunth, Lunawada and Balaimor. Total
area, 4972 sq. m. In 1901 the population was 479,065, show-
ing a decrease of 35 % in the decade, due to the results of
famine. Estimated revenue, 140,0x50; tribute (mostly to the
gaekwar of Baroda), 10,000. Many of the inhabitants belong
to the wild tribes of Bhils and Kolis. The political agent, who
is also collector of the British district of the Panch Mahals,
resides at Godhra.
REWARD, recompense, a gift or payment in return for
services rendered. " Reward " and " regard " are forms of
the same word. Old French, from which both words came
into English, also had rewarder and regarder (the latter form
only surviving in modern French), from re-, back, in return,
and warder, garder, to watch, protect ultimately a Teutonic
word, from the base war-, to defend; cf. " ward " and " guard,"
which are thus also doublets. In early use in English, " re-
ward " and " regard " were interchangeable in meaning;
thus in Piers Plowman, xi. 129, " Reson rod forth and tok
reward of no man," cf. " The towne doth receave ... an annuall
regard for the same " (a 16th-century reference quoted by the
New English Dictionary from R. Willis and J. W. Clark, Archil.
Hist, of Univ. of Cambridge, 1886). In use the words are now
distinct, " regard " being restricted to such meanings as atten-
tion, respect, esteem, consideration.
In English law the offering of rewards presents two distinct
aspects: (i) with reference to the nature of the information
or act for the giving or doing whereof the reward is offered;
(2) with reference to the nature of the relation created between
the person offering and the person claiming the reward.
1. Courts of assize and quarter sessions are empowered to
order the payment of rewards to persons who have been active
in or towards the apprehension of persons charged with certain
specified crimes against person and property (Criminal Law,
1826, ss. 28, 29; Criminal Justice Administration Act 1851,
ss. 7, 8). The rewards are payable according to a scale fixed
by the home secretary. In the case of courts of quarter sessions
the maximum is 5. Courts of assize may award a larger sum
where extraordinary courage and diligence have been shown
towards the apprehension. The sums awarded are paid out
of the rate or fund chargeable with the costs of assizes and
sessions. It is illegal to advertise for the recovery of stolen
property (including dogs) on terms of not asking questions
(Larceny Act 1861, s. 102; Larceny Advertisements Acts 1870,
s. 3). The advertiser and the newspaper which publishes it
incur a penalty of 50. (See Mirams v. Our Dogs Publishing
Co., 1901, 2 K.B. 564.) It is a criminal offence at common
law to offer any reward on terms leading to compounding a
felony or sheltering the offender (R. v. Burgess, 1886, 16 Q.B.D.
141), and under the Larceny Act 1861 ,(ss. 20, 101) it is criminal
to accept a reward for recovery of stolen property without
bringing the thief to justice.
2. Where a reward is lawfully offered for information the
person who first supplies the required information, i.e. satisfies
the conditions on which the reward is payable, is entitled to
recover by action the reward offered. Performance of the
conditions is an acceptance of the offer (Carlill v. Carbolic
Smoke Ball Co., 1893, i Q.B. 256, 270). Thus on an advertise-
ment for information leading to the arrest and conviction of
shop-breakers, T. gave information which led to the arrest of R.,
who while in prison told the police where to find the thieves.
T. was held entitled to the reward (Tamer v. Walker, 1866, L.R.
i Q.B. 641). This rule applies even where the offer is general
to all the world (Williams v. Carwardine, 1833, 4 B. & Ad. 621;
Spencer v. Harding, 1870, L. R. 5 C.P. 561). It would seem that
on grounds of public policy an offender could not claim the
reward on surrendering himself to justice (Bent v. Wakefield 6rc.
Bank, 1878, 4 C.P.D. i, 4). It is not clear whether officers of
justice are by their office and duty debarred from claiming
rewards offered for the arrest of offenders (Ibid. p. 5).
REWARI, a town of British India, in Gurgaon district of the
Punjab, 32 m. S.W. of Gurgaon, on the Rajputana-Malwa
railway. Pop. (1901) 27,295. It is an important centre of
trade, being the junction for the Rewari-Bhatinda branch of
the Rajputana railway. The chief manufacture is that of brass-
ware for cooking utensils.
REWBELL, JEAN FRANCOIS (1747-1807), French
politician, was born at Colmar (then in the department of
Haut-Rhin) on the 8th of October 1747. He was president
(bdtonnier) of the order of awcats in Colmar, and in 1789 was
elected deputy^to the States-General by the Third Estate of the
bailliage of Colmar-Schlestadt. In the Constituent Assembly
his oratorical gifts, legal knowledge and austerity of life gave
him much influence. During the session of the Legislative
Assembly he exercised the functions of procureur syndic and was
subsequently secretary-general of the department of Haut-Rhin.
In the Convention he was a zealous promoter of the trial of
Louis XVI., but was absent on mission at the time of the king's
condemnation. He took part in the reactionary movement
which followed the fall of Robespierre, and became a member
of the reorganized Committees of Public Safety and General
Security. The moderation he displayed caused his election
by seventeen departments to the Council of Five Hundred.
Appointed a member of the Directory on the ist of October
1795, he became its president in 1796, and retired by ballot in
1799. He then entered the Council of Ancients. After the
coup d'etat of 18 Brumaire he retired from public life, and died
at Colmar on the 23rd of November 1807.
See L. Sciout, Le Directoire (Paris, 1895-97).
REYBAUD, MARIE ROCH LOUIS (1799-1879), French
writer, economist and politician, was born at Marseilles on the
1 5th of August 1799. After travelling in the Levant and in
India, he settled in Paris in 1829. Besides writing for the
Radical press, he edited the Histoire scientifique et militaire de
I'expedition franqaise en Egyple in ten volumes (1830-36) and
Dumont d'Urville's Voyage autour du monde (1833). In 1840
he published Etudes sur les reformateurs ou socialistes modernes
(see SOCIALISM) which gained him the Montyon prize (1841) and
a place in the Academic des sciences morales et politiques (1850).
In 1843 he published Jerome Paturot A la recherche d'une position
sociale, a clever social satire that had a prodigious success. In
1846 he abandoned his democratic views, and was elected liberal
deputy for Marseilles. His Jerome Paturot d la recherche de la
meilleure des republiques (1848) was a satire on the new Re-
publican ideas. After the coup d'etat of 1849 he ceased to take
part in public life, and devoted himself entirely to the study of
political economy. To this period belong his La Vie de Vemployt
(1855); L'Induslrie en Europe (1856); and Eludes sur le
regime de nos manufactures (1859). He died in Paris on the
28th of October 1879.
REYER, ERNEST (1823- ), French composer, was born
at Marseilles on the ist of December 1823. At the age of sixteen
he went to Algeria, and remained there some years. The out-
come of his residence there was a symphonic ode entitled Le
Selam, the musical orientalism of which had, unluckily for him,
already been anticipated by F61icien David in Le Desert. Mnltre
Wolfram, a one-act opera, was produced at the Opeia comique
xxm. 8
226
REYNARD THE FOX REYNOLDS, J. F.
in 1854; and in 1858 Sacuntala, a ballet, at the Opera. It was
the production of La Statue at the Theatre lyrique in 1861 that
brought Reyer's name prominently before the public. But
Reyer had to wait several years before obtaining a real and
permanent success. Erostrale, an opera produced at Baden-
Baden in 1862, and given at the Paris Opera some ten years
later, was a failure. The composer had in the meanwhile set to
work on Sigurd, the subject of which is the same that inspired
Wagner in Siegfried and Gdtterddmmerung. It was at last
produced in Brussels in 1884, and subsequently brought out at
the Paris Opera. Sigurd is a work of great value, displaying its
composer's .elevated notions as regards the form of the " lyrical
drama." Salammbd, founded upon Flaubert's romance, was
successfully produced at Brussels in 1890. Gluck, Weber,
Berlioz and Wagner exercised most influence over Reyer. As a
musical critic (preceding Berlioz in that capacity for the Journal
des debats) Reyer was a well-known writer; and he became
librarian of the Paris Opera, and a member of the Institute.
His Quarante Ans de musique (with biographical notice by
E. Henriot) was published in 1909.
REYNARD THE FOX, a beast-epic, current in French,
Dutch and German literature. The cycle of animal stories
collected round the names of Reynard the Fox and Isengrim
the Wolf in the 1 2th century seems to have arisen on the border-
land of France and Flanders. Much of the material may be
found in Aesop, in Physiologus, and in the 1 2th-century Disciplina
Clericalis of Petrus Alfonsus. But the difference" is very great.
The intention of the trouv'eres who recited the exploits of Reynard
was, in the earlier stages, in no sense didactic. The tales, like
those of " Uncle Remus," were amusing in themselves; they
were based on widely diffused folklore, and Reynard and his
companions were not originally men disguised as animals.
Jacob Grimm (Reinhart Fuchs, 1834) maintained their popular
origin; his theories, which have been much contested, have
received additional support from the researches of K. Krohn,
who discovered many of the stories most characteristic of the
cycle in existing Finnish folklore, where they can hardly have
arrived through learned channels.
There is abundant evidence that Isengrim and Reynard were
firmly established in the popular imagination in the i3th century,
and even earlier. Guibert de Nogent {De Vitasua, book 3, chap.viii.,
printed Paris, 1651), in referring to the disturbances at Laon
in iii2, says that the bishop Gaudri was accustomed to call
one of his enemies Isengrim, and it is obvious from the context
that the taunt was perfectly understood by the popular mind.
Philip the Fair is said to have annoyed Pope Boniface III.,
who died in 1303, .by the representation of the "Procession
Renart "; and in 1204-1206 in Flanders two opposing parties
were designated Isangrini and Blavotini (blue-footed). The
principal names of the Reynard cycle, and the earliest in use,
were German. Reynard himself (Raginohardus, strong in
counsel), Bruin the Bear, Baldwin the Ass, Tibert the Cat,
Hirsent the She-wolf, had German nameSj most of which were
used as person-names in Lorraine. Whatever the sources of the
stories, it was in France- that the cycle obtained its greatest
vogue. The Roman de Renart as printed by Meon (Paris,
4 yols., 1826) runs to over 40,000 lines, and contains a great
number of detached episodes or branches, to which the trouv'eres
gave a certain unity by attaching them to the traditionary
feud between Reynard and Isengrim. This rapidly became
symbolic of the triumph of craft and eloquence over brute
strength. Renart was a popular epic parodying feudal institu-
tions as represented in the romances of chivalry, and readily
adapting itself to satire of the rich, of the forms of justice, and
of the clergy.
The early French originals are lost, the most ancient existing
fragments being in Latin. The fable of the lion's sickness and
his cure by the wolf's skin occurs in the Ecbasis cujusdam captivi
per Tropologiam (ed. E. Voigt; Strassburg, 1875), written by a
monk of St Evre at Toul (Meurthe-et-Moselle) about 940.
Ysengrimus (ed. E. Voigt; Halle, 1884), a clerical satire
written by Nivard of Ghent about 1148, includes the story of
the lion's sickness and the pilgrimage of Bertiliana the Goat.
Another Latin poem, Reinardus vulpes (ed. F. J. Mone; Stutt-
gart, 1832), contains in addition the theft of the bacon, and how
Isengrim is induced to fish with his tail. A simpler version,
derived probably from a French original, is Isingrlnes ndl,
written in German about 1180 by the Alsatian Heinrich der
Glichezare. Only fragments of this poem are preserved, but
about a quarter of a century later it was re-written with little
change in the subject matter as Reinhart Fuchs (ed. J. Grimm,
Berlin, 1834; and K. Reissenberger, Halle, 1886). Most later
versions of Reynard have been derived, however, from the
Flemish Reinaert de vos (ed. J. F. Willems, Ghent, 1836; and
E. Martin, Paderborn, 1874), written about 1250 in East Flanders
by Willem. Reinaerl is a poem of 3474 lines. The corresponding
branch of the French Roman de Renart (for which and its satirical
sequels, Le Couronnement Renart, Renart le nouveau, and Rtnart
le conlrefait, see FRENCH LITERATURE) is one of the earliest and
best of the great French cycle.
The fable was, like other French works, known in England,
but did not at once pass into the popular stock. Odo of Cheriton,
who died in 1247, used the Reynard stories in his sermons, and
many of them occur in his collection of Parabolae (ed. Hervieux,
Fabulistes latins, 1884, vol. i.). The English poem of the Vox
and the Wolf dates from the i3th century; and the " Nonne
Preestes Tale " of Chaucer, in which, however, the fox is Rossel
and the ass Brunei, is a genuine Reynard history.
Willem's Reinaert de Vos was left incomplete, and the con-
tinuation about 4000 lines in a more didactic vein was added
by an unknown writer of West Flanders about 1370. The first
copy printed in any language was the Dutch prose version,
Hystorie van Reynaert de Vos, printed at Gouda by Gheraert
Leeuw in 1479. On this Caxton based his Historye of reynarl
the foxe (reprinted by E. Arber, 1878), which he finished on the
6th of June 1481. As a satire on the church, especiaUy on
monks and nuns, Reynard became popular with reformers, and
numerous versions followed in England and Germany. A Low
German version, Reineke Fuchs, with a prose commentary by
Hinrek Alckmer (Henry of Alkmaar), was issued from the
Antwerp press of Gheraert Leeuw in 1487. From this rifaci-
mento was derived the Low German Reynke de Vos (ed. Hoffmann
von Fallersleben, Breslau, 1834; and Friedrich Prien, Halle,
1887), which was printed at Liibeck in 1498. Michael Beuther
is said to have been the translator into High German (Reiniken
Fuchs, 1 544) ; and the book was made available to the general
European public in the Latin version of Hartmann Schopper,
Opus Poeticum de admirabili fallacia et astutia Vulpeculae Reinikes
Libras quatuor (Frankfort, 1567). The modern German version
(1794) of Goethe has been often reprinted, notably in 1846 with
illustrations by Wilhelm von Kaulbach.
Reynard is dealt with by Carlyle in an essay " On German
Literature of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries " in the
Foreign Quarterly Renew (1831). An admirable account of the
Reynard cycle is given by W. J. Thorns in his edition of Caxton's
version for the Percy Society (1844). Prien's edition of Reynke
de Vos contains bibliographical particulars of the German, Danish,
Swedish, Icelandic and English editions (cp. Brunei, Manuel du
libra-ire, s.v. Renart). The best edition of the Roman de Renart
is by Ernest Martin (3 vols., Strassburg and Paris, 1881-1887).
See also Leopold Sudre, Les Sources du roman de Renard (Paris,
1890); Jacob Grimm, Sendschreiben an C. Lachmann uber Reinhart
Fuchs (Leipzig, 1840) ; Gaston Paris, " Le Roman de Renard " in the
Journal des savants (Dec. 1894 and Feb. 1895); Kaarle Krohn,
Bar und Fuchs (Helsingfors, 1888), and the editions mentioned
above. The story is told in modern French by Paulin Paris, Les
Aventures de Maitre Renart et d'Ysengrin son compare (1861), and
in English by Joseph Jacobs, following a modernized text of Caxton
made by " Felix Summerley " (Sir H. Cole), in The Most Delectable
History of Reynard the Fox (1895), with a valuable introduction.
REYNOLDS, JOHN FULTON (1820-1863), American soldier,
was born at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, on the 2oth of
September 1820, and graduated at West Point in 1841. He
became first lieutenant of artillery in 1846, and was breveted
captain and major for gallantry in the Mexican War. He took
part in the Utah expedition under Brigadier-General Albert
Sidney Johnston. In 1859 he was made commandant of cadets
REYNOLDS, SIR JOSHUA
at West Point, where he was stationed at the outbreak of the
Civil War in 1861. He was made a lieutenant-colonel of infantry
in May and brigadier-general of volunteers in August of that
year. In the Peninsular campaign, after taking part in the
battles of Beaver Dam Creek and Gaines' Mill, he was taken
prisoner in the hard-fought action of Glendale or Frazier's Farm.
Exchanged after six weeks' captivity, he commanded a division
with conspicuous ability and ofurage in the second battle of
Bull Run. Shortly after this he was placed in command of
the militia of his native state when Lee's invasion threatened
it. In November 1862 he was commissioned major-general of
volunteers, and appointed to command the I. Corps of the Army
of the Potomac, and took part in the battle of Fredericksburg.
At the time of General Meade's appointment to command the
Army of the Potomac many desired to see Reynolds selected for
that post, but he gave Meade his whole-hearted support in the
three critical days preceding the battle of Gettysburg (q.v.).
He was placed by Meade in command of the left wing (I., III.
and XI. corps and Buford's cavalry division) and thrown forward
to Gettysburg to cover the concentration of the Army of the
Potomac. The battle which ensued there, on the ist of July
1863, took its shape from Reynolds's resolution to support Buford's
cavalry with the I. and XI. crops. Meade was notified, and
hurried forward the right wing under Hancock. Reynolds
himself was killed very early in the day by a rifle bullet. A
bronze statue was placed on the field of Gettysburg and a
portrait in the library at West Point by the men of the I. Corps.
The state of Pennsylvania erected a granite shaft on the spot
where he fell, and an equestrian bronze statue stands in
Philadelphia.
His elder brother WILLIAM (1815-1879), a naval officer, served
afloat in the Civil War, effected many useful reforms while
acting secretary of the navy in 1873 and 1874, and retired from
the United States navy in 1877 as a rear-admiral.
REYNOLDS, SIR JOSHUA (1723-1792), the most prominent
figure in the English school of painting, was born at Plympton
Earl, in Devonshire, on the i6th of July 1723. He received a
fairly good education from his father, who was a clergyman and
the master of the free grammar school of the place. At the
age of seventeen, the lad, who had already shown a fondness
for drawing, was apprenticed in London to Thomas Hudson,
a native of Devonshire, who, though a mediocre artist, was
popular as a portrait painter. Reynolds remained with Hudson
for only two years, and in 1 743 he returned to Devonshire, where,
settling at Plymouth Dock, he employed himself in portrait
painting. By the end of 1744 he was again in London. He was
well received by his old master, from whom he appears previously
to have parted with some coldness on both sides. Hudson
introduced him to the artists' club that met in Old Slaughter's,
St Martin's' Lane, and gave him much advice as to his work.
Reynolds now painted a portrait of Captain the Hon. John
Hamilton, the first that brought him any notice, with those of
other people of some repute; but on the death of his father in
1746 he established himself with two of his sisters at Plymouth
Dock, where he painted numerous portraits, and it was here
that he came under the influence of the works of one of the
painters who materially affected his art. This was William
Gandy of Exeter, who had died in 1730, and whose painting,
derived through his father from VanDyck, was pronounced by
Northcote to come nearer to nature in the texture of flesh than
that of any artist who ever lived. The influence on him of
Gandy may be seen in the early self-portrait of the National
Portrait Gallery, so rich in impasto and strong in light and
shade, in which he is seen shading his eyes with his hand.
Meanwhile the pleasant urbanity of manner which distin-
guished Reynolds throughout life had been winning for him
friends. He had "made the acquaintance of Lord Edgcumbe,
and by him was introduced to Captain (afterwards Viscount)
Keppel. Keppel was made aware of Reynolds's ardent desire
to visit Italy; and, as he had just been appointed to the com-
mand of the Mediterranean squadron, he gracefully invited the
artist to accompany him in his own ship, the " Centurion."
227
The offer was gladly accepted. While Keppel was conducting
his tedious negotiations with the dey of Algiers, relative to the
piracy with which that potentate was charged, Reynolds resided
at Port Mahon, the guest of the governor of Minorca, painting
portraits of the principal inhabitants; and in December 1749
he sailed for Leghorn, and thence, with all eagerness, made his
way to Rome.
He has confessed that his first sight of the works of Raphael
I was a grievous disappointment, but he recognized afterwards, as
he said, that the fault was in himself, and he brought his mind
ultimately into the fitting posture of reverence. The fact is
significant of Reynold's attitude towards the older masters.
It has been often noticed that in his " Discourses " and else-
where he praises just the very masters whose practice his own
j work implicitly condemns. The truth is that Reynolds was
naturally a good critic, but was not strong enough to believe in
his own opinions if they ran counter to the prevailing taste of his
times. Of the early Italians he praises the " simplicity and
truth " and observes that they " deserve the attention of a
student much more than many later artists." In Venice he
adopted a method of study that only a born painter could have
thought of, making memoranda of the gradations of light and
shade in the pictures, " and this without any attention to the
subject, or to the drawing of the figures." On the other hand,
we find him lavishing both attention and eulogy on the later
Italian mannerists, such as Guide and the Carracci, and even
Salviati and Vasari.
After a residence of more than two years in ' Rome, where
he caught a severe cold which resulted in the deafness that clung
to him for the rest of his life, Reynolds, in the spring of 1752,
spent five months in visiting Parma, Florence, Venice and other
important cities of Italy. Returning to England by way of
Paris, Reynolds, after a brief stay in Devonshire, established
himself as a portrait painter in St Martin's Lane, London, whence
he afterwards removed to Great Newport Street, and finally, in
1 760, to Leicester Square, where he continued to paint till his death .
In London, Reynolds stepped at once and without a struggle
into a foremost position as the fashionable portrait painter of
the day. In this he was greatly helped by his success in society.
Throughout his career his social occupations claimed the next
place to his painting, and here it may be noticed that, though
we read of some little ostentation in the form of a showy chariot
and liveried lackeys, his good taste always kept him from any
undue " push," or adulation of the great. At the outset Lord
Edgcumbe played the part of the generous patron, and exerted
himself to obtain commissions for his protege, of whose ability
the portraits which he now produced especially the famous
full-length of his old friend Keppel were sufficient guarantee.
The artist's painting room was thronged with the wealth and
fashion of London. In 1755 his clients for the year numbered
1 20, and in 1757 the number of sittings recorded in his pocket-
books reached a total of 677. He was not always so busy, but
his popularity never really waned, though various other artists
competed with him for popular applause. First the Swiss
Liotard had his momemt of popularity; and at a later period
there was Opie, and the more formidable and sustained rivalry
of Gainsborough and of Romney; but in the midst of all
Reynolds maintained his position unimpaired. During the first
year of his residence in London he had made the acquaintance of
Dr Johnson, which, diverse as the two men were, became a
friendship for life. To him Burke and Goldsmith, Garrick,
Sterne and Bishop Percy were before long added. At the
hospitable dinner-table of Reynolds such distinguished men
enjoyed the freest and most unconstrained companionship, and
most of them were members of the " Literary Club," established,
at the painter's suggestion, in 1 764.
In 1 760 the London world of art was greatly interested by the
novel proposal of the Society of Artists to exhibit their works
to the public. The hall of the society was at their disposal
for the purpose; and in the month of April an exceedingly
successful exhibition was opened, the precursor of many that
followed. To this display Reynolds contributed four portraits.
228
REYNOLDS, SIR JOSHUA
In 1765 the association obtained a royal charter, and became
known as " The Incorporated Society of Artists "; but much
rivalry and jealousy were occasioned by the management of
the various exhibitions, and an influential body of painters
withdrew from the society. They had access to the young
king, George III., who promised his patronage and help. In
December 1768 the Royal Academy was founded, and Reynolds,
whose adhesion to the movement was for a time doubtful, was
hailed by acclamation its first president, an honour which more
than compensated for his failure to obtain the appointment
of king's painter, which, the previous year, had been bestowed
on Allan Ramsay. In a few months the king signified his
approval of the election by knighting the new president, and
intimating that the queen and himself would honour him with
sittings for portraits .to be presented to the Academy.
Reynolds was in every way fitted for his new position, and
till the late Lord Leighton the Academy never had so good a
figure-head. He did not take any part in the educational work
of the new institution, but on the social side he set the Academy
on the lines it has followed with the greatest worldly success
ever since. It was at his suggestion that the annual banquet
was instituted. To the specified duties of his post he added
the delivery of a presidential address at the distribution of the
prizes, and his speeches on these occasions form the well-known
" Discourses " of Sir Joshua. These discourses alone would
be sufficient to entitle their author to literary distinction;
indeed, when they were first delivered, it was thought impossible
that they could be the production of a painter, and Johnson
and Burke have been credited with their composition, in spite
of the specific denials of both, and of Dr Johnson's indignant
exclamation " Sir Joshua, sir, would as soon get me to paint
for him as to write for him! "
Sir Joshua was too prosperous and successful an artist
altogether to escape the jealousy of his less fortunate or less
capable brethren, and it must on the other side be admitted
that his attitude towards some of his contemporaries was
wanting in generosity. His relations with Gainsborough, who
on his part was in fault, would require more space for discussion
than can here be afforded, but he was not just either to Hogarth
or to Richard Wilson. It may be added that though Reynolcls's
friends were genuinely fond of him, his was not a nature that
could inspire or feel any great warmth of personal feeling.
Cosmo Monkhouse in the Dictionary of National Biography
speaks of " the beauty of his disposition and the nobility of
his character," but adds: " he was a born diplomatist." The
latter phrase gives the real key to his character. Without
going so far as fully to endorse the sentiment of Mrs Thrale's
famous line about a " heart too frigid " and a " pencil too
warm," we must agree with a recent writer that the attitude
of Reynolds towards his fellow men and women was one
of detachment. Hence we regard Reynolds as a man with
tempered admiration, and reserve our enthusiasm for his art.
In 1784, on the death of Ramsay, Reynolds was appointed
painter to the king. Two years previously he had suffered
from a paralytic attack; but, after a month of rest, he was
able to resume his painting with unabated energy and power.
In the summer of 1789 his sight began to fail; he was affected
by the gutta serena, but the progress of the malady was gradual,
and he continued occasionally to practise his art till about the
end of 1700, delivering his final discourse at the Academy on
the loth of December. He was still able to enjoy the companion-
ship of his friends, and he exerted himself in an effort to raise
funds for the erection of a monument in St Paul's to Dr
Johnson, who had died in 1784. Towards the end of 1791 it
was evident to the friends of Reynolds that he was gradually
sinking. For a few months he suffered from extreme depres-
sion of spirits, the result of a severe form of liver complaint,
and on the 23rd of February 1792 this great artist and blameless
gentleman passed peacefully away.
As a painter Reynolds stands, with Gainsborough, just behind
the very first rank. There can be no question of placing him by
the side of the greatest Venetians or of the triumvirate of the I7th
century, Rubens, Rembrandt, Velasquez; but, if he fail also to
equal either Hals or Van Dyck, this is due, not to any defect in
his natural capacity, but to deficiencies in his education combined
with the absence in his case of that splendid artistic tradition on
which the others leaned. He could not draw the figure properly;
nor could he as a rule compose successfully on anything like a
monumental scale. English painters in his early days possessed a
sound technique, and most of Hogarth's best pictures are perfectly
well preserved as well as beautifully painted but Reynolds was not
content with the tried methods Hudson could have taught him.
In the desire to compass that creaminess, that juicy opulence in
colour and texture, of which he conceived the idea before the
Italian journey, and which he found realized in the works of the
Venetians and Correggio, he embarked on all sorts of fantastic
experiments in pigments and media, so that Haydon exclaimed,
" The wonder is that the picture did not crack beneath the brush! "
The result was the speedy ruin of many of his own productions,
and he inaugurated an era of uncertainty in method which seriously
compromised the efforts of his successors in the English school.
The motive for this procedure may explain if it do not justify
it. He was all his life intensely in earnest about his art, devoured
by what he himself calls " a perpetual desire to advance "; and he
accounts for his own uncertainty partly from his want of training,
and partly from his " inordinate desire to possess every kind of
excellence " he saw in the works of others. Now if this mental
energy led him into hazardous attempts to find a royal road to the
painter's ideal, it acted well upon his design in lending to it a certain
intellectual solidity, which gives it an advantage over the slighter,
though at times more exquisite, productions of the pencils of
Gainsborough or Romney. The weight and power of the art of
Reynolds are best seen in those noble male portraits, " Lord Heath-
field," " Johnson," " Sterne," " Goldsmith," " Gibbon," " Burke,"
" Fox," " Garrick,"j that are historical monuments as well as
sympathetic works of art. In this category must be included his
immortal " Mrs Siddpns as the Tragic Muse."
In portraits of this order Reynolds holds the field, but he is
probably more generally admired for his studies of women and of
children, of which the Althorp portraits of the Spencer family are
classic examples. Nature had singled out Sir Joshua to endow him
with certain gifts in which he has hardly an equal. No portrait
painter has been more happy in his poses for single figures, or has
known better how to control by good taste the piquant, the acci-
dental, the daring, in mien and gesture. " Viscountess Crosbie "
is a striking instance. When dealing with more than one figure
he was not always so happy, but the " Duchess of Devonshire
and her Baby," the " Three Ladies decking a Figure of Hymen,"
and the " Three Ladies Waldegrave " are brilliant successes. He
was felicitous too in his arrangement of drapery, often following
his own fashion of investing his graceful dames in robes of ideal cut
and texture, quite apart from the actual clothes worn at the time.
Few painters, again, have equalled the president in dainty and at
the same time firm manipulation of the brush. The richness of
his deeper colouring is at times quite Venetian. For pure delight
in the quality of paint and colour we cannot do better than go to
the " Angels' Heads " of the National Gallery, or the " Nelly
O'Brien " in the Wallace Collection.
It corresponds with what has been noted as Reynolds's habit of
mind in regard to older art to find him throughout his life hankering
after success in what he was fond of calling the " grand style "
in " historical painting." His failure here is as notorious as his
brilliant success in the field of art for which nature had equipped
him. His " Ugolino," his " Macbeth," his " Cardinal Beaufort,"
have no real impressiveness, while his greatest effort in the " his-
toric " style, the " Infant Hercules " at St Petersburg, resulted in
his most conspicuous disaster.
It is in the " Discourses " that Reynolds unfolds these artistic
theories that contrast so markedly with his own practice. The
first discourse deals with the establishment of an academy for the
fine arts, and of its value as being a repository of the traditions of
the best of bygone practice, of " the principles which many artists
have spent their lives in ascertaining." In the second lecture the
study of the painter is divided into three stages, in the first of
which hfe is busied with processes and technicalities, with the
grammar of art, while in the second he examines what has been
done by other artists, and in the last compares these results with
Nature herself. In the third discourse Reynolds treats of " the
great and leading principles of the grand style"; and ^succeeding
addresses are devoted to such subjects as " Moderation," " Taste,"
" Genius," and " Sculpture." The fourteenth has an especial
interest as containing a notice of Gainsborough, who had died
shortly before its^delivery ; while the concluding discourse is mainly
occupied with a panegyric on Michelangelo.
The other literary works of the president comprise his three essays
in The Idler for 1759-1760 ("On the Grand Style in Painting,"
and " On the True Idea of Beauty "), his notes to Du Fresnoy's
Art of Painting, his Remarks on the Art of the Low Countries, his
brief notes in Johnson's Shakespeare, and two singularly witty and
brilliant fragments, imaginary conversations with Johnson, which
REYNOLDS, W. REZANOV
229
were never intended by their author for publication, but, found
among his papers after his death, were given to the world by his
niece, the marchioness of Thomond.
The president left to his niece, Mary Palmer, the bulk of his
property, about 100,000, with works of art that sold for 30,000
more. There were, besides, legacies amounting to about 15,000.
His body rests in St Paul's.
See Northcote, Memoirs of Sir Joshua Reynolds, Knight, &c.
(1813), and Supplement thereto (1815); Farrington, Memoirs
of the Life of Sir Joshua Reynolds (1819); Cotton, Sir Joshua
Reynolds and his Works (edited by Burnet, 1856); Leslie and
Taylor, Life and Times of Sir Joshua Reynolds (2 vols., 1865);
Redgrave, A Century of English Painters (1866), vol. i. ; Graves
and Cronin, A History of the Works of Sir Joshua Reynolds, P.R.A.
(4 vols., 18991901); Sir Walter Armstrong, Sir Joshua Reynolds,
First President of the Royal Academy (1900; also a shorter work,
1905); Lord Ronald Gower, Sir Joshua Reynolds (1902). For
Reynolds's literary works, see Malone, The Works of Sir Joshua
Reynolds, Knight (3 vols., 1798); Beechy, Literary Works of Sir
Joshua Reynolds (1835); Leisching, Sir J. Reynolds zur Aesthetik
u. Technik der bildenden Kunste (Leipzig, 1893); Discourses delivered
to the Students of the Royal Academy by Sir Joshua Reynolds, Kt.,
with introductions and notes by Roger Fry (1905).
REYNOLDS, WALTER (d. 1327), archbishop of Canterbury,
was the son of a Windsor baker, and became a clerk, or chaplain,
in the service of Edward I. He held several livings and, owing
perhaps to his histrionic skill, he became a prime favourite
with the prince of Wales, afterwards Edward II. Just after
the prince became king [in 1307 Reynolds was appointed
treasurer of England; in 1308 he became bishop of Worcester
and in 1310 chancellor. When Robert Winchelsea, archbishop
of Canterbury, died in May 1313 Edward II. prevailed upon
Pope Clement V. to appoint his favourite to the vacant archbishop-
ric, and Walter was enthroned at Canterbury in February 1314.
Although the private life of the new archbishop appears to have
been the reverse of exemplary he attempted to carry out some
very necessary reforms in his new official capacity; he also
continued the struggle for precedence, which had been carried
on for many years between the archbishops of Canterbury and
of York. In this connexion in 1317 he laid London under
an interdict after William de Melton (d. 1340), archbishop of
York, had passed through its streets with his cross borne erect
before him. Reynolds remained in general loyal to Edward II.
until 1324, when with all his suffragans he opposed the king
in defence of the bishop of Hereford, Adam of Orlton. In the
events which concluded Edward's life and reign the archbishop
played a contemptible part. Having fled for safety into Kent
he returned to London and declared for Edward III., whom
he crowned in February 1327. He died at Mortlake on the
1 6th of November following.
REZANOV, NICOLA! PETROVICH DE (1764-1807),
Russian nobleman and administrator under Catherine II.,
Paul I. and Alexander I., was one of the ten barons of Russia,
and, for his services to the empire, was rewarded with the court
title of chamberlain. In 1803 he was made a privy councillor
and invested with the order of St Ann. He was also the author
of a lexicon of the Japanese language and of several other
works, which are preserved in the library of the St Petersburg
Academy of Sciences, of which he was a member. He was the
first Russian ambassador to Japan (1804), and instigated the
first attempt of Russia to circumnavigate the globe (1803),
commanding the expedition himself as far as Kamchatka. But
Rezanov's monument for many years after his death was the
great Russian American Fur Company; and his interest to
students of history centres round the policy involved in that
enterprise, which, thwarted by his untimely death, would have
changed the destinies of Russia and the United States.
Meeting (in 1788) Shelikov, chief of the Shelikov-Golikov
Fur Company, Rezanov became interested in the merchant's
project to obtain a monopoly of the fur trade in those distant
dependencies. Conscious of latent energies, and already tired
of the pleasures of a dissolute court, he became a partner in
the company, and rapidly developed into a keen and tireless
man of business. At the death of Shelikov in 1795 he became
the leading spirit of the wealthy and amalgamated but harassed
companies, and resolved to obtain for himself and his partners
privileges analogous to those granted by Great Britain to the
East India Company. He had just succeeded in persuading
Catherine to sign his charter when she died, and he was obliged
to begin again with the ill-balanced and intractable Paul. For
a time the outlook was hopeless; but Rezanov's skill, subtlety
and address prevailed, and shortly before the assassination of
the emperor Paul he obtained his signature to the momentous
instrument which granted to the Russian-American Company,
for a term of twenty years, dominion over the coast of N.W.
America, from latitude 55 degrees northward; and over the
chain of islands extending from Kamchatka northward and
southward to Japan. This famous " Trust," which crowded out
all the small companies and independent traders, was a source
of large revenue to Rezanov and the other shareholders, includ-
ing members of the Imperial family, until the first years of the
igth century, when mismanagement and scarcity of nourishing
food threatened it with serious losses if not ultimate ruin.
Rezanov, his humiliating embassy to Japan concluded, reached
Kamchatka in 1805, and found commands awaiting him to
remain in the Russian colonies as Imperial inspector and
plenipotentiary of the company, and to correct the abuses that
were ruining the great enterprise. He travelled slowly to
Sitka by way of the Islands, establishing measures to protect
the fur-bearing animals from reckless slaughter, punishing or
banishing the worst offenders against the company's laws, and
introducing the civilizing influence of schools and libraries,
most of the books being his personal gifts. He even established
cooking schools, which flourished briefly.
At the end of a winter in Sitka, the headquarters of the
company, during which he half-starved with the others, he
bought a ship from a Yankee skipper and sailed for the Spanish
settlements in California, purposing to trade his tempting cargo
of American and Russian wares for food-stuffs, and to arrange
a treaty by whose terms his colonies should be provisioned twice
a year with the bountiful products of New Spain. He cast
anchor in the harbour of San Francisco early in April 1806,
after a stormy voyage which had defeated his intention to take
possession of the Columbia river in the name of Russia. Although
he was received with great courtesy and entertained night and
day by the gay Californians, no time was lost in informing him
that the laws of Spain forbade her colonies to trade with foreign
powers, and that the governor of all the Californias was in-
corruptible. Rezanov, had it not been for a love affair with
the daughter of the comandante of San Francisco, Don Jose
Arguello, and for his personal address and diplomatic skill,
with which he won over the clergy to his cause, would have
failed again. As it was, when he sailed for Sitka, six weeks
after his arrival, the " Juno's " hold was full of bread-stuffs and
dried meats, he had the promise of the perplexed governor to
forward a copy of the treaty to Spain at once, and he was
affianced to the most beautiful girl in California. Shortly after
his arrival in Sitka he proceeded by water to Kamchatka,
where he despatched his ships to wrest the island Sakhalen of
the lower Kurile group from Japan, then started overland for
St Petersburg to obtain the signature of the tsar to the treaty,
and also personal letters to the pope and king of Spain that he
might ask for the dispensation and the royal consent necessary
to his marriage. He died of fever and exhaustion in Krasnoyarsk,
Siberia, on the 8th of March 1807.
The treaty with California, the bare suggestion of which made
such a commotion in New Spain, was the least of Rezanov's
projects. It was sincerely conceived, for he was deeply and
humanely concerned for his employees and the wretched natives
who were little more than the slaves of the company; but its
very obviousness raised the necessary amount of dust. His
correspondence with the company, and with Zapinsky, betrays
a clearly defined purpose to annex to Russia the entire western
coast of North America, and to encourage immediate emigra-
tion from the parent country on a large scale. Had he lived,
there is, all things considered, hardly a doubt that he would
have accomplished his object. The treaty was never signed,
the reforms of Rezanov died of discouragement, the fortunes of
230
RHACIS RHAETIC
the colonies gradually collapsed, the Spanish girl who had loved
Rezanov became a nun; and one of the ablest and most ambitious
men of his time lies forgotten in the cemetery of a poor Siberian
town.
See Bancroft's History of California, and Alaska; Tikme'nev's
Historical Review of the Origin of the Russian American Company;
Rezdnov-Zapisky Correspondence ; Travels of Krusenstern and Langs-
ford, &c. (G. A.*)
RHACIS, or RACHIS (Gr. pax, a backbone), in botany
the axis of an inflorescence or of a branched leaf; in zoology,
the stem of a feather, as opposed to the vesillum, or web.
RHADAMANTHUS (Gr. Rhadamanthys) , in Greek mytho-
logy, son of Zeus and Europa and brother of Minos, king of
Crete. Driven out of Crete by his brother, who was jealous
of his popularity, he fled to Boeotia, where he wedded Alcmene.
Homer represents him as dwelling in the Elysian fields (Odyssey,
iv. 564). According to later legends, on account of his in-
flexible integrity he was made one of the judges of the dead in
the lower world, together with Aeacus and Minos. He was
supposed to judge the souls of Asiatics, Aeacus those of Euro-
peans, while Minos had the casting vote (Plato, Gorgias, 424^).
RHAETIC (Fr. Rhetien or Rhalien; Ger. Rhat or Rhatisch;
It. Retico), in geology, the assemblage of rocks classed by most
English and German authorities in the Triassic system, and by
most French geologists placed at the base of the Lias, in the
Jurassic system. It has been called the Infra-Lias. This
diversity of opinion is due to the fact that the Rhaetic formation
presents the characters of a group of passage-beds, uniting
certain features of the Trias with others of the Jurassic system;
none the less, it has sufficient individuality to be recognized
with tolerable certainty over a wide area in Europe and beyond.
The name Rhaetic was first applied by C. W. Giimbel to the
strata of this horizon in the Rhaetic Alps, where they are
thickly developed and in parts fossiliferous. The labours of
E. V. Mojsisovic and E. Suess have demonstrated that in the
Alpine Rhaetic several distinct facies may be recognized, viz.
a Swabian facies: shore and lagoon deposits with a pelecypod
fauna, poor in species but rich in individuals; a Carpathian
facies with corals, algae, Terebratula gregaria and Plicatula
intusstriata, exemplified in the upper part -of the Dachstein
limestone; a Kossener facies: black limestones and marls,
with a brachiopod fauna in which Spirigera oxycolpos is very
noticeable; and a Salzburg facies, characterized by pelagic
pelecypods and some ammonites (see table in TRIASSIC SYSTEM).
The whole of the Rhaetic falls within Mojsisovic's zone of Avicula
contorta. This epoch is marked off from the earlier Triassic
period by a very general marine transgression which proceeded
with minor irregularities and retrogressions over the whole area,
until at its close it was followed by the more decided trans-
gression which indicates the commencement of the Lias.
Among the marine fossils of the Rhaetic, Avicula contorta,
the principal zone form, is very characteristic and has a wide
range; Myophoria inflata, Modiola minuta, Protocardium
rhaeticum and Terebratula gregaria are common species. True
belemonites make their first appearance. Corals, Thecosmilia,
&c., are common in some districts. Plant remains are abundant
in certain areas, and in places give rise to beds of lignite and
coal. The flora is more nearly akin to that of the Trias than
to that of the Jurassic rocks. Vertebrate remains are fairly
abundant in the form of teeth, isolated bones, scales and
coprolites in what are known as " Bone Beds " (?..). These
beds are a very characteristic feature; they occur on several
horizons in many tracts of the European Rhaetic, and recur in
beds of this age in America. In England there is usually a
bone bed about the base of the formation; in Germany one
occupies a similar position; a second occurs less constantly
about the middle, and in the Wiirttemberg district a third bed
separates the Rhaetic and Lias, and constitutes the well-known
manure bed of Bebenhausen. In these beds are found the
bones of Ichthyosaurus and Pliosaurus, anticipating their great
development in the Lias, while the remains of Belodon and
Mystriosuchus serve to link this epoch with Triassic stego-
cephalian reptiles. Several coleopterous insects have been
found in the same beds, but the most interesting feature of
the bone-bed fauna is the first appearance in the northern
hemisphere of true mammals: Microlestes in England and
Wiirttemberg, Triglyphus in Wiirttemberg, Dromatherium and
Microconodon in America.
In England the Rhaetic formation occurs as a thin but constant
series of beds at the base of the Lias and above the Keuper marls.
The upper part, often called the " White Lias," is a series of thin-
bedded shales, limestone and marls, I to 25 ft. thick; the lower
portion consists mainly of dark shales, sometimes with very perfect
lamination "paper shales." Below there are beds of grey and
" tea-green " marls which are now usually regarded as the topmost
Keuper beds, but they have often been included in the Rhaetic
formation (see KEUPER). The best exposures in Britain are those
between Penarth Head and Cavernock Point, Aust Cliff and Garden
Cliff near Westbury-on-Severn, and Wainlode Cliff between Tewkes-
bury and Gloucester. From their excellent development near
Penarth the Rhaetic beds have long been known in England as the
Penarth Beds (H. W. Bristow, 1864). The more prominent beds
in the White Lias of the west of England and Glamorganshire are
the Estheria beds and the insect limestone or Pseudomonotis-bed,
and on both of these horizons the limestone may assume the peculiar
characters of landscape marble, sometimes called Cotham marble,
from Cotham House near Bristol. A hard fine-grained limestone,
known locally as the Sun-bed, occurs at the top of the series near
Bath and Radstock; at Street, Wedmore and south of the Mendips
generally it is called Jew stone. Wedmore stone is a tough, shelly
and sandy limestone in the black shales at Wedmore, near Wells;
it is employed in the neighbourhood as a building stone. North of
Somersetshire the White Lias is poorly represented ; in Glamorgan-
shire it appears between Cardiff and Pyle, west of Bridgend and at
Sutton and Southerndown. Rhaetic beds have been traced at
Market Drayton, Salop; near Audlem, Cheshire; Rugby and
Stratford-on-Avon in Warwickshire; Wigston in Leicestershire;
Needham Forest in Staffordshire, and in Nottinghamshire and
Yorkshire as far as the coast. They have not yet been proved
beneath the Lias of Cumberland. Rhaetic fossils have been found
in great numbers in fissures in the Carboniferous limestone of the
Mendips. On the western side of Scotland Rhaetic rocks occur at
Applecross, Ardnamurchan, Morven, Mull, Raasay and Skye. In
Sutherlandshire sandstone and conglomerate and large transported
masses occur; one of them, at Linksfield, carries a bone bed. Here
the black shales of the English type fail; sandstones with coaly
layers and yellowish-grey crystalline and oolitic limestones take
their place. In Antrim a small outcrop of black shales with Avicula
contorta occurs near Port Rush.
On the European continent the Rhaetic rocks are most thickly
developed in the Alpine regions; and, as in the case of the older
Triassic formations, calcareous and dolomitic strata predominate
here and in the Mediterranean province. In the Alpine district
the main divisions are the Rhaetic Dachstein limestone and the
Kossener beds; shales, marls and limestones. In t.ie northern
tract the following subdivisions have been recognized in descending
order: beds with Choristeceros Marschi; Starhem passage beds;
Rhynchonella fissicostata beds; Lithodendron limestone; beds with
Terebratula gregaria; beds with Avicula contorta; " Flatten Kalk "
with Rhynchonella alpina. In the southern tract the subdivisions
are: Conchodus dolomite (Conchodus infraliassicus = Lycodius
cor.}, Lithodendron limestone, Azzarola beds, Contorta marls,
" Plattenkalk." Much limestone is of the " reef " type. In
Germany the rocks are mainly fine, clean yellow sands, suggesting
littoral or dune conditions, with bituminous clays and marls. The
formation is often missing in south-west Germany. Similar beds
occur in Lorraine and Luxembourg (gres de Vic, gres de Kdange, gres
de Mortinsart). In Cotentin are dolomitic sandstones and marl;
round the central plateau of France the rocks are coarse sands,
arkoses, and conglomerates; while in the south of France the sandy
and calcareous facies occur intermixed. In Spain limestones and
dolomites occur up to 100 metres in thickness; in Portugal sandy
beds recur. The Rhaetic of Scania, south Sweden, consists mainly of
sandstone and shales with beds of coal up to one metre thick. Only
the upper beds contain marine fossils; the bulk of the formation is
of lacustrine or estuarine origin, with plant remains and insects.
In Italy the formation is well developed in the north and at Rotzo,
Spezzia and Carrara; and yields the famous statuary marble and
the black variety known as portor. Rhaetic beds have been re-
cognized in Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily, in the Balkan Peninsula and
Greece; in AsiaxMinor, Afghanistan, Turkistan, Persia, Siberia and
India (limestones and dolomites of Niti and the Mahaveda beds,
sandstones and conglomerates, nearly 10,000 feet thick in Satpura);
in China, Japan and Tongking (with coal beds). In Australasia
the Wianamatta beds of New South Wales, the Bellarine beds of
Victoria, the Ipswich and Tivoli beds of Queensland, and the
Jerusalem beds of Tasmania, and beds on a similar horizon in New
Zealand, have been regarded as equivalents of the Rhaetic. In
Africa the Stormberg beds of the Karoo series and the Molteno beds
RHAMNUS PURSHIANA RHEA
of the Cape have been assigned to this epoch. In America Rhaetic
rocks are recognized in N. Carolina, Connecticut, California, Mexico,
Bolivia and Chile ; the formation is also recorded from Spitzbergen,
Franz Joseph Land and elsewhere in the Arctic regions.
For the English Rhaetic see L. Richardson, " The Rhaetic Rocks
of North-west Gloucestershire," Proc. Cotteswold Club, xiv. p. 127
(Glos. 1901-1903). (J. A. H.)
RHAMNUS PURSHIANA, or Californian buckthorn, a plant
the bark of which is used in medicine under the name of cascara
sagrada. An active principle anthra-gluco-sagradin has been
isolated by Tschirch. The preparations of it contained in the
British pharmacopoeia are: (i) Extractum cascarae sagradae
(extractum rhamni purshianae, United States pharmacopoeia),
dose 2 to 8 grs.; (2) Extractum cascarae sagradae liquidum, dose
$ to i fl. dr. From the latter is prepared syrupus cascarae
aromaticus, dose 5 to 2 fl. dr. In this preparation the bitter
taste of the cascara sagrada is disguised by the addition of
tincture of orange, cinnamon water and syrup. In the United
States pharmacopoeial preparation Fluid extractum rhamni
purshianae aromaticum, does 10 to 30 minims, the taste is
similarly obscured. Cascara sagrada is one of the most useful
of all laxatives, since not only does it empty the bowel of faecal
matter, but it acts as a tonic to the intestine and tends to pre-
vent future constipation. It is largely used in the treatment
of chronic constipation. A single full dose of the liquid extract
may be taken at bedtime, or divided doses, 10 to 15 minims,
three times a day before meals. When a strong purgative is
required some drug other than cascara sagrada should be
employed, but its use in gradually decreasing doses is indicated
after evacuation has been effected by podophyllin or rhubarb.
Cascara sagrada is the principal constituent of most of the
proprietary laxatives on the market.
RHAMPSINITUS, a Greek corruption of Ra-messu-pa-neter,
the popular name of Rameses III., king of Egypt of the XXth
Dynasty. He is well known in connexion with the story of
his treasure house told by Herodotus (ii. 121), which greatly
resembles that of Agamedes and Trophonius. (See EGYPT,
History.)
RHANKAVfiS (commonly also RHANGABE), ALEXANDROS
RHIZOS (1810-1892), Greek savant, poet and statesman, was born
at Constantinople of a Phanariot family on the 2$th of December
1810. He was educated at Odessa and the military school at
Munich. Having served as an officer of artillery in the Bavarian
army, he returned to Greece, where he held several high educa-
tional and administrative appointments. He subsequently
became ambassador at Washington (1867), Paris (1868), and
Berlin (1874-1886), and was one of the Greek plenipotentiaries
at the congress of 1878. After his recall he lived at Athens,
where he died on the 2gth of June 1892. He was the chief
representative of a school of literary men whose object was to
restore as far as possible the ancient classical language. Of
his various works, Hellenic Antiquities (1842-1855, of great
value for epigraphical purposes), Archaeologia (1865-1866), an
illustrated Archaeological Lexicon (1888-1891), and a. History
of Modern Greek Literature (1877) are of the most interest to
scholars. He wrote also the following dramatic pieces: The
Marriage of Kutrules (comedy), Dukas (tragedy), the Thirty
Tyrants, The Eve (of the Greek revolution); the romances,
The Prince of Morea, Leila, and The Notary of Argostoli; and
translated portions of Dante, Schiller, Lessing, Goethe and
Shakespeare.
A complete edition of his philological works in nineteen volumes was
published at Athens (1874- 1 890), and his 'Amnrnnoi>t{>na.Ta.(Memoirs)
appeared posthumously in 1894-1895.
RHAPSODIST (Gk. Rhapsodos), originally an epic poet who
recited his own poetry; then, one who recited the poems
of others (see HOMER).
RHATANY or KRAMERIA ROOT, in medicine, the dried
root either of Para rhatany or of Peruvian rhatany. The
action of rhatany is due to the rhatania-tannic acid, and re-
sembles that of tannic acid, being a powerful astringent. An
infusion is used as a gargle for relaxed throats; and lozenges,
particularly those containing rhatany and cocaine, are useful
231
in similar cases. Like tannic acid, the powdered extract may
be applied as a local haemostatic. Ah 1 preparations of rhatany
taken internally are powerful astringents in diarrhoea and
intestinal haemorrhage.
RHAYADER (Rhaiadr-Gwy) , a market town of Radnorshire,
Wales, situated amid wild and beautiful scenery on the left
bank of the Wye, about ij m. above its confluence with the
Elan. Pop. (1901) 1215. Rhayader is a station on the
Cambrian railway. A stone bridge over the Wye connects
the town with the village and parish church of Cwmdauddwr.
Rhayader has for some centuries been an important centre for
Welsh mutton and wool, and its sheep fairs are largely attended
by drovers and buyers from all parts. Near Rhayader are the
large reservoirs constructed (1895) by the corporation of
Birmingham in the Elan and Claerwen valleys.
Rhayader, built close to the Falls of the Wye (whence its name),
owes its early importance to the castle erected here by Prince Rhys
'ap Griffith oi South Wales, c. 1178, in order to check the English
advance up the Wye Valley. Seized by the invaders, castle and
town were later retaken in 1231 by Prince Llewelyn ap lorwerth,
who burned the fortress and slew its garrison. Scarcely a trace of
the castle exists, although its site near St Clement's church is locally
known as Tower Hill. With the erection of Maesyfed into the shire
of Radnor in 1536 Rhayader was named as assize-town for the
newly formed county in conjunction with New Radnor; but in 1542,
on account of a local riot, the town was deprived of this privilege in
favour of Presteign. Rhayader constituted one of the group of
boroughs comprising the Radnor parliamentary district until the
Redistribution Act of 1885.
RHEA, a goddess of the Greeks known in mythology as the
daughter of Uranus and Gaia, the sister and consort of Kronos,
and the mother of Zeus. In Homer she is the mother of
the gods, though not a universal mother like Cybele, the
Phrygian Great Mother, with whom she was later identified.
The original seat of her worship was in Crete. There, according
to legend, she saved the new-born Zeus, her sixth child, from
being devoured by Kronos by substituting a stone for him and
entrusting the infant god to the care of her attendants the Curetes
(q.v.). These attendants afterwards ' became the bodyguard
of Zeus and the priests of Rhea, and performed ceremonies in
her honour. In historic times the resemblances between Rhea
and the Asiatic Great Mother, Phrygian Cybele, were so notice-
able that the Greeks accounted for them by regarding the latter
as only their own Rhea, who had deserted her original home
in Crete and fled to the mountain wilds of Asia Minor to escape
the persecution of Kronos (Strabo 469, 12). The reverse view
was also held (Virgil, Aen. iii. in), and it is probably true
that a stock of Asiatic origin formed part of the primitive
population of Crete and brought with them the worship of
the Asiatic Great Mother, who became the Cretan Rhea. (See
GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS.) (G. SN.)
RHEA, the name given in 1752 by P. H. G. Mohring 1 to a
South American bird which, though long before known and
described by the earlier writers Nieremberg, Marcgrav and
Piso (the last of whom has a recognizable but rude figure of
it) had been without any distinctive scientific appellation.
Adopted a few years later by M. J. Brisson, the name has since
passed into general use, especially among English authors, for
what their predecessors had called the American ostrich; but
on the European continent the bird is commonly called Nandu*
a word corrupted from a name it is said to have borne among
the aboriginal inhabitants of Brazil, where the Portuguese
settlers called it ema (see EMEU). The resemblance of the rhea
to the ostrich (q.v.) was at once perceived, but the differences
between them are also very evident. The former, for instance,
has three instead of two toes on each foot, it has no apparent
tail, its wings are far better developed, and when folded cover
the body, and its head and neck are clothed with feathers, while
internal distinctions of still deeper significance have since been
1 What prompted his bestowal of this name, so well known in
classical mythology, is not apparent.
2 The name Touyou, also of South American origin, was applied
to it by Brisson and others, but erroneously, as Cuvier shows,
since by that name, or something like it, the jabiru (q.v.) is properly
meant.
232
RHEINBERGER
dwelt upon by T. H. Huxley (Proc. Zool. Society, 1867, pp. 420-
422) and W. A. Forbes (op. cit., 1881, pp. 784-87). There can
be little doubt that they should be regarded as types of as many
orders Strulhiones and Rheae of the subclass Ratitae. Struc-
tural characters no less important separate the rheas from
the emeus; the former can be readily recognized by the rounded
form of their contour-feathers, which want the hyporrhachis
or after-shaft that in the emeus and cassowaries is so long as
to equal the main shaft, and contributes to give these latter
groups the appearance of being covered with shaggy hair. The
feathers of the rhea have a considerable market value, and for
the purpose of trade in them it is annually killed by thousands,
so that 1 its total extinction as a wild animal is probably only
a question of time. It is polygamous, and the male performs
the duty of incubation, brooding more than a score of eggs,
the produce of several females facts known to Nieremberg
Rhea.
more than two hundred and fifty years since, but hardly accepted
by naturalists until recently. No examples of this bird seem
to have been brought to Europe before the beginning of the
present century, and accordingly the descriptions previously
given of it by systematic writers were taken at second hand and
were mostly defective if not misleading. In 1803 J. Latham
issued a wretched figure of the species from a half-grown speci-
men in the Leverian Museum, and twenty years later said he
had seen only one other, and that still younger, in Bullock's
collection (Gen. Hist. Birds, viii. p. 379) ? A bird living in con-
finement at Strassburg in 1806 was, however, described and
figured by Hammer in 1808 (Ann. du Museum, xii. pp. 427-
1 J. E. Harting, in his and De Mosenthal's Ostriches and Ostrich
Farming, from which the woodcut here introduced is by permission
copied, gives (pp. 67-72) some portentous statistics of the destruc-
tion of rheas for the sake of their feathers, which, he says, are
known in the trade as " Vautour " to distinguish them from those
of the African bird.
'The ninth edition of the Companion to this collection (1810,
p. 121) states that the specimen " was brought alive " [?to England].
433, pi. 39). In England the Report of the Zoological Society
for 1833 announced the rhea as having been exhibited for the
first time in its gardens during the preceding twelvemonth.
Since then many other living examples have been introduced,
and it has bred both there and in many private parks in Britain.
Though considerably smaller than the ostrich, and wanting
its fine plumes, the rhea in general aspect far more resembles
that bird than the other Ratitae. The feathers of the head and
neck, except on the crown and nape, where they are dark brown,
are dingy white, and those of the body ash-coloured tinged with
brown, while on the breast they are brownish-black, and on the
belly and thighs white. In the course of the memorable voyage
of the " Beagle," C. Darwin came to hear of another kind of
rhea, called by his informants Aveslruz petise, and at Port
Desire on the east coast of Patagonia he obtained an example
of it, the imperfect skin of which enabled J. Gould to describe
it (Proc. Zool. Society, 183.7, p. 35) as a second species of the
genus, naming it after its discoverer. Rhea darwini differs
in several well-marked characters from the earlier known
R. americana. Its bill is shorter than its head; its tarsi are
reticulated instead of scutellated in front, with the upper part
feathered instead of being bare; and the plumage of its body
and wings is very different, each feather being tipped with a
distinct whitish band, while that of the head and neck is greyish-
brown. A further distinction is also asserted to be shown by
the eggs those of R. americana being of a yellowish-white,
while those of R. darwini have a bluish tinge. Some years
afterwards P. L. Sclater described (op. cit., 1860, p. 207) a third
and smaller species, closely resembling the R. americana, but
having apparently a longer bill, whence he named it R. tnacro-
rhyncha, more slender tarsi, and shorter toes, while its general
colour is very much darker, the body and wings being of a
brownish-grey mixed with black. The precise geographical
range of these three species is still undetermined. While R.
americana is known to extend from Paraguay and southern
Brazil through the La Plata region to an uncertain distance in
Patagonia, R. darwini seems to be the proper inhabitant of the
country last named, though M. Claraz asserts (op. cit., 1885,
p. 324) that it is occasionally found to the northward of the Rio
Negro, which had formerly been regarded as its limit, and,
moreover, that flocks of the two species commingled may be
very frequently seen in the district between that river and the
Rio Colorado. On the " pampas " R. americana is said to
associate with herds of deer (Cariacus campestris), and R.
darwini to be the constant companion of guanacos (Lama
huanaco) just as in Africa the ostrich seeks the society of
zebras and antelopes. As for R. macrorhyncha, it was found by
W. A. Forbes (Ibis, 1881, pp. 360, 361) to inhabit the dry and
open " sertoes " of north-eastern Brazil, a discovery the more
interesting since it was in that part of the country that Marcgrav
and Piso became acquainted with a bird of this kind, though the
existence of any species of rhea in the district had been long
overlooked by or unknown to succeeding travellers.
Besides the works above named and those of other recognized
authorities on the ornithology of South America such as Azara,
Prince Max of Wied, Professor Burmeister and others, more cr less
valuable information on the subject is to be found in Darwin's
Voyage, Dr Backing's " Monographic des Nandu " in (Wieg-
mann's) Archil) fur Naturgeschichte (1863, i. pp. 213-41); R. O.
Cunningham's Natural History of the Strait of Magellan and paper
in the Zoological Society's Proceedings for 1871 (pp. 105-110),
as well as H. F. Gadow's still more important anatomical
contributions in the same journal for 1885 (pp. 308 seq.).
(A. N.)
RHEINBERGER, JOSEPH GABRIEL (1830-1001), German
composer, was born at Vaduz, Liechtenstein, on the I7th of
March 1839. His musical abilities were manifested so early
that he was appointed organist of the parish church when he was
but seven years old. A three-part Mass composed by him was
performed in the following year. He was taught at first by
Philipp Schmutzer, choir director at Feldkirch; he entered the
Munich Conservatorium in 1851, and remained there till 1854
RHEINE RHETORIC
233
as a pupil of Professor E. Leonhard for piano, Professor Herzog
for organ and J. J. Maier for counterpoint. After leaving the
school he had private lessons from Franz Lachner, and was
appointed a professor in the conservatorium in succession to
Leonhard in 1859. In 1860 he became professor of composition,
and was appointed organist of the Michelskirche, a post he held
till 1866. In 1877 he succeeded Wiillner as Hof kapellmeister,
and from that time his attention was largely devoted to sacred
music. His compositions include works of importance in every
form, from the operas Die sieben Raben (Munich, 1869) and
Tiirmers Tochterlein (Munich, 1873) an d the oratorio Christo-
forus, op. 1 20, to the well-known quartet for piano and strings
in E flat, op. 38, the nonet for wind and strings, op. 139, and
the seventeen organ sonatas, which form notable additions
to the literature of the instrument. He died in November
1901.
RHEINE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Westphalia, situated on the Ems, at the point where it becomes
navigable, 29 m. W. by rail of Osnabruck, and at the junction
of main lines to Miinster, Rotterdam and Emden. Pop. (1905)
12,801. It is an old-fashioned town with a pronounced Dutch
aspect, and has pretty gardens and promenades. Rheine is the
seat of cotton industries, has manufactures of jute, machinery,
tobacco and flour, and a considerable river trade in agricultural
produce. It received municipal rights in 1327. About a mile
north of Rheine is the castle of Bentlage, the family seat of the
princes of Rheina-Wolbeck.
RHENANUS, BEATUS (1485-1547), German humanist, was
born in 1485 at Schlettstadt in Alsace, where his father, named
Bild, a native of Rheinau (hence the surname Rhenanus), was a
prosperous butcher. He received his early education at the
famous Latin school of Schlettstadt, and afterwards (1503) went
to Paris, where he came under the influence of Jacobus Faber
Stapulensis, an eminent Aristotelian. In 1511 he removed to
Basel, where he became intimate with Desiderius Erasmus, and
took an active share in the publishing enterprises of Joannes
Froben (q.v.). In 1526 he returned to Schlettstadt, and devoted
himself to a life of learned leisure, enlivened with epistolary
and personal intercourse with Erasmus (the printing of whose
more important works he personally superintended) and many
other scholars of his time. He died at Strassburg on the 2oth of
July 1547.
His earliest publication was a biography of Geiler of Kaisers-
berg (1510). Of his subsequent works the principal are Rerum
Gennanicarum Libri III. (1531), and editions of Velleius Pater-
culus (ed. princeps, from a MS. discovered by himself, 1522);
Tacitus (1519, exclusive of the Histories); Livius (1535); and
Erasmus (with a life, 9 vols. fol., 1540-41).
See A. Horawitz, Beatus Rhenanus (1872), and by the same,
Des Beatus Rhenanus literarische Tdtigkeit (2 vols., 1872) ; also the
notice by R. Hartfelder in Allgemeine Deutsche Biographic.
RHETICUS, or RHAETICUS (1514-1576), a surname given to
GEORGE JOACHIM, German astronomer and mathematician,
from his birth at Feldkirch in that part of Tirol which was
anciently the territory of the Rhaeti. Born on the isth of
February 1514, he studied at Tiguri with Oswald Mycone, and
afterwards went to Wittenberg where he was appointed pro-
fessor of mathematics in 1537. Being greatly attracted by the
new Copernican theory, he resigned the professorship in 1539,
and went to Frauenberg to associate himself with Copernicus
(q.v.), and superintended the printing of the De Orbium Revolu-
tione which he had persuaded Copernicus to complete. Rheticus
now began his great treatise, Opus Palatinum de Triangulis,
and continued to work at it while he occupied his old chair at
Wittenberg, and indeed up to his death at Cassovia in Hungary,
on the 4th of December 1576. The Opus Palatinum of Rheticus
was published by Valentine Otho, mathematician to the electoral
prince palatine, in 1596. It gives tables of sines and cosines,
tangents, &c., for every 10 seconds, calculated to ten places.
He had projected a table of the same kind to fifteen places, but
did not live to complete it. The sine table, however, was
afterwards published on this scale under the name of Thesaurus
M ' athematicus (Frankfort, 1613) by B. Pitiscus (1561-1613),
who himself carried the calculation of a few of the earlier sines
to twenty-two places. He also published Narratio de Libris
Revolutionum Copernici (Gedenum, 1540), which was subse-
quently added to editions of Copernicus's works; and Ephemer-
ides until 1551, which were founded on the Copernican doctrines.
He projected numerous other works, as is shown by a letter to
Peter Ramus in 1568, which Adrian Romanus inserted in the
preface to his Idea of Mathematics.
RHETORIC (Gr. /Vopij) Tt\v^l, the art of the orator), the
art of using language in such a way as to produce a desired
impression upon the hearer or reader. The object is strictly
persuasion rather than intellectual approval or conviction;
hence the term, with its adjective " rhetorical," is commonly
used for a speech or writing in which matter is subservient
to form or display. So in grammar, a " rhetorical question " is
one which is asked not for the purpose of obtaining an answer,
but simply for dramatic effect. The power of eloquent speech
is recognized in the earliest extant writings. Homer describes
Achilles as a " speaker of words, as well as a doer of deeds ":
Nestor, Menelaus and Odysseus are all orators as well as states-
men and soldiers. Again the brilliant eloquence of Pericles is
the theme of Aristophanes and Eupolis. Naturally the influ-
ence wielded by the great orators led to an investigation of
the characteristics of successful rhetoric, and especially from the
time of Aristotle the technique of the art ranked among the
recognized branches of learning.
A lost work of Aristotle is quoted by Diogenes Laertius
(viii. 57) as saying that Empedocles " invented " (tvpeiv)
rhetoric; Zeno, dialectic (i.e. logic, the art of making a logical
argument, apart from the style). This is certainly not to be
understood as meaning that Empedocles composed the first
" art " of rhetoric. It is rather to be explained by Aristotle's
own remark, cited by Laertius from another lost treatise, that
Empedocles was " a master of expression and skilled in the use
of metaphor " qualities which may have found scope in his
political oratory, when, after the fall of^Thrasydaeus in 472 B.C.,
he opposed the restoration of a tyranny at Agrigentum. The
founder of rhetoric as an art was Corax of Syracuse Barfy
(c. 466 B.C.). In 466 a democracy was established Greet
in Syracuse. One of the immediate consequences rhetoric
was a mass of litigation on claims to property, urged Corax.
by democratic exiles who had been dispossessed by
Thrasybulus, Hiero or Gelo. Such claims, going many years
back, would often require that a complicated series of details
should be stated and arranged. It would also, in many instances,
lack documentary support, and rely chiefly on inferential
reasoning. Hence the need of professional advice. The facts
known as to the " art " of Corax perfectly agree with these
conditions. He gave rules for arrangement, dividing the
speech into five parts, proem, narrative, arguments (ay&ves),
subsidiary remarks (irapeK/Saaw) and peroration. Next he
illustrated the topic of general probability (e6s), The
showing its two-edged use: e.g., if a puny man is topic
accused of assaulting a stronger, he can say, " Is it o/ *<<.
likely that I should have attacked him?" If vice versa,
the strong man can argue, " Is it likely that I should have
committed an assault where the presumption was sure to be
against me ? " This topic of 6c6s, in its manifold forms, was in
fact the great weapon of the earliest Greek rhetoric. It was
further developed by Tisias, the pupil of Corax, as we
see from Plato's Phaedrus, in an " art " of rhetoric
which antiquity possessed, but of which we know little else.
Aristotle gives the e6j a place among the topics of the fallacious
enthymeme which he enumerates in Rhet. ii. 24, remarking
that it was the very essence of the treatise of Corax; he points
out the fallacy of omitting to distinguish between abstract and
particular probability, quoting the verses of Agatho, " Perhaps
one might call this very thing a probability, that many im-
probable things will happen to men." Gorgias (q.v.)
of Leontini captivated the Athenians in 427 B.C. by
his oratory (Diod. xii. 53), which, so far as we can judge, was
xxm. 8 a
Tisias.
234
RHETORIC
characterized by florid antithesis, expressed in short jerky
sentences. But he has no definite place in the development of
rhetoric as a system. It is doubtful whether he left a written
"art"; and his mode of teaching was based on learning
prepared passages by heart, diction (Xe), not invention or
arrangement, being his great object.
The first extant Greek author who combined the theory with
the practice of rhetoric is the Athenian Antiphon (q.v.), the
first of the Attic orators, and the earliest representative
at Athens of a new profession created by the new
art of rhetoric that of the \o707pA0oj, the writer of
forensic speeches for other men to speak in court. His speeches
show the art of rhetoric in its transition from the technical to
the practical stage, from the school to the law court and the
assembly. The organic lines of the rhetorical pleader's thought
stand out in bold relief, and we are enabled to form a clear
notion of the logographer's method. We find a striking illustra-
tion of the fact that the topic of " probability " is the staple
of this early forensic rhetoric. Viewed generally, the works of
Antiphon are of great interest for the history of Attic prose, as
marking how far it had then been influenced by a theory of
style. The movement of Antiphon's prose has a certain grave
dignity, " impressing by its weight and grandeur," as a Greek
critic in the Augustan age says, " not charming by its life and
flow. " Verbal antithesis is used, not in a diffuse or florid
way, but with a certain sledge-hammer force, as sometimes in
the speeches of Thucydides. The imagery, too, though bold,
is not florid. The structure of the periods is still crude; and
the general effect of the whole, though often powerful and
impressive, is somewhat rigid.
Antiphon represents what was afterwards named the " austere "
or " rugged " style (avo-rripa appavia), Lysias was the model
of an artistic and versatile simplicity. But while Antiphon
has a place in the history of rhetoric as an art, Lysias, with his
more attractive gifts, belongs only to the history of oratory.
Ancient writers quote an " art " of rhetoric by Isocrates, but
its authenticity was questioned. It is certain, however, that
Isocrates taught the art as such. He is said to have
defined rhetoric " as the science of persuasion " (Sext.
Empir. Adv. Mathem.ii. 62, p. 301 seq.). Many of his particular
precepts, both on arrangement and on diction, are cited, but
they do not give a complete view of his method. The <iXo<ro</>a
(" theory of culture ") which Isocrates expounds in his discourses
Against the Sophists and on the Anlidosis, was in fact rhetoric
applied to politics. First came technical expositions: the
pupil was introduced to all the artificial resources which prose
composition employs (rds Ideas airaaas cus 6 Xayos rvyx&vti
XPCO/WPOS, Anlid. 183). The same term (Ideai) is also used by
Isocrates in a narrower sense, with reference to the " figures " of
rhetoric, properly called (Txh^a-ra (Panath. 2) ; sometimes, again,
in a sense still more general, to the several branches or styles of
literary composition (Anlid. n). When the technical elements
of the subject had been learned, the pupil was required to apply
abstract rules in actual composition, and his essay was revised
by the master. Isocrates was unquestionably successful in
forming speakers and writers. His school was famous during
' a period of some fifty years (390 to 340 B.C.). Among the
statesmen whom it trained were Timotheus, Leodamas of
Acharnae, Lycurgus and Hyperides; among the philosophers or
rhetoricians were Speusippus, Plato's successor in the Academy,
and Isaeus; among the historians, Ephorus and Theopompus.
Cicero and through him all subsequent oratory owed much to
the ample prose of the Isocratean school.
In the person of Isocrates the art of rhetoric is thus thoroughly
established, not merely as a technical method, but also as a
practical discipline of life. If Plato's mildly ironical reference
in the Euthydemus to a critic "on the borderland between
philosophy and statesmanship " was meant, as is probable, for
Isocrates, at least there was a wide difference between the measure
of acceptance accorded to the earlier Sophists, such as Protagoras,
and the influence which the school of Isocrates exerted through
the men whom it had trained. Rhetoric had won its place in
Arts-
totie't
"Rhe-
toiic."
education. It kept that place through varying fortunes to the
fall of the Roman empire, and resumed it, for a while, at the
revival of learning.
Plato in the Gorgias and the Phaedrus satirized the ordinary
textbooks of rhetoric, and himself gave directions for a higher
standard of work; but the detailed study of the art
begins with Aristotle. Aristotle's Rhetoric belongs to
the generation after Isocrates, having been composed
(but see ARISTOTLE) between 330 and 322 B.C. As
controversial allusions sometimes hint it holds Isocrates for
one of the foremost exponents of the subject. From a purely
literary point of view Aristotle's Rhetoric (with the partial
exception of book iii.) is one of the driest works in the world.
From the historical or scientific point of view it is one of the
most interesting. If we would seize the true significance of the
treatise it is better to compare rhetoric with grammar than
with its obvious analogue, logic. A method of grammar was
the conception of the Alexandrian age, which had lying before
it the standard masterpieces of Greek literature, and deduced
the " rules " of grammar from the actual practice of the best
writers. Aristotle in the latter years of the 4th century B.C.
held the same position relatively to the monuments of Greek
oratory which the Alexandrian methodizers of grammar held
relatively to Greek literature at large. Abundant material lay
before him, illustrating how speakers had been 'able to persuade
the reason or to move the feelings. He therefore sought thence
to deduce rules and so construct a true art. Aristotle's practical
purpose was undoubtedly real. If we are to make persuasive
speakers, he believed, this is the only sound way to set about it.
But the enduring interest of his Rhetoric is mainly retrospective.
It attracts us as a feat in analysis by an acute mind a feat
highly characteristic of that mind itself, and at the same time
strikingly illustrative of the field over which the materials have
been gathered.
The Rhetoric is divided into three books. It deals in great detail
with the minutiae of the rhetorical craft. Book i. discusses the
nature and object of rhetoric. The means of persuasion (-flareis)
are classified into " inartificial " (aTexcoi), i.e. the facts of the case
external to the art, documents, laws, depositions, and " arti-
ficial " (itvTrxvoC), the latter subdivided into logical (the popular
syllogism or " enthymeme," the " example," &c.), ethical, and
emotional. Aristotle next deals with the " topics " (T&TOI), i.e.
the commonplaces of rhetoric, general or particular arguments
which the rhetorician must have ready for immediate use. Rhetoric
is then broadly divided into : (l) deliberative (yvitffovKtvriK-ii),
concerned with exhortation or dissuasion, and with future time,
its end (T\OS) being the advantage or detriment of the persons
addressed; (2) forensic (Stxawc??), concerned with accusation and
defence, and with time past, its standard being justice; (3) epi-
deictic, the ornamental rhetoric of display, concerned with praise
and blame, usually with the present time, its standard being honour
and shame. Each of these kinds is discussed, and the book ends
with a brief analysis of the " inartificial proofs." In book ii.
Aristotle returns to the " artificial " proofs those which rhetoric
itself provides. The " logical " proof having been discussed in
book i., he turns to the ethical." He shows how the speaker
may so indicate his own character and the goodness of his motive
as to prepossess the audience in his favour, and proceeds to furnish
materials to this end. The " emotional " proof is then discussed,
and an analysis is given of the emotions on which the speaker may
play. A consideration follows of the " universal commonplaces ' .
(Koivol rbvoi) which are suitable to all subjects. The book ends
with an appendix dealing with the "example" (irapd&ryAta), the
general moral sentiments (yv&ncu) and the enthymeme. In book iii.
Aristotle considers expression (Xfis), including the art of delivery
(iiTrixpuris), and arrangement (rd^s). Composition, the use of
prose rhythm, the periodic style (the "periodic" style, KaTtarpanntvii,
being contrasted with the running (tlpoiitini)) are all analysed,
and the types of style literary (ypatpiKii) and oral (&ywvurTiKTi) are
differentiated. Under " arrangement " he concludes with the
parts of a speech, proem, narrative, proofs and epilogue.
It is necessary briefly to consider Aristotle s general view of
rhetoric as set forth in book i. Rhetoric is properly an art. This
is the proposition from which Aristotle sets out. It is so because
when a speaker persuades, it is possible to find out why he succeeds
in doing so. Rhetoric is, in fact, the popular branch of logic.
Hitherto, Aristotle says, the essence of rhetoric has been neglected
for the accidents. Writers on rhetoric have hitherto concerned
themselves mainly with " the exciting of prejudice, of pity, of
anger, and such-like emotions of the soul." All this is very well,
but " it has nothing to do with the matter in hand; it has regard
RHETORIC
235
to the judge." The true aim should be to prove your point, or
seem to prove it.
Here we may interpolate a comment which has a general bearing
on Aristotle's Rhetoric. It is quite true that, if we start from the
conception of rhetoric as a branch of logic, the phantom of logic
in rhetoric claims precedence over appeals to passion. But Aristotle
does not sufficiently regard the question -What, as a matter of
experience, is most persuasive? Logic may be more persuasive
with the more select hearers of rhetoric; but rhetoric is for the
many, and with the many appeals to passion will sometimes,
perhaps usually, be more effective than syllogism. No formulation
of rhetoric can correspond with fact which does not leave it abso-
lutely to the genius of the speaker whether reasoning (or its phantom)
is to be what Aristotle calls it, the " body of proof " (aSi^a
riorfGos), or whether the stress of persuading effort should not be
rather addressed to the emotions of the hearers.
But we can entirely agree with Aristotle in his next remark,
which is historical in its nature. The deliberative branch of
rhetoric had hitherto been postponed, he observes, to the forensic.
We have, in fact, already seen that the very origin of rhetoric
in Hellas was forensic. The relative subordination of deliberative
rhetoric, however unscientific, had thus been human. Aristotle's
next statement, that the master of logic will be the master of
rhetoric, is a truism if we concede the essential primacy of the
logical element in rhetoric. Otherwise it is a paradox; and
it is not in accord with experience, which teaches that speakers
incapable of showing even the ghost of an argument have
sometimes been the most completely successful in carrying
great audiences along with them. Aristotle never assumes that
the hearers of his rhetorician are as oi \a.pltvTes, the culti-
vated few; on the other hand, he is apt to assume tacitly and
here his individual bent comes out that these hearers are not
the great surging crowd, the #x^s, but a body of persons with
a decided, though imperfectly developed, preference for sound
logic.
What is the use of an art of rhetoric? It is fourfold, Aristotle
replies. Rhetoric is useful, first of all, because truth and justice
are naturally stronger than their opposites. When
rhetoric, awards are not duly given, truth and justice must have
been worsted by their own fault. This is worth correct-
ing. Rhetoric is then (i) corrective. Next, it is (2) instructive, as
a popular vehicle of persuasion for persons who could not be
reached by the severer methods of strict logic. Then it is
(2) suggestive. Logic and rhetoric are the two impartial arts;
that is to say, it is a matter of indifference to them, as arts,
whether the conclusion which they draw in any given case is
affirmative or negative. Suppose that I am going to plead a
cause, and have a sincere conviction that I am on the right side.
The art of rhetoric will suggest to me what might be urged on
the other side; and this will give me a stronger grasp of the
whole situation. Lastly, rhetoric is (4) defensive. Mental
effort is more distinctive of man than bodily effort; and " it
would be absurd that, while incapacity for physical self-defence
is . a reproach, incapacity for mental defence should be no
reproach." Rhetoric, then, is corrective, instructive, sug-
gestive, defensive. But what if it be urged that this art
may be abused? The objection, Aristotle answers, applies
to all good things, except virtue, and especially to the
most useful things. Men may abuse strength, health, wealth,
generalship.
The function of the medical art is not necessarily to cure,
but to make such progress towards a cure as each case may
admit. Similarly it would be inaccurate to say that
denned l ^ e f unct i n f rhetoric was to persuade. Rather
must rhetoric be defined as " the faculty of discerning
in every case the available means of persuasion." Suppose
that among these means of persuasion is some process of
reasoning which the rhetorician himself knows to be un-
sound. That belongs to the province of rhetoric all the
same. In relation to logic, a man is called a " sophist "
with regard to his moral purpose (irpocupeoij), i.e. if he
knowingly used a fallacious syllogism. But rhetoric takes
no account of the moral purpose. It takes account simply
of the faculty (Swa/uts)- the faculty of discovering any means
qf persuasion.
Aristotle's Rhetoric is incomparably the most scientific work
which exists on the subject. It may also be regarded as having
determined the main lines on which the subject was j^
treated by nearly all subsequent writers. The extant nhei-
treatise on rhetoric (also by Aristotle?) entitled 'Pirropu^ orle"to
Trpds 'A\t^avSpov, formerly ascribed to Anaximenes of x/ex-
Lampsacus, was written at latest by 340 B.C. The /j. ,,
introductory letter prefixed to it is probably a late forgery.
Its relation towards Aristotle's Rhetoric is discussed in the article on
ARISTOTLE.
During the three centuries from the age of Alexander to
that of Augustus the fortunes of rhetoric were governed by
the new conditions of Hellenism. Aristotle's scientific The
method lived on in the Peripatetic school. Meanwhile
the fashion of florid declamation or strained conceits
prevailed in the rhetorical schools of Asia, where, amid anderto
mixed populations, the pure traditions of the best Aupts-
Greek taste had been dissociated from the use of the *"*
Greek language. The " Asianism " of style which thus came
to be constrasted with " Atticism " found imitators at Rome,
among whom must be reckoned the orator Hortensius
(c. 95 B.C.). Hermagorasof Temnos in Aeolis (c. no Wenns .
B.C.) claims mention as having done much to revive gons.
a higher conception. Using both the practical rhetoric
of the time before Aristotle and Aristotle's philosophical rhetoric,
he worked up the results of both in a new system, following the
philosophers so far as to give the chief prominence to " inven-
tion." He thus became the founder of a rhetoric which may
be distinguished as the scholastic. Through the influence of
his school, Hermagoras did for Roman eloquence very much
what Isocrates had done for Athens. Above all, he counter-
acted the view of " Asianism," that oratory is a mere knack
founded on practice, and recalled attention to the study of it
as an art. 1
Cicero's rhetorical works are to some extent based on the
technical system to which he had been introduced by Molon at
Rhodes. But Cicero further made an independent ckero.
use of the best among the earlier Greek writers,
Isocrates, Aristotle and Theophrastus. Lastly, he could draw,
at least in the later of his treatises, on a vast fund of reflection
and experience. Indeed, the distinctive interest of his con-
tributions to the theory of rhetoric consists in the fact that his
theory can be compared with his practice. The result of such
a comparison is certainly to suggest how much less he owed to
his art than to his genius. Some consciousness of this is perhaps
implied in the idea which pervades much of his writing on
oratory, that the perfect orator is the perfect man. The same
thought is present to Quintilian, in whose great work,
De Institutione Oratorio, the scholastic rhetoric re-
ceives its most complete expression (c. A.D. 90).
Quintilian treats oratory as the end to which the entire mental
and moral development of the student is to be directed. Thus
he devotes his first book to an early discipline which should
precede the orator's first studies, and his last book to a discipline
of the whole man which lies beyond them. Some notion of his
comprehensive method may be derived from the circumstance
that he introduces a succinct estimate of the chief Greek and
Roman authors, of every kind, from Homer to Seneca (bk. x.
46-131). After Quintilian, the next important name is that
of Hermogenes of Tarsus, who under Marcus Aurelius
made a complete digest of the scholastic rhetoric from
the time of Hermagoras of Temnos (no B.C.). It is
contained in five extant treatises, which are remarkable for
clearness and acuteness, and still more remarkable as having
been" completed before the age of twenty-five. Hermogenes
continued for nearly a century and a half to be one of the chief
authorities in the schools. Longinus (c. A.D. 260) published
an Art of Rhetoric which is still extant; and the more
celebrated treatise On Sublimity (irtpi ityous), if not wr ifcn
his work, is at least of the same period. In the later
half of the 4th century Aphthonius (q.v.) composed the
" exercises " (irfxr/viJiv6.o fiara) which superseded the work of
1 See Jebb's Attic Orators, ii. 445.
'
236
RHETORIC
under the
Empire.
Hermogenes. At the revival of letters the treatise of Aphthonius
once more became a standard text-book. Much popularity was
enjoyed also by the exercises of Aelius Theon (of uncertain date ;
see THEON). (See further the editions of the Rhetores Graeci
by L. Spengel and by Ch. Walz.)
During the first four centuries of the empire the practice of
the art was in greater vogue than ever before or since. First,
Practice there was a general dearth of the higher intellectual
ofRhet' interests: politics gave no scope to energy; philosophy
oric was stagnant, and literature, as a rule, either arid or
frivolous. Then the Greek schools had poured their
rhetoricians into Rome, where the same tastes which
revelled in coarse luxury welcomed tawdry declamation.
The law-courts of the Roman provinces further created a
continual demand for forensic speaking. The public teacher
(< of rhetoric was called " sophist," which was now an
phLts "" aca demic title, similar to " professor " or " doctor."
In the 4th century B.C. Isocrates had taken pride in
the name of crcx^itrnfc, which, indeed, had at no time wholly lost
th; good, or neutral, sense which originally belonged to it.
The academic meaning which it acquired under the early
empire lasted into the middle ages (see Du Cange, s.v., who
quotes from Baldricus, " Egregius Doctor magnusque Sophista
Geraldus "). While the word rhetor still denoted the faculty,
the word sophistes denoted the office or rank to which the
rhetor might hope to rise. So Lucian (" Teacher of Rhe-
toricians," i) says: " You ask, young man, how you are to
become a rhetor, and attain in your turn to the repute of that
'most impressive and illustrious title, sophist." Lucian also
satirizes the discussions of the nature of rhetoric in his parody
the Parasite (cf. also his Bis Accusatus).
Vespasian (70-79 A.D.), according to Suetonius, was the
first emperor who gave a public endowment to the teaching
of rhetoric. Under Hadrian and the Antonines (A.D. 117-180)
the public chairs of rhetoric became objects of the
highest ambition. The complete constitution of the
schools at Athens was due to Marcus Aurelius. The
Philosophical school had four chairs (dpovoi) Platonic, Stoic,
Peripatetic, Epicurean. The Rhetorical school had two chairs,
one for " sophistic," the other for " political " rhetoric. By
" sophistic " was meant the academic teaching of rhetoric as
an art, in distinction from its " political " application to the
law-courts. The " sophistical " chair was superior to the
"political" indignity as in emolument, and its occupant was
invested with a jurisdiction over the youth of Athens similar
to that of the vice-chancellor in a modern university. The
Antonines further encouraged rhetoric by granting immunities
to its teachers. Three " sophists " in each of the smaller towns,
and five in the larger, were exempted from taxation (Dig.
xxvii. i, 6, 2). The wealthier sophists affected much personal
splendour. Polemon (c. A.D. 130) and Adrian of Tyre (c. A.D.
170) are famous examples of extravagant display. The aim
of the sophist was to impress the multitude. His whole stock-
in-trade was style, and this was directed to astonishing by tours
Dedama- ^ e f orce - The scholastic declamations were chiefly of
tioas. two classes- (i) The suasoriae were usually on
historical or legendary subjects, in which some course
of action was commended or censured (cf. Juv. Sat.}. These
suasoriae belonged to deliberative rhetoric (the ftovktvTiKov
Tftvos, deliberativum genus). (2) The contr overside turned
especially on legal issues, and represented the forensic rhetoric
(dLKaviitdv "ftvos, judiciale genus). But it was the general
characteristic of this period that all subjects, though formally
" deliberative " or " forensic," were treated in the style and
spirit of that third branch which Aristotle distinguished, the
rhetoric of kiridd&s or " display." The oratory produced by
the age of the academic sophists can be estimated from a large
extant literature. It is shown under various aspects, and pre-
sumably at its best, by such writers as Dio Chrysostom at the
end of the ist century, Aelius Aristides (see ARISTIDES, AELIUS)
in the 2nd, the chief rhetorician under the Antonines, Themistius,
Himerius and Libanius in the 4th. Amid much which is
Chairs of
Rhetoric.
tawdry or vapid, these writings occasionally present passages
of true literary beauty, while they constantly offer matter of
the highest interest to the student.
In the medieval system of academic studies, grammar,
logic and rhetoric were the subjects of the trivium, or course
followed during the four years of undergraduateship. Medieval
Music, arithmetic, geometry and astronomy con- study of
stituted the quadrivium, or course for the three years Rhetoric.
from the B.A. to the M.A. degree. These were the seven
liberal arts. In the middle ages the chief authorities on
rhetoric were the latest Latin epitomists, such as Martianus
Capella (sth cent.), Cassiodorus (5th cent.) or Isidorus (7th
cent.).
After the revival of learning the better Roman and Greek
writers gradually returned into use. Some new treatises were
also produced. Leonard Cox (d. 1549) wrote The Art or Craft of
Rhetoryke, partly compiled, partly original, which was reprinted
in Latin at Cracow. The Art of Rhetorique, by Thomas Wilson
( J 553)> afterwards secretary of state, embodied rules chiefly
from Aristotle, with help from Cicero and Quintilian. About
the same time treatises on rhetoric were published in France
by Tonquelin (1555) and Courcelles (1557). The general aim
at this period was to revive and popularize the best teaching
of the ancients on rhetoric. The subject was regularly Rhetoric
taught at the universities, and was indeed important. at the
At Cambridge in 1570 the study of rhetoric was Uaiver-
based on Quintilian, Hermogenes and the speeches of
Cicero viewed as works of art. An Oxford statute of 1588
shows that the same books were used there. In 1620 George
Herbert was delivering lectures on rhetoric at Cambridge,
where he held the office of public orator. The decay of rhetoric
as a formal study at the universities set in during the i8th
century. The function of the rhetoric lecturer passed over
into that of correcting written themes; but his title remained
long after his office had lost its primary meaning. If the theory
of rhetoric fell into neglect, the practice, however, was encouraged
by the public exercises (" acts " and " opponencies ") in the
schools. The college prizes for " declamations " served the
same purpose.
The fortunes of rhetoric in the modern world, as briefly
sketched above, may suffice to suggest why few modern writers
of ability have given their attention to the subject. Modem
Perhaps one of the most notable modern contributions Writers on
to the art is the collection of commonplaces framed (in KhetoHc.
Latin) by Bacon, " to be so many spools from which the threads
can be drawn out as occasion serves," a truly curious work of
that acute and fertile mind. He called them " Antitheta." A
specimen is subjoined:
UXOR ET LlBERI
Against.
state " He who marries, and has
children, has given hostages to
fortune."
" The immortality of brutes is
in their progeny; of men, in
their fame, services, and insti-
tutions."
" Regard for the family too
often overrides regard for the
state."
For.
" Attachment to the
begins from the family."
" Wife and children are a dis-
cipline in humanity. Bachelors
are morose and austere."
" The only advantage of celi-
bacy and childlessness is in case
of exile."
This is quite in the spirit of Aristotle's treatise. The popu-
larity enjoyed by Blair's Rhetoric in the latter part of the i8th
and the earlier part of the igth century was merited rather by
the form than by the matter. Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric,
which found less wide acceptance than its predecessor, was
superior to it in \lepth, though often marred by an imperfect
comprehension of logic. But undoubtedly the best modern
book on the subject is Whately's Elements of Rhetoric. \n, a t e i
Starting from Aristotle's view, that rhetoric is " an
offshoot from logic," Whately treats it as the art of " argu-
mentative composition." He considers it under four heads:
(1) the address to the understanding ( = Aristotle's XOTIKI? TROTIS);
(2) the address to the will, or persuasion ( = Aristotle's ^1x17 and
RHEUMATISM
237
iritTTis); (3) style; (4) elocution, or delivery. But
when it is thus urged that
" All a rhetorician's rules
But teach him how to name his tools,"
the assumption is tacitly made that an accurate nomenclature
and classification of these tools must be devoid of practical use.
The conditions of modern life, and especially the invention of
printing, have to some extent diminished the importance which
belonged in antiquity to the art of speaking, though modern
democratic politics and forensic conditions still make it one
which may be cultivated with advantage.
Among more modern works are J. Bascom, Philosophy of Rhetoric
(New York, 1885); and numerous books on voice culture, gesture
and elocution. For ancient rhetoric see Sir R. C. Jebb's translation
of Aristotle's Rhetoric (ed. J. E. Sandys, 1909), and his Attic Orators
(1876); also Spengel, Artium Scriptores (1828); Westermann,
Gesch. der Beredtsamkeit (183335;) Cope, in the Cambridge Journal
of Classical and Sacred Philology (1855-57) ; introductions to Cicero's
De Oratore (A. S. Wilkins) and Orator (J. E. Sandys); Volkmann,
Die Rlietorik der Griechen und Romer in system. Ubersichl (ed. 2,
1885). (R. C.J.; X.)
RHEUMATISM (from Gr. peDjwx, flux), a general term for
various forms of disease, now subdivided more accurately under
separate names.
ACUTE RHEUMATISM or RHEUMATIC FEVER is the name given
to a disease having for its chief characteristics inflammatory
affections of the joints, attended by severe constitutional dis-
turbances and frequently associated with inflammation of the
pericardium and valves of the heart. The acute rheumatism
of childhood differs materially from that of adults in that the
articular manifestations and constitutional disturbance are
usually much less severe, whereas the heart and pericardium are
especially liable to be attacked. It will be advisable, therefore,
in discussing the symptoms, to deal separately with the
rheumatism of adults and that of childhood. There are certain
points of importance in connexion with its causation which are
generally agreed upon. It is essentially a disease of childhood
and early adult life, being most commonly met with between the
ages of ten and twenty-five and comparatively rarely after
forty. Heredity is unquestionably an important predisposing
cause. Climate is also a factor of considerable importance,
cold and damp with sudden and wide fluctuations of temperature
being especially conducive to an attack. While perhaps more
common in Great Britain than elsewhere, it is met with in most
parts of the globe. Exposure to cold and wet, and especially a
chill after free perspiration and fatigue, are among the most
common exciting causes of an attack.
Of recent years much evidence has accumulated tending to
show that rheumatism is a specific infective disease due to a
micro-organism, and this is now generally recognized. There is
still, however, some difference of opinion as to the nature of the
micro-organism by which it is produced. In 1900 F. J. Poynton
and Paine isolated from eight cases of acute rheumatism in
children a minute diplococcus similar to that previously de-
scribed by Triboulet and by A. Wasserman, which inoculated
into rabbits produced lesions of the joints and of the heart
indistinguishable from those met with in acute rheumatism.
They have since obtained the same micro-organism from a
further large number of cases of acute rheumatism, and their
results have been confirmed by Walker, Beattie and others.
They therefore claim that this micro-organism, to which they
have given the name Diplococcus rheumaticus, is the specific
cause of acute rheumatism. The objections which have been
raised by other competent observers against this view are:
(i) That this diplococcus is not found in all cases of acute
rheumatism. (2) That certain other micro-organisms when
inoculated into animals will produce joint and heart affections
similar to those produced by the aforesaid Diplococcus rheumaticus .
It would be out of place here to enter into the merits of this
controversy; suffice it to say that the objections raised do not
appear to be cogent enough to invalidate the conclusions arrived
at by the authors of the germ theory. The matter is, however,
still to a certain extent sub judice.
In adults the affection of the joints is the most striking feature.
The attack is usually ushered in by a feeling of chilliness or
malaise, with pain or stiffness in one or more joints,
generally those of large or medium size, such as the
knees, ankles, wrists or shoulders. At first the pain is
confined to one or two joints, but others soon become affected,
and there is a tendency to symmetry in the order in which they
are attacked, the inflammation in one joint being followed by
that of the same joint on the opposite side. The affected joints
are swollen, hot and excessively tender, and the skin over them
is somewhat flushed. The temperature is raised, ranging from
about 101 to 103 F., the pulse rapid, full and soft; the face is
flushed, the tongue coated with a thick white fur, and there is
thirst, loss of appetite, and constipation.^ The body is bathed
in a profuse perspiration, which has a characteristic sour,
disagreeable odour. The urine is diminished, acid and loaded
with urates. The attack is of variable duration, and may pass
off in a few days or last for some weeks. Relapses are not
uncommon when convalescence appears to have been estab-
lished. Among the complications which may arise are hyper-
pyrexia, or rapid and extreme rise of temperature, which may
run up as high as 110 F., when death will speedily ensue unless
prompt and energetic treatment by cold baths or icepacks is
resorted to. Affections of the heart, pericarditis (inflammation
of the fibro-serous sac investing the heart) and endocarditis
(inflammation of the lining membrane and the valves of the
heart), which are so frequently associated with rheumatism,
should be regarded as part of the disease, rather than as com-
plications of rheumatism. They are far more common in
children than in adults, and it is the damage to the valves of the
heart in children by rheumatism which lays the foundation of
much chronic heart disease in later life.
In childhood the affection of the joints is usually slight, and
may be confined to a little pain or stiffness in one or two joints,
and is sometimes attributed by parents to " growing pains."
The constitutional symptoms are also ill-marked and tliere are
no acid sweats, the temperature is not as a rule very high, the
tongue not heavily coated, and the child does not appear to
be very ill. The heart and pericardium are, however, especially
liable to attack, and this may be so insidious in its onset that
attention is not called to it till considerable damage has been
done to the heart. It is of importance, therefore, that in
children the heart should be frequently examined by a physician,
when there is the slightest suspicion of an attack of rheumatism.
Chorea or St Vitus's dance is a common manifestation of rheu-
matism in children. Subcutaneous fibrous nodules, attached
to tendons or fibrous structures beneath the skin, are a special
feature of the rheumatism of childhood. They are painless,
and vary in size from one-eighth to half an inch in diameter.
They are not very common, but when present indicate that the
rheumatism has a firm hold and that cardiac complications
are to be apprehended.
The patient should be placed in bed between blankets, and
should wear a light flannel or woollen shirt. The affected joints
should be kept at rest as far as possible, and enveloped
in cotton-wool. Salicylate of soda or salicin, first meat'
suggested by Dr Maclagan in 1876, appear to exercise
a specific influence in acute rheumatism. They have a power-
ful effect not only in reducing the temperature, but in relieving
the pain and cutting short the attack. Frequent and fairly
large doses of salicylate of soda should be administered for the
first twenty-four hours: the dose and interval at which it is
given should then be gradually reduced till the symptoms
subside. In conjunction with this, alkalies such as bicarbonate
or citrate of potash should also be administered. The effect
of the salicylate should be carefully watched, and the dose
reduced if toxic symptoms such as delirium, deafness, and
noises in the ears occur. These drugs are of less service in the
rheumatism of children than in that of adults, as they do not
appear to exercise any specific influence in arresting the cardiac
inflammation to which children are specially liable, though
they have a marked effect on the joint affections. Aspirin has
RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS
recently come into use as a substitute for salicylates, and may
succeed when salicylates fail.
Subacute rheumatism. This term is sometimes applied to
attacks of the disease of a less severe type in which the symp-
toms, though milder in character, are usually of longer duration
and more intractable than in the acute form. It is difficult,
however, to draw a hard-and-fast line between the two, but
the term may perhaps be most appropriately applied to the
repeated and protracted attacks of cardiac rheumatism in
children.
CHRONIC RHEUMATISM. This term has been somewhat
loosely applied to various chronic joint affections, sometimes
of gouty origin or the result of rheumatoid arthritis. Strictly
speaking, it may be applied to cases in which the joint lesrons
persist after an attack of rheumatism, and chronic inflammatory
thickening of the tissues takes place, so that they become stiff
and deformed. It is also appropriate to certain joint affections
occurring in later life in rheumatic subjects, who are liable to
repeated attacks of pain and stiffness in the joints, usually
induced by exposure to cold and wet. This form of rheumatism
is less migratory than the acute, and is commonly limited to one
or two of the larger joints. After repeated attacks the affected
joints may become permanently stiff and painful, and crackling
or creaking may occur on movement. There is seldom any
constitutional disturbance, and the heart is not liable to be
affected.
MUSCULAR RHEUMATISM. By this is understood a painful
affection of certain groups of muscles attributable to inflamma-
tion of their fibrous and tendinous attachments. It is commonly
brought on by exposure to cold and wet, and especially by a chill
after violent exercise and free perspiration when the clothes are
not changed. Any movement of the affected muscles gives
rise to severe and sharp pain which may induce a certain degree
of spasm and rigidity at the time. The pain usually subsides
and passes off completely while the patient is at rest, but occurs
on the slightest movement of the affected muscles.
The chief varieties of muscular rheumatism are:
1. Lumbago, in which the muscles of the lower part of the
back are affected so that stooping, particularly the
attempt to rise again to the erect position, induces
severe pain.
2. Intercostal rheumatism, affecting the muscles between
the ribs, so that taking a deep breath and certain
movements of the arms give rise to pain.
3. Torticollis or stiff neck, affecting the muscles of one side
of the neck.
Treatment. Salicylates, which are of service in acute rheu-
matism, are not so reliable in the chronic varieties, but are some-
times of service. Aspirin, salicin, quinine and iodide of potas-
sium may be more successful, but other active treatment is
usually required. The application of heat in the form of poul-
tices or fomentations, counter irritation by mustard leaves
or blisters, are indicated in some cases. In others massage,
hot douches, or electricity may be required. Mineral waters
and baths of various health resorts are often of great benefit
in obstinate cases, such as those of Buxton, Bath, Harrogate,
Woodhall Spa, &c., in England, or of Aix-les-Bains, Wiesbaden,
Wildbad, &c., and many others on the continent of Europe.
Wintering abroad in warm, dry and sunny climates may be
advisable in some cases when this is practicable.
Q. F. H. B.)
RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS (OSTEO-ARTHRITIS, ARTHRITIS DE-
FORMANS), terms employed to designate a disease or group of
diseases characterized by destructive changes in the joints.
Though it is only in comparatively recent times that the disease
was definitely recognized as separate clinically from either
rheumatism or gout, it is certain that it prevailed in ancient
times. Characteristic changes in the bones have been found
in remains in tombs in Egypt attributed by Petrie to 1300 B.C.,
and ancient Roman as well as British graves have held bones
showing distinct traces of the diseases. Of early medical
writers, Paulus Aeginata observed the lesions and seemed to
consider them distinctive. Landre Beauvais in 1800 published
a description of the disease under the title of Goulte aslhenique
primitif. The first endeavour, however, to separate rheumatoid
arthritis as a distinct disease was made by William Heberden
in 1803; while in 1805 John Haygarth recognized the difference
between it and rheumatism, and suggested the term " nodosity
of the joints." A wide divergence of opinion during the igth
century as to its relation to rheumatism and to gout gave rise
to the unfortunate term " rheumatic gout." The name arthritis
deformans-wa.s suggested by Virchow in 1859. Various causes, such
as nervous origin, inherited arthritic diathesis, a relationship
to rheumatism or gout, and reflex irritation, have been put
foward as giving rise to the disease, but in the present state of
medical knowledge two are most favoured. The first ascribes
the disease to an infective process arising from micro-organisms.
Several observers have found bacteria in the synovial fluid and
membranes of affected joints, Max Schuller finding both bacilli
and cocci, while in 1896 Gilbert Bannatyne, Wohlmann and
Blaxall isolated a micro-organism, a bacillus with a bipolar
staining, which they stated to be almost constantly present in
the joints of patients with true rheumatoid arthritis. The
second view is that the disease is the result of a chronic toxaemia
produced by absorption of toxines from the intestine, with
perhaps some error in metabolism. In many cases there seems
to be a distinct evidence of a local infection, injury being a
determining factor, and some families seem to have joints
which are specially liable to degeneration. The disease may
begin at any age, for there is no doubt that persistent cases have
been met with in quite young children; but it usually begins
in early middle-age, and statistics seem to confirm the impression
of the greater liability of females. Conditions which tend to
lower the general health seem to act as a predisposing cause to
rheumatoid arthritis, e.g. mental worry, uterine disorders and
various lowering diseases,' prominent among which are influenza
and tonsillitis. In a number of cases in women the onset occurs
about the time of the menopause.
The method of onset varies according to the form. There
are four well-marked types (i) the peri-articular form, in which
the most marked changes are in the synovial membrane and
peri-articular tissues, and the cartilage may be involved to a
lesser degree. In this variety is found every grade of severity.
The onset may be acute, resembling an attack of rheumatic
fever, for which it may be mistaken; the joints, one or more,
are swollen, tender and painful to the touch; the temperature
elevated to 100; 101; but unlike rheumatic fever, sweating
and hyperpyrexia are uncommon. The acute stage may then
subside, a slight thickening remaining in the capsule of the
joint, and the contours of the limb scarcely regaining the normal;
or the attack may gradually develop into the chronic form.
The pain varies greatly, and is not necessarily in ratio to the
amount of arthritis present. Various joints may be involved,
the spinal vertebrae not infrequently sharing in an arthritis;
the most usual joints to be attacked, however, are r the knee and
shoulder. When the knee is attacked there is commonly
effusion into the joint. Muscular atrophy is usually present,
but varies greatly in its extent. In most cases it is present to
a much greater degree than can be accounted for by disuse of
the muscles. The skin has in these cases a curious glossy
appearance, and pigmentations may be noticed. In chronic
forms the onset is gradual, one joint becoming painful and
swelling, and then the others successively; in these slow forms
the outlook for the recovery of the joint is not so good as in
the acute, and some cases may proceed to extreme deformity
with little or no pain. Gradually the shape of the joint is altered ;
this is in a great measure due to synovial thickening, and partly
to the presence of olsteophytes in the joint. When the affected
joint is moved a distinct crepitation can be felt. The muscles
about the joint atrophy often to an extreme degree, and con-
tractures supervene, flexing the leg upon the thigh if the knees
should be affected, and the thigh upon the abdomen should the
hip be affected. In extreme degrees the patient may become a
complete cripple. Later, in many cases a quiescent stage of the
RHEYDT RHIGAS
239
disease is reached, the patients cease to suffer pain, and are
inconvenienced only by the deformities in the limbs, in which a
considerable degree of motion may be retained. Remarkable
deformities are seen in hands in which a considerable amount
of usefulness still remains. Dyspepsia and anaemia are fre-
quently associated with arthritis. Monarticular arthritis more
particularly affects the aged; and when it affects the hip is
known as morbus coxae senilis.
(2) The atrophic form of arthritis is not very common. The
chief anatomical change is due to atrophy in the bone and cartilage.
The disease occurs at an earlier period in life than the peri-articular
form, from which the initial symptoms do not markedly differ;
but the disorganization in the joint is greater, dislocations
frequently occur, and ankylosis of the joints follows. This is the
most serious form of arthritis.
(3) In the hypertrophic form the anatomical changes include
the formation of new bone as well as changes in the cartilage.
This new-bone formation may lead to progressive ankylosis in
the joints. Should the , vertebral column be affected a rigid
condition of the spine known as spondylilis deformans (" poker
back ") may ensue. What are termed " Heberden's nodes "
are small hard knobs about the size of a pea frequently found
upon the fingers near the terminal phalangeal joints; they
rarely give rise to symptoms. Popularly ascribed to gout, these
nodes are in reality a manifestation of arthritis.
(4) A variety of arthritis occurring in children is known as
Still's disease; in which the swelling of the joints is associated with
swelling of the lymph glands and of the spleen. The onset is often
acute, with fever and rigors; sweating is profuse and the joints
are enlarged and painful. There may be much muscular
wasting and limitation of movement in the joints, and anaemia
is associated with the disease.
The treatment of rheumatoid arthritis is rarely curative,
once the disease has been permanently established; and it
is therefore important to begin treatment before destructive
changes have taken place in the joints. In the acute febrile
form, which is frequently taken for rheumatism, the essential
treatment is rest to the affected joints, with the application of
oil of wintergreen; the joint should not be fixed but supported.
In the more chronic forms medicinal treatments are usually
of little value. Potassium iodide is useful in some cases by
promoting absorption of the hypertrophied fibrous tissue, and
guaiacol if administered for a sufficiently long time is said to
be capable of arresting the disease, diminishing the size of the
joint and helping movement. Where anaemia accompanies the
disease iron and arsenic are of value. The general health of a
patient suffering from rheumatoid arthritis must be maintained,
and he should live upon a dry soil. Visits to Aix-les-Bains,
Buxtdn, Bath or Droitwich, with their baths and shampooings,
often prove useful, particularly when combined with gentle
massage. It is a mistake to keep the joints entirely at rest
in the chronic forms, as this tends to the formation of coritractures
and ankylosis. Moderate exercise without undue fatigue is
desirable. Patients should go early to bed and have plenty of
rest, sunshine and fresh air. It is important that the diet should
be nourishing and plentiful, and should there be intestinal
putrefaction fermented milk is useful. As regards the local
treatment, it will be well in the majority of cases to determine
by the X-rays the exact state of the affected joints. Radiant
heat, vibration and hot-air baths are among the best treatments.
The active hyperaemia induced by hot air favours restoration
of movement and alleviates pain, but where there is pronounced
destruction of bone and cartilage full restoration of a joint
cannot take place. Systematic exercises of the joints tend to
prevent the atrophy of the adjacent muscles, and Bier's passive
hyperaemia induced by the temporary use of an elastic bandage
has the same results. Should an X-ray photograph reveal the
presence of spurs or loose bodies in the joints interfering with
free movement their removal is called for. Sometimes the
breaking down of adhesions under an anaesthetic is necessary,
and gentle passive and later active movements of the joints
should follow if freedom of use is to be gained. Recently
treatment by radium has taken a definite place in the therapeutics
of chronic arthritis, its analgesic properties seeming of great
benefit. (H. L. H.)
RHEYDT, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine pro-
vince, situated on the Niers, 19 m. W. of Dusseldorf, on the main
line of railway to Aix-la-Chapelle, and at the junction of lines
to' Crefeld and Stolberg. Pop. (1005) 40,149. It has two
Roman Catholic and two Evangelical churches, a handsome
new town hall (1895), a gymnasium, and several technical
schools. The principal products of its numerous factories are
silk, cotton, woollen and mixed fabrics, velvet, iron goods,
machinery, shoes, cables, soap and cigars. Dyeing and finishing,
brewing and distilling, are also carried on. Rheydt is an ancient
place, but its industrial importance is of very recent growth,
and it only received municipal rights in 1856.
See Rheyter Chronik. Geschichte der Herrschaft und Stadt Rheydt
(2 vols., Rheydt, 1897); and Strauss, Geschichte der Stadt Rheydt
(Rheydt, 1897).
RHlANUS, Greek poet and grammarian, a native of Crete,
friend and contemporary of Eratosthenes (275-195 B.C.).
Sui'das says he was at first a slave and overseer of a palaestra,
but obtained a good education later in life, and devoted himself
to grammatical studies, probably in Alexandria. He prepared a
new recension of. the Iliad and Odyssey, characterized by sound
judgment and poetical taste. His bold atheteses are frequently
mentioned in the scholia. He also wrote epigrams, eleven of
which, preserved in the Greek anthology and Athenaeus, show
elegance and vivacity. But he was chiefly known as a writer
of epics (mythological and ethnographical), the most celebrated
of which was the Messeniaca in six books, dealing with the
second Messenian war and the exploits of its central figure
Aristomenes, and used by Pausanias in his fourth book as a
trustworthy authority. Other similar poems were the Achaica,
Eliaca, and Thessalica. The Heracleia was a long mythological
epic, probably an imitation of the poem .of the same name by
Panyasis, and containing the same number of books (fourteen).
Fragments in A. Meineke, Analecta Alexandrina (1843); for
Rhianus's work in connexion with Homer, see C. Mayhoff, De
Rhiani Studiis Homericis (Dresden, 1870); also W. Christ, Ges-
chichte der griechischen Litteralur (1898).
RHIGAS, CONSTANTINE, known as Rhigas of Velestinos
(Pherae), or Rhigas Pheraios (1760-1798), Greek patriot and
poet, was born at Velestinos, and was educated at Zagora and
at Constantinople, where he became secretary to Alexander
Ypsilanti. In 1786 he entered the service of Nicholas Mavro-
genes, hospodar of Wallachia, at Bucharest, and when war broke
out between Turkey and Russia in 1787 he was charged with the
inspection of the troops at Craiova. Here he entered into close
and friendly relations with a Turkish officer named Osman
Passvan-Oglou (1758-1807), afterwards the famous governor
of Widin, whose life he saved from the vengeance of Mavrogenes.
After the death of his patron Rhigas returned to Bucharest to
serve for some time as interpreter at the French Consulate. At
this time he wrote the famous Greek version of the Marseillaise,
well known in Byron's paraphrase as " sons of the Greeks,
arise." He was the founder of the Hetaireia, a society formed
to organize Greek patriotic sentiment and to provide the Greeks
with arms and money. Believing that the influence of the
French Revolution would spread to the Near East, he betook
himself to Vienna to organize the movement among the exiled
Greeks and their foreign supporters in 1793, or possibly earlier.
He published in Vienna many Greek translations of foreign
works, and presently foun jp-i a Greek press there, but his chief
glory was the collection of national songs which, passed from
hand to hand in MS., roused patriotic enthusiasm throughout
Greece. They were only printed posthumously at Jassy in
1814. While at Vienna Rhigas entered into communication
with Bonaparte, to whom he sent a snuff-box made of the root
of a laurel tree taken from the temple of Apollo, and eventually
he set out with a view to meeting the general of the army of
Italy in Venice. But before leaving Vienna he forwarded
papers, amongst which is said to have been his correspondence
240
RHINE
with Bonaparte, to a compatriot at Istria. The papers were
betrayed by Demetrios Oikonomos Kozanites into the hands
of the Austrian government, and Rhigas was arrested at Trieste
and handed over with his accomplices to the Turkish authorities
at Belgrade. Immediately on arrest he attempted suicide.
His Turkish friend, Passvan-Oglou, sought to secure his escape,
and the government apparently consented to release him on
the payment of a ransom of about 6000; but meanwhile the
Turkish pasha commanding at Belgrade had taken the law into
his own hands. Rhigas's five companions were secretly drowned,
but he himself offered so violent a resistance that he was shot
by two Turkish soldiers. His last words are reported as being:
" I have sown a rich seed; the hour is coming when my country
will reap its glorious fruits." Rhigas, writing in the popular
dialect instead of in classical Greek, aroused the patriotic
fervour of his contemporaries and his poems were a serious
factor in the awakening of modern Greece.
See Rizos Neron'.os, Histoire de la revolution grecque (Paris, 1829);
I. C. Bolanachi, Hommes illustres de la Grece moderne (Paris, 1875) >
and Mrs E. M. Edmonds, Rhigas Pheraios (London, 1890).
RHINE (Lat. Rhenus, Ger. Rhein, Fr. Rhin, Dutch Rhyn,
or Rijri), the chief river of Germany and one of the most im-
portant in Europe. It is about 850 m. in length and drains an
area of 75,000 sq. m. The distance in a direct line between
its source in the Alps and its mouth in the German Ocean is
460 m. Its general course is north-north-west, but it makes
numerous deflexions and at one point is found running in a
diametrically opposite direction. The name Rhine, which is
apparently of Celtic origin, is of uncertain etymology, the most
favoured derivations being either from der Rinnende (the
flowing), or from Rein (the clear), the latter being now the more
generally accepted.
i. The Swiss Portion. The Rhine rises in the mountains
of the Swiss canton of the Grisons, and flows for 233 m. in Swiss
territory, within which its drainage basin includes about 14,059
sq. m., and every canton save Geneva. The two main branches
of the Rhine, the Hinter Rhine and the Vorder Rhine, unite
at Reichenau, 6 m. S.W. of Coire. (i) The principal stream
is considered to be that of the Hinter Rhine, which issues
(7271 ft.) from the glaciers of the Rheinwaldhorn group, and
then flows first N.E. through the Rheinwald valley, and next
N. through the Schams valley, which communicates by the
well-known gorge of the Via Mala with the Tomleschg valley
at Thusis, whence the stream continues its N. course to Reich-
enau; total length 35^ m., total fall 3711 ft. It receives a
number of mountain torrents during its course, the most im-
portant being that from the Avers glen, and the Albula, both
on the right, which is itself formed by many mountain streams.
(2) The Vorder Rhine rises in the small Toma lake (7691 ft.),
S. of the Oberalp Pass, not far from the St. Gotthard Pass, and
then flows N.E. past Disentis and Ilanz, which claims the
honour of being the " first town on the Rhine," to Reichenau;
total length 42 m., total fall 34925 ft. Its chief affluents are
the stream dignified by the name of the Medels Rhine, that
rises in the Cadlimo glen, W. of the Lukmanier Pass, and, after
flowing through the Medels glen, joins the Vorder Rhine at
Disentis, and the Glenner, flowing from the Lugnetz glen, both
on the right. From Reichenau the united streams flow N.E.
to Coire, the capital of the canton of the Grisons, and then turn
towards the N., past Ragatz, the valley broadening out, and
the river being joined on the right by the Landquart and the 111,
before it expands into the Lake of Constance. Extensive
" corrections " of the river bed, especially the canal of Diepold-
sau, have been carried out in the lower bit of this part of the
valley, while from a little north of Ragatz the right bank belongs
first to Liechtenstein and then to the Austrian province of the
Vorarlberg. On issuing from the Lake of Constance at Con-
stance, the Rhine flows nearly due west to Basel, where it leaves
Swiss territory, the south bank during this portion of the river
being entirely Swiss, save the town of Constance, but the north
shore belongs to Baden, save in the case of the Swiss town
of Stein-am-Rhein and the Swiss canton of Schaffhausen. The
chief towns on its banks are Constance (S.), Schafihausen (N.),
Waldshut (N.), Laufenburg (S.), Sackingen (N.), Rheinfelden
(S.), and Basel (both banks). About 15 m. below Schaffhausen
the river forms the famous Falls of the Rhine, or Falls of Schaff-
hausen (60 ft. high), while at Coblenz, opposite Waldshut, it
receives its chief affluent, the Aar, recently swollen by the
Reuss and the Limmat, and of greater volume than the river
in which it loses its identity. (W. A. B. C.)
2. The German and Dutch Portion. After Basel, when the
Rhine turns to the north and enters Germany, its breadth is
between 550 and 600 ft., while its surface now lies not more than
800 ft. above the sea, showing that the river has made a descent
of 6900 ft. by the time it has traversed a third of its course.
From Basel to Mainz the Rhine flows through a wide and
shallow valley, bordered on the east and west by the parallel
ranges of the Black Forest and the Vosges. Its banks are low
and flat, and numerous islands occur. The tendency to divide
into parallel branches has been curbed in the interests of naviga-
tion, and many windings have been cut off by leading the water
into straight and regular channels. At Mannheim the river
is nearly 1500 ft. in width, and at Mainz, where it is diverted
to the west by the barrier of the Taurius, it is still wider. It
follows the new direction for about 20 m., but at Bingen
it again turns to the north and begins a completely new stage
of its career, entering a narrow valley in which the enclosing
rocky hills abut so closely on the river as often barely to leave
room for the road and railway on either bank; during this
portion of its course the speed of the current at a normal state
of the water exceeds 6 m. an hour. This is the most beautiful
part of the whole course of the river, abounding in ruintd
castles, romantic crags and sunny vineyards. At Coblenz the
valley widens and the river is 1200 ft. broad, but the hills close
in again at Andernach, and this ravine-like part of its course
cannot be considered as ending till below the Siebengebirge
(Seven Mountains), where the river once more expands to a
width of 1300-1600 ft. Beyond Bonn and Cologne the banks
are again flat and the valley wide, though the hills on the right
bank do not completely disappear till the neighbourhood of
Diisseldorf. Farther on the country traversed by the Rhine is
perfectly level, and the current becomes more and more sluggish.
On entering Holland, which it does below Emmerich, its course
is again deflected to the west. Within Holland the banks
are so low as to require at places to be protected by embank-
ments against inundations. Almost immediately after entering
Holland the stream divides into two arms, the larger of which,
carrying off about two-thirds of the water, diverges to the west,
is called the Waal, and soon unites with the Maas. The smaller
branch to the right retains the name of Rhine and sends off
another arm, called the Yssel, to the Zuider Zee. The Rhine
now pursues a westerly course almost parallel with that of the
Waal. At Wijk another bifurcation takes place, the broad Lek
diverging on the left to join the Maas, while the " Kromme
Rijn " to the right is comparatively insignificant. Beyond
Utrecht, where it is again diminished by the divergence of the
Vecht to the Zuider Zee, the river under the name of the " Oude
Rijn," or Old Rhine, degenerates into a sluggish and almost
stagnant stream, which requires the artificial aid of a canal
and of sluices in finding its way to the sea. In Roman times
the Rhine at this part of its course seems to have been a full and
flowing river, but by the 9th century it had lost itself in the
sands of Katwijk, and it was not until the beginning of the
igth century that its way to the sea was re-opened. Though
the name Rhine thus at last attaches to a very insignificant
stream, the entire district between the Waal on one side and
the Yssel on the other, the Insula Batavorum of Caesar, in
reality belongs to trie delta of the famous river.
Tributaries. The Rhine is said to receive, directly or indirectly,
the waters of upwards of 12,000 tributaries of all sizes. Leaving
out of account the innumerable glacier streams that swell its volume
above the Lake of Constance, the most important affluents to its
upper course are the Wutach, the Alb and the Wiese, descending
on the right from the Black Forest, and the Aar, draining several
Swiss cantons on the left. In the upper Rhenish basin, between
RHINE
241
Basel and Mainz, the tributaries, though numerous, are mostly
short and unimportant. The 111 and the Nahe on the left and the
Neckar and the Main on the right are, however, notable exceptions.
Before joining the Rhine the 111 runs almost parallel with it and
at no great distance for upwards of 50 m. In the narrow part of
the valley, between Bingen and Cologne, the Rhine receives the
waters of the Lahn and the Sieg on the right, and those of the
Mosel, bringing with it the Saar, and the Ahr on the left. Still
lower down, but before the Dutch frontier is reached, come the
Ruhr and the Lippe on the right, and the Erft on the left. The
numerous arms into which the Rhine branches in Holland have
already been noticed.
Physical Geography. The Rhine connects the highest Alps with
the mud banks of Holland, and touches in its course the most
varied geological periods; but the river valley itself is, geologically
speaking, of comparatively recent formation. Rising amid the
ancient gneiss rocks of the St Gotthard, the Rhine finds its way
down to the Lake of Constance between layers of Triassic and
Jurassic formation; and between that lake and Basel it penetrates
the chalk barrier of the Jura. The upper Rhenish valley is evidently
the bed of an ancient lake, the shores of which were formed by
the gneiss and granite of the Black Forest on the one side and the
granite and sandstone of the Vosges on the other. Within the
valley all the alluvial deposits are recent. Between Bingen and
Bonn the Rhine forces its way through a hilly and rocky district
belonging to the Devonian formation. The contorted strata of
slate and greywacke rock must have been formed at a period vastly
anterior to that in which the lake of the upper valley managed
to force an outlet through the enclosing barriers. Probably this
section may be looked upon as the oldest portion of the river course
proper, connecting the upper Rhenish lake with the primeval
ocean at Bonn. In this district, too, as has already been remarked,
is the finest scenery of the Rhine, a fact due in great part to the
grotesque shapes of the quartzose rocks, left denuded of the less
urable slate and sandstone. All the strata intersected by the
Rhine between Bingen and Bonn contain fossils of the same classes.
The deposits of the actual valley here, belonging to the Miocene
group of the Tertiary system, are older than the deposits either
farther up or farther down the river; but they are contempo-
raneous with the basalts of the Rhine, which at Coblenz and in the
peaks of the Seven Mountains also contribute to the scenic charm
of the river. The very extensive pumice deposits at Neuwied
and the lava and other volcanic rocks belong to a more recent epoch.
Below Bingen the formations belong almost entirely to the Post-
Tertiary period. Numerous extinct volcanoes rise near Neuwied.
In the natter parts of the valley occur large beds of loam and rubble,
sometimes in terraces parallel with, but several hundred feet above,
the river, proving by their disposition and appearance that the
valley has been formed by the action of water.
Navigation. The Rhine has been one of the chief waterways of
Europe from the earliest times; and, as its channel is not exposed
to the danger of silting up like those of the Elbe and the Oder,
it has always been comparatively easy to keep it open* The
Romans exerted themselves to improve the lower navigation of
the river, and appointed prefects of the Rhine to superintend the
shipping and to exact the moderate dues imposed to keep the
channel in repair. The Franks continued the same policy and
retained a system of river-dues. Afterwards, as the banks became
parcelled out among a host of petty princelings, each of whom
arrogated the right of laying a tax on passing vessels, the imposts
became so prejudicial as seriously to hamper the development of
the shipping. Many of the riparian potentates derived the bulk
of their revenue from this source, and it is calculated that in the
1 8th century the Rhine yielded a total revenue of 200,000, in spite
of the comparatively insignificant amount of the shipping. The
first proposal for a free Rhine was mooted by the French at the
congress of Rastatt (1797-1799), but Holland, commanding the
mouth of the river, placed every obstacle in the way of the sugges-
tion. In 1831, on the separation of Holland and Belgium, the former
had become more amenable to reason; and a system was agreed
upon which practically gave free navigation to the vessels of the
riverine states, while imposing a moderate tariff upon foreign ships.
After the war of 1866, Prussia negotiated with Baden, Bavaria
and Hesse-Darmstadt with a view to the removal of all tolls.
It was not, however, till 1868 (see Die Rhein-Schiffahrts Akte vom
ijten Okt., 1868) that the last vestige of a toll disappeared and the
river was thrown open without any restriction. -The management
of the channel and navigation is now vested in a central commis-
sion, meeting at Mannheim on the 1st of July in each year. The
channel has been greatly improved and in many places made more
direct since the beginning of the igth century, large sums being
annually spent in keeping it in order. Capacious river harbours
have been formed at various points, twenty-nine of these being in
Germany and eight in Holland. The position of the river is highly
favourable for the development of its trade. It flows through the
...o.,'; pooulous regions of the continent of Europe, to discharge
into one ot the most frequented seas opposite Great Britain, and,
besides serving as a natural outlet for Germany, Belgium and
Holland, is connected with a great part of central and southern
France by the Rhine-Rhone and the Rhine-Marne canals, and with
the basin of the Danube by the Ludwigs-Canal.
The introduction of steam has greatly increased the shipping
on the Rhine; and small steamers ply also on the Main, the Neckar,
the Maas and the Moscl. The first Rhine steamer was launched
in 1817; and now the river is regularly traversed by upwards of a
hundred, from the small tug up to the passenger saloon-steamer*
The steamboat traffic has especially encouraged the influx of
tourists, and the number of passing travellers may now be reckoned
as between one and two millions annually. The river is navigable
without interruption from Basel to its mouth, a distance of 550
miles, of which 450 lie within Germany. Above Spires, however,
the river craft are comparatively small, but lower down vessels of
500 and 600 tons burden find no difficulty in plying. Between
Basel and Strassburg the depth of water is sometimes not more
than 3 ft. ; between Strassburg and Mainz it varies from 5 to 25 ft. ;
while below Mainz it is never less than q or 10 ft. The deepest
point is opposite the Lorelei (Lurlei) Rock near St Goar, where it
is 75 ft. in depth ; at Dusseldorf the depth is about 50 ft.
London, Hamburg, Bremen and the chief Baltic ports as far as
Riga and St Petersburg participate in the traffic on the Rhine.
The boats which ply up and down the river itself, without venturing
upon the open sea, are mostly craft of 100 to 200 tons, owned in
the great majority of cases by their captains, men principally of
German or Dutch nationality. This fleet is computed to number
some 8500 craft, with an aggregate capacity of over 2 million tons,
of which about one-tenth are steamships. The traffic at the chief
German ports of the river aggregated 4,489,000 tons in 1870, but by
1900 this had grown to a total of 17,000,000 tons, thus distributed:
Ruhrort, 6,512,000 tons; Duisburg, 3,000,000 tons; Cologne,
1,422,000 tons; and Mannheim, 6,021,000 tons. These are not
the only ports on the river; a large trade is also done at Kehl,
Maxau (for Karlsruhe), Ludwigshafen, Mainz, Bonn, Rotterdam
and a host of smaller places. The amount of traffic which passed
the town of Emmerich near the Dutch frpntier,.both ways, increased
from an annual average of about 6 million tons in 1881-85 to over
^'f. million t'1. m 1802- Notwithstanding the inherent diffi-
culties of constructiSh-<Sused by the great variations in the level
of the stream, amounting sometimes to 20 ft. or more, the chief
ports of the Rhine are admirably constructed, and well equipped
with modern contrivances for loading and unloading vessels.
Boats carrying as much as 600 tons are often able to proceed as far
up stream as Strassburg, and smaller craft get as far as Huningen,
a little above Basel. Large passenger boats ply regularly between
Mainz and Diisseldorf, and sometimes extend their journeys as high
up as Mannheim, and as far in the other direction as Rotterdam.
The efforts of the river authorities are being directed to the deepen-
ing and improvement of the navigable channel from the sea to
Strassburg, the low-water depths aimed at being 10 ft. from
Rotterdam to the German frontier, and 10 ft. thence to Cologne;
8 ft. 3 in. from Cologne to St Goar, and 6 ft. 6 in. from St Goar
to Mannheim. At present the Rhine in Holland has a depth of
about 9 ft. and a width of 1200 to 1300 ft., though the Merwede
branch exceeds this depth by 8 in. Altogether a sum approaching
2,500,000 was spent in Holland within the latter part of the iqth
century on the improvement of the Rhine and its principal arteries.
Above Mannheim the depth of the stream is always less than 5 ft.,
and generally varies between that figure and 4 ft. 6 in. The
difficulty of ascending the rapids near Bingen is usually surmounted
by the help of steam hauling machinery placed on the bank,
though powerful tugs have also come into use for this purpose.
The work of blasting out the rocks which at that spot projected
in the bed of the river, begun in 1830, was continued down to the
year 1887, so that now there are two navigable channels of sufficient
depth for all vessels which ply up and down that part of the stream.
One of the most interesting features of the Rhine navigation is
afforded by the huge rafts of timber that are floated down the river.
Single tree trunks sent down to the Rhine by the various tributaries
are united into small rafts as they reach the main stream; and
these again are fastened together to form one large raft about
Andernach. Though not so large as formerly, these timber rafts
are still sometimes 400 or 500 ft. in length, and are navigated by
200 to 400 men, who live in little huts on the raft, forming actual
floating villages. On reaching Dort the rafts are broken up and
sold, a single raft sometimes producing as much as 30,000. The
voyage from Bingen to Dort takes from one to six weeks, and the
huge unwieldy structures require to be navigated with great care.
The commerce carried on by the river itself is supplemented by
the numerous railways, which skirt its banks and converge to its
principal towns. Before the introduction of railways there were
no permanent bridges across the Rhine below Basel; but now
trains cross it at about a dozen different points in Germany and
Holland.
History. Politically the Rhine has always played a great
part. The wholt valley seems to have been originally occupied
by Celtic tribes, who have left traces of their presence on the
contents of tombs and in the forms of names (Moguntiacum
242
RHINE PROVINCE
or Mainz, Borbetomagus or Worms); but at the beginning of
the historical period we find the Celts everywhere in retreat
before the advancing Teutons. Probably the Teutonic pressure
began as early as the 4th century before Christ, and the history
of the next few hundred years may be summed up as the gradual
substitution of a Germanic for a Celtic population along the
banks of the Rhine. Its second historical period begins with the
advent of the Romans, who stemmed the advancing Teutonic
tide. Augustus and his successors took good care to fortify
the Rhine carefully, and a large proportion of the Roman legions
were constantly in garrison here. For two hundred years the
Rhine formed the boundary between the Roman empire and the
Teutonic hordes; and during that period the left or Roman
bank made prodigious strides in civilization and culture. The
wonderful Roman remains at Trier and elsewhere, the Roman
roads, bridges and aqueducts, are convincing proofs of what
the Rhine gained from Roman domination. This Roman
civilization was, however, destined to be swamped by the
current of Teutonic immigration, which finally broke down the
barriers of the Roman empire and overwhelmed the whole
of the Rhenish district. Under Charlemagne, whose principal
residence was in Aix-la-Chapelle, the culture of the Rhine
valley again began to flourish, its results being still to be traced
in the important architectural remains of this period. At the
partition of the domains of Charlemagne in A.D. 843 the Rhine
formed the boundary between Germany and the middle kingdom
of Lotharingia; but by 870 it lay wholly within the former
realm. For nearly eight hundred years it continued in this
position, the frontier of the German empire coinciding more or
less with the line of the Rhone. During the early middle ages
the bank of the Rhine formed the most cultured part of Ger-
many, basing its civilization on its 'Roman past. The Thirty
Years' War exercised a most prejudicial effect upon the district
of the Rhine; and the peace of Westphalia gave France a
footing on the left bank of the hitherto exclusively German
river by the acquisition of Alsace. The violent seizure of
Strassburg by France in 1681 was ratified by the peaceof Ryswick
in 1697, which recognized the Rhine as the boundary between
Germany and France from Basel to about Germersheim. It
was an easy inference for the French mind that the Rhine should
be the boundary- throughout and the Gaul of Caesar restored.
This ideal was realized in 1801, when the whole of the left bank
of the Rhine was formally ceded to France. The congress of
Vienna (1815) restored the lower part of the Rhenish valley to
Germany, but it was not till the war of 1870-71 that the recovery
of Alsace and Lorraine made the Rhine once more " Germany's
river, not Germany's frontier." In the military history of all
these centuries constant allusion is made to the Rhine, its
passages and its fortresses. Every general who has fought in
its neighbourhood has at one time or another had to provide
for a crossing of the Rhine, from Julius Caesar, who crossed it
twice, down to our own time. The wars carried on here by
Louis XIV. are still remembered in the Rhine district, where the
devastations of his generals were of the most appalling descrip-
tion; and scarcely a village or town but has a tale to tell of the
murder and rapine of this period.
The Rhine in Literature. The Rhine has always exercised a
peculiar sort of fascination over the German mind, in a measure
and in a manner not easily paralleled by the case of any other
river. " Father Rhine " is the centre of the German's patriotism
and the symbol of his country. In his literature it has played
a prominent part from the Nibelungeiilied to the present day;
and its weird and romantic legends have been alternately the
awe and the delight of his childhood. The Rhine was the
classic river of the middle ages; and probably the Tiber alone
is of equal historical interest among European rivers. But
of late years the beauties of the Rhine have become sadly
marred; the banks in places, especially between Coblenz and
Bonn, disfigured by quarrying, the air made dense with the
smoke of cement factories and steam-tugs, commanding spots
falling a prey to the speculative builder and villages growing
into towns.
See Daniel, Deutschland: Beyerhaus, Dtr Rhein von Strassburg
Ins tur holldndischen Grenze (Coblenz, 1902); Mohr, Die Fldiserei
auf dem Rhein (Mannheim, 1897) ; C. Eckert, Rheinschiffahrt im
igten Jahrhundert; Horn, Der Rhein, Geschichte and Sagen seiner
Burgen (Stuttgart, 1893); Treutlein, Die neueren Deutschen Rhein-
stromstudien und ihre Ergebnisse (in Ausland, 1893); A. Chambalu,
Die Stromverdnderunetn des Niederrheins seit der vorromischen Zeit
(Cologne, 1892), and Handbooks of Baedeker, Meyer and Woerl.
(J. F. M.; P. A. A.)
RHINE PROVINCE, or RHINELAND, the most westerly
province of the kingdom of Prussia, bounded on the N. by
Holland, on the E. by the Prussian provinces of Westphalia and
Hesse-Nassau, and the grand duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, on
the S.E. by the Bavarian Palatinate, on the S. and S.W. by
Lorraine, and on the W. by Luxemburg, Belgium and Holland.
The small district of Wetzlar in the midst of the province of
Hesse also belongs to the Rhine Province, which, on the other
hand, surrounds the Oldenburg principality of Birkenfeld.
The extent of the province is 10,423 sq. m.; its extreme length,
from north to south, is nearly 200 m., and its greatest breadth
is just under oo m. It includes about 200 m. of the course of
the Rhine, which forms the eastern frontier of the province
from Bingen to Coblenz, and then flows through it in a north-
westerly direction.
The southern and larger part of the Rhine province, belong-
ing geologically to the Devonian formations of the lower Rhine,
is hilly. On the left bank are the elevated plateaus of the
Hunsriick and the Eifel, separated from each other by the
deep valley of the Mosel, while on the right bank are the spurs
of the Westerwald and the Sauerland, the former reaching the
river in the picturesque group known as the Seven Mountains
(Siebengebirge). The highest hill in the province is the Walder-
beskopf (2670 ft.) in the Hochwald, and there are several other
summits above 2000 ft. on the left bank, while on the right
there are few which attain a height of 1600 ft. Most of the
hills are covered with trees, but the Eifel (q.v.) is a barren and
bleak plateau. To the north of a line drawn from Aix-
la-Chapelle to Bonn the province is flat, and marshy districts
occur near the Dutch frontier. The climate varies considerably
with the configuration of the surface. That of the northern
lowlands and of the sheltered valleys is the mildest and most
equable in Prussia, with a mean annual temperature of 50
Fahr., while on the hills of the Eifel the mean does not exceed
44. The annual rainfall varies in the different districts from
1 8 to 32 inches. Almost the whole province belongs to the
basin of the Rhine, but a small district in the north-west is
drained by affluents of the Meuse. Of the numerous tributaries
which join the Rhine within the province, the most important
are the Nahe, the Mosel and the Ahr on the left bank, and
the Sieg, the Wupper, the Ruhr and the.Lippe on the right.
The only lake of any size is the Laacher See, the largest of the
" maare " or extinct crater lakes of the Eifel.
Of the total area of the Rhine province about 45% is
occupied by arable land, 16% by meadows and pastures,
and 31% by forests. Little except oats and potatoes
can be raised on the high-lying plateaus in the south of the
province, but the river-valleys and the northern lowlands are
extremely fertile. The great bulk of the soil is in the hands of
small proprietors, and this is alleged to have had the effect of
somewhat retarding the progress of scientific agriculture. The
usual cereal crops are, however, all grown with success, and
tobacco, hops, flax, rape, hemp and beetroot (for sugar) are
cultivated for commercial purposes. Large quantities of fruit
are also produced. The vine-culture occupies a space of about
30,000 acres, about half of which are in the valley of the Mosel,
a third in that of the Rhine itself, and the rest mainly on the
Nahe and the Ahr. v The choicest varieties of Rhine wine,
however, such as Johannisberger and Steinberger, are produced
higher up the river, beyond the limits of the Rhine province.
In the hilly districts more than half the surface is sometimes
occupied by forests, and large plantations of oak are formed
for the use of the bark in tanning. Considerable herds of cattle
are reared on the rich pastures of the lower Rhine, but the
RHINOCEROS
243
number of sheep in the province is comparatively small, and
is, indeed, not greatly in excess of that of the goats. The
wooded hills are well stocked with deer, and a stray wolf
occasionally finds its way from the forests of the Ardennes into
those of the Hunsruck. The salmon fishery of the Rhine is
very productive, and trout abound in the mountain streams.
The great mineral wealth of the Rhine province probably
furnishes its most substantial claim to the title of the " richest
jewel in the crown of Prussia." Besides parts of the carboni-
ferous measures of the Saar and the Ruhr, it also contains
important deposits of coal near Aix-la-Chapelle. Iron ore is
found in abundance near Coblenz, the Bleiberg in the Eifel
possesses an apparently inexhaustible supply of lead, and zinc
is found near Cologne and Aix-la-Chapelle. The mineral pro-
ducts of the district also include lignite, copper, manganese,
vitriol, lime, gypsum, volcanic stones (used for millstones)
and slates. By far the most important item is coal. Of the
numerous mineral springs the best known are those of Aix-la-
Chapelle and Kreuznach.
The mineral resources of the Prussian Rhine province,
coupled with its favourable situation and the facilities of transit
afforded by its great waterway, have made it the most important
manufacturing district in Germany. The industry is mainly
concentrated round two chief centres, Aix-la-Chapelle and
Dusseldorf (with the valley of the Wupper), while there are
naturally few manufactures in the hilly districts of the south
or the marshy flats of the north. The largest iron and steel
works are at Essen, Oberhausen, Duisburg, Dusseldorf and
Cologne, while cutlery and other small metallic wares are
extensively made at Solingen, Remscheid and Aix-la-Chapelle.
The cloth of Aix-la-Chapelle and the silk of Crefeld form
important articles of export. The chief industries of Elberfeld-
Barmen and the valley of the Wupper are cotton-weaving,
calico-printing and the manufacture of turkey red and other
dyes. Linen is largely made at Gladbach, leather at Malmedy,
glass in the Saar district and beetroot sugar near Cologne.
Though the Rhineland is par excellence the country of the vine,
beer is largely produced; distilleries are also numerous, and
large quantities of sparkling Moselle are made at Coblenz,
chiefly for exportation to England. Commerce is greatly
aided by the navigable rivers, a very extensive network of rail-
ways, and the excellent roads constructed during the French
regime. The imports consist mainly of raw material for working
up in the factories of the district, while the principal exports
are coal, fruit, wine, dyes, cloth, silk and other manufactured
articles of various descriptions.
The population of the Rhine province in 1905 was 6,435,778,
including 4,472,058 Roman Catholics, 1,877,582 Protestants
and 55,408 Jews. The Roman Catholics muster strongest on
the left bank, while on the right bank about half the population
is Protestant. The great bulk of the population is of Teutonic
stock, and about a quarter of a million are of Flemish blood.
On the north-west frontier reside about 10,000 Walloons, who
speak French or Walloon as their native tongue. The Rhine
province is the most thickly populated part of Prussia, the
general average being 617 persons per sq. m. The province
contains a greater number of large towns than any other
province in Prussia. Upwards of half the population are sup-
ported by industrial and commercial pursuits, and barely a
quarter by agriculture. There is a university at Bonn, and
elementary education is especially successful. For purposes
of administration the province is divided into the five districts
of Coblenz, Dusseldorf, Cologne, Aix-la-Chapelle and Trier.
Coblenz is the official capital, though Cologne is the largest and
most important town. Being a frontier province the Rhine-
land is strongly garrisoned, and the Rhine is guarded by the
three strong fortresses of Cologne with Deutz, Coblenz with
Ehrenbreitstein, and Wesel. The province sends 35 members
to the German Reichstag and 62 to the Prussian house of
representatives.
History. The present Prussian Rhine province was formed in
1815 out of the duchies of Cleves, Berg, Gelderland and Jiilich,
the ecclesiastical principalities of Trier and Cologne, the free cities
of Aix-la-Chapelle and Cologne, and nearly a hundred small lord-
ships and abbeys. At the earliest historical period we find the
territories between the Ardennes and the Rhine occupied by the
Treviri, the Eburones and other Celtic tribes, who, however, were
all more or less modified and influenced by their Teutonic neigh-
bours. On the right bank of the Rhine, between the Main and
the Lahn, were the settlements of the Mattiaci, a branch of the
Germanic Chatti, while farther to the north were the Usipetes
and Tencteri. Julius Caesar conquered the tribes on the left bank,
and Augustus established numerous fortified posts on the Rhine,
but the Romans never succeeded in gaining a firm footing on the
right bank. As the power of the Roman empire declined the Franks
pushed forward along both banks of the Rhine, and by the end of
the 5th century had regained all the lands that had formerly been
under Teutonic influence. The German conquerors of the Rhenish
districts were singularly little affected by the culture of the pro-
vincials they subdued, and all traces of Roman civilization were
submerged in a new flood of paganism. By the 8th century the
Prankish dominion was firmly established in central Germany and
northern Gaul. On the division of the Carolingian realm the part
of the province to the east of the river fell to the share of Ger-
many, while that to the west remained with the evanescent kingdom
of Lotharingia. By the time of Otto I. (d. 073) both banks of the
Rhine had become German, and the Rhenish territory was divided
between the duchies of Upper and Lower Lorraine, the one on the
Mosel and the other on the Meuse. Subsequently, as the central
power of the German sovereign became weakened, the Rhineland
followed the general tendency and split up into numerous small
independent principalities, each with its separate vicissitudes and
special chronicles. The old Lotharingian divisions passed wholly
out of use, and the name of Lorraine became restricted to the
district that still bears it. In spite of its dismembered condition,
and the sufferings it underwent at the hands of its French neigh-
bours in various periods of warfare, the Rhenish territory prospered
greatly and stood in the foremost rank of German culture and
progress. Aix-la-Chapelle was fixed upon as the place of corona-
tion of the German emperors, and the ecclesiastical principalities
of the Rhine bulk largely in German history. Prussia first set foot
on the Rhine in 1609 by the joint occupation of Cleves; and about
a century later Upper Gelderland and Mors also became Prussian.
At the peace of Basel in 1795 the whole of the left bank of the Rhine
was resigned to France, and in 1806 the Rhenish princes all joined
the Confederation of the Rhine. The congress of Vienna assigned
the whole of the lower Rhenish districts to Prussia, which had the
tact to leave them in undisturbed possession of the liberal institu-
tions they had become accustomed to under the republican rule of
the French.
RHINOCEROS, the designation for such perissodactyle
(odd-toed) ungulate mammals as carry one or more horns on
the head, and their extinct relatives (see PEEISSODACTYLA).
Rhinoceroses are of large size and massive build, but have little
intelligence, and are generally timid in disposition, though
ferocious when wounded or brought to bay. The African
species use the nasal horns as weapons, with which they strike
and toss their assailant, but the Asiatic rhinoceroses employ
their sharp lower tusks much as does a boar. Rhinoceroses are
dull of sight, but their hearing and scent are remarkably acute.
They feed on herbage, shrubs and leaves of trees, and, like so
many other large animals which inhabit hot countries, sleep
the greater part of the day, and are most active in the cool of
the evening or even during the night. Some are found in more
or less open plains, while others inhabit swampy districts.
Members of the group have existed in both east and west
hemispheres since the beginning of the Miocene period; but in
America they all became extinct before the end of the Pliocene
period, and in the Old World their distribution has become
greatly restricted. They are, for instance, no longer found in
Europe and North Asia, but only in Africa and in portions of the
Indian and Indo-Malayan regions. Living rhinoceroses may
be arranged in three groups: (i) With a single nasal horn, and
very thick skin, which is raised into strong, definitely arranged
ridges or folds. In this group there are two well-marked species.
The Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), the largest of the
Asiatic forms, is the most widely known, from its being exhibited
in zoological gardens. A famous rhinoceros presented to the
Zoological Society of London in July 1864 lived til] December
1904. This species stands from 5 ft. to 5 ft. 9 in. at the
shoulder and is blackish grey in colour; the horn rarely
exceeds a foot in length, but one in the British Museum
measures 19 in. This species is now only met with in a wild
244
RHINOCEROS
state in the Assam plain, though it formerly had a wider
range.
The first rhinoceros seen alive in Europe since the time when
these animals, in common with nearly all the large remarkable
beasts of both Africa and Asia, were exhibited in the Roman
shows, was of this species. It was sent from India to Emmanuel,
king of Portugal, in 1513; and from a sketch taken in Lisbon,
Albert DUrer composed his celebrated but fanciful engraving,
which was reproduced in so many old books on natural history.
This species chiefly frequents swampy grass jungle and is fond
of a mud-bath. According to General A. H. Kinloch, it is
hunted by " tracking the animal on a single elephant until he
is at last found in his lair, or perhaps standing quite unconscious
FIG. I. Indian Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis). This and the
following illustrations are reduced from drawings by J. Wolf, from
animals in the London Zoological Society's Gardens.
FIG. 2. Javan Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus).
of danger; or by beating him out of the jungle with a line
of elephants, the guns being stationed at the points where
he is most likely to break cover. In the latter case it
is necessary to have reliable men with the beaters, who can
exercise authority and keep them in order, for both mahouts
and elephants have the greatest dread of the huge brute, who
appears to be much more formidable than he really is." The
Javan rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus) is distinguished by its
smaller size, and a different arrangement of the skin-folds (as
may be seen by comparing figs, i and 2). The horn in the
female is little developed, if not altogether absent. This species
has a more extensive geographical range than the last, being
found in the Bengal Sundarbans near Calcutta, Burma, the
Malay Peninsula, Java, Sumatra and Borneo. The colour is
uniform dusky grey. A female obtained in the Sundarbans
stood 5 ft. 6 in. high. This species is more an inhabitant of
tree-forest than of grass jungle, and its usual habitat appears
to be in hilly countries.
In the second section there is a well-developed nasal, and
a small frontal horn separated by an interval. The skin is
thrown into folds, but these are not strongly marked, and lower
tusks are present. This group or genus is represented at the
present day only by the Sumatran rhinoceros, Rhinoceros
(Dicerorhinus) sumalrensis, with its sub-species. It is the smallest
of all the species, and its geographical range is nearly the same
as that of the Javan species, though not extending into Java;
it has been found in Assam, Chittagong, Burma, the Malay
Peninsula, Sumatra and Borneo. The colour varies from earthy
brown to blackish, and the greater part of the body is thinly
covered with hair, and the ears and tail are fringed. The average
height of adults is from 4 ft. to 4 ft. 6 in. This species inhabits
forests, and ascends hills to considerable elevations; it is shy
and timid, but easily tamed even when adult. A specimen
from Chittagong acquired in 1872 by the Zoological Society of
London was named R. lasiotis, as it differed from the typical
form by its larger size, paler and browner colour, smoother
skin, longer, finer and redder hair, and the long fringe of hair
on the ears. It is now recognized as a local race.
FIG. 3. Black or common African Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros
(Diceros) bicornis).
To the third group or genus (Diceros) belong the two African
rhinoceroses, which have two horns, the skin without definite
folds, and no lower tusks. The black rhinoceros (Rhinoceros
(Diceros) bicornis) is the smaller of the two, and has a pointed
prehensile upper lip. It ranges through the wooded and
watered districts of Africa, from Abyssinia in the north to the
Cape Colony, but its numbers are yearly diminishing, owing to
the opening up of the country. It feeds exclusively on leaves
and branches of bushes and small trees, and chiefly frequents
the sides of wood-clad rugged hills. Specimens in which the
posterior horn has attained a length as great as or greater than
the anterior have been separated under the name of R. keitloa,
but the characters of these appendages are too variable for
specific distinctions. The black rhinoceros is more rarely seen
in menageries in Europe than either of the Asiatic species, but
one lived in the gardens of the London Zoological Society from
1868-1891.
Lastly we have the white Burchell's, or square-mouthed
rhinoceros (Rhinoceros (Diceros) simus), the largest of the five,
and differing from the other species in having a square truncated
upper lip. In conformity with the structure of the mouth,
this species lives entirely by browsing on grass, and is therefore
more partial to open countries or districts where there are broad
grassy valleys between the tracts of bush. In its old haunts in
RHINTHON RHIZOPODA
245
the south it is practically extinct; but ten were reported from
a reserve in Zululand in 1902. A detached colony exists,
however, near Lado, on the Upper Nile. No specimen of this
species has ever been brought alive to Europe. Mr F. C. Selous
gives the following description of its habits:
"The square-mouthed rhinoceros is a huge, ungainly looking
beast, with a disproportionately large head, a large male stand-
ing 6 ft. 6 in. at the shoulder. Like elephants and buffaloes
they lie asleep during the heat of the day, and feed during
the night and in the cool hours of early morning and evening.
Their sight is very bad; but they are quick of hearing, and their
scent is very keen; they are, too, often accompanied by rhinoceros
birds, which, by running about their heads, flapping their wings,
and screeching at the same time, frequently give them notice of the
approach of danger. When disturbed they go off at a swift trot,
which soon leaves all pursuit from a man on foot far behind; but if
chased by a horseman they break into a gallop, which they can keep
up for some distance. However, although they run very swiftly,
when their size and heavy build is considered, they are no match for
an average good horse. They are, as a rule, very easy to shoot on
horseback, as, if one gallops a little in front of and on one side of
them, they will hold their course, and come sailing past, offering
a magnificent broadside shot, while under similar circumstances
a prehensile-lipped rhinoceros will usually swerve away in such a
manner as only to present his hind-quarters for a shot. When
either walking or running, the square-mouthed rhinoceros holds
its head very low, its nose nearly touching the ground. When a
small calf accompanies its mother, it always runs in front and she
appears to guide it by holding the point of her horn upon the little
animal's rump; and it is perfectly wonderful to note how in all
sudden changes of pace, from a trot to a gallop, or vice versa, the
same position is always exactly maintained. During the autumn
and winter months (i.e. from March to August) the square-mouthed
rhinoceros is usually very fat ; and its meat is then most excellent,
being something like beef, but yet having a peculiar flavour of its
own. The part in greatest favour among hunters is the hump,
which, if cut off whole and roasted just as it is in the skin, in a hole
dug in the ground, would, I think, be difficult to match either for
juiciness or flavour." (W. H. F. ; R. L.*)
RHINTHON (c. 323-285 B.C.), Greek dramatist, son of a
potter. He was probably a native of Syracuse and after-
wards settled at Tarentum. He invented the hilarotragoedia, a
burlesque of tragic subjects. Such travesties were also called
phlyaces (" fooleries ") and their writers phlyacographi. He was
the author of thirty-eight plays, of which only a few titles
(Amphitryon, Heracles, Orestes) and lines have been preserved,
chiefly by the grammarians, as illustrating dialectic Tarentine
forms. The metre is iambic, in which the greatest licence
is allowed. The Amphilruo of Plautus, although probably
imitated from a different writer (Archippus of the Middle
Comedy), may be taken as a specimen of the manner in which
such subjects were treated. There is no doubt that the hilaro-
tragoedia exercised considerable influence on Latin comedy, the
Rhinthonica (i.e. fabula) being mentioned by various authorities
amongst other kinds of drama known to the Romans. Scenes
from these travesties are probably represented in certain vase
paintings from Lower Italy, for which see H. Heydemann, " Die
Phlyakendarstellungen auf bemalten Vasen," in Jahrbuch des
archiiologischen Instituts, i. (1886).
Fragments in monograph by E. Volker (Leipzig, 1887); see also
E. Sommerbrodt, De Phlyacographia Graecorum (Breslau, 1875) ;
W. Christ, Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur (1898).
RHIZOPODA, the name given by Dujardin (pro parte, 1838)
to a group of Sarcodine Protozoa. They are distinguished by
their pseudopods, simple or branched, passing by wide bases
into the general surface, never fine radial nor fusing into complex
networks; skeleton absent or a simple shell (" test," " theca "),
never (?) a calcareous shell, nor represented by a siliceous net-
work, nor spicules. Reproduction by binary fission; by division
or abstriction of buds after the body has become multi-nucleate;
or by the resolution of the body into numerous uninucleate
zoospores (amcebuls or flagellulae) which may conjugate as
gametes; plasmodium formation unknown; encystment (in
" resting cysts " or " hypnocysts ") common. Without a
knowledge of the history it is impossible to distinguish a naked
Lobose from the Amoebula (pseudopodiospore) of a Myxomycete
or Proteomyxan. As to the name, Dujardin included the
thecate Lobosa, the Filosa, and the Reticularia or Foraminifera
(q.v.). The latter had already received the name Foraminifera
(for their shells) from d'Orbigny; and as it is impossible to
separate naked from thecate Lobosa we have merged his
Amoebina (Amibiens) in the larger group. The Filosa were
removed by Lang from the Reticularia; in habit and test they
are inseparable from the Lobosa; and though their cytoplasm
approximates to that of Reticularia, their ectosarc is much less
granular, though not free from granules as stated by Lang.
The majority of Rhizopoda are fresh-water forms, some
occurring in the film of water on mosses, among Sphagnum, or
about the bases of grass-haulms; many, however, are exclusively
marine. The aquatic forms generally may lurk among Conf ervae
or higher weeds, or lie in the bottom of decomposing or excre-
mentitious matter in still or slow-flowing waters. Of these some
may become temporarily pelagic, floating up by the formation
of gas vacuoles (containing probably COz) in the cytoplasm. It
is easy to verify this by placing Arcella (fig. i, 7) in a drop of
water on a glass cover and inverting this over a glass ring; the
Arcella sink to the free convex surface of the drop and escape
from this most unnatural position by secreting gas-vacuoles;
when they float up to contact with the glass cover, so as to touch
it by the convex back of the shell, they put forth long pseudo-
podia which attach themselves to the glass and by their con-
traction turn the animal over, so that it can crawl over (i.e.
under) the glass. Amoeba (Entamoeba) histolytica, Schaudinn, is
the cause of tropical dysentery and hepatic abscess in man.
Pelomyxa (fig. i, 5-6) is remarkable for containing symbiotic
bacteria. Zooxanthcllae (symbiotic green cells Algae or
Flagellates) occur in several species; and Paulinella contains
two sausage-shaped blue-green bodies, " chromatophores,"
which are probably symbiotic Cyanophyceae. The shell, even
when not a simple membrane, has always a continuous inner
membrane of a complex nitrogenous substance containing
sulphur, allied to keratin and termed pseudochitin. The outer
layer when present is composed of little hollow prisms (Arcella,
fig. i, 7), sand, or inorganic matter first swallowed by the
animal (Difflugia, Pseudodifflugia), sometimes partially digested
(Lecquereuxia), or else of plates secreted as " reserve plates "
within the cytoplasm of the animal Cyphoderia (fig. 6, B),
Quadrula, Nebelia, Euglypha (figs. 4, 6, A), &c. In Quadrula
irregularis alone are the plates said to be calcareous; elsewhere
they are always siliceous and simply refractive, so that the
silica is probably hydrated (opal). The cement is possibly of
silicified pseudochitin. This material is often permeated by a
ferric oxide or hydrate, even when it is not coloured rusty brown.
Shell formation of the membranous test is by simple surface-
excretion; under budding we describe its accomplishment in the
aggregated shells.
The " pylome," or aperture for the protrusion of the proto-
plasm, is usually single. There are two pylomes at opposite
poles in several Filosa (Ditrema), hence united by some authors
into a distinct family (fig. 7, i, 5, n), and in the gelatinous
theca of Trichosphaerium (fig. 5) are numerous permanent
pylomic pores. The nucleus is variable in form and character.
In Amoeba binudeata two nuclei are always present; and some
genera are permanently plurinucleate (Pelomyxa, Arcella,
fig. 1,7). It often gives forth fragments into the cytoplasm, the
" chromidia" of R. Hertwig, which, as in Foraminifera (q.v.),
may play an important part in reproductive processes. The
contractile vacuole (there are two in Arcella, fig. i, 7) in actively
progressing Rhizopods always discharges at the hinder end.
Absent or sluggish in marine forms, it is of constant occurrence
in all fresh-water Rhizopods except Pelomyxa.
The pseudopods vary greatly in type. In Amoeba princeps
(fig. i, 4) they are mere promontory-like extensions of the body;
in A. radiosa (fig. i, 1-3) and Trichosphaerium (fig. 5) they are
distinct slender processes, tapering, and either blunt or finely
pointed at the apex; in Pelomyxa (fig. i, 5, 6) as in A. (Litha-
moeba) discus (fig. 2) they are " eruptive, " hemispherical,
formed apparently by the rupture of the ectoplasm, and the
outpouring of the endoplasm which at once differentiates a
clear outer layer as a new ectoplasm; in Amoeba Umax during
246
RHIZOPODA
progression the
posteriorly and
body is roughly oval with the apex truncated
the wide anterior end forming a single anterior
FIG. i. 13, Amoeba radiosa (Dactylosphaerium polypodium),
M. Schultze, in three stages of equal binary fission during fifteen
minutes; a, nucleus; 6, contractile vacuole (after M. Schultze).
4, Amoeba princeps, Ehr. ; a, nucleus; b, c, vacuoles; food
vacuoles shaded (after Auerbach). 5, 6, Pelomyxa palustris:
5, a small example 5*5 in. in diameter, moderately extended; 6, a
portion more highly magnified; a, ectosarc; 6, vacuoles; c,
d, pseudopods formed by eruption and containing endosarc;
e, vesicles containing a solution of glycogen; /, nuclei; the
numerous little pods are symbiotic bacteria. 7, Arcella vulgaris:
a, shell; b, cytoplasm; c, lobose pseudopods; d, d, d, 3
nuclei; e, one of the contractile vacuoles; the dark shaded
circles represent bubbles or gas vacuoles. 8, Cochliopodium pettu-
cidum: a, " vesicular " nucleus, with dense central mass or
" karyosome " (i frequent type of Protistic nucleus). (From
Lankester.)
pseudopod. Progression chiefly takes place by a rolling over
of the anterior end (fig. 3 see also AMOEBA); but it may take
place by the extension of a pseudopod, its attachment at the tip,
followed by its contraction to pull up the rest of the animal;
this is well shown in the thecate species. Another mode is that
of A. radiosa (fig. i, 1-3), which can roll over on the tips of its
stiff pseudopods. The pseudopods of the Filosa (figs. 6, 7)
are branched, but less rich in granules, and less viscid than those
of Foraminifera; they rarely anastomose, and never coalesce
to form perforated plates.
A process whose relations to reproduction are not fully made
out is that of " plastogamy," where two or more individuals
unite completely by their cytoplasm, the nuclei remaining
distinct; it may be temporary or permanent: in the latter case
FIG. 2. Amoeba (Lithamoeba) discus (after Lankester). A,
quiescent; B, putting forth eruptive pseudopods. c.v., contractile
vacuole through which the richly vacuolated cytoplasm is seen;
/, food particles; cone., concretions, insoluble in dilute HC1
and KHO, soluble in strong HC1 ; n, nucleus.
determining, of course, a much more rapid increase of size than
that due to growth. Thanks to the labours of F. Schaudinn,
we now know the full life cycles of at least half a dozen species;
previously we only knew with certainty of two modes of
fission equal constriction (Amoeba fig. i, 1-3) and bud-fission
(Difflugia). As in other Sarcodina, chromidia, or fragments
of nuclear substance budded off from the nucleus into the endo-
plasm, play an important part in many reproductive processes.
Equal binary fission is common. In the thecate forms, e.g.
Difflugia, Euglypha (fig. 4), this is replaced by bud-fission;
half the cytoplasm passes out through the pylome, and becomes
From Joining's Conlri'mtiims to the Study of the Behavior of Lower Organisms, by
permission of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, D.C.
FIG. 3. i, ideal perspective view of left half of a crawling
Amoeba; 2, diagram showing successive position of marked points
on anterior end; 3, diagrammatic section, the arrows showing
directions of absolute motion the rate being indicated by the length
of the shaft.
invested with its covering there; the enclosed " reserve '*"
skeletal elements pass to the surface in order, so that the pylome
of the new shell faces that of the old ; the original nucleus divides
in situ and one daughter nucleus passes into what we may call
the bud-cytoplasm; the two daughters of the original cell,
which we may call the " bud-sister " and the " stock-sister "
respectively, now separate. In the plurinucleate forms a true
bud-formation takes place, nucleate masses of cytoplasm being
constricted off at the surface. A simultaneous resolution into
uninucleate cells may affect the multinucleate species (or the
multinucleate state of habitually uninucleate species); this is
termed schizogony.
In Trichosphaerium (fig. 5) it occurs at the close of two.
RHIZOPODA
247
distinct periods in the life cycle which we may call A and B;
the individuals of the A period being distinguished by the
From Calkin's Protozoa, by permission of the Macmillan Co., New York.
FlG. 4. Bud-fission of Euglypha alveolata. A, passing out of secreted plates to
surface of bud. B, bud completely invested ; nucleus preparing to divide by mitosis.
C, D, later stages.
presence of radiating spicules of MgCO 3 in the gelatinous theca;
the resolution of period A is simple (fig. 5, 3) and the uninucleate
From The Cambridge Natural History, after Scbaudinn, vol. i., Protozoa, by
permission of Macmillan & Co. Ltd.
FlG. 5. Trichosphaerium sieboldii. I, Adult of "A" form; 2,
its multiplication by fission and gemmation; 3, resolution into
uninucleate amoeboid zoospores; 4, development (from zoospores
of " A ") into " B " form (5); 6, its multiplication by fission and
gemmation; 7, its resolution after nuclear bipartition into minute
2 flagellate zoospores (or exogametes); 8, liberation of gametes;
9, 10, more highly magnified pairing of gametes of different origin;
II, 12, zygote developing into " A " form.
brood-cells are amoebulae (pseudopodiospores) (fig. 5, 4)
which grow into the multinucleate B type, with a nonspiculate
theca (fig. 5, 5>- The resolution of the B type
is preceded by rapid multiplication of the
nuclei by mitosis (fig. 5, 7), and the uninucleate
cells are 2-flagellate zoospores (fig. 5, 9). These
pair with zoospores of a different brood to their
own (fig. 5, 10) (i.e. they are exogamous
gametes); and the fusion cell (fig. 5. n) so
formed is the starting-point of the A type (fig.
5, 12). Brood formation by resolution of a
multinucleate individual has been observed or
conjectured in Amoeba, &c.
A formation of numerous pseudopodiospores
within Pdomyxa has been repeatedly described,
and these have been seen to conjugate equally,
the zygote becoming multinuclear. But the
possibility of the alleged reproductive cells
being parasites has not yet been fully ex-
cluded.
Chlamydophrys stercorea is a small Pilose,
occurring in the faeces of several mammals,
but only forming its characteristic shell out-
side the body; plastogamic monstrosities are
frequent. The nucleus degenerates, and is
expelled with some plasm. The chromidia
remain inside the shell, and differentiate or
aggregate into about eight nuclei; the cell
is then resolved into as many a-flagellate
swarmers, which escape as isogamous exogametes. The
zygote becomes surrounded by a brown cyst. When
From Eugene Penard, Paune rhizopodijut du kassin du Ltnum.
FIG. 6. A, Euglypha alveolata. I, Living animal; a, guitar-
shaped outline of body, retracted from shell For emission of pseudo-
pods ; b, b, reserve plates in body for offspring in next bud-fission ;
2, empty shell; 3, round plates; 4, 5, adoral plates with more or
less marked denticulations; 6, oval plates; 7, transverse section of
shell, showing circle of reserve plates within.
B, Sphenoderia lenta. I, Animal, lateral view; 2, same from
above; 3, shell, lateral view; 4, shell, oral view of the pylome;
5, optical section through empty shell and pylome; 6, nucleus;
7, surface view of pylome (dotted lines represent its opposite side
as seen at a lower focus).
248
RHODE ISLAND
swallowed by a mammal it develops, and the ordinary form
is found in the excreta.
Cenlropyxis aculeata is closely allied to Difflugia. It divides
by fission and also at the end of a cycle by schizogony, the
8
FIG. 7. Filosa and Foraminifera of similar habit. I. Diplo-
phrys archeri (moor pools); a, nucleus; 6, contractile vacuoles;
c, oil drop. 2. Allogromia fluviatilis (freshwater Foraminifer) ;
a, numerous nuclei; the elongated bodies are ingested diatoms.
3. Shepheardella taeniformis (marine Foraminifer), X 30 with
retracted protoplasm; a, nucleus. 4. The same X 15 with
expanded pseudopods. 5-9. Nucleus of same in various aspects as
carried along in streaming protoplasm. 10. Amphitrema wrighti-
anum(moor pools) ; shell membranous.encrusted with foreign bodies.
II. Diaphorodon mobile (moor pools); a, nucleus.
offspring being amoebulae. In some these acquire a shell
directly; in others a second brood division into four takes place,
and it is only then that shells are formed. The latter conjugate
as males with the former as females; and the fusion cell encysts
within the approximated shells; it emerges as a naked amoeba
after a period of rest, forms a shell and assumes the type of the
species. Other types of reproduction are known, Amoeba coli f
an inhabitant of the gut of man, showing an endogamous pairing
of closely related nuclei similar to that of Actinosphaerium
(see HELIOZOA).
CLASSIFICATION
Lobosa. W. B. Carpenter. Cytoplasm with a clear ectosarc,
not wetted by the medium ; pseudopods never finely branching,
usually rounded at the apex; nucleus single or multiple; shell
(" test," " theca ") absent, gelatinous, membranous or of cemented
granules of ingested sand, &c., or plates secreted in the endosarc.
^Selected genera: i. Naked Amoeba (<j..) (" Amibe," Bory), with
the subgenera Dactylosphaerium, Hertwig and Lesser (fig. I, 1-3),
with slender, pointed pseudopods; Lithamoeba, Lankester, always
containing inorganic granules (fig. 2). Pelomyxa, Greeff (fig. I,
5, 6), with blunt, eruptive pseudopods and numerous nuclei, ^ in.
or more in diameter when contracted. Arcuothrix, Claparede and
Lachmann, with one or more slender, very mobile, flagelliform
pseudopods as well as the lobose ones.
2. Test gelatinous, perforated by pseudopods: Amphizonella,
Greeff; Trichosphaerium, Schneider (fig. 5).
3. Test membranous: Cochliopodium, Hertwig and Lesser
(fig. i, 8).
4. Test " chitinous," shagreened: Arcella, Stein (fig. I, 7).
5. Test of ingested particles: Difflugia, Leclerc; Centropyxis,
Stein ; Lecqueureuxia, Schlumberger (shell material of diatomaceous
tests fused into sausage-shaped masses).
6. Test of secreted siliceous or chitinous plates: Quadrula,
F. E. Schultze. (In Q. irregularis the plates are said to be cal-
careous.)
Filosa. A. Lang. Cytoplasm without definite ectosarc; pseu-
dopods branching, tapering to fine tips, somewhat granular; test
present in all known species and varying as in the Lobosa.
Selected genera: i. Test membranous: Cromia, Dujardin
(pro parte) ; Mikrogromia, Hertwig ; Diplophrys, Barker (fig. 7,
i); Ditrema, Archer; Amphitrema, Archer (fig. 7, n); the last
three have a mouth-like aperture (pylome) at either end of the
test.
2. Test of ingested or incrusted particles: P ' seudodifflugia,
Schlumberger; Diaphorodon, Archer (fig. 7, 12).
3. Test of secreted plates: Euglypha, Dujardin (figs. 4, 6, A);
sphenoderia lenta (fig. 6, B) ; Paulinella, Lauterborn.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. E. Pena,rd,Faune rhizopcdiquedubassinduLeman
(1902), and Les Rhizopodes des grands lacs (1905); James Cash,
The British Freshwater Rhizopoda and Heliozoa (Ray Society),
vol. i. (1905) these works contain full bibliographies of older
literature. L. Rhumbler, " Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Rhizopp-
den " {Zeitsch. Wiss. Zoologie, Hi. (1891), and numerous papers in
Arch. Entwickelungsgeschichte and Arch. Protistenkunde; F. Schau-
dinn, " Untersuch. ub. die Fortpflanzung einiger Rhizopoden " in
Arb. Kaiserl. Gesundheitsamt, xix. (1903) ; S. Awerinzew, " Die
chemische Zusammensetzung der Gehause der siisswasserrhizo-:
poden," Arch. Prot. viii. (1906); K. Boll, " Uber die Fortpflan-
zung von Pelomyxa palustris," Arch. Prot. viii. (1906). For bibli-
ographies and a clear exposition we may also cite Y. Delage and
E. HeVouard, Traite de zoologie concrete, i. (La cellule et les pro-
iozoaires) (1896); A. Lang, Lehrb. d. vergleich. Analomie d. u-ir-
bellosen Thiere (ed. 2), i., " Protozoa " (1901); and Marcus Hartog,
" Protozoa," in Cambridge Natural History, i. (1906). Of the older
literature we need only cite F. Dujardin, " Sur les organismes
infrSrieurs," Ann. Sc. Nat. Zool. iv. (1835), and " Zoophytes,
jnfusoires " (1841).*' (M. HA.)
RHODE ISLAND, a North Atlantic state of the American
Union, belonging to the New England group, and lying between
41 18' and 42 3' N. lat. and 71 8' and 71 53' W. long. 1 It
is bounded, N. and E., by the state of Massachusetts; S., by
the Atlantic Ocean; and W., by the state of Connecticut, from
which it is separated in part by the Pawcatuck river. Rhode
Island is the smallest state in the Union, having an extreme
length, N. and S., of 48 m., an extreme width, E. and W., of
37 m., and a total area of 1248 sq. m., of which 181 sq. m. are
water-surface.
Topography. The region of which Rhode Island is a part
was at one time worn down to a gently rolling plain near sea-
level, but has since been uplifted and somewhat dissected by
stream action. As a result the topography is characterized by
low, rounded hills, buf is nowhere mountainous. Since the
uplift and stream dissection a slight depression has allowed
the sea to invade the lower portions of the river valleys, forming
the bays known as Narragansett Bay, Providence "river,"
Sakonnet " river," &c. Glaciation has disturbed the river
1 Block Island, over which the jurisdiction of the state extends,
lies 10 m. off the coast, and is not included within these limits.
RHODE ISLAND
249
systems, causing the formation of numerous lakes and of the
waterfalls which determined the situation of many of the
manufacturing cities of the state.
In the N.W. is Durfee Hill, which attains an elevation of 805 ft.,
and is the highest point within Rhode Island. The mean elevation
for the entire state is 200 ft. The coast-line, including the shores
of the bays and islands, is extensive; its western portion is only
slightly indented, but its eastern portion is deeply indented by
Narragansett Bay, a body of water varying in width from 3 to 12 m.,
and extending inland for about 28 m. The land surface E. of this
bay is very gently rolling, but to the W. it consists of a somewhat
RHODE ISLAND ]
Scale, 1:640,000
"ounty Boundaries
Railways
Longitude West 7 ijo 'of Greenwich Q
more rugged upland which slopes gradually southward. Over the
whole state there is a layer of drift deposited by the glaciers which
once covered this region. This glacial material is in the form of
a till or boulder clay, but in the lowlands, and especially along
Narragansett Bay, it is generally overlaid by stratified drift de-
posited by glacial streams. Within Narragansett Bay are the
numerous islands characteristic of an area which has suffered com-
paratively recent depression, the largest being Rhode Island (or
Aquidneck), Conanicut Island and Prudence Island. Of these the
most important is Rhode Island, 15 m. long and 3 m. wide, which has
given the state its name. Lying about 10 m. off the coast and S.
of the central part of the state is Block Island, a sandy tract 6 m.
long and from I to 4 m. wide, with a rolling surface.
The rivers of the state are short and of no great volume, but
factories. The Providence river is really an arm of Narragansett
Bay, into which flow the waters of the Pawtuxet and the Black-
stone rivers. The latter stream at Pawtucket has a fall of about
50 ft., and the Pawtuxet river also has a number of falls along
its course. Mount Hope Bay is a north-eastern arm of Narragan-
sett Bay, and is also the estuary of the Taunton river. The Sakon-
net river is a long bay separating Aquidneck or Rhode Island from
the mainland on the E. The Pawcatuck river is the largest stream
in the western half of the state, and alone the lower part of its
course it forms the boundary between Rhode Island and Con-
necticut.
Fauna and Flora. The fauna of the state does not differ
from that of southern Connecticut and eastern
Massachusetts. The marine fauna is of economic
importance. The woodland area of the state
has been estimated (census of 1900) at 400
sq. m., or about 37% of the land area, but the
trees are generally too small for timber. The
most common varieties of trees are the oak,
walnut and chestnut. There are a few stretches
of pine forest, and in the S. the swamps are
sometimes overgrown with cedar.
'Climate. Rhode Island has a more moderate
climate than that of the northern sections of
New England. There are no great extremes
of either heat or cold, and a number of the
towns and cities, especially Newport and Nar-
ragansett Pier, have become noted summer
resorts. Narragansett Pier has a mean annual
temperature of 49, a mean summer tempera-
ture (for June, July and August) of 68, and a
mean winter temperature (for December,
January and February) of 29. The mean
annual temperature at Providence is 50; the
mean for the summer, 72; and for the winter,
30; while the highest and lowest tempera-
tures ever recorded are respectively 102 and
-9. The mean annual rainfall is about 50 in.,
ranging from 47-4 in. at Narragansett Pier to
53-2 in. at Kingston.
Soils. The boulder clay or " hard pan " of
which most of the surface lands are composed,
forms a very indifferent support for vege-
tation, and consequently the state is not well
adapted for the growing of crops.
Agriculture. The acreage of improved farm
land in Rhode Island decreased from 356,487
in 1850 to 137,354 in I 9. but the value of
farm property (including land with improve-
ments, implements, machinery and live stock)
increased in the same period from $19,100,640
to $26,989,189. The number of farms remained
about the same 5385 in 1850 and 5498 in
1900; but the average area decreased from
102-9 acres to 82-9 acres. The value of farm
products increased from $3,670,135 in 1879 to
$6,333,864 in 1899. The average value of farms
increased from $3547 in 1850 to $4909 in 1900.
The number of persons engaged in agricultural
pursuits in 1880 was 10,986, and in 1900,
10,957-
The total acreage of cereals (barley, buck-
wheat, Indian corn, oats, rye and wheat) de-
creased from 19,575 acres in 1879 to 10,552
acres in 1899, and the total product of these
crops decreased from 801,111 bu. in 1849 to
350,110 bu. in 1899.
The total number of neat cattle on farms
decreased from 36,262 in 1850 to 30,696 in
1900, but the number of dairy cows increased
from 18,698 to 23,660.
Fisheries. Whaling was an established in-
dustry in Rhode Island as [early as 1723,
and in 1731 the colonial assembly provided
a bounty of five shillings a barrel for whale oil, and a penny a pound
for whalebone. About 1750 sperm candles were first manufactured.
In 1846 about 50 whaling vessels sailed from Rhode Island ports;
but by the close of the century the industry had become practically
extinct. In 1905 the number of persons employed in the general
fisheries industry was 2212; and the value of the eaten was
$1,546,658, the largest items being: lobsters, $64,358; squeteague
(weakfish), $86,478; scup, $138,030; and oysters (for market),
$874,232.
Minerals. Rhode Island's mineral wealth is relatively slight.
The total value l of all the mineral products of the state in 1907
was $937,384, and in 1908, $708,694, and of these totals granite
1 United States Geological Survey, Mineral Resources of (he
they flow swiftly and are useful in supplying "power for manu- > United States.
2 5
RHODE ISLAND
was valued in 1908 at $556,774. The value of the clay products,
lime and talc, decreased from $245,378 in 1907 to $112,815 in
1908. The mining of iron ore was begun about 1767 in the vicinity
of the present Cranston, and much of the metal was used in the
making of cannon during the War of Independence, but the supply
was soon exhausted. Near Tiverton and Cranston graphite has
been quarried.
Manufactures. Rhode Island is essentially a manufacturing
state; of the 191,923 persons in the state engaged in gainful
occupations in 1900, 101,162 (or 52.7%) were employed in
manufacturing and mechanical pursuits. By the middle of
the 1 7th century boat-building had become an established
industry, and large vessels were built at Newport. In 1777
the state offered a large premium for every pound of steel,
similar to German steel, made within its boundaries; and in
1789 a rolling and slitting mill was built near Providence.
Cotton was first imported to Providence from Spain in 1785;
a company to carry on cotton-spinning, formed at Providence
in 1786, established there in the following year a factory con-
taining a spinning jenny of 28 spindles (the first machine of
the kind to be used in the United States), and also a carding
machine and a spinning frame with which was manufactured
a kind of jean having a linen warp and a cotton filling. The
fly shuttle was also apparently first introduced at Providence
in 1788. The first calico printed in the United States was
made at East Greenwich about 1794. The Providence Associa-
tion of Mechanics and Manufacturers, incorporated in 1789,
organized industrial development. The prohibition of the
exportation from England of machinery, models or drawings
retarded mechanical improvement, but in 1790 an industrial
company was formed at Providence to carry on cotton spinning,
and in December of that year there was established at Paw-
tucket a factory equipped with Arkwright machines constructed
by Samuel Slater. This machinery was operated by water-
power, then first used in the United States for the spinning of
cotton thread; and from this may be dated the beginning of
the factory system in Rhode Island. These machines were soon
adapted to the spinning of wool, and in 1804 a woollen factory
was built at Peacedale, South Kingston. The first power-
loom used in the United States was invented about 1812, and
was set up at Peacedale, in 1814, for the manufacture of woollen
saddlegirths and other webbing. The first power-loom for
cotton manufacture was set up in North Providence in 1817.
Textile manufacturing by improved methods was hardly well
established in Rhode Island before 1825. The manufacture
of jewelry, which was established in Providence in 1784, was
greatly promoted ten years later by Nehemiah Dodge's in-
vention of the process of " gold-filling," still further improved
in 1846 by Thomas H. Lowe. The manufacture of silverware
was begun in Providence soon after the close of the War of
Independence.
Rhode Island's water powers have been its only natural
resources which have aided in the development of its manu-
factures, and its transportation facilities have always been
inadequate, because of shallow water at Providence and scanty
railway communication; but the state's manufacturing enter-
prises are of great importance.
In 1900 Rhode Island ranked 1 7th among the states in the value
of its manufactured products, but led all of the states in the value
per capita ($430). The total number of establishments in 1850
was 864; in 1890, 3377, and in 1900, 4189. In 1900 there were
1678 factories, and in 1905, 1617 factories. 1 The total capital in-
vested in manufacturing in 1850 was $12,935,676; in 1890,
$126,483,401, and in 1900, $183,784,587, of which $176,901,606
was in factories; in 1905 the capital invested in factories was
$215,901,375. The value of all manufactured products in 1850
was $22,117,688; in 1890, $142,500,625, and in 1900, $184,074,378,
of which $165,550,382 was the value of factory products; in 1905
the value of factory products was $202,109,583. The average
number of employes in 1850 was 20,967; in 1890, 81, ill; and in
1 The 1905 census of manufactures gives statistics only for estab-
lishments under the factory system, excluding the hand trades,
and gives factory statistics for 1905 and for 1900. The statistics
given above for 1900 in comparison with 1905 are for factory pro-
ducts.
1900, 98,813, of whom 88,197 were factory employes; in 1905
there were 97,318 factory employes.
Rhode Island ranked first in 1900 ($13,229,313) and in 1905
($14,431,756) among the states of the United States in the Value
of jewelry, which was fourth in the value of the state's manu-
factures ; second in worsted goods (1900, $33,341,329; 1905,
$44,477,596), which were first in value in the state's manufac-
tures; and third in dyeing and finishing textiles (1900, $8,484,878;
1905, $9,981,457), which ranked fifth among; the state's manu-
factures; in the value of cotton goods (second in rank in the state)
it fell from the fourth rank in 1900 ($24,056,175) to fifth rank in
1905 ($30,628,843), when the value of Rhode Island's product
was less than that of Georgia. Other important manufactures
were: combined textiles (not including flax, hemp and jute products)
in 1900, $77,998,396; in 1905, $103,096.311; foundry and machine
shop products in 1900, $13,269,086; in 1905, $16,338,512; woollen
goods in 1900, $5,330,550; in 1905, $8,163,167; rubber boots and
shoes in 1900, $8,034,417; electrical machinery, apparatus and
supplies in 1900, $5,113,292; in 1905, $5,435,474; silversmithing .
and silverware in 1900, $4,249,190; in 1905, $5,323,264; gold and
silver, reducing and refining (not from ore) in 1900, $3,484,454;
in 1905, $.4,260,698; cotton small wares in 1900, $2,379,500; in
1905, $3,944,607; hosiery and knit goods in 1900, $2,713,850;
in 1905, $3,344,655; silk and silk goods in 1900, $1,311,333;
in 1905, $2,555,986. In 1905, 1146 establishments reported
power, as against 1360 in 1900 a decrease of 15-7%, but the total
horsepower increased from 155,545 to 190,777, or 22-7%.
Transportation. Steam railway mileage in Rhode Island in-
creased from 68 m. in 1850 to 209 m. in 1900, and to 211 m. on
the 1st of January 1909 (the New York, New Haven & Hartford
being the only railway system of any importance in the state).
In 1910 a charter was granted to the Grand Trunk system. In
1902 the mileage of street and electric railways (most of them
interurban) operated in the state was 336-33 m. The state has a
natural water outlet in the Providence river and Narragansett
Bay, but there is lack of adequate dockage in Providence harbour,
and insufficient depth of water for ocean traffic. The ports of entry
are Providence (by far the largest, with imports valued at
$1,893,551, and exports valued at $12,517 in 1909), Newport and
Bristol.
Population. The total population of Rhode Island in 1880
was 276,531; in 1890, 345,506; in 1900, 428,556; and in 1910,
542,674. z The increase from 1880 to 1890 was 24-9%, from
1890 to 1900 24%, and from 1900 to 1910, 26-6%. Of
the total population in 1900, 285,278 were native whites,
134,519 were foreign-born, 9092 were negroes, 366 were Chinese,
35 were Indians and 13 were Japanese. Of the foreign-born,
35,501 were Irish, 31,533 were French-Canadians and 22,832
were English. Of the total population, 275,143 were of foreign
parentage, i.e. either one or both parents were foreign-born
and 81,232 were of Irish parentage, both on the father's and
mother's side, and, in the same sense, 49,427 were of French-
Canadian and 32,007 of English parentage. Rhode Island
in 1900 had the highest percentage of urban population of any
state in the Union, 91-6% of the total population living in
cities of 4000 or more inhabitants. From 1890 to 1900 the
urban population increased from 310,335 to 392,509 or 26-5%;
while the rural population (i.e. population outside of incor-
porated places), increased from 35,171 to 36,047 1-1% of
the total increase in population. The cities of the state, with
population in 1900,' are Providence, 175,597; Pawtucket,
39,231; Woonsocket, 28,204; Newport, 22,034; an d Central
Falls, 18,167. In 1906 there were in the state 264,712 com-
municants of various religious denominations, and of these
199,951 were Roman Catholics. Second in strength were the
Baptists, who founded the colony; in 1906 they numbered
19,878, of whom 14,304 were of the Northern Convention.
There were 15,443 Protestant Episcopalians, 9858 Congrega-
tionalists, 7892 Methodists. The Friends, whose influence
was so strong in the early history of Providence, numbered in
1906 only 648 in the whole state.
Administration. The state is governed under the con-
stitution of 1842, with amendments adopted in 1854, 1864,
1886, 1888, 1889, 1892, ^893, 1900, 1903, 1909. All native or
naturalized citizens of the United States residing, in Rhode
2 The populations in other census years were: (1790) 68,825;
(1800) 69,122; (1810) 76,931; (1820) 83,059; (1830) 97,199;
(1840) 108,830; (1850) 147,545; (1860) 174,620; (1870) 217,353.
3 In 1910 the populations of the cities were: Providence, 224,326;
Pawtucket, 51,622; Woonsocket, 38,125; Newport, 27,149; and
Central Falls, 22,754.
RHODE ISLAND
251
Island are citizens of the state. Under an act of 1724 the
suffrage was restricted to adult males who possessed a freehold
of the value of $134 (see History). So far as state and national
elections are concerned, the privilege was extended to native
non-freeholders by the constitution of 1842, to naturalized
foreigners who had served in the Civil War by an amendment
of the 7th of April 1886, and to all adult male citizens by the
amendment of the 4th of April 1888. A curious survival of
the old system exists in the provision that only those who pay
taxes on $134 worth of property may vote for members of city
councils or on propositions to levy taxes or to expend public
money. The working men are thus almost entirely excluded
from participating in the government of the large factory
towns.
Amendments to the constitution must be passed by both
houses of the General Assembly at two consecutive sessions,
and must then be ratified by three-fifths of the electors of the
state present and voting thereon in town and ward meetings.
Fifteen amendments have thus been added to the constitution
of 1842. An amendment of the 7th of April 1886 forbade
the manufacture and sale of intoxicating beverages, but it was
badly enforced and was repealed by a subsequent amendment
of the zoth of June 1889.
The powers of the governor are unusually small. Until 1909,
when a constitutional amendment was adopted, he had no power
of veto, and his very limited nominal powers of appointment and
removal are controlled by a rotten-borough Senate. The other
administrative officers are a secretary of state, an attorney-general,
an auditor, a treasurer, a commissioner of public schools, a railroad
commissioner, and a factory inspector, and various boards and
commissions, such as the board of education, the board of agri-
culture, the board of health, and the commissioners of inland
fisheries, commissioners of harbours and commissioners of pilots.
The legislative power is vested in the General Assembly, 1 which
consists of a Senate made up of the lieutenant-governor and of one
senator from each of the thirty-eight cities and townships in the
state, and a House of Representatives of one hundred members,
apportioned according to population, but with the proviso that each
town or city shall have at least one member and none shall have
more than one-fourth of the total (see History). Members of the
legislature and all state officials are elected annually in November.
A majority vote was formerly required, but since the adoption
of the tenth amendment (November 28, 1893) a plurality vote
has elected.
At the head of the judicial system is the supreme court (1747),
divided since 1893 into an appellate division and a common pleas
division, with final revisory and appellate jurisdiction upon all
questions of law and equity. Below this are the twelve district
courts, the town councils, probate courts in the larger towns, and
justices of the peace. The seven judges of the supreme court and
the district judges are elected by the General Assembly, the former
during good behaviour, the latter for terms of three years.
The town (or township) is the unit of local government, the
county being recognized only for judicial purposes and to a certain
extent in the appointment by central administrative boards. There
are five counties and thirty-eight towns. The municipal govern-
ments of Newport and Providence present interesting features, for
which see the separate articles on these cities.
Education. The public school system of Rhode Island was
established in 1800, abolished in 1803, and re-established in 1828.
At the head of it is a commissioner of education, appointed by the
governor and the Senate, and a board of education, composed of
the governor and the lieutenant-governor ex officio and six other
members elected by the General Assembly. Under an act of the
I2th of April 1883, as amended on the 4th of April 1902, education
is compulsory for children between the ages of seven and fifteen,
but the maximum limit is reduced to thirteen for children who are
employed at lawful labour. The total enrolment in the public
schools in 1905 was 71,425 and the total expenditure for public
school purposes was $1,987,751. A considerable proportion of the
Irish and the French Canadians send their children to the Roman
Catholic parochial schools. The chief institutions for higher educa-
1 Under the constitution of 1842 it was provided that there should
be two sessions of the General Assembly annually : one at Newport
in May, and the other in October to be held at South Kingstown
once in two years, and the intermediate years alternately at Bristol
and East Greenwich, an adjournment from the October session
being held annually at Providence. In 1854 this was amended:
one session was provided for to be held in Newport in May, an
adjournment being held annually at Providence. And in 1900
by another amendment Providence became the only meeting-place
of the General Assembly.
tion are Brown University (1764), the State School of Design
(1877), the State Normal School (reorganized 1898), and the Moses
Brown School (1819), all at Providence (q.v.), and the State College
of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts (1888) at Kingston, a land grant
college under the Morrill Acts of 1862 and 1890, the Hatch Act of
1887 and the Adams Act of 1906. This institution was founded
as an agricultural school in 1888 and became a college in 1892.
It has departments of agriculture, engineering and science, a
library of 15,000 volumes and an experiment station. There an-
state training-schools for teachers at Providence, Cranston, Bristol,
Barrington, Central Falls, Warwick and Pawtucket.
Charitable and Penal Institutions. A board of state charities
and corrections, established in 1869, supervises and controls all of
the penal, charitable and correctional institutions of the state at
large and also the local almshouses. There were in 1910 nine
members of the board, three from Providence county, one from
each of the other counties, and one from the state at large; five
were appointed by the governor with the consent of the Senate,
and four were elected by the Senate. A group of institutions
(under the control of the board) at Howard, in Cranston town-
ship, about 7 m. from Providence, including the Workhouse and
House of Correction, the Hospital for the Insane (1869), the Alms-
house, the State Prison and Providence County Jail, the Sock-
anosset School for Boys, and the Oaklawn School for Girls, are
supported entirely or in part by the state. In addition to the
institutions under the board of charities and corrections there are
two under the board of education, and supported wholly or in part
by the state, the School for the Deaf (1877) and the Home and
School for Dependent and Neglected Children (1885) at Providence.
The Soldiers' Home (1891) at Bristol, the Butler Hospital for the
Insane (1847) at Providence, and a Sanitarium (1905) at Wallum
Lake, in the township of Burrillville, also receive state aid.
Finance. The chief sources of revenue in the order named are
the general property tax, the tax on savings banks, the tax on
insurance companies, and liquor licences. There is no corporation
tax. The total receipts from all sources for the year 1909 were
$2,317,512, the expenditures $2,345,359. The public debt, which
originated in 1752, amounted to 70,000 sterling in 1764, to 4000
in 1775 and to $698,000 in 1783. Part of the Revolutionary debt
was paid in depreciated paper, part was assumed by the United
States government, part was paid at various rates of depreciation
between 1803 and 1820, and the remainder, $43,971, was repudiated
in 1847. Other obligations had accumulated in the meantime,
however, so that the debt in 1848 amounted to $187,000. This
was gradually reduced until the Civil War, when it was increased
to $3,889,000 by 1865. A sinking fund commission was established
in 1875, and the entire sum was extinguished by the 1st of August
1894. The issue of bonds for the construction of the new capitol
building and other purposes has led, however, to a new debt, which
at the beginning of 1910 amounted to $4,800,000. There was at
the same time a sinking fund of $654,999. Before the adoption
of the Federal constitution Rhode Island was badly afflicted with
the paper money heresy. 5000 were printed in 1710, and from
that time until 1751 there were nine separate issues. These were
gradually retired, however, through the efforts of the mercantile
classes, aided by the parliamentary statutes of 1751 and 1763, and
by about 1763 the finances were again placed on a sound money
basis. The influx of Continental currency gave some trouble during
the War of Independence, but there were no further local issues
until I7$6, when 100,000 were issued.
The first banks organized in the state were the Providence Bank
in 1791, the Bank of Rhode Island at Newport in 1795, and the
Washington Bank at Westerly in 1800. Forty-four charters had
been issued in 1826 and sixty in 1837. Partly through restrictive
local legislation and partly as a result of the operation of the Suffolk
system of redemption in Boston, these institutions were always
conservative. During practically the entire period before the
Civil War their note issues constituted a smaller proportion of the
capital stock than those of any other state. By an act of 1858
which is still in force, annual reports must be presented to the state
auditor. On the establishment of the national banking system,
1863-65, nearly all of the banks took out national charters.
Since 1865 the most notable features have been the rise and de-
cadence of the national banks and the rise of the trust companies.
During the decade from 1890 to 1900 the deposits in the national
banks increased only 5%, from $16,700,000 to $17,500,000; those
of the trust companies increased 330 %, from $12,000,000 to more
than $40,000,000. During the period from 1890 to 1901 twenty
national banks retired from business, and the total capital stock was re-
duced from about twenty millions to about thirteen millions of dollars.
History. Rhode Island was founded by refugees from
Massachusetts, who went there in search of religious and
political freedom. The first settlements were made at Pro-
vidence by Roger Williams (q.r.) in June 1636, and at
Portsmouth on the island of Aquidneck by the Antinomians,
William Coddington (1601-1678), John Clarke (1609-1676),
and Anne Hutchinson (1591-1643), in March-April 1638.
252
RHODE ISLAND
Becoming dissatisfied with conditions at Portsmouth, Codd-
ington and Clarke removed a few miles farther south on
the 2Qth of April 1639, and established a settlement at New-
port. In a similar manner Warwick was founded in January
1643 by seceders from Providence under the lead of Samuel
Gorton. The union of Portsmouth and Newport, March 12,
1640, was followed by the consolidation of all four settlements,
May 19, 1647, under a patent of March 14, 1644, issued by
the parliamentary board of commissioners for plantations.
The particularistic sentiment was still very strong, however,
and in 1651 the union split into two confederations, one in-
cluding the mainland towns, Providence and Warwick; the
other, the island towns, Portsmouth and Newport. A re-
union was effected in 1654 through the influence of Roger
Williams, and a charter was secured from Charles II. on the
8th of July 1663. In the patent of 1644 the entire colony
was called Providence Plantations. On the i3th of March
1644 the Portsmouth-Newport General Court changed the
name of the island from Aquidneck to the Isle of Rhodes or
Rhode Island. The official designation for the province as
a whole in the charter of 1663, therefore, was Rhode Island
and Providence Plantations. The charter was suspended
at the beginning of the Andros regime in 1686, but was re-
stored again after the Revolution of 1689. The closing years
of the 1 7th century were characterized by a gradual transition
from the agricultural to the commercial stage of civilization.
Newport became the centre of an extensive business in piracy,
privateering, smuggling, and legitimate trade. Cargoes of
rum, manufactured from West Indian sugar and molasses,
were exported to Africa and exchanged for slaves to be sold
in the southern colonies and the West Indies. The passage
of the Sugar Act of April 5, 1764, and the steps taken by the
British government to enforce the Navigation Acts seriously
affected this trade. The people of Rhode Island played a
prominent part in the struggle for independence. On the
9th of June 1772 the " Gaspee," a British vessel which had
been sent over to enforce the acts of trade and navigation,
ran aground in Narragansett Bay and was burned to the
water's edge by a party of men from Providence. Nathanael
Greene, a native of Rhode Island, was made commander of
the Rhode Island militia in May 1775, and a major-general
in the Continental army in August 1776, and in the latter
capacity he served with ability until the close of the war.
In the year 1776, General Howe sent a detachment of his
army under General Henry Clinton to seize Newport as a
base of operations for reducing New England, and the city
was occupied by the British on the 8th of December 1776.
To capture this British garrison, later increased to 6000 men,
the co-operation of about 10,000 men (mostly New England
militia) under Major-General John Sullivan, and a French
fleet carrying 4000 French regulars under Count D'Estaing,
was planned in the summer of 1778. On the gth of August
Sullivan crossed to the north end of the island of Rhode Island,
but as the Frenchmen were disembarking on Conanicut Island,
Lord Howe arrived with the British fleet. Count D'Estaing
hastily re-embarked his troops and sailed out to meet Howe.
For two days the hostile fleets manoeuvred for positions,
and then they were dispersed by a severe storm. On the
zoth, D'Estaing returned to the port with his fleet badly
crippled, and only to announce that he should sail to Boston
to refit. The American officers protested but in vain, and
on the z8th they decided to retreat to the north end of the
island. The British pursued, and the next day there was
a severe engagement in which the Americans were driven
from Turkey and Quaker Hills. On the 3Oth the Americans,
learning of the approach of Lord Howe's fleet with 5000
troops under Clinton, decided to abandon the island. The
British evacuated Newport the 2$th cf October 1779, and the
French fleet was stationed here from Ju v 1780 to 1781.
The influence of Roger Williams's iceas and the peculiar
conditions under which the first settlements v",:3 established
have tended to differentiate the history of Rhoc . Island from
that of the other New England states. In 1640 the General
Court of Massachusetts declared that the representatives of
Aquidneck were " not to be capitulated withal either for them-
selves or the people of the isle where they inhabit," and in
1644 and again in 1648 the application of the Narragansett
settlers for admission to the New England Confederacy was
refused except on condition that they should pass under the
jurisdiction of either Massachusetts or Plymouth. Rhode
Island was one of the first communities in the world to advo-
cate religious freedom and political individualism.
The individualistic principle was shown in the jealousy of
the towns toward the central government, and in the establish-
ment of legislative supremacy over the executive and the
judiciary. The legislature migrated from county to county up
to 1854, and there continued to be two centres of govern-
ment until 1900. The dependence of the judiciary upon the
legislature was maintained until .1860, and the governor is still
shorn of certain powers which are customary in other states
(see Administration). In the main the rural towns have
adhered most strongly to the old individualistic sentiment,
whereas the cities have kept more in touch with the modern
nationalistic trend of thought. This was shown, for example,
in the struggle for the ratification of the Federal constitution.
Under the Articles of Confederation it was principally Rhode
Island that defeated the proposal to authorize Congress to
levy an impost duty of 5% mainly as a means of meeting
the debts of the Central government. When the constitu-
tional convention met in Philadelphia in 1787 to frame a con-
stitution for a stronger Federal government, the agriculturists
of Rhode Island were afraid that the movement would result
in an interference with their local privileges, and especially
with their favourite device of issuing paper money, and the
state refused to send delegates, and not until the Senate had
passed a bill for severing commercial relations between the
United States and Rhode Island, did the latter, in May 1790,
ratify the Federal constitution, and then only by a majority
of two votes. Rhode Island, like the rest of New England,
was opposed to the War of 1812 and the Mexican War.
During the Civil War it sent 23,457 men into the service
of the Union.
The economic transition of the later i7th century from the
agricultural to the commercial regime was followed by a further
transition to the manufacturing regime during the closing years
of the i8th and the early years of the igth centuries. Com-
mercial interests have been almost entirely destroyed, partly
because of the abolition of the slave trade and partly because
of the embargo and the war of 1812, but mainly because the
cities of the state are unfavourably situated to be the termini of
interstate railway systems. Providence, owing to its superior
water-power facilities, has therefore become one of the leading
manufacturing centres of New England, whereas Newport is
now known only as a fashionable summer resort. The move-
ment as a whole was of exactly the same character as the
industrial revolution in England, and it led to the same result,
a struggle for electoral reform. The system of apportionment
and the franchise qualifications were worked out to meet the
needs of a group of agricultural communities. The charter of
1663 and the franchise law of 1724 established substantial
equality of representation among the towns, and restricted the
suffrage to freeholders. In the course of time, therefore, the
small towns came to be better represented proportionally than
the large cities, and the growing class of artisans was entirely
disfranchised. The city of Providence issued a call for a
constitutional convention in 1796, and similar efforts were made
in 1799, 1817, 1821, 1822 and 1824, but nothing was accom-
plished. About 1840 Thomas W. Dorr (1805-1854), a young
lawyer of Providence, began a systematic campaign for an
extension of the suffrage, a reapportionment of representation
and the establishment of an independent judiciary. The
struggle, which lasted for several years, and in fact is not yet
entirely over, was one between the cities and the country,
between the manufacturers and the agriculturists. It was
RHODE ISLAND
253
also complicated by racial and religious prejudices, a large
proportion of the factory operatives being foreigners and Roman
Catholics, and most of the country people native Protestants.
The former were in general associated with the Democratic
party, the latter with the Whigs. A convention summoned
without any authority from the legislature, and elected on the
principle of universal manhood suffrage, met at Providence,
October 4-November 18, 1841, and drafted a frame of govern-
ment which came to be known as the People's Constitution. A
second convention met on the call of the legislature in February
1842 and adopted the so-called Freeman's Constitution. On
being submitted to popular vote the former was ratified by a
large majority (December 27, 28, 29, 1841), while the latter
was rejected by a majority of 676 (March 21, 22, 23, 1842).
At an election held on the i8th of April 1842 Dorr was chosen
governor. The supreme court of the state and the president
of the United States (Tyler) both refused to recognize the
validity of the People's Constitution, whereupon Dorr and a few
of his more zealous adherents decided to organize a rebellion.
They were easily repulsed in an attack upon the Providence
town arsenal, and Dorr, after a brief period of exile in Connecti-
cut, was convicted of high treason on the 26th of April 1844,
and was sentenced to imprisonment for life. He was released by
act of the Assembly in June 1845, and was restored to the full
rights of citizenship in May 1851. The Freeman's Constitution,
modified by another convention, which held its session at New-
port and East Greenwich, September i2-November 5, 1842,
was finally adopted by popular vote on November 21-23, 1842.
Only a partial concession was made to the demand for reform.
The suffrage was extended to non-freeholders, but only to those
of American birth. Representation in the lower house of the
legislature was apportioned according to population, but only
on condition that no city or town should ever elect more than
one-sixth of the total number of members. Each city and town
without regard to population was to elect one senator. In
order to perpetuate this system the method of amending the
constitution was made extremely difficult (see Administration).
Since the adoption of the constitution the conditions have become
worse owing to the extensive immigration of foreigners into the
large cities and the gradual decay of the rural towns. From
about 1845 to 1880 most of the immigrants were Irish, but
since 1880 the French-Canadians have constituted the chief
element. In 1900 over 30% of the population of the state
was foreign-born. A constitutional amendment of 1888 extended
to them the right of suffrage in state and national elections, and
an amendment of 1909 partially remedied the evils in the system
of apportionment. When the last Federal census was taken in
1910, Providence, Pawtucket, Woonsocket and Newport, with
a combined population of 341,222, had four senators, whereas
the remainder of the state, with a population of 201,452, had
thirty-four. Providence, with a population of 224,326 out of a
total of 542,674, had one member in a Senate of thirty-eight and
twenty-five members in a House of Representatives of one
hundred. The Republican machine finds it easy with the
support of the millionaire summer colony at Newport and the
street railway corporations to corrupt the French-Canadians and
a portion of the native element in the rural towns and maintain
absolute control of the state government. The majority has
occasionally protested by electing a Democratic governor, but
he has not been able to accomplish a great deal, because until
1909 he did not have veto power nor effectual means to induce
the Senate to ratify his appointments. Bonds were issued on
the 8th of November 1892 for the construction of a new state
house at Providence, the corner stone was laid in October 1896,
and the building was thrown open to use on the ist of January
1901. A constitutional amendment of 1900 dispensed with
the session of the legislature at Newport.
In presidential campaigns the state has been Federalist,
1792-1800; Democratic Republican, 1804; Federalist, 1808-
1812; Democratic Republican, 1816-1820; Adams (Republican),
1824-1828; National Republican, 1832; Democratic, 1836;
Whig, 1840-1848; Democratic, 1852; and Republican since 1856.
GOVERNORS OF RHODE ISLAND
Portsmouth
William Coddington . . . Judge, 1638-1639
William Hutchinson . . 1639-1640
Newport
William Coddington . . . Judge, 1639-1640
Portsmouth and Newport
William Coddington . . Governor, 1640-1647
PRESIDENTS UNDER THE PATENT OF 1644
John Coggeshall
Jeremy Clarke ......
John Smith .
Nicholas Easton ...
Providence and Warwick '
Samuel Gorton . President,
John Smith . . M
Gregory Dexter ...
Portsmouth and Newport
John Sanford . . President, 1653-1654
PRESIDENTS UNDER THE PATENT OF 1644
Nicholas Easton . 1654
Roger Williams
Benedict Arnold
William Brenton
Benedict Arnold
1647-1648
1648-1649
1649-1650
1650-1651
1651-1652
1652-1653
1653-1654
GOVERNORS UNDER THE CHARTER OF
Benedict Arnold
William Brenton
Benedict Arnold
Nicholas Easton
William Coddington .
Walter Clarke .
Benedict Arnold
William Coddington .
John Cranston .
Peleg Sanford
William Coddington, 2nd
Henry Bull
Walter Clarke .
John Coggeshall (acting)
Henry Bull
John Easton . . '
Caleb Carr
Walter Clarke .
Samuel Cranston
Joseph Jencks
William Wanton
John Wanton
Richard Ward .
. William Greene .
Gideon Wanton .
William Greene .
Gideon Wanton .
William Greene '
Stephen Hopkins
William Greene .
Stephen Hopkins
Samuel Ward
Stephen Hopkins
Samuel Ward
Stephen Hopkins
Josias Lyndon
Joseph Wanton .
Nicholas Cooke .
William Greene, 2nd .
John Collins
Arthur Fenner, a Federalist and Democratic Re-
publican ... . .
Paul Mumford (acting), Democratic Republican
Henry Smith,
Isaac Wilbour,
James Fenner, Democratic Republican .
William Jones, Federalist ....
Nehemiah R. Knight, Democratic Republican
William C. Gibbs,
James Fenner 4 (Democratic Republican and
National Republican) ....
1654-1657
1657-1660
1660-1662
1662-1663
1663
1663-1666
1666-1669
1669-1672
1672-1674
1674-1676
1676-1677
1677-1678
.1678
1678-1680
1680-1683
1683-1685
1685-1686
1686*
1689-1690
1690
1690-1695
1695
1696-1698
1698-1727
I727-I/32
'732-1/33
1734-1740
1740-1743
1743-1745
1745-1746
1746-1747
1747-1748
1748-1755
I755-I/57
I757-I/58
'758-1762
1762-1763
1763-1765
1765-1767
1767-1768
1768-1769
1760-1775
i775-'778
1778-1786
1786-1790
1790-1805
1805
1805-1806
1806-1807
1807-1811
1811-1817
1817-1821
1821-1824
1824-1831
1 A separation occurred in 1651 between the towns of Providence
and Warwick on one side and Portsmouth and Newport on the
other. They were reunited in 1654.
2 The charter was suspended from 1686 to 1689, during which
time the province was under the supervision of Sir Edmund Andros.
* Arthur Fenner became a Democratic Republican about 1800.
4 James Fenner was a Democratic Republican to 1826, a National
Republican (Adams) to 1829 and a Democrat (Jackson) to 1831.
254
RHODES, C. J.
Lemuel H. Arnold, National Republican . 1831-1833
John B. Francis, Democrat arid Anti-Masonic 1833-1838
William Sprague, Whig .... 1838-1839
Samuel W. King, Whig . 1839-1843
UNDER THE CONSTITUTION OF 1842
James Fenner, Whig 1843-1845
Charles Jackson, 1 Democrat . . . 1845-1846
Byron Diman, Whig ..... 1846-1847
Elisha Harris, Whig 1847-1849
Henry B. Anthony, Whig .... 1849-1851
Philip Allen, Democrat .... 1851-1853
Francis M. Dimond (acting), Democrat . 1853-1854
William W. Hoppin, Whig and American . 1854-1857
Elisha Dyer, Republican . ... . 1857-1859
Thomas G. Turner, Republican . . . 1859-1860
William Sprague, 2 Unionist .... 1860-1863
William C. Cozzens (acting), Unionist . . 1863
James Y. Smith, Republican ', . . 1863-1866
Ambrose E. Burnside, . . . . 1866-1869
Seth Padelford, , 1869-1873
Henry Howard, 1873-1875
Henry Lippitt, 1875-1877
Charles C. Van Zandt, .... 1877-1880
Alfred H. Littlefield, 1880-1883
Augustus O. Brown, ,,.... 1883-1885
George P. Wetmore, . . . . 1885-1887
John W. Davis, Democrat, .... 1887-1888
' Royal C. Taft, Republican, . . . . . 1888-1889
Herbert W. Ladd, . . . . 1889-1890
John W. Davis, Democrat .... 1890-1891
Herbert W. Ladd, Republican . . . 1891-1892
D. Russell Brown, 1892-1895
Charles W. Lippitt 1895-1897
Elisha Dyer, ' . 1897-1900
William Gregory, , 1900-1901
Charles Dean Kimball, Republican . . 1901-1903
L. F. C. Garvin, Democrat .... 1903-1905
George H. Utter, Republican . . . 1905-1907
James H. Higgins, Democrat . . . I9O7-.I9O9
Aram J. Pothier, Republican . . . 1909-
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For general physical description see C. T.
Jackson, Report on the Geological and Agricultural Survey of Rhode
Island (Providence, 1840); N. S. Shaler, J. B. Woodworth, and A. F.
Foerste, Geology of the Narragansett Basin (Washington, 1899);
and T. Nelson Dale, The Chief Commercial Granites of Massachusetts,
lief (
Isle
New Hampshire and Rhode Island (Ibid., 1908), being Bulletin 354
of the U.S. Geological Survey. Administration: The charters
of 1644 and 1663 and the constitution of 1842 are all given in F. N.
Thorpe, Constitutions, Charters, and Organic Laws (Washington,
1909), vol. vi. See also the annual reports of the treasurer, the
auditor, the commissioner of public schools, the board of education,
and the board of state charities and corrections; W. H. Tolman,
History of Higher Education in Rhode Island (Washington, 1894);
Henry Phillips, Jr., Historical Sketches of the Paper Currency of the
American Colonies (2 vols., Roxbury, Mass., 1865-1866); Thomas
Durfee, Gleanings from the Judicial History of Rhode Island (Provi-
dence, 1883); and the works of Field, Richman and Mowry (see
History, Bibliography).
History. For many years the standard authority on the period
before the ratification of the constitution was S. G. Arnold, History
of Rhode Island, 1636-1790 (2 vols., New York, 1859-60, 4th ed.,
Providence, 1894). His work has, however, been partially super-
seded by T. B. Richman, Rhode Island: Its Making and Meaning,
1636-1683 (2 vols., 1902), and Rhode Island: A Study in Separatism
(Boston and New York, 1905). Edward Field (Editor), State of
Rhode Island and Providence Plantation at the end of the Century:
A History (3 vols., Boston, 1902), is valuable for the more recent
history of the state. See also Adelos Gorton, The Life and Times
of Samuel Gorton (Philadelphia, 1908); W. B. Weeden, Early
Rhode Island: A Social History of the People (New York, 1910);
F. G. Bates, Rhode Island and the Formation of the Union (New
York, 1898); A. M. Mowry, The Dorr War; or the Constitutional
Struggle in Rhode Island (Providence, 1901); Records of the Colony
of Rhode Island and Providence Plantation, 1636-1792 (10 vols.,
Providence, 1856-65); Rhode Island Historical Society, Collec-
tions (10 vols., to be continued, Providence, 1827-1902); Proceed-
ings and Publications, 23 numbers (Providence, 1872-1902, to be
continued). The Quarterly (8 vols., 1892-1901, discontinued);
Rhode Island Historical Tracts, Series I., 20 vols. (Providence,
1877-1884), Series II., 5 vols. (Providence, 1880-96). For
general bibliographies see J. R. Bartlett, Bibliography of Rhode
Island (Providence, 1864); C. R. Brigham, in Field, III., pp. 651-
81 ; and Richman, in A Study in Separatism, pp. 353-85.
1 Jackson was a Liberation Whig favouring the liberation of
Dorr from prison but he was elected on the Democratic ticket.
2 Sprague was elected over the radical Republican candidate
through a coalition of Democrats and conservative Republicans.
RHODES, CECIL JOHN (1833-1902), British colonial and
Imperial statesman, was born on the $th of July 1853, at
Bishop Stortford, in Hertfordshire. His father was a clergyman,
but he claimed descent from yeoman stock. Cecil John Rhodes
was the fifth son in a large family of sons and daughters. At
the time of his birth his father held the living of Bishop Stort-
ford. The boy was educated at Bishop Stortford grammar
school with the intention of preparing for the Church; but at
the age of sixteen his health broke down, and in the latter part
of 1870 he was sent to join an elder brother, then engaged in
farming in Natal.. In that year diamonds were discovered in
the Kimberley fields. By the end of 1871 Mr Rhodes and
his brother were among the successful diggers. The dry air
of the interior restored Mr Rhodes's health, and before he was
nineteen he found himself financially independent, physically
strong and free to devote his life to any object which commended
itself to his choice.
Rhodes has left behind him an interesting record of the
manner in which he was affected by the situation. He deter-
mined to return to England, and to complete his education by
reading for a degree at Oxford; but before doing so, he spent
eight months in a solitary journey through the then little
known parts of the country lying to the north of the Orange
and Vaal rivers. He went through Bechuanaland to Mafeking,
thence to Pretoria, Murchison, Middelburg and back through
the Transvaal to Kimberley. The journey, made in an ox-
wagon at a rate of progression of some 15 to 20 miles a day,
represented a walking tour of eight months through the vast
spaces of rolling veld which at that time filled those regions of
Southern Africa. He saw one of the healthiest countries in the
world barely occupied. He knew the agricultural possibilities
of Natal. He knew its mineral wealth. The effect of the
combined influences on his mind, in the circumstances in which
he found himself, was profound. The idea took passionate
possession of him that the fine country through which he moved
ought to be secured for occupation by the British race, and that
no power but Great Britain should be allowed to dominate in
the administration of South Africa. When he brought his
self-imposed pilgrimage to an end, he had found an object to
which he proposed to devote his life. It was nothing less than
the governance of the world by the British race. A will exists
written in Mr Rhodes's own handwriting a couple of years
later, when he was still only twenty-two, in which he states his
reasons for accepting the aggrandizement and service of the
British empire as his highest ideal of practical achievement.
It ends with a single bequest of everything of which he might
die possessed, for the furtherance of this great purpose. Five-
and-twenty years later his final will carried out, with some
difference of detail, the same intention.
The share which he allotted to himself in the general scheme
was the extension of the area of British settlement in Africa,
but he did not attempt to address himself immediately to public
work. He returned, in accordance with his first resolve, to
Oxford, where he matriculated at Oriel. In 1873 his health
again failed, and he was sent back to South Africa under what
was practically a death sentence. Years afterwards he saw the
entry of his own case in the diary of the eminent physician
whom he consulted, with a note, " Not six months to live."
South Africa again restored him to health. Three years later
he was back at Oxford, and from 1876 to 1878 he kept his terms.
During this period he spent the Long Vacation each year in
South Africa, where his large financial interests were daily
increasing in importance. He was a member of the Cape
ministry when, after a further lapse of years, he kept his last
term and took his degree. He did not read hard at Oxford,
and was more than once remonstrated with in the earlier terms
for non-attendance at lectures. But he passed his examina-
tions; and though he was never a student in the university
sense of the term, he was to the end of his life a keen devourer
of books. He kept always a special liking for certain classic
authors. Aristotle was the guide whom as a lad he followed
in seeking the " highest object " on which to exercise the
RHODES, C. J.
" highest activity of the soul." Marcus Aurelius was his
constant companion. There exists at Grote Schuur a copy of
the Meditations deeply scored with Mr Rhodes's marks.
During this Oxford time, and on to 1881, Mr Rhodes was
occupied with the amalgamation of the larger number of the
diamond mines of Kimberley with the De Beers Company, an
operation which established his position as a practical financier
and gave him an important connexion and following in the
business world. To many admirers who shared his ideas on
public questions his connexion with the financial world and his
practical success were a stumbling-block. It was often wished
for him that he had " kept himself clear of all that." But this
was not his own view. His ideals were political and practical.
To him the making of money was a necessary preliminary to
their realization, and he was proud of his practical ability in
this direction. He was personally a man of most simple tastes.
His immense fortune was spent in the execution of his ideals,
and it has been justly said of him that he taught the world a
new chapter of the romance of wealth.
In 1881 Mr Rhodes entered public life as a member of the
Cape assembly. It was the year of the Majuba settlement.
South Africa was convulsed with questions which had arisen
between the British and the Dutch, and leaders of Dutch
opinion at the Cape ventured to speak openly of the formation
of a United States of South Africa under its own flag. The
British party needed a rallying-ground, and Mr Rhodes took
his stand on a policy of local union combined with the consolida-
tion and expansion of Imperial interests. He offered to Dutch
and British alike the ideal of a South African Federation
governing itself within the empire, and extending, by its gradual
absorption of native territories, the range of Imperial administra-
tion. Local self-government was, in his opinion, the only endur-
ing basis on which the unity of the empire could be built, and
throughout his life he was as keen a defender of local rights as
he was of Imperial unity. There was a period somewhat later
in his career when this attitude on his part gave rise to a good
deal of misapprehension, and his advocacy of the elimination of
direct Imperial interference in local affairs caused him to be
viewed in certain quarters with suspicion as a Separatist and
Independent. Those who were inclined to take this view were
greatly strengthened in their suspicions by the fact that at
a critical moment in the struggle for Home Rule in Ireland
Mr Rhodes contributed 10,000 to the funds of the Separatist
party. The subsequent publication of his correspondence on
the subject with Mr Parnell, who was at that time leading the
Home Rule party, demonstrated, however, the essential fact
that, whatever might have been the secret intentions of the
extreme Irish Home Rulers, Mr Rhodes's contribution was made
strictly subject to the retention of the Irish members at West-
minster. He remained of the opinion that the Home Rule
movement, wisely treated, would have had a consolidating and
not a disruptive effect upon the organization of the empire.
In South Africa the influence which he acquired over the
local independents and over the Dutch vote was subsequently
an important factor in enabling him to carry out the scheme
of northern expansion which he had at heart, and which he had
fully developed in his own mind at Oxford in 1878. In 1881
the Bechuana territory was a sort of no man's land through
which ran the trade routes to the north. It was evident that
any power which commanded the trade routes would command
the unknown northern territory beyond. The Pretoria Con-
vention of 1 88 1 limited the westward extension of the Transvaal
to a line east of the trade routes. Nevertheless, the reconstituted
republic showed itself anxious to encroach by irregular overflow
into native territories, and Mr Rhodes feared to see the extension
of the British colonies permanently blocked by Dutch occupation.
One of his first acts as a member of the Cape assembly was to
urge the appointment of a delimitation commission. He served
in person on the commission, and obtained from the chief
Mankoroane, who claimed about half of Bechuanaland, a formal
cession of his territories to the British government of the Cape.
The Cape government refused to accept the offer. In February
255
1884 a second convention signed in London again denned the
western frontier of the Transvaal, Bechuanaland being left
outside the republic. With the consent of Great Britain,
Germany had occupied, almost at the same time, the territory
on the Atlantic coast now known as German South-West Africa.
In August 1884 Mr Rhodes was appointed resident deputy
commissioner in Bechuanaland, where, notwithstanding the
conventions to the contrary, Boers had ousted the natives from
considerable areas and set up the so-called republics of Goshen
and Stellaland. An old Dutchman who knew the value of the
position said privately to Mr Rhodes, " This is the key of South
Africa." The question at issue was whether Great Britain or
the Transvaal was to hold the key. It was a question about
which at that time the British public knew nothing and cared
nothing. Mr Rhodes made it his business to enlighten them.
President Kruger, speaking for the government of the Transvaal,
professed to regard the Dutch commandoes as freebooters, and
to be unable to control them. It devolved upon Great Britain
to oblige them to evacuate the territory. ^Largely as the result
of Mr Rhodes's exertions the necessary step was taken. The
Warren expedition of 1884-85 was sent out. In the presence of
British' troops upon the frontier President Kruger recovered
his controlling power over the Transvaal burghers, and without
any fighting the commandoes were withdrawn. Thereupon
southern Bechuanaland was declared to be British territory,
while a British protectorate was declared over the northern
regions up to the 22nd parallel (September 1885).
It was the first round in the long duel fought on the field
of South Africa between Mr Rhodes, as the representative of
British interests, and President Kruger, as the head of the
militant Dutch party. The score on this occasion was to Mr
Rhodes, and the entrance to the interior was secured. But the
22nd parallel was far short of the limits to which Mr Rhodes
hoped to see British influence extend, and he feared lest Germany
and the Transvaal might yet join hands in the native territory
beyond, and bar his farther progress Inwards the north. The
discovery of gold or 'Is. V\ it watersrand in 1886, by adding to
the wealth and Importance of the Transvaal, gave substance
to this fear.
The territory to the north of the 22nd parallel was at that
time under the domination of Lobengula, chief of the Matabele,
a native potentate celebrated alike for his ability and for
the despotic character of his rule. There were rumours of
Dutch and German emissaries at the kraal of Lobengula,
engaged in persuading that chief to cede certain portions of
his territory. Portugal also was putting forward shadowy
claims to the country. It was in these circumstances that
Mr Rhodes conceived the idea of forming a British Chartered
Company, which should occupy the territory for trading and
mining purposes as far as the Zambezi, and bring the whole
under the protection of Great Britain. The idea took shape
in 1887, in which year Mr Rhodes's first emissaries were sent
to Lobengula. The charter of the British South Africa Company
was granted in October 1889. Between the two dates hi*
conception of the possibilities to be achieved by the Company
had expanded. Mr Rhodes no longer limited the sphere of his
operations to the Zambezi, but, crossing the river at the back
of the Portuguese settlements at its mouth, he obtained per-
mission to extend the territories of the Chartered Company to
the southern end of Lake Tanganyika, including within the
sphere of its operations the British settlements already made
in Nyasaland. He hoped to go farther still, and to create a
connected chain of British possessions through the continent
which nrght eventually justify the description," Africa British
from the Cape to Cairo." The treaty negotiated between
Great Britain and Germany in 1890 extended the German sphere
of influence from the East Coast to the frontier of the Congo
Free State, and defeated this hope. But Mr Rhodes did not
wholly renounce the idea. In 1892, when the question of the
retention or abandonment of Uganda hung in the balance at
home, he threw all the weight of his influence into the scale of
retention, and undertook at his own personal expense to connect
'256
RHODES, C. J.
that territory by telegraph with British possessions in the south.
In the following year, 1893, it was found inevitable to fight the
Matabele, and a war, prosecuted with a success that is perhaps
unique of its kind, placed the country entirely in British hands.
The territory thus added to the British empire covered an
extent of 450,000 square miles, of which large portions consist
of healthy uplands suitable for white colonization. The pioneer
party who constructed the first road and founded the first
British stations in the country received their orders to cross
the frontier in the end of 1889. By the end of 1899, before the
outbreak of the South African War, though the country had
passed through the trial of a war, two native rebellions, and the
scourge of rinderpest, it had become, under the name of Rhodesia,
a well-settled province of the British empire, with a white popula-
tion of some 12,000 to 13,000 persons.
The six years which followed the granting of the charter may
be regarded as the most successful of a singularly successful
life. In 1890, not many months after the granting of the charter,
Mr Rhodes accepted the position of prime minister of the Cape.
He was maintained in power very largely by the Dutch vote,
which he spared no pains to conciliate; and having the confidence
of both political sections of the colony, he found himself practically
in a position to play the part of benevolent despot in South
Africa. He used the position well so far as the public was
concerned. While his scheme of northern expansion was making
the rapid progress which has been indicated, he did much to
elevate and to enlarge the field of local politics. He frankly
declared and worked for the policy of uniting British and Dutch
interests in South Africa; he took a keen interest in local educa-
tion. He also during this period carried through some important
reforms in native policy. He had the courage to restrict the
franchise, introducing an educational test and limiting the exercise
of voting power to men enjoying an income equal to a labourer's
wage thus abolishing, without making any distinction of colour,
the abuses of what was known as the " blanket " vote.
But his native policy was far from being one of simple re-
striction. He liked the natives; he employed them by thousands
in the mining industry, he kept native servants habitually about
his person he seemed to understand their peculiarities and was
singularly successful in dealing with them. The first canon of
his native policy was that liquor should be kept from them;
the second, that they should be encouraged to labour, and
guaranteed the full possession of their earnings; the third, that
they should be educated in the practical arts of peace. He
appreciated the full importance of raising their territorial con-
dition from one of tribal to individual tenure; and while he
protested against the absurdity of permitting the uncivilized
Kaffir to vote on questions of highly civilized white policy,
he believed in applying to the native for his own native affairs
the principle of self-government. Of these views some received
practical embodiment in the much-disputed act known as the
Glen Grey Act of 1894. In this connexion it may also be noted
that he was one of the warmest and most convinced supporters
of Lovedale, the very successful missionary institution for the
education of natives in South Africa.
The position of benevolent despot has obvious drawbacks.
In Mr Rhodes's case the dependence which the populations of
Cape Colony were led to place on him had its reaction on the
public in a demoralizing loss of self-reliance, and for himself it
must be admitted that the effect on the character of a man
already much disposed to habits of absolutism in thought and
action was the reverse of beneficial. Mr Rhodes felt himself
to be far stronger than any man in his own surroundings; he
knew himself to be actuated by disinterested motives in the
aims which he most earnestly desired to reach. He was pro-
foundly impressed by a sense of the shortness of life, and he
so far abused his power as to become intolerant of any sort of
control or opposition. The inevitable result followed, that
though Mr Rhodes did much of great and good work during
the six years of his supreme power, he entirely failed during
that period to surround himself, as he might have done, by a
circle of able men fit to comprehend and to carry on the work
to which his own best efforts were directed. To work with him
was practically impossible for those who were not willing to
accept without demur the yoke of dogmatic authority He
had a few devoted personal friends, who appreciated his aims
and were inspired by his example; but he was lacking in regard
for individuals, and a great part of his daily life was spent in
the company of satellites and instruments, whom he used with
cynical unconcern for the furtherance of his ends.
In 1896 the brilliant period of his premiership was brought
to an end by the incident which became famous under the
name of the Jameson Raid. The circumstances which led to
the Raid belong properly to the history of the Transvaal. It
is enough to say briefly here that the large alien population
which had been attracted to the Transvaal by the phenomenal
wealth of the Johannesburg goldfields, conceiving themselves
to have reason to revolt against the authority of the Transvaal
government, resolved towards the end of 1895 to have recourse
to arms in order to obtain certain reforms. Mr Rhodes, as
a large mine-owner, was theoretically a member of the mining
population. In this capacity he was asked to give his counten-
ance to the movement. But as prime minister of a British
colony he was evidently placed in a false position from the
moment in which he became cognizant of a secret attempt
to overturn a neighbouring government by force of arms.
He did more than become cognizant. The subsequent finding
of a Cape committee, which he accepted as accurate, was to
the effect that " in his capacity as controller of the three great
joint-stock companies, the British South Africa Company, the
De Beers Consolidated Mines, and the Gold Fields of South
Africa, he directed and controlled the combination which
rendered such a proceeding as the Jameson Raid possible."
He gave money, arms and influence to the movement; and
as the time fixed for the outbreak of the revolution approached,
he allowed Dr Jameson, who was then administrator of the
British South Africa Company in Rhodesia, to move an armed
force of some 500 men upon the frontier. Here Mr Rhodes's
participation in the movement came to an end. It became
abundantly clear from subsequent inquiry that he was not
personally responsible for what followed. A cipher corre-
spondence, seized and published by the Boers, left the civilized
world in no doubt as to Mr Rhodes's share in the previous
preparation, and he was for a time believed to be responsible
for the Raid itself. Subsequent inquiries held by committees
of the Cape parliament and of the British House of Commons
acquitted him entirely of responsibility for Dr Jameson's final
movement, but both committees found that he had acted in
a manner which was inconsistent with his duty as prime
minister of the Cape and managing director of the British South
Africa Company.
He displayed, in the circumstances, characteristic qualities
of pluck and candour. He made no concealment of his own
share in the catastrophe; he took full responsibility for what
had been done in his name by subordinates, and he accepted
all the consequences which ensued. He resigned his premier-
ship of the Cape (January 1896); and, recognizing that his
presence was no longer useful in the colony, he turned his
attention to Rhodesia. His design was to live in that country,
and to give all the stimulus of his own presence and encourage-
ment to the development of its resources. The Matabele
rebellion of March 1896 intervened to prevent the immediate
realization of his plans. In June Imperial troops were sent up,
and by the end of July the result of the military operations
had driven the natives to the Matoppo Hills, where they held
a practically impregnable position. The prospect was of con-
tinued war, with a renewal of a costly campaign in the following
year. Mr Rhodes conceived the idea that he might effect
single-handed the pacification which military skill had failed
to compel. To succeed, it was essential that he should trust
and be trusted. He accordingly moved his tent away from
the troops to the base of the Matoppo Hills. He lay there
quietly for six weeks, in the power of the enemy if they had
chosen to attack. Word was circulated among the natives
RHODES, J. F.
that he had come alone and undefended to hear their side of
the case. A council was held by them in the very depths of
the hills, where no armed force could touch them. He was
invited to attend it. It was a case of staking his life on trust.
He displayed no hesitation, but mounted and rode unarmed
with the messenger. Three friends rode with him. The
confidence was justified. They met the assembled chiefs at
the place appointed. The native grievances were laid before
Mr Rhodes. At the end of a long discussion Mr Rhodes,
having made and exacted such concessions as he thought fit,
asked the question, " Now, for the future is it peace or is it
war?" And the chiefs, laying down their sticks as a symbol
of surrendered arms, declared, "We give you one word: it is
peace." The scene, as described by one of the eye-witnesses,
was very striking. Mr Rhodes, riding away, characterized it
simply as " one of the scenes which make life worth living."
His life was drawing towards its end. He had still a few
years, which he devoted with success to the development of
the country which bore his name. The railway was brought
to Bulawayo, and arrangements were made for carrying the
line on in sections as far as the south end of Lake Tanganyika,
a construction which was part of his pet scheme for connecting
the Cape by a British line of communication with Cairo. He
also concluded arrangements for carrying a telegraphic land
line through to Egypt, and had the satisfaction of seeing the
mineral development of the country fairly started. But the
federal union of South Africa, to which he had always worked
as the secure basis of the extension of British rule in the southern
half of the continent, was not for him to see. The South African
War broke out in 1899. Mr Rhodes took his part at Kimberley
in sustaining the hardships of a siege; but his health was
broken, and though he lived to see victory practically assured
to British arms, peace had not been concluded when, on the
26th of March 1902, he died at Muizenberg, near Cape Town.
His life's work did not end actually with his death. He
left behind him a will in which he dedicated his fortunes, as he
had dedicated himself, exclusively to the public service. He
left the bulk of his vast wealth for the purpose of founding
scholarships at Oxford of the value each of 300 a year, to be
held by students from every important British colony, and
from every state and Territory of the United States of America.
The sum so bequeathed was very large; but it was not for the
munificence of the legacy that the will was received with
acclamation throughout the civilized world: it was for the
striking manifestation of faith which it embodied in the principles
that make for the enlightenment and peace and union of man-
kind, and for the fine constancy of Mr Rhodes's conviction that
the unity of the British Empire, which he had been proud to
serve, was among the greatest of organized forces uniting for
universal good. The will was drawn up some years before his
death. A codicil, signed during the last days of his life, gave
evidence of some enlargement of his views as to the association
of races necessary in order to secure the peace of the world,
and added to the original scheme a certain number of scholar-
ships to be held at the disposal of German students.
The publication of the will silenced Mr Rhodes's detractors
and converted many of his critics. It set a seal which could
not be mistaken upon his completed life. The revulsion of
sentiment towards him was complete, and his name passed at
once in the public estimation to the place which it is probably
destined to take in history, as one which his countrymen are
proud to count among the great makers of the British Empire.
See the Life by Sir Lewis Michell (2 vols., London, iqio);
consult also Sir T. E Fuller, Cecil John Rhodes: A Monograph and
a Reminiscence (London, 1910), and " Vindex," Cecil Rhodes:
His Political Life and Speeches (London, 1900).
(F L. L.)
The Rhodes Scholarships. The scholarship system founded
by the will of Cecil Rhodes provides in perpetuity for the
support at Oxford, for a term of three years each, of about
175 selected scholars. Each scholar from the colonies and
the United States has an allowance of 300 per annum during
257
the continuance of his scholarship; those from Germany, as
being nearer to Oxford, an allowance of 250 each. In each
province of Canada, in each state of Australia, in the four
collegiate schools of Cape Colony (Rondebosch, Stellenbosch,
South African College, and St Andrew's College, Grahamstown),
in the dominion of New Zealand, and in the colonies of Natal,
Jamaica, Bermuda and Newfoundland, a scholar is elected each
year. Three scholarships annually are assigned to Rhodesia.
Each state and Territory of the American Union is entitled
to have two scholars in residence, so that an election takes
place in two years out of three. Five scholarships are provided
annually for scholars from Germany.
In his will Rhodes mentions the objects he had in view in founding
the different scholarships :
1. Colonial. " I consider that the education of young colonists
at one of the universities in the United Kingdom is of great advantage
to them for giving breadth to their views, for their instruction in
life and manners, and for instilling into their minds the advantage
to the colonies as well as to the United Kingdom of the retention
of the unity of the empire."
2. American. " I also desire to encourage and foster an apprecia-
tion of the advantages which I implicitly believe will result from
the union of the English-speaking people throughout the world,
and to encourage in the students from the United States of North
America who will benefit from the American scholarships to be
established for the reason above given at the university of Oxford
under this my will an attachment to the country from which they
have sprung, but without, I hope, withdrawing them or their sym-
pathies from the land of their adoption or birth."
3. German. " I note the German emperor has made instruction
in English compulsory in German schools. I leave five yearly
scholarships at Oxford of 250 per annum to students of German
birth, the scholars to be nominated by the German emperor for
the time being. Each scholarship to continue for three years, so
that each year after the first three there will be fifteen scholars.
The object is that an understanding between the three Great Powers
will render war impossible and educational relations make the
strongest tie."
He defines as follows the principles on which he wished his
scholars to be selected :
" My desire being that the students who shall be elected to the
scholarships shall not be merely bookworms, I direct that in the
election of a student to a scholarship regard shall be had to (l) his
literary and scholastic attainments; (2) his fondness for and success
in manly outdoor sports such as cricket, football and the like;
(3) his qualities of manhood, truth, courage, devotion to duty,
sympathy for and protection of the weak, kindliness, unselfishness
and fellowship; and (4) his exhibition during school days of moral
force of character and of instincts to lead and to take an interest
in his schoolmates, for those latter attributes will be likely in after
life to guide him to esteem the performance of public duties as
his highest aim."
The trustees named in the will for the management of the trust
were Lord Rosebery, Lord Grey, Lord Milner, Sir Lewis Michell,
Dr L. S. Jameson, Mr Alfred Beit and Mr Bourchier F. Hawksley.
After consultation with the educational authorities of all the
communities to which scholarships are assigned, the trustees arranged
a system for the selection of scholars. This system, which is
subject to such changes as experience suggests, may be summarized
as follows. Every candidate, in order to become eligible, is required
to pass the Responsions examination of the university of Oxford,
or some examination accepted by the university as an equivalent.
In the case of communities possessing universities or colleges in
affiliation with Oxford, a certain standing at those universities is
accepted in lieu of Responsions. Examinations are held in two
years out of three in each state of the American Union, and annually
in colonies which do not have the affiliated universities or colleges
referred to. German scholars are nominated by his majesty the
emperor of Germany. Candidates must be unmarried must be
between the ages of 19 and 25 (in Jamaica and Queensland, 18-25;
in Newfoundland, 18-21; in Western Australia, 17-25), and they
must be, in the colonies, British subjects in the United States and
Germany, subjects of those countries. In each British colony
electing scholars and in each state of the Union there is a committee
of selection, composed commonly of leading educational authorities
or high public officials. To these committees all candidates who
have passed the qualifying tests submit their claims. The com-
mittees are entrusted with the power of selection, but are expected
to exercise this power, as closely as circumstances permit, in accord-
ance with the suggestions made by Rhodes. The trust arranges
for the distribution of elected scholars among the colleges of Oxford,
each of which has agreed to receive a limited number of approved
candidates. (G. R. P.)
RHODES, JAMES FORD (1848- ), American historian,
was born in Cleveland, Ohio, on the ist of May 1848. He
xxin. 9
RHODES
entered the university of New York as a special student in
1865, studied at the university of Chicago in 1866-67, and
at the College de France in 1867-68, and in 1868 served
as occasional Paris correspondent to the Chicago Times. He
then took a course in metallurgy in the School of Mines, at
Berlin; subsequently inspected iron and steel works in western
Germany and in Great Britain; and in 1870 joined his father
in the iron, steel and coal business in Cleveland, becoming a
member of the firm in 1874. He retired from business with
an ample fortune in 1885, and after two years devoted to
general reading and travel he began his History of the United
States from the Compromise of 1850, which, closing the narrative
with the year 1877, was published in seven volumes in 1893-
1906. In recognition of the merit of his work he received
honorary degrees from various American universities, was
elected president of the American Historical Association in
1899, and received the Loubet prize of the Berlin Academy
of Sciences in 1001. In 1909 he published a volume of
Historical Essays.
RHODES, the most easterly of the islands of the Aegean
Sea, about 10 m. S. of Cape Alypo in Asia Minor. It forms,
with the islands of Syme, Casos, Carpathos, Castelorizo, Telos
and Charki, one of the four sanjaks into which the Archipelago
vilayet of Turkey is divided. The governor-general of the
vilayet resides at the town of Rhodes. The length of the
island is about 45 m. from N.E. to S.W., its greatest breadth
22 m., and its area nearly 424 sq. m.' The population of the
island comprises 7000 Moslems, 21,000 Christians, and 2000
Jews.
The island is diversified in its surface, and is traversed from
north to south by an elevated mountain range, the highest
point of which is called Atairo (anc. Atabyris or Atabyrium)
(4560 ft.). It commands a view of the elevated coast of Asia
Minor towards the north, and of the Archipelago, studded
with its numerous islands, on the north-west; while on the
south-west is seen Mount Ida in Crete, often veiled in clouds,
and on the south and south-east the vast expanse of waters
which wash the African shore. The rest of the island is
occupied in great part by ranges of moderately elevated hills,
on which are found extensive woods of ancient pines, planted
by the hand of nature. These forests were formerly very
thick, but they are now greatly thinned by the Turks, who
cut them down and take no care to plant others in their place.
Beneath these hills the surface of the island falls lower, and
several hills in the form of amphitheatres extend their bases
as far as the sea.
Rhodes was famed in ancient times for its delightful climate,
and it still maintains its former reputation. The winds are
liable to little variation; they blow from the west, often with
great violence, for nine months in the year, and at other times
from the north; and they moderate the summer heats, which
are chiefly felt during the months of July and August, when
the hot winds blow from the coast of Anatolia.
Rhodes, in addition to its fine climate, is blessed with a
fertile soil, and produces a variety of the finest fruits and
vegetables. Around the villages are extensive cultivated
fields and orchards, containing fig, pomegranate and orange
trees. On the sloping hills carob trees, and others both useful
and agreeable, still grow abundantly; the vine also holds its
place, andj produces a species of wine which was highly valued
by the ancients, though it seems to have degenerated greatly
in modern times. The valleys afford rich pastures, and the
plains produce every species of grain.
The commerce of the island has been of late years increasing
at a rapid rate. Many British manufactures are imported
by indirect routes, through Smyrna, Constantinople, Beyrout
and other places. Cotton stuffs, calicoes and grey linen are
among the goods most in demand; they are exported to the
neighbouring coast of Anatolia, between Budrum and Adalia,
and thence conveyed into the interior. The expansion of
the trade has been very much owing to the establishment of
steam navigation direct to the island, which is now visited
regularly by French and Austrian steamers, as well as by some
from England to Symrna.
The only town of any importance in the island is the capital,
Rhodes, which stands at the north-east extremity. It rises in
an imposing manner from the sea, on a gentle slope in the form
of an amphitheatre. It is surrounded with walls and towers,
and defended by a large moated castle of great strength. These
fortifications are all the work of the Knights of St John. The
interior of the city does not correspond to its outward appear-
ance. No trace exists of the splendour of the ancient city,
with its regular streets, well-ordered plan and numerous
public buildings. The modern city of Rhodes is in general
the work of the Knights of St John, and has altogether a
medieval aspect. The picturesque fortifications also by
which the city is surrounded remain almost unaltered as they
were in the isth century. The principal buildings which
remain are the church of St John, which is become the principal
mosque; the hospital, which has been transformed into public
granaries; the palace of the grand master, now the residence
of the pasha; and the senate-house, which still contains some
marbles and ancient columns. Of the streets, the best and
widest is a long street which is still called the Street of the
Knights. It is perfectly straight, and formed of old houses,
on which remain the armorial bearings of the members of the
order. On some of these buildings are still seen the arms of
the popes and of some of the royal and noble houses of Europe.
The only relics of classical antiquity are the numerous
inscribed altars and bases of statues, as well as architectural
fragments, which are found scattered in the courtyards and
gardens of the houses in the extensive suburbs which now
surround the town, the whole of which were comprised within
the limits of the ancient city. The foundations also of the
moles that separate the harbours are of Hellenic work, though
the existing moles were erected by the Knights of St John.
Rhodes has two harbours. The lesser of these lies towards
the east, and its entrance is obstructed by a barrier of rocks,
so as to admit the entrance of but one ship at a time. It is
sufficiently sheltered, but by the negligence of, the Turks the
sand has been suffered to accumulate until it has been gradually
almost choked up. The other harbour is larger, and also in a
bad condition; here small ships may anchor, and are sheltered
from the west winds, though they are exposed to the north
and north-east winds. The two harbours are separated by a
mole which runs obliquely into the sea. At the eastern
entrance is the fort of St Elmo, with a lighthouse.
History. It is as yet difficult to determine the part which
Rhodes played in prehistoric days during the naval predominance
of the neighbouring island of Crete; but archaeological remains
dating from the later Minoan age prove that the early Aegean
culture maintained itself there comparatively unimpaired until
the historic period. A similar conclusion may be drawn from
the legend which peopled primitive Rhodes with a population
of skilful workers in metal, the " Telchines." Whatever the
f racial affinities of the early inhabitants may have been, it is
certain that in historic times Rhodes was occupied by a Dorian
population, reputed to have emigrated mainly from Argos
subsequently to the " Dorian invasion " of Greece. The three
cities founded by these settlers Lindus, lalysus and Camirus
belonged to the " League of Six Cities," by which the Dorian
colonists in Asia Minor sought to protect themselves against
the barbarians of the neighbouring mainland. The early history
of these towns is a record of brisk commercial expansion and
active colonization. The position of Rhodes as a distributing
centre of Levantine and especially of Phoenician goods is well
attested by archaeological finds. Its colonies extended not only
eastward along the southern coast of Asia Minor, but also linked
up the island with^the westernmost parts of the Greek world.
Among such settlements may be mentioned Phaselis in Lycia,
perhaps also Soli in Cilicia, Salapia on the east Italian coast,
Gela in Sicily, the Lipari islands, and Rhoda in north-east
Spain. In home waters the Rhodians exercised political
control over Carpathos and other islands.
RHODESIA
259
The history of Rhodes during the Persian wars is quite
obscure. In the 5th century the three cities were enrolled in
the Delian League, and democracies became prevalent. In
412 the island revolted from Athens and became the head-
quarters of the Peloponnesian fleet. Four years later the in-
habitants for the most part abandoned their former residences
and concentrated in the newly founded city of Rhodes. This
town, which was laid out on an exceptionally fine site according
to a scientific plan by the architect Hippodamus of Miletus,
soon rose to considerable importance, and attracted much of
the Aegean and Levantine commerce which had hitherto been
in Athenian hands. In the 4th century its political develop-
ment was arrested by constant struggles between oligarchs and
democrats, who in turn brought the city under the control of
Sparta (412-395, 391-378), of Athens (395~39i, 378-357), and
of the Carian dynasty of Maussollus (357-340). It seems that
about 340 the island was conquered for the Persian king by his
Rhodian admiral Mentor; in 332 it submitted to Alexander
the Great. Upon Alexander's death the people expelled their
Macedonian garrison, and henceforth not only maintained their
independence but acquired great political influence. The
expansion of Levantine trade which ensued in the Hellenistic
age brought especial profit to Rhodes, whose standard of coinage
and maritime law became widely accepted in the Mediterranean.
Under a modified type of democracy, in which the chief power
would seem to have rested normally with the six irpuravta, or
heads of the executive, the city enjoyed a long period of remark-
ably good administration. The chief success of the government
lay in the field of foreign politics, where it prudently avoided
entanglement in the ambitious schemes of Hellenistic monarchs,
but gained great prestige by energetic interference against
aggressors who threatened the existing balance of power or the
security of the seas. The chief incidents of Rhodian history
during this period are a memorable siege by Demetrius Polior-
cetes in 304, who sought in vain to force the city into active
alliance with King Antigonus by means of his formidable fleet
and artillery; a severe earthquake in 227, the damages of which
all the other Hellenistic states contributed to repair, because they
could not afford to see the island ruined; some vigorous cam-
paigns against Byzantium, the Pergamene and the Pontic
kings, who had threatened the Black Sea trade-route (220 sqq.),
and against the pirates of Crete. In accordance with their
settled policy the Rhodians eagerly supported the Romans when
these made war upon Philip V. of Macedon and Antiochus III.
of Syria on behalf of the minor Greek states. In return for
their more equivocal attitude during the Third Macedonian
War they were deprived by Rome of some possessions in Lycia,
and damaged by the partial diversion of their trade to Delos
(167). Nevertheless during the two Mithradatic wars they
remained loyal to the republic, and in 88 successfully stood a
siege by the Pontic king. The Rhodian navy, which had dis-
tinguished itself in most of these wars, did further good service
on behalf of Pompey in his campaigns against the pirates and
against Julius Caesar. A severe blow was struck against the
city in 43 by C. Cassius, who besieged and ruthlessly plundered
the people for refusing to submit to his exactions. Though
Rhodes continued a free town for another century, its commercial
prosperity was crippled and a series of extensive earthquakes
after A.D. 155 completed the ruin of the city.
In the days of its greatest power Rhodes became famous as a
centre of pictorial and plastic art ; it gave rise to a school of eclectic
oratory whose chief representative was Apollonius Molon, the
teacher of Cicero; it was the birthplace of the Stoic philosopher
Panaetius; the home of the poet Apollonius Rhodius and the
historian Posidonius. Protogenes embellished the city with his
paintings, and Chares of Lindus with the celebrated colossal statue
of the sun-god, which was 105 ft. high. The colossus stood for
fifty-six years, till an earthquake prostrated it in 224 B.C. Its
enormous fragments continued to excite wonder in the time of
Pliny, and were not removed till A.D. 656, when Rhodes was con-
ouered by the Saracens, who sold the remains for old metal to a
dealer, who employed nine hundred camels to carry them away.
The notion that the colossus once stood astride over the entrance
to the harbour is a medieval fiction. During the later Roman
empire Rhodes was the capital of the province of the islands. Its
history under the Byzantine rule is uneventf ul.but for some temporary
occupations by the Saracens (653-658, 717-718), and the gradual
encroachment of Venetian traders since 1082. In the I3th century
the island stood as a rule under the control of Italian adventurers,
who were, however, at times compelled to acknowledge the over-
lordship of the emperors of Nicaea, and failed to protect it against
the depredations of Turkish corsairs. In 1309 it was conquered
by the Knights Hospitallers of St John of Jerusalem at the instiga-
tion of the pope and the Genoese, and converted into a great fortress
for the protection of the southern seas against the Turks. Under
their mild and just rule both the native Greeks and the Italian
residents were able to_carry on a brisk trade. But the piratical
acts of these traders, in which the knights themselves sometimes
joined, and the strategic position of the island between Constanti-
nople and the Levant, necessitated its reduction by the Ottoman
sultans. A siege in 1480 by Mahomet II. led to the repulse
<? Turks with severe losses; after a second investment, during
which Sultan Suleiman I. is said to have lost 90,000 men out of a
force of 200,000, the knights evacuated Rhodes under an honourable
capitulation (1522). The population henceforth dwindled in con-
sequence of pestilence and emigration, and although the island
recovered somewhat in the i8th century under a comparatively
lenient rule it was brought to a very low ebb owing to the severity
of its governor during the Greek revolution. The sites of Lindus,
lalysus, and Camirus, which in the most ancient times were the
principal towns of the island, are clearly marked, and the first
of the three is still occupied by a small town with a medieval castle,
both of them dating from the time of the knights, though the
castle occupies the site of the ancient acropolis, of the walls of
which considerable remains are still visible. There are no ruins
of any importance on the site of either lalysus or Camirus, but
excavations at the latter place have produced valuable and interest-
ing results in the way of ancient vases and other antiquities, which
are now in the British Museum. Rhodes was again famous for
its_ pottery in medieval times; this was a lustre ware at first
imitated from Persian, though it afterwards developed into an
independent style of fine colouring and rich variety of design.
See Pindar, fill Olympian Ode; Diodorus v. 55-59, xiii.-xx.
passim; Polybius iv. 46-52, v. 88-90, xvi. 2-9, xxvii.-xxix!
passim; C. Torr, Rhodes in Ancient Times (Cambridge, 1885)
Rhodes in Modern Times (Cambridge, 1887); C. Schumacher De
republica Rhodiorum commentatio (Heidelberg, 1886); H. van
Gelder, Geschichte der alien Rhodier (Hague, 1900); B. V. Head,
Historia Numorum (Oxford, 1887), pp. 539-542; and Baron de
Balabre, Rhodes of the Knights (1909).
(E. H. B.; E.Ga.; M. O. B. C.)
RHODESIA (so named after Cecil Rhodes), an inland country
and British possession in South Central Africa, bounded S. and
S.W. by the Transvaal, the Bechuanaland Protectorate and
German South- West Africa; W. by Portuguese West Africa.
N.W. by Belgian Congo; N.E. by German East Africa; E. by
the British Nyatsaland Protectorate and Portuguese East Africa.
It covers an area of about 450,000 sq. m., being larger than
France, Germany and the Low Countries combined. It is
divided into two parts of unequal size by the midoUe course of
the Zambezi.
Southern Rhodesia, with an area of 148,575 sq. m., consists
of Matabeleland and Mashonaland, the western and eastern
provinces, while the trans-Zambezi regions are divided into
North-Western Rhodesia (or Barotseland) and North-Eastern
Rhodesia.
Physical Features. Rhodesia forms part of the high tableland
which constitutes the interior of Africa south of the Congo
basin. Hydrographically the greater part of the country'
belongs to the basin of the Zambezi (q.v.), but in the N.E. it
includes the eastern headstreams of the Congo, and in the S.
and S.E. it is drained by the tributaries of the Limpopo, the
Sabi and the Pungwe. The Limpopo forms the boundary
between Southern Rhodesia and the Transvaal. The north-
western regions, drained by the upper Zambezi and its affluents,
are described under BAROTSELAND, and North-Eastern Rhodesia,
together with the adjacent Nyasaland Protectorate, under
BRITISH CENTRAL AFRICA. The highest portion of the tableland
of Southern Rhodesia runs from the S.W. to the N.E. and forms
a broad watershed between the tributaries of the Zambezi
flowing north and the rivers flowing south and east. It is along
this high plateau that the railway runs from Bulawayo to
Salisbury and onwards to Portuguese East Africa. The eleva-
tion of the railway varies from 4500 ft. to 5500 ft. There is a
gradual sloping away of the plateau to the N.W. and S.E., so
260
RHODESIA
that only a small portion of Southern Rhodesia is under
3000 ft. The eastern boundary, along Portuguese East Africa,
forms the edge of the tableland; the height of the edge is
accentuated by a series of ridges, so that the country here
assumes a mountainous appearance, the grass-clad heights
being reminiscent of the Cheviot Hills of Scotland or the lower
Alps of Switzerland.
Geology. The geology of this region is very imperfectly known.
Metamorphic rocks extend over immense areas, but these and the
other formations are to a great extent hidden beneath superficial
deposits. Conglomerates and banded ironstone rocks are found
in the metamorphic areas around Bulawayo and the borders of
Katanga; but to what extent these represent the different forma-
tions older than the Karroo and newer than the Swaziland schists
(see TRANSVAAL) has not been satisfactorily determined. Certain
gold-bearing conglomerates are regarded as the equivalents of
the Witwatersrand series, but the main sources of gold are the
veins of quartz and igneous rocks developed in the metamorphic
series. The Karroo formation is well represented, and covers
extensive areas in the Zambezi basin. The Dwyka conglomerate
RHODESIA
50216.1:15.000,000
English Miles
appears to be developed in the Tuli district. The coal-bearing
strata of Tuli and Wankies are certainly of Karroo age. They have
yielded the fossil remains of fishes Acrolepis molyneuxi, the fresh-
water mollusc Palaeomutela, a few reptilian bones, and species of
Glossopteris among plants.
The age of a widely distributed series of red-white sandstones,
named by Molyneux the Forest Sandstone, remains uncertain.
Molyneux considers them Tertiary, but it is not improbable that
sandstones of various ages from Karroo to those of Recent date are
represented. They contain numerous interbedded sheets of basalt,
but it is doubtful if any of these are of so recent a date as Tertiary.
Rocks of Karroo age occur round Lake Bangweulu, and contain
numerous fossil plants and a few small shells. The age of the
wide, thick sheet of basalt, through which the Zambezi has cut the
Batoka gorge between the Victoria Falls and Wankies, remains
uncertain. 1
1 For geology see F. H. Hatch, " Notes on the Geology of Masho-
naland and Matabeleland," Geol. Mag., 1895; A. J. C. Molyneux,
" The Sedimentary Deposits of Rhodesia," Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,
vol. lix. (1903) ; F. P. Mennel, " Geology of Rhodesia," British
Association Handbook (Cape Town, 1905); G. W. Lamplugh, British
Assoc. Rep., South African Meeting, 1905.
Climate. As Southern Rhodesia extends between 16 S. and 22 S.,
and is thus within the tropics, it might be expected that the
climate would be trying for Europeans, but owing to the elevation
of the country the temperature is rarely too high for comfort.
Another factor that renders the climate equable is that the rainy
season coincides with the summer months, and the winter months
are dry. The nights are always cool, so that the climate approxi-
mates to the ideal. On the high tableland which forms the great
proportion of the country the temperature in the shade rarely
reaches 100 and there is just sufficient frost in the winter to be
useful to farmers. The winter months are June, July and August,
and the hottest months are the spring months of September,
October and November, just before the rams begin. A temperature
of 1 10 is sometimes reached in the low-lying district of Tuli
(elevation 1890 ft.) and in the Zambezi valley. There is a striking
difference between the minimum temperatures on the ground and
those registered 4 ft. from the ground. The latter rarely reach
freezing-point, but the ground temperature is sometimes as low
as 24. Hoar frost is most noticeable in the vleis and low-lying
areas. The period known as the rainy season extends from Sep-
tember to March, but the greatest amount falls in the last three
months of that period. The mean annual rainfall for various
stations in the eastern half of Rhodesia ranges
from 24 to 44 in., the greatest rainfall being
along the eastern border. For the western half
the mean ranges from 19 to 27 in., but in the
south-west corner it is much drier, the rainfall so
far recorded never reaching 1 8 in. There is a
sufficiency of rain for all summer crops, but winter
crops, such as wheat, must be assisted^ by irrigation.
Malaria is prevalent in certain districts during the
wet season, but this is now preventable and the
country is very healthy, children, especially in towns
and on the high veld, growing sturdily. The
death-rate amongst Europeans is only about 15
per 1000.
Fauna. Rhodesia is rich in the larger grami-
nivorous animals, especially in antelope, which
number about twenty-five varieties, including
kudu, eland, hartebeeste, roan, sable, wilde-
beeste and impala. The most common are the
duiker, the stembok and the rietbok. Other
herbivorous animals found in the country are
the buffalo, giraffe, zebra, elephant, hippopotamus,
rhinoceros (black and white), warthog, and various
baboons and monkeys. The buffalo is now rare,
having been almost exterminated, by the rinder-
pest in 1896. The carnivora include the lion,
leopard, cheetah, and various wild cats, foxes,
wolves, jackals and dogs. There are at least
five varieties of the mongoose. Amongst the
rodents are squirrels, dormice, rats (eleven kinds),
the porcupine, the Cape hare and the rock hare.
Of insectivora the ant-eater, the ant-bear, the
hedgehog and various shrews may be mentioned.
Bats number eleven varieties. Snakes are numer-
ous, the most important being the python, the
puff-adder and the cobra. Crocodiles and iguanas
are found in most of the rivers, and chameleons
and lizards are very common. Rhodesia abounds
in beetles, butterflies and moths, and new varieties
are frequently discovered in the wet season. Men-
tion ought to be made of white ants (termites)
and locusts. The ants are a serious pest, attack-
ing all cut timber resting in or on the ground.
' They gradually envelop the dead wood in a
mound of earth and consume it wholly, so that all poles and
house-timber have to be carefully protected either by chemical
preparations or by raising them clear from contact with the
earth. The mounds which the white ants erect often reach a
height of many feet. There are several kinds, the black-headed
nipper ant, chiefly found in the west, being the most destructive.
Locusts are particularly dreaded in their wingless state, when
they clean off every green leaf, every bit of vegetation, as they
march on in their hundreds of thousands. The rivers are not very
plentiful in fish, but occasional sport is afforded by barbel, bream
and tiger-fish.
Birds to the number of about 400 varieties have been found in
Rhodesia. The largest of these are the ostrich, the secretary-bird,
the paauw, the koorhaan, cranes (three varieties), storks (four),
vultures (six) and eagles (eight). The chief birds that attract
sportsmen, besides x the paauw and the koorhaan already men-
tioned, are the guinea-fowl (three kinds), partridge and francolin
(seven kinds), wild goose, duck and teal. Some of the most in-
teresting birds are the weaver-birds (eighteen), the ox-peckers,
which find their food on the backs of cattle, the kingfishers (eight),
the hornbills (five), the parrots, lovebirds, the polygamous widow
birds whose females are of insignificant appearance, but whose
males develop a brilliant plumage and lengthy tails during the
RHODESIA
261
breeding season, when they are on guard over their harems of from
ten to fifte'en wives the sunbirds, with their long curved beaks
that search out the nectar of flowers, and the honey-guides, which,
with their agitated " chuck, chuck," lead the wayfarer to bees'
nests with expectation of joining in the plunder. The small birds
of Rhodesia are usually very brilliantly coloured, the most dis-
tinguished being what is known as the blue jay, with its bright,
iridescent, light blue plumage.
Flora. The vegetation of the territory is luxurious and mainly
subtropical, but in the lower valleys the flora assumes a tropical
aspect. The country is well wooded and in this respect differs
from the high tablelands farther south. The trees as a rule attain
no greater height than about 20 ft., but in some districts, such as
South Melsetter and Wankies, there are remains of forests of large
timber. The small growth of the trees is said to be due to the
annual veld fires, and it is noticeable that native trees that are
protected attain a much greater height. As a rule the wood is
either very hard or very soft, so that timber for building has still
to be imported, although the existing timber is useful for mining
purposes. One of the hardest woods is the so-called Rhodesian
teak (native Ikusi), which is about 50% harder than real teak
(Tectona grandis). The trees most commonly met with are mapane,
used for poles; umkamba, resembling mahogany; m'lanji cedar,
chiefly found along the eastern border; umsasa, used for firewood;
impachla, the native wisteria. Among other trees are the baobab
with enormous very soft trunk, the fruit being a large nut containing
citrate of magnesia, which natives use to make a cooling drink;
the umvagaz or blood-wood which issues a blood-coloured juice
when cut, and the umkuna, or hissing tree, which hisses when an
incision is made. The barks of the umSasa, the umhondo, and the
umgosa are much used by natives for binding fibres in making huts
and are also used for tanning. The bark of the baobab yields a
fine fibre which natives use in making excellent game nets and
fishing nets. The native fruit-bearing trees are the fig (many
varieties), the mahobohobo or umjanje, resembling the loquat,
the Kaffir plum, very sour and totally different from the Kaffir
plum of Cape Colony, and the Kaffir orange. Among the shrubs
the proteas, or sugar bushes, with their nectar-stored flowers, are
the most frequent. The mimosa thorn, although more of the
nature of a tree, grows in dense masses, chiefly in the western
province.
The period of the year when flowers begin to bloom is rather
remarkable. After the long spell of dry weather, lasting from five
to seven months, and before any rain has fallen, blooms appear all
over the veld. Most of such flowers are those of bulbous plants
or plants with large roots that have been stored with nourishment
during the previous growing wet season. The flowers are sustained
by this stock of food until the rains appear again to replenish the
roots. Even grass sprouts green over the earth before the rains
appear, and the hard-baked veld is pierced by the shoots of the
gladiolus, the orchid, the asparagus, the solanum, the convolvulus
and many other flowers. When the rains are far advanced, the
annuals shoot rapidly and make a second ishow of bloom. A
peculiarity of the early spring shoots on trees and shrubs is that
they have not the green tints of the colder regions, but are all shades
of brown and orange and red and yellow.
One of the chief features of Rhodesia is the vast stretches of
grass-covered veld, the grasses varying from a few inches to 15 ft.
in height and numbering about 100 different varieties. Along the
rivers are to be found palms, tree ferns, bananas, dracaenas and
other hot climate plants. Rubber, indigo and cotton are indigenous
and there are groves of lemon trees, but these were most probably
introduced by early settlers. Tobacco, which grows luxuriantly,
may also have been introduced.
Inhabitants. In Southern Rhodesia about half the European
population, which in 1900 was approximately 16,500, is British
born or born of British parents, and about one-third is South
African born. There are about 11,500 males and 5000 females,
and the population is equally divided between the urban and
rural areas. In rural areas the chief occupations are mining
and agriculture. Industrial pursuits, including mining, engage
about 25% of the population, 8% are employed in agriculture,
and 15% in commerce. Mashonaland has 7500 white inhabi-
tants, and Matabeleland 9000. There are about 2000 Asiatics
in Southern Rhodesia.
The Natives of Rhodesia belong to the Bantu-Negro stock
and are roughly divisible into two groups; those long settled
in the country, and the Amazulu, who during the ipth century
left Zululand and, passing through the more southern regions,
overran Rhodesia and settled in Matabeleland. The Barotse
(q.v.) are mainly settled in North-West Rhodesia. In Southern
Rhodesia, in spite of incursions from Portuguese territory and
from the north, the natives can be still clearly divided into
Mashona and Matabele, living in the eastern and western pro-
vinces respectively. The name Mashona is not used by the
natives but is useful as distinguishing the allied tribes of the
eastern division from the Matabele in the west. The languages
of the Mashona tribes arc allied and are distinct from that of
the Matabele (or Zulu), but it is uncertain whether these
Mashona tongues should be regarded merely as different
dialects, or .languages as different as those of the various
nations of Europe (but see BANTU LANGUAGES). The tribes
round Salisbury and extending as far as Marondella in the
east and about 100 m. north are clearly branches of the
Vasezuru people, that is, the people from " higher up," the
" higher up " being a region in the south-east. Their history
can be traced from about the beginning of the i8th century;
but there is a great lack of tradition amongst this class of
native, which is distinctly inferior in type to the Matabele in
the west.
Farther north there are the Makorikori and the Mabudja or
Mabushla. It would appear that the country in which these
people now dwell was formerly in the possession of the Barotse,
and some of the present chiefs obtained their positions by per-
mission of the Barotse. Previously, according to Portuguese
documents of the i6th and I7th centuries, the Makaranga or
Makalanga now located in the south round about Victoria had
possession of the country as far north as the Zambezi. Their
language is allied to that of the present inhabitants, but in
many respects is widely different and of late has become
more so owing to intercourse with the Matabele. Along
the eastern border two more tribes can be differentiated,
namely, Umtasa's people in the north and those speaking the
Chindawo language in the south. Their languages are merely
variants of the language spoken in the Salisbury and Mazoe
districts.
All the tribes in the eastern province have very similar habits
and customs. Their huts are circular with a wall a foot or two
high, made of poles and daga (mud) surmounted by a conical
thatched roof. They thus differ from the beehive huts of the
Zulus. They are built indiscriminately together and are not
surrounded by stockades. The whole family dwells in the same
hut along with dogs, goats and fowls, and sometimes even with
cattle, though there are usually separate kraals for their cattle.
The kraals are as a rule filthy, but the inside of the hut is kept
clean. There is a special place for a fire, and a raised portion
of the mud floor on which to sleep, but no furniture. Their
mealie fields are usually some distance from the place of abode,
but their tobacco gardens are near their huts. Their main
object in life seems to be to grow sufficient grain for food and
beer. The grain they store in granaries, resembling small
huts, placed on rocks or on stakes, out of the reach of white ants
and secure from the depredations of animals. They amuse
themselves occasionally by making earthenware pots which
are very soft and easily broken, or by engaging in iron-work or
brass-wire work for ornamentation. In the south they are
quite clever in making water-tight baskets from rushes grown
by the Sabi river. In their religious beliefs spirits play a great
part. Above all there is a vague idea of a Supreme Being whom
they call Mwari. They have a fixed belief in the spirits of
their ancestors, the spirits of the witch-doctors, the spirits of the
Matabele, the spirits of old women, the spirits of the foolish,
the spirits of baboons, &c. Every occurrence is attributed to
the influence of a spirit, and if the occurrence is an evil one a
feast and dance of propitiation are held. Feasts of thanks-
giving are also held on such occasions as the gathering of the
first-fruits, the harvest festival, or on the return from a long and
dangerous journey. Of the tribes already mentioned the most
advanced are Umtasa's people and the Makaranga. The pro-
bable connexion of the tribes now inhabiting Mashonaland with
the architects of the ancient stone buildings which are scattered
over the country is discussed in the section Archaeology. Of
these ruins the most extensive are situated near Victoria and are
known as Zimbabwe (q.v.).
In the western province the Matabele, or rather Amandabele,
are the descendants of the Zulus who trekked under the
262
RHODESIA
leadership of the famous Mosilikatze up through the Trans
vaal, whence they were driven by the Boers. Mosilikatz
died in 1868, and his son Lobengula, after a fight with
brother, assumed sway in 1870. His people were divid&
into three main sections: the Abezansi (who were the aristo
crats), the Abenhla and the Amaholi. The Amaholi or Ho!
were the inhabitants of the land at the time of the
invasion and thereafter were practically in the position o
bondsmen and rarely allowed to possess cattle. The grea:
spirit of the Holis was the Mlimo, who was practically th<
spirit of the nation. Among the Holi tribes are the Aba
shangwe, the Abanyai, the Batonke (near the Zambezi), the
Abananzwa of the Wankie district, the Ababiro of the Tul
district, and the Abasili, a nomadic tribe chiefly subsisting on
game. There is a small tribe in the Belingwe district called the
Abalemba, which would appear to have been in touch with the
Arabs in early times. Their customs include circumcision anc
the rejection of pork as food.
The natives in Southern Rhodesia number about 700,000, and
of these 10,000 work on the mines and 20,000 are engaged in
farm, railway and household work under Europeans.
Chief Towns. Salisbury, which lies 4880 ft. above the sea, is
the capital of Southern Rhodesia, being the seat of government,
and is situated in the eastern province (Mashonaland). There
are about 1700 white inhabitants and 3000 natives. It is the
commercial centre for an extensive mining and farming district.
The principal buildings include churches, public library, hospital,
schools, banks, post office and numerous hotels. There are a con-
siderable number of government offices, and the administrator and
resident commissioner live here. The only industries are a brewery
and a tobacco factory for grading and packing the tobaccos of the
local growers.
Bulawayo (g.f.), situated 4469 ft. above the sea, is the largest town
and is in the western province, Matabeleland. It is 301 m. by rail
S.W. of Salisbury, and 1362 m. N.E. of Cape Town. The popula-
tion is some 4000 Europeans and about the same number of natives.
The town has the advantage of a good pipe water supply and a
service of electric light. It was the ancient capital of the Matabele
king, Lobengula. There is a Government house which is occa-
sionally occupied, and was the residence of Cecil Rhodes. It is
from Bulawayo that the World's View, the burial-place of Rhodes in
the Matoppo Hills, is usually visited.
The other towns are Umtali, on the eastern border, pop. 800
whites, railway works, centre for numerous large and small gold
mines; Gwelo, the central town, about midway between Salisbury
and Bulawayo, 370 whites; Victoria and Melsetter in the south,
centres of farming districts. Victoria, near which are the famous
Zimbabwe ruins, is reached by mail cart (80 m.) from Selukwe,
and Melsetter by mail cart (95 m.) from Umtali. There are also
small townships at Hartley, Selukwe, Enkeldoorn and Gwanda.
Bulawayo and Salisbury are managed by town councils, the other
towns have sanitary boards.
Communications. The Rhodesian railway system connects the
chief towns and mining centres with one another and all the other
South African countries. The main line is a continuation of the
railway from Cape Town through Kimberley and Mafeking. It
runs from Mafeking in a general N.E. direction to Bulawayo, whence
it goes N.W. to the Zambezi, which is crossed a little below the
Victoria Falls. The bridging of the river was completed in April
1905. Thence the railway is continued N.E. (92 m.) to Kalomo,
Barotseland, and onward to the Katanga district of Belgian Congo.
The section from Kalomo to Broken Hill (261 m.) was completed in
1907, and the extension to the frontier of Belgian Congo (126 m.)
in 1909. This main line forms the southern link in the Cape to
Cairo railway and steamboat service. From Bulawayo a line goes
N.E. by Gwelo to Salisbury and thence S.E. to the Portuguese port
of Beira. From Bulawayo another line (120 m. long) runs S.E.
to the West Nicholson Mine. From Gwelo a railway (40 m.) goes
S.E. to Yankee Doodle, and from this there branches a line (50 m.
long) in an easterly direction to Blinkwater. From Salisbury a line
runs N.W. to Lomagundi (84 m.). The last-named has a 2 ft. gauge.
The other railways are of the standard gauge of South Africa
3 ft. 6 in. The distances from Bulawayo to the following places
are: Gwelo, 113 m. ; Salisbury, 301 m.; Umtali, 471 m. ; Beira,
675 m. ; Mafeking, 490 m. ; Kimberley, 713 m. ; Cape Town, 1362 m. ;
Port Elizabeth, 1199 m.; East London, 1260 m.; Bloemfontein,
800 m. ; Johannesburg, 931 m.; Pretoria, 977 m. ; Lourenco
Marques, 1307 m.; Durban, 1238 m. (the last four places all via
Fourteen Streams, a junction 48 m. N. of Kimberley), and Victoria
Falls, 282 m.
About 4000 m. of roads have been built and are maintained by
government. The telegraph and telephone system is very com-
plete, there being for the whole of Rhodesia about 8000 m. of wires.
This total includes the police telephone wires and part of the African
Transcontinental system, and is served by about ninety telegraph
offices. In Southern Rhodesia there are about eighty post offices.
A post office savings bank was brought into operation on the 1st of
January 1905. Over 2,500,000 letters, post-cards and parcels are
despatched annually.
Agriculture. The country is well adapted for agriculture. Chief
attention has been paid by farmers to the growing of maize, the
annual produce being about half a million bushels. It is a very
easily grown cereal, especially in such a fertile country as Rhodesia,
and is extensively grown by natives, but the improved methods of
the whites easily secure a yield of from twice to eight times that of
the native. The average yield by European farmers is about eight
bags of 200 ft per acre, but ten to fifteen bags is quite a common
crop. Wheat, barley and oats are grown with success under
irrigation in the winter time, but the moisture with attendant rust
is too excessive for these crops in summer. Tobacco promises to
be a great source of wealth to the territory. Both the Turkish and
Virginian tobaccos have been raised and cured and put on the
market, where they were easily disposed of. They are of better
quality than those grown elsewhere in South Africa. In 1908 only
about 500 acres were under cultivation, but there are large tracts
of land suitable for this industry.
Fruits of very extensive variety thrive in Rhodesia ; they include
plums, bananas, grapes, guavas, paupaus, figs, loquats, pine-apples,
Cape gooseberries, mulberries, tree tomatoes, rosellas, granadillas,
all kinds of citrus fruits. The most flourishing are the citrus fruits
and the Japanese plums, but in the higher altitudes pears and
apples are also very successful. Vegetables of nearly all kinds
can be grown, especially potatoes, tomatoes, asparagus, sweet
potatoes, yams, &c. Coffee produces as much as 4 ft of beans to
the shrub in certain parts.
Cattle thrive well in Rhodesia, and stock-raising promises to be
the chief agricultural industry of the future. During the early
period of European occupation rinderpest and at a later date East
Coast fever decimated the country, but the prevention of these
diseases is now thoroughly understood and, since the rinderpest
of 1896 swept away large herds, cattle have been increasing rapidly
in number. There is hardly any portion of the territory which
is not suitable for cattle, and the rapid natural increase indicates
a speedy prosperity in cattle ranching. Goats and woolless sheep
number about 800,000 in the territory. Donkeys and mules thrive,
but horses are very liable to horse-sickness towards the end of
the rainy season.
Mining. When Rhodesia was first opened up to European
occupation, attention was immediately called to the large number
of gold workings made by unknown former inhabitants of the
:ountry. These workings were only carried on to a limited extent,
jeing stopped probably by the presence of water and the lack of
suitable machinery. European enterprise has resulted in the
discovery of a large number of mines situated in widely scattered
areas. The chief mines are the Globe and Phoenix, the Selukwe
and the Wanderer in the Gwelo district; the Giant in the
hartley district; the Jumbo in the Mazoe district; the Ayrshire
n the Lomagundi district; the Penhalonga and the Rezende in
.he Umtali district, while there are numerous smaller mines in the
Gwanda, Insiza, Gwelo, Hartley and Umtali districts. The output
of gold increased in value from 308,000 in 1900 to 2,623,000 in
1909, about one-third of this being produced by small workers
whose individual output is not over 1500 oz. a month. As efforts
lave been restricted mainly to extracting the ore indicated by
ancient workings, it is probable that many gold reefs still await
discovery. The mineral wealth of Rhodesia is very varied and
ncludes silver, of which 262,000 oz. were produced in 1909; coal,
170,000 tons (1909), and lead, 965 tons. Extensive discoveries
of chrome iron have been made in the Selukwe district. There is a
steady export of this metal, of which the output in 1909 was over
25,000 tons. Besides these, small quantities of copper, wolframite
and diamonds have been exported, while scheelite and asbestos
lave been discovered in payable quantities.
Commerce. Taking the average for a series of years ending
908, the total imports amounted to about 1,500,000 per annum,
:5% of which were manufactured articles, including 250,000
extile goods and wearing apparel, and 120,000 machinery. Im-
ports of food and drink amounted to 330,000. In 1909 the
mports amounted to 2,214,000, the chief items being food and
[rink (422,000), machinery, animals and cotton goods. Exports
onsist almost entirely of minerals. In 1909 they were valued at
'3,178,000. Included in the total is 342,000 goods imported and
e-exported.
Administration. The administration of Rhodesia is carried
n by the British South Africa Company under an order in
ouncil of 1898, amended by orders in council of 1003 and 1905.
The company is called upon to appoint for Southern Rhodesia
n administrator or administrators. The company also ap-
x>ints an executive council of not fewer than four members to
dvise the administrator upon all matters of importance in
dministration. An order in council of 1903 provided for a
RHODESIA
263
legislative council consisting of the administrator, who presides,
seven nominees of the company approved by the secretary of
state, and seven members elected by registered voters (the
number of registered voters in 1908 was 5291). In 1907 it was
agreed to reduce the company's nominees by one, so that the
elected members should form the majority of the council. The
secretary of state appoints a resident commissioner, who sits on
both executive and legislative councils without vote. The duty
of the resident commissioner is to report to the high commissioner
upon all matters of importance. Ordinances passed by the
legislative council are submitted to the high commissioner for
consent or otherwise, but may be disallowed by the secretary
of state.
For the administration of justice there is a High Court
with two judges having civil and criminal jurisdiction. There
are seven magistrates' courts throughout the territory. For
the administration of native affairs there are appointed a
secretary for native affairs, two chief native commissioners,
twenty-eight native commissioners and six assistant native
commissioners. Natives suffer no disabilities or restrictions
which do not equally apply to Europeans except in respect of
the supply of arms, ammunition and liquor. Native com-
missioners may exercise jurisdiction in native affairs not ex-
ceeding that exercisable by magistrates. The company has
to provide land, usually termed Native Reserves, sufficient
and suitable for occupation by natives and for their agricul-
tural and industrial requirements.
Revenue. The administrative revenue of Southern Rhodesia was
at first much less than the cost of administration. The figures
for 1899-1900 were: revenue, 325,000; expenditure, 702,000.
Since that date revenue has increased and expenditure decreased,
and from 1905-6 (in which year the revenue exceeded 500,000)
the cost of administration has been met out of revenue. For
1909-10 the revenue was approximately 600,000, the two main
items being customs duty, 190,000, and native tax, 200,000.
The native tax is i per head for every adult male and los. for every
wife after the first.
Education. Besides a few private schools, there were in 1909
34 schools for Europeans, 26 of which were wholly financed by
government, the remainder being aided. The aided schools are
as a rule connected with some religious body, and aid is given to
the extent of half the salaries of the teachers and half the cost of
school requisites. Loans are also given to assist in school building.
A system of boarding grants has been instituted to enable children
in the outlying districts to attend school. Education is not free
except for poor children, but the fees in government schools do
not exceed 6 a year. In 1910 several schools had reached the stage
of preparing pupils for matriculation at the Cape University and
similar examinations. The number of pupils in 1909 in European
schools was 1212, being more than double what it had been four
years previously. The education of natives is in the hands of
various religious bodies, but financial aid is given by government
to native schools which comply with certain easy conditions. In
1909, 80 native schools with an enrolment of 7622 pupils earned
grants.
Military Forces. The military force in Southern Rhodesia is styled
the British South African Police, and numbers about 40 officers,
400 non-commissioned officers and men, and 550 native police.
The force is under a commandant-general, who, with the sub-
ordinate officers, is appointed by the secretary of state, and is
under the direct control and authority of the high commissioner.
The commandant-general is paid by the British parliament. The
offices of commandant-general and resident commissioner were com-
bined in 1905.
The Southern Rhodesia Volunteers, in two divisions, eastern and
western, under command of colonels, number altogether 86 officers
and 1700 non-commissioned officers and men.
Medical. There are, including cottage hospitals, ten hospitals
in towns and townships, and thirteen district surgeries have been
established. (G. Du.)
Archaeology. Between the Zambezi and the Limpopo, and
extending from the coast to at least 27 E., may be found the
traces of a large population which inhabited Southern Rhodesia
and Portuguese East Africa in bygone times. Apart from
numerous mines, some of which are being successfully re-
worked at the present day, ruins of stone buildings have been
found in several hundred distinct places. Few of these have
been explored systematically, but investigations in 1905,
though confined to a small number of sites, determined at
least the main questions of date and origin. The fanciful
theories of popular writers, who had ascribed these buildings
to a remote antiquity, and had even been so audacious as to
identify their founders with the subjects of King Solomon or
of his contemporary the queen of Sheba, are now seen to be
untenable. J. T. Bent's Ruined Cities of Mashonaland (1892)
is now interesting only for its illustrations, and his theories
are obsolete. Positive archaeological evidence demonstrates
that the " Great Zimbabwe " itself, the most famous and
the most imposing of the misnamed " Ruined Cities," was
not built before medieval times, and that the earliest date
which can be assigned to any of the sites explored is subse-
quent to the nth century A.D. Moreover, the complete
identity of custom, revealed no less by the details of the dwell-
ings than by the type of the articles found within them, proves
that the tribe that built these structures was one closely akin
to if not actually identical with the present Bantu inhabitants
of the country.
These ruins, even when stripped of their false romance, are
of extreme interest; but their nature and appearance have
been much misunderstood, and the skill and intelligence re-
quired for their erection have been grossly overestimated.
It should be clearly stated, therefore, that the methods of the
old Rhodesians evince their complete ignorance of all the
devices employed in the architecture of civilized peoples.
They have not attempted to solve the problems of supporting
weight and pressure by the use of pillar, arch or beam; the
ingenuity of the builders goes no further than the dexterous
heaping up of stones. Indeed, their most finished and ela-
borate work must be compared with nothing more ambitious
than the dry-built walls which serve to enclose the fields in
certain parts of England. The material is the local granite or
diorite obtainable in the immediate neighbourhood. Stone-
hewing has not been practised; and was unnecessary, since
the natural flaking of the boulders provides an abundance
of ready-made slabs which need only be detached from the
parent rock and broken to the required size. At most the
blocks thus obtained have been very roughly trimmed with
one or two blows, and any apparent regularity in the fitting
has been obtained merely by judicious selection. Mortar
has seldom been used; the courses are never laid with any
approach to exactness; walls merely abut on one another
without being bonded, and the same line often varies greatly
in thickness at different parts.
The main principle of the ground plan is invariably circular
or elliptical, though it is carried out with a conspicuous lack
of symmetry or exactness. Straight lines are unknown, and
even accidental approximations to an angle are rare. This
is eminently characteristic of the Bantu, whose huts are
.commonly built in circular form. Indeed, it is the round Bantu
hut which has been the original model for even the finest
of these stone constructions. The connexion between the
two, however, goes beyond mere resemblance. The stone
walls are always accompanied by huts; they are mere parti-
tions or ring-fences enclosing and structurally inseparable from
platforms of clay or cement on which stand the remains of
precisely the same dwellings that the Makalanga make at the
present day. Buildings such as those at Dhlo Dhlo, Nana-
tali and Khami in Matabeleland, or at Zimbabwe in southern
Mashonaland, are merely fortified kraals; remarkable indeed
as the work of an African people, but essentially native African
in every detail, not excepting the ornamentation.
The best-known and the most attractive of the Rhodesian
ruins are those situated in the more central and southern
region. In the north-east, however, the remains are even
more numerous, though the single units are less remarkable.
Over the whole of Inyanga and the Mazoe region are distri-
buted hill-forts, pit-dwellings and intrenchments which are
more primitive in character though of the same generic type as
those found farther south. The inhabitants of these northern
districts were occupied more in agriculture than in gold-mining,
and one of the most striking features of their settlements is the
264
RHODESIA
irrigation system. There are no aqueducts such as Europeans or
Arabs might have built, but water furrows have been carried on
admirably calculated gradients for miles along the hill-sides.
The amount of labour which has been expended on the great
villages between Inyanga and the Zambezi is astounding.
On one site, the Niekerk Ruins, an area of fully 50 sq. m. is
covered with uninterrupted lines of walls. It is an interesting
question which may be solved by future explorations whether
these settlements do not extend north of the Zambezi. In-
trenchments like those of the Niekerk Ruins have been reported
from the south-east of Victoria Nyanza, and Major Powell
Cotton has published a photograph from the Nandi country
which exhibits a structure precisely similar to the hill forts
of Inyanga. (See also ZIMBABWE; MONOMOTAPA.)
See D. Randall-Maclver, Mediaeval Rhodesia (London, 1906) ;
R. N. Hall and W. G. Neal, The Ancient Ruins of Rhodesia (London,
1902); Zeitschrift fur Ethnologic, 1875 and 1876; Journal of the
R.G.S., 1890, 1893, 1899, 1906; Journal of Anthropl. Inst., vols.
xxxi., xxxv. (D. R.-M.)
History. There is evidence that from the loth or nth
centuries onward the lands now forming Rhodesia were in-
habited by Bantu-negroes who had made some progress in
civilization and who traded with the Arab settlements at
Sofala and elsewhere on the east coast (see Archaeology above).
From the isth century, if not earlier, until about the close of the
1 8th century, a considerable part of this area was ruled by a
hereditary monarch known as the Monomotapa, whose Zim-
babwe (capital) was, in the earlier part of the period indicated,
in what is now Mashonaland. Some of the Monomotapas
during the i6th and i7th centuries entered into political and
commercial relations with the Portuguese (see MONOMOTAPA
and ZIMBABWE). The Monomotapa " empire " included many
vassal states, and probably fell to pieces through intertribal
fighting, which greatly reduced the number of inhabitants. In
the early years of the ipth century the tribes appear to have lost
all cohesion. The people were mainly agriculturists, but the
working of the gold-mines, whence the Monomotapas had ob-
tained much of their wealth, was not wholly abandoned.
The modern history of the country begins with its invasion
by the Matabele, an offshoot of the Zulus. Mosilikatze, their
first chief, was a warrior and leader who served under the
Zulu despot Chaka. Being condemned to death by Chaka,
Mosilikatze fled, with a large division of the Zulu army. About
1817 he settled in territories north of the Vaal, not far from
the site of Pretoria; and in 1836 a treaty of friendship was
entered into with him by the governor of Cape Colony. In the
same year a number of the " trek Boers " had crossed the Vaal
river, and came in contact with the Matabele, who attacked
and defeated them, capturing a large number of Boer cattle
and sheep. In November 1837 the Boers felt themselves strong
enough to assail Mosilikatze, and they drove him and his
tribe north of the Limpopo, where they settled and occupied
the country subsequently known as Matabeleland. In 1868
Mosilikatze died. Kuruman, son and recognized heir of the old
chieftain, had disappeared years before, and though a Matabele
who claimed to be the missing heir was brought from Natal he
was not acknowledged by the leading indunas, who in January
1870 invested Lobengula, the next heir, with the chieftainship.
Those Matabele who favoured the supposed Kuruman were
defeated in one decisive battle, and thereafter Lobengula, whose
kraal was at Bulawayo, reigned unchallenged. At this time the
Matabele power extended north to the Zambezi, and eastward
over the land occupied by the Mashona and other Makalanga
tribes. North of the Zambezi the western districts were ruled
by the Barotse (<?..), while the eastern portion had been overrun
by other tribes of Zulu-Xosa origin, among whom the Agoni
were the most powerful. The explorations of David Living-
stone, Thomas Baines (1822-1875), Karl Mauch, and other
travellers, had made known to Europe the general character of
the country and the existence of great mineral wealth. Loben-
gula was approached by several " prospectors " for the grant
of concessions; among them two Englishmen, Baines in 1871
and Sir John Swinburne in 1872, obtained cessions of mineral
rights, but little effort was made to put them in force. In 1882
President Kruger, who was then bent on extending the bound-
aries of the Transvaal in every direction, endeavoured to make
a treaty with Lobengula, but without success. The Warren
expedition of 1884 to Bechuanaland (q.v.), while it checked for a
time the encroachments of the Transvaal Boers, and preserved
to Great Britain the highway to the north through Bechuana-
land, also served to encourage colonists to speculate as to the
future of the interior. At this time, too, the struggle between the
nations of western Europe for the unappropriated portions of
Africa had begun, and while the Boers, foiled in Matabeleland,
endeavoured to get a footing in Mashonaland, both Portuguese
and Germans were anxious to secure for their countries as much
of this region as they could. In 1887 a map was laid before the
Portuguese cortes showing the territories in Africa claimed by
Portugal. They stretched across the continent from sea to sea,
and included almost the whole of what is now Rhodesia, as well
as the British settlements on Lake Nyasa. To the claim of a
transcontinental domain Portugal had succeeded in gaining the
assent of Germany and France, though Germany, which had
secured a footing in south-west Africa, still dreamed of extending
her sway over Matabeleland. By the instructions of Lord
Salisbury, then foreign secretary, the British representative at
Lisbon informed the Portuguese government that except on the
seacoast and on portions of the Zambezi river there was not
a sign of Portuguese authority or jurisdiction in the districts
claimed by them, and that the British government could not
recognize Portuguese sovereignty in territory not effectively
occupied by her.
This protest, so far as southern Rhodesia is concerned, might
have been ineffective save for the foresight, energy and deter-
mination of Cecil Rhodes, who had been instrumental in saving
Bechuanaland from the Boers, and who as early as 1878 had
conceived the idea of extending British influence over central
Africa'. 1 At this time gold prospecting was being feverishly
undertaken all over South Africa as a result of the discoveries
at Barberton and on the Rand, and Lobengula was besieged for
all sorts of concessions by both Portuguese and Boers, as well
as by other adventurers from all parts of the world. The
If the country was to be secured for Britain immediate country
action was necessary. Sir Sidney Shippard, who had secured
succeeded Rhodes as commissioner in Bechuanaland tor Great
and who shared his views, kept up a friendly corre- Brltala -
spondence with Lobengula, while at Bulawayo Mr J. S.
Moffat was British resident. At the end of 1887 Sir Sidney
urged the high commissioner, Lord Rosmead (then Sir Hercules
Robinson), to allow him to conclude a treaty with Lobengula,
but unavailingly, until Rhodes, by taking upon himself all
pecuniary responsibility, succeeded in obtaining the required
sanction. On the nth of February 1888, Moffat and Lobengula
signed an agreement, whereby the Matabele ruler agreed that he
would refrain from entering into any correspondence or treaty
with any foreign state or power without the previous knowledge
and sanction of the British high commissioner for South Africa.
Shortly after the conclusion of this treaty, representatives of
influential syndicates directed by Rhodes, in which Alfred Beit
and C. D. Rudd were large holders, were sent, with the know-
ledge of the British government and the high commissioner, to
negotiate with Lobengula, and on the 3oth of October of the same
year he concluded an arrangement with Messrs Rudd, Rochfort
Maguire and F.R. Thomson, by which, in return for the payment
of 100 a month, together with 1000 Martini-Henry rifles and
100,000 rounds of ammunition, he gave the syndicate complete
control over all the metals and minerals in his kingdom, with
power to exclude from his dominions " all persons seeking land,
metals, minerals or mining rights therein," in which action, if
necessary, he promised to render them assistance. The position
of the envoys was one of considerable danger, as Lobengula
had around him many white advisers strongly antagonistic to
1 See article " Bechuanaland " by Sir Henry Shippard in British
Africa (London, 1899).
RHODESIA
265
The
B.S.A.
Co.'s
charter.
Rhodes's scheme. The arrival at Bulawayo of Dr L. S. Jameson,
who had previously attended Lobengula professionally, and who
strongly supported Rudd and his companions, appears to have
been the factor which decided Lobengula to sign the concession.
This concession once obtained, Rhodes proceeded with rapidity
to prosecute his great enterprise. He extinguished the claims
of earlier concessionaires by purchase (giving, for instance,
10,046 for the Baines and Swinburne grants), and united all
interests in the British South Africa Company, with a share
capital of 1,000,000.
Following the example of Sir George Goldie in West Africa
and of Sir William Mackinnon in East Africa, Rhodes determined
to apply to the British government for a charter for the newly
formed company, whose original directors were, in addition to
Rhodes and Beit, the duke of Abercorn, the duke of Fife, Lord
Gifford, Albert (afterwards 4th earl) Grey and George Cawston.
In applying for a charter (in April 1889) the founders of the
company stated their objects to, be the following: (i) To
extend northwards the railway and telegraph systems in the
direction of the Zambezi; (2) to encourage emigration and
colonization; (3) to promote trade and commerce; (4) to
develop and work minerals and other concessions under the
management of one powerful organization, thereby obviating
conflicts and complications between the various interests that
had been acquired within these regions, and securing to the
native chiefs and their subjects the rights reserved to them
under the several concessions. In making this application the
boundaries in which they proposed to work were purposely
left somewhat vague. They were described to be the region
of South Africa lying immediately north of British
Bechuanaland, north and west of the South African
Republic, and west of the Portuguese dominions on
the east coast. The government, having ascertained
the substantial nature of the company's resources and the
composition of the proposed directorate, and also that they
were prepared to begin immediately the development of the
country, granted the charter, dated the 2gth of October 1889.
From this date onward the company was commonly known as
" the Chartered Company."
A few points in the charter itself deserve to be noted. In
the first place, it gave considerable extension to the terms of
the original concessions by Lobengula. In short, it transformed
the rights of working minerals and metals, and preventing
others from doing so, into rights practically sovereign over
the regions in which the company's activity was to be employed.
These rights the crown granted directly itself, not merely con-
firming a previous grant from another source. By Article X.
the company was empowered to make ordinances (to be approved
by the secretary of state), and to establish and maintain a force
of police. A strict supervision was provided for, to be exercised
by the secretary of state over the relations between the company
and the natives. The British government reserved to itself
entire power to repeal the charter at any time that it did not
consider the company was fulfilling its obligations or endeavouring
duly to carry out the objects for which the charter was granted.
The sphere of operations of the company was not stated with
any greater precision than had been indicated in the applica-
tion for the charter; but by agreements concluded with Germany
in 1900, with Portugal in 1891 and with the Congo State in
1894, the international boundaries were at length defined (see
AFRICA, 5). The agreements, while they took the British
sphere north to Lake Tanganyika, disappointed Rhodes in that
they prevented the realization of the scheme he had formed
by the time the charter was granted, namely, for securing a
continuous strip of British territory from the Cape to Egypt a
scheme which was but an enlargement of his original conception
as formulated in 1878.
Much, however, had happened before the boundaries of the
British sphere were fixed. While the railway from Cape Town
was being continued northward as rapidly as possible, the
determination was taken to occupy immediately part of the
sphere assigned to the company, and Mashonaland was selected
as not being in actual occupation by the Matabele but the home
of more peaceful tribes. A pioneer force was sent up in June
1890 under Colonel Pennefather, consisting of five hundred
mounted police and a few hundred pioneers. Accompanying
this force as guide was the well-known traveller, F. C. Selous.
The work of transport was attended with considerable difficulty,
and roads had to be cut as the expedition advanced. Never-
theless, in a few months the expedition, without firing a shot,
had reached the site of what is now the town of Salisbury, and
had also established on the line of march small forts at Tuli,
Victoria and Charter. Archibald Ross Colquhoun was chosen
as the first administrator. He had not long been in office
when, in May 1891 , difficulties arose withthePortuguese
on their north-west frontier, both parties claiming a land
tract of territory in which a Portuguese trading station occupied
had been established. The result was a skirmish, in ~ A Boer
which a small company of British South Africa police
were victorious. In 1891 Dr Jameson, who had joined
the pioneer force, was appointed administrator in succession to
Colquhoun. The Boers for several years had been planning a
settlement north of the Limpopo, and they now determined,
in spite of the Moffat treaty and the British occupation, to carry
out their object. An expedition known as the Banyailand Trek
was organized under the leadership of Colonel Ferreira, and two
large parties of Boers proceeded to the banks of the Limpopo.
Information of the intended trek had been conveyed to Cape
Town, and Sir Henry (afterwards Lord) Loch (the high com-
missioner) at once sent a strong protest to -President Kruger,
informing him that any attempt to invade the Chartered
Company's territories would be an act of hostility against the
British Crown; and Kruger issued a proclamation forbidding
the trekkers to proceed. Meanwhile, however, a party had
already reached the Limpopo, where they were met by Jameson
in command of the British South Africa Company's forces.
He told them that they would not be allowed to proceed except
as private individuals, who might obtain farms on applica-
tion to the Chartered Company. Colonel Ferreira was arrested
and detained for a few days, and the expedition then broke
up and dispersed.
The pioneers, who were granted farms and mining claims,
having been settled in Mashonaland, Rhodes recognized the
extreme importance of giving the country a port nearer than
that provided by Cape Town. On his initiative proposals were
made to Portugal, and the treaty concluded in 1891 between
Great Britain and Portugal provided that a railway might be
built from Beira in Portuguese territory to Salisbury, on con-
dition that Portugal received a duty not exceeding 3% on the
value of the goods imported. The treaty further stipulated
for the free navigation of the Zambezi and the construction of
telegraphs. Prospecting operations were at once started, and
various gold mines were discovered containing traces of old
workings. Fresh gold reefs were also opened up. The prospects
of the country seemed promising, and although a good deal of
fever occurred in the low-lying valleys under the conditions
of camp life, the health of the community soon improved as
more suitable habitations were erected. In two years a white
population of 3000 people had settled in the newly opened
country.
Though the company was now free from international
rivalry it was soon faced by serious native trouble. The first
pioneers had deliberately chosen Mashonaland as their place
of settlement. Ever since the advent of Mosilikatze north of
the Limpopo the unfortunate Mashonas had been the prey of
the Matabele; they therefore readily accepted the British
occupation. The Matabele, however, were loth to abandon their
predatory excursions among the Mashonas, and in July 1893
a large impi (native force) was sent into Mashonaland, and
entered not only native kraals, but also the streets of the new
township of Victoria. An attempt was made to preserve the
peace, but it was evident from the attitude taken by the Matabele
that nothing short of the authority which only superior force
could command would settle the question. The Matabele were
xxin. o a
266
RHODESIA
a proud and fearless race of warriors; the men of that genera-
tion had never come in conflict with Europeans, and had never
been defeated in their conflicts with native foes. Jameson's forces
were slender, and Rhodes, on being consulted, urged him by
telegram to " Read Luke fourteen, thirty-one." On obtaining
a Bible, Jameson read the words: " Or what king, going to
make war against another king, sitteth not down first, and
consulteth whether he be able with ten thousand to meet him
that cometh against him with twenty thousand?" He tele-
graphed in reply: " All right. I have read Luke fourteen,
thirty-one." The position, though dangerous, admitted of no
delay, and Jameson determined to risk an expedition with the
forces at his command. His success on this occasion doubtless
weighed with him on another and less fortunate one. The
force available consisted of about 700 volunteers and 225 British
Bechuanaland police, with some 700 natives. Jameson deter-
mined to march to Bulawayo, the headquarters of Lobengula
and the capital of Matabeleland. The force was divided into
two columns, and was to be met by a further column of Bechuanas
marching from the south under Khama, the most influential
of the Bechuan chiefs and a loyal friend of the British. The
first engagement took place on the Shangani river, where the
two columns which had started from Fort Charter and Fort
Victoria were both engaged. Majors Forbes and Allan Wilson
commanded in these engagements; and after a hot contest
with between 4000 and 5000 Matabele, the latter were repulsed,
machine guns being used with terrible effect upon the enemy.
On the ist of November a second fight occurred on the high
ground, in which it was estimated that 7000 of the Matabele
attacked the laager of the two columns. The oldest and most
tried regiments of Lobengula dashed right up to the muzzles
of the guns, but were swept down before the modern rifles and
machine guns with which the invaders were armed. Meanwhile
the column of Khama's men from the south had reached the
Tati, and won a victory on the Singuesi river on the and of
November. On the 3rd of November Bulawayo was reached,
and the columns from Mashonaland, accompanied by Jameson
and Sir John Willoughby, entered the town, Lobengula, and
Matabele- his followers being in full flight towards the Zambezi.
land coo- An endeavour was made to induce Lobengula to
quered. surrender; but as no replies were received to the
messages, Major Forbes, on the i3th of November, organized
a column and started in pursuit. 1 The pursuing party were
delayed by difficult roads and heavy rains, and did not come
up with Lobengula until the 3rd of December. Major Allan
Wilson, in command of thirty-four troopers, crossed the
Shangani river in advance, and bivouacked close to Loben-
gula's quarters. In the night the river rose, and reinforce-
ments were unable to join him. During the early morning the
Matabele surrounded the little band, and after fighting most
gallantly to the last, Major Allan Wilson and all his followers,
with the exception of three messengers, who had been sent
back, were killed.
In January 1894 Lobengula died from fever, or as the result
of a wound, accounts differ at a spot about forty miles south
of the Zambezi. After his death his indunas submitted to the
Chartered Company's forces, and the war, which cost the
company over one hundred lives and 110,000, was thus ended.
An order in council of the i8th of July following defined the
administrative power of the company over Matabeleland.
Charges were made against the company of having provoked
the Matabele in order to bring on the war and thus secure
their territory, but after inquiry the company was expressly
exonerated from the charge by Lord Ripon, then colonial
secretary. With the close of the war the Matabele appeared
to be crushed, and for over two years there was no serious
trouble with the natives. The country was at once thrown
1 Lobengula had in fact sent to the Forbes patrol gold dust worth
about 1000, and intimated his desire to surrender; but two
troopers to whom the gold and message were entrusted kept the
gold and suppressed the message. Their crime was afterwards
discovered and the troopers sentenced to fourteen years' penal
servitude.
open to white settlers. Close to the site of Lobengula's kraal
the new town of Bulawayo was founded, and rapidly grew
in importance. Among the new settlers were many Dutch
farmers. The Roman-Dutch law was chosen as that of the
new colony, a land commission was established and com-
missioners appointed to look after the interests of the
natives.
Considerable development in the part of the company's
territory north of the Zambezi had meantime taken place.
Between 1889 and 1891 a large number of tribes in the region
between lakes Nyasa and Tanganyika and the Zambezi had
entered into treaty relations with the company, and a settle-
ment named Abercorn had been founded at the south end of
Tanganyika. This work was undertaken in part to forestall
German action, as before the signature of the agreement of
July 1890 German agents entertained the design of penetrating
west of Lake Nyasa to the Congo State frontier. The company
further acquired the property of the African Lakes Company
which had done much to secure British predominance in the
Nyasa region and on the organization of Nyasaland as an
imperial protectorate the South Africa Company contributed
10,000 a year for three years (1891-92-93) towards the cost
of the administration, the imperial commissioner during this
period acting as administrator for the adjacent territories
belonging to the company (see BRITISH CENTRAL AFRICA).
Farther west, Lewanika, the king of the Barotse, signed, on
the 27th of June 1890, a treaty placing his country under the
protection of the Chartered Company, which, while obtaining
all mineral rights, undertook not to interfere in the internal
administration of Barotseland. In securing a position thus
early in Barotseland, Rhodes's aim was to prevent the farther
extension eastward of the Portuguese province of Angola.
The subsequent development of Barotseland had little direct
connexion with the events in other parts of Rhodesia (see
BAROTSE and LEWANIKA). The growth of territory and the
outlay on Matabeleland led to a great increase of expenditure,
and the capital of the company was raised to 2,000,000 in
November 1893, and to 2,500,000 in July 1895.
In every step taken by the company the guiding hand was
that of Cecil Rhodes, a fact which received recognition when,
by a proclamation of the 3rd of May 1895, the company's
territory received officially the name of " Rhodesia." During
this year there was great activity in exploiting Matabeleland.
" Stands " or plots were sold at extraordinary prices in Bula-
wayo; 539 fetched a total of 153,312, about 285 a stand.
In within nine months Bulawayo had a population of 1900
whites, and in the various goldfields there were over 2000
prospectors. The construction of telegraphs proceeded with
rapidity and by the end of 1895, 500 m. of new lines had been
constructed, making about 1500 in all. A new company, the
African Transcontinental Company, had been founded under
the auspices of Rhodes, with the ultimate purpose of connecting
the Cape with Cairo. By the end of 1895, 133 m. of these
lines had been laid. At this time too, the railway from Cape
Town had passed Mafeking and was approaching the Rhodesian
frontier, while on the east coast the line to connect Salisbury
with Beira was under construction.
In November 1895 the crown colony of British Bechuanaland
was annexed to Cape Colony, and the Chartered Company
desired to take over the administration of the Bechuanaland
protectorate, which stretched between the newly annexed
portion of Cape Colony and Matabeleland, and through which
the railway to Bulawayo had to pass. The British government
consented, and arrangements were made for the transfer. The
company's police were moved down to a camp in the protector-
ate at Pitsani Potlogo 1 ". It was from this place that on the 29th
of December Jameson crossed the Transvaal border and marched
on Johannesburg, in his disastrous attempt to upset President
Kruger's administration. The " Jameson Raid " put an end
to the proposed transfer of the protectorate to the Chartered
Company, and caused a serious crisis in its affairs. Rhodes
resigned his position as managing director, and Alfred Beit
RHODESIA
267
retired from the directorate in London. Jameson was, on the
9th of January 1896, officially removed from his office of
administrator of the company's territories, and was succeeded
by Earl Grey. Just at this time rinderpest made its appearance
in southern Rhodesia, carrying off large herds of cattle, and
this was followed in March 1896 by a revolt of the Matabele,
while in June the Mashona also rebelled. The occasion, but
not the cause, of the Matabele rising was the withdrawal of
the greater part of the company's force to take part in the
Jameson Raid. The Matabele had various grievances, chiefly
that after the war of 1893 they were treated as a conquered
people. All able-bodied young men were required to work
for the white farmers and miners a certain number of months
per annum at a fixed rate of pay a most irksome regulation,
enforced, on occasions, by the native police in a tyrannical
fashion. Another grievance was the seizure by the company,
after the death of Lobengula, of the cattle of the Matabele
their chief source of wealth. Not only was there a first con-
fiscation after the war, but subsequently there was a periodical
taking away of cattle in small numbers the company acting
under the belief that nearly all the cattle in Matabeleland
belonged to the king and were therefore lawfully theirs. How-
ever, before the end of 1895 the company had settled the ques-
tion in agreement with the indunas, two-fifths of the cattle
to go to the company and the remainder to become the absolute
property of the natives. But it was neither the action of the
company in the confiscation of cattle, nor the labour regulations,
that induced the mass of the people to rebel; they were induced
to act by chiefs who chafed under their loss of power and
The position and imagined themselves strong enough to
rebellions throw off the yoke of the conquerors. In the manner
of 1896. customary among savages the Matabele began hostil-
ities by the murder of defenceless white settlers men,
women and children. Bulawayo was threatened, and soon all
the country south of the Zambezi was in a state of rebellion.
Imperial troops under Sir Frederick Carrington were hurried
up to the assistance of such police as the British South Africa
Company still had at its command. Volunteers were enrolled,
and much fierce fighting followed. Rhodes hastened to Bula-
wayo, and after conferences with the military and other author-
ities he determined to go, with Dr Hans Sauer and Mr J. Colen-
brander, a well-known hunter and pioneer intimately acquainted
with the natives, and interview the chiefs. They went (September
1896) unarmed into the heart of the Matoppo Hills, and there
arranged terms of peace with the indunas. The interview
involved grave danger to the emissaries, and depended for
its success entirely upon Rhodes's personality and influence
over the native races, but it terminated what promised to be
a long and disastrous native war. The Matabele, whose
legitimate grievances were acknowledged and met, ceased the
war after the indaba with Rhodes; the Mashona revolt con-
tinued, and was not finally crushed until October 1897, though
all danger to settlers was over six months previously. At
this time the rinderpest had carried off nearly all the cattle in
the country a disaster which, together with the destruction of
grain during the war, had brought the natives almost to starva-
tion and steps had to be taken to supply their needs. Many
of the white settlers too were reduced to sore straits and re-
quired assistance. The rebellions had cost the company fully
2,500,000, and to meet the debt incurred an additional capital
of 1,500,000 was raised in 1898. At the meeting of the com-
pany in April 1898, at which this step was taken, Rhodes was
re-elected a director.
The events of 1896 the Jameson Raid and the rebellions
caused the imperial government to remodel the constitution of
Rhodesia. The armed forces of the company had already
been placed under the direct control of the crown, and on the
2oth of October 1898 an order in council was passed providing
for the future regulation of the country. An imperial resident
commissioner was appointed, who was also to be ex officio
a member of the executive and legislative councils; and there
was to be a legislative council, consisting of five nominated
and four elected members. The first meeting of the newly
appointed council took place at Salisbury on the isth of May
1899.' Other changes, in the direction of giving more power
to the non-official element, were made subsequently (see above,
Administration) .
While these political changes were being made the company
and the settlers set to work to repair the losses by war and
plague. In particular the policy of railway development was
pushed forward, and in November 1897 the line from Cape
Town reached Bulawayo. The Mashonaland railway connecting
Salisbury with Beira was completed in May 1899. In the
same year gold-mining on a considerable scale began, the
output for the year being over 65,000 oz. In the early part
of 1899 Rhodes visited London and Berlin in furtherance of
his schemes for the transcontinental telegraph extension
from Cape Town to Cairo, and the transcontinental railway.
He endeavoured to obtain from the British Government the
guarantee of a loan for extending the railway, to be raised
at 3%, but was unsuccessful. He received, however, the
support of various companies in Rhodesia, who amongst them
subscribed 252,800 at 3% for the immediate extension of
the railway for 150 miles; and in May he stated, at a meeting
of the Chartered Company, that the Rhodesia Railways
Limited would raise another 3,000,000 at 4%, to be guaranteed
by the Chartered Company. In this way he hoped that the
remaining 1050 miles of railway from Bulawayo to the frontier
of German East Africa might be constructed. In Berlin,
Rhodes had an interview with the German Emperor, when
arrangements were arrived at for the passage of telegraph
lines over German territory, and also in certain contingencies
for the continuation of the transcontinental railway through
German East Africa.
In many respects the country recovered rapidly from the
disasters of 1896, one of the most important measures taken
being the compulsory inoculation for rinderpest, which finally
stamped out the disease in 1898-99. By the last balance-
sheet issued by the company previous to the outbreak of the
Boer War it would appear that the revenue of Rhodesia for
the year ending the 3ist of March 1898 amounted to 260,516
net, of which amount the sale of land plots accounts for
63,628; stamps and licences, 69,658; and posts and
telegraphs, 46,745; so that the machinery of civilized life
was already in full activity where eight years previously the
only white inhabitants had been a few missionaries, hunters
and traders. The government buildings were estimated in
March 1898 to be worth 165,672, and the assessed value of
the town property at Bulawayo was 2,045,000 and that at
Salisbury 750,000. (Both those towns had been granted
municipal government in 1897.) Education was arranged under
the supervision of government inspectors, and various religious
communities were also engaged in educational work. The
country appeared indeed in 1899 to be starting on the road to
industrial and agricultural prosperity, but an almost complete
stop to progress resulted from the outbreak of the Boer War
in October of that year. The company could point with
satisfaction to the fact that Rhodesia contributed nearly
1500 men to the forces serving in the war, 12$% of the
European population. Rhodesia itself was not subjected to
invasion, but the withdrawal of so large a number of able-
bodied men seriously interfered with the development of the
country, the war not ending until June 1902. Throughout
this period the natives, with few exceptions, remained peaceful
and gave the administration no serious trouble.
Before the war ended, Cecil Rhodes, whose chief work during
the period since the Raid had been the building up of the
country which bore his name, was dead (26th of Agitation
March 1902). Alfred Beit, who had in 1898 refused torsetf-
to rejoin the directorate, now consented (June 1902) govern-
to return to the board of the Chartered Company,
on which he remained until his death in July 1906. The
loss of Rhodes's guiding mind and inspiring personality was,
however, manifest, and among the Rhodesians there arose
268
RHODIUM
a feeling of discontent at the company's conduct of affairs.
The company was willing on proper terms to hand over
the administration to the colonists, and they secured the
services of Sir George Goldie to examine the situation
and report on what terms the transfer could be made. Sir
George visited Rhodesia in 1903-4, and drew up a scheme
which included the taking over by Rhodesia of the adminis-
trative liabilities incurred by the company, which would thus
become a public debt. After consultation between leading
Rhodesians and the directors of the company the scheme was
abandoned, the Rhodesians considering the financial burden
proposed too great for an infant colony. The company therefore
continued the administration, devoting attention to the develop-
ment of agriculture and mining. The two railway systems
were linked together by a line from Bulawayo to Salisbury,
and several short lines to mining properties were built. From
Bulawayo the main line was continued to the Wankie coal-
fields, thence to the Zambezi, bridged in 1905 just below the
Victoria Falls. From the Zambezi the line went north-east,
so as to render accessible the mineral wealth of Barotse-
land and that of Katanga on the Rhodesian-Congo frontier.
Although Rhodesia was affected by the commercial depression
which prevailed in South Africa for some years after the close
of the war, its industries showed considerable vitality. In
1906 the gold output exceeded 50x3,000 oz., and in the financial
year 1905-6 the revenue of Southern Rhodesia slightly ex-
ceeded the expenditure.
Only once (1895-96) in the first fifteen years following
the settlement of the country had the company's annual revenue
exceeded the amount expended in the same period. As a
commercial undertaking, the company therefore was during
this period of no pecuniary advantage to the shareholders.
This was due hi part to unforeseen and unavoidable causes,
but it is also true that the founders of the company had other
than commercial aims. Rhodes's chief ambition was to secure
the country for Britain and to open it up to the energies of
her peoples, and he succeeded in this aim. He acted more
quickly, and in many ways more effectively, than the imperial
government would have been able to act had it at the outset
taken over the country. To the sturdy colonists Rhodes
made available a land rich not only in gold, but in coal and
other minerals, and with very great agricultural and pastoral
resources, and all this was done without the cost of a penny
to the imperial exchequer. Despite all drawbacks, an area
(reckoning Southern Rhodesia only) considerably larger than
that of the United Kingdom had in less than twenty years
been endowed with all the adjuncts of civilization and made
the home of thousands of settlers.
The progress made by the country in the five years 1906-10
demonstrated that the faith Rhodes and his colleagues had
placed in it was not ill-founded. Although the white popu-
lation increased but slowly, in all other respects healthy
development took place, the element of speculation which
had characterized many of the first attempts to exploit the
land being largely eliminated. In 1906 Lord Selborne (the
high commissioner) visited Rhodesia. He inquired into the
various grievances of the settlers against the Chartered Com-
pany; held an indaba with Matabele indunas in the Matoppo
Hills, and at Bulawayo had a conference with Lewanika, the
paramount chief of the Barotse. In 1907 Dr Jameson and
other directors of the Chartered Company travelled through
Rhodesia, and the result was to clear up some of the matters
in dispute between the settlers and the company. Southern
Rhodesia had become self-supporting, and the essentially
temporary nature of the existing system of government was
recognized. But the company held that the time was not yet
ripe for Southern Rhodesia to become a self-governing colony.
The directors, however, adopted a more liberal land policy,
the increased attention given to agriculture being a marked
and satisfactory feature of the situation. Mining and railway
development were also pushed on vigorously.
The movement for the closer union of the British South
African colonies excited lively interest in Southern Rhodesia.
The territory, not possessing self-government, could not take
part in the national convention which met at Durban in
October 1908 on equal terms with the delegates of the Cape,
&c. It was, however, represented by three delegates on the
understanding that Rhodesia would not, for the time being at
least, be included in. any agreement which might be reached.
The convention resulted in the union (on the 3ist of May 1910)
under one government of the Cape, Transvaal, Natal and
Orange River colonies. The position of Rhodesia with respect
to the Union was set forth in the South Africa Act 1009. It
provides that " the king, with the advice of the Privy Council,
may on addresses from the Houses of Parliament of the Union
admit into the Union the territories administered by the
British South Africa Company on such terms and conditions
as to representation and otherwise in each case as are ex-
pressed in the addresses and approved by the king."
In Rhodesia itself at this time there was a widespread feeling
that there was no urgency as to the territory joining the Union,
and the opinion was held by many that a separate existence
as a self-governing community would be preferable. A section
of the settlers were content for the present to remain under
the government of the Chartered Company.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. i. Works dealing with the country before
the establishment of British authority: David Livingstone,
Missionary Travels (1857)'; T. Baines, The Gold Regions of S.E.
Africa (1877); R. Gordon Gumming, Five Years of a Hunter's
Life in . . . S.A. (1850); K. Mauch, Reisen im Inner en von Siid-
Afrika, 1865-72 (Gotha, 1874); E. Holub, Seven Years in South
Africa (1881) ; E. Mohr, To the Victoria Falls of the Zambesi (1876) ;
F. C. Selous, A Hunter's Wanderings in Africa (1881), and Travel
and Adventure in S.E. Africa (1893); T. M. Thomas, Eleven Years
in Central South Africa (N.D. [1872]) ; L. P. Bowler, Facts about
the Matabele, Mashona, &c. (Pretoria, 1889); Rev. D. Carnegie,
Among the Matabele (1894).
2. Since the British occupation: Bishop Knight-Bruce,
Memories of Mashonaland (1895); J. C. Chadwicfc, Three Years with
Lobengula (1894); D. C. de Waal, With Rhodes in Mashonaland
(trans, from Dutch, 1896); W. A. Wells and L. T. Collingridge,
The Downfall of Lobengula (1894); A. R. Colquhoun, Matabeleland
(N.D. [1894]); C. H. Donovan, With Wilson in Matabeleland (1894);
A. G. Lenard, How we made Rhodesia, (1896); Lord R. Churchill,
Men, Mines and Minerals in S.A. (1895); E. Foa, La Traversee
de I'Afrique (Paris, 1900) ; F. C. Selous, Sunshine and Storm in
Rhodesia (the Matabele rising) (1896); R. S. S. Baden-Powell,
The Matabele Campaign, i8cj6 (1897); E. A. H. Alderson, With
the Mounted Infantry (in Mashonaland) (1898); S. J. du Toit,
Rhodesia Past and Present (1897) ; H. Hensman, History of Rhodesia
(1900) ; H. P. N. Muller, De Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek en Rhodesia
(The Hague, 1896) ;W. H. Brown, On the South African Frontier(l8^).
3. Economics, &c. : P. F. Hone, Southern Rhodesia (1909); the
Annual Reports of the British S.A. Co.; C. T. Roberts, The Future
of Gold Mining in Mashonaland (Salisbury, Rhodesia, 1898);
Southern Rhodesia; Information for Settlers (1907); D. E. Hutchins,
Report ... on Trees in Rhodesia (Cape Town, 1903) ; Handbook
for Tourists and Sportsmen (1907); A. H. Keane, The Gold of Ophir
(1901); C. Peters, The Eldorado of the Ancients (1902); E. de
Renty, La Rhodesia (Paris, 1907) ; Proceedings of the Rhodesian
Scientific Association (1899- ) (ist vol., Bulawayo, 1903);
The Rhodesian Agricultural Journal (ist vol., Salisbury, Rhodesia,
1903). All treaties, &c., respecting Rhodesia will be found in Herts-
lett's Map of Africa by Treaty (1909 ed.). For Blue Books concern-
ing Rhodesia consult the Colonial Office List (annually). The best
general map of S. Rhodesia is that published by the administration
in 1909-10 (7 sheets on the 1-500000 scale).
For general works including Rhodesia see SOUTH AFRICA,
Bibliography. See also authorities cited under BRITISH CENTRAL
AFRICA, BAROTSE, &c. (A. P. H.; F. R. C.)
RHODIUM [symbol Rh; atomic weight 102-9 (0=i6)], in
chemistry, a metallic chemical element found, associated with
the other elements of the platinum group, in crude platinum
ore, wherein it was discovered in 1803 by W. H. Wollaston
(Phil. Trans., 1804, p. 419). It may be obtained from the
residues of platinum ^ore after treatment with aqua regia and
removal of the platinum as chlorplatinate. The mother
liquors are decomposed by treatment with metallic iron, the
precipitate obtained being warmed with concentrated nitric
acid and heated in an iron crucible with concentrated caustic
potash. The residue thus obtained is mixed with salt and
1 Unless otherwise stated, the place of publication is London.
RHODOCHROSITE RHODODENDRON
269
heated in a current of chlorine, any iridium present being
converted into its chloride by treatment with nitric acid and
precipitated by ammonium chloride, whilst rhodium ammonium
chloride goes into solution with its characteristic rose-red
colour (C. E. Claus, Jour, prakt. Chem., 1843-1845). For other
methods of extraction see Gibbs, ib., 1861, 84, p. 65; 1865,
94, p. 10; T. Wilm, Bull. soc. chim., 1880 (2), 34, p. 679;
E. Fremy, Comptes rendus, 1854, 38, p. 1008, &c.). The metal
itself is best obtained by the reduction of chlorpurpureo
rhodium chloride, (Cl 2 Rh 2 -10NH g )-Cli, in a current of hydrogen,
the metal after reduction being cooled in a stream of carbon
dioxide (S. M. Jorgensen, Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1903, 34, p. 82).
It somewhat resembles aluminium in colour ; its specific
gravity varies from n to 12-1; and its specific heat is 0-05527
(V. H. Regnault, Ann. chim. phys., 1861, 63, p. 15). It is
less fusible than platinum. It oxidizes superficially when
heated, and may be distilled in the electric furnace. It is
insoluble in acids, but forms a soluble sulphate when fused
with potassium bisulphate (a reaction which distinguishes it
from the other metals of the platinum group). It oxidizes
when fused with potassium hydroxide and potassium nitrate,
to the dioxide, RhO 2 . It absorbs hydrogen readily. Rhodium
black is obtained by reducing rhodium salts with formic acid;
by alcohol in the presence of alkali; or by precipitation with
zinc and iron. A colloidal rhodium may be prepared by
reducing the sesquichloride with hydrazine hydrate. Rhodium
salts may be recognized by their characteristic reaction with
freshly prepared sodium hypochlorite solution. A yellow
precipitate is obtained, which on shaking for some time with
acetic acid gradually dissolves to an orange-coloured solution.
This solution after a short time deposits a grey precipitate,
and the supernatant liquid becomes azure blue in colour (E.
Demarcay, Comptes rendus, 1885, 101, p. 951).
Several oxides of rhodium are known. The monoxide, RhO,
formed when the hydrated sesquioxide is heated (Claus) or when
finely divided rhodium is heated in a current of air (Wilm), is a grey
powder which is insoluble in acids. The sesquioxide, Rh 2 O S) is a
black insoluble powder, formed when the corresponding hydrate is
heated. This hydrate, Rh 2 (OH) 6 , is obtained as a yellow powder,
by decomposing rhodium salts(not the sulphate) with dilute solutions
of the caustic alkalis. It is soluble in acids, and in the moist
condition is also soluble in concentrated alkalis. A hydrated
rhodium dioxide, RhO 2 -2H 2 O, is formed when chlorine is passed
into a solution of the sesquioxide in concentrated caustic potash,
or by adding an alkaline hypochlorite to a concentrated alkaline
solution of rhodium and sodium chlorides. It is a greenish-black
powder which is soluble in hydrochloric acid. Rhodium chloride,
Rh 2 Cl 6 , is obtained impure by heating the metal to dull redness in a
current of chlorine, or, purer, by heating an alloy of rhodium and tin
in chlorine or by heating the double ammonium rhodium chloride
in chlorine at 440 C. (E. Leidie, Ann. chim. phys., 1889, (6), 17,
p. 265; Comptes rendus, 1899, 129, p. 1249). It is a red powder,
- which decomposes at a red heat, leaving a residue of the metal. It
is insoluble in water and acids, but dissolves in concentrated solu-
tions of potassium cyanide. The hydrated form Rh 2 Cl 6 -8H 2 O is
obtained impure by dissolving the hydrated sesquioxide in hydro-
chloric acid, by the action of hydrofluosilicic acid on potassium
rhodium chloride, and by the action of chlorine on rhodium in the
presence of sodium chloride. In the last method the product is
dissolved in a dilute hydrochloric acid (1:1), and the solution
saturated with hydrochloric acid gas at o C., allowed to stand for
some time, decanted, and finally evaporated in vacuo (Leidi6, loc. cit.).
It forms a very deliquescent, red, amorphous mass, which decom-
poses on exposure. It is very soluble in water, forming a yellow
solution. It forms double salts with the alkaline chlorides.
Rhodium monosulphide, RhS, is formed when rhodium or rhodium
ammonium chloride are heated with sulphur, and also by precipi-
tating rhodium salts with sulphuretted hydrogen, the precipitate being
dissolved in ammonium sulphide and thrown down again by dilute
sulphuric acid (Lecoq de Boisbaudran, Ber., 1883, 16, p. 579). It is a
dark-coloured powder which is insoluble in acids and other solvents.
It loses all its sulphur when heated in air. The sesquisulphide,
Rh 2 S 3 , is prepared by heating anhydrous rhodium chloride, Rh 2 Cl 6 ,
in a current of sulphuretted nydrogen at 360 C., or by passing the
gas into a boiling solution of the chloride. It is a black powder
which is insoluble in acids and in alkaline sulphides. It decomposes
when strongly heated. Rhodium sulphate, Rh^SO^j, is preparec
by oxidizing the sulphide, by fusing the metal with acid potassium
sulphate, or by the action of concentrated sulphuric acid on an alloy
of rhodium and lead, or on the hydrated sesquioxide. It is a rec
powder which decomposes when heated or when boiled with much
water. It forms alums (Leidie, Comptes rendus, 1888, 107, p. 234).
Rhodium potassium alum, Rh,(SO 4 )rKjS9 4 -24H,O, is obtained by
dissolving the sesquioxide in sulphuric acid and adding two-thirds
of the calculated amount of potassium sulphate to the solution
(A. Piccini and L. Marino, Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1901, 27, p. 62). It
crystallizes in cubes. Rhodium cyanide, Rhj(CN), is a carmine-red
powder formed when rhodium potassium cyanide is boiled with
acetic acid. Rhodium potassium cyanide, KRhj(CN)u, is formed
when the sesquioxide is dissolved in caustic potash and an excess of
lydrocyanic acid added gradually, the solution being then evaporated
n vacuo. It is a colourless crystalline solid soluble in water, and
somorphous with the corresponding iron, cobalt, chromium and
manganese compounds.
The rhodium ammonia salts correspond almost with the similar
cobalt compounds and may be divided into three series namely,
hexammine salts (luteo-salts), [Rh(NH>)]Xi; aquopentammine salts
(roseo-salts), [Rh(NHa) 6 -H 2 O]X a ; and pentammine salts (purpureo-
salts), [Rh(NH,) l X]X 2 . (See S. F. Jorgensen, C. W. Blomstrand,
Jour. prak. Chem., 1882, et seq.)
The atomic weight of rhodium has been determined by S. F.
Jorgensen (Jour, prakt. Chem., 1883, 27, p. 486), by the analysis of
chlorpurpureo rhodium chloride, the mean value obtained being
103; whilst K. Seubert and K. Kobb6 (Ann., 1890, 260, p. 314), by
analysis of the double chloride and sulphate, obtained as a mean
value 1 02 -86.
RHODOCHROSITE, a mineral species consisting of man-
ganese carbonate, MnCOj, crystallizing in the rhombohedral
system and isomorphous with calcite. It usually occurs
as cleavable, compact or botryoidal masses, distinct crystals
being somewhat rare; these often have the form of the
primitive rhombohedron, parallel to the faces of which there
are perfect cleavages. When pure, the mineral contains
47'7% f manganese, but this is usually partly replaced by
varying amounts of iron, and sometimes by calcium, mag-
nesium, zinc, or rarely cobalt (cobalt-manganese-spar). With
these variations in chemical composition the specific gravity
varies from 3-45 to 3-60; the hardness is 4. The colour is
usually rose-red, but may sometimes be grey to brown. The
name rhodochrosite, from the Greek /SoSo-xpws (rose-
coloured), has reference to the characteristic colour of the
mineral: manganese-spar and dialogite are synonyms. It
is found in mineral veins with ores of silver, lead, copper, &c.,
or in deposits of manganese ore. Crystals have been met
with in the mines at Kapnik-B&nya and Nagyag near Deva
in Transylvania and at Diez in Nassau, but by far the best
specimens are from Colorado. The mineral is used to a limited
extent in the manufacture of spiegeleisen and ferromanga'nese.
RHODODENDRON. Classical writers, such as Dioscorides
and Pliny, seem, from what can be ascertained, to have called
the oleander (Nerium Oleander) by this name, but in modern
usage it is applied to a large genus of shrubs and trees be-
longing to the order of heaths (Ericaceae). No adequate
distinction can be drawn between this genus and Azalea (q.v.)
the proposed marks of distinction, however applicable in
particular cases, breaking down when tested more generally.
The rhododendrons are trees or shrubs, never herbs, with
simple, evergreen or deciduous leaves, and flowers in terminal
clusters surrounded in the bud by bud-scales but not as a rule
by true leaves. The flowers are remarkable for the frequent
absence or reduced condition of the calyx. The funnel- or
bell-shaped corolla, on the other hand, with its five or more
lobes, is usually conspicuous, and in some species so much so
as to render these plants greatly prized in gardens. The
free stamens are usually ten, with slender filaments and anthers
opening by pores at the top. The ovary is five- or many-
celled, ripening into a long woody pod which splits from top
to bottom by a number of valves, which break away from
the central placenta and liberate a large number of small bran-
like seeds provided with a membranous wing-like appendage
at each end. The species are for the most part natives of
the mountainous regions of the northern hemisphere, extend-
ing as far south as the Malay Archipelago and New Guinea,
but not hitherto found in South America or Australia. None
are natives of Britain. They vary greatly in stature, some
of the alpine species being mere pygmies with minute leaves
and tiny blossoms, while some of the Himalayan species
are moderate-sized trees with superb flowers. Some are
27
RHODONITE RHONDDA
epiphytal, growing on the branches of other trees, but not
deriving their sustenance from them. The varieties grown
in gardens are mostly grafted on the Pontic species (R. ponti-
cum) and the Virginian R. catawbiense. The common Pontic
variety is excellent for game-covert, from its hardiness, the
shelter it affords, and the fact that hares and rabbits rarely
eat it. Variety of colour has been infused by crossing or
hybridizing the species first named, or their derivatives, with
some of the more gorgeously coloured Himalayan-American
varieties. In many instances this has been done without
sacrifice of hardihood.
Some of the finest hybrids for the open air, especially in favoured
spots, are altaclerense (scarlet); Harrisi (rosy crimson); Kewense
(rose); Luscombei (rose-pink); Mangiest (white); nobleanum
(crimson), one of the first to flower after Christmas; praecox (rose-
purple) ; and Shilsoni (crimson). There are almost countless colour
variations of these, but one of the most exquisite of late years is that
known as Pink Pearl, with large clear rosy-pink blossoms of great
purity. What are termed greenhouse rhododendrons are derivatives
from certain Malayan and Javanese species, and are consequently
much more tender. They are characterized by the possession of a
cylindrical (not funnel-shaped) flower-tube and other marks of
distinction. The foliage of rhododendrons contains much tannin,
and has been used medicinally. Whether the honey mentioned by
Xenophon as poisonous was really derived from plants of this genus
as alleged is still an open question.
Cultivation. The hardy evergreen kinds are readily propagated
by seed, by layers, and by grafting. Grafting is resorted to only for
the propagation of the rarer and more tender kinds. Loamy soil
containing a large quantity of peat or vegetable humus is essential,
the roots of all the species investigated being associated with a
fungus partner (mycorhiza). An excess of lime or chalk in the soil
proves fatal to rhododendrons and their allies sooner or later a fact
overlooked by many amateurs. The hardy deciduous kinds are
valuable for forcing, and withstand cold-storage treatment well.
The tender "Malayan and Javanese species thrive in warm green-
house temperature, but are difficult to cultivate where the water is
very alkaline.
RHODONITE, a member of the pyroxene group of minerals,
consisting of manganese metasilicate, MnSiOs, and crystallizing
in the anorthic system. It commonly occurs as cleavable to
compact masses with a rose-red colour; hence the name, from
the Greek pbdov (a rose). Crystals often have a thick tabular
habit; there are perfect cleavages parallel to the prism faces
with an arigle of 87 3iJ'. The hardness is s|-6|, and the
specific 'gravity 3-4-3-68. The manganese is often partly
replaced by iron and calcium, which may sometimes be present
in considerable amounts; a greyish-brown variety containing
as much as 20% of calcium oxide is called "bustamite";
" fowlerite " is a zinciferous variety containing 7 % of zinc
oxide. Rhodonite is a mineral liable to alteration, with the
formation of manganese carbonate, hydrous silicate or oxides.
The compact material, which is cut and polished for ornamental
purposes, is often marked in a striking manner by veins and
patches of these black alteration products. At Syedelnikova,
near Ekaterinburg in the Urals, compact material of a good
colour occurs in a clay -slate and is extensively quarried: boulders
of similar material found at Cummington in Massachusetts
(" cummingtonite ") have also been worked as an ornamental
stone. In the iron and manganese mines at Pajsberg near
Filipstadt and Langban in Vennland, Sweden, small brilliant and
translucent crystals (" pajsbergite ") and cleavage masses
occur. Fowlerite occurs as large, rough crystals, somewhat
resembling pink felspar, with franklinite and zinc ores in granular
limestone at Franklin Furnace in New Jersey.
RHOECUS, a Samian sculptor of the 6th century B.C. He and
his son Theodorus were especially noted for their work in bronze.
Herodotus says that Rhoecus built the temple of Hera at Samos.
In the temple of Artemis at Ephesus was a marble figure of
night by Rhoecus. His name has been found on a fragment of a
vase which he dedicated to Aphrodite at Naucratis. His sons
Theodorus and Telecles made a statue of the Pythian Apollo
for the Samians.
RHONDDA (formerly YSTRADYFODWG), an urban district and
parliamentary division of Glamorganshire, South Wales. It
is 12 m. long by about 4} m. across at' its widest part, and
comprises two main valleys, named after their respective rivers,
Rhondda Fawr (9! m.) and Rhondda Fach, or the lesser (6J m.),
running S.E. and S.W. respectively till their junction at Porth,
and thence the single valley for upwards of a mile farther down
the boundary of the Pontypridd urban district at Trehafod.
The valleys are narrow and tortuous, and their lateral boundaries
are formed by steep hills varying in. height from about 560 ft.
on either side of Trehafod to 1340 ft. on the N.E. of Maerdy in
the lesser Rhondda and 1 742 ft. on the S.W. of Treherbert in the
main valley, while the mountains at the upper end of the latter
valley culminate in Carn Moesen(i9so ft.). Thetwo valleys are
separated by the steep ridge of Cefn-rhondda, which ranges from
600 ft. high above Porth to 1690 ft. near the upper end of the
district. There are a few tributary valleys of which Cwmparc,
Clydach Vale and Cymmer are the chief. Though the urban
district measures 23,884 acres, the area built upon is generally
a narrow strip on either side of each river except at Treorky
and Ton, where the valley of the Rhondda Fawr opens out a
little. In 1877 the ancient parish of Ystradyfodwg (with the
omission of the township of Rhigos, which lies beyond the
mountains to the north) was formed into an urban district
bearing the parish name, the area having previously been part
of a rural district under the Pontypridd rural sanitary authority.
In October 1879, portions of the parishes of Llanwonno and
Llantrisant, comprising over 5000 acres, were added to the urban
area, the whole being consolidated in 1894 into one civil parish.
In 1897, the name of the urban district was changed into
Rhondda. The Taff Vale railway runs up each of the two
valleys from a junction at Porth (16 m. N.W. of Cardiff), and has
five stations in the main valley and four in the lesser one. From
Porth it runs to Pontypridd, whence there is communication
with Cardiff, Barry and Newport. The Rhondda and Swansea
Bay railway (authorized in 1882, opened in 1890, and now
worked by the Great Western) connects the upper end of the
main valley, where it has a station, Blaen-rhondda, with Port
Talbot, Neath and Swansea (31 m. distant) by means of a line
which has a tunnel 3443 yds. long.
The district occupies almost the centre of the eastern division
of the South Wales coal-field, and its coal, upon which the
inhabitants are almost entirely dependent, is unsurpassed for
its steam-raising properties. In common with other East
Glamorgan coal it became commercially known as Cardiff coal
from the fact that Cardiff was at first its only port of shipment.
The development of the Rhondda coal-field was later in date than
those of Aberdare and Merthyr, and it received its chief impetus
from the American Civil War. Thus the population of the parish
(excluding Rhigos), which was 576 in 1811, 951 in 1851 and
3035 in 1861, increased to 16,914 in 1871. When the bound-
aries of the district were extended in 1879 the population of
the enlarged area was calculated by the registrar-general to be
23,950 in 1871, but it reached 55,632 in 1881, and 113,735 in
1901, showing anincreaseof 104% in the previous twenty years.
In 1901, 35-4% of the population of three years of age and
upwards spoke English only, 11-4% spoke Welsh only, the
remainder being bilingual.
Ecclesiastically the parish of Ystradyfodwg was an ancient
chapelry dependent on Llantrisant. The old parish church at Ton
Pentre (in substitution for which a new church was built in 1893-94)
served the whole parish till past the middle of the igth century.
Between 1879 and 1900 the ancient parish (excluding Rhigos) was
divided into seven ecclesiastical parishes, the six new ones being
Llwyn-y-pia (1879), Tylorstown (1887), Ynyshir (1887), Treherbert
(1893), Cwmparc (1898) and Ferndale (1900). The additional area
brought into the urban district in 1879 comprises two other
ecclesiastical parishes, Cymmer and Forth (1894), and Dinas and
Penygraig (1901). These nine parishes, comprised in the urban
district, have twenty churches and eighteen mission-rooms, with
accommodation for about 12,000 persons. This area, together with
Pontypridd, Glyntaff and Llanwonno, form the rural deanery of
Rhondda in the archdeaconry and diocese of Llandaff. There were
at the end of 1905 over one hundred and fifty nonconformist
chapels and mission rooms, with accommodation for over 85,000
persons, of which provision nearly two-thirds was in chapels with
Welsh services. There is a Roman Catholic church at Tonypandy.
The public buildings include the council house and offices of the
district council, erected in 1883-84 for the local board at Pentre,
libraries and workmen's institutes at Ystrad (1895), and Cymrner
(1893), Maerdy (1905), Dinas (1893), and Ferndale public halls, the
property of a private company at Treherbert (1872), and Tonypandy
(1891) and a county intermediate school at Forth. By means of a
tunnel about 2100 yds. long water is obtained for the greater part of
the main valley from the lake of Llyn Fawr on the Neath side of the
mountain range which shuts in the valley on the north. This lake has
been converted into a storage reservoir of about 167 million gallons
capacity. The rest of the district is supplied from the Pontypridd
Water Company's works above Maerdy in the lesser valley.
The ancient parish (excluding Rhigos) was formed into a
parliamentary constituency with one member in 1885. The
present urban district substantially corresponds to the ancient
territorial division of Glyn-rhondda, one of the four commotes of
the cantred of Penychen, and subsequently, in Norman times, one
of the twelve " members " of the lordship of Glamorgan. Its
Welsh lords enjoyed a large measure of independence and had
their own courts, in which Welsh law was administered down to
I 535> when the lordship was fully incorporated in the county of
Glamorgan. On the ridge of Cefn-rhondda between the two
valleys was the Franciscan monastery of Penrhys, famous for
its image of the Virgin and for its holy well which attracted
large pilgrimages. It was dissolved about 1415, probably owing
to its having supported Glyndwr in his rebellion. Edward II.
came here from Neath Abbey and was captured on the i6th
of November 1326, either at Penrhys, or between it and
Llantrisant. (D. LL. T.)
RHONE (Fr. Rhone, Lat. Rhodanus), one of the most important
rivers in Europe, and the chief of those which flow directly into
the Mediterranean. It rises at the upper or eastern extremity
of the Swiss canton of the Valais, flows between the Bernese
Alps (N.) and the Lepontine and Pennine Alps (S.) till it expands
into the Lake of Geneva, winds round the southernmost spurs
of the Jura range, receives at Lyons its principal tributary, the
Sa&ne, and then turns southward through France till, by many
mouths, it enters that part of the Mediterranean which is rightly
called the Golfe du Lion (sometimes wrongly the Gulf of Lyons) .
Its total length from source to sea is 5045 m. (of which the Lake
of Geneva claims 45 m.), while its total drainage area in 37,798
sq. m., of which 2772 sq. m. are in Switzerland (405 sq. m. of
the Swiss portion being composed of glaciers), and its total fall
5898 ft. Its course (excluding the Lake of Geneva, q.v.) naturally
falls into three divisions: (i) from its source to the Lake of
Geneva, (2) from Geneva to Lyons, and (3) from Lyons to
the Mediterranean.
i. From its source to the lake the Rhone is a purely Alpine
river, flowing through the great trench which it has cut for
itself between two of the loftiest Alpine ranges, and which (save
a bit at its north-west end) forms the Canton of the Valais.
Its length is 1055 m., while its fall is 4679 ft. It issues as a
torrent, at the height of 5909 ft., from the great Rhone glacier
at the head of the Valais, the recent retreat of this glacier having
proved that the river really flows from beneath it, and does not
take its rise from the warm springs that are now at some distance
from its shrunken snout. It is almost immediately joined on
the left by the Mutt torrent, coming from a small glacier to
the S.E., and then flows S.W. for a short distance past the
well-known Gletsch Hotel (where the roads from the Grimsel
and the Furka Passes unite). But about half a mile from the
glacier the river turns S.E. and descends through a wild gorge
to the more level valley, bending again S.W. before reaching
the first village, Oberwald. It preserves this south-westerly
direction till Martigny. The uppermost valley of the Rhone
is named Goms (Fr. Conches), its chief village being Munster,
while Fiesch, lower down, is well known to most Swiss travellers.
As the river rolls on, it is swollen by mountain torrents, descend-
ing from the glaciers on either side of its bed so by the Geren
(left), near Oberwald, by the Eginen (left), near Ulrichen, by
the Fiesch (right), at Fiesch, by the Binna (left), near Grengiols,
by the Massa (right), flowing from the great Aletsch glaciers,
above Brieg. At Brieg the Rhone has descended 3678 ft. from
its source, has flowed 28 m. in the open, and is already a consider-
able stream when joined (left)by the Saltine, descending from
the Simplon Pass. Its course below Brieg is less rapid than
RHONE 271
before and lies through the alluvial deposits which it has brought
down in the course of ages. The valley is wide and marshy,
the river frequently overflowing its banks. Further mountain
torrents (of greater volume than those higher up) fall into the
Rhone as it rolls along in a south-westerly direction towards
Martigny: the Visp (left), coming from the Zermatt valley,
falls in at Visp, at Gampel the Lonza (right), from the Lotschen
valley, at Leuk the Dala (right), from the Gemmi Pass, at
Sierre the Navizen (left), from the Einfisch or Anniviers
valley, at Sion, the capital of the Valais, the Borgne (left)
from the Val d'Heiens; soon' the Rhone is joined by the Morge
(right), flowing from the Sanetsch Pass, and the boundary in
the middle ages between Episcopal Valais to the east and Savo-
yard Valais to the west, and at Martigny by the Dranse (left),
its chief Alpine tributary, from the Great St Bernard and the
Val de Bagnes. At Martigny, about 50 m. from Brieg, the
river bends sharply to the N.W., and runs in that direction to
the Lake of Geneva. It receives the Salanfe (left), which forms
the celebrated waterfall of Pissevache, before reaching the
ancient town and abbey of St Maurice (gjm.). Henceforward
the right bank is in the canton of Vaud (conquered from Savoy
in 1475) and the left bank in that of the Valais (conquered
similarly in 1536), for St Maurice marks the end of the historical
Valais. Immediately below that town the Rhone rushes through
a great natural gateway, a narrow and striking defile (now
strongly fortified), which commands the entrance of the Valais.
Beyond, the river enters the wide alluvial plain, formerly
occupied by the south-eastern arm of the Lake of Geneva,
but now marshy and requiring frequent '.' correction." ' It
receives at Bex the Avancon (right), flowing from the glaciers
of the Diablerets range, at Monthey the Vieze (left), from
Champery and the Val d'llliez, and at Aigle the Grande Eau
(right), from the valley of Ormonts-dessus. It passes by the
hamlet of Port Valais, once on the shore of the lake, before
expanding into the Lake of Geneva, between Villeneuve (right)
and St Gingolph (left). During all this portion of its course
the Rhone is not navigable, but a railway line runs along it
from Brieg in about 72 m. to either Villeneuve or Le Bouveret.
2. On issuing at Geneva from the lake the waters of the
Rhone are very limpid and blue, as it has left all its impurities
in the great settling vat of the lake, so that Byron might well
speak of the " blue rushing of the arrowy Rhone " (Childe Harold,
canto iii. stanza 71). But about half a mile below Geneva this
limpidity is disturbed by the pouring in of the 'turbid torrent
of the Arve (left) , descending from the glaciers of the Mont Blanc
range, the two currents for some distance refusing to mix. The
distance from Geneva to Lyons by the tortuous course of the
Rhone is about 124 m., the fall being only about 689 ft. The
characteristic feature of this portion of the course of the Rhone
is the number of narrow gorges or cluses through which it rushes,
while it is forced by the southern spur of the Jura to run in a
southerly direction, till, after rounding the base of that spur,
it can flow freely westwards to Lyons. About 12 m. S. of
Geneva the Rhone enters French territory, and henceforth till
near Lyons forms first the eastern, then the southern boundary
of the French department of the Ain, dividing it from those of
Haute Savoie and Savoie (E.) and that of the Isere (S.). Soon
after it becomes French the river rushes furiously through a
deep gorge, being imprisoned on the north by the Credo and on
the south by the Vuache, while the great fortress of 1'Ecluse
guards this entrance into France. The railway pierces the
Credo by a tunnel. In the narrowest portion of this gorge,
not far from Bellegarde at its lower end, there formerly existed
the famous Perte du Rhone (described by Saussure in his
Voyages dans les Alpes, chapter xvii.), where for a certain
distance the river disappeared in a subterranean channel;
but this natural phenomenon has been destroyed, partly by
blasting, and partly by the diversion of the water for th use
of the factories of Bellegarde. At Bellegarde the Valserine
flows in (right), and then the river resumes its southerly direction,
from which the great gorge had deflected it for a while. Some
way below Bellegarde, between Le Pare and Pyrimont, the
272
RHONE RHONGEBIRGE
Rhone becomes officially " navigable," though as far as Lyons
the navigation now consists all but wholly of the floating o:
flat-bottomed boats, named rigues, laden chiefly with stone
quarried from the banks of the river. Above Seyssel (n m
from Bellegarde) the Usses (left) joins the Rhone, while just
below that village the Fier (left) flows in from the Lake oi
Annecy. Below the junction of the Fier the hills sink on either
side, the channel of the river widens, and one may say that it
leaves the mountains for the plains. At Culoz (415 m. by rail
fro'm Geneva) the railway from Geneva to Lyons (105 m.) quits
the Rhone in order to run west by a direct route past Amberieu.
The Rhone continues to roll on southwards, but no longer (as
no doubt it did in ancient days) enters the Lac du Bourget, of
which it receives the waters through a canal, and then leaves
it on the east in order to run along the foot of the last spur of
the Jura. It flows past Yenne (left) and beneath the picturesque
fortress (formerly a Carthusian monastery) of Pierre Chatel
(right) before it attains the foot of the extreme southern spur of
the Jura, at a height of 696 ft., not far from the village of Cordon,
and just where the Guiers flows in (left) from the mountains
of the Grande Chartreuse. This is nearly the last of the cluses
through which the river has to make its way. The very last
is at the Pont du Saut or Sault, a little S. of Lagnieu. The river
now widens, but the neighbouring country is much exposed to
inundations. It receives (right) its most important tributary
in this part of its course, the Ain, which descends from the
French slope of the Jura and is navigable for about 60 m. above
its junction with the Rhone. Farther down the Rhone meanders
for a time with shifting channels in a bed about 2 m. broad,
but it gathers into a single stream before its junction with the
Sa&ne, just below Lyons. The Sa6ne (q.v.), which has received
(left) the Doubs, is the real continuation of the Rhone, both
from a geographical and a commercial point of view, and it is
by means of canals branching off from the course of the Saone
that the Rhone communicates with the basins of the Loire,
the Seine, the Rhine and the Moselle. In fact, up to Lyons,
the Rhone (save when it expands into the Lake of Geneva) is
a huge and very unruly mountain torrent rather than a great
European river.
3. Below Lyons, however, the Rhone becomes one of the
great historical rivers of France. It was up its valley that
first Greek, then Latin civilization penetrated from the Medi-
terranean to Lyons, as well as in the loth century the Saracen
bandits from their settlement at La Garde Freinet, near the
coast of Provence. Then, too, from Lyons downwards, the
Rhone serves as a great medium of commerce by which central
France sends its products to the sea. Its length from Lyons
to the sea is some 230 m., though its fall is but 530 ft. But
during this half of its course it can boast of having on its left
bank (the right bank is very poor in this respect) such historical
cities as Vienne, Valence, Avignon, Tarascon and Aries, while
it receives (left) the Isere, the Drome and the Durance rivers,
all formed by the union of many streams, and bringing down
the waters that flow from the lofty snowy Dauphine Alps.
The Ardeche is the only considerable affluent from the right.
Near Aries, about 25 m. from the sea, and by rail 1755 m. from
Lyons, the river breaks up into its two main branches, the
Grand Rhone running S.E. and the Petit Rhone S.W.; they
enclose between them the huge delta of the Camargue, which
is cultivated on the banks of the river only, but elsewhere is
simply a great alluvial plain, deposited in the course of ages
by the river, and now composed of scanty pasturages and of
great salt marshes. Between Lyons and the sea, the Rhone
divides four departments on its right bank (Rh&ne, Loire,
Ardeche and Card) from as many on its left bank (Isere,
Dr&me, Vaucluse and Bouches du Rh6ne).
Consult in general Ch. Lenthe'ric, Le Rhone histoire d'un fleuve,
2 vols. (Paris, 1892). (W. A. B. C.)
RHONE, a department of south-eastern France, formed in
1793 from the eastern portion of the department of Rhone-et-
Loire, and comprising the old districts of Beaujolais, Lyonnais,
Franc-Lyonnais, Forez and a small portion of Dauphin6. Pop.
(1906) 858,907. Area, 1104 sq m. Rh6ne is bounded N. by
the department of Sa&ne-et-Loire, E. by Ain and Isere and S. and
W. by Loire. The Sa&ne and the Rhone form its natural
boundary on the east. The department belongs almost entirely
to the basin of the Rhone, to which it sends its waters by the
Sa6ne and its tributary the Azergues, and by the Gier. The
mountains which cover the surface of the department con-
stitute the watershed between the Rhone and the Loire, and
from north to south form four successive groups the Beaujolais
Mountains, the highest peak of which is 3320 ft.; the Tarare
group; the Lyonnais Mountains (nearly 3000 ft.); and Mont
Pilat, the highest peak of which belongs to the department of
Loire. The lowest point of the department (460 ft. above sea-
level) is at the egress of the Rhone. The meteorological con-
ditions vary greatly with the elevation and exposure. Snow
sometimes lies in the mountains from November to April,
while at Lyons and in the valleys the mean temperature in winter
is 36 F. and in summer 70, the annual mean being 53. The
average rainfall is somewhat higher than is general over France
owing to the amount of the precipitation on the hilly region.
Good agricultural land is found in the valleys of the Sa&ne
and Rhone, but for the most part the soil is stony and only
moderately fertile. Wheat, oats, rye and potatoes are ex-
tensively cultivated, but their importance is less than that of
the vine, the hills of the Beaujolais on the right bank of the
Saone producing excellent wines. Fruit trees, such as peaches,
apricots, walnuts and chestnuts, grow well, but the wood in
general is little more than copse and brushwood. Good
pasture is found in the valleys of the Azergues and its affluents.
Mines of iron-pyrites and coal and quarries of freestone are
worked. The production of silk fabrics, the chief branch of
manufacture, that of chemicals and machinery, together with
most of the other industries of the department, are concentrated
in Lyons (q.v.) and its vicinity. Tarare is a centre for the
manufacture of muslin and embroidery. Oullins has large
railway workshops belonging to the Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee
railway, and there are important glass works at Givors. Cotton-
spinning and weaving are carried on in several localities. The
products of its manufactures, together with wine and brandy,
form the bulk of the exports of the department; its imports
comprise chiefly the raw material for its industries. It is
served by the Paris-Lyon railway. The Rhone and the Sa6ne
and in the extreme south the canal of Givors are its navigable
waterways. Lyons the capital is the seat of an archbishop
and of a court of appeal and centre of an educational division
(academic). The department is divided amongst the districts
of the VII., VIII., XII., XIII. and XIV. army corps. There
are two arrondissements (Lyons and Villefranche) subdivided
into 29 cantons and 269 communes. The principal places
besides Lyons are Givors, Tarare and Villefranche, which
receive separate treatment.
RHONGEBIRGE, or DIE RHON, a mountain-chain of central
ermany, running in a north-westerly direction from the
Bavarian province of Lower Franconia to the Prussian province
of Hesse-Nassau and the grand duchy of Saxe- Weimar, and
divided by the Werra from the Thuringian Forest on the N.
The other sides are bounded by the Fulda on the W. and the
Sinn and Prankish Saab on the E. and S. Its length is 50 m.,
Dreadth 5-7 m., and its mean elevation 1900 ft. This district
s divided into three groups the southern, the high (Hohe)
and the nearer (Vordere) Rhon. Of these the southern, a con-
tinuation of the Spessart, largely consists of flat conical masses
and reaches its highest point in the Heiliger Kreuzberg (2900 ft.).
The Hohe Rhon, beginning immediately to the north-west of
the latter mountain, is a high plateau of red sandstone, covered
with fens and basalt peaks. It is a wild, dreary, inclement
ract of country, covered with snow for six months in the year
and visited by frequent fogs and storms. It is said of it that
whoever desires to experience a northern winter can spare
limself a journey to the North Cape or Siberia, and find it in
lis native Rhon. There is little vegetation, and the inhabitants
eke out a scanty sustenance from the cultivation of potatoes
RHOXOLANI RHUBARB
273
and flax. The highest inhabited place is Frankenhausen,
lying at a height of 2350 ft. with 6383 inhabitants (1900). The
nearer (Vordere) Rhon, forming the northern side of the range,
is more attractive, with forests and deep and fertile valleys.
See Lenk, Zur geologischen Kenntnis der sudlichen Rhon (WUrzburg,
1887); Scheidtweiler, Die Rhon und ihre wirthschaftlichen Verhdlt-
nisse (Frankfort, 1887); and Daniel, Deutschland (sth ed., Leipzig,
1878).
RHOXOLANI. a Sarmatian tribe defeated in the Crimea by
Diophantus, general of Mithradates, c. 100 B.C., and by the
Romans on the lower Danube c. A.D. 60, and also under M.
Aurelius. They seem to have finally succumbed to the Goths.
RHUBARB. This name is applied both to a drug and to
a vegetable.
i. The drug has been used in medicine from very early
times, being described in the Chinese herbal Pen-king, which
is believed to date from 2700 B.C. The name seems to be
a corruption of Rheum barbarum or Reu barbarum, a designa-
tion appliedjto the drug as early as the middle of the 6th century,
and apparently identical with the prjov or pa of Dioscorides,
described by him as a root brought from beyond the Bosporus.
In the I4th century rhubarb appears to have found its way
to Europe by way of the Indus and Persian Gulf to the Red
Sea and Alexandria, and was therefore described as " East
Indian " rhubarb. Some also came by way of Persia and
the Caspian to Syria and Asia Minor, and reached Europe
from the ports of Aleppo and Smyrna, and became known
as " Turkey " rhubarb. Subsequently to the year 1653,
when China first permitted Russia to trade on her frontiers,
Chinese rhubarb reached Europe chiefly by way of Moscow;
and in 1704 the rhubarb trade became a monopoly of the
Russian government, in consequence of which the term
" Russian " or " crown " rhubarb came to be applied to it.
Urga was the great depot for the rhubarb trade in 1719, but
in 1728 the depot was transferred to Kiachta. All rhubarb
brought to the depot passed through the hands of the govern-
ment inspector; hence Russian rhubarb was invariably good
and obtained a remarkably high price. This severe super-
vision naturally led, as soon as the northern Chinese ports
were thrown open to European trade, to a new outlet being
sought; and the increased demand for the drug at these ports
resulted in less care being exercised by the Chinese in the
collection and curing of the root, so that the rhubarb of good
quality offered at Kiachta rapidly dwindled in quantity, and
after 1860 Russian rhubarb ceased to appear in European
commerce. Owing to the expense of carrying the drug across
the whole breadth of Asia, and the difficulty of preserving it
from the attacks of insects, rhubarb was formerly one of the
most costly of drugs. In 1542 it was sold in France for ten
times the price of cinnamon and four times that of saffron, and
in an English price list bearing date of 1657 it is quoted at i6s.
per Ib, opium being at that time only 6s. and scammony 125.
per Ib.
The dose of rhubarb is anything from \ up to 30 grams,
according to the action which is desired. The British Pharmacopeia
contains seven preparations, only one of which is of any special
value. This is the Pulvis Rhei Compositus, or Gregory's powder,
which is composed of 2 parts of rhubarb, 6 of heavy or light
magnesia and I of ginger. The dose is 20 to 60 gr.
Rhubarb is used in small doses J to 2 gr. as an astringent tonic,
since it stimulates all the functions of the upper part of the alimentary
canal. In many cases of torpid dyspepsia it is very efficient when
combined with the subnitrate of bismuth and the bicarbonate of
sodium. The more characteristic action of rhubarb, however, is
purgation, which it causes in doses of 15 gr. and upwards. _ The
action occurs within seven or eight hours, a soft, pulpy motion of
a yellow colour being produced. The colour is due to the chrysa-
robin, which is also the purgative constituent of the drug. Rhubarb
is also a secretory cholagogue, increasing the amount of bile formed
by the liver. The drug is apt to cause colic, and should therefore
never be given alone. The'-ginger in Gregory's powder averts this
unpleasant consequence of the aperient properties of rhubarb. The
drug is peculiar in that the purgation is succeeded by definite
constipation, said to be due to the rheotannic acid. This explana-
tion is hardly satisfactory, however, since it is difficult to see how
the rheotannic acid can be retained in the bowel during the process
of purgation. Rhubarb has, therefore, definite indications and
contra-indications. It is obviously worse than useless in the
treatment of chronic constipation, which it only aggravates. On
the other hand, it is very valuable in children and others, when
diarrhoea has been caused by an unsuitable dietary. The drug
removes the indigestible residue of the food and then gives the bowel
rest. Rhubarb is also useful in the weaning of infants, since it is
partly excreted in the maternal milk, and gives it a bitter taste
which the baby dislikes.
Some chrysarobin is absorbed and is excreted in the urine, which
it slightly increases and colours a reddish brown. The colour IE
discharged by the addition of a little dilute hydrochloric acid to
the urine.
The botanical source of Chinese rhubarb cannot be said to have
been as yet definitely cleared up by actual identification of plants
observed to be used for the purpose. Rheum palmatum, R. officinale,
R. palmatum, var. tqnguticum, R. colinianum and R. Franzenbachii
have been variously stated to be the source of it, but the roots
produced by these species under cultiyation_ in Europe do not
present the characteristic network of white veins exhibited by the
best specimens of the Chinese drug.
Chemistry. The most important constituent of this drug, giving
it its purgative properties and its yellow colour, is chrysarobin,
CsoHsoOT, formerly known as rhein or chrysophan. The rhubarb of
commerce also contains chrysophanic acid, a dioxymethyl anthra-
quinone, Ci 4 H 6 (CH,)O2(OH)2, of which chrysarobin is a reduction
product. Nearly 40% of the drug consists of calcium oxalate,
which gives it the characteristic grittiness. There is also present
rheotannic acid, which is of some practical importance. There are
numerous other constituents, such as emodin, CuHjoO 6 , mucilage,
resins, rheumic acid, CfflHiO 9 , aporrhetin, &c.
Production and Commerce. Rhubarb is produced in the four
northern provinces of China proper (Chih-li, Shan-se, Shen-se and
Ho-nan), in the north-west provinces of Kan-suh, formerly included
in Shen-se, but now extending across the desert of G_obi to the
frontier of Tibet, in the Mongolian province of Tsing-hai, including
the salt lake Koko-nor, and the districts of "Tangut, Sifan and
Turfan, and in the mountains of the western provinces of Sze-chuen. 1
Two of the most important centres of the trade are Sining-fu in the
province of Kan-suh, and Kwanhien in Sze-chuen. From Shen-se,
Kan-suh and Sze-chuen the rhubarb is forwarded to Hankow,
and thence carried to Shanghai, whence it is shipped to Europe.
Lesser quantities are shipped from Tien-tsin, and occasionally the
drug is exported from Canton, Amoy, Fuh-chow and Ning-po.
Very little is known concerning the mode of preparing the drug
for the market. According to Mr Bell, who on a journey from St
Petersburg to Peking had the opportunity of observing the plant in a
growing state, the root is not considered to be mature until it is six
years old. It is then dug up, usually in the autumn, and deprived
of its cortical portion and smaller branches, and the larger pieces
are divided in half longitudinally; these pieces are bored with
holes and strung up on cords to dry, in some cases being previously
subjected to a preliminary drying on stone slabs heated by fire
underneath. In Bhutan the root is said to be hung up in a kind
of drying room, in which a moderate heat is regularly maintained.
The effect produced by the two drying processes is very different :
when dried by artificial heat, the exterior of the pieces becomes
hardened before the interior has entirely lost its moisture, and
consequently the pieces decay in the centre, although the surface
may show no change. These two_ varieties are technically known
as kiln-dried and sun-dried; and it was on account of this differ-
ence in quality that the Russian officer at Kiachta had every piece
examined by boring a hole to its centre.
European Rhubarb. As early as 1608 Prosper Alpinus of Padua
cultivated as the true rhubarb a plant which is now known as
Rheum rhaponticum, a native of southern Siberia and the basin
of the Volga. This plant was introduced into England through
Sir Matthew Lister, physician to Charles I., who gave seed obtained
by him in Italy to the botanist Parkinson. The culture of this
rhubarb for the sake of the root was commenced in 1777 at Banbury,
in Oxfordshire, by an apothecary named Hayward, the plants
being raised from seed sent from Russia in 1762, and with such
success that the Society of Arts awarded him a silver medal in
1 789 and a gold one in 1 794. The cultivation subsequently extended
to Somersetshire, Yorkshire, and Middlesex, but is now chiefly
carried on at Banbury. English rhubarb root is sold at a cheaper
rate than the Chinese rhubarb, and forms a considerable article of
export to America, and is said to be used in Britain in the form of
powder, which is of a finenyellow colour than that of Chinese rhubarb.
The Banbury rhubarb appears to be a hybrid between R. rhaponticum
and R. undulatum the root, according to E. Colin, not presenting
the typical microscopic structure of the former. More recently very
1 According to Mr F. Newcombe, Med- Press and Circ., August
2, 1882, the Chinese esteem the Shen-se rhubarb as the best, that
coming from Kanchow being the most prized of all; Sze-chuen
rhubarb has a rougher surface and little flavour, and brings only
about half the price; Chung-chi rhubarb also is greatly valued,
while the Chi-chuang, Tai-huang and Shan-huang varieties are
considered worthless.
274
RHYL RHYME
good rhubarb has been grown at Banbury from Rheum officinale,
but these two varieties are not equal in medicinal strength to
the Chinese article, yielding less extract Chinese rhubarb afford-
ing, according to H. Seier, 58%, English rhubarb 21 % and
R officinale 17%. In France the cultivation of rhubarb
was commenced in the latter half of the i8th century R. com-
pactum, R. palmatum, R. rhaponticum and R. undulatum being
the species grown. The cultivation has, however, now nearly ceased,
small quantities only being prepared at Avignon and a few other
localities. . . ,
The culture of Rheum compactum was begun in Moravia in the
beginning of the present century by Prikyl, an apothecary in
Austerlitz, and until about fifty years ago the root was largely
exported to Lyons and Milan, where it was used for dyeing silk.
As a medicine 5 parts are stated to be equal to 4 of Chinese rhubarb.
Rhubarb root is also grown at Auspitz in Moravia and at Ilmitz,
Kremnitz and Frauenkirchen in Hungary; R. emodi is said to be
cultivated for the same purpose in Silesia.
Rhubarb is also prepared for use in medicine from wild species
in the Himalayas and Java.
2. The rhubarb used as a vegetable consists of the leaf stalks
of R. rhaponticum and its varieties, and R. undulatum. It
is known in America as pie-plant. Plants are readily raised
from seed, but strong plants can be obtained in a much shorter
time by dividing the roots. Divisions or seedlings are planted
about 3 ft. apart in ground which has been deeply trenched
and manured, the crowns being kept slightly above the sur-
face. Rhubarb grows freely under fruit-trees, but succeeds
best in an open situation in rich, rather light soil. The stalks
should not be pulled during the first season. If a top-dress-
ing of manure be given each winter a plantation will last good
for several years. Forced rhubarb is much esteemed in winter
and early spring, and forms a remunerative crop. Forcing
under glass or in a mushroom house is most satisfactory, but
open-ground forcing may be effected by placing pots or boxes
over the roots and burying in a good depth of stable litter
and leaves. Several other species, such as R. palmatum,
R. officinale, R. nobile and others, are cultivated for their
fine foliage and handsome inflorescence, especially in wild
gardens, margins of shrubberies and similar places. They
succeed in most soils, but prefer a rich soil of good depth. They
are propagated by seeds or by division.
RHYL, a watering-place and urban district of Flint, N.
Wales, practically equidistant by rail from Bangor (29^ m.)
and Chester (30 m.), and 209 m. from London on the London
& North-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 8473. It is situated
near the mouth of the Clwyd. Formerly, like Llandudno, a
small fishing village, the town has now all the appointments
of a popular resort. In winter the gales often fill the streets
to the depth of several feet, with drifts of sand from the sur-
rounding dunes, which, however, are noted in summer for
the dry and bracing air. The neighbouring country is inter-
esting from its scenery and antiquities. Among the institu-
tions of the town may be mentioned the Queen Alexandra
Hospital (1902), and several hydropathic establishments and
convalescent homes. The estuary harbours coasting vessels,
and some shipbuilding is carried on. On the beach towards
Prestatyn can be seen the remains of a submerged forest.
RHYME, more correctly spelt RIME, from a Provencal word
rim (its customary English spelling is due to a confusion with
rhythm), a literary ornament or device consisting of an identity
of sound in the terminal syllables of two or more words. In
the art of versification it signifies the repetition of a sound at
the end of two or more lines in a single composition. This
artifice was practically unknown to the ancients, and, wher
it occurs, or seems to occur, in the works of classic Greek anc
Latin poets, it must be considered to be accidental. The
natural tendency of the writer of verse unconsciously to repea
a sound, however, is shown by the fact that there have been
discovered nearly one thousand lines in the writings of Virgi
where the final syllable rhymes with a central one, thus
Bella per Emathios plus quam civilia campos.
It is more than doubtful, however, whether the difference o
stress would not prevent this from sounding as a rhyme in
an antique ear, and the phenomenon results more from th
ontingencies of grammar than from intention on the part of
he poet. Conscious rhyme belongs to the early medieval
>eriods of monkish literature, and the name given to lines
ivith an intentional rhyme in the middle is Leonine verse,
he invention being attributed to a probably apocryphal monk
,eoninus or Leonius, who is supposed to be the author of a
listory of the Old Testament preserved in the Bibliotheque
Rationale of Paris. This " history " is composed in Latin
erses, all of which rhyme in the centre. Another very famous
joem in Leonine rhyme is the " De Contemptu Mundi " of
Bernard of Cluny, which was printed at Bremen in 1595.
Uiyme exists to satisfy the ear by the richness of repeated
ound. In the beginnings of modern verse, alliteration, a
epetition of a consonant, satisfied the listener. A further
jrnament was discovered when assonance, a repetition of the
owel-sounds, was invented. Finally, both of these were com-
dned to procure a full identity of sound in the entire syllable,
and rhyme took its place in prosody. When this identity of
iound occurs in the last syllable of a verse it is the typical end-
hyme of modern European poetry. Recent criticism has been
nclined to look upon the African church-Latin of the age of
Tertullian as the starting-point of modern rhyme, and it is
>robable that the ingenuities of priests, invented to aid wor-
shippers in hearing and singing long pieces of Latin verse in
the ritual of the Catholic church produced the earliest conscious
>oems in rhyme. Moreover, not to give too great importance
;o the Leonine hexameters which have been mentioned above,
t is certain that by the 4th century a school of rhymed sacred
poetry had come into existence, classical examples of which
we still possess in the " Stabat Mater " and the " Dies Irae."
[n the course of the middle ages, alliteration, assonance and
end-rhyme held the field without a rival in vernacular poetry.
There is no such thing, it may broadly be said, as medieval
verse in which one or other of these distinguishing ornaments
is not employed. After the I4th century, in the north of
Europe, and indeed everywhere except in Spain, where asson-
ance held a powerful position, end-rhyme became universal
and formed a distinctive indication of metrical construction.
It was not until the invention of Blank Verse (q.v.) that rhyme
found a modern rival, and in spite of the successes of this
instrument rhyme has held its own, at all events for non-
dramatic verse, in the principal literature of Europe. Certain
forms of poetry are almost inconceivable without rhyme.
For instance, efforts have been made to compose rhymeless
sonnets, but the result has been, either that the piece of blank
verse produced is not in any sense a sonnet, or else that by
some artifice the appearance of rhyme has been retained. In
the heyday of Elizabethan literature a serious attempt was
made in England to reject rhyme altogether, and to return to
the quantitative measures of the ancients. The prime mover
in this heresy was not a poet at all, but a pedantic grammarian
of Cambridge, Gabriel Harvey (1545 ?-i63<s). He considered
himself a great innovator, and for a short time he actually
seduced no less melodious a poet than Edmund Spenser to
abandon rhyme and adopt a system of accented hexameters
and trimeters. Spenser even wrote largely in those measures,
but the greater portion of his experiments in this kind, of
which The Dying Pelican is supposed to have been one, have
disappeared. From 1576 to 1579 the genius of Spenser seems
to have been obscured by this error of taste, but he shook
it off completely when he composed The Shepherd's Calendar.
Harvey considered Richard Stonyhurst (1547-1618) the most
loyal of his disciples, and this author published in 1582 four
books of the Aeneid translated into rhymeless hexameters on
Harvey's plan. The result remains, a portent of ugliness
and cacophony. A far greater poet, Thomas Campion (1575-
1620), returned to the attack, and in a tract published in 1602
advocated the remission of rhyme from lyrical poetry. He,
by dint of a prodigious effort, produced some unrhymed odes
which were not without charm, but the best critics of the time,
such as Daniel, repudiated the innovation, and rhyme continued
to have no serious rival except blank verse.
RHYMNEY RHYOLITE
275
There have, from time to time, been made experiments of a similar
nature, notably by Tennyson, but rhyme has retained its sway as
an essential ornament of all English poetry which is not in blank
verse. There have been not a few poems composed, principally
in the nineteenth century, in rhymeless hexameters, and even the
elegiac couplet has been attempted. The experiments of Long-
feljow, Clough, Kingsley and others demand respectful notice, but
it is more than doubtful whether any one of these, even the melli-
fluous Andromeda of the last-named writer, is really in harmony
with the national prosody.
In Germany a very determined attack on rhyme was made
early in the seventeenth century, particularly by a group of
aesthetic critics in the Swiss universities. They attacked
rhyme as an artless species of sing-song, which deadened and
destroyed the true movement of melody in the rhythm. The
argument of this group of critics had a deep influence in German
practice, and led to the composition of a vast number of works
in unrhymed measures, in few of which, however, is now found
a music which justifies the experiment. Lessing recalled the
German poets to a sense of the beauty and value of rhyme, but
the popularity of Klopstock and his imitators continued to
exercise a great influence. Goethe and Schiller, without
abandoning rhyme altogether, permitted themselves a great
liberty in the employment of unrhymed measures and in imita-
tion of classic metres. This was carried to still greater lengths
by Platen and Heine, the rhymeless rhythm of the last of whom
was imitated in English verse by Matthew Arnold and others,
not without an occasional measure of success. In France, on
the other hand, the empire of rhyme has always been triumphant,
and in French literature the idea of rhymeless verse can scarcely
be said to exist. There the rime pleine or riche, in which not
merely the sound but the emphasis is perfectly identical, is
insisted upon, and a poet who rhymed as Mrs Browning did,
or made " flying " an equivalent in sound to " Zion," would be
deemed illiterate.
In French, two species of rhyme are accepted, the feminine
and the masculine. Feminine rhymes are those which end in a
mute e, masculine those which do not so end. The Alexandrine,
which is the classical metre in French, is built up on what are known
as rimes croisees, that is to say a couplet of masculine rhymes followed
by a couplet of feminine, and that again by masculine. This rule
is unknown to the medieval poetry of France.
In Italian literature the excessive abundance and facility of
rhyme has led to a rebellion against its use, which is much more
reasonable than that of the Germans, whose strenuous language
seems to call for an emphatic uniformity of sound. But it was
the 'influence of German aesthetics which forced upon the notice
of Leopardi the possibility of introducing rhymeless lyrical
measures into Italian verse, an innovation which he carried out
with remarkable hardihood and success. The rhymeless odes
of Carducci are also worthy of admiration, and may be com-
pared by the student with those of Heine and of Matthew Arnold
respectively. Nevertheless, in Italian also, the ear demands the
pleasure of the full reiterated sound, and the experiments of the
eminent poets who have rejected it have claimed respect rather
than sympathy or imitation. At the close of the igth century,
particularly in France, where the rules of rhyme had been most
rigid, an effort to modify and minimise these restraints was
widely made. There is no doubt that the laws of rhyme, like
other artificial regulations, may be too severe, but there is no
evidence that the natural beauty which pure rhyme introduces
into poetry is losing its hold on the human ear or is in any real
danger of being superseded by accent or rhythm.
See Joseph B. Mayer, A Handbook of Modern English Metre
(Cambridge, 1903) ; J. Minor, Neuhochdeutsche Metrik (Strassburg,
'893); J. B. Schutze, Versuch einer Theorie des Reimes nach Inhalt
und Form (Magdeburg, 1802). (E. G.)
RHYMNEY, an urban district in the western parliamentary
division of Monmouthshire, England, on the borders of Glamor-
ganshire, 22 m. N. by W. of Cardiff, on the Rhymney, the London
& North-Western, and the Brecon & Merthyr railways. Pop.
(1901), 7915. The Rhymney river, in the upper valley of which
this town lies, forms almost throughout its course, to the
estuary of the Severn near Cardiff, the boundary between
England and Wales (Monmouthshire and Glamorganshire).
In its upper part the valley, like others adjacent and parallel to
it, is populous with mining townships, and the town of Rhymney
owes its importance to the neighbouring coal-mines and to its
iron and steel works, which employ nearly the whole population.
The works of the Rhymney Iron Company, including blast
furnaces and rolling mills, are among the largest of the kind in
England.
RHYOLITE (Gr. fxtv, to flow, because of the frequency
with which they exhibit fluxion structures), the group name of
a type of volcanic rock, occurring mostly as lava flow?, and
characterized by a highly acid composition. They are the most
siliceous of all lavas, and, with the exception of the dacites, are
the only lavas which contain free primary quartz. In chemical
composition they very closely resemble the granites which are
the corresponding rocks of plutonic or deep-seated origin; their
minerals also present many points of similarity to those of
granite though they are by no means entirely the same. Quartz,
orthoclase and plagioclase felspars, and biotite are the com-
monest ingredients of both rocks, but the quartz of rhyolites
is full of glass enclosures and the potash felspar is pellucid
sanidine, while the quartz of granite contains dust-like fluid
cavities of very minute size and its potash felspar is of the
turbid variety which is properly called orthoclase. The granites
also are holocrystalline, while in the rhyolites there are usually
porphyritic crystals floating in a fine ground-mass. Rhyolites
have also been called liparites because many of the lavas of the
Lipari Islands are excellent examples of this group. Above all
rocks they have a disposition to assume vitreous forms, as when
fused they crystallize with great difficulty. "Hence it has long
baffled experimenters to produce rhyolite synthetically by
fusion; it is stated that these difficulties have now been over-
come, but geologists believe that the presence of steam and 'other
gases in the natural state expedites crystallization. In crucibles
these cannot be retained at the temperatures employed; when
the rocks are melted the gases escape and on cooling a pure
glass is formed. The vitreous forms of rhyolite are known as
obsidian, perlite and pumice (qq.v.).
The minerals of the first generation, or phenpcrysts, of rhyolite
are generally orthoclase, oligoclase, quartz, biotite, augite or horn-
blende. The felspars are usually glassy clear, small but of well-
developed crystalline form: the potash felspar is sanidine, usually
Carlsbad twinned ; the soda-lime felspar is almost always oligoclase,
with characteristic polysynthetic structure. Both of these may
be corroded and irregular in their outlines; their cleavage and
twinning then distinguish them readily from quartz. Glass en-
closures, sometimes rectangular with small immobile bubbles, are
frequent. The quartz occurs as blebs or sub-rounded grains, which
are corroded double hexagonal pyramids. Its glass enclosures are
many and nearly always rounded or elliptical in section. No proper
cleavage is seen in the quartz, though arcuate (conchoidal) fractures
may often be noticed; they may have been produced by strain on
cooling. Phenocrysts of micropegmatite are known in some rhyo-
lites; they may have the shape of felspar or of quartz crystals;
in the former case Carlsbad twinning is by no means uncommon,
but in other cases hour-glass structure is very conspicuous. Biotite
is always deep brown or greenish brown, in small hexagonal tabjets,
generally blackened at their edges by magmatic corrosion. Mus-
covite is not known in rhyolites. Hornblende may be green or
brown; in the quartz-pantellarites it sometimes takes the form of
strongly pleochroic brown cossyrite. Like biotite it is eumorphic
but often corroded in a marked degree. Augite, which, is equally
common or more common than the other ferro-magnesian minerals,
is always green; its crystals are small and perfectly shaped, and
corrosion phenomena are very rarely seen in it. Zircon, apatite
and magnetite are always present in rhyolites, their crystals being
often beautifully perfect though never large. Olivine is never a
normal ingredient, but occurs in the hollow spherulites or litho-
physae of some rhyolites with garnet, tridymite, topaz and other
minerals which indicate pneumatolytic action. Amonij the less
common accessory minerals of the rhyolites are cordierite in crystals
which resemble hexagonal prisms but break up under polarized
light into six radiating sectors owing to complicated twinnine:
they weather to green aggregates of chlorite and muscovite (pinite) ;
garnet, sphene and orthite may also be met with in rhyolites.
The ground-mass of rhyolitic rocks is of three distinct types
which are stages in crystalline development, viz. the vitreous,
the felsitic or cryptocrystalline, and the microcrystalline.
Hence some authorities have proposed to subdivide the group
276
RHYOLITE
into the vitrophyres, the felsophyres and the granophyres, but this
is not now in use, and the last of these terms has obtained a
signification quite different from that originally assigned to it.
Mixtures of the different kinds occur; thus a vitreous rhyolite
has often felsitic areas in its ground-mass, and in the same
lava flow some parts may be vitreous while others are felsitic.
The vitreous rhyolites are identical in most respects with the
obsidians, from which they can only be separated in an artificial
classification; and in their glassy base the banded or eutaxitic,
spherulitic and perlitic structures of pure obsidians are very
frequently present (see OBSIDIAN; PERLITE). The felso-
liparites or liparites with stony ground-mass are especially
common among the pre-Tertiary igneous rocks (see QUARTZ-
PORPHYRY), as liparite glass is unstable and experiences
devitrification in course of time. Many of these felsites have
fluxion banding, spherulites and even perlitic cracks, which are
strong evidence that they were originally glassy. In other
cases a hyaloliparite, obsidian, or pitchstone becomes felsitic
along its borders and joint planes, or even along perlitic cracks,
and we may assume that the once fibrous rock has changed into
felsite under the action of percolating moisture or even by
atmospheric decomposition. In many rhyolites the felsite
is original and represents an incipient crystallization of the
vitreous material which took place before the rock was yet cold.
The felsite in turn is liable to change; it becomes a fine mosaic of
quartz and alkali felspar; and in this way a matrix of the third
type, the microcrystalline, may develop. This is proved by
the occurrence of the remains of spherulitic and perlitic structures
in rocks which are no longer felsitic or glassy. Many micro-
crystalline rhyolites have a ground-mass in which much felsitic
matter occurs; but as this tends to recrystallize in course of
time, the older rocks of this group show least of it. Whilst no
quartz-bearing rhyolites are known to have been erupted in
recent years, Lacroix proved that portions of the " dome "
which rose as a great tower or column out of the crater of Mont
Pelee after the eruption in 1906 contained small crystals of quartz
in the ground-mass. The rock was an acid andesite, and it
was ascribed by Lacroix to the action of steam retained in the
rock under considerable pressure. The microcrystalline ground-
mass of rhyolites is never micrographic as in the porphyries
(granophyres) ; on the other hand it is often micropoikilitic,
consisting of small felspars, often sub-rectangular, embedded in
little rounded or irregular plates of quartz.
The ground-mass of rhyolites is liable to other changes, of
which the most important are silicification, kaolinization
and sericitization. Among the older rocks of this group it is
the exception to find that secondary quartz has not been de-
posited in some parts of them. Often indeed the matrix is
completely replaced by silica in the form of finely crystalline
quartz or chalcedony; and these rocks on analysis prove to
contain over 90% of silica. In the recent rhyolites of Hungary,
New Zealand, &c., the deposit of coarse opal in portions of the
rock is a very common phenomenon.
Kaolinization may be due to weathering, and the stony dull
appearance of the matrix of many microcrystalline rhyolites
is a consequence of the decomposed state of the felspar grains
in them; it is even more typically developed by fumarole
action, which replaces the felspars with soft, cloudy white
products which belong to a mineral of the kaolin group. Seri-
citization, or the development of fine white mica after felspar,
is usually associated with shearing, and is commonest in the
older rhyolites.
Vesicular structure is very common in rhyolites; in fact
the pumiceous obsidians have this character in greater perfec-
tion than any other rocks (see PUMICE); but even the felso-
rhyolites are very often vesicular. The cavities are usually
lined with opal and tridymite; in the older rocks they may
be filled with agate and chalcedony. The " mill-stone
porphyries," extensively used in Germany for grinding corn,
are porous rhyolites; the abundance of quartz makes them
hard, and their rough surfaces render them peculiarly suitable
for this purpose. In some of them the cavities are partly
secondary. These rocks are obtained in the Odenwald, Thur-
ingerwald and Fichtelgebirge.
In Britain a pale grey Tertiary rhyolite occurs at Tardree,
Antrim (the only British rock containing tridymite), and in Skye.
Felsitic rhyolites occur among the Old Red rocks of Scotland (Pent-
land Hills, Lome, &c.), in Devonshire, and in large numbers in North
Wales. The Carnarvonshire rhyolites are often much altered and
silicified; many of them have a nodular structure which is very
conspicuous on weathered surfaces. The spheroids may be two
or three inches in diameter; some of them are built up of con-
centric shells. Rhyolites are also known from Fishguard, Malvern,
Westmorland and Co. Waterford. One of the oldest volcanic
rocks of Britain (pre-Cambrian, Uriconian) is the spherulitic
rhyolite of the Lea Rock near Wellington in Shropshire. It shows
bright red spherulites in great numbers and is probably an obsidian
completely devitrified. Perlitic structure is also visible in it.
In other parts of Europe rhyolites have a fairly wide distribution
though they are not very numerous. In Hungary (Hlinik, &c.)
there are many well-known examples of this class. They extend
along the margin of the Carpathians and are found also in Sieben-
burgen. In Italy they occur in the Euganean Hills and in the
Lipari Islands; the latter being the principal source of pumice at
the present day. Rhyolites of Recent age occur in Iceland
(Myvatn, &c.), where they are characterized by the frequent absence
of quartz, and the presence of much plagioclase and pyroxene.
Some of these rocks have been called trachyte-obsidians, but they
seem to be rhyolites which contain an exceptionally large amount
of soda. The older rhyolites, which are generally called quartz-
porphyries in Germany, are mostly of Permian or Carboniferous
age and are numerous in the Vosges, Odenwald, Thuringerwald, &c.
They are often accompanied by basic rocks (melaphyres). Permian
rhyolites occur also at Lugano in Italy. Rhyolites are known also
in Asia Minor and the Caucasus, in New Zealand, Colorado, Nevada
and other parts of western North America. In the Yellowstone
National Park there is a well-known cliff of obsidian which shows
remarkably perfect columnar jointing. Some of the rhyolites of
Nevada are exceedingly rich in porpnyritic minerals, so that they
appear at first sight to be holocrystalline rocks, since the ground-
mass is scanty and inconspicuous. To this type the name nevadite
has been given, but it is rare and local in its distribution.
In the island of Pantellaria, which lies to the south-west of Sicily,
there are rocks of rhyolitic affinities which present so many unusual
features that they have been designated pantellarites. They
contain less silica and alumina and more alkalis and iron than do
ordinary rhyolites. Their felspars are of the anorthoclase group,
being rich in soda together with potash, and are very variable
in crystalline development. Aeginne-augite and forms of soda-
amphibole are also characteristic of these rocks: dark brown
aenigmatite or cossyrite often occur in them. Quartz is not very
plentiful; other ingredients are olivine, arfvedsonite and tridymite.
The ground-mass varies much, being sometimes quite vitreous,
at other times a glass filled with swarms of microliths, while in
certain pantellarites it is a microcrystalline aggregate of quartz
and alkali felspar. The absence of plagioclase and biotite are
marked distinctions between these rocks and the rhyolites, together
with the scarcity of quartz and the prevalence of soda-bearing
pyroxenes and amphiboles.
Among the Palaeozoic volcanic rocks of Germany there is a group
of lavas, the quartz-keratophyres, which are of acid composition
and rich in alkali felspar. Their dominant alkali is soda: hence
their felspars are albite and cryptoperthite, not sanidine as in
rhyolites. Quartz occurs sometimes as corroded phenocrysts,
but is often scarce even in the ground-mass. Porphyritic biotite
or augite are very rare, but occur in the matrix along with felspars
and quartz. Micropegmatite is not infrequent in these rocks, and
they may be silicified like the rhyolites. As quartz-keratophyres
mostly occur in districts where there has been a good deal of folding,
they are often crushed and more or less sericitized. They are best
known from the Devonian rocks of Westphalia and the Harz,
but are also found in Queensland, and similar rocks have been
described (as soda-felsites) from Ireland. The rocks which they
accompany are usually diabases and spilites.
The other group of rhyolitic rocks rich in alkali felspars and soda
pyroxenes and amphiboles are the comendites. They are often
porphyritic, with crystals of quartz, sanidine, microperthite or
albite: the ground-mass is microcrystalline or rarely micrographic,
and often filled with spongy growths of aegirine and riebeckite.
They are known from the recent eruptive districts of East Africa,
from Sardinia and Texas, and very similar rocks occur as intrusive
masses which may be grouped with the porphyries.
The following analyses show the composition of some of the
principal types of rhyolites:
SiO 2 Al 2 Oi
I- 76-34 13-22
II. 72-15 13-50
III. 77-59 12-75
IV. 67-48 9-70
V. 70-97 I3-84
VI. 74-76 n-6o
Fe 2 s
FeO
CaO
MgO
K 2 O
Na 2 O
H,O
1-93
1-85
0-21
3-67
2-84
0-61
3-12
o-93
0-16
4-54
4-20
0-85
0-67
7-42
n.f.
2-21
0-04
1-45
0-16
0-77
3-99
2-94
2-56
7-21
0-96
3-21
0-78
1-26
O-2O
1-57
6-27
0-74
3-50
O-I9
0-07
0-18
4-92
4-35
0-64
RHYTHM
277
I. Rhyolite, Telki Banya, Hungary.
II. do. Mafahlid, Iceland.
III. do. Omahu, New Zealand.
IV. Pantellarite, Pantellaria.
V. Quartz-keratophyre, Muhlenthal, Harz.
VI. Comendite, Sardinia.
We note in the rhyolites I. -1 1 1. the very high silica, with alkalis
and alumina also in considerable amount, while lime, magnesia and
iron are very low. In the pantellarite, keratophyre and comendite
the silica tends to be less abundant, while the alkalis, especially
soda increase; they have less alumina but are richer in iron and
magnesia. It is easy to see why the latter types contain less quartz,
felspars often very rich in soda, and femic minerals which contain
iron and alkalis in notable amounts such as aeginne, nebeckite and
arfvedsonite. Jj. a.r.J
RHYTHM (Greek t>v6nk, from fxlv, to flow), the measured
flow of movement, or beat, in verse, music or by analogy in
other connexions, e.g. " rhythm of life." The early critic of
prosody, Aristoxenus, distinguished as the three elements out of
which rhythm is composed, the spoken word, Xew, the tune of
music and song, /wXos, and the bodily motion, dvijaa ffunaTudi.
The art of the early Greek poets was devoted to S har-
monious combination of these three elements, language,
instrument and gesture uniting to form perfect rhythm. Aris-
toxenus proceeds to define the rhythm so produced as an arrange-
ment of time-periods, TO.& xPv, but other early theorists
make not the time but the syllable the measurement of poetic
speech. Both music and poetry depend, and have depended
from the earliest times, on rhythm. But in music melody and
harmony have to be taken into consideration, whereas in poetry
the rhythmical value of the tone is modified by the imaginative
value and importance of the words themselves. In earliest
times the fundamental unity of the two arts was constantly
manifest, but as 'the world has progressed, and they have
ramified into countless forms, the difference between them has
been emphasized more and more.
Rhythm in Verse. Professor Jakob Minor has adduced a
figure, valuable in helping us to realize what poetic rhythm
is, when he remarks that to strike a bell twelve times,
at exactly equal intervals, is to produce what may be called,
indeed, a rhythmic effect, but not to awaken anything
resembling the sensation of poetical rhythm. Into the idea
of poetic rhythm enters an element of life, of pulse, of a
certain inequality of time based upon an equality of tone.
Rhythm ceases to be poetic rhythm if it is mechanical or
lifeless. Aristotle, from whom a definition might be ex-
pected, is very vague in dealing with the subject, and most
of the old rhetorical writers darken counsel with statements
that are obscure or irrational. The fact is that rhythm
is an expression of the instinct for order in sound which
naturally governs the human ear, and little practical know-
ledge is gained by following Suidas when he says that rhythm
is the father of metre, or Quintilian in his epigram that
rhythm is male and metre is female. These definitions arise
from a rhetorical desire to measure a delicate instinct by
rule of three, and, as a matter of fact, Greek criticism on
this subject often lost itself in arithmetical absurdities.
It is sufficient to say that rhythm is the law which governs
the even and periodical progress of sounds, in harmony
with the exigencies of human emotion. For the passions,
as expressed in verse, various movements are appropriate.
Joy demands that the voice should leap and sing; sorrow
that it should move solemnly and slowly; and poetry, which
is founded on rhythm, requires that the movement of words
should respond to this instinctive gradation of sounds. The
finer the genius of the metrist the more exquisitely does his
rhythm convey, as upon an instrument, the nature of the
passion which burdens his verses. Ecstasy takes a quick,
eager, rising movement:
" Give him the nectar!
Pour out for the poet,
Hebe, pour free!
Quicken his eyes with celestial dew,
That Styx the detested no more he may view.
Mystery and suspense demand a faint, languid and throbbing
movement:
" There is not wind enough in the air
To move away the ringlet curl
From the lovely lady's cheek
There is not wind enough to twirl
The one red leaf, the last of its clan,
That dances as often as dance it can."
An overpowering sadness interprets itself in rhythm that is
full and slow and emphatic:
" My genial spirits fail,
And what can these avail
To lift the smothering weight from off my breast?
It were a vain endeavour,
Though I should gaze for ever
On that green light that lingers in the west :
I may not hope from outward forms to win
The passion ana the life, whose fountains are within."
The rhythm so produced, intimately linked, almost beyond
the disintegrating power of analysis, with human feeling, may
depend either on accentuation or quantity. The latter forms the
principle upon which all classic metre was composed, while the
former is dominant in nearly every description of modem verse.
Greek and Latin verse depends entirely upon the relation of
syllables, long or short. It was a question of time with the
ancients, of stress or weight with us. It is an error to say, as is
often done, that ancient verse did not recognize accent, and that
in modern verse there is no place for quantity. These state-
ments are generally true, but there are various exceptions to
both rules. Schiffer, in his Englische Melrik, specially points
out that " long and short syllables have no constant length, no
constant relation, but they depend on their place in the verse,
and on the context; though they do not determine the rhythm
of verse, they still act as regulators of our metre in a very im-
portant degree." Pauses take an essential importance in the
construction of modern rhythm, of the variety and vitality of
which they are the basis. They are introduced for the purpose
of relieving the monotony of successive equal groups of syllables.
The pause often takes the place of a light syllable, and there are
instances in the verse of Shakespeare and Milton where it is even
allowed to fill up the space of a heavy syllable. But still more
often the pause does not imply the dropping of a syllable at
all, but simply dictates a break in the sound, equivalent to a
break in the sense. The following extract from a " Psalm " in
Crashaw's Steps to the Temple (1646), in which the pauses
are numerous and energetic, will exemplify the variety of this
artifice:
" On the proud banks of great Euphrates' flood, |
There we sate | and there we wept : |
Our harps | that | now | no music understood, |
Nodding | on the willows slept |
While | unhappy captiv'd I we
Lovely Sion | thought on thee."
In the blank verse of Milton the free use of pauses constitutes
the principal element in the amazing metrical art of the poet,
and is the source of the sublime originality of his music. In
speaking of rhythm, it is customary to think of the formal rules
which govern the fixed cadence of feet in poetry, but there is also
a rhythm in prose, which imitates the measured movements of the
body in stately speech. According to Renan, the rhythm of
the ancient poetry of the Hebrews is solely founded on this prose
movement, which differs, in fact, from that of modern European
poetry merely in its undefined and indeterminate character.
See I. Minor, Neuhochdeutsche Melrik (Strassburg, 1893);
W. Christ, Die Melrik der Greichen (Leipzig, 1874); Roderick
Benadix, Das Wesen des deutschen Rhythmus (Leipzig, 1862); Jakob
Schiffer, Englische Melrik (Leipzig, 1895); Edwin Guest, History
of English Rhythms (London, 1838; and ed., 1882); Theodore
de Banville, Petit Traite de la poesie franfaise (Pans, 1881);
F. B. Gummere, Handbook of Poetics (Boston, 1902).
Rhythm in Music. The rhythm of modem music began to
develop through the attempts of learned medieval musicians to
adapt the rhythms of spoken language to the necessities of
choral singing; but before the process had gone far, certain
much more ancient and powerful principles, always manifest
in folk-song and dance, gained ascendancy, so that even the
278
RHYTHM
simplest classical music has a rhythm for which no criteria of
poetic metre can be made adequate. From the musical point
of view, the rhythm of speech, whether in prose or verse, is very
subtle and almost uniformly fluent. The metrical feet which
constitute the details of poetic rhythm are musically very
minute; and the exaggerated forms in which music represents
them are many and varied. On the other hand, the groups of
metrical feet which constitute any one kind of verse are of a
uniformity which for music on a large scale would be intolerable.
Artistic music is soon compelled to draw upon infinite resources
of its own, which preserve an appropriate accentuation of the
sense and feeling, while obliterating or hugely exaggerating the
poet's rhythmic effects. Musical rhythm cannot be studied
on a sound basis unless its radical divergences from speech-
rhythm are recognized from the outset.
In the earliest extant musical settings of poetry the treatment
of accent and quantity was strictly arithmetical ; and purely
aesthetic requirements were satisfied by ex post facto inference
from the arithmetical laws, rather than treated as the basis of
the laws. Accent, when translated into music, is a rhythmic
sensation resembling the stress we put on the left foot in march-
ing; while quantity rarely suggests any bodily movement at
all, since it can correspond only to variations in the length of
steps. Now in modern music a sense akin to that of bodily
movement is of overwhelming importance. Changes of tempo,
and of the grouping of musical beats, are incidents as obvious
in their effect as changes in the pace of a running horse. One
consequence is that the laws of musical accent are simple and
cogent, while the laws of musical quantity, if such exist, are far
beyond analysis. Fluent speech and energetic physical exercise
cannot be carried on simultaneously by the same person; and
hence the laws of quantity belong to speech rather than to dance.
Before we could form adequate notions of the musical rhythms
of classical Greece, we should need to settle, firstly, how far the
dancing in Greek drama included movements other than ideal-
ized dramatic gesticulation; secondly, how much bodily energy
was involved in all dancing that may have gone beyond this;
and lastly, how much dancing of any kind was executed by the
singers while singing. What is certain is that ancient Greek
musical rhythms were exact translations of verse rhythms,
with the quantities interpreted arithmetically.
The extant fragments of Greek music are, whether we have
read them correctly or not, undoubtedly very different in rhythm
from the system of discant on which European music of the
1 2th and i3th centuries first developed; but they resemble
discant in so far as the modern sense of rhythm is absent and
its place is supplied by a sense of the rhythmic expression of
unusually slow and emphatic speech. In ordinary speech there
is an important difference between long syllables and short;
but it is not naturally regulated by an exact rhythm, and the
art by which it is organized in verse admits (or indeed demands)
considerable freedom on the part of the reciter in varying his
pace within such limits as do not destroy the structure of the
lines. But when a chorus is made to sing words, it must, if the
words are to reach the hearer, sing them slowly; and moreover,
it must sing them exactly together, unless, as in much classical
music, it can repeat them until they are either understood or
dismissed from the mind as a mere pretext for the employment
of voices in a merely musical design. In any case, if a chorus
is to sing well together, the contrast between short and long
syllables must be placed on an arithmetical basis, the simpler
the better. Now the sole function of ancient Greek music was
to enhance the emotional effect of poetic words by regulating
their rise and fall in a musical scale and their length in a metrical
scheme; and it was natural and right that its rhythms should,
though accurate, have no stronger ictus than those of the words.
To make them as rigid and forcible as the rhythms of a non-vocal
music would produce an effect as intolerable to a Greek ear as
a schoolboy's worst jog-trotting scansion of poetry. We need
not, then, imagine that the human sense of rhythm has suffered
any mysterious change, when our best attempts at deciphering
the extant fragments of ancient Greek music yield us a rhythm
which scholars can explain by the structure of Greek verse, but
which gives us no musical sense. Neither here nor in such
strange harmonic phenomena as our complete inversion of
medieval harmonic ideas as to the treatment of " perfect con-
cords " (see HARMONY) do we find any principle involved which
is not as true at the present day as it ever was. Ancient musical
rhythm shared in the general qualities of that " Flatland "
which we know ancient music to have been; modern musical
rhythm, like harmony, belongs, as it were, to a three-dimensioned
musical space with the vast artistic resources of a consistent
perspective.
Indeed, we need much the same kind of mental gymnastic
in studying the origins of musical rhythm as we need for the
much more abstruse subject of harmonic origins. The two
subjects soon begin to show interaction. During the period of
discant we find metrical conceptions already strongly modified
by two purely musical factors. Firstly, the attempt to make
voices produce a harmony from different simultaneous melodies
(instead of from combinations conceived as disguised unison)
brought with it the necessity for differences of length enormously
larger than any possible metrical differences. The metrical
influence, however, still so predominated, even in the i4th
century, as to produce a rhythm based almost exclusively on
what would now be called triple time. Secondly, that sense of
bodily movement, for which the less clumsy term " dance-
rhythm " is far too narrow, gained ground as the only means
powerful enough to hold the various rhythms of the new and
growing polyphony together. In the later stages of discant the
old metrical conceptions struggled against the grain of the
polyphony for awhile, only to succumb in a tangle of inextricable
technicality: and the new art, which became coherent in the
1 5th century, disregarded poetic metre, with little or no loss in
capacity to interpret words if the composer had leisure or desire
to do so; since, after all, poetic rhythm in its highest forms has a
subtle freedom which renders mechanical musical translation
worse than useless, while the rhythmic swing of the lighter forms
of poetry was soon discovered by the composers of the " Golden
Age " to be practically identical with the refined dance-rhythm
which they in their lighter moments idealized from folk-music. 1
By the middle of the isth century polyphony attained
such independence that the only rhythms which would hold
the flow of independent melodious voices together were those
in which a steadily duple or steadily triple rhythm (either of
which might be subdivided by the other or by itself) could be
felt as an absolutely regular musical tread. Such a rhythm
is capable of expressing every poetic foot, either by the differ-
ence of stress between notes or by a difference in their length.
Moreover, emphasis may be obtained by the pitch of the note,
or, again, by its harmonic significance. All these forms of
emphasis combine and counteract each other in an infinite
variety, till the sense of musical movement becomes as remote
from crude dance-rhythm as it is from poetic metre. But
though the part thus played by accent was already of para-
mount importance in the " Golden Age " of music, it was not
allowed to become evident to the ear except in the lighter
and more coarse-grained art-forms. Its highest purpose was
served as soon as the listener was able to lose all crude rhythmic
impulses in a secure feeling that the mass of polyphonic harmony
was held together by a general grouping of the rhythmic beats
in fours or threes; and individual parts were at least as free
to indulge in other rhythms across the main rhythm as they
are in the most complex modern music, so long as the harmony
was held together by the average grouping, or " time," as we
now call it. Hence the rhythmic variety of 16th-century
1 It would be interesting and fruitful to consider how far the
growing preference, In modern European languages, of accent to
quantity, may not only have modified the conception of musical
rhythm, but may itself have been enhanced by the rhythmic tend-
encies of popular song, which had so great an influence on the learned
music of the middle ages. And it can hardly be said that the
subject of musical rhythm has yet been so clearly treated on these
lines as to shed the light it seems capable of shedding upon many
vexed questions in poetic rhythm.
RHYTHM
279
music is exactly like the harmonic variety, and the limitations
and waywardness of the one are no more archaic than those of
the other.
When the resources of later music and the treatment of
instruments necessitated the publishing of music in score as
well as in separate parts, it became necessary to guide the eye
by drawing vertical lines (" bars ") at convenient distances.
Hence the term " score " (Ger. Partitur, FT. partition). These
divisions naturally coincided with the main rhythmic groups,
and eventually became equidistant. This purely practical
custom has co-operated with the great increase of rhythmic
firmness necessary for the coherence of those large modern
forms which decree the shape rather than the texture of the
music, until our notions of rhythm may fairly be described
as bar-ridden. And, since the vast majority of our musical
rhythms absorb the utmost complexity of detail into the most
square and symmetrical framework possible, we are taught to
regard the " 4-bar period " as a normal (or even ultimate)
rhythmic principle, instead of contenting ourselves with broader
conceptions which treat symmetry and proportion in time as
freely as they are treated in space. It cannot be too strongly
emphasized that the bar indicates no universal musical principle.
The havoc wrought by mechanical teaching on this point is
incalculable, especially in the childish crudeness of current
ideas as to the declamation of words in classical and modern
music: ideas which mislead even some composers who might
have been expected to know better.
As rhythm is contemplated in larger measures, it becomes
increasingly difficult to say where the sense of rhythm ends
and the sense of proportion begins. The same melody that
may be felt as a square and symmetrical piece of proportion
in four-bar rhythm if it is taken slowly, will be equally rational
as a single bar of " common time " (see below) if it is taken
very quickly; and between these two extremes there may be
insensible gradations. All that can be laid down is that com-
posers are apt to use short bars where they demand constant
strong accent, while long bars will imply smoother rhythms. For
example, if the scherzo of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony were
written in " instead of ! bars, then the passages now marked
Ritmo di tre battute would have to appear in ! time, and so
the changes of rhythm would be much more visible on paper.
But the tendency to put a strong accent on the first beat of
every bar would make this notation an undesirable substitute
for Beethoven's, since it would lead to a neglect of the sub-
ordinate accents (all of them bar-accents, as Beethoven writes
them). The trio of this scherzo shows the opposite case in the
fact that Beethoven first intended to write it in * time, but,
in order to indicate a more tranquil flow at the same pace,
doubled the quantity contained in a bar, substituting alia
breve bars, each equal to two of the preceding J bars. The
alteration produced a discrepancy in the metronome marks,
which has always caused controversy among conductors, but
the facts admit of only one interpretation. It is clear, then,
that the only sound theory of musical rhythm will be that in
which accent, beat, bar, and even form and proportion are
relative terms.
The kinds of time (i.e. rhythmic groups forming, as it were,
invariable molecules in the structure of any continuous piece of
music) that are used in all music from the 1 5th century onwards
are nowadays classified as duple and triple, and each of these may
be simple or compound. Simple time is that in which the normal
subdivision of its beats is by two, whether the number of the beats
themselves is duple or triple. Compound time is that in which
the beats are regularly divided by three, which three subdivisions
are reckoned as subordinate beats. The beats are in all kinds of
time reckoned as halves, quarters, 8ths, i6ths or even 32nds of the
standard note in modern music, the semibreve: and the time-
signature placed at the beginning of a piece of music is really a
fraction, of which the numerator expresses the number of beats in
a bar, while the denominator expresses the size of a beat. Thus
J signifies three crotchets in a bar. Compound time is expressed,
not by using normal fractions of a semibreve as main beats and
dividing them into triplets, 1 but by using dotted beats. A dot after
1 Triplets are groups of three equal notes crowded into the time
normally taken by two. Binary and ternary subdivision answer
a note adds another half to its value, and so not only do we obtain
the means of expressing a great variety of rhythmic effects (especi-
ally quantitative effects of iambic and trochaic character) in all
kinds of time, but we are able to use normal fractions of a semi-
breve as the subordinate beats of compound time. Thus 5 is the
compound time obtained by dotting the two crotchets of * time,
and is thus totally different in accent and meaning from J time
though that also contains six quavers in a bar. The most highly
compound times in classical music are to be found in the last move-
ment _of Beethoven's Sonata, Op. in. He begins by dividing bars
of J into their usual compound time ,V He then divides the
six half-beats of J time by three, producing \l (which he in-
correctly calls ,1), and lastly he divides the 12 quarter-beats by 3,
producing JJ (which he calls JJ). The special signatures C for
4 time, and C for * time are the last survivals of the time system
of the middle ages (see MUSICAL NOTATION). That complicated
system of mood, time and prolation was capable of expressing
even more highly compound rhythms than our usual time-signatures,
though the complexity was in most cases unreal, since the small
rhythmic ictus of ecclesiastical polyphony renders little but the
general distinction between duple and triple rhythm audible:
especially as the more compound rhythms were not subdivisions
but multiples, involving lengths better measurable by an eight-day
clock than by human ears. The second Kyrie of Palestrina s
Missa L'Homme Arme is one of the rare cases which remain both
rhythmic and complex when transcribed in modern score. 1 For
genuine articulate complexity the ballroom scene in Mozart's
Don Giovanni has never been surpassed. So real are its three
simultaneous rhythms of minuet, contredanse and waltz that the
persons on the stage actually dance to whichever suits their char-
acter. Anomalous measures such as { and J time, whether
divisible into alternations of I and I or not, are aesthetically best
regarded not as rhythmic units, but as extreme- cases of unsym-
metncal phrase-rhythm erected into a system for special effect.
They tend, however, to group themselves into musical sentences
of reactionary squareness; and the 5 movement of Tschaikovsky's
Pathetic Symphony consists of twenty 8-bar periods (twenty-four,
counting the repeats) before an unpaired 4-bar phrase is heard in
the short coda. Even the last bar is not odd, though it is the I79th,
for the rhythm ends with an unwritten iSoth bar of silence.
There is, no doubt, a germ of truth in current doctrine as to
the fundamental character of 4-bar phrase-rhythms, inasmuch
as the human anatomy has a bilateral symmetry with either
limb on one side slightly stronger than that on the other. This
is probably the basis of our natural tendency to group rhythmic
units in pairs, with a stress on the first of each pair; and hence,
if our attention is drawn to larger groups, we put more stress
on the first of the first pair than on the first of the second;
and so with still greater groups, until our immediate and un-
analysed sense of rhythm merges into a sense of proportion
distributed through time with a clear consciousness of past,
present and future. The point at which this merging takes
every ordinary purpose of musical rhythm, "being capable of expres-
sing clear distinctions far more minute than have ever been regu-
lated in speech. It is impossible to pronounce a syllable in less than
a tenth of a second; but it is easy to play 1 6 notes in a second on
the pianoforte. (That is to say, musical rhythm continues to be
measurable up to the point at which atmospheric vibrations coalesce
in the ear as low musical notes!) In a series of such rapid notes
a single break twice in a second would have a very obvious rhythmic
effect directly measured by the ear. If the broken series were
levelled into an even series of fourteen notes a second, the rhythmic
effect would be entirely different, though the actual difference of
pace would be only j"j of a second. The special sign for triplets
is readily adapted to other subdivisions where necessary; but such
adaptation generally indicates rather a freedom of declamatory
rhythm than any abstruse arithmetical accuracy. Among the
worst barbarisms in musical editing is the persistent reduction of
Chopin's septoles, groups of 13 and other indeterminables, into
mutton-cutlet frills._ A natural freedom in performance is as
necessary for the minutiae of musical rhythm as it is in speech;
but where all but the finest players fail is in basing this freedom on
the superlative accuracy of the rhythmic notation of the great
composers.
4 In the critical edition of Palestrina's complete works, vol. xii.
p. 177 (Breitkppf and Hartel), the editor has violently simplified it.
He is justified in using the ordinary < bars to hold the piece together,
and he is not called upon to reproduce the riddles of the original
notation ; but some secondary time signatures ought to have been
added to indicate the strong swing of the tune in its conflicting
shapes; and there is no justification, in a full score intended for
scholars, in supplanting the true rhythm of the quintus by a rough
practical compromise.
280
RHYTINA
place depends on the extent to which these larger groups can
dominate the details of the rhythm, and this again depends
on the listener's capacity for grasping large and slow rhythms.
In any case, the only " ultimate " rhythmic element is the
tendency to mark off rhythmic beats into pairs, with a stress
on the first of each pair. Where this tendency is resisted, the
mind will follow the line of least resistance, which will vary
according to the pace and detail of the music. Thus in rapid
triple time it is easier to seek duple rhythm in the grouping of
bars than in the details within the bars; but if the groups of
bars are also triple, or irregular, the mind will fix on the first
recurring salient feature for a secondary beat, regardless of
inequality in length; rather than, so to speak, hop on one leg
indefinitely. On this principle there is a distinct tendency
in moderate and slow triple times to throw a secondary accent
on the third beat; or sometimes on the second, as in the spring-
ing step of the mazurka, where the spring gives energy to the
first beat and the descent from it gives poise to the second.
The tendency of small rhythmic groups to build themselves
into large and square ones, such as 8-bar, i6-bar and even
32-bar periods, is doubtless important; but the converse
tendency of large phrase-rhythms to break up in a tapering
series is far more significant, since even in its most regular
forms it not only produces more variety the further it goes,
but always increases in obvious effect, until the subdivisions
attain the minuteness (and therewith the expression) of speech
rhythms. (A crude example of the device is Diabelli's waltz,
on which Beethoven wrote his gigantic 33 variations. See
VARIATIONS, where the point is illustrated by a diagram.)
Regularly expanding rhythm, on the other hand, not only
becomes imperceptible as it is carried further, but tends merely
to make musical proportions resemble those of a chess-board.
In great music the expanding principle is therefore always
contrasted with or modified by the tapering principle, which
can indeed exist simultaneously with it and with any other.
For, to take only three categories, the harmonic changes of a
passage may be designed in tapering rhythm while the melodic
phrases expand, and the entries of instruments or parts occur
on some third principle, regular or irregular. Such interplay
need produce no feeling of complexity; indeed, it is an art
most neglected by those composers who most rely on the effect
of complex rhythm. It is the main discoverable source of
that almost dramatic sense of movement that distinguishes
the great musical styles from the academic methods which play
for safety, and from the anti-academic novelties which end in
monotony.
Square rhythms become desirable at climaxes where physical
energy dominates thought. Strong final cadences accordingly
require that the last chord should fall on an accent; and if the
pace is rapid the final chord will probably be not only on an
accented beat but on an accented bar. Thus it is quite obvious
that there is by a mere oversight one bar too many in the four
bars of tremolo quavers at the end of the first movement of
Beethoven's Fourth Symphony; for they are followed by an
important bar leading to the last three chords, which chords
can only mean (counting bars as beats) " ONE, two, THREE "
(" four " being silent and therefore unwritten). A fifth bar of
tremolo would correct the rhythm in a more vigorous but more
vulgar way by bringing the last chord onto " ONE " of the next
imaginary group of four. The former correction is so obviously
right that the imagination makes it in spite of the presence of
the superfluous bar, which is instinctively ignored as an accidental
prolongation of the tremolo. Where the composer writes in
bars so short as to be permanently less than the phrases of the
piece (as in Beethoven's scherzos), or in bars that are frequently
longer than the phrases (as in most of Mozart's movements in
slow or moderate common time) , it sometimes becomes impossible
to construe the music without carefully calculating where the
accents come; and this calculation is most easily made on the
assumption that the strongest cadences bring the tonic chord
on an accent. Thus, in Beethoven's Sonata in E flat, Op. 27,
No. i, the first bar of the second movement must be preliminary
and the first accent must come on the second bar, since the piece
refuses to make sense in any other way. Indeed, Beethoven
has written some notes twice over in order to bring his double-
bars and repeat-marks where they will indicate the true rhythmic
joints to the eye. (A double-bar is a mere graphic indication
of some important sectional division, not necessarily rhythmic
or even coincident with a normal bar-stroke.)
Theorists, however, have developed a tendency to assume
that all cadences must be strong. More than one critic has
told us that the scherzo of Beethoven's Sonata, Op. 28, is in the
same predicament as that of Op. 27, No. i; though it not only
makes excellent sense with its cadences in the light and weak
form in which they appear, but, when reconstrued on the " strong
cadence " theory, entirely fails in its middle portion to uphold
that theory or to make any other rhythmic sense. And when
Professor Prout tells us that the overture to Figaro begins with a
silent bar, and that Schubert's Impromptu in B flat is positively
ungrammatical in its cadences unless it is entirely rebarred,
and when Dr Riemann turns half the ritornello of a Bach con-
certo from into f time, simply in order to make the sequences
coincide with the hardest possible accents; then we can only
protest that this is regulating musical aesthetics by criteria too
crude for the aesthetics of bricklaying. An edition of Paradise
Lost, in which the lines were so rearranged as to bring all punctua-
tion marks (except perhaps commas) at the end of the line,
would be on precisely the same level of ingenious barbarity.
Few technical terms are entirely peculiar to the subject of
musical rhythm; but some obvious terms of syntax, such as
phrase, period and section are used with varying degrees of system
by all writers on music; and the whole terminology of prosody
has been annexed with such success that we are told in Grove's
Dictionary (article " Metre ") that " the theme of Weber's
Rondo brillante in E flat (Op. 62) is in Anapaestic Tetrameter
Brachycatalectic, very rigidly maintained."
One important term has acquired a special significance in
music: viz. Syncopation. It means a cross-accent of such
strength as to equal or even suppress the main accent; but the
use of the term is generally restricted to cases in which the cross-
accent is produced by shifting the notes of a melody or a formula
so that they fall between the beats instead of upon them. From
what we have said as to the almost physical energy of musical
rhythm it is obvious that such a phenomenon is of far greater
effect and importance in music than it could possibly be in
verse; and, to whichever subject the term may belong by
priority, extreme caution is needed in extending any musical
notion of it to the structure of poetry. (D. F. T.)
RHYTINA, a name applied to the northern sea-cow (Rhylina
gigas, or stelleri), a gigantic relative of the manati and dugong,
which formerly inhabited Bering and Copper Islands, in the
North Pacific, where it was discovered during Bering's voyage
in 1741, and subsequently described by Steller, who accompanied
that expedition as a naturalist. Bering's half-starved sailors
soon reduced the numbers of these comparatively helpless
creatures; and it was not long after probably about the year
1768 that the species, which was the sole representative of
its genus, became completely exterminated. The Rhytina was
the largest member of the order Sirenia, attaining a length of
nearly twenty feet; and had a very thick, rugged, bark-like
skin. The jaws, which are bent downwards to a moderate
extent, are unprovided with teeth, but in life carried ridged
horny plates. The tail was very deeply forked; and the
flippers were short and truncated, lacking apparently the
terminal joints of the digits.
When first discovered, this Sirenian was extremely numerous
in the bays of Bering Island, where it browsed upon the abundant
sea-tangle. Its extirpation is due to the Russian sailors and
traders who visited the island in pursuit of seals and sea-otters,
and who subsisted on its flesh. Numbers of bones have been
discovered in the soil of Bering and Copper Islands, from which
more or less nearly perfect skeletons have been reconstructed,
so that the osteology of this interesting animal is well represented
in most of the larger museums. (R. L.*)
RIANSARES RIBADENEIRA
281
RIANSARES, AUGUSTIN FERNANDEZ MUNOZ, DUKE OF
(1808 or 1810-1873), morganatic husband of Maria Christina,
queen and regent of Spain, was born at Tarancon, in the
province of Cuenca, in New Castile. His father was the keeper of
an " estanco " or office for the sale of the tobacco of the govern-
ment monopoly. He enlisted in the bodyguard, and attracted
the attention of the queen. According to one account, he
distinguished himself by stopping the runaway horses of her
carriage; according to another, he only picked up her hand-
kerchief; a third and scandalous explanation of his fortune
has been given. It is certain that the queen married him
privately, very soon after the death of her husband on the
29th of September 1833. By publishing her marriage, Maria
Christina would have forfeited the regency; but her relations
with Munoz were perfectly well known. When on the i3th of
August 1836 the soldiers on duty at the summer palace, La
Granja, mutinied and forced the regent to grant a constitution,
it was generally, though wrongly, believed that they over-
came her reluctance by seizing Munoz, whom they called her
" guapo," or fancy man, and threatening to shoot him. When
in 1840 the queen found her position intolerable and fled the
country, Munoz went with her and the marriage was published,
and on the overthrow of Espartero in 1843 the couple returned.
In 1844 Queen Isabella II., who was now declared to be of
age, gave her consent to her mother's marriage, which was
publicly performed. Munoz was created duke of Riansares
and made a knight of the Golden Fleece. By Louis Philippe,
king of the French, he was created duke of Mont-Morot and
Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour. Until his wife was
finally driven from Spain by the revolutionary movement of
1854, the duke is credibly reported to have applied himself
to making a large fortune out of railway concessions and
by judicious stock exchange speculations. Political ambi-
tions he had none, and it is said that he declined the offer
of the crown of Ecuador. All authorities agree that he was
not only good-looking, but kindly and well-bred. He died
five years before his wife at L'Adresse, near Havre, on the
nth of September 1873. Several children were born of the
marriage.
RIAZ PASHA (c. 1835- ), Egyptian statesman, born
about 1835, was of a Circassian family, but said to be of Hebrew
extraction. Little is known of his early life save that until
the accession of Ismail Pasha to the vice-royalty of Egypt in
1863 he occupied a humble position. Ismail, recognizing in
this obscure individual a capacity for hard work and a strong
will, made him one of his ministers, to find, to his chagrin,
that Riaz was also an honest man possessed of a remarkable
independence of character. When Ismail's financial straits
compelled him to agree to a commission of inquiry Riaz was
the only Egyptian of known honesty sufficiently intelligent
and patriotic to be named as a vice-president of the com-
mission. He filled this office with distinction, but not to the
liking of Ismail. The khedive, however, felt compelled, when
as a sop to his European creditors he assumed the position
of a constitutional monarch, to nominate Riaz as a member
of the first Egyptian cabinet. For the few months this
government lasted (September 1878 to April 1879) Riaz was
minister of the interior. When Ismail dismissed the cabinet
and attempted to resume autocratic rule, Riaz had to flee
the country. Upon the deposition of Ismail, June 1879, Riaz
was sent for by the British and French controllers, and he
formed the first ministry under the khedive Tewfik. His
administration, marked by much ability, lasted only two
years, and was overthrown by the agitation which had for
figure-head Arabi Pasha (q.v.). The beginnings of this move-
ment Riaz treated as of no consequence. In reply to a warning
of what might happen he said, " But this is Egypt; such things
do not happen; you say they have happened elsewhere,
perhaps, but this is Egypt." On the evening of the pth of
September 1881, after the military demonstration in Abdin
Square, Riaz was dismissed; broken in health he went to
Europe, remaining at Geneva until the fall of Arabi. After
that event Riaz, subordinating his vanity to his patriotism,
accepted office as minister of the interior under Sherif Pasha
(q.v.). Had Riaz had his way Arabi and his associates would
have been executed forthwith, and when the British insisted
that clemency should be extended to the leaders of the revolt
Riaz refused to remain in office, resigning in December 1882.
He took no further part in public affairs until 1888, when, on
the dismissal of Nubar Pasha (q.v.), he was summoned to
form a government. He now understood that the only policy
possible for an Egyptian statesman was to work in harmony
with the British agent (Sir Evelyn Baring afterwards Lord
Cromer). This he succeeded in doing to a large extent, wit-
nessing if not initiating the practical abolition of the coroie
and many other reforms. The appointment of an Anglo-Indian
official as judicial adviser to the khedive was, however, opposed
by Riaz, who resigned in May 1891. In the February follow-
ing he again became prime minister under Abbas II., being
selected as comparatively acceptable both to the khedivial
and British parties. In April 1894 Riaz finally resigned office
on account of ill-health. Superior, probably, both intellectually
and morally to his great rival Nubar, he lacked the latter's
broad statesmanship as well as his pliability. Riaz's stand-
point was that of the benevolent autocrat; he believed that
the Egyptians were not fitted for self-government and must
be treated like children, protected from ill-treatment by
others and prevented from injuring themselves. In 1889
he was made an honorary G.C.M.G. A worthy tribute to
Riaz was paid by Lord Cromer in his farewell speech at Cairo
on the 4th of May 1907. " Little or no courage is now re-
quired," said Lord Cromer, " on the part of a young Egyptian
who poses as a reformer, but it was not always so. Ismail
Pasha had some very drastic methods of dealing with those
who did not bow before him. Nevertheless, some thirty years
ago Riaz Pasha stood forth boldly to protest against the mal-
administration that then prevailed in Egypt. He was not
afraid to bell the cat.''
RIB (from O. Eng. ribb; the word appears in many
Teutonic languages, cf. Gcr. Rippe, Swed. reb), in anatomy,
the primary meaning, one of the series of elastic arched bones
(costae) which form the casing or framework of the thorax
(see SKELETON: Axial). The word is in meaning transferred
to many objects resembling a rib in shape or function. In
architecture, it is thus used of the arches of stone which in
medieval work constitute the skeleton of the vault, and carry
the shell or web. Although in the Roman vault the rib played
an important element in its construction, it was generally
hidden in the thickness of the vault and was made subservient
to its geometrical surfaces. The Gothic masons, on the other
hand, reversed the process, and not only made the vaulting
surface subservient to the rib, but by mouldings rendered
the latter a highly decorative feature. The principal ribs
are the transverse (arc doubleau), the diagonal (arc ogive)
and the wall rib (formeret). Those of less importance are
the intermediate, the ridge and lierne ribs. The ridge-rib
is one first introduced into the vault to resist the thrust of
the intermediate ribs between the wall and diagonal ribs;
it also served to mark the junction of the filling-in or web
of vaults in those cases where the courses dipped toward the
diagonal rib. (See VAULT.) A lierne rib (the term is borrowed
from the French) is a short rib, introduced into the vaulting
in the Early Perpendicular period, which coupled together
the transverse and intermediate ribs; in the later period the
" lierne " rib becomes one of the chief features of the " Stella "
vault (see further VAULT).
RIBADENEIRA, PEDRO A. (1527-1611), hagiologist, was
born at Toledo on the ist of November 1527. As a lad he
repaired to Rome for study, and there on the i8th of September
1540 was admitted by Ignatius Loyola, in his thirteenth
year, as one of the Society of Jesus, which had not yet re-
ceived papal sanction. He pursued his studies at Paris (1542)
in philosophy and theology. Loyola, in 1555, sent him on a
mission to Belgium; in pursuance of it he visited England in
282
RIBALD RIBBON-FISHES
1558. A later result of his visit was his Historia Ecclesiastica
del scisma del Reyno de Inglaterra (1588-1594), often reprinted,
and used in later editions of N. Sander's De Origine et Pro-
gressu Schismatis Anglicani. In 1560 he was made Provincial
of the Society of Jesus in Tuscany, thence transferred as Pro-
vincial to Sicily in 1563, again employed in Flanders, and
from 1571 in Spain. In 1574 he settled in Madrid, where
he died on the loth of September 1611. His most important
work is the Life of Loyola (1572), which he was the first to
write. In his first edition of the Life, as also in the second
enlarged issue (1587), Ribadeneira affirmed that Loyola had
wrought no miracle, except the foundation of his Society
(thus making his claim parallel with that of Mahomet, whose
only miracle, originally, was the Koran). In the process for
the canonization of Loyola, a narrative published by Riba-
deneira in 1609 exhibited miracles; and these are recorded
in an abridgment of the Life by Ribadeneira (published post-
humously in 1612) with a statement by Ribadeneira that he
had known of them in 1572 but was not then satisfied of their
proof. For this change of opinion he is taken to task by Bayle.
That Ribadeneira was, though an able, a very credulous writer,
is shown by his lives of the successors of Loyola in the general-
ship of the Society, Lainez and Borgia; and especially by
his Flos Sanctorum (1599-1610), a collection of saints' lives,
entirely superseded by the labours of the Bollandists. His
other works are numerous but of little moment, including
his Tratado de la religion (1595), intended as a refutation of
Machiavelli's Prince.
See his autobiography in his Bibliotheca Scriptorum Societatis Jesu
(1602 and 1608, supplemented by P.Alegambeand N.Sotwell in 1676) ;
N. Antonio, Biotheca Hispana Nova (1788); Biographic Universelle
(Michaud) (1842-1865). (A. Go.*)
RIBALD, a word now only used in the sense of jeering,
irreverent, abusive, particularly applied to the uses of low,
offensive or mocking jests. It has an interesting early history,
of which Du Cange (Gloss, s.v. Ribaldi) gives a full account.
It is one of those words, like the Greek rvpavvos, an uncon-
stitutional ruler, and the Latin latro, a hired soldier, mercenary,
later robber, which have acquired a degraded and evil sig-
nificance. The ribaldi were light-armed soldiers, on whom
fell the duty of being first in attack, the enfans perdus or " for-
lorn hope " of the armies of the French kings; thus Rigordus,
in his contemporary history of the reign of Philip Augustus,
for the year 1189, speaks of the Ribaldi . . . qui primes im-
petus in expuguandis munitionibus facere consueverunl. Later
we find the ribaldi among the rabble of camp-followers of
an army, and Giovanni Villani, in his 16th-century Chronicle
(n, 139), speaks of ribaldi et i raguazzi del hoste, and Froissart
of the ribaux as the lowest ranks in an army. Ribaldus (ribaut)
was thus a common name for everything ruffianly and aban-
doned, and Matthew Paris (Ann. 1251) says: Fures, exules,
fugilivi, excommunicati, quos omnes Ribaldos Francia vulgariter
consuevit appellare. The name (ribaldae or ribaldi) was particu-
larly applied to prostitutes, brothel-keepers and all who fre-
quent haunts of vice, and there was at the French court from
the 1 2th century an official, known as Rex Ribaldorum, king
of the ribalds, changed in the reign of Charles VI. to Prae-
posilus Hospitii Regis, whose duty was to investigate and hold
judicial inquiry into all crimes committed within the precincts
of the court, and control vagrants, prostitutes, brothels and
gambling-houses. The etymology of the word has been much
discussed, and no certainty can be arrived at. The termination
aid points to a Teutonic origin, and connexion has been
suggested with O.H.Ger. Hripd, M.H.Ger. Ribe, prostitute, with
Ger. reiben, rub, or with rauben, rob. Neither Skeat nor the
New English Dictionary find any relation to the English " bawd,"
procuress, pander.
RIBAULT (or RIBAUT), JEAN (c. 1520-1565), French
navigator, famous for his connexion with the early settlement
of Florida, was born at Dieppe, probably about 1 520. Appointed
by Admiral Coligny to the command of an expedition to prepare
an asylum for French Protestants in America, Ribault sailed
on the i8th of February 1562, with two vessels, and on the
ist of May landed in Florida at St John's river, or, as he called
it, Riviere de Mai. Having settled his colonists at Port Royal
Harbour (now Paris Island, South Carolina), and built Fort
Charles for their protection, he returned to France to find the
country in the throes of the Civil War. In 1563 he appears to
have been in England and to have issued True and Last Discoverie
of Florida (Hakluyt Soc., vol. vii.). In April 1564 Coligny was
in a position to despatch another expedition under Rene de
Laudonniere, but meanwhile Ribault's colony had come to an
untimely end the unfortunate adventurers, destitute of sup-
plies from home, having revolted against their governor and
attempted to make their way back to Europe in a boat which
was happily picked up, when they were in the last extremities,
by an English vessel. In 1565 Ribault was again sent out to
satisfy Coligny as to Laudonniere's management of his new
settlement, Fort Caroline, on the Riviere de Mai. While he
was still there the Spaniards, under Menendez de Aviles, though
their country was at peace with France, attacked the French
ships at the mouth of the river. Ribault set out to retaliate
on the Spanish fleet, but his vessels were wrecked by a storm
near Matanzas Inlet and he had to attempt to return to Fort
Caroline by land. The fort had by this time fallen into the
hands of the Spaniards, who had slaughtered all the colonists
except a few who got off with two ships under Ribault's son.
Induced to surrender by false assurances of safeguard, Ribault
and his men were also put to the sword in October 1565. The
massacre was avenged in kind by Dominique de Gourgues
(d. 1583) two years later.
See E. and E. Haag, La France protestante (1846-1859); and F.
Parkman, Pioneers of France in the New World (new ed., 1899).
RIBBECK, JOHANN CARL OTTO (1827-1898), German
classical scholar, was born at Erfurt in Saxony on the 23rd of
July 1827. Having held professorial appointments at Kiel
and Heidelberg, he succeeded his tutor Ritschl in the chair of
classical philology at Leipzig, where he died on the i8th of July
1898. Ribbeck was the author of several standard works on
the poets and poetry of Rome, the most important of which are
the following: Geschichte der romischen Dichtung (2nd ed.,
1894-1900); Die romische Tragodie im Zeitalter der Republik
(1875); Scaenicae Romanorum Poesis Fragmenta, including the
tragic and comic fragments (3rd ed., 1897). As a textual critic
he was distinguished by considerable rashness, and never hesitated
to alter, rearrange or reject as spurious what failed to reach
his standard of excellence. These tendencies are strikingly
shown in his editions of the Epistles and Ars Poetica of Horace
(1869), theSalires of Juvenal (1859) and in the supplementary
essay Der echte und unechte Juvenal (1865). In later years,
however, he became much more conservative. His edition of
Virgil (2nd ed., 1894-1895), although only critical, is a work
of great erudition, especially the Prolegomena. His biography
of Ritschl (1879-1881) is one of the best works of its kind. The
influence of his tutor may be seen in Ribbeck's critical edition
of the Miles Gloriosus of Plautus, and Beitrage zur Lehre von den
lateinischen Partikeln, a work of much promise, which causes
regret that he did not publish further results of his studies in
that direction. His miscellaneous Reden und Vortriige were
published after his death (Leipzig, 1899). He took great interest
in the monumental Thesaurus Linguae Latinae, and it was
chiefly owing to his efforts that the government of Saxony was
induced to assist its production by a considerable subsidy.
Xhe chief authority for his life is Otto Ribbeck; tin BUd seines
Lebens aus seinen Briefen (1901), ed. by Emma Ribbeck.
RIBBON-FISHES (Trachypteridae), a family of marine
fishes readily recognized by their long, compressed, tape-like
body, short head, narrow mouth and feeble dentition. A high
dorsal fin occupies the whole length of the back; an anal is
absent, and the caudal, if present, consists of two fascicles of
rays of which the upper is prolonged and directed upwards.
The pectoral fins are small, the ventrals composed of several
rays, or of one long ray only. Ribbon-fishes possess all the
characteristics of fishes living at very great depths. They are
RIBBONISM RIBBONS
283
extremely fragile when found floating on the surface or thrown
ashore, and rarely in an uninjured condition; the rays of their
FIG. i. Trachypterus taenia.
fins especially, and the membrane connecting them, are of a
very delicate and brittle structure. In young ribbon-fishes
some of the fin-rays are prolonged in an extraordinary degree,
and sometimes provided with appendages (see fig. 2). There
FIG. 2. Young Trachypterus.
are only two genera in the family, Regalecus, the oar-fish, and
Trachypterus. In the former the length of the body is about
fifteen times its depth. The head likewise is compressed, short,
resembling in its form that of a herring; the eye is large; the
mouth is small, and provided with very feeble teeth. A long
many-rayed dorsal fin, of which the very long anterior rays
form a kind of high crest, extends from the top of the head
to the end of the tail; the anal and perhaps the caudal
fins are absent; but the ventrals (and by this the oar-fish is
distinguished from the other ribbon-fishes) are developed into
a pair of long filaments, which terminate in a paddle-shaped
extremity, but are too flexible to assist in locomotion. The
whole body is covered with a layer of silvery epidermoid sub-
stance, which easily comes off and adheres to other objects.
FIG 3. Oar-fish.
Oar-fishes are the largest deep-sea fishes known, the majority ol
the specimens observed measuring 12 ft. in length; but some are
recorded to have exceeded 20 ft. Their range in the great depths
of the ocean seems to extend over all seas, but, however numerous
they may be in the depths which are their home, it is only by ran
accident that specimens reach the su'rface. Thus from the coasts o
Great Britain only about twenty captures are known in the long
space of a century and a half, and not more than thirteen from those
of Norway. Oar-fishes have been considered by naturalists to havr
given rise to some of the tales of " sea-serpents," but their size as well
is the facility with which they are secured when observed render this
solution of the question of the existence of such a creature im-
probable. When they rise to the surface of the water they are either
lead or in a helpless and dying condition. The ligaments and tissues
:>y which the bones and muscles were held together whilst the fish
ived under the immense pressure of great depths have then become
oosened and torn by the expansion of the internal gases; and it is
only with difficulty that the specimens can be taken entire out of the
water, and preserved afterwards. Every specimen found has been
more or less mutilated; and especially the terminal portion of the
ail, which seems to end in a delicate tapering filament, has never
>een perfect; it is perhaps usually lost as a useless appendage at
a much earlier period of the life of the fish. Of Trachypterus,
specimens have been taken in the Atlantic, the Mediterranean, at
Mauritius and in the Pacific. The species from the Atlantic has
occurred chiefly on the northern coasts, Iceland, Scandinavia,
Orkneys and Scotland. It is known as T. arcticus, in English the
deal-fish; its Icelandic name is Vagmaer. Its length is 5 to 8 ft.
Specimens seem usually to be driven to the shore by gales in
winter, and are sometimes left by the tide. S. Nilsson, however,
n Scandinavia observed a living specimen in two or three fathoms
of water moving something like a flat-fish with one side turned
obliquely upwards.
RIBBONISM, the name given to an Irish secret-society
movement, which began at the end of the i8th century in
opposition to the Orangemen (q.v.), and which was represented
ay various associations under different names, organized in
odges, and recruited all over Ireland from the lowest classes
of the people. The actual name of Ribbonism (from a green
aadge worn by its members) became attached to the movement
later, about 1826; and, after it had grown to its height about
1855, it declined in force, and was practically 'at an end in its
old form when in 1871 the Westmeath Act declared Ribbonism
illegal. See also under IRELAND: History.
RIBBONS. By this name are designated narrow webs,
properly of silk, not exceeding nine inches in width, used
primarily for binding and tying in connexion with dress, but also
now applied for innumerable useful, ornamental and symbolical
purposes. Along with that of tapes, fringes and other small-
wares, the manufacture of ribbons forms a special department
of the textile industries. The essential feature of a ribbon
loom is the simultaneous weaving in one loom frame of two or
more webs, going up to as many as forty narrow fabrics in
modern looms. To effect the conjoined throwing of all the
shuttles and the various other movements of the loom, the
automatic action of the power-loom is necessary; and it is
a remarkable fact that the self-acting ribbon loom was known
and extensively used more than a century before the famous
invention of Cartwright. A loom in which several narrow webs
could be woven at one time is mentioned as having been working
in Dantzig towards the end of the i6th century. Similar looms
were at work in Leiden in 1620, where their use gave rise to so
much discontent and rioting on the part of the weavers that the
states-general had to prohibit their use. The prohibition was
renewed at various intervals throughout the century, and in the
same interval the use of the ribbon loom was interdicted in
most of the principal industrial centres of Europe. About
1676, under the name of the Dutch loom or engine loom, it was
brought to London; and, although its introduction there caused
some disturbance, it does not appear to have been pro-
hibited. In 1745, John Kay, the inventor of the fly -shuttle,
obtained, conjointly with Joseph Stell, a patent for im-
provements in the ribbon loom; and since that period it has
benefited by the inventions applied to weaving machinery
generally.
Ribbon-weaving is known to have been established near St
Etienne (dep. Loire) so early as the nth century, and that town
has remained the headquarters of the industry. During the
Huguenot troubles, ribbon-weavers from St Etienne settled at
Basel and there established an industry which in modern times
has rivalled that of the original seat of the trade. Crefeld is the
centre of the German ribbon industry, the manufacture of black
velvet ribbon being there a specialty. In England Coventry
is the most important seat of ribbon-making, which is also prose-
cuted at Norwich and Leicester.
284
RIBEIRA RIBERA
RIBEIRA, a town of north-western Spain, in the province
of Corunna, on the extreme south-west of the peninsula formed
between the river of Muros y Noya and Arosa Bay. Pop.
(1000) 12,218. Ribeira is in a hilly country, abounding in
wheat, wine, fruit, fish and game. Its port is Santa Eugenia
de Ribeira, on Arosa Bay. The population is chiefly occupied
in agriculture, cattle-breeding and fisheries.
RIBEIRO, BERNARDIM (1482-1552), the father of bucolic
prose and verse in Portugal, was a native of Torrao in the
Alemtejo. His father, Damiao Ribeiro, was implicated in the
conspiracy against King John II. in 1484, and had to flee to
Castile, whereupon young Bernardim and his mother took refuge
with their relations Antonio Zagalo and D. Ignez Zagalo at
the Quinta dos Lobos, near Cintra. When King Manoel came
to the throne in 1495, he rehabilitated the families persecuted
by his predecessor, and Ribeiro was able to leave his retreat and
return to Torrao. Meanwhile D. Ignez had married a rich
landowner of Estremoz, and in 1503 she was summoned to
court and appointed one of the attendants to the Infanta D.
Beatriz. Ribeiro accompanied her, and through her influence
the king took him under his protection and sent him to the
university of Lisbon, where he studied from 1506 to 1512. When
he obtained his degree in law, the king showed him further favour
by appointing him to the post of Escrivao da Camara, or secretary,
and later by bestowing on him the habit of the military order
by Sao Thiago. Ribeiro's poetic career commenced with his
coming to court, and his early verses are to be found in the
Cancioneiro Geral of Garcia de Resende (?..). He took part in
the historic Seroes do Pa$o, or palace evening 'entertainments,
which largely consisted of poetical improvisations; there he met
and earned the friendship of the poets Sa de Miranda (q.v.)
and Christovao Falcao (q.v.), who became his literary comrades
and the confidants of his romance, in which hope deferred and
bitter disappointment ended in tragedy. Ribeiro had early
conceived a violent passion for his cousin, D. Joanna Zagalo,
the daughter of his protectress, D. Ignez; but, though she seems
to have returned it, her family opposed her marriage to a singer
and dreamer with small means and prospects, and finally
compelled her to wed a rich man, one Pero Gato. When the
latter met a violent death shortly afterwards, D. Joanna retired
to a house in the country, and it is alleged that Ribeiro visited
her, and that their amour resulted in the birth of a child. All we
know positively, however, is that in 1521 the lady went into
seclusion in the convent of St Clare at Estremoz, where she fell
a victim to a violent form of insanity, and that she died there
some years later. It is further alleged that Ribeiro's conduct
had caused a scandal which led the king to deprive him of his
office and exile him. But the loss of position and income can
have added very little to the poignant grief of such a true lover
and profound idealist as Bernardim Ribeiro. He had poured
out his heart in five beautiful eclogues, the earliest in Portuguese,
written in the popular octosyllabic verse; and now, hopeless of
the future and broken in spirit, he decided to go to Italy, for a
poet the land of promise. He started early in 1522, and travelled
widely in the peninsula, and during his stay he wrote his moving
knightly and pastoral romance Menina e Moi;a, in which he
related the story of his unfortunate passion, personifying himself
under the anagram of " Bimnarder," and D. Ignez under that
of " Aonia." When he returned home in 1524, the new king,
John III., restored him to his former post, and it is said that he
paid a last visit to his love at St Clare's convent and found her
in a fit of raving madness. This no doubt preyed on a mind
already unhinged by trouble, and hastened the decline of his
mental powers, which had already commenced. About 1534 a
long illness supervened, and the years that elapsed between that
year and his death may be described as the night of his soul.
He was quite unable to fulfil the duties of his office, and in 1 549
the king bestowed upon him a pension for his support; but he
did not live long to enjoy it, for in 1552 he died insane in All
Saints Hospital in Lisbon.
The Menina e Mo$a was not printed until after Ribeiro's
death, and then first in Ferrara in 1554. On its appearance
the book made such a sensation that its reading was forbidden,
because, though it contained nothing heterodox, it disclosed
a family tragedy which the allegory could not hide. It is
divided into two parts, the first of which is certainly the work
of Ribeiro, while as to the second opinion is divided, though
Dr Theophilo Braga considers it genuine and explains its
progressive lack of lucidity and order by the mental illness
of the author. The first part has been ably edited by Dr Jose
Pessanha (Oporto, 1891). Ribeiro's verses, including his five
eclogues, which for their sincerity of feeling, simple diction
and chaste form are unsurpassed in Portuguese literature,
were reprinted in a limited ddition de luxe by Dr Xavier da
Cunha (Lisbon, 1886).
AUTHORITIES. Visconde Sanches de Baena, Bernardim Ribeiro
(Lisbon, 1895) ; Dr Theophilo Braga, Bernardim Ribeiro e o Bucolismo
(Oporto, 1 897) , containing a full analysis of Ribeiro's novel (sometimes
called the Saudades, though it is more commonly described, as here,
by the initial words of the story, Menina e Mo$a). (E. PR.)
RIBERA, GIUSEPPE (1588-1656), commonly called Lo
SPAGNOLETTO, or the Little Spaniard, a leading painter of the
Neapolitan or partly of the Spanish school, was born near
Valencia in Spain, at Xativa, now named S. Felipe, on i2th
January 1588. His parents intended him for a literary or
learned career; but he neglected the regular studies, and
entered the school of the Spanish painter Francisco Ribalta.
Fired with a longing to study art in Italy, he somehow made
his way to Rome. Early in the I7th century a cardinal noticed
him in the streets of Rome drawing from the frescoes on a
palace fagade; he took up the ragged stripling and housed
him in his mansion. Artists had then already bestowed upon
the alien student, who was perpetually copying all sorts of
objects in art and in nature, the nickname of Lo Spagnoletto.
In the cardinal's household Ribera was comfortable but dis-
satisfied, and one day he decamped. He then betook himself
to the famous painter Michelangelo da Caravaggio, the head of
the naturalist school, called also -the school of the Tenebrosi,
or shadow-painters, owing to the excessive contrasts of light
and shade which marked their style. The Italian master gave
every encouragement to the Spaniard, but not for long, as he
died in 1609. Ribera, who had in the first instance studied
chiefly from Raphael and the Caracci, had by this time acquired
so much mastery over the tenebroso style that his performances
were barely distinguishable from Caravaggio's own. He now
went to Parma, and worked after the frescoes of Correggio
with great zeal and efficiency: in the museum of Madrid is his
" Jacob's Ladder," which is regarded as his chef-d'ceuvre in
this manner. From Parma Spagnoletto returned to Rome,
where he resumed the style of Caravaggio, and shortly after-
wards he migrated to Naples, which became his permanent [home.
Ribera was as yet still poor and inconspicuous, but a rich
picture-dealer in Naples soon discerned in him all the stuff of
a successful painter, and gave him his daughter in marriage.
This was the turning-point in the Spaniard's fortunes. He
painted a " Martyrdom of St Bartholomew," which the father-
in-law exhibited from his balcony to a rapidly increasing and
admiring crowd. The popular excitement grew to so noisy a
height as to attract the attention of the Spanish viceroy, the
Count de Monterey. From this nobleman and from the king
of Spain, Philip IV., commissions now flowed in upon Ribera.
With prosperity came grasping and jealous selfishness. Spagno-
letto, chief in a triumvirate of greed, the " Cabal of Naples,"
his abettors being a Greek painter, Belisario Corenzio, and a
Neapolitan, Giambattista Caracciolo, determined that Naples
should be an artistic monopoly; by intrigue, terrorizing and
personal violence on occasion they kept aloof all competitors.
Annibale Caracci, tjie Cavalier d'Arpino, Guide, Domenichino,
all of them successively invited to work in Naples, found the
place too hot to hold them. The cabal ended at the time of
Caracciolo's death in 1641.
The close of Ribera's triumphant career has been variously
related. If we are to believe Dominici, the historian of Nea-
politan art, he totally disappeared from Naples in 1648 and
RIBOT, A. F. J. RIBOT, T.
.85
was no more heard of this being the sequel of the abduction
by Don John of Austria, son of Philip IV., of the painter's
beautiful only daughter Maria Rosa. But these assertions
have not availed to displace the earlier and well-authenticated
statement that Ribera died peaceably and wealthy in Naples
in 1656. His own signature on his pictures is constantly
" Jusepe de Ribera, Espanol." His daughter, so far from
being disgraced by an abduction, married a Spanish nobleman
who became a minister of the viceroy.
The pictorial- style of Spagnoletto is extremely powerful.
In his earlier style, founded (as we have seen) sometimes on
Caravaggio and sometimes on the wholly diverse method of
Correggio, the study of Spanish and Venetian masters can
likewise be traced. Along with his massive and predominating
shadows, he retained from first to last great strength of local
colouring. His forms, though ordinary and partly gross, are
correct; the impression of his works gloomy and startling. He
delighted in subjects of horror. Salvator Rosa and Luca
Giordano were his most distinguished pupils; also Giovanni Do,
Enrico Fiammingo, Michelangelo Fracanzani, and Aniello
Falcone, who was the first considerable painter of battle-pieces.
Among Ribera's principal works should be named " St Januarius
Emerging from the Furnace," in the cathedral of Naples; the
" Descent from the Cross," in the Neapolitan Certosa, generally
regarded as his masterpiece; the " Adoration of the Shepherds "
(a late work, 1650), now in the Louvre; the " Martyrdom of
St Bartholomew," in the museum of Madrid; the " Pieta," in
the sacristy of S. Martino, Naples. His mythologic subjects
are generally unpleasant such as the " Silenus," in the Studj
Gallery of Naples, and " Venus Lamenting over Adonis," in
the Corsini Gallery of Rome. The Louvre contains altogether
twenty-five of his paintings; the National Gallery, London,
two one of them, a " Peita," being an excellent though not
exactly a leading specimen. He executed several fine male
portraits; among others his own likeness, now in the collection
at Alton Towers. He also produced twenty-six etchings, ably
treated. For the use of his pupils, he drew a number of ele-
mentary designs, which in 1650 were etched by Francisco
Fernandez, and which continued much in vogue for a long
while among Spanish and French painters and students.
Besides the work of Dominici already referred to (1840-46), the
Diccionario Historico of Cean Bermudez is a principal authority
regarding Ribera and his works; also E. de Lalaing, " Ribera " (in
Histoire de quatre grands peintres), 1888. (W. M. R.)
RIBOT, ALEXANDRE FELIX JOSEPH (1842- ), French
statesman, was born at St Omer on 7th February 1842. After
a brilliant career at the university of Paris, where he was
laureat of the faculty of law, he rapidly made his mark at the
bar. He was secretary of the conference of advocates and one
of the founders of the Sociele de legislation comparee. During
1875 and 1876 he was successively director of criminal affairs
and secretary-general at the ministry of justice. In 1877 he
made his entry into political life by the conspicuous part he
played on the committee of legal resistance during the Broglie
ministry, and in the following year he was returned to the
chamber as a moderate republican member for Boulogne, in
his native department of Pas-de-Calais. His impassioned yet
reasoned eloquence gave him an influence which was increased
by his articles in the Parlement in which he opposed violent
measures against the unauthorized congregations. He devoted
himself especially to financial questions, and in 1882 was
reporter of the budget. He became one of the most prominent
republican opponents of the Radical party, distinguishing
himself by his attacks on the short-lived Gambetta ministry.
He refused to vote the credits demanded by the Ferry cabinet
for the Tongking expedition, and shared with M. Clemenceau
in the overthrow of the ministry in 1885. At the general
election of that year he was one of the victims of the Republican
rout in the Pas-de-Calais, and did not re-enter the chamber
till 1887. After 1889 he sat for St Omer. His fear of the
Boulangist movement converted him to the policy of " Re-
publican Concentration," and he entered office in 1890 as
foreign minister in the Freycinet cabinet. He had an intimate
acquaintance and sympathy with English institutions, and two
of his published works an address, Biographic de Lord Erskine
(1866), and fiude sur I'acte du 5 awil 1873 pour I'itablisscmcnt
.d'une cour supreme de justice en Angleterre (1874) deal with
English questions; he also gave a fresh and highly important
direction to French policy by the understanding with Russia,
which was declared to the world by the visit of the French
fleet to Cronstadt in 1891, and which subsequently ripened
into a formal treaty of alliance. He retained his post in the
Loubet ministry (February-November 1892), and on its defeat
became himself president of the council, retaining the direction
of foreign affairs. The government resigned in March 1893 on
the refusal of the chamber to accept the Senate's amendments
to the budget. On the election of F61ix Faure as president of
the Republic in January 1895, M. Ribot again became premier
and minister of finance. On the loth of June he was able to
make the first official announcement of a definite alliance with
Russia. On the 3oth of October the government was defeated
on the question of the Chemin de fer du Sud, and resigned
office. The real reason of its fall was the mismanagement of
the Madagascar expedition, the cost of which in men and
money exceeded all expectations, and the alarming social
conditions at home, as indicated by the strike at Carmaux.
After the fall of the Meline ministry in 1898 M. Ribot tried in
vain to form a cabinet of " conciliation." He was elected, at
the end of 1898, president of the important commission on
education, in which he advocated the adoption of a modern
system of education. The policy of the Waldeck-Rousseau
ministry on the religious teaching congregations broke .up the
Republican party, and M. Ribot was among the seceders;
but at the general election of 1902, though he himself secured
re-election, his policy suffered a severe check. He actively
opposed the policy of the Combes ministry and denounced the
alliance with M. Jaures, and on the I3th of January 1905 he
was one of the leaders of the opposition which brought about
the fall of the cabinet. Although he had been most violent
in denouncing the anti-clerical policy of the Combes cabinet,
he now announced his willingness to> recognize a new regime to
replace the Concordat, and gave the government his support
in the establishment of the Associations cultuedes, while he
secured some mitigation of the severities attending the separa-
tion. He was re-elected deputy for St Omer in 1906. In the
same year he became a member of the French Academy in
succession to the due d'Audiffret-Pasquier; he was already a
member of the Academy of Moral and Political Science. In
justification of his policy in opposition he published in 1905
two volumes of his Discours poliliques.
RIBOT, THEODULE (1823-1891), French painter, was born
at Breteuil, in Eure, in 1823, and died at Bois Colomoes, near
Paris, in September 1891. A pupil nominally of Glaize, but
more really of Ribera, of the great Flemings and of Chardin,
Theodule Ribot had yet conspicuously his own noble and
personal vision, his own intensity of feeling and rich sobriety
of performance. Beginning to work seriously at art when
he was no longer extremely young, and dying before he was
extremely old, Ribot crowded into some thirty or thirty-five
years of active practice very varied achievements; and he
worked in at least three mediums, oil paint, pencil or crayon
draughtsmanship and the needle of the etcher. His drawings
were sometimes " complete in themselves," and sometimes
fragmentary but powerful preparations for painted canvases.
The etchings, of which there are only about a couple of dozen,
are of the middle period of his practice; they show a diversity
of method as well as of theme; the work in the well-nigh
Velazquez-like " Priere " a group of girl children contrast-
ing strongly with that process almost of outline alone, which
he employed in the brilliant little group of prints which record
his vision of the character and humours of cooks and kitchen-
boys. In etching, the method varied with .the theme not
with the period. It is quite otherwise with the paintings.
Here the earlier work, irrespective of its subject, is the drier
286
RIBOT, T. A. RICARDO
and the more austere; the later work, irrespective of its subject,
the freer and broader. But even in that which is quite early
there is a curious and impressive intensity of conception and
presentation. His visions of elderly women and young girls
remain upon the memory. His women, wrinkled and worn,
have had the experience of a hard and grinding world; his
children, his young girls, are the quintessence of innocence
and happy hopefulness, and life is a jest to his boys. His
religious pieces, in which Ribera affected him, have conviction
and force. Into portraits and into character studies, but more
especially into genre subjects, Ribot was apt to introduce
Still-life, and to make much of it. Herein, as in his sense of
homeliness, he resembled Chardin. But again, Chardin-like,
he painted Still-life for its own sake, by itself, and always with
an extraordinary sense of the solidity and form, the texture
and the hue, and, it must be added also, the very charm of
matter. (F. WE.)
RIBOT, THEODULE ARMAND (1830-1903), French psycho-
logist, was born at Guingamp on the i8th of December 1839,
and was educated at the Lycee de St Brieuc. In 1856 he began
to teach, and was admitted to the Ecole Normale Superieure
in 1862. In 1885 he gave a course of lectures on " Experi-
mental Psychology " at the Sorbonne, and in 1888 was ap-
pointed professor of that subject at the College of France.
His thesis for his doctor's degree, republished in 1882, H&redite:
etude psyckologique (sth ed., 1889), is his most important and
best known book. Following the experimental and synthetic
methods, he has brought together a large number of instances
of inherited peculiarities; he pays particular attention to the
physical element of mental life, ignoring all spiritual or non-
material factors in man. In his work on La Psychologic
anglaise coniemporaine (1870), he shows his sympathy with the
sensationalist school, and again in his translation of Herbert
Spencer's Principles of Psychology. Besides numerous articles,
he has written on Schopenhauer, Philosophic de Schopenhauer
(1874; 7th ed., 1896), and on the contemporary psychology
of Germany (La Psychologie allemande contemporaine, 1879;
i3th ed., 1898), also four little monographs on Les Maladies
de la memoire (1881; I3th ed., 1898); De la volonlt (1883;
i4th ed., 1899); De la personnalitl (1885; Sth ed., 1899);
and La Psychologie de I' attention (1888), which supply useful
data to the student of mental disease.
Other works by him are: La Psychologie des sentiments (1896);
L' Evolution des idees generales (1897); Essai sur V imagination
creatrice (1900); La Logique des sentiments (1904); Essai sur les
passions (1906). Of the above the following have been translated
into English: English Psychology (1873); Heredity: a Psycho-
logical Study of its Phenomena, Laws, Causes, and Consequences
(1875); Diseases of Memory: An Essay in the Positive Psychology
(1882); Diseases of the Will (New York, 1884); German Psychology
of to-day, tr. J. M. Baldwin (New York, 1886) ; The Psychology of Atten-
tion (Open Court Publishing Company, Chicago, 1890); Diseases
of Personality (Chicago, 1895); The Psychology of the Emotions
(1897); The Evolution of General Ideas, tr. F. A. Welby (Chicago,
1899); Essay on the Creative Imagination, tr. A. H. N. Baron (1906).
RICARD, LOUIS GUSTAVE (1823-1873), French painter,
was born in Marseilles in 1823, and studied first under Auber
in his native town, and subsequently under Coignet in Paris.
The formation of his masterly, distinguished style in portraiture
was, however, due rather to ten years' intelligent copying of
the old masters at the Louvre and at the Italian galleries,
than to any school training. He was a master of technique,
and his portraits about two hundred reveal an extra-
ordinary insight into the character of his sitters. Never-
theless, for some time after his death his name was almost
forgotten by the public, and it is only of quite recent years
that he has been conceded the position among the leading
masters of the modern French school which is his due. A
portrait of himself, and one of Alfred de Musset, are at the
Luxembourg Gallery. Among his best known works are the
portrait of his mother, and those of the painters Fromentin,
Heilbuth and Chaplin.
See Gustave Ricard, by Camille Mauclair (Paris, Librairie de I'arf).
RICARDO, DAVID (1772-1823), English economist, was
born in London on the igth of April 1772, of Jewish origin. His
father, who was of Dutch birth, bore an honourable character
and was a successful member of the Stock Exchange. At the
age of fourteen Ricardo entered his father's office, where he
showed much aptitude for business. About the time when
he attained his majority he abandoned the Hebrew faith
and conformed to the Anglican Church, a change which seems
to have been connected with his marriage to Miss Wilkinson,
which took place in 1793. In consequence of the step thus
taken he was separated from his family and thrown on his
own resources. His ability and uprightness were known, and
he at once entered on such a successful career in the pro-
fession to which he had been brought up that at the age of
twenty-five, we are told, he was already rich. He now began to
occupy himself with scientific pursuits, and gave some atten-
tion to mathematics as well as to chemistry and mineralogy;
but, having met with Adam Smith's great work, he threw
himself with ardour into the study of political economy.
His first publication (1809) was The High Price of Bullion
a Proof of the Depreciation of Bank Notes. This tract was an
expansion of a series of articles which the author had con-
tributed to the Morning Chronicle. It gave a fresh stimulus
to the controversy, which had for some time been discontinued,
respecting the resumption of cash payments, and indirectly
led to the appointment of a committee of the House of
Commons, commonly known as the Bullion Committee, to
consider the whole question. The report of the committee
asserted the same views which Ricardo had put forward, and
recommended the repeal of the Bank Restriction Act. Not-
withstanding this, the House of Commons declared in the
teeth of the facts that paper had undergone no depreciation.
Ricardo's first tract, as well as another on the same subject,
attracted much attention.
In 1811 he made the acquaintance of James Mill, whose
introduction to him arose out of the publication of Mill's tract
entitled Commerce Defended. Whilst Mill doubtless largely
affected his political ideas, he was, on his side, under obligations
to Ricardo in the purely economic field; Mill said in 1823
that he himself and J. R. M'Culloch were Ricardo's disciples,
and, he added, his only genuine ones.
In 1815, when the Corn Laws were under discussion, he
published his Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on
the Profits of Stock. This was directed against a recent tract
by Malthus entitled Grounds of an Opinion on the Policy
of Restraining the Free Importation of Foreign Corn. The
reasonings .of the essay are based on the theory of rent which
has often been called by the name of Ricardo; but the author
distinctly states that it was not due to him. " In all that
I have said concerning the origin and progress of rent I have
briefly repeated, and endeavoured to elucidate, the principles
which Malthus has so ably laid down on the same subject in
his Inquiry into the Nature and Progress of Rent." We now
know that the theory had been fully stated, before the time
of Malthus, by Anderson; it is in any case clear that it was
no discovery of Ricardo. \Ricardo states in this essay a set of
propositions, most of them deductions from the theory of rent,
which are in substance the same as those afterwards embodied
in the Principles, and regarded as characteristic of his system,
such as that increase of wages does not raise prices; that
profits can be raised only by a fall in wages and diminished
only by a rise in wages; and that profits, in the whole progress
of society, are determined by the cost of the production of
the food which is raised at the greatest expense. It does not
appear that, excepting the theory of foreign trade, anything
of the nature of fundamental doctrine, as distinct from the
special subjects of banking and taxation, is laid down in the
Principles which does not already appear in this tract. We
find in it, too, the same exclusive regard to the interest of the
capitalist class, and the same identification of their interest
with that of the whole nation, which are generally characteristic
of his writings.
RICASOLI
287
In the Proposals for an Economical and Secure Currency
(1816) he first disposes of the chimera of a currency without
a specific standard, and pronounces in favour of a single metal,
with a preference for silver, as the standard.
Ricardo's chief work, Principles of Political Economy and
Taxation, appeared in 1817. The fundamental doctrine of this
work is that, on the hypothesis of free competition, exchange
value is determined by the labour expended in production,
a proposition not new, nor, except with considerable limitation
and explanation, true, and of little practical use, as " amount
of labour " is a vague expression, and the thing intended
is incapable of exact estimation. Ricardo's theory of dis-
tribution has been briefly enunciated as follows: " (i) The
demand for food determines the margin of cultivation;
(2) this margin determines rent; (3) the amount necessary to
maintain the labourer determines wages; (4) the difference
between the amount produced by a given quantity of labour
at the margin and the wages of that labour determines profit."
These theorems are too absolutely stated, and require much
modification to adapt them to real life. His theory of foreign
trade has been embodied in the two propositions: " (i) Inter-
national values are not determined in the same way as domestic
values; (2) the medium of exchange is distributed so as to
bring trade to the condition it would be in if it were conducted
by barter."
A considerable portion of the work is devoted to a study
of taxation, which requires to be considered as a part of the
problem of distribution. A tax is not always paid by those
on whom it is imposed; it is therefore necessary to determine
the ultimate, as distinguished from the immediate, incidence
of every 'form of [taxation. Smith had already dealt with
this question; Ricardo develops and criticizes his results.
The conclusions at which he arrives are in the main as follows:
a tax on raw produce falls on the consumer, but will also
diminish profits; a tax on rents on the landlord; taxes on
houses will be divided between the occupier and the ground
landlord; taxes on profits will be paid by the consumer, and
taxes on wages by the capitalist.
In 1819 Ricardo, having retired from business and become
a landed proprietor, entered parliament as member for
Portarlington. He was at first diffident and embarrassed in
speaking, but gradually overcame these difficulties, and was
heard with much attention and deference, especially when
he addressed the House on economic questions. He probably
contributed in a considerable degree to bringing about the
change of opinion on the question of free trade which ulti-
mately led to the legislation of Sir Robert Peel on that
subject.
In 1820 he contributed to the supplement of the Encyclopaedia
Britannica (6th ed.) an " Essay on the Funding System." In this
besides giving an historical account (founded on Dr Robert
Hamilton's valuable work On the National Debt, 1813, 3rd ed.,
1818) of the several successive forms of the sinking fund, he
urges that nations should defray their expenses, whether
ordinary or extraordinary, at the time when they are incurred,
instead of providing for them by loans.
In 1822 he published a tract On Protection to Agriculture,
which is an able application to controversy of the general
principles laid down in his systematic work. Its arguments
and conclusions are therefore subject to the same limitations
which those fundamental principles require.
In his Plan for the Establishment of a National Bank, published
posthumously in 1824, he proposes that the issue of the paper
currency should be taken out of the hands of the Bank of
England and vested in commissioners appointed by the
government. The tract describes in detail the measures to
be adopted for the introduction and working of the system.
A certain step towards realizing the objects of his scheme,
though on different lines from Ricardo's, was taken in Sir
Robert Peel's act of 1844, by which the discount business
of 'the bank was separated from the issue department.
Ricardo died on the nth of September 1823, at bis seat
(Gatcomb Park) in Gloucestershire, from a cerebral affection
resulting from disease of the ear. James Mill, who was inti-
mately acquainted with him, says (in a letter to Napier of
November 1818) that he knew not a better man, and on the
occasion of his death published a highly eulogistic notice of
him in the Morning Chronicle. A lectureship on political
economy, to exist for ten years, was founded in commemoration
of him, M'Culloch being chosen to fill it.
In forming a general judgment respecting Ricardo, we must
have in view not so much the minor writings as the Principles,
in which his economic system is expounded as a whole. By a
study of this work we are led 'to the conclusion that he was
an economist only, not at all a social philosopher in the wider
sense, like Adam Smith or John Mill. He had great acuteness,
but little breadth. For any large treatment of moral and
political questions he seems to have been alike by nature and
preparation unfitted; and there is no evidence of his having
had any but the most ordinary and narrow views of the great
social problems. He shows no trace of that hearty sympathy
with the working classes which breaks out in several passages
of the Wealth of Nations; we ought, perhaps, with Held, to
regard it as a merit in Ricardo that he does not cover with
fine phrases his deficiency in warmth of social sentiment.
The idea of the active capitalist having any duties towards
his employes never seems to occur to him; the labourer is,
in fact, merely an instrument in the hands of the capitalist,
a pawn in the game he plays.
He first introduced into economics on a great scale the
method of deduction from a priori assumptions. The con-
clusions so arrived at have often been treated as if they were
directly applicable to real life, and indeed to the economic
phenomena of all times and places. But the truth of Ricardo's
theorems is now by his warmest admirers admitted to be
hypothetical only. Bagehot seems right in believing that
Ricardo himself had no consciousness of the limitations to which
his doctrines are subject. Be this as it may, we now see that
the only basis on which these doctrines could be allowed to
stand as a permanent part of economic science is that on which
they are placed by Roscher, namely, as a stage in the preparatory
work of the economist, who, beginning with such abstractions,
afterwards turns from them, not in practice merely, but in the
completed theory, to real life and men as they actually are or
have been.
The criticisms to which Ricardo's general economic scheme
is open do not hold with respect to his treatment of the subjects
of currency and banking. These form precisely that branch
of economics into which moral ideas (beyond the plain pre-
scriptions of honesty) can scarcely be said to enter, and where
the operation of purely mercantile principles is most immediate
and invariable. They were, besides, the departments of the
study to which Ricardo's early training and practical habits
led him to give special attention; and they have a lasting
value independent of his systematic construction.
Ricardo's collected works were published, with a notice of his
life and writings, by J. R. M'Culloch in 1846.
The Principles have been edited (with an introduction, biblio-
graphy and notes) by E. C. K. Conner, 1891. See also Letters to
H. Trower and Others, ed. J. Bonar and J. H. Hollander, 1809;
Letters to J. R. M'Culloch, ed. J. H. Hollander, 1895; Letters to
T. R. Malthus, ed. J. Bonar, 1887. A French translation of the
Principles by Constancio, with notes by Say, appeared in 1818;
the whole works, translated by Constancio and Fonteyraud, form
vol. xiii. (1847) of the Collection des principaux economises, where
they are accompanied by the notes of Say, Malthus, Sismondi,
Rossi, &c. The Principlef was first " naturalized " in Germany,
says Roscher (though another version by Von Schmid had pre-
viously appeared), by Edward Baumstark in his David Ricardo's
Grundgesetze der Volkswrthschaft und der Besteuerung ubersetzt
und erldutert (1837), which Roscher highly commends, not only
for the excellence of the rendering, but for the value of the explana-
tions and criticisms which are added.
RICASOLI, BETTING, BARON (1800-1880), Italian statesman,
was born at Broglio on the ipth of March 1809. Left an orphan
at eighteen, with an estate heavily encumbered, he was by
special decree of the grand duke of Tuscany declared of age, and
288
RICCATI RICCI
entrusted with the guardianship of his younger brothers. In-
terrupting his studies, he withdrew to Broglio, and by careful
management disencumbered the family possessions. In 1847
he founded the journal La Patria, and addressed to the grand
duke a memorial suggesting remedies for the difficulties of the
state. In 1848 he was elected Gonfaloniere of Florence, but
resigned on account of the anti-Liberal tendencies of the grand
duke. As Tuscan minister of the interior in 1859 he promoted
the union of Tuscany with Piedmont, which took place on"the
1 2th of March 1860. Elected Italian deputy in 1861 , he succeeded
Cavour in the premiership. As premier he admitted the Garibal-
dian volunteers to the regular army, revoked the decree of exile
against Mazzini, and attempted reconciliation with the Vatican;
but his efforts were rendered ineffectual by the non possumus
of the pope. Disdainful of the intrigues of his rival Rattazzi,
he found himself obliged in 1862 to resign office, but returned
to power in 1866. On this occasion he refused Napoleon lll.'s
offer to cede Venetia to Italy, on condition that Italy should
abandon the Prussian alliance, and also refused the Prussian
decoration of the Black Eagle because Lamarmora, author of the
alliance, was not to receive it. Upon the departure of the French
troops from Rome at the end of 1866 he again attempted to
conciliate the Vatican with a convention, in virtue of which
Italy would have restored to the Church the property of the
suppressed religious orders in return for the gradual payment
of 24,000,000. In order to mollify the Vatican he conceded
the exequatur to forty-five bishops inimical to the Italian regime.
The Vatican accepted his proposal, but the Italian Chamber
proved refractory, and, though dissolved by Ricasoli, returned
more hostile than before. Without waiting for a vote, Ricasoli
resigned office and thenceforward practically disappeared from
political life, speaking in the Chamber only upon rare occasions.
He died at Broglio on the 23rd of October 1880. His private life
and public career were marked by the utmost integrity, and
by a rigid austerity which earned him the name of the " iron
baron." In spite of the failure of his ecclesiastical scheme, he
remains one of the most noteworthy figures of the Italian
Risorgimento.
See Tabarrini and Gotti, Lettere e documenti del barone Bettino
Ricasoli, 10 vols. (Florence, 1886-1894); Passerini, Genealogia
e storia della famiglia Ricasoli (ibid. 1861); Gotti, Vita del barone
Bettino Ricasoli (ibid. 1894). (H. W. S.)
RICCATI, JACOPO FRANCESCO, COUNT (1676-1754), Italian
mathematician, was born at Venice on the 8th of May 1676,
and died at Treviso on the isth of April 1754.
He studied at the university of Padua, where he graduated in
1696. His favourite pursuits were scientific, and his authority
on all questions of practical science was referred to by the
senate of Venice. He corresponded with many of the European
savants of his day, and contributed largely to the Acta Erudi-
torum of Leipzig. He was offered the presidency of the academy
of science of St Petersburg; but he declined, preferring the
leisure and independence of life in Italy. Riccati's name is best
known in connexion with his problem called Riccati's equation,
published in the Acta Eruditorum, September 1724. A very
complete account of this equation and its various transforma-
tions was given by J. W. L. Glaisher in the Phil. Trans. (1881).
After Riccati's death his works were collected by his sons and
published (1758) in four volumes. His sons, Vincenzo (1707-
1775) and Giordano (1709-1790), inherited his talents. The
former was professor of mathematics at Bologna, and published,
among other works, a treatise on the infinitesimal calculus.
Giordano was distinguished both as" a mathematician and an
architect.
RICCI, MATTED (1552-1610), Italian missionary to China, was
born of a noble family at Macerata in the March of Ancona on
the 7th of October 1552. After some education at a Jesuit
college in his native town he went to study law at Rome, where
in 1571, in opposition to his father's wishes, he joined the Society
of Jesus.
In 1577 Ricci and other students offered themselves for the
East Indian missions. Ricci, without visiting his family to take
leave, proceeded to Portugal. His comrades were Rudolfo
Acquaviva, Nicolas Spinola, Francesco Pasio and Michele
Ruggieri, all afterwards, like Ricci himself, famous in the Jesuit
annals. They arrived at Goa in September 1578. After four
years spent in India, Ricci was summoned to the task of opening
China to evangelization.
f Several fruitless attempts had been made by Xavier, and
since his death, to introduce the Church into China, as by
Melchior Nunes of the Jesuit Society operating from Sanchian 1
in 1555; by Caspar da Cruz, a Dominican, in that or the follow-
ing year; by the Augustinians under Martin Herrada, 1575;
and in 1579 by the Franciscans led by Pedro d'Alfaro. In 1571
a house of the Jesuits had been set up at Macao (where the
Portuguese were established in 1557), but their attention was
then occupied with Japan, and it was not till the arrival at
Macao of Alessandro Valignani on a visitation in 1 582 that work
in China was really taken up. For this object he had obtained
the services first of M. Ruggieri and then of Ricci. After various
disappointments they found access to Chow-king-fu on the Si-
Kiang or West River of Canton, where the viceroy of the two
provinces of Kwang-tung and Kwang-si then had his residence,
and by his favour were able to establish themselves there for
some years. Their proceedings were very cautious and tentative;
they excited the curiosity and interest of even the more intelli-
gent Chinese by their clocks, their globes and maps, their books
of European engravings, and by Ricci's knowledge of mathe-
matics, including dialling and the projection of maps. They
conciliated some influential friends, and their reputation spread
widely in China. This was facilitated by the Chinese system of
transfer of public officers from one province of the empire to
another, and in the later movements of the missionaries they
frequently met with one -and another of their old acquaintances
in office, who were more or less well disposed. Eventually
troubles at Chow-king compelled them to seek a new home; and
in 1589, with the viceroy's sanction, they migrated to Chang-
chow in the northern part of Kwang-tung, not far from the well-
known Meiling Pass.
During his stay here Ricci was convinced that a mistake had
been made in adopting a dress resembling that of the bonzes,
a class who were the objects either of superstition or of contempt.
With the sanction of the visitor it was ordered that in future the
missionaries should adopt the costumes of Chinese literates,
and, in fact, they before long adopted Chinese manners altogether.
Chang-chow, as a station, did not prove a happy selection,
but it was not till 1595 that an opportunity occurred of travelling
northward. For some time Ricci's residence was at Nan-chang-
fu, the capital of Kiang-si; but in 1598 he was able to proceed
under favourable conditions to Nan-king, and thence for the
first time to Peking, which had all along been the goal of his
missionary ambition. But circumstances were not then pro-
pitious, and the party had to return to Nan-king. The fame of
the presents which they carried had, however, reached the court,
and the Jesuits were summoned north again, and on the 24th of
January 1601 they entered the capital. Wan-li, the emperor
of the Ming dynasty, in those days lived in seclusion, and saw no
one but his women and the eunuchs. But the missionaries were
summoned to the palace; their presents were immensely ad-
mired, and the emperor had the curiosity to send for portraits
of the fathers themselves.
They obtained a settlement, with an allowance for subsistence,
in Peking, and from this time to the end of his life Ricci's
estimation among the Chinese was constantly increasing, as was
at the same time the amount of his labours. Visitors thronged
the mission house incessantly; and inquiries came to him from
all parts of the empire respecting the doctrines which he taught,
or the numerous Chinese publications which he issued. This
in itself was a great x burden, as Chinese composition, if wrong
impressions are to be avoided, demands extreme care and
accuracy. As head of the mission, which now had four stations
1 The island (properly Chang-chuen) on which the Portuguese
had a temporary settlement before they got Macao, and on which
F. Xavier died in 1552.
RICCI
289
in China, he also devoted much time to answering the letters of
the priests under him, a matter on which he spared no pains
or detail. New converts had to be attended to always
welcomed, and never hustled away. Besides these came the
composition of his Chinese books, the teaching of his people and
the maintenance of the record of the mission history which had
been enjoined upon him by the general of the order, and which
he kept well up to date. Thus his labours were wearing and
incessant. In May 1610 he broke down, and after an illness
of eight days died on the nth of that month. His colleague
Pantoja applied to the emperor for a burying-place outside the
city. This was granted, with the most honourable official
testimonies to the reputation and character of Ricci; and a
large building in the neighbourhood of the city was at the same
time bestowed upon the mission for their residence.
Ricci's work was the foundation of the subsequent success
attained by the Roman Catholic Church in China. When the
missionaries of other Roman Catholic orders made their way
into China, twenty years later, they found great fault with the
manner in which certain Chinese practices had been dealt with
by the Jesuits, a matter in which Ricci's action and policy had
given the tone to the mission in China though in fact that tone
was rather inherent in the Jesuit system than the outcome of
individual character, for controversies of an exactly parallel
nature arose two generations later in southern India, between
the Jesuits and Capuchins, regarding what were called " Malabar
rites." The controversy thus kindled in China burned for
considerably more than a century with great fierceness. 1 The
chief points were (i) the lawfulness and expediency of certain
terms employed by the Jesuits in naming God Almighty, such as
Tien, " Heaven," and Shang-ti, " Supreme Ruler " or " Em-
peror," instead of Tien-Chu, " Lord of Heaven," and in particular
the erection of inscribed tablets in the churches, on which these
terms were made use of; 2 (2) in respect to the ceremonial
offerings made in honour of Confucius, and of personal ancestors,
which Ricci had recognized as merely " civil " observances;
(3) the erection of tablets in honour of ancestors in private
nouses; and (4), more generally, sanction and favour accorded
to ancient Chinese sacred books and philosophical doctrine, as
not really trespassing .on Christian faith.
Probably no European name of past centuries is so well known
in China as that of Li-ma-teu, the form in which the name of
Ricci (Ri-cci Mat-tea) was adapted to Chinese usage, and by
which he appears in Chinese records. 3 The works which he
composed in Chinese are numerous; a list of them (apparently
by no means complete, however) will be found in Kircher's
China Illustrata, and also in Abel Remusat's Nouveaux Me-
langes Asialiques (ii. 213-15). They are said to display an
aptitude for clothing ideas in a Chinese dress very rare and
remarkable in a foreigner. One of the first which attracted
1 The list of the literature of this controversy occupies forty-one
columns in M. Cordier's excellent Bibliographic de la Chine.
* Compare Browning, The Ring and the Book, x., The Pope,
1589-1603.
3 The name comes forward prominently in the mouth of the
emperor Kang-hi, in a dialogue which took place between him
and Monsgr. Maigrot, the leader of the anti-Jesuit movement
(mentioned in Browning's lines referred to above), at the summer
residence in Tartary, August 1706 a dialogue which the Jesuits have
reported with not a little malice:
"Emperor, ' Tell me why dp the people call me Van-sui (10,000
years). The Most Reverend (i.e. Maigrot), ' To express their desire
for your Majesty's long life.' Emp. ' Good. You see, then,
Chinese words are not always to be taken literally. We pay cult
to Confucius and to the dead to express our respect for them. How
is that inconsistent with your religion? When did it begin to
be so? Is it since Ly-Mattheu's time? Hast thou ever read
Ly-Mattheu ? ' The Most Reverend, turning to P. Parenin, whispers,
' Who's he ? ' and learning that it was P. Matteo Ricci, . . .
answered the emperor: ' I have not read that book.' Emp.
' Ly-Mattheu and his fellows came hither some two centuries ago;
and before their time China never heard anything of the Incarna-
tion, anything of Tien-chu, who had not become incarnate in this
part of the world. Why then, if it was lawful to call God Tien
before Ly-Mattheu's time, should it be improper now?] " Epistola
de Eventu Apostolicae Legationis, scripta a PP. Missionariis . . .
ad Praepositum Generalem S. J., An. 1706, I Novembris.
attention and reputation among Chinese readers was a Treatise
upon Friendship, in the form of a dialogue containing short and
pithy paragraphs; this is stated in the De Expeditione to have
been suggested during Ricci's stay at Nan-chang by a conversa-
tion with the prince of Kien-ngan, who asked questions regarding
the laws of friendship in the West.
In the early part of his residence at Peking, when enjoying
constant intercourse with scholars of high position, Ricci brought
out the Tien-chu shih-i, or " Veritable Doctrine of the Lord of
Heaven," which deals with the divine character and attributes
under eight heads. " This work," says A. Wylie, " contains
some acute reasoning in support of the propositions laid down,
but the doctrine of faith in Christ is very slightly touched upon.
The teachings of Buddhism are vigorously attacked, whilst the
author tries to draw a parallel between Christianity and the
teachings of the Chinese literati."
In 1604 Ricci completed the Erh-shih-wu yen, a series of short
articles of moral bearing, but exhibiting little of the essential
doctrines of Christianity. Chi-jen shih pien is another of his
productions, completed in 1608, and consisting of a record of
ten conversations held with Chinese of high position. The
subjects are: (i) Years past no [longer ours; (2) Man a
sojourner on earth; (3) Advantage of frequent contemplation
of eternity; (4) Preparation for judgment by such contempla-
tion; (5) The good man not desirous of talking; (6) Abstinence,
and its distinction from the prohibition to take life; (7) Self-
examination and self-reproof inconsistent with inaction;
(8) Future reward and punishment; (9) Prying into futurity
hastens calamity; (10) Wealth with covetousness more wretched
than poverty with contentment. To this work is appended a
translation of eight European hymns, with elucidations, written
in 1609.
Some of the characteristics thus indicated may have suggested
the bitterness of attacks afterwards made upon Ricci's theology.
An example of these is found in the work called Anecdotes sur
I'ttat de religion dans la Chine (Paris, 1733-35), the author of
which (Abbe Villers) speaks of the Tien-chu shih-i in this
fashion: " The Jesuit was also so ill versed in the particulars
of the faith that, as the holy bishop of Conon, Monsgr. Maigrot,
says of him, one need merely read his book on the true religion
to convince oneself that he had never imbibed the first elements
of theology." . . .
Ricci's pointed attacks on Buddhism, and the wide circulation
of his books, called forth the opposition of the Buddhist clergy.
One of the ablest who took their part was Chu-hang, a priest of
Hang-chow, who had abandoned the literary status for the
Buddhist cloister. He wrote three articles against the doctrine
9f the missionaries. These were brought to Ricci's notice in an
ostensible tone of candour by Yu-chun-he, a high mandarin at
the capital. This letter, with Ricci's reply, the three Buddhist
declamations and Ricci's confutation, were published in a
collected form by the Christian Sen-Kwang-K'e.
Another work of Ricci's which attracted attention was the
Hsi-kuofa, or " Art of Memory as practised in the West." Ricci
was himself a great expert in memoria lechnica, and astonished
the Chinese by his performances in this line. He also wrote or
edited various Chinese works on geography, the celestial and
terrestrial spheres, geometry and arithmetic. And the detailed
history of the mission was drawn out by him, which after his
death was brought home by P. Nicolas Trigault, and published
at Augsburg, and later in a complete form at Lyons under the
name De Expeditione Christiana apud Sinas Suscepla, ab Soc.
Jesu, Ex P. Mat. Ricci ejusdem Societatis Commenlariis, Trigault
himself adding many interesting notes on China and the Chinese.
Among the scientific works which Ricci took into China was
a set of maps, which at first created great interest, but afterwards
disgust when the Chinese came to perceive the insignificant
place assigned to the " Middle Kingdom," thrust, as it seemed,
into a corner, instead of being set in the centre of the world
like the gem in a ring. Ricci, seeing their dissatisfaction, set
about constructing a map of the hemisphere on a great scale, so
adjusted that China, with its subject states, filled the central
XXIII. IO
RICCIARELLI RICE, J.
290
area, and, without deviating from truth of projection, occupied
a large space in proportion to the other kingdoms gathered
round it. All the names were then entered in Chinese
calligraphy. This map obtained immense favour, and was
immediately engraved at the expense of the viceroy and
widely circulated.
In the accompanying cut we have endeavoured to portray this
map. The projection adopted is a perspective of the hemisphere
as viewed from a
point at the distance
of one diameter from
the surface, and situ-
ated on the produc-
tion of the radius
which passes through
the intersection of
115 E. long. (Green-
wich) with 30 N. lat.
Something near this
must have been Li-
ma-teu's projection.
With a vertex much
more distant the de-
sired effect would be
impaired, and with
one nearer neither
of the poles would be seen, whilst the exaggeration of China
would have been too gross for a professed representation of the
hemisphere.
The chief facts of Ricci's career are derived from Trigault;
some contemporary works on the rites controversy have also
been consulted; in the notice of Ricci's Chinese writings
valuable matter has been derived from Notes on Chinese Literature
by A. Wylie (London and Shanghai, 1867). A number of
Ricci's letters are extant in the possession of the family, and access
to them was afforded to Giuseppe La Farina, author of the work
called La China, considerate, nella sua Storia, &c. (Florence, 1843),
by the Marchese Amico Ricci of Macerata, living at Bologna.
La Farina's quotations contain nothing of interest. There is a
curious Chinese account of Ricci published by Dr Breitschneider
in the China Review, iv. 391 sq. (H. Y.)
RICCIARELLI, DANIELE (1500-1566), Italian artist, gener-
ally called, from the place of his birth, DANIELE DA VOLTERRA,
studied painting under Sodoma and Peruzzi. Settling in
Rome, he received abundant encouragement. His constant
friend, Michelangelo, recommended him on all possible occasions,
and he was commissioned to beautify with works of art a chapel
in the church of the Trinita, to paint in the Farnese Palace, to
execute certain decorations in the Palazzo de' Medici at Navona,
and to begin the stucco work and the pictures in the Hall of the
Kings. Towards the close of his life he turned his attention to
statuary. His last work was a bronze horse intended for an
equestrian statue of Henry II. of France. He died in 1 566. The
principal extant works of Ricciarelli are at Rome. These are a
" St John the Baptist " in the picture gallery of the Capitol,
a " Saviour bearing the Cross " in the Palazzo Rospigliosi, and a
" Descent from the Cross," his masterpiece, in the church of
Trinita de Monti. There is also an " Elijah " at Volterra.
RICCOBONI, MARIE JEANNE (1714-1792), whose maiden
name was Laboras de Mezieres, was born at Paris in 1714. She
married in 1735 Antoine Francois Riccoboni, a comedian and
dramatist, from whom she soon separated. She herself was an
actress, but did not succeed on the stage. Her works are
Lettres de mistress Fanny Butler (1757); the remarkable
Hisloire du marquis de Cressy (1758); Milady Juliette Catesby
( 1 7 59-1 760) , like her other books, in letter form ; Ernestine ( 1 798) ,
which La Harpe thought her masterpiece; and three series of
Lettres in the names of Adelaide de Dammartin (comtesse
de Sancerre) (2 vols., 1766), Elizabeth Sophie de Valliere
(2 vols., 1772), and Milord Rivers (2 vols., 1776). She obtained
a small pension from the crown, but the Revolution deprived
her of it, and she died on the 6th of December 1792 in great
indigence. Besides the works named, she wrote a novel (1762)
on the subject of Fielding's Amelia, and supplied in 1765 a
continuation (but not the conclusion sometimes erroneously
ascribed to her) of Marivaux's unfinished Marianne.
All Madame Riccoboni's work is clever, and there is real pathos
in it. But it is among the most eminent examples of the "sensi-
bility " novel, of which no examples but Sterne's have kept their
place in England, and that not in virtue of their sensibility. A still
nearer parallel may be found in the work of Mackenzie. Madame
Riccoboni is an especial offender in the use of mechanical aids to
impressiveness italics, dashes, rows of points and the like. The
principal edition of her complete works is that of Paris (6 vols.,
1818). The chief novels appear in a volume of Garnier's Biblio-
thbque amusante (Paris, 1865).
See Julia Kavanagh, French Women of Letters (2 vols., 1862),
where an account o? her novels is given; J. Fleury, Marivaux et
le marivaudage (Paris, 1881); J. M. Qu6rard, La France litteraire
(vol. vii., 1835); and notices by La Harpe, Grimm and Diderot
prefixed to her (Euvres (9 vols., Paris, 1826).
RICE, EDMUND IGNATIUS (1762-1844), Irish philan-
thropist, founder of the " Irish Christian Brothers," was born
at Westcourt, near Callen, Kilkenny, on the ist of June 1762.
He entered the business of his uncle, an export provision merchant
in Waterford, in 1779 and succeeded him in 1790. In 1796 he
established an organization for visiting and relieving the poor,
and in 1802 began to educate the poor children of Waterford,
renting a school and supporting two teachers. In 1803 he gave
up his business and, joined by a number of friends, began to
systematize his plans. Others, like-minded, opened schools
at Dungarvan and Carrick-on-Suir. The little society numbered
nine in 1808, and meeting at Waterford took religious vows
from their bishop, assumed a " habit " and adopted an addi-
tional Christian name, by which, as by the collective title
" Christian Brothers," they were thenceforth known. Schools
were established in Cork (1811), Dublin (1812), and Thurles
and Limerick (1817). In 1820 Pope Pius VII. issued a brief
sanctioning the order of " Religious Brothers of the Christian
Schools (Ireland)," the members of which were to be bound
by vows of obedience, chastity, poverty and perseverance, and
to give themselves to the free instruction, religious and literary,
of male children, especially the poor. The heads of houses were
to elect a superior general, and Rice held this office from 1822
to 1838, during which time the institution extended to several
English towns (especially in Lancashire), and the course of
instruction grew out of the primary stage. Rice died on the
'29th of August 1844. The Irish Christian Brothers have some
hundred houses in Ireland with 300 attached schools and over
30,000 pupils. There are also industrial schools and orphanages,
and the institute has branches in Australia, India, Gibraltar
and Newfoundland.
RICE, JAMES (1843-1882), English novelist, was born at
Northampton on the 26th of September 1843. Educated at
Queens' College, Cambridge, where he graduated in law in 1867,
he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1871. In the
meantime (1868) he had bought Once a Week, which proved a
losing venture for him, but which brought him into touch with
Walter Besant, a contributor [see Besant's preface to the
Library Edition (1887) of Ready-money Mortiboy}. There
ensued a close friendship and a literary partnership between
the two men which lasted ten years until Rice's death, and
resulted in a large number of successful novels. The first of
them, published anonymously, Rice being responsible for the
central figure and the leading situation, was Ready-money Morti-
boy (1782), dramatized by them later and unsuccessfully produced
at the Court Theatre in 1874. In rapid succession followed
My Little Girl (1873); With Harp and Crown (1874); This Son
of Vulcan (1876); The Golden Butterfly (1876), the most popular
of their joint productions; The Monks of Thelema (1878);
By Celia's Arbour (1878); The Seamy Side (1880); The Chaplain
of the Fleet (1881); Sir Richard Whiltington (1881), and a large
number of short stories, some of them reprinted in The Case of
Mr Lucraft, &c. (1876), 'Twas in Trafalgar's Bay, &c. (1879),
and The Ten Years' Tenant, &c. (1881).
James Rice died at Redhill on the 26th of April 1882.
RICE RICH, B.
291
RICE (Greek opiifa, Latin oryza, French riz, Italian riso,
Spanish arros, derived from the Arabic), a well-known cereal,
botanical name Oryza saliva. According to Roxburgh, the
great Indian botanist, the cultivated rice with all its numerous
varieties has originated from a wild plant, called in India
Newaree or Nivara, which is indigenous on the borders of lakes
in the Circars and elsewhere in India, and is also native in tropical
Australia. The rice plant is an annual grass with long linear
glabrous leaves, each
provided with a long
sharply pointed ligule.
The spikelets are borne
on a compound or
branched spike, erect
at first but afterwards
bent downwards.
Each spikelet contains
a solitary flower with
two outer small barren
glumes, above which
is a large tough, com-
pressed, often awned,
flowering glume, which
partly encloses the
somewhat similar
pale. Within these
are six stamens, a
hairy ovary surmounted
by two feathery styles
which ripens into the
fruit (grain), and which
is invested by the
husk formed by the
persistent glume and
pale. The cultivated
varieties are extremely
numerous, some kinds
being adapted for
marshy land, others
for growth on the hill-
sides. The cultivators
make two principal
divisions according as
the sorts are early or late. Rice has been cultivated
from time immemorial in tropical countries. According to
Stanislas Julien a ceremonial ordinance was established in China
by the emperor Chin-nung 2800 years B.C., in accordance with
which the emperor sows the rice himself while the seeds of four
other kinds may be sown by the princes of his family. This fact ,
joined to other considerations, induced Alphonse de Candolle
to consider rice as a native of China. It was very early cultivated
in India, in some parts of which country, as in tropical Australia,
it is, as we have seen, indigenous. It is not mentioned in the
Bible, but its culture is alluded to in the Talmud. There is
proof of its culture in the Euphrates valley and in Syria four
hundred years before Christ. Crawfurd, on philological grounds,
considers that rice was introduced into Persia from southern
India. The Arabs carried the plant into Spain. Rice was
first cultivated in Italy near Pisa in 1468. It was not introduced
into S. Carolina until 1700, and then, it is said, by accident,
although at one time the southern United States furnished a
large proportion of the rice introduced into commerce. Rice
sports into far more varieties than any of the corns familiar
to Europeans; for some varieties grow in the water and some on
dry land; some come to maturity in three months, while others
take four and six months to do so. A very full account of the
cultivation of rice in India will be found in Sir George Watt's
Dictionary of the Economic Products of India.
Rice constitutes one of the most important articles of food in
all tropical and subtropical countries, and is one of the most prolific
of all crops. The rice yields best on low lands subject to occasional
inundations, and thus enriched by alluvial deposits. An abundant
Rice {Oryza saliva).
A, spikelet (enlarged) ; B, bearded variety;
C, spikelet of B (enlarged).
rainfall during the growing season is also a desideratum. Rice is
sown broadcast, ana in some districts is transplanted after a fort-
night or three weeks. No special rotation is followed : indeed the
soil best suited for rice is ill adapted for any other crop. In some
cases little manure is employed, but in others abundance of manure
is used. No special tillage is required, but weeding and irrigation
are requisite. Rice in the husk is known as " paddy." On cutting
across a grain of rice and examining it under the microscope, first the
flattened and dried cells of the husk are seen, and then one or two
layers of cells elongated in a direction parallel to the length of the
seed, which contain the gluten or nitrogenous matter. Within
these, and forming by far the largest part of the seed, are large
polygonal cells filled with very numerous and very minute angular
starch grains. Rice is not so valuable as a food as some other cereals,
inasmuch as the proportion of nitrogenous matter (gluten) is less.
Payen gives only 7 % of gluten in rice as compared with 22 % in
the finest wheat, 14 in oats and 12 in maize. The percentage of
potash in the ash is as 1 8 to 23 in wheat. The fatty matter is also
less in proportion than in other cereals. Rice, therefore, is chiefly
a farinaceous food, and requires to be combined with fatty and
nitrogenous substances, such as milk or meat gravy, to satisfy
the requirements of the system.
A large proportion of the rice brought to Europe is used for
starch-making, and some is taken by distillers of alcohol. Rice
is also -the source of a drinking spirit in India, known as arrack,
and the national beverage of Japan sakd is prepared from the
grain by means of an organic ferment.
RICE PAPER. The substance' which has received this
name in Europe, through the mistaken notion that it is made
from rice, consists of the pith of a small tree, Aralia papyri/era,
which grows in the swampy forests of Formosa. The cylindrical
core of pith is rolled on a hard flat surface against a knife, by
which it is cut into thin sheets of a fine ivory-like texture.
Dyed in various colours, rice paper is extensively used for the
preparation of artificial flowers, while the white sheets are
employed by native artists for water-colour drawings.
RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617), English author and soldier,
was a distant relative of Lord Chancellor Rich. He fought in
the Low Countries, rising to the rank of captain, and afterwards
served in Ireland. He shared in the colonization of Ulster,
and spent the latter part of his life near Dublin. In the intervals
of his campaigns he produced many pamphlets on political
questions and romances. In 1606 he was in receipt of a pension
of half a crown a day, and in 1616 he was presented with a gift
of 100 as being the oldest captain in the service. He died on
the loth of November 1617. His best-known work is Riche
his Farewell to Militarie Profession containing verie pleasaunt
discourses fit for a peaceable tyme (1581). Of the eight stories
contained in it, five, he says, " are forged only for delight, neither
credible to be believed, nor hurtful to be perused." The three
others are translations from the Italian. He claims as his
own invention the story of Apolonius and Silla, the second in
the collection, from which Shakespeare took the plot of Twelfth
Night. It is, however, founded on the tale of Nicuola and
Lattantio as told by Matteo Bandello. The eighth, Phylotus
and Emilia, a complicated story arising from the likeness and
disguise of a brother and sister, is identical in plot with the
anonymous play, Philotus, printed in Edinburgh in 1603. Both
play and story were edited for the Bannatyne Club in 1835.
In the conclusion to his collection Rich tells a story of a devil
named Balthaser, who possesses a king of Scots, prudently
changed after the accession of James I. to the " Grand Turk."
The Strange and Wonderful Adventures of Don Simonides (1581),
with its sequel (1584), is written in imitation of Lyly. Among
his other romances should be mentioned The Adventures of
Brusanus, prince of Hungaria (1592). His authenticated works
number twenty-four, and include works on Ireland, the troubles
of which were, according to him, due to the religion of the
people and to the lack of consistency and firmness on the part
of the English government. Such are: Attarme to England
(1578); A New Description of Ireland (1610); The Irish Hubbub,
or the English Hue and Crie (1617), in which he also inveighs
against the use of tobacco.
See " Introduction ". to the Shakespeare Society's reprint oT
Riche his Farewell (1846); P. Cunningham's "Introduction" to
Rich's Honesty of this Age (reprinted for the Percy Society, 1844);
and the life by S. Lee in the Dictionary of National Biography.
292
RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821), English traveller
and scholar, was born near Dijon on the 28th of March 1787.
His youth was spent at Bristol. He early developed a gift for
languages, becoming familiar not only with Latin and Greek
but also with Hebrew, Syriac, Persian, Turkish and other
Eastern tongues. In 1804 Rich went to Constantinople, where,
and at Smyrna, he stayed some time, perfecting himself in
Turkish. Proceeding to Alexandria as assistant to the British
consul-general there, he devoted himself to Arabic and its
various dialects, and made himself master of Eastern manners
and usages. On leaving Egypt he travelled by land to the
Persian Gulf, disguised as a Mameluke, visiting Damascus, and
entering the great mosque undetected. At Bombay, which he
reached in September 1807, he was the guest of Sir James
Mackintosh, whose eldest daughter he married in January
1808, proceeding soon after to Bagdad as resident. There he
began his investigations into the geography, history and anti-
quities of the district. He explored the remains of Babylon,
and projected a geographical and statistical account of the
pashalic of Bagdad. The results of his work at Babylon
appeared first in the Vienna serial Mines de I' orient, and in 1815
in England, under the title Narrative of a Journey to the Site
of Babylon in 1811. In 1813-14 Rich spent some time in Europe,
and on his return to Bagdad devoted himself to the study of
the geography of Asia Minor, and collected much information
in Syrian and Chaldaean convents concerning the Yezidis.
During this period he made a second excursion to Babylon, and
in 1820 undertook an extensive tour to Kurdistan from Bagdad
north to Sulimania, eastward to Sinna, then west to Nineveh,
and thence down the Tigris to Bagdad. The narrative of this
journey, which contained the first accurate knowledge (from
scientific observation) regarding the topography and geography of
the region, was published by his widow under the title, Narrative
of a Residence in Koordistan and on the site of Ancient Nineveh,
&c. (London, 1836). In 1821 Rich went to Basora, whence he
made an excursion to Shiraz, visiting the ruins of Persepolis
and the other remains in the neighbourhood. At Shiraz he
died of cholera on the 5th of October 1821. His fine collec-
tions of manuscripts and coins was purchased by the British
Museum.
RICH, JOHN (1692-1761-), English actor, the "father of
English pantomime," was the son of Christopher Rich (d. 1714),
the manager of Drury Lane, with whose quarrels and tyrannies
Colley Gibber's Apology is much occupied. John Rich opened
the new theatre in Lincoln's Inn Fields left unfinished by his
father, and here, in 1716, under the stage name of Lun, he first
appeared as Harlequin in an unnamed entertainment which
developed into an annual pantomine (q.v.) . By this departure
he made successful headway in his competition with the stronger
company at Drury Lane, including Gibber, Wilks and Booth.
Rich was less happy in his management of Covent Garden,
which he opened in 1733, until Garrick's arrival (1746), when
a most prosperous season ensued, followed by a bad one when
Garrick went to Dury Lane. During Rich's management
occurred the rival performances of Romeo and Juliet Barry
and Mrs Gibber at Covent Garden, and Garrick and Miss Bellamy
at Dury Lane and the subsequent competition between the
two rival actors in King Lear. Rich died on the 26th of Nov-
ember 1761. Garrick's lines show that his acting was panto-
mime pure and simple, without words:
" When Lun appeared, with matchless art and whim,
He gave the power of speech to every limb :
Tho' masked and mute, conveyed his quick intent,
And told in frolic gesture what he meant."
RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562-1607), the Stella of Sir
Philip Sidney's Astrophel and Stella, was the daughter of Walter
Devereux, ist Earl of Essex. She was a child of fourteen when
Sir Philip Sidney accompanied the queen on a visit to Lady
Essex in 1576, on her way from Kenilworth, and must have been
frequently thrown into the society of Sidney, in consequence
of the many ties between the two families. Essex died at
Dublin in September 1576. He had sent a message to Philip
RICH, C. J. RICH, R.
Sidney from his death-bed expressing his desire that he should
marry his daughter, and later his secretary wrote to the young
man's father, Sir Henry Sidney, in words which seem to point
to the existence of a very definite understanding. Penelope's
great-grandmother was a sister of Anne Boleyn, and she and
her brother Robert were therefore distantly connected with
Elizabeth. Perhaps the marriage of Lady Essex with the earl
of Leicester, which destroyed Sidney's prospects as his uncle's
heir, had something to do with the breaking off of the proposed
match with Penelope. Her relative and guardian, Henry
Hastings, earl of Huntingdon, secured Burghley's assent in
March 1581 for her marriage with Robert Rich, 3rd Baron Rich.
Penelope is said to have protested in vain against the alliance
with Rich, who is represented as a rough and overbearing
husband. The evidence against him is, however, chiefly derived
from sources as interested as Sir Philip Sidney's violent denuncia-
tion in the twenty-fourth sonnet of Astrophel and Stella, " Rich
fooles there be whose base and filthy hart." Sidney's serious
love for Penelope appears to date from her marriage with Rich.
The earlier sonnets are in praise of her beauty, or treat of the
conventional topic of the struggle between reason and love,
while the later ones are marked by unmistakable passion. The
eighth song of Astrophel and Stella narrates Stella's refusal to
accept Sidney as a lover. Lady Rich was the mother of six
children by her husband when she contracted in 1595 an open
liaison with Charles Blount, 8th Lord Mountjoy, a brilliant
courtier and favourite of Elizabeth, to whom she had long been
attached. Rich took no steps against his wife during her
brother's lifetime, and she nursed him through an illness in
1600, but they obtained a legal separation in 1601, and Mountjoy
acknowledged her five children born after 1595. Mountjoy
was created earl of Devonshire on the accession of James I., and
Lady Rich was in high favour at court. In 1605, however,
they legitimized their connexion by a marriage celebrated by
William Laud, the earl's chaplain. This proceeding, carried
out in defiance of canon law, was followed by the disgrace of
both parties, who were banished from court. Devonshire died
on the 3rd of April 1606, and his wife within a year of that
date. Her eldest son by Lord Rich, who became earl of Warwick
in. 1618, was Robert Rich, 2nd earl of Warwick (1587-1658). The
second, Henry Rich, earl of Holland, was beheaded in 1649
for his share in the second Civil War. Her eldest son by
Mount joy,Mount joy'Blount, Baron Mountjoy and earl of Newport
(c. 1597-1665) also figured in the Civil War.
See the editions of Astrophel and Stella by Dr A. B. Grosart,
E. Arber and A. W. Pollard; also the various lives of Sir Philip
Sidney, and Mrs Aubrey Richardson's Famous Ladies of the English
Court (London, 1899). John Ford's Broken Heart has been alleged
to have been founded on the history of Lady Rich. Richard Barn-
field dedicated his Affectionate Shepherd (1594) to her; Bartholomew
Yonge his Diana of George of Montemayor (1598); and sonnets are
addressed to her by John Davies of Hereford and by Henry Constable.
RICH, RICHARD (fl. 1610), English soldier and adventurer,
the author of Newes from Virginia, sailed from England on
the 2nd of June 1609 for Virginia, with Captain Christopher
Newport and the three commissioners entrusted with the
foundation of the new colony. In his verse pamphlet he
relates the adventures undergone by the expedition, and
describes the resources of the new country, with the advantages
offered to colonists. The title runs: Newes from Virginia.
The lost Flocke Triumphant. With the happy Arrivall of that
famous and worthy Knight Sr. Thomas Gates: and the well-
reputed and valiant Captaine Mr Christopher Newport, and
| others, into England. With the maner of their distresse in the
Hand of Devils (otherwise called Bermoothawes) , where they
remayned 42 weeks, and builded two Pynaces, in which they
returned into Virginia. By R. Rich, Gent., one of the Voyage
(1610)." The only known copy of this tract is in the Huth
Library. A reprint edited by J. O. Halliwell-Phillips appeared
in 1865 (another ed., 1874). The adventures related by Rich
are supposed to have been in Shakespeare's mind when he
wrote The Tempest. Another tract by Rich mentioned in the
Stationers' Register, Good Speed to Virginia, is unknown.
RICH, BARON RICHARD OF CANTERBURY
293
RICH, RICHARD, IST BARON RICH (i490?-is67), lord chan-
cellor, was born of a Hampshire family about 1490, in the
parish of St Laurence Jewry, London. His great-grandfather,
Richard Rich, was a wealthy mercer and sheriff of the city of
London in 1441. Probably Lord Rich's father was also a mercer,
but he sent his son to the Middle Temple, where Sir Thomas More
was among his acquaintances. More told him at the time of
his trial that he was reputed light of his tongue, a great dicer
and gamester, and not of any commendable fame; but he was
a commissioner of the peace in Hertfordshire in 1528, and in
the next autumn became reader at the Middle Temple. Other
preferments followed, and in 1533 he was knighted and became
solicitor-general, in which capacity he was to act under Thomas
Cromwell as a " lesser hammer " for the demolition of the
monasteries, and to secure the operation of Henry VIII. 's act
of supremacy. He had an odious share in the trials of Sir
Thomas More and Bishop Fisher. In both cases he made use
in his evidence against the prisoner of admissions made in
a professedly friendly conversation, and in More's case the
words he had used were misreported and received a miscon-
struction that could hardly be other than wilful. More ex-
pressed his opinion of the witness in open court with a candour
that might well have dismayed Rich. Rich became the first
chancellor (April 19, 1536) of the Court of Augmentations
established for the disposal of the monastic revenues. His
own share of the spoil, acquired either by grant or purchase,
included Leez (Leighs) Priory and about a hundred manors in
Essex. He was Speaker of the House of Commons in the same
year, and advocated the king's policy. In spite of the share
he had taken in the suppression of the monasteries, and of the
part he was to play under Edward VI., his religious convictions
remained Roman Catholic. His testimony helped the con-
viction of Thomas Cromwell, and he was a willing agent in the
Catholic reaction which followed. Anne Askew stated that
the Chancellor Wriothesley and Rich screwed the rack at her
torture with their own hands.
Rich was one of the executors of the will of Henry VIII.,
on which so much suspicion has been thrown, and on the 26th
of February 1548 he became Baron Rich of Leez. In the next
month he succeeded Wriothesley as chancellor, an office in
which he found full scope for the business and legal ability he
undoubtedly possessed. He supported Protector Somerset in
his subversive reforms in church matters, in the prosecution
of his brother Lord Seymour of Sudeley, and in the rest of his
policy until the crisis of his fortunes in October 1549, when he
deserted to Warwick (afterwards Northumberland), and pre-
sided over -the trial of his former chief. His daughter had
married Warwick's son, and both men were at heart no friends
to the reformed religion. Nevertheless, Rich took part in
the prosecution of bishops Gardiner and Bonner, and in the
harsh treatment accorded to the Princess Mary. Possibly this
harshness was exaggerated, for Mary on her accession showed
no ill-will to Rich. He retired from the chancellorship on the
ground of ill-health in the close of 1551, at the time of the final
breach between Northumberland and Somerset. He was now
sixty years old, and there is no reason to suspect the sincerity
of his plea. There is an improbable story, however, to the
effect that Rich warned Somerset of his danger in the Tower,
and that the letter was delivered by mistake to the duke of
Norfolk, who handed it to Northumberland.
Lord Rich took an active part in the restoration of the old
religion in Essex under the new reign, and was one of the most
active of persecutors. His reappearances in the privy council
were rare during Mary's reign; but under Elizabeth he served
on a commission to inquire into the grants of land made under
Mary, and in 1566 was sent for to advise on the question of the
queen's marriage. He died at Rochford, Essex, on the i2th of
June 1567, and was buried in Felsted church. In Mary's reign
he had founded a chaplaincy with provision for the singing of
masses and dirges, and the ringing of bells in Felsted church.
To this was added a Lenten allowance of herrings to the in-
habitants of three parishes. These donations were transferred
in 1564 to the foundation of a grammar-school at Felsted for
instruction, primarily for children born on the founder's manors,
in Latin, Greek and divinity. The patronage of the school
remained in the family of the founder until 1851. By his wife
Elizabeth Jenks, or Gynkes, he had fifteen children. The
eldest son Robert (iS37?-is8i), second Baron Rich, supported
the Reformation, and his grandson Robert, third lord, was
created earl of Warwick in 1618.
The chief authorities are the official records of the period
covered by his official life, calendared in the Rolls Series. See also
A. F. Pollard, England under Protector Somerset (1900) ; P. Morant,
History of Essex (2 vols., 1768) ; R. W. Dixon, History of the Church of
England (6 vols., 1878-1902); and lives in J. Sargeaunt's History of
Felsted School (1889), Lord Campbell's Lives of the Lord CKdnceUors
(1845-69), and C. H. &T. Cooper's Athenae Cantabrigienses (2 vols.,
1858-61).
RICHARD, ST, of Wyche (c. 1197-1253), English saint and
bishop, was named after his birthplace, Droitwich in Worcester-
shire. Educated at Oxford, he soon began to teach in the
university, of which he became chancellor, probably after he
had studied in Paris and in Bologna. About 1235 he became
chancellor of the diocese of Canterbury under Archbishop
Edmund Rich, and he was with the archbishop during his
exile in France. Having returned to England some time after
Edmund's death in 1240 he became vicar of Deal and chancellor
of Canterbury for the second time. In 1244 he was elected
bishop of Chichester, being consecrated at Lyons by Pope
Innocent IV. in March 1245, although Henry III. refused to
give him the temporalities of the see, the king favouring the
candidature of Robert Passelewe (d. 1252). In 1246, however,
Richard obtained the temporalities. The new bishop showed
much eagerness to reform the manners and morals of his clergy,
and also to introduce greater order and reverence into the
services of the church. His term of office was also marked
by the favour which he showed to the Dominicans, a house of
this order at Orleans having sheltered him during his stay in
France, and by his earnestness in preaching a crusade. He
died at Dover in April 1253. It was generally believed that
miracles were wrought at his tomb in Chichester cathedral,
which was long a popular place of pilgrimage, and in 1262 he
was canonized at Viterbo by Pope Urban IV. Richard furnished
the chronicler, Matthew Paris, with material for the life of
Edmund Rich, and instituted the offerings for the cathedral
at Chichester which were known later as " St Richard's pence."
His life by his confessor, Ralph Bocking, is published in the
Ada Sanctorum of the Bollandists, where a later and shorter life
by John Capgrave is also to be found.
RICHARD (d. 1 184), archbishop of Canterbury, was a Norman,
who became a monk at Canterbury, where he acted as chaplain
to Archbishop Theobald and was a colleague of Thomas Becket.
In 1173, more than two years after the murder of Becket, it was
decided to fill the vacant archbishopric of Canterbury; there
were two candidates, Richard, at that time prior of St Martin's,
Dover, and Odo, prior of Canterbury, and in June Richard was
chosen, although Odo was the nominee of the monks. Objections
were raised against this election both in England and in Rome,
but in April 1174 the new archbishop was consecrated at Anagui
by Pope Alexander III., and he returned to England towards
the close of the year. The ten years during which Richard was
archbishop were disturbed by disputes with Roger, archbishop
of York, over the respective rights of the two sees, and in 1175,
at a council held in London, there was a free fight between their
partisans. Henry II. arranged a truce for five years between the
rival prelates, but Richard was soon involved in another quarrel,
this being with Roger, abbot of St Augustine's, Canterbury,
whose action also trenched upon the privileges of the archbishop.
Richard was more acceptable to Henry II. than Becket had
been; he attended the royal councils, and more than once he
was with the king in Normandy. Henry probably preferred
him because he insisted less on the rights of the clergy than his
great predecessor had done; but the monastic writers and the
followers of Becket regarded this attitude as a sign of weakness.
Richard died at Rochester on the i6th of February 1184 and was
294
RICHARD OF CORNWALL RICHARD I.
buried in his cathedral. See the article by W. Hunt in the
Diet. Nat. Biog. vol. xlviii. (1896); and W. F. Hook, Lives of the
Archbishops of Canterbury.
RICHARD, earl of Cornwall and king of the Romans (1200-
1272), was the second son of the English king John by Isabella
of Angouleme. Born in 1209, Richard was the junior of his
brother, Henry III., by fifteen months; he was educated in
England and received the earldom of Cornwall in 1225. From
this date to his death he was a prominent figure on the political
stage. In the years 1225-27 he acted as governor of Gascony;
between 1227 and 1238, owing to quarrels with his brother and
dislike of the foreign favourites, he attached himself to the
baronial opposition and bade fair to become a popular hero.
But in 1240 he took the command of a crusade in order to escape
from the troubled atmosphere of English politics. He was
formally reconciled with Henry before his departure; and their
amity was cemented on his return by his marriage with Sancha
of Provence, the sister of Henry's queen (1243). Henceforward
Richard, though by no means blind to the faults of the govern-
ment, was among the most constant supporters of Henry III.
While affecting to remain neutral in the quarrels of the barons
with the Poitevins and Savoyards he constantly assisted the
king with loans, and thus enabled him to withstand the pressure
of the Great Council for reform. In 1257 a bare majority of the
German electors nominated Richard as king of the Romans, and
he accepted their offer at Henry's desire. He was elected partly
on account of his wealth, but also because his family connexion
with the Hohenstauf en and his friendly relations with the papacy
made it probable that he would unite. all German parties. In
the years 1257-68 Richard paid four visits to Germany. He
obtained recognition in the Rhineland, which was closely
connected with England by trade relations. Otherwise, how-
ever, he was unsuccessful in securing German support. In the
English troubles of the same period he endeavoured to act as a
mediator. On the outbreak of civil war in 1264 he took his
brother's side, and his capture in a windmill outside Lewes,
after the defeat of the royalist army, is commemorated in the
earliest of English vernacular satires; he remained a prisoner
till the fall of Montfort. But after Evesham he exerted himself,
not without success, to obtain reasonable terms for those who
had suffered from the vengeance of the royalist party. He died
on the 2nd of April 1272. His end is said to have been hastened
by grief for his eldest son, Henry of Almain, who had been
murdered in the previous year by the sons of Simon de Montfort
at Viterbo. The earldom of Cornwall passed to Richard's
eldest surviving son Edmund, who was guardian of England
from 1286 to 1289. On Edmund's death, in October 1300, it
became extinct.
Authorities. The original sources and general works of reference
are the same as for the reign of Henry III. G. C. Gebauer's Leben
und Thaten Herrn Richards von Cornwall (Leipzig, 1744), H. KocrTs
Richard von Cornwall, 1209-1257 (Strassburg, 1888), and A. Busson's
Doppelwahl des Jahres, 1257 (Munster, 1866) are useful monographs.
(H. W. C. D.)
RICHARD I. (1157-1199), king of England, nicknamed
" Cceur de Lion " and " Yea and Nay," was the third son of
Henry II. by Eleanor of Aquitaine. Born in September 1157, he
received at the age of eleven the duchy of Aquitaine, and was
formally installed in 1172. In his new position he was allowed,
probably from regard to Aquitanian susceptibilities, to govern
with an independence which was studiously denied to his
brothers in their snares of the Angevin inheritance. Yet in
1173 Richard joined with the young Henry and Geoffrey of
Brittany in their rebellion; Aquitaine was twice invaded by
the old king before the unruly youth would make submission.
Richard was soon pardoned and reinstated in his duchy, where
he distinguished himself by crushing a formidable revolt (1175)
and exacting homage from the count of Toulouse. In a short
. time he was so powerful that his elder brother Henry became
alarmed and demanded, as heir-apparent, that Richard should
do him homage for Aquitaine. Richard having scornfully
rejected the demand, a fratricidal war ensued; the young
Henry invaded Aquitaine and attracted to his standard many
of Richard's vassals, who were exasperated by the iron rule of
the duke. Henry II. marched to Richard's aid; but the war
terminated abruptly with the death of the eldei prince (1183).
Richard, being now the heir to England and Normandy, was
invited to renounce Aquitaine in favour of Prince John. The
proposal led to a new civil war;- and, although a temporary
compromise was arranged, Richard soon sought the help of
Philip Augustus, to whom he did homage for all the continental
possessions in the actual presence of his father (Conference of
Bonmoulins, i8th of November 1188) In the struggle which
ensued the old king was overpowered, chased ignominiously
from Le Mans to Angers, and forced to buy peace by conceding
all that was demanded of him; in particular the immediate
recognition of Richard as his successor./'"'
But the death of Henry II. (i 189) at, once dissolved the friend-
ship between Richard and Philip. Not only did Richard
continue the continental policy of his father, but he also re-
fused to fulfil his contract with Philip's sister, Alais, to whom
he had been betrothed at the age of three. An open breach
was only delayed by the desire of both kings to fulfil the
crusading vows which they had recently taken. Richard, in
particular, sacrificed all other interests to this scheme, and
raised the necessary funds by the most reckless methods. He
put up for auction the highest offices and honours; even
remitting to William the Lion of Scotland, for a sum of 15,000
marks, the humiliating obligations which Henry II. had im-
posed at the treaty of Falaise. It is true that Richard indemni-
fied himself on his return by resuming some of his most
important grants and refusing to return the purchase money;
but it is improbable that he had originally planned this re-
pudiation of his ill-considered bargains. By such expedients
he raised and equipped a force which may be estimated at
4000 men-at-arms and as many foot-soldiers, with a fleet of
100 transports (1191).
Richard did not return to his dominions until 1194. But
his stay in Palestine was limited to sixteen months. On
the outward journey he wintered in Sicily, where he employed
himself in quarrelling with Philip and in exacting satisfaction
from the usurper Tancred for the dower of his widowed sister,
Queen Joanna, and for his own share in the inheritance of
William the Good. Leaving Messina in March 1191, he inter-
rupted his voyage to conquer Cyprus, and only joined the
Christian besiegers of Acre in June. The reduction of that
stronghold was largely due to his energy and skill. But his
arrogance gave much offence. After the fall of Acre he in-
flicted a gross insult upon Leopold of Austria; and his relations
with Philip were so strained that the latter seized the first
pretext for returning to France, and entered into negotiations
with Prince John (see JOHN, king of England) for the partition
of Richard's realm. Richard also threw himself into the
disputes respecting the crown of Jerusalem, and supported
Guy of Lusignan against Conrad of Montferrat with so much
heat that he incurred grave, though unfounded, suspicions of
complicity when Conrad was assassinated by emissaries of
the Old MaA of the Mountain. None the less Richard, whom
even the .French crusaders accepted as their leader, upheld
the failing cause of the Prankish Christians with valour and
tenacity. He won a brilliant victory over the forces of Saladin
at Arsuf (1191), and twice led the Christian host within a few
miles of Jerusalem. But the dissensions of the native Franks
and the crusaders made it hopeless to continue the -struggle ;
and Richard was alarmed by the news which reached him of
j John's intrigues in England and Normandy. Hastily patching
up a truce with Saladin, under which the Christians kept the
coast-towns and -received free access to the Holy Sepulchre,
Richard started on his return (9th October 1192).
His voyage was delayed by storms, and he appears to have
been perplexed as to the safest route. The natural route over-
land through Marseilles and Toulouse was held by his enemies;
that through the empire from the head of the Adriatic was
little safer, since Leopold of Austria was on the watch for him.
Having adopted the second of these alternatives, he was cap-
;
RICHARD II.
295
tured at Vienna in a mean disguise (December 2oth, 1192) and
strictly confined in the duke's castle of Diirenstein on the
Danube. His mishap was soon known to England, but the
regents were for some weeks uncertain of his whereabouts.
This is the foundation for the tale of his discovery by the
faithful minstrel Blondel, which first occurs in a French
romantic chronicle of the next century. Early in 1193 Leopold
surrendered his prize, under compulsion, to the emperor
Henry VI., who was aggrieved both by the support which
the Plantagenets had given to the family of Henry the Lion
and also by Richard's recognition of Tancred in Sicily. Al-
though the detention of a crusader was contrary to public
law, Richard was compelled to purchase his release by the
payment of a heavy ransom and by doing homage to the
emperor for England. The ransom demanded was 150,000
marks; though it was never discharged in full, the resources
of England were taxed to the utmost for the first instalments;
and to this occasion we may trace the beginning of secular
taxation levied on movable property. -^
Richard reappeared in England in March 1194; 4>ut his
stay lasted only a few weeks, and the remainder of his reign
was entirely devoted to his continental interests. He left
England to be governed by Hubert Walter (q.v.*), and his
personal authority was seldom asserted except by demands
for new subsidies. The rule of the Plantagenets was still
popular in Normandy and Aquitaine; but these provinces were
unable or unwilling to pay for their own defence. Though
Richard proved himself consistently the superior of Philip
in the field, the difficulty of raising and paying forces to resist
the French increased year by year. Richard could only stand
on the defensive; the keynote of his later policy is given by
the building of the famous Chateau Gaillard at Les Andelys
(1196) to protect the lower courses of the Seine against in-
vasion from the side of France. He did not live to see the
futility of such bulwarks. In 1199 a claim to treasure-trove
embroiled him with the viscount of Limoges. He harried the
Limousin and laid siege to the castle of Chalus; while directing
an assault he was wounded in the shoulder by a crossbow bolt,
and, the wound mortifying from unskilful treatment or his
own want of care, he died on the 6th of April 1199. He was
buried by his own desire at his father's feet in the church of
Fontevrault. Here his effigy may still be seen. 1 Though
contemporary, it does not altogether agree with the portraits
on his Great Seal, which give the impression of greater strength
and even of cruelty. The Fontevrault bust is no doubt
idealized.
The most accomplished and versatile representative of his
gifted family, Richard was, in his lifetime and long after-
wards, a favourite hero with troubadours and romancers. This
was natural, as he belonged to their brotherhood and himself
wrote lyrics of no mean quality. But his history shows that
he by no means embodied the current ideal of chivalrous ex-
cellence. His memory is stained by one act of needless cruelty,
the massacre of over two thousand Saracen prisoners at Acre;
and his fury, when thwarted or humbled, was ungovernable.
A brave soldier, an experienced and astute general, he was
never happier than when engaged in war. As a ruler he was
equally profuse and rapacious. Not one useful measure can
be placed to his credit; and it was by a fortunate accident
that he found, in Hubert Walter, an administrator who had
the skill to mitigate the consequences of a reckless fiscal policy.
Richard's wife was Berengaria, daughter of Sancho VI., king
of Navarre, whom he married in Cyprus in May 1191. She
was with the king at Acre later in the same year, and during
his imprisonment passed her time in Sicily, in Rome and in
France. Husband and wife met again in 1195, and the queen
long survived the king, residing chiefly at Le Mans. She died
1 The remains of Richard, together with those of Henry II. and
his queen Eleanor, were removed in the 1 7th century from their
tombs to another part of the church. They were rediscovered in
1910 during the restoration of the abbey undertaken by the French
government.
soon after 1230. Berengaria founded a Cistercian monastery
at Espau.
AUTHORITIES. The more important of the general chronicles
are: the Gesta Henrici Secundi, ascribed to Benedict of Peter-
borough (Rolls Series, 2 vols., 1867); the Chronica of Roger of
Hoveden (Rolls Series, 4 vols., 1868-71); the Chronica of Gervasc of
Canterbury (Rolls Series, 1870); the Imagines Historiarum of Ralph
of Diceto (Rolls Series, 2 vols., 1876); the Historic, Rerum Angli-
carum of William of Newburgh (in Chronicles of the Reigns- of Stephen,
&c., Rolls Series, 2 vols., 1884-85); the De rebus gestis Ricardi Primi
of Richard of Devizes (in Chronicles of the Reigns of Stephen, &c..
vol. iii., Rolls Series, 1886); the Chronicon Anglicanum of Ralph of
Coggeshall (Rolls Series, 1875); the Flares Historiarum of Roger of
Wendovcr (Rolls Scries, 3 yols., 1886-89) : the Gesta Philippi Augusti
of Rigord (Soctitedel'histoirede France, Paris, 1 882) and of Guillaume
le Breton (op. cit.). A detailed narrative of Richard's crusade is
given in L'Estoire de la guerre sainte, a rhyming French chronicle
by the minstrel Ambroise (ed. Gaston Paris, Paris, 1897), and in the
Latin prose version known as the Itinerarium O. Peregrinorum et
gesta Regis Ricardi; this last, with some valuable historical letters,
is printed in W. Stubbs's Chronicles and Memorials of the Reign of
Richard I. (Rolls Series, 2 vols., 1864-65). Of modern works the
following are useful: W. Stubbs's preface to vols. iii. and iv. of
Hoveden; the same author's Constitutional History of England,
vol. i. (Oxford, 1897); Miss K. Nprgate's England under the Angevin
Kings, vol. ii. (London, 1887); Sir J. H. Ramsay's Angevin Empire
(London, 1903) ; R. Rohricht's Geschichte des Konigreichs Jerusalem
(1898); W. B. Stevenson's Crusaders in the East (Cambridge, 1907);
A. Cartellieri's Philipp II. August (Leipzig, 1899, &c.).
(H. W. C. D.)
RICHARD II. (1367-140x3), king of England, younger 'son
of Edward the Black Prince by Joan " the Fair Maid of Kent,"
was born at Bordeaux on the 6th of January 1367. He was
brought to England in 1371, and after his father's death was,
on the petition of the Commons in parliament, created prince
of Wales on the 2oth of November 1376. When Edward III.
died, on the 2ist of June 1377, Richard became king. Popular
opinion had credited John of Gaunt with designs on the throne.
This was not justified; nevertheless, the rivalry of the boy-
king's uncles added another to the troubles due to the war,
the Black Death and the prospect of a long minority. At
first the government was conducted by a council appointed
by parliament. The council was honest, but the difficulties
of the situation were too great. The ill-considered poll-tax
of 1381 was the occasion, though not the real cause, of the
Peasants' Revolt in that year. The ministers were quite
unequal to the crisis, and when Wat Tyler and his followers
got possession of London, it was Richard who showed a pre-
cocious tact and confidence in handling it. It was the boy-
king who met and temporized with the rebels on the i3th of
June at Mile End, and again next day at Smithfield; and he
who, with courageous presence of mind, saved the situation
when Tyler was killed, by calling on them to take him for
their leader. From this time Richard began to assert himself.
His chief ministers, appointed by parliament in 1382, were
the earl of Arundel and Michael de la Pole. Arundel Richard
disliked, and dismissed next year, when he began his personal
government. Pole, whom he retained as chancellor and made
earl of Suffolk, was a well-chosen adviser. But others, and
especially his youthful favourite Robert de Vere, promoted
by unheard-of honour to be marquess of Dublin and duke of
Ireland, were less worthy. Further, Richard made his own
position difficult by lavish extravagance and unseemly out-
bursts of temper. He chafed under the restraint of his relatives,
and therefore encouraged John of Gaunt in his Spanish enter-
prise. This gave the less scrupulous Thomas of Gloucester
his opportunity. Gloucester, supported by Arundel, attacked
his nephew's ministers in the parliament of 1386, and by open
hints at deposition forced Richard to submit to a council of
control. When Richard, with the aid of his friends and by
the advice of subservient judges, planned a reversal of the
parliament, Gloucester, at the head of the so-called lords ap-
pellant, anticipated him. Richard had been premature and ill-
advised. Gloucester had the advantage of posing as the head
of the constitutional party. The king's friends were driven
into exile or executed, and he himself forced to submit to the
loss of all real power (May 1388). Richard changed his
296
RICHARD III.
methods, and when the lords appellant had lost credit, asserted
himself constitutionally by dismissing Gloucester's supporters
from office, and appointing in their place well-approved men
like William of Wykeham. In the next parliament of 1390
the king showed himself ready to meet and conciliate his
subjects. The simultaneous return of John of Gaunt from
Spain put a check on Gloucester's ambition. For seven years
Richard ruled constitutionally and on the whole well. The
opposition was quiescent except for two outbreaks by Arundel:
the first was a violent attack on John of Gaunt, which rather
strengthened Richard's position; the second was a wanton
insult to the king at the funeral of his queen.
In January 1383 Richard had married Anne of Bohemia
(1366-1394), daughter of the emperor Charles IV. The marriage,
though childless, was happy; had Anne lived or borne a son
the course of events might have been different. Her death
on the 7th of June 1394 was a great shock to Richard, and
incidentally had important consequences. Richard sought
distraction by an expedition to Ireland, the first visit of an
English king for more than two centuries. In his policy there
he showed a wise statesmanship. At the same time he was
negotiating for a permanent peace with France, which was
finally arranged in October 1396 to include his own marriage
with Isabella, daughter of Charles VI., a child of seven.
Gloucester criticized the peace openly, and there was some
show of opposition in the parliament of February 1397. But
there was nothing to foreshadow the sudden stroke by which
in July Richard arrested Gloucester and his chief supporters,
the earls of Arundel and Warwick. The others of the five
lords appellant, Henry of Bolingbroke afterwards King
Henry IV., and the earl of Nottingham, now supported the
king. Richard's action was apparently in deliberate revenge
for the events of 1387-88. Gloucester, after a forced con-
fession, died in prison at Calais, smothered by his nephew's
orders. Arundel in a packed parliament was condemned and
executed; his brother Thomas archbishop of Canterbury was
exiled. The king's friends, including Nottingham and Boling-
broke, made dukes of Norfolk and Hereford, were all promoted
in title and estate. Richard himself was rewarded for ten
years' patience by the possession of absolute power. He
might perhaps have established it if he could have exercised
it with moderation. But he declared that the laws of England
were in his mouth, and supported his court in wanton luxury
by arbitrary methods of taxation. By the exile of Norfolk
and Hereford in September 1398 he seemed to have removed
the last persons he need fear. He was so confident that in
May 1399 he paid a second visit to Ireland, taking with him
all his most trusted adherents. Thus when Henry landed
at Ravenspur in July he found only half-hearted opposition,
and when Richard himself returned it was too late. Ultimately
Richard surrendered to Henry at Flint on the igth of August,
promising to abdicate if his life was spared. He was taken
to London riding behind his rival with indignity. On the
30th of September he signed in the Tower a deed of abdication,
wherein he owned himself insufficient and useless, reading it
first aloud with a cheerful mien and ending with a request
that his cousin would be good lord to him. The parliament
ordered that Richard should be kept close prisoner, and he
was sent secretly to Pontefract. There in February 1400 he
died: no doubt of the rigour of his winter imprisonment,
rather than by actual murder as alleged in the story adopted
by Shakespeare. The mystery of Richard's death led to
rumours that he had escaped, and an impostor pretending to
be Richard lived during many years under the protection of
the Scottish government. But no doubt it was the real Richard
who was buried without state in 1400 at King's Langley, and
honourably reinterred by Henry V. at Westminster in 1413.
Richard II. is a character of strange contradictions. It is
difficult to reconcile the precocious boy of 1381 with the way-
ward and passionate youth of the next few years. Even if it
be supposed that he dissembled his real opinions during the
period of his constitutional rule, it is impossible to believe that
the apparent indifference which he showed in his /all was the
mere acting of a part. His violent outbursts of passion perhaps
give the best clue to a mercurial and impulsive nature, easily
elated and depressed. He had real ability, and in his Irish
policy, and in the preference which he gave to it over continental
adventure, showed a statesmanship in advance of his time.
But this, in spite of his lofty theory of kingship, makes it all
the more difficult to explain his extravagant bearing in his
prosperity. His fall was due to the triumph of national right
over absolute government, but it was his personal conduct
which made it inevitable. In appearance Richard was tall
and handsome, if effeminate. He had some literary tastes,
which were shown in fitful patronage of Chaucer, Gower and
Froissart. His fancy for splendid dress may have been due
to an artistic sense, which found better expression in his great
buildings of Westminster Hall and Abbey. Richard's second
queen, Isabella (1389-1409), was born in Paris on the 9th of
November 1389, and was married to the English king at Calais
in October, or November, 1396, but on account of the bride's
youth the marriage was never consummated. When Richard
lost his crown in 1399 Isabella was captured by Henry IV.'s
partisans and sent to Sonning, near Reading, while her father,
Charles VI., asked in vain for the restoration of his daughter
and of her dowry. In 1401 she was allowed to return to
France; in 1406 she became the wife of the poet, Charles,
duke of Orleans, and she died on the i3th of September 1409.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The best contemporary authorities are the
Chronicon Angliae down to 1388, Walsinghara's Historia Anglicana,
the Annales Ricardi II., Knighton's Chronicle (all these in the Rolls
Series), the Vita Ricardi II. by a Monk of Evesham (ed. T. Hearne),
and the Chronique de la traison et mart (English Hist. Soc.).
Froissart wrote from some personal knowledge. A metrical account
of Richard's fall, probably written by a French knight called Creton,
is printed in Archaeologia, xx. The chief collections of documents
are the Rolls of Parliament and the Calendar of Patent Rolls. H. A.
Wallon's Richard II. (Paris, 1864) is the fullest life, though now
somewhat out of date. For other modern accounts see W. Stubbs,
Constitutional History, and C. W. C. Oman, The Political History of
England, vol. iv., and The Great Revolt of 1381. (C. L. K.)
RICHARD III. (1452-1485), king of England, youngest son of
Richard, duke of York, by Cicely Neville, was born at Fothering-
hay on the 2nd of October 1452. After the second battle of
St Albans in February 1461, his mother sent him with his
brother George for safety to Utrecht. They returned in April,
and at the coronation of Edward IV. Richard was created duke
of Gloucester. As a mere child he had no importance till 1469-
1470, when he supported his brother against Warwick, shared his
exile and took part in his triumphant return. He distinguished
himself at Barnet and Tewkesbury; according to the Lancastrian
story, after the latter battle he murdered the young Edward
of Wales in cold blood; this is discredited by the authority of
Warkworth (Chronicle, p. 18); but Richard may have had a
share in Edward's death during the fighting. He cannot be so
fully cleared of complicity in the murder of Henry VI., which
probably took place at the Tower on the night of the 21-22
of May, when Richard was certainly present there. Richard
shared to the full in his brother's prosperity. He had large
grants of lands and office, and by marrying Anne (1456-1485),
the younger daughter of Warwick, secured a share in the Neville
inheritance. This was distasteful to George, duke of Clarence,
who was already married to the elder sister, Isabel. The rivalry
of the two brothers caused a quarrel which was never appeased.
Richard does not, however, seem to have been directly re-
sponsible for the death of Clarence in 1478; Sir Thomas More,
who is a hostile witness, says that he resisted it openly " how-
beit somewhat (as men deemed) more faintly than he that were
heartily minded tQ his wealth." Richard's share of the Neville
inheritance was chiefly in the north, and he resided usually at
Middleham in Yorkshire. In May 1480 he was made the king's
lieutenant-general in the north, and in 1482 commanded a
successful invasion of Scotland. His administration was good,
and brought him well-deserved popularity. On Edward's
death he was kept informed of events in London by William,
Lord Hastings, who shared his dislike of the Woodville influence.
RICHARD, F. M. B. RICHARD OF CIRENCESTER 297
On the 29th of April 1483, supported by the duke of Bucking-
ham, he intercepted his nephew at Stony Stratford and arrested
Lord Rivers and Richard Grey, the little king's half-brother.
It was in Richard's charge that Edward was brought to London
On the 4th of May. Richard was recognized as protector, the
Woodville faction was overthrown, and the queen with her
younger children took sanctuary at Westminster. For the
time the government was carried on in Edward's name, and the
22nd of June was appointed for his coronation. Richard was
nevertheless gathering forces and concerting with his friends.
In the council there was a party, of whom Hastings and Bishop
Morton were the chief, which was loyal to the boy-king. On the
i3th of June came the famous scene when Richard appeared
suddenly in the council baring his withered arm and accusing
Jane Shore and the queen of sorcery; Hastings, Morton and
Stanley were arrested and the first-named at once beheaded.
A few days later, probably on the 25th of June, Rivers and Grey
were executed at Pontefract. On the 22nd of June Dr Shaw
was put up to preach at Paul's Cross against the legitimacy of
the children of Edward IV. On the 2Sth a sort of parliament
was convened at which Edward's marriage was declared invalid
on the ground of his precontract with Eleanor Talbot, and
Richard rightful king. Richard, who was not present, accepted
the crown with feigned reluctance, and from the following day
began his formal reign.
On the 6th of July Richard was crowned at Westminster, and
immediately afterwards made a royal progress through the
Midlands, on which he was well received. But in spite of its
apparent success the usurpation was not popular. Richard's
position could not be secure whilst his nephews lived. There
seems to be no reasonable doubt that early in August Edward V.
and his brother Richard (whom Elizabeth Woodville had been
forced to surrender) were murdered by their uncle's orders in
the Tower. Attempts have been made to clear Richard's
memory. But the report of the princes' death was believed in
England at the time, " for which cause king Richard lost the
hearts of the people " (Chronicles of London, 191), and it was
referred to as a definite fact before the French states-general
in January 1484. The general, if vague, dissatisfaction found
its expression in Buckingham's rebellion. Richard, however,
was fortunate, and the movement collapsed. He met his only
parliament in January 1484 with some show of triumph, and
deserves credit for the wise intent of its legislation. He could
not, however, stay the undercurrent of disaffection, and his
ministers, Lovell and Catesby, were unpopular. His position
was weakened by the death of his only legitimate son in April
1484. His queen died also a year later (March 16, 1485), and
public opinion was scandalized by the rumour that Richard
intended to marry his own niece, Elizabeth of York. Thus the
feeling in favour of his rival Henry Tudor strengthened. Henry
landed at Milford Haven on the 7th of August 1485, and it was
with dark forebodings that Richard met him at Bosworth on the
22nd. The defection of the Stanleys decided the day. Richard
was killed fighting, courageous at all events. After the battle
his body was carried to Leicester, trussed across a horse's back,
and buried without honour in the church of the Greyfriars.
Richard was not the villain that his enemies depicted. He
had good qualities, both as a man and a ruler, and showed a
sound judgment of political needs. Still it is impossible to
acquit him of the crime, the popular belief in which was the
chief cause of his ruin. He was not a monster; but a typical
man in an age of strange contradictions of character, of culture
combined with cruelty, and of an emotional temper that was
capable of high ends, though unscrupulous of means. Tradition
represents Richard as deformed. It seems clear that he had
some physical defect, though not so great as has been alleged.
John Stow told Buck that old men who remembered Richard
described him as in bodily form comely enough. Extant
portraits show an intellectual face characteristic of the early
Renaissance, but do not indicate any deformity.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The chief original authorities are Sir Thomas
More's History of Richard III., based on information supplied by
ArchbishopMorton, and therefore to be accepted with caution; the
more trustworthy Continuation of the Croyland Chronicle in Fulman's
Scriptores, the History of Polydore Vergil, written in a Tudor spirit;
the Chronicle of London (ed. C. L. Kingsford, 1905), and its biased
expansion in Fabyan's Chronicle. See also Letters and Papers
Illustrative of the Reigns of Richard III. and Henry VII., ed. J.
Gairdner, in Rolls Series. Of later accounts those in Stow s Annales
(preserving some oral tradition) and George Buck's Richard III.
ap. Kennet History of England deserve mention. Horace Walpole
attempted a vindication in his Historic Doubts (1768). The best
modern account is James Gairdner's Life of Richard III. (2nd ed.,
1898). The latest and fullest defence is given in Sir Clements
Markham's Richard III., His Life and Character (1906); G. B.
Churchill's Richard the Third up to Shakespeare (Palaestra x., 1900)
is a valuable digest of material. (C. L. K.)
RICHARD, FRANCOIS MARIE BENJAMIN (1810-1908),
archbishop of Paris, French prelate, was born at Nantes on the
ist of March 1819. Educated at the seminary of St. Sulpice
he became successively vicar-general of Nantes, bishop of
Belley, and in 1875 coadjutor of Paris. In 1886 the death of
Archbishop Guibert was followed by Mgr. Richard's appoint-
ment to the see of Paris, and in 1889 he received a cardinal's
hat. In January 1900 the trial of the Assumptionist Fathers
resulted in the dissolution of their society as an illegal associa-
tion. Next day an official visit of the archbishop to the Fathers
was noted by government as an act of a political character,
and Mgr. Richard was officially censured. His attitude was in
general exceedingly moderate, he had no share in the extremist
policy of the Ultrambntanes, and throughout the struggle over
the law of Associations and the law of Separations he maintained
his reasonable temper. He presided in September 1906 over
an assembly of bishops and archbishops at hjs palace in the
rue de Crenelle, a few days after the papal encyclical forbidding
French Catholics to form associations for public worship, but
it was then too late for conciliation. In December he gave up
the archiepiscopal palace to the government authorities. He
was then an old man of nearly ninety, and his " eviction "
evoked great sympathy. Cardinal Richard died on the 29th
of January 1908.
RICHARD, HENRY (1812-1888), Welsh politician, was the
son of the Rev. Ebenezer Richard (1781-1837), a Calvinistic
Methodist minister, and was born on the 3rd of April 1812.
Educated at Llangeitho grammar school, he also studied at a
college at Highbury, and in 1835 he became minister of a Con-
gregational church in the Old Kent Road, London, a position
which he retained for fifteen years. Richard is chiefly known
as an advocate of peace and international arbitration. In
1848 he became secretary of the Peace Society, and in this
capacity he helped to organize a series of congresses in the
capitals of Europe, and was partly instrumental in securing the
insertion of a declaration in favour of arbitration in the treaty
of Paris in 1856. He resigned this post in 1885. In 1868 Richard
was elected member of parliament for the Merthyr boroughs, and
he remained in the House of Commons until his death at Treborth,
near Bangor, on the 20th of August 1888. In parliament he
was a leading member of the party which advocated the removal
of Nonconformist grievances and the disestablishment of the
church in Wales; in 1877 he was chairman of the Congregational
Union of England and Wales. Among Richard's writings may
be mentioned: Defensive War (1846, and again 1800); Memoirs
of Joseph Sturge (1864); Letters on the Social and Political
Condition of the Principality of Wales (1866, and again 1884);
and The Recent Progress of International Arbitration (1884). He
also prepared some of the material for the life of his friend and
associate, Richard Cobden, which was written by Mr John,
now Lord, Morley; and he did some journalistic work in the
Morning Star and the Evening Star.
See C. S. Miall, Henry Richard, M.P. (1889); L. Appleton,
Memoirs of Henry Richard (1889); and articles in Cymru Fydd
for 1888.
RICHARD OF CIRENCESTER (c. i33S~f- HOI), historical
writer, was a member of the Benedictine abbey at Westminster,
and his name (" Circestre ") first appears on the chamberlain's
list of the monks of that foundation drawn up in the year 1355.
In the year 1391 he obtained a licence from the abbot to go to
Rome, and in this the abbot gives his testimony to Richard's
xxin. 10 a
298
RICHARD OF DEVIZES RICHARD OF ST VICTOR
perfect and sincere observance of religion for upwards of thirty
years. In 1400 Richard was in the infirmary of the abbey,
where he died in the following year. His only known extant
work is Speculum Hisloriale de Geslis Regum Angliae, 447-1066.
The MS. of this is in the university library at Cambridge, and
has been edited for the Rolls Series (No. 30) by Professor
J. E. B. Mayor (2 vols., London, 1863-69). It is in four books,
and at the conclusion of the fourth book Richard expresses
his intention of continuing his narrative from the accession of
William I., and incorporating a sketch of the Conqueror's career
from his birth. This design he does not, however, appear to
have carried into effect. The value of the Speculum as a con-
tribution to our historical knowledge is but slight, for it is
mainly a compilation from other writers; while even in trans-
scribing these the compiler is guilty of great carelessness. He
gives, however, numerous charters relating to Westminster
Abbey, and also a very complete account of the saints whose
tombs were in the abbey church, and especially of Edward the
Confessor. The work was, however, largely used by historians
and antiquaries, until, with the rise of a more critical spirit,
its value became more accurately estimated. Besides the Spec-
ulum Richard also wrote, according to the statement of William
of Woodford in his Answer to Wycliffe (Edward Brown, Fasciculus
Rerum expetendarum, p. 193), a treatise De Officiis; and there
was formerly in the cathedral library at Peterborough
another tractate from his pen, entitled Super Symbolum. Of
neither of these works, however, does any known copy now
exist.
The Speculum affords the most conclusive proof of the spurious-
ness of another work attributed to Richard and long accepted by
the learned world as his. This was the De Situ Britanniae, an
elaborate forgery relating to the antiquities of Roman Britain,
which first appeared at Copenhagen in the year 1747. It was
printed with the works of Gildas and Nennius, under the editorship
of Charles Julius Bertram, professor of English in the academy of
Copenhagen in the middle of the i8th century, with the following
special title: " Richard! Corinensis monachi Westmonasteriensis
de situ Britanniae libri duo. E. Codici MS. descripsit, Notisque
et Indice adornavit Carolus Bertram."
This forgery was accepted as genuine by a well-known antiquary
of the 1 8th century, Dr William Stukeley, and under the sanction
of his authority continued for a long time to be regarded in the
same light by numerous scholars and antiquaries, including Gibbon
and Lingard. On the other hand, critics of a later date gave
expression, on various grounds, to a contrary conclusion. All doubt
on the subject may, however, be held to have been effectually set
at rest by the masterly exposure of the whole fraud drawn up by
Professor Mayor in the preface to the edition above referred to of
the Speculum. He has there not only demonstrated, from the
external and internal evidence alike, the spuriousness of the whole
treatise, but in a collation (extending to nearly a hundred pages)
of numerous passages with corresponding passages in classical
medieval authorities, has also traced out the various sources whence
Bertram derived the terminology and the facts which he reproduced
in the De Situ. (J. B. M.)
RICHARD OF DEVIZES (fl. 1191), English chronicler, was
a monk of St Swithin's house at Winchester. His birthplace
is probably indicated by his surname, but of his life we know
nothing. He is credited by Bale with the composition of the
Annales de Wintonia, which are edited by Luard in the second
volume of the Annales Monastici. If this statement be correct,
then the chronicler survived King Richard I. But the Chronicon
de rebus gestis Ricardi Primi, by which Richard of Devizes is
chiefly known, only covers the first three years of that king's
reign; it is practically an account of events in England and
the Holy Land during the Third Crusade. For the events of
the crusade itself, Richard is a poor authority. But his account
of the preparations for the crusade, and of English affairs in the
king's absence, is valuable, in spite of some inaccuracies. The
author is intensely conservative, steeped in the prejudices of
his order, and particularly hostile to the Jews and to the
chancellor, William Longchamp. He writes in a vivid and
epigrammatic style; his Latin shows the effect of the 12th-
century renaissance in its polish and in its reminiscences of
classical poets.
See the editions of the Chronicon de rebus gestis Ricatdi Primi by
J. Stevenson (Eng. Historical Soc., 1838) and by R. Howlett in
Chronicles of the Reigns of Stephen, Henry II. and Richard 1., vol.
iii. (Rolls Series, 1886); the Annales de Wintonia in H. R. Luard's
Annales Monastici, vol. ii. (Rolls Series, London, 1864-69).
(H. W. C. D.)
RICHARD OF HEXHAH (fl. 1141), English chronicler, became
prior of Hexham about 1141, and died between 1163 and 1178.
He wrote Brevis Annotatio, a short history of the church of
Hexham from 674 to 1138, for which he borrowed from Bede,
Eddius and Simeon of Durham. This is published by J. Raine
in The Priory of Hexham, its Chroniclers, Endowments and Annals
(Durham, 1864-65). More important is his Historia de gestis
regis Stephani et de hello Standardii, very valuable for the history
of the north of England during the earlier part of the reign of
Stephen, and especially for the battle of the Standard. This
history, which is a contemporary one, covers the period from
the death of Henry I. in 1135 to early in 1139. It has been
edited for the Rolls Series by R. Howlett in the Chroniclers of
the Reigns of Stephen, Henry II. and Richard /., vol. iii. (1886);
and has been translated by J. Stevenson in the Church Historians
of England, vol. iv. (1856).
RICHARD OF ILCHESTER (d. 1188), English statesman
and prelate, was born in the diocese of Bath, where he obtained
preferment. Early in the reign of Henry II., however, he is
found acting as a clerk in the king's court, probably under
Thomas Becket, and he was one of the officials who assisted
Henry in carrying out his great judicial and financial reforms.
In 1162, or 1163, he was appointed archdeacon of Poitiers, but
he passed most of his time in England, although in the next two
or three years he visited Pope Alexander III. and the Emperor
Frederick I. in the interests of the English king, who was then
engaged in his struggle with Becket. For promising to support
Frederick against Alexander he was excommunicated by Becket
in 1 1 66. Before this event, however, Richard had been ap-
pointed a baron of the exchequer, his great industry and
exceptional abilities as an accountant being recognized by
giving him a special seat at the exchequer table, and from 1168
until his death he frequently acted as one of the itinerant
justices. Although totally immersed in secular business he
received several rich ecclesiastical offices, and in May 1173 he
was elected bishop of Winchester, being consecrated at Canter-
bury in October 1174. Richard still continued to serve Henry
II. In 1176 he was appointed justiciar and seneschal of
Normandy, and was given full control of all the royal business
in the duchy. He died on the 2ist or 22nd of December 1188,
and was buried in Winchester cathedral. Richard owes his
surname, to the fact that Henry II. granted him a mill at
Ilchester; he is also called Richard of Toclyve.
See the article by Miss K. Norgate in the Diet. Nat. Biog., vol. xlviii.
(1896); and W. R. W. Stephens and W. W. Capes, The Bishops of
Winchester (1907).
RICHARD OF ST VICTOR (d. 1173), theologian and mystic
of the I2th century. Very little is known of his life; he was
born in Scotland or in England, and went to Paris, where he
entered the abbey of St Victor and was a pupil of the great
mystic, Hugh of St Victor. He succeeded as prior of this house
in 1162, and was continually contesting the tyrannical authority
of the abbot Ervisius. His writings, some of which are still
in manuscript, are very numerous, the best known being his
mystical treatises: De statu hominis interioris, De praeparatione
animi ad contemplalionem, De gratia conlemplationis, De gradibus
caritatis, De area nuptica, and his two works on the Trinity:
De trinitate libri sex, De tribus appropriatis personis in Trinitate,
As is the case with all the Victorines, his mysticism was a
reaction against the philosophy of the schools of his time, a
perpetual justification of contemplation as opposed to logical
reasoning. According to him, six steps lead the soul to con-
templation: (i) contemplation of visible and tangible objects;
(2) study of the productions of nature and of art; (3) study of
character; (4) study of souls and of spirits; (5) entrance to the
mystical region which ends in (6) ecstasy. His theory of the
Trinity is chiefly based on the arguments of Anselm of Canter-
bury, although a certain deification of the social sense is evident.
RICHARDIA RICHARDSON, H. H.
299
His style is most affected, and the influence of the neo-Platonist
terminology as well as of the works of the pseudo-Dionysius
can be clearly detected. In the Paradis Dante has placed
Richard de St Victor, whose books were much read by his contem-
poraries, among the greatest teachers of the Church. His writ-
ings seem to have come into favour again in the i6th and I7th
centuries, six editions of his works having been printed between
1506 and 1650.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. -CEuvres, edited in the Patrologia latino. by Migne,
vol. cxcvi.; W. Kaulich, " Die Lehren des Hugo und Richard von St
Victor " (Abhandlungen der K. bohmischen Gesellschaft der Wissen-
schaften. V. Folge, vol. xiii. (2nd ed. Paris, 1905), p. 231 (Prague,
1864) ; P. C. F. Daunou, article in Histoire litteraire de la France, tome
xiii. (Paris, 1869) ; G. Buonamici, Riccardo da S. Vittore (Alatri, 1899) ;
De Wulf , Histoire de la philosophic medievale (2nd ed. Paris, 1 905) , p. 23 1 .
RICHARDIA, a small genus of the nat. ord. Araceae, native
in South Africa, to which the " arum lily " belongs. They are
all greenhouse herbaceous plants of handsome appearance,
with thick underground stems and large, more or less fleshy,
long-stalked, arrow-shaped leaves and white or yellow flower
spathes. They are readily propagated by division of the shoot,
also by seed. Water should be given abundantly at all times,
and the soil for potting should be rich and retentive. Potting
is best effected in spring, and from the end of June to the end
of August they should be plunged in a sunny spot out of doors.
They will not withstand frost, and should be wintered in a warm
greenhouse. They flower throughout the year.
RICHARDS, ALFRED BATE (1820-1876), English journalist,
was born in Worcestershire on the iyth of February 1820, and
was educated at Westminster School and Exeter College, Oxford.
After taking his degree in 1841 he published, anonymously,
Oxford Unmasked, a denunciation of abuses in the university.
Between 1845 and 1848 he wrote several dramas and some
poetry, and in the latter year became editor of a weekly news-
paper, the British Army Despatch. His temperament was
strongly Imperialist; he opposed Cobden and the Manchester
school of politicians, and in a volume entitled Britain Redeemed
and Canada Preserved predicted, thirty years before the event,
the construction of the Canadian Pacific railway. In 1855 he
was appointed the first editor of the London Daily Telegraph, and
through the medium of that journal strongly urged the forma-
tion of volunteer rifle corps. The National and Constitutional
Defence Association was established in 1858 to carry out the
idea. Richards himself raised a regiment of a thousand working
men in London, becoming major and subsequently colonel of
the corps. In 1870 he was appointed editor of the London
Morning Advertiser, and retained this position till his death
on the 1 2th of June 1876.
RICHARDS, HENRY BRINLEY (1810-1865), English
pianist and composer, was born at Carmarthen, and educated
at the Royal Academy of Music in London, where later he was
a professor. He took much interest in Welsh music and in
the Eisteddfod gatherings. He was a prolific composer, but is
perhaps principally remembered for writing the song " God
bless the Prince of Wales " (1862), which has been adopted
as an English national anthem.
RICHARDS, WILLIAM TROST (1833-1905), American
marine painter, was born at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the
I4th of November 1833. He was a pupil of Paul Weber in his
native city, and lived much in France, Italy and London. He
was a member of the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts,
and of the American Water Colour Society. Examples of his
work are in the collections of the Pennsylvania Academy of the
Fine Arts, Philadelphia, Penn.; the Metropolitan Museum of
Art, New York, the Corcoran Art Gallery, Washington, D.C.,
and the Schaube Gallery, Hamburg. He died at Newport,
Rhode Island, on the 8th of November 1905. His daughter
ANNA M. RICHARDS (b. 1870), figure and landscape painter, was
a pupil of John La Farge and Benjamin Constant.
RICHARDSON, GEORGE, English 18th-century architect
and designer. The dates of birth and death of this distinguished
contemporary and rival of the brothers Adam are not ascer-
tained, but he is conjectured to have been born about 1736
and to have died in 1817. Richardson spent three years
from 1760 to 1763 travelling in Dalmatia and Istria, in the
south of France and in Italy. During that period he imbibed
the inspiration of a lifetime, and acquired the material for its
practical application. He soon began to show remarkable
skill in adapting classical ideals to the uses of his time, and in
1765 he won a premium offered, by the Society of Arts for a
design of a street in the classical manner. Richardson's work
is so closely allied to that of the brothers Adam that it is often
difficult to distinguish between them, and if it possessed less
freedom and variety, and bore to a smaller extent the impress
of an original mind, it was in the main exceedingly admirable
and satisfying. Richardson was an especially successful
designer of ceilings and chimneypieces. He published in 1776
a Book of Ceilings in the Style of the Antique Grotesque. Many
of its drawings are of exquisite taste. Nor is his fireplace
work, as represented by his Collection of Chimneypieces Orna-
mented in the Style of the Etruscan, Greek and Roman Archi-
tecture (1781), less attractive. Richardson's chimneypieces are
still to be found in considerable numbers in town and country
houses. They are mostly of marble, but examples in wood
are not uncommon. He made extensive use of coloured
marbles, and the effect is constantly that of the sumptuous
balancing the austere. Like the Adams, Richardson often
worked with composition enrichments, and his New Designs
in Architecture (1792) contains many drawings of interior
friezes and columns to be executed either in this medium or
painted to suit the wall hangings. His versatility was con-
siderable, as the titles of his works, a dozen in-number, suggest.
For many years he exhibited at the Royal Academy as well
as in the Galleries of the Society of Arts. Why such a man
should have fallen into penury in his old age we have no means
of ascertaining, but we know that his necessities were relieved
by Nollekens.
His principal works in addition to those already mentioned were,
in chronological orders Aedes Pembrochianae (1774); Iconoloey
(2 vols.), with plates by Bartolozzi and other engravers (1778-1779) ;
New Designs in Architecture (1792); Original Designs for Country
Seats or Villas (1795); The New Vitruvius Britannicus, a sequel to
Colin Campbell's Vitruvius Britannicus, 2 vols. (1802); Ornaments
in the Grecian, Roman and Etruscan Tastes (1816). He also pub-
lished volumes dealing with vases and tripods, antique friezes and
other architectural and decorative details.
RICHARDSON, HENRY HOBSON (1838-1886), American
architect, was born in the parish of St James, Louisiana, on
the 29th of September 1838, of a rich family, his mother being
a granddaughter of the famous Dr Priestley, the English dis-
senting refugee and man of science. He was graduated from
Harvard University in 1859, and going immediately to Paris
to study architecture, entered the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. The
Civil War, which broke out in the United States while he was
in the school, prevented his return to Louisiana, and stripped
his family of their possessions, so that Richardson provided
for his own support by working in the offices of practising
architects in Paris, till the fall of 1865. Coming back, he
established himself in New York, where he soon made his way
into practice as an architect. In 1878 he moved to Boston,
where he passed the remaining years of his life, designing there
most of the work that made his reputation. He had married
in 1867 Miss Julia Gorham Hayden of Boston; he died on the
27th of April 1886, not yet forty-eight years old.
Richardson's career was short, and the number of his works
was small indeed compared with the attention they attracted
and the influence he left behind him. The most important
and characteristic are: Trinity church and the so-called
Brattle Square church, in Boston; the alterations in the State
Capitol at Albany; the county buildings at Pittsburg; town
halls at Albany, Springfield and North Easton; town libraries
at Woburn, North Easton, Quincy, Burlington and Maiden;
Sever Hall and Austin Hall at Harvard University; the
Chamber of Commerce at Cincinnati. Trinity church, the
Pittsburg buildings and the Capitol at Albany were works of
great importance, which have had a strong influence on men
RICHARDSON, SIR J. RICHARDSON, S.
300
who followed him and brought him wide acknowledgment. It
is notable that American architects who have studied in Europe,
especially in Paris, are apt to drift either into a pathless eclec-
ticism or into the English current. Richardson did neither.
The Romanesque that he saw in Europe, especially in the
middle and south of France, appealed so strongly to his sense
for mass and broad picturesqueness that he soon followed its
leading, away from the style he had learned in Paris. His
earliest work was modern French in style; his first church,
in Springfield, a startlingly independent version of English
Gothic. Yet half a dozen buildings made the transition to
that derivative of Romanesque to which afterwards in all his
buildings he steadfastly adhered. In Trinity church, his first
monumental work, perhaps his finest, he broke away absolutely
from the prevailing English Gothic fashion. Instead of the
long Latin cross with aisles and transepts, he made a wide cross
almost Greek in plan, with short arms fifty feet broad and
aisles that are only passages, a narthex flanked by two western
towers, a nave of one double bay, an eastern arm prolonged
into a great apse of the full width of the crossing, over which
sits a massive square tower. The arms of the church are
barrel- vaulted in wood; under the great tower is a flat coffered
ceiling a hundred feet above the floor. The style, though
mixed, shows his surrender to the attraction of the churches
in Auvergne, which have furnished the material for the design
of the apse. The central tower is a reminiscence of the noble
lantern of the old cathedral of Salamanca, but the square
outline is insisted on instead of the polygonal, and the forms
are in other ways much changed. The alteration of the Capitol
at Albany, half a dozen years later, shared with Leopold
Eidlitz, was a compromise in style, and so lacks the sure handling
of his best work, except in that part of the interior in which
he was untrammelled, the Senate Chamber and the great
staircase. In the buildings at Pittsburg, on the other hand,
he was free from interference, and these satisfied him more
than any other of his buildings. His great design for the new
cathedral at Albany, an adaptation of the Romanesque
forms of Auvergne to a large modern problem, would have
displayed his mature manner, and been perhaps his greatest
work; but the plan did not lend itself to the tradition or the
ritual of the Anglican Church, and it was rejected, to his great
disappointment.
At first the breadth of his compositions was offset by a
richness of ornament which he afterwards called flamboyant,
but there was a continual growth in simplicity. Some of his
imitators have abused his example, running into mere baldness
and brutality, but his own work never lost the fineness of quality
with which he began, nor the adequacy of its detail.
Richardson's uncommon personality so embodied itself in his
works that it cannot be overlooked. He had an inexhaustible
energy of body and mind, an enthusiasm more genial than
combative, but so abounding and at times vehement that few
men and few bodies of men could resist him.
Abounding energy he had, but not health. . A serious bodily
injury, and later a chronic malady, made his last years a con-
stant struggle with suffering and infirmity, borne with in-
domitable cheerfulness, but at last fatal.
It is likely that the small number of his designs enhanced
their quality. He put twice the labour into his work that the
average architect would have given to it, and often twice the
time, but the result was apt to be twice as good. He found
American architecture restless, incoherent and exuberant;
his example did much to turn it back to simplicity and repose.
He came as near to establishing a style as it is given to any one
man to come; but the tendency of the time was too strong,
and the classic styles, reasserting themselves, once more drove
out the medieval.
The best known book about Richardson is Mrs Schuyler van
Rensselaer's H. H. Richardson and his Works (Boston, 1888).
(W. P. P. L.)
RICHARDSON, SIR JOHN (1787-1865), British naturalist,
was born at Dumfries on the sth of November 1787. He studied
medicine at Edinburgh, and became a surgeon in the navy in
1807. In 1819 he was appointed surgeon and naturalist to
Franklin's first arctic expedition (1810-22), and he served in
the same capacity to the second (1825-26). The scientific
results of these expeditions he described in contributions to
Franklin's Narratives, and especially in the four quarto volumes
of his Fauna Boreali-Americana (1829-37). He was knighted
in 1846, and hi the following year was chosen commander of
the Franklin search expedition (1848-49), the journal of which
he published in 1851 under the title of An Arctic Searching
Expedition. In 1855 he retired to Grasmere, where he died on
the sth of June 1865. He also wrote accounts dealing with the
natural history, and especially the ichthyology, of several other
arctic voyages, and was the author of Icones Piscium (1843),
Catalogue of Apodal Fish in the British Museum, translated from
the German MS. (1856), the second edition of Yarrell's History
of British Fishes (1860), and The Polar Regions (1861), expanded
from an article with the same title which he wrote for the Ency-
clopaedia Britannica.
A Life by John Macllraith was published in 1868.
RICHARDSON, SAMUEL (1689-1761), English novelist,' is a
notable example of that " late-flowering " sometimes applied
to Oliver Goldsmith. Born under William and Mary, the reign
of the second George was well advanced before, at fifty years of
age, he made his first serious literary effort an effort which
was not only a success, but the revelation of a new literary form.
He was the son of a London joiner, who, for obscure reasons,
probably connected with Monmouth's rebellion, had retired to
an unidentified town in Derbyshire, where, in 1689, Samuel was
born. At first intended for holy orders, and having little but
the common learning of a private grammar school for the
tradition that upon the return of the family to the metropolis
he went to Christ's Hospital cannot be sustained he was
eventually, as some compensation for a literary turn, apprenticed
at seventeen to an Aldersgate printer named John Wilde. Here,
like the typical " good apprentice " of his century, he prospered;
became successively compositor, corrector of the press, and
printer on his own account; married his master's daughter
according to programme; set up newspapers and books;
dabbled a little in literature by compiling indexes and " honest
dedications," and ultimately proceeded Printer of the Journals of
the House of Commons, Master of the Stationers' Company, and
Law-Printer to the King. Like all well-to-do citizens, he had
his city house of business and his " country box " in the
suburbs; and, after a thoroughly " respectable " life, died on
the 4th of July 1761, being buried in St Bride's Church, Fleet
Street, close to his shop (now demolished), No. n Salisbury
Court.
To this uneventful and conventional career one would scarcely
look for the birth and growth of a fresh departure in fiction.
And yet, although Richardson's manifestation of his literary
gift was deferred for half a century, there is no life to which
the Horatian " qualis ab incepto " can be more appropriately
applied. From his youth this moralist had moralized; from
his youth nay, from his childhood this letter-writer had
written letters; from his youth this supreme delineator of the
other sex had been the confidant and counsellor of women. In
his boyhood he was secretary-general to all the love-sick girls of
the neighbourhood; at eleven he addressed a hortatory epistle,
stuffed with texts, to a scandal-loving widow; and whenever it
was possible to correspond with any one he was as " correspond-
ing " as even Horace Walpole could have desired. At last, when
he was known to the world only as a steady business man, who
was also a " dab at an index " and an invaluable compiler of the
" puff prefatory," it occurred to Mr Rivington of St Paul's
Churchyard and Mj Osborn of Paternoster Row, two book-
selling friends who were aware of his epistolary gifts, to suggest
that he should prepare a little model letter-writer for such
" country readers " as " were unable to indite for themselves."
Would it be any harm, he suggested in answer, if he should also
" instruct them how they should think and act in common
cases "? His friends were all the more anxious that he should
RICHARDSON, S.
set to work. And thus originated his first novel of Pamela; or,
Virtue Rewarded.
But not forthwith, as is sometimes supposed. Proceeding
with the compilation of his model letter-writer, and seeking,
in his own words, " to instruct handsome girls, who were obliged
to go out on service . . . how to avoid the snares that might be
laid against their virtue " a danger which appears to have
always abnormally preoccupied him he came to recollect a
story he had heard twenty years earlier, and had often proposed
to other persons for fictitious treatment. It occurred to him
that it would make a book of itself, and might moreover be told
wholly in the fashion most congenial to himself, namely, by
letters. Thereupon, with some domestic encouragement, he
completed it in a couple of months, between the loth of Novem-
ber 1739 and the loth of January 1740. In November 1740
it was issued by Messrs Rivington & Osborn, who, a few weeks
afterwards (January 1741), also published the model letter-
writer under the title of Letters written to and for Particular
Friends, on the most Important Occasions. Both books were
anonymous. The letter-writer was noticed in the Gentleman's
Magazine for January, which also contains a brief announce-
ment as to Pamela, already rapidly making its way without
waiting for the reviewers. A second edition, it was stated, was
expected; and such was its popularity, that not to have read it
was judged " as great a sign of want of curiosity as not to have
seen the French and Italian dancers " i.e. Mme Chateauneuf
and the Fausans, who were then delighting the town. In
February a second edition duly appeared, followed by a third
in March and a fourth in May. At public gardens ladies held
up the book to show they had got it; Dr Benjamin Slocock of
Southwark openly commended it from the pulpit; Pope praised
it; and at Slough, when the heroine triumphed, the enraptured
villagers rang the church bells for joy. The other volume of
" familiar letters'" consequently fell into the background in the
estimation of its author, who, though it went into several
editions during his lifetime, never acknowledged it. Yet it
scarcely deserves to be wholly neglected, as it contains many
useful details and much shrewd criticism of lower middle-class
life.
For the exceptional success of Pamela there was the obvious
excuse of novelty. People were tired of the old " mouthy "
romances about impossible people doing impossible things.
Here was a real-life story, which might happen to any one a
story which aroused curiosity and arrested attention which
was not exclusively about " high life," and which had, in
addition, a moral purpose, since it was avowedly " published in
order to cultivate the principles of virtue and religion in the
minds of the youth of both sexes." Whether it had exactly
this effect, or owed its good fortune chiefly to this proclamation,
may be doubted. The heroine in humble life who resists the
licentious advances of her master until he is forced to marry her,
does not entirely convince us that her watchful prudence and
keen eye for the main chance have not, in the long run, quite as
much to do with her successful defence as her boasted innocence
and purity. Nor is the book without passages which more than
smack of an unpleasant pruriency. Nevertheless, in its extra-
ordinary gift of minute analysis; in its intimate knowledge of
feminine character; in the cumulative power of its shuffling,
loose-shod style, and, above all, in the unquestionable earnest-
ness and sincerity of the writer, Pamela had qualities
which particularly in a dead season of letters sufficiently
account for its favourable reception by the contemporary
public.
Such a popularity, of course, was not without its draw-
backs. That it would lead to Anti-Pamelas, censures of
Pamela and all the spawn of pamphlets which spring round
the track of a sudden success, was to be anticipated. One of
the results to which its rather sickly morality gave rise was
the Joseph Andrews (1742) of Fielding (?..). But there are
two other works prompted by Pamela which need brief notice
here. One is the Apology for the Life of Mrs Shamela Andrews,
a clever and very gross piece of raillery which appeared in
301
April 1741, and by which Fielding is supposed to have pre-
luded to Joseph Andrews. Fielding's own works contain
no reference to Shamela. But Richardson in his Correspond-
ence, both printed and unprinted, roundly attributes it to the
writer who was to be his rival; and it is also assigned to Field-
ing by other contemporaries (Hist. MSS. Commn., Rept. 12,
App. Pt. IX. p. 204). All that can be said is, that Fielding's
authorship cannot be proved. If it could, it would go far
to justify the after animosity of Richardson to Fielding
much farther, indeed, than what Richardson described as
the " lewd and ungenerous engraftment " of Joseph Andrews.
The second noteworthy result of Pamela was Pamela's Con-
duct in High Life (September 1741), a spurious sequel by John
Kelly of the Universal Spectator. Richardson tried to prevent
its appearance, and, having failed, set about two volumes of
his own, which followed in December, and professed to depict
his heroine " in her exalted condition." But the public in-
terest in Pamela had practically ceased with her marriage, and
the author's continuation, like other continuations particu-
larly continuations prompted by extraneous circumstances
attracted no permanent attention.
About 1744 we begin to hear something of the progress
of Richardson's second and greatest novel, Clarissa; or,
the History of a Young Lady, usually miscalled Clarissa Har-
lowe. The first edition was in seven volumes, two of which
came out in November 1747, two more in April 1748 and
the last three in December. Upon the title-page of this, of
which the mission was as edifying as that of Pamela, its object
was defined as showing the distresses that may attend the
misconduct both of parents and children in relation to
marriage. Virtue, in Clarissa, is not " rewarded," but hunted
down and outraged. The heroine, no longer an opportunist
servant-girl, is a most pure, refined and beautiful young
woman, invested with every attribute to attract and charm,
while her pursuer, Lovelace, the libertine hero of the book
a personage of singular dash and vivacity, in spite of his worth-
lessness is drawn with extraordinary tenacity of power.
The wronged Clarissa eventually dies of grief, and her cold-
blooded betrayer, whom strict justice would have hanged, is
considerately killed in a duel by her soldier cousin. Of the
genius of the story there can be no doubt. Nor is there any
doubt as to the ability shown in the delineation of the two chief
characters, to whom the rest are merely subordinate. The
chief drawbacks of Clarissa are its merciless prolixity (seven
volumes, which only cover eleven months); the fact that
(like Pamela) it is told by letters; and a certain haunting and
uneasy feeling that many of the heroine's obstacles are only
molehills which should have been readily surmounted. As to
its success, accentuated as this was by its piecemeal method
of publication, there has never been any question. Clarissa's
sorrows set all England sobbing, and her fame and her fate
spread rapidly to the Continent.
Between Clarissa and Richardson's next work appeared the
Tom Jones of Fielding a rival by no means welcome to the
elder writer, although a rival who generously (and perhaps
penitently) acknowledged Clarissa's rare merits.
" Pectus inaniter angit
Irritat, mulcet, falsis terroribus implet
Ut Magus,"
Fielding had written in the Jacobite's Journal. But even
this could not console Richardson for the popularity of the
" spurious brat " whom Fielding had made his hero, and his
next effort was the depicting of a genuine fine gentleman
a task to which he was incited by a chorus of feminine wor-
shippers. In the History of Sir Charles Grandison, " by the
Editor of Pamela and Clarissa " (for he still preserved the
fiction of anonymity), he essayed to draw a perfect model
of manly character and conduct. In the pattern presented
there is, however, too much buckram, too much ceremonial
in plain words, too much priggishness to make him the de-
sired exemplar of propriety in excelsis. Yet he is not entirely
a failure, still less is he to be regarded as no more than " the
302
RICHELIEU, DUG DE
condescending suit of clothes " by which Hazlitt unfairly
defines Miss Burney's Lord Orville. When Richardson de-
lineated Sir Charles Grandison he was at his best, and his
experiences and opportunities for inventing such a character
were infinitely greater than they had ever been before. And
he lost nothing of his gift for portraying the other sex. Harriet
Byron, Clementina della Porretta and even Charlotte Gran-
dison, are no whit behind Clarissa and her friend Miss Howe.
Sir Charles Grandison, in fine, is a far better book than Pamela,
although M. Taine regarded the hero as only fit to be stuffed
and put in a museum.
Grandison was published in 1753, and by this time Richard-
son was sixty-four. Although the book was welcomed as
warmly as its predecessors, he wrote no other novel, content-
ing himself instead with indexing his works, and compiling
an anthology of the " maxims," " cautions " and " instructive
sentiments " they contained. To these things, as a professed
moralist, he had always attached the greatest importance.
He continued to correspond relentlessly with a large circle
of worshippers, mostly women, whose counsels and fertilizing
sympathy had not a little contributed to the success of his
last two books. He was a nervous, highly strung little man,
intensely preoccupied with his health and his feelings, hungry
for praise when he had once tasted it, and afterwards unable
to exist without it; but apart from these things, well meaning,
benevolent, honest, industrious and religious. Seven vast
folio volumes of his correspondence with his lady friends, and
with a few men of the Young and Aaron Hill type, are pre-
served in the Forster Library at South Kensington. Parts of
it only have been printed. There are several good portraits
of him by Joseph Highmore, two of which are in the National
Portrait Gallery.
Richardson is sometimes styled the " Father of the English
Novel," a title which has also been claimed for Defoe. It
would be more accurate to call him the father of the novel of
sentimental analysis. As Sir Walter Scott has said, no one
before had dived so deeply into the human heart. No one,
moreover, had brought to the study of feminine character
so much prolonged research, so much patience of observation,
so mu<fh interested and indulgent apprehension, as this twitter-
ing little printer of Salisbury Court. That he did not more
materially control the course of fiction in his own country
was probably owing to the new direction which was given
to that fiction by Fielding and Smollett, whose method, roughly
speaking, was synthetic rather than analytic. Still, his in-
fluence is to be traced in Sterne and Henry Mackenzie, as
well as in Miss Burney and Miss Austen, both of whom, it may
be noted, at first adopted the epistolary form. But it was in
France, where the sentimental soil was ready for the dressing,
that the analytic process was most warmly welcomed. Extra-
vagantly eulogized by the great critic, Diderot, modified with
splendid variation by Rousseau, copied (unwillingly) by
Voltaire, the vogue of Richardson was so great as to tempt
some modern French critics to seek his original in the Marianne
of a contemporary analyst, Marivaux. As a matter of fact,
though there is some unconscious consonance of manner,
there is nothing whatever to show that the little-lettered
author of Pamela, who was also ignorant of French, had the
slightest knowledge of Marivaux or Marianne. In Germany
Richardson was even more popular than in France. Gellert,
the fabulist, translated him; Wieland, Lessing, Hermes,
all imitated him, and Coleridge detects him even in the Robbers
of Schiller. What was stranger still, he returned to England
again under another form. Having given a fillip to the French
comedie larmoyante, that comedy crossed the channel as the
sentimental comedy of Cumberland and Kelly, which, after
a brief career of prosperity, received its death-blow at the hands
of Goldsmith and Sheridan.
A selection from Richardson's Correspondence was published by
Mrs A. L. Barbauld in 1804, in six volumes, with a valuable Memoir.
Recent lives are by Miss Clara L. Thomson, 1900, and by Austin
Dobson (" Men of Letters "), 1902. A convenient reprint of the
novels, with copies of the old illustrations bv Stothard, Edward
Burney and the rest, and an introducton by Mrs E. M. M. McKenna,
was issued in 1901 in 20 volumes. (A. D.)
RICHELIEU, ARM AND EMMANUEL SOPHIE SEPTE
MANIE DU PLESSIS, Due DE (1766-1822), French statesman,
was born in Paris on the 25th of September 1766, the son of
Louis Antoine du Plessis, due de Fronsac and grandson of the
marshal de Richelieu (1696-1788). The comte de Chinon, as
the heir to the Richelieu honours was called, was married at
fifteen to Rosalie de Rochechouart, a deformed child of twelve,
with whom his relations were never more than formal. After
two years of foreign travel he entered the Queen's dragoons
and next year received a place at court, where he had a reputa-
tion for Puritan austerity. He left Paris in 1790 for Vienna,
and in company with his friend Prince Charles de Ligne joined
the Russian army as a volunteer, reaching the Russian head-
quarters at Bender on the 2ist of November. He was present
at the capture of Ismailia and received from the empress Catherine
the cross of St George and a golden sword. By the death of his
father in* February 1791, he succeeded to the title of due de
Richelieu. He returned to Paris shortly afterwards on the
summons of Louis XVI., but he was not sufficiently in the
confidence of the court to be informed of the projected flight
to Varennes. In July he obtained a passport from the National
Assembly for service in Russia. In the Russian army he
obtained the grade of general-major, only to be forced by the
intrigues of his enemies to resign. The accession of Alexander I.
brightened his prospects. His erasure from the list of emigres,
which he had failed to secure from Napoleon, was accorded on
the request of the Russian government, and in 1803 he became
governor of Odessa. Two years later he became governor
general of the Chersonese, of Ekaterinoslav and the Crimea,
then called New Russia. In the eleven years of his administra-
tion, Odessa rose from a miserable village to an important city.
He commanded a division in the Turkish War of 1806-7, an( l
was engaged in frequent expeditions to the Caucasus.
Richelieu returned to France in 18(4; on the triumphant
return of Napoleon from Elba he accompanied Louis XVIII.
in his flight as far as Lille, whence he went to Vienna to join
the Russian army, believing that he could best serve the
interests of the monarchy and of France by attaching himself
to the headquarters of the emperor Alexander. Richelieu's
character and antecedents alike marked him out as valuable
support of the monarchy after its second restoration. Though
the bulk of his confiscated estates were lost beyond recall, he
did not share the resentment of the mass of the returned emigres,
from whom and their intrigues he had held aloof during his
exile, and was far from sharing their delusions as to the possibility
of undoing the work of the Revolution. As the personal friend
of the Russian emperor his influence in the councils of the Allies
was lively to be of great service. He refused, indeed, Talley-
rand's offer of a place in his ministry, pleading his long absence
from France and ignorance of its conditions; but after Talley-
rand's retirement he consented to follow him as prime minister,
though as he himself said he did not know the face of one of
his colleagues.
The events of Richelieu's tenure of office are noticed elsewhere
(see FRANCE: History). Here it need only be said that it was
mainly due to his efforts that France was so early relieved of
the burden of the allied army of occupation. It was for this
purpose mainly that he attended the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle
in 1818. There he had been informed in confidence of the
renewal by the Allies of their treaty binding them to interfere
in case of a renewal of revolutionary trouble in France; and it
was partly owing to this knowledge that he resigned office in
December of the same year, on the refusal of his colleagues to
support a reactionary modification of the electoral law. After
the murder of the due de Berry and the enforced retirement of
Decazes, he again became president of the council (2ist February
1821); but his position was untenable owing to the attacks of
the " Ultras " on the one side and the Liberals on the other,
and on the i2th of December he again resigned. He died of
apoplexy on the i7th of May 1822.
RICHELIEU, CARDINAL
Great part of Richelieu's correspondence with Pozzp di Borgo,
Capo d'lstria and others, with his journal of his travels in Germany
and the Turkish campaign, and a notice by the duchesse de Richelieu,
is published by the Imperial Historical Society of Russia, vol. 54.
There is an exhaustive study of his career by L. de Crousaz-Creie't,
LeDucde Richelieu en Russie et en France (1897), with which compare
an article -by L. Rioult de Neuville in the Revue des questions his-
toriques (Oct. 1897). See also R. de Cisternes, Le Due de Richelieu,
son action aux conferences d' Aix-la-Chapelle (1898), containing
copies of documents.
RICHELIEU, ARMAND JEAN DU PLESSIS DE, CARDINAL
(1585-1642), French statesman, was born of an ancient family
of the lesser nobility of Poitou. The original name of the family
was Du Plessis, but in the isth century a younger branch
obtained by marriage the estate of Richelieu with its strong
castle surrounded by the waters of the Mable, and took the name
of Du Plessis de Richelieu. The family produced not a few
turbulent warriors during the Hundred Years' War, and the
cardinal's father, Francois du Plessis, seigneur de Richelieu,
began his career by killing the murderer of his elder brother and
then fighting through the wars of religion, first as a favourite
of Henry III., and after his death under Henry IV. He was a
typical fighting gentleman of the period. The mother of the
cardinal, Susanne de La Porte, belonged to a family of the
magistrature, her father, Francois de La Porte, being one of the
first advocates of the parlement of Paris. Armand was the third
son and was born in Paris on the 9th of September 1585. When
he was five years old his father died while assisting at the siege
of Paris (on the loth of July 1590); and his mother was left
with five children and the estate heavily in debt. By care and
economy, however, aided by generous royal grants, she was
enabled to pay off mortgages and to bring up the children in a
way befitting their rank. At the age of nine Armand was sent
to Paris to the College of Navarre, where he passed with credit
the regular courses in grammar and philosophy, and then
entered a " finishing academy " which prepared the sons of
nobles for the life of a courtier or a cavalier. But his training
for a military career was suddenly cut short by the refusal of
his elder brother, Alphonse, to accept the office of bishop of
Lucon. The right of preferment to that see had been given
to the Richelieu family by Henry III. as a reward for the
services of Armand's father, and the family drained its revenues
for private use. When the cathedral chapter found courage
to oppose this and opened suit to recover the ecclesiastical
revenues for ecclesiastical purposes, Richelieu's mother proposed
to make her second son, Alphonse, bishop. He defeated this
scheme, however, by becoming a monk of the Grande Chartreuse,
and Armand, whose health was rather feeble in any case for a
military career, was induced to propose himself for the priest-
hood.
In 1606, at the age of twenty-one, Richelieu was nominated
bishop of Lucon by Henry IV. As he was almost five years
under the canonical age, he was obliged to go to Rome to obtain
a dispensation and was consecrated there in April 1607. In
the winter of 1608 Richelieu went out to his poverty-stricken
little bishopric, and for the next six years devoted himself
seriously to his episcopal duties. He became favourably known
among the zealous reformers of the church, and it was during
this stage of his career that he made' a friend of Father Joseph.
Meanwhile he was impatiently waiting for an opening to a larger
career. This came in 1614 when he was elected by the clergy
of Poitou to the last States-general which met before the
Revolution. In this he attracted the favourable attention of
Marie de' Medici, the queen-mother, and was chosen at its close
to present the address of the clergy embodying its petitions
and resolutions. After the States-general was dissolved he
remained in Paris, and the next year he became almoner to
Anne of Austria, the child-queen of Louis XIII. Then, by
adroit courtly intrigue and faithful service to Concini, he was
appointed in 1616 a secretary of state to the king. But he owed
all to Concini, and his taste of power ended with the murder
of his patron on the 24th of August 1617.
The reign which Richelieu was to dominate so absolutely began
303
with his exile from the court. He had, however, already shown
his ability, his firmness, and his diplomatic skill, and conducted
the negotiations on the part of the queen-mother with Luynes,
the king's representative. Then, as he had incurred too much
of the odium of a creature of Concini to hope for royal favour,
he resigned himself to the post of chief adviser to Marie de"
Medici in her exile at Blois. Here he sought to ingratiate
himself with Luynes and the king by reporting minutely the
actions of Marie and by protestations of loyalty. As this un-
grateful work brought no reward, Richelieu, in spite of the
earnest entreaties of the queen-mother, retired once more to
his bishopric. But the king, while approving his conduct, was
still suspicious of him, and he was exiled to Avignon, along with
his brother and brother-in-law, on the ;th of April 1618. There
he lived in discreet, if melancholy retirement, writing " A Defence
of the Main Principles of the Catholic Faith," and had apparently
little hope of a further political career when the escape of Marie
de' Medici from Blois, on the 22nd of February 1619, again opened
paths for his ambition. Luynes and the king recalled him to
the post at Angouleme with the queen-mother, who received
him ungraciously but who soon yielded to his judgment and
allowed him to sign the treaty of Angouleme with the Cardinal
de la Rochefoucauld, acting fo'r the king. By this treaty Marie
was given liberty to live wherever she wished, and the govern-
ment of Anjou and of Normandy with several castles was entrusted
to her. The bishop of Lucon was led to believe that the king
would recommend him for a cardinalate, but, if we may trust
the evidence, Luynes secretly opposed the request, and it was
not until after his death that Richelieu was made a cardinal
by Pope Gregory XV., on the sth of September 1622. His
rank in the church was due to his skill in intrigue with Marie
de' Medici.
Luynes's death on the 15th of December 1621 made possible
a reconciliation a month later between the king and his mother.
Although Louis still distrusted her at heart, and disliked her
dominating minister more, he allowed her to take up her
residence in the Luxembourg palace in Paris, thus rendering
intercourse possible. Richelieu seized his opportunity. He
furnished Marie de' Medici with political ideas and acute
criticisms of the king's ministry, especially of the Brularts.
Marie zealously pushed her favourite towards office, and had
gone so far as to absent herself from court for three months on
account of the king's persistent refusal, when Charles, due de
La Vieuville, then head of the council, in need of her aid in his
negotiations with reference to the marriage of her daughter
Henriette Marie, finally agreed to force Richelieu's appointment
to office upon the king, Louis XIII. La Vieuville thought to
compromise by forcing the cardinal into a " council of des-
patches," with merely the privilege of advising the king's
council but entrusted with no power. Richelieu raised many
objections to such a partial realization of his ambition, but the
king ended them in April 1624 by naming him as a member of
his council. By August Vieuville's worst fears were realized;
he was arrested on the I3th of the month for corrupt practices in
office, and the intriguing cardinal who had caused his overthrow
became chief minister of Louis XIII. His advent was hailed
with joy by both the Catholic party and the patriotic party,
eager for the overthrow of Habsburg supremacy in Europe.
For the next eighteen years the biography of Richelieu is the
history of France, and to a large degree that of Europe. His
work was directed toward a twofold aim: to make the royal
power his power absolute and supreme at home, and to crush
the rival European power of the Habsburgs. At home there
were two opponents to be dealt with: the Huguenots and the
feudal nobility. The former were crushed by the siege of La
Rochelle and the vigorous campaign against the due de Rohan.
But the religious toleration of the edict of Nantes was reaffirmed
while its political privileges were destroyed, and Huguenot
officers fought loyally in the foreign enterprises of the cardinal.
The suppression of the independence of the feudal aristocracy
was inaugurated in 1626 by an edict calling for the destruction
of all fortified castles not needed for defence against invasion.
304
RICHELIEU, CARDINAL
The local authorities proceeded to carry this out with a zeal due
to long suffering, and the ruined medieval chateaus of France
still bear witness to the action of Richelieu. Still there was no
serious opposition to the new minister. The first serious con-
spiracy took place in 1626, the king's brother, Gaston of Orleans,
being the centre of it. His governor, Marshal D'Ornano, was
arrested by Richelieu's orders, and then his confidant, Henri
de Talleyrand, marquis de Chalais and Vend6me, the natural
sons of Henry IV. Chalais was executed and the marshal
died in prison. The overthrow of the Huguenots in 1629 made
Richelieu's position seemingly unassailable, but the next year
it received its severest test. Marie de' Medici had turned
against her " ungrateful " minister with a hatred intensified,
it is said, by unrequited passion. In September 1630, while
Louis XIII. was very ill at Lyons, the two queens, Marie and
Anne of Austria, reconciled for the time, won the king's promise
to dismiss Richelieu. He postponed the date until peace should
be made with Spain. When the news came of the truce of
Regensburg Marie claimed the fulfilment of the promise. On
the loth of November 1630 the king went to his mother's apart-
ments at the Luxembourg palace. Orders were given that no
one should be allowed to disturb their interview, but Richelieu
entered by the unguarded chapel door. When Marie bad
recovered breath from such audacity she proceeded to attack
him in the strongest terms, declaring that the king must choose
between him or her. Richelieu left the presence feeling that all
was lost. The king gave a sign of yielding, appointing the
brother of Marillac, Marie's counsellor, to the command of the
army in Italy. But before taking further steps he retired to
Versailles, then a hunting lodge, and there, listening to two of
Richelieu's friends, Claude de Saint-Simon, father of the memoir
writer, and Cardinal La Valette, sent for Richelieu in the evening,
and while the salons of the Luxembourg were full of expectant
courtiers the king was reassuring the cardinal of his continued
favour and support. The " Day of Dupes," as this famous day
was called, was the only time that Louis took so much as a step
toward the dismissal of a minister who was personally distasteful
to him but who was indispensable. The queen-mother followed
the king and cardinal to Compiegne, but as she refused to be
reconciled with Richelieu she was left there alone and forbidden
to return to Paris. The next summer she fled across the
frontiers into the Netherlands, and Richelieu was made a duke.
Then Gaston of Orleans, who had fled to Lorraine, came back
with a small troop to head a rebellion to free the king and
country from " the tyrant." The only great noble who rose
was Henri, due de Montmorenci, governor of Languedoc, and
his defeat at Castelnaudary on the ist of September 1632 was
followed by his speedy trial by the parlement of Toulouse, and
by his execution. Richelieu had sent to the block the first
noble of France, the last of a family illustrious for seven centuries,
the feudal head of the nobility of Languedoc; then, unmoved
by threats or entreaties, inexorable as fate itself, he cowed all
opposition by his relentless vengeance. He knew no mercy.
The only other conspiracy against him which amounted to more
than intrigue was that of Cinq Mars in 1642, at the close of his
life. This vain young favourite of the king was treated as though
he were really a formidable traitor, and his friend, De Thou, son
of the historian, whose sole guilt was not to have revealed the
plot, was placed in a boat behind the stately barge of the cardinal
and thus conveyed up the Rhone to his trial and death at
Lyons. The voyage was symbolical of Richelieu's whole pitiless
career.
Richelieu's foreign policy ;was as inflexible as his home policy.
To humble the Habsburgs he aided the Protestant princes of
Germany against the emperor, in spite of the strong opposition
of the disappointed Catholic party in France, which had looked
to the cardinal as a champion of the faith. The year of
Richelieu's triumph over the Huguenots (1629) was also that of
the Emperor Ferdinand's triumph in Germany, marked by the
Edict of Restitution, and France was threatened by a united
Germany. Richelieu, however, turned against the Habsburgs
young Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, paying him a subsidy of a
million livres a year by the treaty of Barwald of the 23rd of
January 1631. The dismissal of Wallenstein, which is often
attributed to the work of Father Joseph, Richelieu's envoy to
the diet of Regensburg in July and August of 1630, was due
rather to the fears of the electors themselves, but it was of
double value to Richelieu when his Swedish ally marched south.
After the treaty of Prague, in May 1635, by which the emperor
was reconciled with most of the German princes, Richelieu was
finally obliged to declare war, and, concluding a treaty of offensive
alliance at Compiegne with Oxenstierna, and in October one at
St Germain-en-Laye with Bernard of Saxe- Weimar, he proceeded
himself against Spain, both in Italy and in the Netherlands.
The war opened disastrously for the French, but by 1642, when
Richelieu died, his armies risen from 12,000 men in 1621 to
150,000 in 1638 had conquered Roussillon from Spain; they
held Catalonia, which had revolted from Philip IV. of Spain, and
had taken Turin and forced Savoy to allow French troops on
the borders of the Milanese. In Germany Torstensson was
sweeping the imperialist forces before him through Silesia and
Moravia. The lines of the treaty of Westphalia, six years later,
were already laid down by Richelieu; and its epochal import-
ance in European history is a measure of the genius who threw
the balance of power from Habsburg to Bourbon. The pre-
dominance of Louis XIV. in European politics was largely due
to the statesman who prepared France for his absolutism at
home.
The magnitude of Richelieu's achievement grows when one
considers his relations with the king. Louis XIII. cordially
disliked him, and would gladly have got rid of him if he had
not been able to convince the king of the wisdom of everything
he did. Thus obliged to assume the unpleasant role of tutor
when delicate flattery was often most needful, the minister
lectured and cajoled his master, always, until towards the
last, giving credit to the king for his own successes, and over-
awing opposition by his imperious presence even when Louis
was dabbling in plots against him (as in the case of Cinq Mars)
behind his back. The king's consciousness of his weakness
was combined with a sense of duty, and it was upon these two-
chords that Richelieu played. Besides, he was eternally on
the alert. Spies in every salon in Paris and every court in
Europe kept the grim courtier informed of every change in his
master's disposition and every intrigue against himself. The
piquant comments of his platonic friend, Mademoiselle de
Hautefort, upon Richelieu were relished by the king until he
was informed of others said to have been made by her upon
himself. Then it was easy to supplant her with another
favourite, Mademoiselle de Lafayette. When this devout
maiden began to denounce the ungodly cardinal who was
allied with heretics, her confessor in Richelieu's service
succeeded in inducing her to become a nun. Father Caussin,
the king's confessor, ventured the same comments, and Louis
plotted like a schoolboy to turn his devotions into secret
criticisms of state policies. Caussin was sent into Brittany,
and the judicious and learned Jesuit, Jacques Sirmond, who
succeeded him, kept clear of politics. Such was the atmosphere
of the court in which Richelieu had to maintain his authority.
His own personality was his strongest ally. The king
himself quailed before that stern, august presence. His pale,
drawn face was set with his iron will. His frame was sickly
and wasted with disease, yet when clad in his red cardinal's
robes, his stately carriage and confident bearing gave him the
air of a prince. His courage was mingled with a mean sort
of cunning, and his ambition loved the outward trappings of
power as well as its reality; yet he never swerved from his
policy in order to win approbation, and the king knew that
his one motive in public affairs was the welfare of the realm
that his religion, ^in. short, was " reason of state." A clear
conscience, not less than a sense of his own superiority to-
others at the court of Louis XIII., made the cardinal haughtily
assert his ascendancy, and the king shared his belief in both.
No courtier was ever more assertive of his prerogatives. He
claimed precedence over even princes of the blood, and one-
RICHELIEU, DUG DE RICHERUS
305
like Cond6 was content to draw aside the curtains for him to
pass, and to sue for the hand of Richelieu's niece for his son,
the " Great Conde." His pride and ambition were gratified
by the foundation of a sort of dynasty of his nephews and
nieces, whose hands were sought by the noblest in the realm.
Like all statesmen of his time, Richelieu made money out of
politics. He came to court in 1617 with an income of 25,000
livres from his ecclesiastical benefices. In the later years of
his life it exceeded 3,000,000 livres. He lived in imperial
state, building himself the great Palais Cardinal, now the
Palais Royal, in Paris, another at Rueil near Paris, and re-
building his ancestral chateau in Poitou. His table cost him
a thousand crowns a day, although he himself lived simply.
He celebrated his triumphs to the full with gorgeous fStes in
his palace, especially with lavish theatrical representations.
In January 1641 the tragedy of Mirame, said to have been his
own, was produced with great magnificence. Richelieu was
anxious for literary fame, and his writings are not unworthy
of him. But more important than his own efforts as an author
were his protection and patronage of literary men, especially
of Corneille, and his creation of the French Academy in 1635.
His influence upon French literature was considerable and
lasting. Hardly less important was his rebuilding of the
Sorbonne and his endowments there. When he died, on the
4th of December 1642, he was buried in the chapel of the
Sorbonne, which still stands as he built it. His tomb, erected
in 1694, though rifled at the Revolution, still exists.
Many writings are attributed to Richelieu, although owing to his
habit of working with substitutes and assistants it is difficult to
settle how much of what passes under his name is authentic. Les
Thuileries, La Grande Pastorale, Mirame, and the other plays, over
whose fate he trembled as over the result of an embassy or a cam-
paign, have long b,een forgotten; but a permanent interest attaches
to his Memoir es and correspondence: Memoirs d'Armand du Plessis
de Richelieu, evegue de Lugon, ecrit de sa main, I'annee 1607 ou 1610,
alors quit meditait de paraitre a la cour, edited by Armand Baschet
(1880); Histoire de la mere el du fils (i.e. of Marie de Medici and
Louis XIII.), sometimes attributed to M6zeray, published at Am-
sterdam in 1730 and, under the title Histoire de la regence_de reine
Marie de Medicis, femme de Henry IV., at the Hague in 1743;
Memoires sur la regne de Louis_ XIII., extending from 1610 to 1638,
and of which the earlier portion is a reprint of the Histoire de la
mere et du fils, published in Petitot's collection (Paris, 1823 seq.);
Testament politique d'Armand du Plessis, cardinal de Richelieu
(Amsterdam, 1687 seq.) ; Journal de 1630-31 (Paris, 1645) ; " Lettres,
instructions diplomatiques, et papiers d'e'tat," published by G.
d'Avenel in the Coll. de doc. ined. (Paris, 1853-77); and " Maximes
d'etat et fragments politiques," published by G. Hanotaux in Melanges
historiques: Choix de doc. Hi., in the same collection.
See G. Hanotaux, Cardinal Richelieu (1893), one volume of the
four then promised, an exhaustive history of the period down to
1614; and G. d'Avenel, Richelieu et la monarchie absolue (4 vols.,
1895). The most important sources for Richelieu's statesmanship
are the " Lettres, instructions diplomatiques, et papiers d'6tat,"
mentioned above, and Richelieu's Memoires (1610-38) may be con-
sulted in Petitot's and J. F. Michaud and J. Poujoulat's collections.
Innumerable memoirs of the time also bear upon his life, e.g. those
of Madame de Motteville, Mathieu Mpl<5, De Brienne, and Bassom-
pierre. In English there are short biographies by Richard Lodge
(in the Foreign Statesmen series, 1896) and by J. B. Perkins (in
Heroes of the Nations series, 1900). (J. T. S.*)
RICHELIEU, LOUIS FRANCOIS ARMAND DU PLESSIS,
Due DE (1696-1788), marshal of France, was a grandnephew
of Cardinal Richelieu, and was born in Paris on the I3th of
March 1696. Apart from his reputation as a man of excep-
tionally loose morals, he attained, in spite of a deplorably de-
fective education, distinction as a diplomatist and general.
As ambassador to Vienna (1725-29) he settled in 1727 the
preliminaries of peace; in 1733-34 he served in the Rhine
campaign. His real public career began ten years later. He
fought with distinction at Dettingen and Fontenoy, where
he directed the grapeshot upon the English columns, and
three years afterwards he made a brilliant defence of Genoa;
in 1756 he expelled the English from Minorca by the capture
of the San Felipe fortress; and in 1757-58 he closed his
military career by those pillaging campaigns in Hanover
which procured him the sobriquet of Petit Pere de la Maraude.
After the wars he plunged again into court intrigue, favoured
the comtesse du Barry and supported his nephew the due
d'Aiguillon. Louis XVI., however, was not favourably inclined
to him. In his early days he was thrice imprisoned in the
Bastille: in 1711 at the instance of his stepfather, in 1716 in
consequence of a duel, and in 1719 for his share in Alberoni's
conspiracy against the regent Orleans. He was thrice married:
first, against his will, at the age of fourteen to Anne Catherine
de Noailles; secondly, in 1734, by the intrigues (according to
the witty Frenchman's own account) of Voltaire, to Marie
Elisabeth Sophie, Mademoiselle de Guise; and thirdly, when
he was eighty-four years old, to an Irish lady. He died in
Paris on the 8th of August 1788. Marshal Richelieu's Memoires,
published by J. L. Soulavie in nine volumes (1790), are partially
spurious.
See H. Noel Williams, The Fascinating Due de Richelieu (1910).
RICHEPIN, JEAN (1849- ), French poet, novelist and
dramatist, the son of an army doctor, was born at Medea
(Algeria) on the 4th of February 1849. At school and at the
Ecole normale he gave evidence of brilliant, if somewhat
undisciplined, powers, for which he found physical vent in
different directions first as a franc-tireur in the Franco-German
War, and afterwards as actor, sailor and stevedore and an
intellectual outlet in the writing of poems, plays and novels
which vividly reflected his erratic but unmistakable talent.
A play, L'toile, written by him in collaboration with Andr6
Gill (1840-1885), was produced in 1873; but Richepin was
virtually unknown until the publication, in 1876, of a volume
of verse entitled Chanson des gueux, when his outspokenness
resulted in his being imprisoned and fined for outrage aux mceurs.
The same quality has characterized his succeeding volumes
of verse: Les Caresses (1877), Les Blasphemes (1884), La Mer
(1886), Mes paradis (1894), La Bombarde (1899). His novels
have developed in style from the morbidity and brutality of
Les Marts bizarres (1876), La Glu (1881) and Le Pave (1883)
to the more thoughtful psychology of Madame Andre (1878),
Sophie Monnier (1884), Cesarine (1888), L'Aimi (1893), Grandes
amoureuses (1896) and Lagibasse (1899), and the more simple
portrayal of life in Miarka (1883), Les Braves Gens (1886),
Truandaittes (1890), La Miseloque (1892) and Flamboche (1895).
His plays, though occasionally marred by his characteristic
proneness to violence of thought and language, constitute in many
respects his best work. The most notable are Nona Sahib
(1883), Monsieur Scapin (1886), Le Filibuster (1888), Par le
glaive (1892), Vers lajoie (1894), Le Chemineau (1897), Le Chien
de garde (1898), Les Truands (1899), Don Quichotte (1005),
most of which were produced at the Comedie franchise. He
also wrote Miarka (1905), adapted from his novel, for
the music of Alexandre Georges, and Le Mage (1897) for the
music of Jules Massenet.
His son, Jacques Richepin (b. 1880), the author of La Reine
de Tyr (1899), La Cavaliere (1901), Cadet-Roussel (1903) and
Falstaf (1904), based on Shakespeare's Henry IV., gave promise
of making his mark as a dramatist.
RICHERUS, monk of St Remi at Reims, and a chronicler of
the joth century, son of Rodulf, a trusty councillor and captain
of Louis IV. He studied at Reims under Gerbert, afterwards
Pope Silvester II., who taught him mathematics, history,
letters and eloquence. He was also well versed in the medical
science of his time, and in 991 travelled to Chartres to consult
the medical MSS. there. He was still living in 998, but there
is no mention of him after that date. In spite of his violent
partisanship, for Richerus was an ardent upholder of the
Carolings and French supremacy, of great defects of style,
and of an utter disregard of accuracy and truth, his Historiae
has a unique value as giving us the only tolerably full account
by a contemporary of the memorable revolution of 987, which
placed the Capets on the throne of France. The History, in
four books, begins with Charles the Fat and Eudes, and goes
down to the year 995. From 969 onwards Richerus had no
earlier history before him, and his work is the chief source for
the period. It was first edited in Pertz's Monumcnta Germanise,
vol. iii.
306 RICHFIELD SPRINGS RICHMOND, EARLS AND DUKES OF
There are French translations by Guadet (Paris, 1845, Soc. de
1'hist. de France) ; Poinsignon (Reims, 1855, pub. de 1 Academic
de Rheims); and a German version by K. Freiherr y. der Osten-
Sacken (Berlin 1854). Cf. Molinier, Sources de I'histoire de France,
i. 284 (ed. 1901).
RICHFIELD SPRINGS, a village of Richfield township,
Otsego county, New York, U.S.A., about 22 m. S.S.E. of Utica
and f m. N. of Schuyler (or Candarago) lake. Pop. (1890)
1623; (1900) 1537; (1005, state census) 1684. It is served
by the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western railway, and by the
Oneonta & Mohawk Valley electric line connecting with the
New York Central railway at Herkimer. The village is situated
in a farming country, about 1700 ft. above sea-level. Knit
goods are manufactured, but the importance of the place is
due to its sulphur springs, the waters of which are used for the
treatment of skin diseases, gout, rheumatism, etc., and to the
tonic air and fine scenery. In 1908 a Welsh eisteddfod was
held here in Earlington Park. The first hotels were built
between 1820 and 1830. A post office was established here
in 1829, and the village was incorporated in 1861.
RICH HILL, a city of Bates county, Missouri, U.S.A.,
situated near the Osage (Marais des Cygnes) river, in the west
central part of the state, about 75 m. S. by E.-of Kansas City.
Pop. (1890) 4008; (1900) 4053, of whom 255 were foreign-born.
It is served by the Missouri Pacific and the St. Louis & San
Francisco railway systems. The city has two public parks,
and is a trading centre for the surrounding fertile farming
country. Coal is mined in the vicinity. There are lead and
zinc smelters, and a large vitrified brick and tile factory. The
municipality owns and operates its waterworks and gas and
electric-lighting plants; the city is supplied with natural gas.
The original Rich Hill was platted in 1867 somewhat north-west
of the site of the present city, which was platted in 1880 by
an association that bought out the old settlement. The new
settlement was incorporated as a village in 1880, and chartered
as a city in 1881.
RICHMOND, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The title earl
of Richmond appears to have been in existence in England a
considerable time before it was held in accordance with any
strict legal principle. Alan, surnamed " Le Roux," and his
brother Alan (c. 1040-1089), surnamed " Le Noir," relatives of
Geoffrey, count of Brittany, and kinsman of William the Con-
queror, took part in the latter's invasion of England; and
Le Roux obtained grants of land in various parts of England,
including manors formerly held by Earl Edwin in Yorkshire,
on one of which he built the castle of Richmond, his possessions
there being formed into the honour of Richmond, to which his
brother Alan Le Noir, or Alan Niger (c. 1045-1093), succeeded
in 1089. The latter was in turn succeeded as lord of the honour
of Richmond by Stephen (d. 1137), count of Penthievre, who
was either his son or another brother. These Breton counts,
being territorial barons of great importance in England, and
lords of the honour of Richmond where their castle was
situated, are often reckoned as earls of Richmond, though
they were not so in the strict and later sense. The same should
perhaps be said of Stephen's son Alan Niger II. (c. 1116-1146),
though he was styled earl of Richmond by John of Hexham.
This Alan married Bertha, daughter and heiress of Conan,
reigning count of Brittany; and his son Conan (c. 1138-1171),
who married Margaret, sister of Malcolm IV. of Scotland,
asserted his right to Brittany, and transferred it in his lifetime
to his daughter Constance (c. 1162-1201). As he left no sons the
honour of Richmond and his other English possessions passed
to the king in 1171, though Constance is also loosely spoken
of as countess of Richmond in her own right. Constance was
three times married, and each of her husbands in turn assumed
the title of earl of Richmond, in conjunction with that of count,
or duke of Brittany. They were: Geoffrey Plantagenet (1158-
ii 86), son of Henry II., king of England; Randolph de Blunde-
vill, earl of Chester (c. 1172-1232), the marriage with whom
Constance treated as null on the ground of consanguinity;
and Guy de Thouars (d. 1213), who survived his wife for twelve
years. The only son of the first marriage, Arthur of Brittany
(1187-1203), was styled earl of Richmond in his mother's
lifetime, and on his murder at the hands of his uncle, King
John, the earldom was resumed by the crown.
By her third husband Constance had two daughters, the
elder of whom, Alice, was given in marriage by Philip Augustus,
king of France, to Peter de Braine in 1213, after which date
Peter was styled duke of Brittany and earl of Richmond till
about 1235, when he renounced his allegiance to the king of
England and thereupon suffered forfeiture of his English earldom.
In 1241 Henry III. granted the honour of Richmond to
Peter of Savoy (1203-1268), uncle of Queen Eleanor, who was
thereafter described as earl of Richmond by contemporary
chroniclers, though how far he was strictly entitled to the
designation has been disputed. By his will he left the
honour of Richmond to his niece, the queen consort, who
transferred it to the crown. In the same year (1268) Henry III.
granted the earldom specifically to John, duke of Brittany
(1217-86), son of Peter de Braine, in whose family the title
continued though it frequently was forfeited or reverted to
the crown and was re-granted to the next heir till 1342, when
it was apparently resumed by Edward III. and granted by
that sovereign to his son John of Gaunt, who surrendered it
in 1372. It was then given to John de Montfort, duke of
Brittany, but on his death without heirs in 1399, or possibly
at an earlier date through forfeiture, it reverted to the crown.
The earldom now became finally separated from the duchy of
Brittany, with which it had been loosely conjoined since the
Conquest, although the dukes of Brittany continued to assume
the title till a much later date. From 1414 to 1435 the earldom
of Richmond was held by John Plantagenet, duke of Bedford,
and in 1453 it was conferred on Edmund Tudor, uterine brother
to King Henry VI., whose wife, Margaret Beaufort, was the
foundress of St John's College, Cambridge, and of the " Lady
Margaret," professorships of divinity at Oxford and Cambridge
(see RICHMOND AND DERBY, MARGARET, COUNTESS or). When
Edmund Tudor's son Henry ascended the throne as Henry VII.
in 1485, the earldom of Richmond merged in the crown, and
for the next forty years there was no further grant of the title;
but in 1525 Henry Fitzroy, natural son of Henry VIII. by
Elizabeth Blound, was created duke of Richmond and Somerset
and earl of Nottingham, all these titles becoming extinct at
his death without children in 1536.
Ludovic Stuart, 2nd duke of Lennox (1574-1624), who also
held other titles in the peerage of Scotland, was created earl
of Richmond in 1613 and duke of Richmond in 1623. These
became extinct at his death in 1624, but his Scottish honours
devolved on his brother Esme, who was already earl of March
in the peerage of England (see MARCH, EARLS or; and LENNOX).
Esme's son, James, 4th duke of Lennox (1612-1655), was created
duke of Richmond in 1641, the two dukedoms as well as the
lesser English and Scottish titles thus becoming again united.
In 1672, on the death of his nephew Charles, 3rd duke of Rich-
mond and 6th duke of Lennox, whose wife was the celebrated
beauty called " La Belle Stuart " at the court of Charles II.
(see RICHMOND AND LENNOX, FRANCES TERESA, DUCHESS OF),
his titles became extinct.
In 1675 Charles II. created his illegitimate son Charles duke
of Richmond, earl of March and baron Settrington, and a few
weeks later duke of Lennox, earl of Darnley and baron Torboltoun.
This Charles (1672-1723), on whom his father the king bestowed
the surname of Lennox, was the son of the celebrated Louise
de Keroualle, duchess of Portsmouth. His son Charles, 2nd duke
(1701-1750), added to the titles he inherited from his father
that of duke of Aubigny in France, to which he succeeded in
1734 on the death of his grandmother the duchess of Ports-
mouth; and all these 1 honours are still held by his descendant
the present duke of Richmond.
The seven dukes of Richmond of the Lennox line have all
borne the Christian name of Charles. The 2nd duke, by his
marriage with Sarah, daughter of the ist Earl Cadogan, was
father of Lady Caroline Lennox, who eloped with Henry Fox,
RICHMOND, L. RICHMOND
307
and was the mother of Charles James Fox, and of the beautiful
Lady Sarah Lennox (1745-1826) with whom George III. fell
in love and contemplated marriage, and who afterwards married,
first, Sir Thomas Bunbury, from whom she was divorced, and
secondly, George Napier, by whom she was the mother of
Generals Sir Charles and Sir William Napier.
Charles, 3rd duke of Richmond (1735-1806), was one of the
most remarkable men of the i8th century, being chiefly famous
for his advanced views on the question of parliamentary reform.
Having succeeded to the peerage in 1750, he was appointed
British ambassador extraordinary in Paris in 1765, and in the
following year he became a secretary of state in the Rockingham
administration, resigning office on the accession to power of the
earl of Chatham. In the debates on the policy that led to the
War of American Independence Richmond was a firm supporter
of the colonists; and he initiated the debate in 1778 calling
for the removal of the troops from America, during which
Chatham was seized by his fatal illness. He also advocated a
policy of concession in Ireland, with reference to which he
originated the phrase " a union of hearts " which long afterwards
became famous when his use of it had been forgotten. In 1779
the duke brought forward a motion for retrenchment of the
civil list; and in 1780 he embodied in a bill his proposals
for parliamentary reform, which included manhood suffrage,
annual parliaments and equal electoral areas. Richmond sat
in Rockingham's second cabinet as master-general of ordnance;
and in 1784 he joined the ministry of William Pitt. He now
developed strongly tory opinions, and his alleged desertion of
the cause of reform led to a violent attack on him by Lauderdale
in 1792, which nearly led to a duel between the two noblemen.
Richmond died in December 1806, and, leaving no legitimate
children, he was succeeded in the peerage by his nephew Charles,
son of his brother, General Lord George Henry Lennox.
The 4th duke (1764-1819) and his wife Charlotte, daughter
of the 4th duke of Gordon, were the givers of the famous ball
at Brussels on the night before the battle of Quatre Bras,
immortalized in Byron's Childe Harold. Their son, the sth duke
(1791-1860), while still known by the* courtesy title of earl of
March, served on Wellington's staff in the Peninsula, being at
the same time member of parliament for Chichester. He was
afterwards a vehement opponent in the House of Lords of
Roman Catholic emancipation, and at a later date a leader of
the opposition to Peel's free trade policy. In 1836, on inheriting
the estates of his maternal uncle, the 5th and last duke of
Gordon, he assumed the name of Gordon before that of Lennox.
On his death in 1860 he was succeeded in his titles by his son
Charles Henry, 6th duke of Richmond (1818-1903), a statesman
who held various cabinet offices in the Conservative administra-
tions of Lord Derby, Disraeli and the marquess of Salisbury;
and who in 1876 was created earl of Kinrara andduke of Gordon.
These honours in addition to the numerous family titles of more
ancient creation passed on his death in 1903 to his son Charles
Henry Gordon-Lennox (b. 1845), 7th duke of Richmond and
Lennox and 2nd duke of Gordon.
See Sir Robert Douglas, The Peerage of Scotland, edited by Sir
LB. Paul; G. E. C., Complete Peerage, vol. vi. (London, 1895);
dy Elizabeth Cust, Some Account of the Stuarts _of Aubigny in
France (London, 1891). For the dukes of the creation of 1675 see
also, Anthony Hamilton, Memoirs of Grammont, edited by Sir W.
Scott, new edition (2 vols., London, 1885) ; Horace Walpole, Letters,
edited by P. Cunningham (9 vols., London, 1891), and Memoirs
of the Reign of George III., edited by G. F. R. Barker (4 vols., London,
1894); the earl of Albemarle, Memoirs of Rockingham and his
Contemporaries (2 vols., London, 1852); The Grenville Papers,
edited by W. J. Smith (4 vols., London, 1852); Earl Stanhope,
Life of William Pitt (4 vols., London, 1861); Lord Edmond Fitz-
maurice, Life of William Earl of Shelburne (3 vols., London, 1875);
the duke of Richmond, The Right of the People to Universal Suffrage
and Annual Parliaments (London, 1817), being an edition of the
3rd duke's famous " Letter to Lieut. -Colonel Sharman," originally
published in 1783; Lord William Pitt Lennox, Memoir of Charles
Gordon-Lennox, $th Duke of Richmond (London, 1862). (R. J. M.)
RICHMOND, LEGH (1772-1827), English divine, w'as born
on the 29th of January 1772, at Liverpool. He was educated
at Trinity College, Cambridge, and in 1798 was appointed to
the joint curacies of Brading and Yaverland in the Isle of
Wight. He was powerfully influenced by William Wilberforce's
Practical View of Christianity, and took a prominent interest
in the British and Foreign Bible Society, the Church Mis-
sionary Society and similar institutions. In 1805 he became
assistant-chaplain to the Lock Hospital, London, and rector
of Turvey, Bedfordshire, where he remained till his death on
the Sth of May 1827. The best known of his writings is The
Dairyman's Daughter, of which as many as four millions in nine-
teen languages were circulated before 1849. A collected edition
of his stories of village life was first published in 1814 under the
title of Annals of the Poor. He also edited a series of Reforma-
tion biographies called Fathers of the English Church (1807-12).
See Memoirs by T. S. Grimshawe (1828); Domestic Portraiture
by T. Fry (1833).
RICHMOND, SIR WILLIAM BLAKE (1842- ), English
painter and decorator, was born in London on the 29th of
November 1842. His father, George Richmond, R.A. (1809-
1896), himself the son of a successful miniature painter, was a
distinguished artist, who painted the portraits of the most eminent
people of his day, and played an important part in society.
At the age of fourteen William Richmond entered the Royal
Academy schools, where he worked for about three years. A
visit to Italy in 1859 gave him special opportunity for studying
the works of the old masters, and had an important effect upon
his development. His first Academy picture was a portrait
group (1861); and to this succeeded, during the next three
years, several other pictures of the same class. In 1865 he
returned to Italy, and spent four years there,- living chiefly at
Rome. To this period belongs the large canvas. " A Procession
in Honour of Bacchus," which he exhibited at the Academy
in 1869 when he came back to England. His picture, " An
Audience at Athens," was exhibited at the Grosvenor Gallery
in 1885. He became Slade professor at Oxford, succeeding
Ruskin, in 1878, but resigned three years later. He was elected
an Associate of the Royal Academy in 1888 and Royal Acade-
mician in 1895; he received the degree of D.C.L. in 1896, and
a knighthood of the Bath in 1897, and became professor of
painting to the Royal Academy. Apart from his pictures, he
is notable for his work in decorative art, his most conspicuous
achievement being the internal decoration and the glass mosaics
of St Paul's Cathedral. Sir William Richmond also took a
keen interest in social questions, particularly in smoke-prevention
in London.
RICHMOND, a city of Bourke county, Victoria, Australia,
2 m. S.E. of and suburban to Melbourne. It is one of the
pleasantest of the metropolitan suburbs, having numerous parks
and public gardens. There are a number of prosperous industries
in the city. Pop. (1901) 37,722.
RICHMOND, a city and the county-seat of Wayne county,
Indiana, U.S.A., on the E. branch of the Whitewater river,
about 68 m. E. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1890) 16,608; (1900)
18,226, of whom 1467 were foreign-born and 1009 negroes;
(1910 census) 22,324. It is served by the Chicago, Cincinnati
& Louisville, the Grand Rapids & Indiana and the Pittsburg,
Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railways, and by the Terre
Haute, Indianapolis & Eastern and the Ohio electric inter-
urban railways. Richmond has broad well-shaded streets,
several parks, including Glen Miller (139 acres), and handsome
public buildings. Its public institutions include the Morrisson-
Reeves (public) Library (1864), one of the largest (39,000
volumes in 1909) and oldest in the state, an art gallery, the Reid
Memorial Hospital, a Home for Friendless Women, the Margaret
Smith Home for Aged Women (1888), the Wernle Orphans'
Home (1879; Evangelical Lutheran), and the Eastern Indiana
Hospital for the Insane (1890). Just west of the city limits is
Earlham College (co-educational), opened in 1847, chartered in
1859 and controlled by the Society of Orthodox Friends; in
1908-9 it had 30 instructors, 620 students and a library of
18,000 bound volumes. Richmond was for many years the
centre, west of Philadelphia, of the activities of the Society of
Friends. It is an important railway and commercial centre,
3 o8
RICHMOND
trade in hardware being especially large. Among its manu-
factures are agricultural machinery (especially seeding machines)
and tools, automobiles, pianos, lawn-mowers, roller-skates,
foundry and machine-shop products, furniture, burial caskets,
and flour. In 1905 its factory product was valued at $6,731,740,
an increase of 41-6% since 1900. Pipe lines supply the city with
natural gas. The municipality owns and operates the electric-
lighting plant. In 1806 Friends from North Carolina and
Pennsylvania settled near here, and Richmond was platted in
1816. Its growth was slow until the opening of the National
Road, which entered Indiana near the city, and the construction
of railways. Richmond was incorporated as a village in 1818
and chartered as a borough in 1834 and as a city in 1840.
RICHMOND, a city and the county-seat of Madison county,
Kentucky, U.S.A., about 95 m. S.E. of Louisville. Pop. (1890)
5073; (1900) 4653, of whom 2087 were negroes; (1910) 5340.
It is served by the Louisville & Atlantic and the Louisville
& Nashville railways. It is situated in the " Blue Grass Region,''
near the foothills of the Cumberland Mountains. It is the
seat of Madison Institute for girls (1856) and of the Eastern
Kentucky State Normal School (1906). From 1874 to 1901 it
was the seat of Central University, which in the latter year was
consolidated with Centre College at Danville, Ky. (<?..). The
surrounding country is devoted largely to the cultivation of
tobacco, Indian corn and wheat, and the breeding of fine horses
and cattle; and Richmond is an important live-stock market.
Among the manufactures are bricks, flour, tobacco and cigars,
and carriages. On the 3oth of August 1862 a Confederate force
of about 7000 men under General Edmund Kirby Smith won a
decisive victory here over a Union force of a nearly equal
number under Generals Mahlon D. Manson (1820-1895) and
William Nelson.
RICHMOND, a municipal borough in the Kingston parlia-
mentary division of Surrey, England, 9 m. W.S.W. of Charing
Cross, London. Pop. (1891) 26,875; (i9i) 31,672. It lies
on the right bank of the Thames, which is here crossed by
a bridge carrying the road to Twickenham. Through its
pleasant situation Richmond has grown into a large residential
suburb of the metropolis. The town was anciently called
Syenes and afterwards Schene and Sheen (a name preserved in
the village of East Sheen, adjacent on the London side) until
the name was in 1500 changed to Richmond by command of
Henry VII., who was earl of Richmond in Yorkshire. It grew up
round the royal manor house, which became a frequent residence
of sovereigns, but of which nothing more than a gateway remains.
Edward I. received the Scotch commissioners at his manor of
Sheen in 1300. The palace was rebuilt by Edward III., who
died here in 1377. It was frequently used by Richard II., and
here his wife Anne of Bohemia died, upon which he cursed the
place and " caused it to be thrown down and defaced." By
Henry V., however, it was rebuilt, and a great tournament was
held here in 1492 by Henry VII., who after its destruction by
fire in 1498 restored it. Henry VIII. gave it to Wolsey to
reside in, after the latter presented him with the new palace of
Hampton Court. James I. settled it on his son Henry, prince
of Wales, who restored and embellished it at great expense.
Charles I. added to it the new deer park generally known as
Richmond Park, 2253 acres in extent, which is surrounded by
a wall ii m. in length. After the execution of the king, the
parliament presented the park to the citizens of London, who
again presented it to Charles II. at the Restoration. Though
partly dismantled, the palace was the residence of the queen
dowager till 1665, and by James II. it was used as a nursery
for the young prince; but, gradually falling into decay, it was
parcelled into tenements about 1720. In the old deer park
extending northwards from the site of the palace, Kew Observa-
tory was erected in 1769, occupying the site of a Carthusian
convent founded by Henry V., and a dwelling-house in which
Swift for some time resided. The White Lodge was built by
George I., and has been a residence of various members of the
royal family. To the south-east of the town, at the entrance
to Richmond Park, is Richmond Hill, from which is seen a
famous view of the Thames with the surrounding country to the
west. This view was secured to the public by an agreement,
sealed on the 7th of February 1896, between the corporation
and the trustees of the earl of Dysart, by an act of Parliament
of 1902, and by the acquisition in the same year, by the London
County Council, with the assistance of the borough of Richmond
and other interested local authorities, of the Marble Hill Estate
and other property on the Middlesex shore. The church of St
Mary Magdalen is of considerable antiquity, but almost entirely
rebuilt; it contains a large number of monuments to celebrated
persons. A theatre, first established in 1719, was during his later
years leased by Edmund Kean. The town has a Wesleyan
theological college, founded in 1834. Richmond, which was
incorporated in 1890, is governed by a mayor, 10 aldermen and
30 councillors. The borough includes Kew (q.v.), Petersham
and North Sheen. Area, 2491 acres.
RICHMOND, a market town and municipal borough in the
Richmond parliamentary division of the North Riding of
Yorkshire, England, 50 m. N.W. from York, the terminus
of a branch of the North-Eastern railway. Pop. (1901)
3837. It is finely situated on the left bank of the Swale, the
valley of which is narrow and the banks steep. The interest
of the town centres in the castle founded about 1071 by Alan
Rufus, a son of Odo, count of Penthievre in Brittany, who is
also said to have rebuilt the town on obtaining from William
the Conqueror, among other possessions, the estates of the
Saxon earl Edwin, embracing some two hundred manors of
Richmond and extending over nearly a third of the North
Riding. This tract, comprising five wapentakes, was called
Richmondshire at this time, but the date of the creation of
the shire is uncertain. When Henry VII. came to the throne
these possessions reverted to the crown. Henry VIII. gave
them to his son Henry, afterwards duke of Richmond, by a
daughter of Sir John Blount, and Charles II. bestowed the
title of duke of Richmond on his son by the duchess of Ports-
mouth. The castle is situated on a perpendicular rock rising
about loo ft. above the Swale, and from its great strength was
considered impregnable.- Originally it covered an area of
5 acres, but the only portions of it remaining are the Norman
keep, with pinnacled tower and walls 100 ft. high by 11 ft.
thick, and some 'other smaller towers. The view from the
keep is very fine, extending westward up the bold valley and
over the hills which wall it, and eastward over the rich plain
of the centre of the county. The church of St Mary is tran-
sitional Norman, Decorated and Perpendicular, and is largely
restored. The church of the Holy Trinity retains only the
nave and the detached tower. The building is ancient but was
restored to use from ruins. Close to the town are ruins of
Easby Abbey, a Premonstratensian foundation by Roald,
constable of Richmond Castle in 1152, beautifully situated by
the river. The remains, which are considerable, include a
Decorated gateway, an Early English chapel and fragments
of the transepts and choir of the church, with sufficient portions
of the domestic buildings to enable the complete plan to be
traced. For the free grammar-school founded by Elizabeth
a Gothic building was erected in 1850, in memory of the Rev.
James Tate, a former master. The tower of a Franciscan
abbey founded in 1258 remains. The chief modern buildings
are the town hall, market hall and 'the mechanics' institute.
The principal trade is in agricultural produce, but there are a
paper mill and an iron and brass foundry. An annual meeting
is held on the racecourse in September. In 1889 Richmond
became the seat of a suffragan bishop in the diocese of Ripon.
The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 1 2 councillors.
Area, 2 5 20 acres.
The name of Richmond (Richemont, Richemund) has not been traced
further back than 1 145. But it is probable that there was a settle-
ment on the site of the present town before that date. Possibly
it was the Hindrelaghe of the Domesday Survey, a place which,
although large enough to have a church in 1086, appears to have
vanished before the close of the I2th century. As far as is known
the earliest charter was granted in 1145. But a later charter
(1146) shows that the burgesses had enjoyed some municipal
RICHMOND
309
liberties at an earlier period. The charter of 1 145 gave the burgesses
the borough of Richmond to hold for ever in fee farm at an annual
rent of 29. Other charters were granted by Earl Conan in 1150,
by Earl John II. in 1268 and by Edward III. (the first royal charter)
in 1328, and confirmed in subsequent reigns. A charter of incor-
poration was granted by Queen Elizabeth under the title of alder-
men and burgesses in 1576, and another by Charles II. in 1668 under
the name of mayor and aldermen. This last, though superseded later,
was restored in the reign of James II. and, until the passing of the
Municipal Reform Act of 1835, was regarded as the governing
charter of the borough. Although Richmond received a summons as
early as 1328, it was not represented in parliament until 1584, from
which time it usually sent two members. In 1867 the number was
reduced to one. Since 1885 the representation has been merged in
the Richmond division of the North Riding. The charter of Earl
John II. points to the existence of a market before 1268, but there is
no grant of it extant. In 1278, Edward I. granted the same earl a
yearly fair to be held at Richmond from the 3rd to the i6th of Sep-
tember inclusive. Queen Elizabeth granted the burgesses a market
every Saturday, a market every fortnight for animals and a fair
each year on the vigil of Palm Sunday. At one time there appear to
have been as many as four annual fairs. There is now only one,
which takes place on the 2nd and 3rd of November. The weekly
market is still held on Saturday, and there is a fortnightly market for
cattle. In the middle ages Richmond had an important market for
corn and wool. There is evidence later of traffic in lead, and also of
a flourishing manufacture of hand-knitted stockings. As the town
possesses the only railway station in Swaledale, the market is still of
consequence. But the stocking industry decayed with the intro-
duction of machinery. William the Lion of Scotland was imprisoned
in the castle in the reign of Henry 1 1 ., but otherwise the town owes its
importance chiefly to its lords. The honour was a valuable possession
in the middle ages, and it was usually in royal or semi-royal hands.
See R. Gale, Registrum Honoris de Richemund (London, 1722);
C. Clarkson, The History and Antiquities of Richmond (Richmond,
1821); T. D. Whitaker, A History of Richmondshire (London,
1823); Victoria County History, Yorkshire.
RICHMOND, the capital of Virginia, U.S.A., the county-
seat of Henrico county, and a port of entry, on the James
river (at the head of navigation), about too m. S. by W. of
Washington, B.C., and about 125 m. by water from the Atlantic
Ocean. Pop. (1850) 27,570; (1860) 37,910; (1870) 51,038;
(1880) 63,600; (1890) 81,388; (1900) 85,050, of whom
32,230 were negroes and 2865 were foreign-born; (1910
census) 127,628. Richmond is served by the Atlantic Coast
Line, the Chesapeake & Ohio, the Seaboard Air Line, the Southern
and the Richmond, Fredericksburg & Potomac railways, and
by the Old Dominion, the Virginia Navigation and the Chesa-
peake steamship lines. The city has a beautiful situation
on the hilly ground (maximum elevation, about 250 ft. above
sea-level) along the north and east banks of the James, at a
bend where the river changes its south-easterly course for one
almost due south. It occupies seven hills, from which fact
it has been called " the Modern Rome." The western stretch
of the river, opposite the city, breaks into rapids which have a
fall of about 116 ft. in 9 m. and provide abundant water power.
Belle Isle (the site of a Confederate prison camp during the
Civil War), about J m. long by about J m. wide, is in this part
of the river; a little farther down stream are a group of small
islets, and opposite the south-eastern boundary of the city i:
Mayo's Island. Within the city's lines the river is crossed
by two bridges (to Manchester) for vehicles and pedestrians,
and three railway bridges. The river has been improved by
Federal engineers since 1870; in June 1909 (up to which time
$1,799,033 had been expended for improvements) there was
a channel 100 ft. wide and 18 ft. deep, nearly continuously
from Hampton Roads to the Richmond wharf, and the maxi-
mum draft at low water was 16-1 ft.
About three-fourths of the city's total street mileage (120 m/
is paved, Belgian block or macadam being used on the principa
thoroughfares. About 637-8 acres are devoted to city parks
among which are William Byrd Park (300 acres), in the western part
of the city, Joseph Bryan Park (262-6 acres), Chimborazo Parl
(29 acres), near its eastern boundary, Gambles Hill Park (8-!
acres), Monroe Square (7i acres), Jefferson Park (6-3 acres) am
Marshall Square (7 acres). The State Capitol Square (10 acres) i
not owned by the city. Half a mile N.W. of the city are the Fai
Grounds, where a state fair is held annually.
Of Richmond's public buildings, several have great historii
interest. St John's Episcopal church, built in 1740 (and sub
equently much enlarged), is noted especially as the meeting-
place of the Virginia Convention of March 1775, before which
'atrick Henry made a famous speech, ending, " I know not
what course others may take, but as for me, Give me liberty,
or give me death!" The Capitol (begun in 1785 and com-
pleted in 1792 the wings were added in 1906) was designed
rom a model and plans of the Maison Carr6e, at Nlmes, sup-
)lied by Thomas Jefferson, while he was minister to France.
Aaron Burr was tried for treason and then for misdemeanour
n this building in 1807, the Virginia secession convention met
here in 1861, and during the Civil War the sessions of the Con-
'ederate Congress were held here. In its rotunda is Jean
Antoine Houdon's full-length marble statue of Washington,
provided for by the Virginia General Assembly in 1784, and
erected in 1796; its base bears a fine inscription written by
fames Madison. In a niche is a Houdon bust of Lafayette,
a replica of the original presented to the city of Paris by the
state of Virginia. The Old Stone House (the oldest building
n the city) was erected as a residence in 1737, and is now used
ior a museum. Masons' Hall, whose corner-stone was laid in
1785, is said to be the oldest exclusively Masonic building in
the United States. The Executive Mansion of the Confederate
States of America, built in 1819, purchased by the city in 1862,
and leased to the Confederate government and occupied by
President Jefferson Davis in 1862-65, was acquired in 1800
by the Confederate Memorial Library Society, and is now a
Confederate Museum with a room for each state of the Con-
federacy and a general library in the " Solid South " room;
it has valuable historical papers, collected. by the Southern
Historical Society, and the society has published a Calendar
of Confederate Papers (1908). The forrrfer residence of Chief-
Justice John Marshall, built in 1795, is still standing; and the
Lee Mansion, which was the war-time residence of General
Robert E. Lee's family, has been occupied, since 1893, by
the Virginia Historical Society (organized 1831; reorganized
1847) as the repository of a valuable library and collection of
portraits of historical interest. Libby Prison, which stood
on the northern bank of a canal, near the river, in the eastern
part of the city, was taken down in 1888-89, and its materials
removed to Chicago, where it was reconstructed, in as nearly
as possible its original form, and became the Libby Prison
War Museum. 1 The Valentine Museum is in a house on
Eleventh and Clay Streets, in which Aaron Burr was enter-
tained while he was on trial, and which with $50,000 and his
collections was devised to a board of trustees in 1892 by Mann
S. Valentine. The museum includes 3300 books, many being
of the isth and i6th centuries, a department of engravings,
a Virginia Room with portraits and relics, some tapestries,
an excellent collection of casts and valuable American
archaeological specimens.
The more modern buildings include the City Hall, a fine
granite structure (completed in 1893), with a tower 180 ft. tall;
the Library building which houses the state library (about
80,000 volumes, with many portraits and a valuable collection
of old manuscripts), the State Law Library and also the offices
of most, of the state officials; the Post-Office and Customs
House; the 'State Penitentiary; the Chamber of Commerce;
and, among the religious edifices, the Sacred Heart Cathedral
(Roman Catholic), presented to the city by Mr and Mrs Thomas
F. Ryan; the Monumental Church, built on the site of the
Richmond Theatre, in the burning of which, in 1811, Acting-
Governor George W. Smith and fifty-nine others lost their lives;
and St Paul's Church, where Jefferson Davis was attending
services, on the 2nd of April 1865, when he received news from
1 As built in Richmond in 1845 by Luther Libby, it was a brick
structure, three storeys high in front and four in the rear. It had
six rooms, each about 100X45 ft., was used as a tobacco ware-
house and a ship-chandlery until 1861, and then until the capture
of Richmond was used as a prison, chiefly for Federal officers.
Frequently it was terribly overcrowded (by as many as 1200 pris-
oners at a time), the inmates often suffered great privations, and
many died or were physically disabled for the remainder of their
lives.
3io '
RICHMOND
General Lee that General Grant had broken through the lines
at Petersburg and that Richmond must be evacuated. Rose-
mary Library was given to the city by Thomas Nelson Page in
memory of his wife, who died in 1888.
Richmond has many fine monuments and statues of historic
interest and artistic merit, the most noteworthy of the former
being the Washington Monument, in Capitol Square. In 1850
the commission accepted the model submitted by Thomas
Crawford (1814-1857), an American sculptor, the corner-stone
of the monument was laid in that year, and the equestrian
statue of Washington, with sub-statues of Patrick Henry and
Thomas Jefferson, was unveiled on the 22nd of February 1858.
Thereafter were added sub-statues of Chief-Justice John Marshall
and George Mason (1726-1792) by Crawford, and statues of
Andrew Lewis (1730-1781) and Thomas Nelson (1738-1789),
and six allegorical subjects, by Randolph Rogers (1825-1892),
the monument being completed in 1869, at a cost of about
$260,000, of which about $47,000 represented private gifts and
the interest thereon. The greatest height of the monument is
60 ft., and the diameter of its base is 86 ft. In Capitol Square
are also a marble statue of Henry Clay, by Joel T. Hart (1810-
1877), a bronze statue of Stonewall Jackson, by John Henry
Foley (1818-1874), an English sculptor, " presented to the city
by English gentlemen " (Hon. A. J. Beresford-Hope and others)
and unveiled in 1875; a statue of Hunter Holmes McGuire
(1835-1900), a famous Virginia surgeon; and a statue of William
Smith (1796-1887), governor of Virginia in 1846-49 and in
1864-65. In Monroe Park is a statue by E. V. Valentine of
Brig.-General Williams Carter Wickham (1820-1888) of the Con-
federate army. Another noteworthy monument is the noble
equestrian statue of General Robert E. Lee, surmounting a
lofty granite pedestal at the head of Franklin Street. This
statue, by Marius Jean Antonin Mercie (b. 1845), was unveiled
in 1890. Adjacent is an equestrian statue of General J. E. B.
Stuart, by Frederick Moynihan, and at the west end of Monu-
ment Avenue is the Jefferson Davis Monument, by W. C.
Nowland, in front of which is a statue of Jefferson Davis, by
E. V. Valentine. On Libby Hill, in the south-eastern part of the
city, is a monument to the private soldiers and sailors of the
Confederacy.
In Hollywood Cemetery (dedicated in 1849) are the graves of
many famous men, including presidents James Monroe and John
Tyler; Jefferson Davis, John Randolph of Roanoke, the
Confederate generals, A. P. Hill, J. E. B. Stuart and George E.
Pickett; Commodore Matthew F. Maury (1806-1873); James
A. Seddon (1815-1880), Secretary of War of the Confederate
States in 1862-64; and John R. Thompson (1823-1873),
widely known in his day as a poet and as the editor of the
Southern Literary Messenger in 1847-59. Here, too, are buried
about 16,000 Confederate soldiers (to whose memory there is
a massive pyramid of undressed granite, 40 ft. sq. at the base
and 90 ft. high). In the north-eastern part of the city is Oakwood
Cemetery, in which are the graves of. about 18,000 Confederate
soldiers. Two miles north-east of the city is the National
Cemetery, with graves of 6571 Federal soldiers (5700 unknown)
most of whom were killed in the actions near Richmond.
Richmond is the seat of Richmond College (opened in 1832;
chartered in 1840; and co-educational since 1898), which in 1909-10
had 21 instructors and 341 students, of whom 55 were in the
School of Law (established 1870; re-established 1890); the Woman's
College (Baptist; opened in 1854), which in 1909-10 had 20 in-
structors and 275 students; the Virginia Mechanics' Institute (1856),
including a Night School of Technology; the Union Theological
Seminary in Virginia (Presbyterian; opened in 1824 and removed
to Richmond in 1898 from Hampden-Sidney), which in 1909-10
had 7 instructors and 80 students ; the Medical College of Virginia,
(founded in 1838), which has medical, dental and pharmaceutical
departments, and in 1909-10 had 50 teachers and 253 students; the
University College of Medicine (1893), which has departments of
medicine, dentistry and pharmacy, and in 1909-10 had 57 teachers
and 220 students; the Hartshorn Memorial College (Baptist), for
women; and, for negroes, Virginia Union University, founded in
1899.
Many periodicals (including several religious weeklies) are pub-
lished in Richmond. The principal newspapers are the Times-
Dispatch (Democratic; Dispatch, 1850; Times, 1886; consoli-
dated in 1903) and the News-Leader (Democratic, 1899). Among
the city's clubs are the Westmoreland and the Commonwealth.
The city's charitable institutions include the Memorial (1903)
Virginia Sheltering Arms (1889) and St Luke's hospitals, the
Retreat for the Sick (1877), the Eye, Nose, Ear and Throat In-
firmary (1880), the Confederate Soldiers' Home (1884), supported
jointly by the state and the city, a Home for Needy Confederate
Women (1900), the City Almshouse and Hospital, and several
orphanages and homes for the aged.
Richmond is the leading manufacturing city of Virginia, the value
of its factory products in 1905 being 828,202,607, an increase of
22-4% since 1900 and nearly 19% of the value of the state's
factory products in this year. The chief industry is the manufac-
ture of tobacco for smoking and chewing, of cigars and cigarettes
and of snuff. There are large iron and steel works here, notably
the Tredegar Iron Works. Other important manufactures, with
their product-values in 1905, are lumber and planing-mill products,
*58,953; fancy and paper boxes and wooden packing boxes,
$432,522; coffee and spices, $245,689; foundry and machine-
shop products, $238,576; and saddlery and harness, $235,839.
Richmond is the port of entry for the District of Richmond; in
1907 its imports were valued at $913,234 and its exports at
* I 58,275; in 1909, its imports at $693,822 and its exports at
$24,390. The city has a large jobbing and retail trade.
Richmond is governed under a charter of 1870 with amendments.
The mayor is elected for two years and has the powers and authority
in criminal cases of a justice of the peace. The city council is
composed of a common council (five members from each ward,
elected for two years) and of a board of aldermen (three members
from each ward to be elected for four years). Other elective
officers are the mayor, city treasurer, city sergeant, commonwealth
attorney, city collector, city auditor, sheriff and high constable,
elected for four years; and clerks of the various courts elected for
eight years. The commissioner of the revenue is appointed for a
term of four years by the judge of the corporation court. Three
justices of the peace are elected from each ward for a term of two
years. The city council appoints an attorney for the corporation,
a city engineer, a city clerk, a police justice, a board of fire com-
missioners and a board of police commissioners, one from each ward,
who have control of the fire and police departments, respectively,
and a number of other officers. The city owns its gas works,
water works and an electric-lighting plant (1910) for municipal
lighting. The debt limit is set by the city charter at 18% of the
assessed value of the taxable real estate of the city. In 1909 the
taxable real estate and personal property was valued at $108,663,716,
and the city had no floating debt; on the 1st of February 1910,
there were $10,706,318 worth of bonds outstanding, and the sinking
fund was $2,011,857.
An exploring party from Jamestown, under command of
Captain Christopher Newport (c. 1565-1617), and including
Captain John Smith, sailed up the James river in 1607, and on
the 3rd of June erected a cross on one of the small islands
opposite the site of the present city. The first permanent
settlement within the present limits of the city was made in 1609
in the district long known as Rockett's. Later in the same year
Captain Smith bought from the Indians a tract of land on the
east bank of the river, about 3 m. below this settlement, and near
the site of the present Powhatan. This tract he named " None-
such," and here he attempted to establish a small body of soldiers
who had occupied a less favourable site in the vicinity; but they
objected to the change and, being attacked by the Indians,
sought the protection of Smith, who made prisoners of their
leaders, with the result, apparently, that the settlement was
abandoned. In 1645 Fort Charles was erected at the falls of
the James as a frontier defence. In 1676, during " Bacon's
Rebellion," a party of Virginians under Bacon's command
killed about 150 Indians who were defending a fort on a hill a
short distance east of the site of Richmond in the " Battle of
Bloody Run," so called because the blood of the slain savages is
said to have coloured the brook (or " run ") at the base of the
hill. Colonel William Byrd, 1 who owned much land along the
1 The Byrds and their ancestors, the Steggs, were conspicuous
in the early history of Virginia. The first of the family was Thomas
Stegg (or Stegge) (d. 1651), born in England, who became an Indian
trader on the James river as early as 1637, and had his home near
what is now the village of Westover, Charles City county. He left
his estate to his son Thomas (d. 1670), who settled at the falls of
the James in 1661, and was auditor-general in 1664-1670. He was
succeeded by his nephew, William Byrd (1652-1704), who was born
in London, went to Virginia about 1670, became a successful
Indian trader, was a member of the House of Burgesses in 1677-
1682, was a supporter of Nathaniel Bacon at the beginning of
RICHMOND AND DERBY- -RICHMOND AND LENNOX 311
James river, at the falls, visited the tract in September 1733,
and decided to found there the town of Richmond, at the same
time selecting and naming the present site of Petersburg. The
name Richmond was suggested probably by the similarity of
the site to that of Richmond on the Thames. The settlement
was laid out in April 1737 by Major William Mayo (c. 1685-1744),
and was incorporated as a town in 1742. The public records
of the state were removed thither in 1777 from Williamsburg,
and in May 1779 Richmond was made the capital. On the 5th
of January 1781 the town was partly burned by a force of about
800 British troops under Gen. Benedict Arnold, the 200 or 300
Virginians offering little resistance, and much of the damage
being done by Lieutenant-Colonel John G. Simcoe's celebrated
Rangers. Richmond was first chartered as a city in 1782, and
in 1788 it was allowed a representative in the House of
Delegates.
The importance of Richmond during the Civil War was
principally due to its having been made the capital of the
Confederate States (by act of the Provisional Government on the
8th of May 1861). Its nearness to Washington, the material and
manufacturing resources concentrated in it, and the moral im-
portance attached to its possession by both sides, caused it to be
regarded as the centre of gravity of the military operations in the
east to which the greatest leaders and the finest armies were
devoted from 1861 to 1865. (See AMERICAN CIVIL WAR.) The
city's system of defences, which began to take form in May
1861, included a line of 17 heavy batteries, completely encircling
it at an average distance of about 2 m.; another line of smaller
batteries and trenches, from about a mile (or less) to about
2 m. beyond the heavy batteries, and practically unbroken from
the north bank of the James (west of the city) to about i m. west
of that river (south of the city) ; and the outer works, approxi-
mately paralleling the inner line, at distances of from 2 to 3 m.
from this line north and east of the city. There was much
confusion and lawlessness in Richmond during the earlier stages
of the war. The city's police force was unable to cope with
the situation created by the influx of soldiers, gamblers and
adventurers, and on the .ist of March 1862 President Davis (by
authority of a secret Act of the Confederate Congress passed on
the 2nd of February) declared martial law in the city and the
country within a radius of 10 m., suspended the writ of habeas
corpus, and appointed General John H. Winder (1800-1865) to
enforce military rule. General Winder's arbitrary exercise of
his power was, however, resented so vigorously by the citizens
that on the igth of April the Confederate Congress materially
modified the law under which he received these powers from
the president. The opening of M'Clellan's Peninsula Campaign
(see YORKTOWN; SEVEN DAYS, &c.) in 1862 caused great appre-
hension in Richmond, and in May 1862 some of the government
records were packed up and preparations made to ship them to
a place of safety. The approach of the " Monitor " and the
Union gunboats up the James river caused a partial and
temporary panic; President Davis appointed a day for prayer,
and the families of some of the cabinet secretaries and many
citizens fled the city precipitately; but confidence, restored by
" Bacon's Rebellion," was auditor-general of the colony from 1687
until his death, and was a member of the committee which founded
the College of William and Mary. His residence, within the limits
of the present city of Richmond, was preserved until about 1850.
His son William (1674-1744), the founder of Richmond and
above referred to was educated in England; returned to Vir-
ginia in 1696; succeeded his father as auditor-general of the colony,
and was receiver-general in 1705-1716. In 1727 he was appointed
one of the commission (of which William Fitzwilliams and William
Dandridge were the other members) to mark the boundary between
North Carolina and Virginia, concerning which undertaking he
wrote (probably in 1737) The History of the Dividing Line. This
with his other publications, A Journey to the Land of Eden and A
Progress to the Mines, was published at Petersburg, Va., in 1841,
and again (New York, 1901) as The Writings of Colonel William
Byrd of Westerner in Virginia, edited by John S. Bassett, and including
an extended sketch of the Byrd family. Concerning Byrd's style as
a writer, Professor Bassett says: " It would be hard to find before
Franklin a better master of the art of writing clear, forceful and
charming English."
the checking of the fleet at Drewry's Bluff (Fort Darling), about
8 m. below the city, on the 151)1 of May 1862, was increased by
the battle of Fair Oaks and the Seven Days, after which the
Army of the Potomac retreated. Unsuccessful attempts were
made in February and March 1864 to free the Federal prisoners
in Richmond by means of cavalry raids. The most important
of these was that of General H. Judson Kilpatrick, a portion of
whose force, under Col. Ulric Dahlgren (b. 1842), was anni-
hilated, Dahlgren being killed (2nd March).
General U. S. Grant began the final campaign against Rich-
mond in May 1864 (see WILDERNESS and PETERSBURG).
Sheridan's cavalry, during the " Richmond Raid," carried the
city's outer defences (May 12), but found the river line too strong
to be taken by assault and moved away. In June Grant's
army crossed the James and attacked Lee in Petersburg. Then
followed many months of unintermittent pressure upon both
Petersburg and Richmond. General Benjamin F. Butler
captured the southern outer line of the Richmond defences on
the 29th of September 1864. On the 2nd of April 1865 Petersburg
fell. Richmond was evacuated that night, after the ironclads,
the bridges and many of the military and tobacco store-houses
had been set on fire by order of General R. S. Ewell, so that
when the Federal troops, under General Godfrey Weitzel (1835-
1884) entered the city on the following morning (3rd April) i
serious conflagration was under way, which was not extinguished
until about one-third of the city, including several of its historic
buildings, had been destroyed. During the war the principal
iron foundry of the Confederacy (Tredegar Iron Works) was in
Richmond, and here most of the cannon used by the Confederate
armies were cast. In 1910 the city of Manchester was annexed.
See William W. Henry, " Richmond on the James " in Historic
Towns of the Southern States (New York, 1900), edited by Lyman P.
Powell; and Samuel Mordecai, Richmond in By-Gone Days (Rich-
mond, 1856; 2nd ed., 1860).
RICHMOND AND DERBY, MARGARET, COUNTESS or
(1443-1509), mother of the English king, Henry VII., and
foundress of St John's and Christ's colleges at Cambridge, was
the daughter and heiress of John Beaufort, duke of Somerset,
and was born on the 3ist of May 1443. In 1455 she married
Edmund Tudor, earl of Richmond, who died in the following
year; she then took for her husband Henry (d. 1482), son of
Humphrey Stafford, duke of Buckingham, and later Thomas
Stanley, afterwards earl of Derby. She was in constant com-
munication with her son, the future king, during his exile in
Brittany, and with her husband, Lord Stanley, aided him to
gain the crown in 1485. The countess was very pious and
charitable, and under the influence of her confessor, John Fisher,
afterwards bishop of Rochester, she founded the Lady Margaret
professorships of divinity at the universities of Oxford and
Cambridge. She completed the foundation of Christ's College,
Cambridge, and after her death, in accordance with her wishes,
much of her wealth was devoted to building and endowing
St John's College in the same university. She survived her son,
whose title to the English throne was derived through her, and
died on the 29th of June 1509. The countess translated some
devotional books into English, and Fisher said of her, " All
England for her death had cause of weeping."
See C. H. Cooper, Memoir of Margaret, Countess of Richmond
and Derby (1874).
RICHMOND AND LENNOX, FRANCES TERESA STEWART,
DUCHESS OF (1648-1702), daughter of Walter Stewart, or Stuart,
a physician in the household of Queen Henrietta Maria when
in exile after 1649, was born in 1648 and was brought up in
France. Notwithstanding the desire of Louis XIV. to keep
her at his court, she was sent to England by Henrietta Maria
in 1683, when she was appointed maid of honour to Catherine
of Braganza, Queen of Charles II. Pepys describes her at this
time as the greatest beauty he had ever seen, and Henrietta
Maria called her the prettiest girl in the world. Charles II.,
who is said to have first seen " La belle Stewart " in the apart-
ments of his mistress Lady Castlemaine (afterwards duchess of
Cleveland), quickly became enamoured of her; but for some
312
RICHTER, A. L. RICHTER, H.
time Miss Stewart resisted the king's importunities, though her
behaviour was far from modest and " she had no aversion to
scandal." She had numerous suitors, including the duke of
Buckingham and Francis Digby, son of the earl of Bristol,
whose unrequited love for her was celebrated by Dryden. Her
beauty appeared to her contemporaries to be only equalled by
her childish silliness; but her letters to her husband, preserved
in the British Museum, are not devoid of good sense and feeling.
The king's infatuation was so great that when the queen's life
was despaired of in 1663, it was reported that he intended to
marry Miss Stewart, and four years later he was considering
the possibility of obtaining a divorce to enable him to make her
his wife. This was at a time when Charles feared he was in
danger of losing her as his mistress, her hand being sought in
marriage by Charles Stuart, duke of Richmond and Lennox.
The duchess of Cleveland, who was losing her hold on the king's
affections, is reported by Hamilton to have led the king to Miss
Stewart's apartment at midnight when Richmond was closeted
with her, and the duke was immediately expelled from court.
In March 1667 the lady eloped from Whitehall with Richmond
and married him secretly in the country. The king, who was
greatly enraged, suspected Clarendon of being privy to the
marriage, and, according to Burnet, deprived him of office for
this offence. The duchess of Richmond, however, soon returned
to court, where she remained for many years; and although
she was disfigured by small-pox in 1668, she retained her hold
on the king's affections. Her husband was sent as ambassador
to Denmark, where he died in 1672. The duchess was present
at the birth of the prince of Wales, son of James II., in 1688,
being one of those who signed the certificate before the council
She died in 1702, leaving a valuable property to her nephew the
earl of Blantyre, whose seat was named Lennoxlove after her.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Gilbert Burnet, History of my own Time (6 vols.,
Oxford, 1833); Samuel Pepys, Diary, 9 vols. (London, 1893-1899,
and numerous editions) ; Anthony Hamilton, Memoirs of Gram-
mont, translated by Boyer, edited by Sir W. Scott (2 vols., London,
1885, 1890); Anna Jameson, Memoirs of Beauties of the Court of
Charles II., with their Portraits (2nd ed., London, 1838); Jules J.
Jusserand, A French Ambassador at the Court of Charles II. (London,
1892); Edmund Ludlow, Memoirs, 1625-72, edited by C. H. Firth
(2 vols., Oxford, 1894). (R. J. M.)
RICHTER, ADRIAN LUDWIG (1803-1884), German painter
and etcher, was born at Dresden in 1803, the son of the engraver
Karl August Richter, from whom he received his training; but
he was strongly influenced by Erhard and Chodowiecki. He
was the most popular, and in many ways the most typical
German illustrator of the middle of the igth century. His work
is as typically German and homely as are the fairy-tales of
Grimm. Richter visited Italy from 1823-26, and his " Thunder-
storm in the Sabine Mountains " at the Staedel Institute in
Frankfort is one of the rare Italian subjects from his brush. In
1828 he worked as designer for the Meissen factory, and in 1841
he became professor and head of the landscape atelier at the
Dresden Academy. The Dresden Gallery owns one of his best
and most characteristic paintings in the " Bridal Procession in
a Spring Landscape." He died at Loschwitz near Dresden
in 1884.
RICHTER, ERNST FRIEDRICH EDUARD (1808-1879),
German musical theorist, was born at Grosschonau in Saxony,
on the 24th of October 1808. He first studied music at Zittau,
and afterwards at Leipzig, where he attained so high a reputation
that in 1843 he was appointed professor of harmony and counter-
point at the conservatorium of music, then newly founded by
Mendelssohn. On the death of Hauptmann on the 3rd of
January 1868, he was elected cantor of the Thomasschule,
which office he retained until his death on the 9th of April 1879.
He is best known by three theoretical works Lehrbuch der
Harmonic, Lehre wm Contrapunct and Lehre von der Fuge
valuable textbooks known to English students through the
excellent translation by Franklin Taylor.
RICHTER, EUGEN (1839-1906), German politician, was
born on the 3Oth of July 1839 at Dusseldorf. After attending
the universities of Bonn, Heidelberg and Berlin, he entered the
government service, being stationed in his native town. In 1864
he was chosen burgomaster of Neuwied; but he was already
known for his Liberal opinions, and the government refused to
confirm the appointment. He was hereupon transferred to
Bromberg, in East Prussia, which to an inhabitant of the Rhine-
land was the worst form of exile, and in consequence he resigned
his place in the public service. He now went to Berlin, where
he earned his living as a journalist. He was the most consistent
advocate of those doctrines of laissezfaire and individual liberty
which the Germans call Manchestertum. He was also keenly
interested in the attempts made at that period to create co-
operative societies among the working men, and wrote a work
on co-operative stores. It was not long before he came into
conflict with the government; an electioneering pamphlet
published in 1867 was confiscated; he was put on his trial but
acquitted. In 1867 he was elected a member of the newly
formed Reichstag, and in 1869 of the Prussian parliament. He
soon became one of the most influential politicians in Germany.
A member of the Progressive party, in 1880 one of the founders,
and eventually the leader, of the Freisinnige, he was always in
opposition. Next to Windthorst (q.v.) he was Bismarck's most
dangerous opponent. After the great change of policy in 1878,
for a time his influence was a great impediment to the govern-
ment; as a consistent adherent to free trade, he was the leader
of the opposition to the introduction of protection, to the new
colonial policy, and to State Socialism. It was after 1880 that he
raised the cry Bismarck muss fort. He always took a great part
in debates on the military and naval establishments, in vain
opposing the constant increase of army and navy. It was his
refusal to support the government proposals in 1893 for an
increase of the army which led to the break up of his party : he
was left with only eleven followers; and, except among the middle
class of Berlin and some other Prussian cities, the old Radical
party, of which he was the chief representative, from that time
had little influence in the country. In 1885 he founded the
Freisinnige Zeitung, which he edited himself; of his numerous
brochures the most successful was his attack on Socialism,
entitled Sozialdemokratische Zukunftsbilder (Berlin, 1891), a
clever and successful satire on the Socialist state of the future.
This has been translated into the English. He also wrote much on
Prussian finance, and under the title Das politische A, B,C Buck
compiled a very useful political handbook for Radical voters.
He also published in 1892 reminiscences of his youth (Jugend-
erinnerungen) , and two volumes of parliamentary reminiscences
(Im alien Reichstag, 1894-1896).
He died at Jena on the 26th of January 1906.
RICHTER, HANS (1843- ), Hungarian musical conductor,
born at Raab on the 4th of April 1843, was the son of the
kapellmeister at the cathedral, and of his wife, nee Josephine
Csazinsky, who was the first to perform Venus in Tannhduser
at Vienna. Young Hans sang either soprano or alto in the
cathedral choir, according to requirement, and occasionally
played the organ. But his public debut was made as a drummer
in Haydn's Paukenmesse. In 1853, at the age of ten, he appeared
in a concert as pianist in Hummel's E flat quintet; and in 1854,
after his father's death, went to the choristers' school, the
Convikt (where Schubert was educated) in Vienna, and there
became chorister in the Court Chapel. For five years from 1860
Richter studied under Heissler and Sechter in the Vienna Con-
servatorium, and he learnt the horn under Kleinecke. A year and
a half after his first lesson he became hornist in the old Karnth-
nerthor Theatre at 3 a month. Meanwhile he had devoted
time to conducting. It was not till August 1868 that Richter
made his first appearance as a conductor, at the Hof Theater,
Munich (where he had just been appointed), in William Tell;
but in the next year ^he resigned this post, went first to Paris,
then to Brussels, and finally to Triebschen, where he copied
Der Ring des Nibelungen for Wagner. In April 1871 Richter
took up his new duties as conductor of the Hungarian National
Opera at Budapest, where he remained four years, until he
began in May 1875 his long connexion with the Vienna Opera,
which terminated only with the century. In 1876 Richter
RICHTER, J. B. RICHTER, J. P. F.
directed the rehearsals and performances of Der Ring at Bayreuth,
and in 1877 paid his first visit to England to conduct the Wagner
Festival at the Albert Hall. There in 1879 he founded the
Richter Concerts, which were a revelation to London musical
circles of 1 the masterly personality of the conductor, and his
influence upon the orchestra; in 1885 he became conductor of
the Birmingham Triennial Festival, and was created Mus.
Doc. Oxon. honoris causa. In 1882 Richter also conducted a
famous series of performances of Wagner's works (including the
first in England of Die Meistersinger and Tristan) at Drury Lane,
and in 1900 became conductor of the Halle Orchestra in Man-
chester. He had established his position as one of the most
richly gifted and the most experienced of modern conductors,
supreme in the interpretation of Beethoven, Wagner and
Brahms.
RICHTER, JEREMIAS BENJAMIN (1762-1807), German
chemist, was born at Hirschberg in Silesia on the loth of March
1762, became a mining official at Breslau in 1794, and in 1800
was appointed assessor to the department of mines and chemist
to the royal porcelain factory at Berlin, where he died on the
4th of April 1807. To him belongs the merit of carrying out
some of the earliest determinations of the quantities by weight
in which acids saturate bases and bases acids, and of arriving
at the conception that those amounts of different bases which
can saturate the same quantity of a particular acid are equiva-
lent to each other. He was thus led to conclude that chemistry is
a branch of applied mathematics and to endeavour to trace a law
according to which the quantities of different bases required
to saturate a given acid formed an arithmetical, and the
quantities of acids saturating a given base a geometrical, pro-
gression. His results were published in his Anfangsgrunden
der Stochiometrie oder Messkunst chemischer Elemente (1792-94),
and Uber die neueren Gegenstdnde in der Chemie (1792-1802),
but it was long before they were properly appreciated, or he
himself was accorded due credit for them. This was partly
because some of his work was wrongly ascribed to C. F. Wenzel
by Berzelius through a mistake which was only corrected in
1841 by Germain Henri Hess (1802-1850), professor of chemistry
at St Petersburg, and author of " the laws of constant heat-sums
and of thermoneutrality " (see THERMOCHEMISTRY).
RICHTER, JOHANN PAUL FRIEDRICH (1763-1825), usually
called JEAN PAUL, famous German humorist, was born at
Wunsiedel, in Bavaria, on the 2ist of March 1763. His father
was a schoolmaster and organist at Wunsiedel, but in 1765 he
became a pastor at Joditz near Hof, and in 1776 at Schwar-
zenbach, where he died in 1779. After attending the gym-
nasium at Hof, Richter went in 1781 to the university of Leipzig.
His original intention was to enter his father's profession, but
theology did not interest him, and he soon devoted himself
wholly to the study of literature. Unable to maintain himself
at Leipzig he returned in 1784 to Hof, where he lived with his
mother. From 1787 to 1789 he served as a tutor at Topen,
a village near Hof; and afterwards he taught the children of
several families at Schwarzenbach.
Richter began his career as a man of letters with Gronland-
ische Prozesse and Awswahl aus des Teufels Papier en, the former
of which was issued in 1783-84, the latter in 1789. These
works were not received with much favour, and in later life
Richter himself had little sympathy with their satirical tone.
His next book, Die unsichtbare Loge, a romance, published in
1793, had all the qualities which were soon to make himfamous,
and its power was immediately recognized by some of the best
critics of the day. Encouraged by the reception of Die unsicht-
bare Loge, he sent forth in rapid succession Hesperus (1795),
Biographische Belustigungen unter der Gehirnschale einer Riesin
(1796), Leben des Quintus Fixlein (1796), Blumen- Frucht- und
Dornenstucke, oder Ehestand, Tod und Hochzeit des Armenadvo-
katen Siebenkas (1796-97), Der Jubelsenior (1797), and Das
Kampaner Tal (1797). This series of writings won for Richter
an assured place in German literature, and during the rest of
his life every work he produced was welcomed by a wide circle
of admirers.
After his mother's death he went in 1797 to Leipzig, and in
the following year to Weimar, where he had much pleasant
intercourse with Herder, by whom he was warmly appreciated.
He did not become intimate with Goethe and Schiller, to both
of whom his literary methods were repugnant; but in Weimar,
as elsewhere, his remarkable conversational powers and his
genial manners made him a favourite in general society. In 1801
he married Caroline Meyer, whom he met in Berlin in 1800.
They lived first at Meiningen, then at Coburg; and finally,
in 1804, they settled at Bayreuth. Here Richter spent a quiet,
simple and happy life, constantly occupied with his work as a
writer. In 1808 he was fortunately delivered from anxiety
as to outward necessities by the prince-primate, K. T. von
Dalberg, who gave him a pension of a thousand florins. Before
settling at Bayreuth, Richter had published his most ambitious
novel, Titan (1800-3); and this was followed by Flegeljahre
(1804-5), two works which he himself regarded as his master-
pieces. His later imaginative works were Dr Katzenbergers
Badereise (1809), Des Feldpredigers Schmelzle Reise nach Flats
(1809), Leben Fibels (1812), and Der Komel, oder Nikolaus
Marggraf (1820-22). In Vorschule der Aesthetik (1804) he
expounded his ideas on art; he discussed the principles of
education in Levana, oder Erziehungslehre (1807); and the
opinions suggested by current events he set forth in Friedens-
predigt (1808), Dammerungen fiir Deutschland (1809), Mars
und Phobus Thronivechsel im Jahre 1814 (1814), and Politische
Fastenpredigten (1817). In his last years he began Wahrheit
aus Jean Pauls Leben, to which additions .from his papers
and other sources were made after his death by C. Otto and
E. Forster. In 1821 Richter lost his only son, a youth of the
highest promise; and he never quite recovered from this
shock. He died of dropsy, at Bayreuth, on the I4th November
1825.
Schiller said of Richter that he would have been worthy of
admiration " if he had made as good use of his riches as other
men made of their poverty." And it is true that in the form
of his writings he never did full justice to his great powers. In
working out his conceptions he found it impossible to restrain
the expression of any powerful feeling by which he might
happen to be moved. He was equally unable to resist the
temptation to bring in strange facts or notions which occurred
to him. Hence every one of his works is irregular in structure,
and his style lacks directness, precision and grace. But his
imagination was one of extraordinary fertility, and he had a
surprising power of suggesting great thoughts by means of the
simplest incidents and relations. The love of nature was one
of Richter's deepest pleasures; his expressions of religious
feelings are also marked by a truly poetic spirit, for to Richter
visible things were but the symbols of the invisible, and in the
unseen realities alone he found elements which seemed to him
to give significance and dignity to human life. His humour,
the most distinctive of his qualities, cannot be dissociated from
the other characteristics of his writings. It mingled with all
his thoughts, and to some extent determined the form in which
he embodied even his most serious reflections. That it is some-
times extravagant and grotesque cannot be disputed, but it is
never harsh nor vulgar, and generally it springs naturally from
the perception of the incongruity between ordinary facts and
ideal laws. Richter's personality was deep and many-sided;
with all his wilfulness and eccentricity he was a man of a pure
and sensitive spirit, with a passionate scorn for pretence and
an ardent enthusiasm for truth and goodness.
Richter's Sdmtliche Werke appeared in 1826-28 in 60 vols., to
which were added 5 vols of Literarischer Nachlass in 1836-38; a
second edition was published in 1840^-42 (33 vols.); a third in 1860-
62 (34 vols.). The last complete edition is that edited by R. Gott-
schall (60 parts, 1879). Editions of selected works appeared in
16 vols. (1865), in Kurschner's Deutsche Nationalliteratur (edited
by P. Nerrlich, 6 vols., 1884-87), &c. The chief collections of
Richter's correspondence are: Jean Pauls Brief e an F. H. Jacobi
(1828); Briefwechsel Jean Pauls mil seinem Freunde C. Otto (1820-
33); Briefwechsel zwischen H. Voss und Jean Paul (1833); Briefe
an eine Jugendfreundin (1858); P. Nerrlich, Jean Pauls Brief-
wechsel mil seiner Frau und seinem Freunde Otto (1902). See further
314
RICHTHOFEN RICKETS
the continuation of Richter's autobiography by C. Otto and E.
Forster (1826-33); H. Doring, /. P.,F. Richter s Leben und Charak-
teristik (1830-32); R. O. Spazier, /. P. F. Richter: ein biograph-
ischer Kommentar zu dessen Werken (5 vols., 1833): E. Forster,
Denkwurdigkeiten aus dent Legen von J. P. F. Richter (1863);
P. Nerrlich, Jean Paid und seine Zeitgenossen (1876); J. Firmery,
tude sur la. me et les ceuvres de J. P. F. Richter (1886); P. Nerrlich,
Jean Paul, sein Leben und seine Werke (1889); F. J. Schneider,
Jean Pauls Altersdichtung (1901); by the same, Jean Pauls Jugend
und erstes Auftreten in der Literatur (1906). All Richter's more
important works have been translated into English, Quintus Fixlein
and Schmeldes Reise, by Carlyle; see also Carlyle's two admirable
essays on Richter.
RICHTHOFEN, FERDINAND, BARON VON (1833-1905),
German geographer and traveller, was born near Karlsruhe,
Silesia, on the sth of May 1833. He was educated at Breslau
and Berlin, and in 1856 carried out geological investigations
in the Tirol, subsequently extending them to Transylvania.
In 1859 he accompanied as geologist the Prussian diplomatic
mission to the Far East under Count von Eulenburg, and
visited Ceylon, Japan, Formosa, the Philippines and Java,
subsequently making an overland journey from Bangkok to
Moulmein and reaching Calcutta in 1862. No important work
resulted from these travels, for much of Richthofen's records
and collections was lost. China was at the time inaccessible
owing to the Taiping rebellion, but Richthofen was impressed
with the desirability of exploring it, and after a visit to Cali-
fornia, where he remained till 1868, he returned to the East.
In a remarkable series of seven journeys he penetrated into
almost every part of the Chinese Empire. He returned home
in 1872, and a work comprising three large volumes and an
atlas, which, however, did not cover the entire field or complete
the author's plan, appeared at Berlin in 1877-85 under the
title of China; Ergebnisse eigner Reisen und darauf gegriindeter
Studien. In this standard work the author deals not only
with geology but with every subject necessary to a general
geographical treatise. Notably he paid close attention to the
economic resources of the country he traversed; he wrote
a valuable series of letters to the Shanghai Chamber of Com-
merce, and first drew attention to the importance of the
coalfields of Shantung, and of Kiaochow as a port. In 1875
Richthofen was elected professor of geology at Bonn, but
being fully occupied with his work in China he did not take up
professorial duties till 1879; in 1883 he became professor
of geography at Leipzig, and in 1886 was chosen to the same
office at Berlin, and held it till his death. His lectures attracted
numerous students who subsequently became eminent in
geographical work, and in order to keep in touch with them
he established his weekly geographical " colloquium." Of
his written works, besides that on China, there may be men-
tioned " Die Kalkalpen von Voralberg und Nordtirol " in
Jakrbuch der geologischen Reichsanstalt (1859-1861); "Die
Metallproduktion Kaliforniens " in Petermanns Mitteilungen
(1865); .Natural System of Volcanic Rocks (San Francisco,
1867); Aufgaben und Methoden der heuligen Geographic (an
address delivered at Leipzig, 1883); Fuhrer fur Forschungs-
reisende (Berlin, 1886); Triebkrdfte und Richtungen der
Erdkunde in neunzehnlen Jahrhundert (address on his election
as rector, Berlin, 1903). He was for many years president
of the German Geographical Society, and he founded the
Berlin Hydrographical Institute. He died on the i6th of
October 1905.
RICIMER (d. 472), master of the Roman Empire in the
West during part of the 5th century, was the son of a prince of
the Suebi and the daughter of Wallia, king of the Visigoths.
His youth was spent at the court of Valentinian III., and he
won distinction under Aetius. In 456 he defeated the Vandals
in a sea-fight near Corsica, and on land near Agrigentum in
Sicily, and backed by the popularity thus acquired, Ricimer
then gained the consent of the Roman senate to an expedition
against the emperor Avitus, whom he defeated in a bloody
battle at Piacenza on the i6th of October 456. Avitus was
taken prisoner and made bishop of Piacenza, and shortly
afterwards sentenced to death. Ricimer then obtained from
Leo I., emperor at Constantinople, the title patrician, but
in 457 set up Majorianus as his own emperor in the West, and
induced Leo to give his consent. When, however, Majorianus
tried to rule by himself, Ricimer forced him to abdicate and
caused his assassination on the 7th of August 461. The
successor whom Ricimer placed upon the throne was Libius
Severus, who proved to be more docile than Majorianus, but
had to face the rivalry of Leo in the East and Aegidius in Gaul.
Upon his death in 465 said to be due to the poison of Ricimer
this emperor-maker ruled the West for eighteen months
without an emperor, and then accepted Leo's candidate
Anthemius, diplomatically married his daughter, and for
some time lived in peace with him. Before long, however,
Ricimer moved to Milan, ready to declare war upon Anthemius.
St Epiphanius, bishop of Milan, patched up a truce, but in 472
Ricimer was again before Rome with an army of Germans,
proclaimed as emperor Olybrius, whom Leo had sent to pacify
the two enemies, and after three months' siege took the city,
on the ist of July 472. Anthemius was massacred and Rome
was a prey to Ricimer's soldiers. He himself, however, died
on the i8th of August 472, of malignant fever.
RICINA, an ancient town of Picenum, Italy, 3 m. N.W. of
the modern Macerata, on the banks of the river Potenza, in a
fertile valley. It was probably a municipium until it was
refounded by Pertinax and Septimius Severus, after which it
bore the name Colonia Helvia Ricina Pertinax. The site is
now deserted, but considerable ruins of a theatre and remains
of baths and other buildings (all in brickwork of the imperial
period) still exist; also the fragments of an ancient bridge
over the Potenza.
RICKETS, a constitutional disease of childhood characterized
chiefly by a softened condition of the bones and by other
evidences of perverted nutrition. It was first described in
1649 by Arnold de Boot, a Frisian physician practising in Ire-
land. Its nature and causation are discussed under METABOLIC
DISEASES. The name " rackets " is from the Old English
wrickken, to twist; the more technical medical term, rachitis,
which comes from Greek Mx, tne spine, was suggested
by Francis Glisson in 1650, both from similarity of sound and
from the part of the body which is one of the first to be affected.
Rickets can seldom be recognized until several months after
birth, and it most commonly attracts attention at about the
end of the first year. The symptoms which precede the out-
ward manifestation of the disease are marked disorders of the
digestive and alimentary functions. The child's appetite is
diminished, and there is frequent vomiting, together with
diarrhoea or irregularity of the bowels, the evacuations being
clay-coloured and unhealthy. Along with this there is a
falling away in flesh. Importance is to be attached to certain
other symptoms present in the early stages, namely, profuse
sweating of the head and upper parts of the body, particularly
during sleep, with at the same time dry heat of the lower parts
and a tendency in the child to kick off all coverings and expose
the limbs. At the same time there is great tenderness of the
bones, as shown by the pain produced on moving or handling
the child. Gradually the changes in the shape of the bones
become visible, at first chiefly noticed at the ends of the long
bones, as in those of the arm, causing enlargements at the
wrists, or in the ribs, producing a knobbed appearance at the
junction of their ends with the costal cartilages. The bones
also from their softened condition tend to become distorted
and misshapen, both by the action of the muscles and by the
superincumbent weight of the body. Those of the limbs are
bent outwards and forwards, and the child becomes " bow-
legged " or " in-kneed " often to an extreme degree. The
trunk of the body ^likewise shows various alterations and
deformities owing to curvatures of the spine, the flattening
of the lateral curves of the ribs, and the projection forwards
of the sternum. The cavity of the chest may thus be contracted
and the development of the thoracic organs interfered with
as well as their functions more or less embarrassed. The
pelvis undergoes distortion, which may reduce its capacity to a
RICKMAN RICOCHET
degree that in the female may afterwards lead to serious diffi-
culties in parturition. The head of the rickety child is large-
looking in its upper part, the individual bones of the cranium
sometimes remaining long ununited, while the face is small
and ill-developed, and the teeth appear late and fall out or
decay early. The constitutional conditions of ill-health continue,
and the nutrition and development of the child are greatly
retarded.
The disease may terminate in recovery, with more or less
of deformity and dwarfing, the bones although altered in
shape becoming firmly ossified, and this is the common result
in the majority of instances. On the other hand, during the
progress of the disease, various intercurrent ailments are apt
to arise which may cause death, such as the infectious fevers,
bronchitis and other pulmonary affections, chronic hydrocephalus,
convulsions, laryngismus stridulus, &c.
An acute form of rickets of rare occurrence (really a form
of scurvy, q.v.) has been described by writers on diseases
of children, in which all the symptoms are of more rapid
development and progress, the result in many instances being
fatal.
The treatment of rickets is necessarily more hygienic than
medicinal, and includes such preventive measures as may be
exercised by strict attention to personal health and nutrition
on the part of mothers, especially where there appears to be
any tendency to a rickety development in any members of
the family. Very important also is the avoidance of too
prolonged nursing, which by its weakening effects upon the
mother's health is calculated to engender the disease in any
succeeding children. At the same time it must be admitted
that, when the mother is healthy, her milk abundant, and
nursing discontinued before the lapse of the first year, there
is no better means of preventing the occurrence of rickets than
this method of feeding an infant, the disease, as is well known,
being far more frequently met with in children brought up
by hand. The management of the child exhibiting any tendency
to rickets is of great importance, but can only be alluded to in
general terms. The digestive disorders characteristic of the setting
in of the disease render necessary the greatest care and watch-
fulness as to diet. Thus, if the child be not nursed but fed
artificially, fresh milk should be almost the only article of diet
for at least the first year, and the chief element for the next.
When not digested well, as may at times be shown by its
appearance as a curd in the evacuations, it may be diluted
with water or lime water, or else discontinued for a short time,
carefully-made gruel or barley water being substituted. Many
of the so-called " infants' foods " which are now so extensively
used appear to be well adapted for their purpose, but when
employed too abundantly and to the exclusion of the due amount
of milk are often productive of digestive and intestinal disorders,
probably from their containing a greater amount of starchy
matter than can be utilized. From the end of the first year
light animal soups may occasionally be given with advantage.
The medicinal remedies most to be relied on are those which
improve the digestive functions and minister to nutrition, and
include such agents as the preparations of iron, quinine, and
especially cod-liver oil and phosphorus, and the cautious use
of extract of thyroid gland has been advocated by Henoch.
Of no less importance, however, are abundance of fresh air,
cleanliness, warm clothing, and attention to the general hygiene
of the child and to regularity in all its functions.
When the disease is showing evidence of advancing, it is
desirable to restrain the child from walking, as far as possible.
But this precaution may be to some extent rendered unnecessary
by the use of splints and other apparatus as supports for the
limbs and body, enabling the child to move about without the
risk of bending and deformity of the bones which otherwise
would probably be the result.
The condition formerly known as foetal rickets (achondroplasia
or chondrodystrophia foetalis) is now classed as a separate
disease. Its chief characteristics are dwarfism with shortening
of the limbs and enormous enlargment of the articulations.
RICKMAN, THOMAS (1776-1841), English architect, was
born- on the 8th of June 1776 at Maidenhead, Berkshire, where
he assisted his father (a Quaker) in business as a grocer and
druggist until 1797. He was then engaged in various businesses
until 1818. All his spare time was spent in sketching and
making careful measured drawings, till he gained a knowledge
of architecture which was very remarkable at a time when little
taste existed for the beauties of the Gothic styles. In i8u
alone he is said to have studied three thousand ecclesiastical
buildings. When in 1818 a large grant of money was made by
the government to build new churches, Rickman sent in a design
of his own which was successful in an open competition; thus he
was fairly launched upon the profession of an architect, for
which his natural gifts strongly fitted him. Rickman then
moved to Birmingham, and by 1830 became one of the most
successful architects of his time. He built churches at Hampton
Lucy, Ombersley, and Stretton-on-Dunsmore, St George's at
Birmingham, St Philip's and St Matthew's in Bristol, two in
Carlisle, St Peter's and St Paul's at Preston, St David's in
Glasgow, Grey Friars at Coventry, and many others. He also
designed the new court of St John's College, Cambridge, a palace
for the bishop of Carlisle, and several large country houses.
These are all in the Gothic style, but show more knowledge of
the outward form of the medieval style than any real acquaint-
ance with its spirit, and are little better than dull copies of old
work, disfigured by much poverty of detail. Rickman never-
theless played an important part in the revival of taste for
medievalism perhaps second only to Pugin, His Attempt to
discriminate the Styles of Architecture in England shows pains-
taking research, and ran through many editions. Rickman
died at Birmingham on the 4th of January 1841. He was
married three times: first to his cousin, Lucy Rickman of
Lewes; secondly to Christiana Hornor; thirdly to Elizabeth
Miller of Edinburgh, by whom he had a son and a daughter.
RICKMANSWORTH, an urban district in the Watford
parliamentary division of Hertfordshire, England; 17! m.
W.N.W. of London by the Metropolitan & Great Central
joint railway; served also by a branch of the London & North
Western railway from Watford. Pop. (1901) 5627. It lies in a
pleasant valley at the junction of the Chess with the Colne, and
on the Grand Junction canal. The church of St Mary, with
the exception of the tower a modern reconstruction, contains
some French stained glass of the i6th century. The chief
industries are brewing and art-printing. The Colne here holds
large trout, which are carefully preserved. The grounds of
Moor Park to' the south-east are finely wooded, and the mansion,
belonging to Lord Ebury, is a good example of the period of
George I. The estate counts among its former owners such
famous names as the Botelers; George Neville, archbishop of
York; John de Vere, earl of Oxford in Henry VII.'s time;
Wolsey in the next reign; Robert Carey, earl of Monmouth,
and the duke of Monmouth.
RICOCHET, a military term expressing the rebound of a
projectile that strikes on a hard surface. The origin of the
French word ricochet is unknown. Its earliest known use
(i4th and isth centuries) was in the sense of " repetition,"
e.g. chanson du ricochet, " an oft-told tale." Hence it came to
be applied to the rebound of a flat stone skimmed along the
surface of water, known familiarly in English as " ducks and
drakes," and so finally in the military sense defined above,
which found its way into the English language.
The use of the now obsolete " ricochet fire " in war is well
illustrated by " ducks and drakes." The shot, striking the
ground at a small angle, described for the remainder of its
course a succession of leaps and falls. The discovery of this
species of fire, usually attributed to Vauban (siege of Ath in
1697), had the greatest influence both on sieges and on operations
in the field. In siege warfare, ricochet, especially when com-
bined with enfilade, i.e. when directed along the enemy's line
of defence, soon became the principal weapon of the besieger,
and with the system of parallels (q.v.) gave the attack a superi-
ority so complete that a siege came to be considered as the most
316
RICOLD OF MONTE CROCE RIDDLES
certain operation of war. Enfilade fire by itself was neutralized
by traverses (q.v.) in the defences, but by the new method a
shot could be so aimed as to skip over each successive traverse
and thus to search ground that was immune from direct fire.
The application of ricochet fire to operations in the field came
somewhat later. In the i8th century field artillery, which was
not, before Napoleon's time, sufficiently mobile to close with the
enemy, relied principally upon the ricochet of round shot,
which, sweeping a considerable depth of ground, took effect
upon several successive lines of hostile troops. But once
artillery was able to gallop up to the enemy and to use its far
more terrible close-range projectile, case-shot, ricochet fire came
to be used less and less, until finally, with the general adoption
of shell (which, of course, burst at the first contact with the
ground), the round shot disappeared altogether from the battle-
field. Similarly in siege warfare, as soon as high-angle fire with
shells became sufficiently accurate, there was no further need
of round shot and ricochet.
The term " ricochet " is now only applied, in modern rifle
shooting, to the graze of a bullet that has struck short. A
modern bullet that has ricochetted inflicts a very severe wound,
as its nickel or other hard envelope is torn and jagged by its
contact with the ground. With its high remaining velocity
it is dangerous even after more than one ricochet, except at
extreme ranges.
RICOLD OF MONTE CROCE (1242-1320), Italian Dominican
missionary, was born at Monte Croce, near Florence. In 1267
he entered the Dominican house of Santa Maria Novella in
Florence, and in 1272 that of St Catherine in Pisa. He started
for Acre with a papal commission to preach in 1286 or 1287:
in 1288 or 1289 he began to keep a record of his experiences
in the Levant; this record he probably reduced to final book
form in Bagdad. Entering Syria at Acre, he crossed Galilee
to the Sea of Tiberias; thence returning to Acre he seems
to have travelled down the coast to Jaffa, and so up to Jeru-
salem. After visiting the Jordan and the Dead Sea he quitted
Palestine by the coast road, retracing his steps to Acre and
passing on by Tripoli and Tortosa into Cilicia. From the
Cilician port of Lajazzo he started on the great high road to
Tabriz in north Persia. Crossing the Taurus he travelled on
by Sivas of Cappadocia to Erzerum, the neighbourhood of
Ararat and Tabriz. In and near Tabriz he preached for several
months, after which he proceeded to Bagdad via Mosul and
Tekrit. In Bagdad he stayed several years, studying the
Koran and other works of Moslem theology, for controversial
purposes, arguing with Nestorian Christians, and writing. In
1301 Ricold again appeared in Florence: some time after
this he proposed to submit his Confulalio Alcorani to the pope,
but did not. He died on the 3ist of October 1320. As a
traveller and observer his merits are conspicuous. His account
of the Tatars and his sketch of Moslem religion and manners
are especially noteworthy. In spite of strong prejudice, he
shows remarkable breadth of view and appreciation of merit
in systems the most hostile to his own.
Of Ricold's Itinerary (Itinerarius [sic]) fifteen MSS. exist, of
which the chief are: (i) Florence, Laurentian Library, Fineschi, 326;
(2) Paris, National Library, Lat. 4955, fols. 46-55; (3) Wolfenbuttel,
Cod. Weissenb. 40, fols. 73 B.-94 B. (all of I4th century). Of his
Epistles there is one MS., viz. Rome, Vatican, 3717, fols. 249 A.-
267 A. The best edition of the Itinerary is by J. C. M. Laurent,
in Peregrinatores Medii Aevi Quatuor, pp. 105 (101) 41 (Leipzig,
1864 and 1873). The Epistles have been edited by R. Rohricht in
Archives de I' orient latin, vol. ii. part ii. (Documents) pp. 258-96
(Paris, 1884). The Confutatio Alcorani, printed at Seville in 1500,
at Venice m 1607, adds hardly anything to the sections of the
Itinerary devoted to Moslem belief, &c. Ricold's Libellus contra
Nationes Orientales and Contra errores Judaeorum have never been
printed. See also C. Raymond Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geo-
graphy, iii. 190-202, 218, 390-91, 547, 554, 564.
RICOTTI-MAGNANI, CESARE (1822- ), Italian general
and knight of the Annunziata, was born at Borgo Lavezzaro
on the 3Oth of June 1822. As artillery lieutenant he distin-
guished himself and was wounded at the siege of Peschiera
in 1848, and in 1852 gained further distinction by his efforts
to prevent the explosion of a burning powder magazine. After
serving from 1856 to 1859 as director of the Artillery School,
he became general of division in 1864, commanding the 5th
division at the battle of San Martino. In the war of 1866 he
stormed Borgoforte, to open a passage for Cialdini's army.
Upon the death of General Govone in 1872 he was appointed
minister of war, and after the occupation of Rome bent all his
efforts to army reform, in accordance with the lessons of the
Franco-German War. He shortened the period of military
service; extended conscription to all able-bodied men; created
a permanent army, a mobile militia and a reserve; com-
menced the renewal of armaments; and placed Italy in a
position to put 1,800,000 men on a war footing. Ricotti fell
from power with the Right in 1876, but returned to office with
Depretis in 1884, and amended his previous scheme of reform.
Resigning in April 1887, he became a member of the senate in
1890, but took little part in public life until 1896, when, after
the battle of Adowa, he was entrusted by King Humbert with
the formation of a cabinet. Having constructed his ministry,
he made over the premiership to the marquis di Rudini, retain-
ing for himself the portfolio of war, and seeking to satisfy
popular demands for the reduction of military expenditure
by consolidating the tactical structure of the army without
weakening its fighting power. Rudini, however, finding that
Ricotti's ideas, which he himself shared, were not acceptable
at court, obliged him to resign office. His prestige as creator
of the modern Italian army remained unimpaired, and his views
on army consolidation enjoyed a large measure of technical and
public favour.
RIDDING, GEORGE (1828-1904), English headmaster and
bishop, was born at Winchester College, of which his father,
the Rev. Charles Ridding, vicar of Andover, was a fellow, on
the i6th of March 1828. He was educated at Winchester
and at Balliol College, Oxford. He became a- fellow of Exeter
College and was a tutor from 1853 to 1863. In 1853 he
married Mary Louisa Moberly, who died within a year of her
marriage. He was appointed second master of Winchester
College in 1863, and on the retirement of his father-in-law,
Dr Moberly, he succeeded to the headmastership. During
the tenure of this office (1867-1884) he carried out successfully
a series of radical reforms in the organization of the school,
resulting in a great increase both in its reputation and numbers.
In 1884 he became the first bishop of Southwell, and brought
his powers of organization and conspicuous tact and modera-
tion to bear on the management of the new diocese. He took
an active share in its educational and social work, and
was materially assisted in these respects by his second wife,
Lady Laura Palmer, daughter of the ist earl of Selborne. He
resigned his see a short time before his death, which took place
on the 3oth of August 1904.
See Church Quarterly Review (July 1905).
RIDDLES (A.S. raedan, to interpret), probably the oldest
extant form of humour. They spring from man's earliest
perception that there are such things as analogies in nature.
Man observes an example of analogy, puts his observations
in the form of a question, and there is the riddle ready made.
Some Boeotian humorist, for example, detected the analogy
between the life of humanity the child on all fours, the man
erect on two legs, old age with its staff on one side, and on the
other the conception of an animal with a varying number of
limbs. Put this in a question and it is the riddle of the Sphinx.
Another instance is the question, " What we caught we threw
away, what we could not catch we kept." Homer is said to
have died of vexation at not being able to discover the answer
to this riddle, still current on the coast of Brittany, in Germany
and in Gascony. After inventing the riddle, men began to
use it in a kind of game; bets were staked on the answer and
sides were made, each side backing its champion. These
sports in Marriner's time were common in Tonga; they are
no less popular among the African Woloffs. Samson's riddle
set to the Philistines is an instance of the sport in a Semitic
country. In marchen and ballads, the hero's chance of
RIDGE, W. P. RIDING
winning his beloved, or of escaping threatened punishment,
is often made to turn on his power of answering riddles. It
follows from the artless and primitive character of the riddle
that regular popular riddles (Devinettes) are widely distributed,
like popular tales, popular songs and popular customs. The
Woloffs ask, " What flies for ever and rests never ? " Answer,
The wind. The Basutos put this riddle, " What is wingless
and legless, yet flies fast and cannot be imprisoned? " Answer,
The voice. The German riddle runs, " What can go in face
of the sun yet leave no shadow ? " Answer, The wind. In
riddles may perhaps be noticed the animistic or personalizing
tendency of early human thought, just beginning to be conscious
of itself. The person who asked these riddles had the old
sense of wind, for example, as a person, yet probably, unlike
the bushmen, he would never expect to see the personal wind.
He knew the distinction between the personal and impersonal
well enough to be sure that his enigma would present some
difficulty. The riddle, to be brief, is an interrogatory form of
the fable, and like the fable originates among rude people, and
is perpetuated in the folklore of peasantry.
Probably the best book on the riddle (a subject less frequently
studied than the marchen or the myth) is Eugene Rolland,
Devinettes ou tnigmes populaires, with a preface by M. Gaston
Paris. The power of answering riddles among the people
who invented the legend of Solomon and the queen of Sheba
seems to have been regarded as a proof of great sagacity. The
riddle proper is all but extinct outside folklore and savage life,
and has been replaced by the conundrum, which is a pun in
the interrogative form.
OLD ENGLISH RIDDLES. A number of interesting poetical riddles
in old English are contained in the Exeter Book, written about A.D.
1000. According to the numbering in the only complete edition
(in Grein-Wulker, Bibliothek der Angelsachsisches Poesie, vol. iii.
pp. 184-238), there would appear to be 95 of them; but No. I
is the monodramatic lyric Wuff and Eadwacer, which was included
among the riddles by a mistake of the first editor of the Exeter Book,
B. Thorpe; No. 90 is not in Old English, but in Latin; and several
others are mere unintelligible fragments. There remain about 85
that have been preserved either entire or with sufficient approach
to completeness for their general drift to be perceived.
The riddles Nos. 2-60 occupy 15 folios in the middle of the MS. ;
Nos. 62-95 occupy the last 7 folios, and No. 61 and a mutilated and
divergent copy of No. 31 are placed by themselves among poems
of a different kind. Attempts have been made to show that the
two main groups are distinguished from each other by special
characteristics that may indicate difference of authorship or date;
but there seems to be no good reason for attaching any significance
to the arrangement of the MS. Some of the riddles almost certainly
were written in Northumbria in the early part of the 8th century;
a copy of one of them (No. 36) , in Anglian dialect, has been preserved
in a MS. at Leiden. Whether all the riddles are the work of one
author, or whether they belong to different periods and districts,
remains at present uncertain. For the reasons stated in the article
CYNEWULF the attribution of the whole collection to that poet,
once almost universally accepted, is now no longer tenable; and
there is no overwhelming probability that he is the author of any
portion of it. 1
The investigations of F. Dietrich and A. Ebert have established
the fact that a few of the riddles are imitated from the Latin enigmas
of Symphosius and Aldhelm. No. 36 is a translation of Aldhelm's
riddle De Lorica, and No. 41 is founded on the same writer's riddle
De Creatura. The dependence of the Old English riddles on Latin
originals has, however, been greatly exaggerated, especially by A.
Prehn (Komposition und Quellen der Ratsel des Exeterbuches, 1883),
who goes so far as to maintain that every one of them contains
reminiscences of one or more of the compositions of Symphosius,
Aldhelm, Tatwine and Eusebius. The correspondences alleged are
in most cases slight, if not purely fanciful, and it is even doubtful
whether the two writers last named were known at all to the authors
of the vernacular riddles. All the Englishmen who wrote riddles
in the 8th and following centuries, whether they wrote in their
native tongue or in Latin, may be said to belong to one school,
and their work has many features in common. But except in a few
instances the riddles written in Old English are probably not less
but more original than those written in Latin. In poetical merit
they are generally superior. A good notion of their character and
style may be gained from Mr Stopford Brooke's spirited (though
not minutely accurate) translations of many of them in his History
1 For the linguistic arguments against Cynewulf's authorship of
the Riddles see especially A. Madert, Die Sprache der altenglischen
Ratsel des Exeterbuches und die Cynewulffrage (1900).
of Early English Literature, vol. i. (1892). Mr Brooke's interpreta-
tion of No. 1 1 (the Barnacle Goose) is original, and no doubt correct ;
in some other instances the solutions he has adopted are somewhat
more questionable than they would appear to be from his transla-
tions.
Unlike the Latin riddles of Aldhelm, the riddles of the Exeter
Book are unaccompanied with solutions. In some of them, however,
the answer is indicated by an anagram, usually expressed in runic
characters. Thus No. 24 begins with the words " AGOF is my
name reversed," where the West Saxon scribe, in accordance with
the phonetic laws of his own dialect, has substituted F for the
final B of his Anglian original; the word is an anagram of boga,
" bow." In No. 25 the mimic skill of the magpie is described, and
at the conclusion the name of the bird (higora) is indicated by the
six letters G, A, R, O, H, I.
The solution of nearly all the riddles was attempted by F. Diet-
rich, in the nth and I2th volumes of Haupt's Zeitschrift fur deutsches
Alterthum. In many cases Dietrich was certainly right, but in
many others his conjectures are strangely perverse, owing to mis-
leading comparisons with supposed Latin originals. Subsequent
scholars have been much more successful in refuting Dietrich's
explanations than in replacing them by others more satisfactory.
The most copious contributor of new interpretations has been Prof.
M. Trautmann, in several articles in Anglia, and also in Bonner,
Beitriige zur Anglistik, No. 19 (1905); but very few of his inter-
pretations can be considered even plausible, and he sometimes re-
jects the solutions of his predecessors when they are probably right.
One riddle (No. 51, Fire) was independently solved by Prof. Traut-
mann and G. Herzfeld (Die Ratsel des Exeterbuches undihr Verfasser,
1890). The articles on the subject by F. Tupper, Jr., in Modern
Philology, vol. ii. (1903), and in Modern Language Notes for 1903 and
1906, are extremely valuable, though the author's original explana-
tions do not appear convincing. After all that has been done,
the meaning of a considerable number of the riddles is still un-
certain. In some instances this may be due to tlje corrupt state of
the text; in others the terms in which the object is described are
so vague that several solutions are equally plausible. (H. BR.)
RIDGE, WILLIAM PETT (1864- ), English author, was
born at Chartham, near Canterbury, and was educated at Marden,
Kent, and at the Birkbeck Institute, London. He was for some
time a clerk in the Railway Clearing House, and began about
1891 to write humorous sketches for the St James's Gazelle
and other papers. He secured his first striking success, in
volume form, with Mord Em'ly(i8<)8), an excellent example
of his ability to draw humorous portraits of lower class life.
His later books include A Son of the State (1899), A Breaker of
Laws (1900), Lost Property (1902), Erb (1903), Mrs Caler's
Business (1905), The Wickhamses (1906), &c.
RIDGE (a word common to many Teutonic languages,
meaning " back," whether of a man or an animal, cf. German
Rucke), the word applied to many objects resembling the
projecting line of an animal's back, such as the strip of soil
thrown up by a plough between furrows, the elevations or
protuberances on bones which serve for the attachment of
muscles or ligaments, &c. In architecture the ridge (Fr.
faite, crtte; Gr. First; Ital. asineUo) is the highest portion
of a roof, which is covered with lead, slate, or tiles, and some-
times decorated with a cresting in terra-cotta or metal-work.
The term is also applied to the meeting of the common rafters
on each side of a roof, which are sometimes butted against an
upright board known as the ridge-piece. For the ridge-rib
see RIB.
RIDING, the art or practice of locomotion on the back of
an animal or in a vehicle (the verb to ride originally meant
" to travel," or "go," as the derived noun road means "a way").
Where no vehicle is specified (e.g. " riding a bicycle "), the
word is associated with horseback riding, for exercise or pleasure.
The origin of the use of the horse as a means of transport
goes back to prehistoric times. The fable of the centaurs, if
the derivation from ntvrtiv, to goad, raOpos, bull, be accepted
(but see CENTAUR), would indicate the early existence of pastoral
peoples living on horseback, like the modern cowboys (cp.
" cow-punchers ") or gauchos of North and South America.
Archaeological discoveries in India, Persia, Assyria and Egypt
show that in the polished stone age quaternary man had
domesticated the horse, while a Chinese treatise, the Goei-leaotse,
the fifth book of the Vouking, a sort of military code dating
from the reign of the emperor Hoang-Ti (2637 years B.C.), places
the cavalry on the wings of the army. The Hebrews understood
RIDING
the use of the horse in war (Job xxxix. 18-25), as did the
Persians (Cyrus at the battle of Thymbra), Greeks and Romans.
The Greeks and Romans, especially the former, were skilled
horsemen, and feats on horseback were a feature of their games.
They used no stirrup, but had both bridle and bit. They rode
bareback, or on a cloth or skin strapped to the horse.
When roads were poor and vehicles cumbersome horseback
was almost the only method of travel for both sexes. With
the introduction of steam-locomotion and the improvement of
roads, however, riding has become to a large extent a sport,
rather than a necessity. There are different styles of riding
adapted to the different purposes for which horses are ridden
on the road, in the school, hunting, racing, steeple-chasing and
in the cavalry service just as there are different horses more
suitable by conformation, breeding and training for each.
In western civilization there is a traditional difference between
the riding of men and women, in this particular, that men ride
astride and women on a side-saddle. But in the following
observations we deal generally with the more important features
of riding as practised astride.
After securing an animal of the right height, weight and
disposition, with a saddle of a length of tree and a breadth of seat
that fits the rider and that is lined to fit the back of the horse,
with a bridle bitted to his mouth, the first step is to mount.
Having taken up the reins, the rider should stand at his horse's
near (left) shoulder, facing towards the tail, and in that position
hold the stirrup with his right hand for the reception of his left
foot. By standing at the shoulder the rider is out of harm's
way in the event of the horse kicking while he mounts. Ladies
generally have the aid of a block or a groom's or escort's hand
beneath the left foot. But a woman should be able to mount
without aid, by lowering her stirrup, so that she can reach it
from the ground, and then raising it again when she is seated
in the saddle. Riding astride is sometimes recommended for
women. The chief argument in its favour symmetrical
development of the figure is, however, lost if the growing girl
be taught to ride on a side-saddle of which the pommels can be
shifted to the off side on alternate days.
Having gained the saddle, the necessity arises for seal and
hands. Here good instruction is imperative at the outset.
The great desideratum in a seat on horseback is that it should
be firm. A rider with an insecure seat is apt to be thrown by
any unexpected movement the horse may make; and, without
a firm seat, the acquirement of good hands is well-nigh hopeless,
because, when the balance is once disturbed the insecure rider
will have to depend on something else for the maintenance of
his seat, and this generally takes the shape of " riding on the
horse's mouth," a practice as cruel as it is ugly.
Having gained the saddle, the rider should adjust the stirrups
to the proper length, depending on the kind of riding, the length
of his leg and the roughness of the horse's trot. Sitting well
in the middle of the saddle, the thighs turned in, and the heels
drawn somewhat back, the stirrup leathers may be let out or
taken up until the tread of the stirrup is on a level with the
inner ankle bone, and at this length, when the rider stands up,
his fork will easily clear the pommel of the saddle. For main-
taining his seat the horseman should depend upon his thighs
and knees only, and not upon the knee and calf; a proper seat
should be a mixture of balance and grip ; a man riding by balance
only is sure to be thrown, while to grip with all one's might
during an hour's ride is to undertake as much exertion as should
last for a whole day. The position of the foot exercises much
influence on the security of the seat; it should be opposite
the girth, parallel with the barrel of the horse, with the heels
depressed. A good seat on a horse should not be strong merely ;
it should be graceful; above the loins the body should be loose,
so as readily to adapt itself to every motion of the horse, but
it should be upright.
Beginners are advised to practise riding with and without
stirrups; thus, let the pupil who has ridden half an hour in a
saddle with stirrups have a cloth substituted for the saddle for
about ten minutes, care being taken to observe the rules already
laid down for the position of the legs; in this way the proper
seat will be strengthened.
The proper adjustment of the reins is the next thing to be
attended to, and as the management of these depends so much
upon the seat being firm and independent of the bridle the
acquisition of a firm seat is certainly half-way towards the
acquirement of good hands. An excellent way to start a pupil
is on a sure-footed horse without bridle, the master governing
him by a leading rein until the pupil has acquired a firm seat
and can be trusted with reins. Assuming that a double-reined
bridle is used, the third finger of the left hand should be first
inserted between the snaffle reins; then the little, third and
second fingers should be between the curb reins, the two outside
reins being the curb, and the two inside ones the snaffle. In
this manner of holding the reins the snaffle is not so likely to
slip, while the curb can be easily slackened or drawn tighter.
As military riders use the curb only the position of snaffle and
curb as just explained is reversed in the cavalry service. The
snaffle reins should be drawn up gently until the rider feels that
he has an equal and light hold of his horse's mouth on both
sides, with just so much pressure that the slightest movement of
the left or right rein would cause him to turn to the left or right
respectively. The arms from the shoulder to the elbow should
hang naturally, close to the sides, and the arms from elbow
to wrist should be about parallel to the ground, the wrist being
kept loose, so as to yield gently with every motion of the horse.
The rider sitting in the position described, square to the front,
with his shoulders well back, will be riding with fairly long reins,
one of the secrets of good hands.
When the horse is in motion the hands should not be held
rigid, as the horse's mouth would thereby become dead, and the
horse would lean unpleasantly on the hand; but the rider
should give and take, without, however, entirely relaxing the
hold.
In order to encourage the horse to walk the head must not
be confined, but a light feeling of the horse's mouth must be
kept up. Should the horse, unasked, break into a trot, never
snatch at his mouth, but restrain him gently. To trot, press
the legs to the saddle, and raise the bridle hand a little, and,
after a moment's sitting close, begin to rise (" pose ") in cadence
with the action of the horse. The rising to the trot should be
performed easily; the legs must not swing backwards and
forwards, nor should the hands be jerked up and down. To'
start the canter, which should always be done from the walk
and not the trot, take up the curb rein a little and turn the
horse's head slightly to the right, at the same time pressing the
left leg behind the girth; the horse will then lead with the off
(right) fore leg, which is generally preferred; but a well-broken
hack should lead with either leg at command, and if he be
cantered in a circle to the left he must lead with the near leg, as
otherwise an ugly fall is likely to result from the leg being
crossed. Galloping is a pace not to be generally indulged in
by road or park riders; when it is, the hands should be kept
low, the body thrown back, and an extra grip taken with the
knees, as nearly all horses pull more or less when extended.
Hitherto only road or park riding has been considered.
When a person has become a fair road rider he has made some
progress towards being a hunting man. But if first principles
are disregarded, and a follower of hounds believes in the system
" it doesn't matter how you ride so long as you stick on," he
will not only always be a "sight" but a menace in the hunting
field. Few self-taught riders attain to excellence; they may
keep a good place in hunting, if possessed of plenty of courage,
and mounted on a bold and not too tender-mouthed horse,
but they never will be riders in the proper sense of the word.
Hunting and Riding to Hounds. For practical purposes the
chief difference between a park seat and a hunting seat consists
in the shortening of the stirrups some two or three holes. The seat
of the hunting man is the most important of any connected with
amusement; he must sit firm, so as not to be thrown off when
his horse leaps, or makes a mistake, and he must be able to save
his horse under all circumstances, and to make as much of him
as possible. As with road riding, so with hunting, the actual
RIDINGS
3*9
length of the stirrups will depend a good deal upon the shape
and action of the horse, but the nature of the animal and the
peculiarities of the country ridden over will also have something to
dp with their adjustment. A puller will compel the rider to shorten
his leathers one or perhaps two holes a course that may also be
rendered necessary in a hiljy country, for, in going down hill, the
stirrups, if kept at the ordinary length, will generally feel a great
deal too long. The rider's body must be always close to the saddle
in leaping, for if he were jerked up, the weight of say only a 10-
stone man coming down on the horse a couple of seconds after he
has negotiated a large fence is sufficient to throw the animal down.
Nothing but actual practice with hounds can teach a man how to
ride where all kinds of going and obstacles of various sorts, natural
and artificial, have to be encountered in a day's hunting. For
example, the country gone over is seldom level springy turf; it is
up hill and down dale, across ridge and furrow, over ground studded
with ant-hills (which, unlike mole-hills, are often very hard), over
ploughed or boggy land. Each of these varieties requires a different
method of riding over, and nearly every horse will require different
handling under similar circumstances. It will therefore be seen
that much depends on the rider having good hands. This qualifica-
tion, though generally understood, is difficult to define. A rider
with good hands never depends upon his reins for retaining his seat;
nor does he pull at the horse's mouth so as to make him afraid to
go up to his bit ; nor again does he ever use more force than is
necessary for the accomplishment of what he desires to perform.
But besides all this, there is an unaccountable sympathetic some-
thing about the man with good hands that cannot be described.
Pullers appear to renounce pulling, refusers take to jumping and
clumsy horses become nearly as handy as a trick horse in a circus.
Though hands can to a great extent be acquired by care and
practice, yet in the highest form this is a gift and cannot be learned.
There are different kinds of " fences," as all obstacles are generic-
ally called. First, there is timber, such as gates, stiles and rails;
the first two are, nine times out of ten, awkward jumps, as the take
off is either poached by cattle, or else is on the ascent or descent.
Hedges vary according to the custom of the country in which they
are found : they either grow in the soil of the field, and are protected
by a ditch on one side, or are planted on a bank with a ditch on
one side or sometimes on both. Then again there are such large
banks as are found in Wales, Devon and Cornwall. Lastly come
water jumps, which are met with in two forms: the water is either
within an inch or two of the top of the bank, so as to be about on
a level with the field through which it flows, or there may be a space
of some 6 or 7 ft. from the bank to the water. For the successful
negotiation of brooks a bold horse is required, ridden by a bold man.
No fence that is ever encountered stops such a large proportion of
the field as water; even a clear 6 ft. of it will prove a hindrance to
some, while anything over 10 or 12 ft. will in general be crossed only
by a very few. Some horses, good performers over any description
of fence, will not jump water under any circumstances; while the
chance of a ducking deters many from riding at it; and, however
bold the horse may be, he will soon refuse water if his rider be
perpetually in two minds when approaching it.
The pace at which a hunter should be ridden at his fences depends
upon the nature of the fence, and the peculiarities of each individual
horse. With some very good jumpers they can hardly be called
good hunters to steady them is to bid for a fall, while with some
very clever hunters to hurry them is to bring them to grief. With
ordinary horses, however, it is a good general rule to ride at fences
of all descriptions as slowly as the nature of the obstacle admits.
In grass countries, where " flying fences " are found, the rate of
speed must of necessity be quicker than when about to take a
Devonshire bank of some 7 ft. high, but even at a flying fence the
rider should steady his horse so as to contract the length of his
stride, in order that he may measure the distance for taking off
with greater accuracy. Flying fences consist of a hedge with or
without a post and rail, and with or without a ditch on one or both
sides; consequently a horse has to jump both high and wide to
clear them. But in jumping a gate, or a flight of rails, as ordinarily
situated, there is no width to be covered, and to make a horse go
through the exertion of jumping both high and wide when he need
only do one is to waste his power, added to which to ride fast at
timber, unless very low with a ditch on the landing side, is highly
dangerous.
All hedges on banks, banks and doubles must be ridden at
slowly; they are usually of such a size as to make flying them
impossible, or at least undesirable. Horses jump them on and off,
and in taking them at a moderate pace there is a chance of stopping
on the top and choosing a better place to jump from, or, if needs be,
of returning and taking the fence at another place. Cramped
places will have to be jumped from a walk or even at a stand; for
instance, a tree may be in a line with and close to the only practi-
cable place in a fence; it then becomes necessary to go round
the tree before a run at the place can be managed. So, too, with
places that have to be crawled over between trees, or with dykes
to be crawled down.
In jumping an ordinary hedge or ditch at moderate speed, there
is of course a moment of time during which the horse is on his
hind legs, and in theory the rider should then lean forward, but,
in practice, this position is so momentary, and the lash out of the
hind legs in the spring is so powerful, that it is best not to lean
forward at all, because of the difficulty, if not impossibility, of getting
back in time for the reverse movement, when the rider should be
preparing to render the horse some assistance with the bridle as
his feet touch the ground.
When a line of willows indicates the whereabouts of a brook,
the horse should be well collected, a clear place selected, so far as
circumstances allow, and the pace increased, though in short strides,
up to the very brink. If the hounds jump at the brook, even though
they fail to clear it, the rider may take it for granted that at that
place the leap is within the capacity of any ordinary hunter in his
stride; hence if, when going at three parts speed, a horse's feet
come just right to take off, the mere momentum of his body would
take him over a place 15 ft. wide.
The experience of a single day's hunting will teach the novice
that gates are far oftener opened than jumped; it is therefore
necessary that a hunter should be handy at opening them. Many
accidents have arisen from horses rushing through a gateway
directly the latch is released, or from their jumping a gate at
which they have been pulled up to enable the rider to open it. The
horse should be taught to obey the leg as well as the hand, and, by a
slight pressure of the leg, should throw his haunches round to the
left or right as occasion may require.
Racing (see also HORSE-RACING). The qualities possessed by a
good jockey, either on the flat or across country, show the value of
early instruction in riding. After having been some time in a train-
ing stable, a lad is put on a quiet horse at exercise; his stirrups
are adjusted, and the reins knotted for him at a proper length. He
subsequently rides other horses, each with some peculiarity perhaps,
and, to keep his place in the string, a sluggard must be kept going,
and an impetuous one restrained; they cannot both be ridden
alike, but they must both be ridden as a jockey should ride them.
In this way the lad learns the principle of holding a puller, getting
pace out of a lazy one, and leaving well alone with a nice free but
temperate mover; he learns to do everything in a horsemanlike
manner, and when he has raised himself to the pitch of a " fashion-
able " jockey, he will frequently be called upon to ride several
horses a day at race meetings. A jockey must therefore, more than
any other civilian rider, have a hand for all sorts of horses, and in
the case of two and three year olds a very good hand it must be.
The same ability to adapt himself to circumstances must be possessed
by the steeple-chase jockey, who should possess fine hands to enable
him to handle his horse while going at his fences at three-quarter
speed. In most details the nearer a hunting man approaches to
a steeple-chase jockey the better; but in the matter of the seat it
must be remembered that a jockey's exertions last but a few minutes,
while none can tell when the hunting man may finish his day's
work; the jockey can therefore ride with more absolute grip during
his race than the rider to hounds.
See also HORSEMANSHIP; HUNTING; CAVALRY; RACING AND
STEEPLE-CHASE; and POLO.
RIDINGS are the three districts into which from ancient
times Yorkshire has been divided for administrative purposes.
Formerly there were similar districts in Lindsey in Lincolnshire.
The word riding was originally written as thrilhing or thriding,
but the initial th has been absorbed in the final' th or t of the
words north, south, east and west, by which it was normally
preceded. Ridings are Scandinavian institutions. In Iceland
the third part of a thing which corresponds roughly to an
English county was called thrithjungr; in Norway, however,
the thrithjungr seems to have been an ecclesiastical division.
According to the 12th-century compilation known as the " laws
of Edward the Confessor," the riding was the third part of a
county (promncia); to it causes were brought which could not
be determined in the wapentake, and a matter which could
not be determined in the riding was brought into the court
of the shire. There is abundant evidence that riding courts
were held after the Norman Conquest. A charter which
Henry I. granted to the Church of St Peter's at York mentions
wapentacmot, tridingmot and shiresmot, and exemptions from
suit to the thriding or riding may be noticed frequently in the
charters of the Norman kings. As yet, however, the jurisdiction
and functions of these courts have not been ascertained. It
seems probable from the silence of the records that they had
already fallen into disuse early in the I3th century.
Each of the ridings of Yorkshire has its own lord lieutenant
and commission of the peace, and under the Local Government
Act of 1888 forms a separate administrative county. They are
distinguished as the north, east and west ridings, but the ancient
320
RIDLEY RIEGO NUNEZ
divisions of Lindsey were known as the north, south and wes
ridings respectively.
See Felix Liebermann, Die Gesetze der Angelsachsen (Halle
1888-89); William Stubbs, Constitutional History of England
Richard Cleasby, Icelandic Dictionary; New English Dictionary
and William Dugdale, Monasticon Anglicanum, vol. vi., edited bj
John Caley and others (1846). (G. J. T.)
RIDLEY, NICHOLAS (c. 1500-1555), English bishop and
martyr, was descended from an old Northumberland family
The second son of Christopher Ridley of Unthank Hall, nea
Willemoteswick, in that county, he was born in the beginning
of the 1 6th century. From a school at Newcastle-on-Tyne he
was sent about 1518 to Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, being
supported there by his uncle, Dr Robert Ridley (d. 1536), anc
specially distinguishing himself in Greek. Having graduatec
M.A. in 1526, he went to study at the Sorbonne in Paris anc
at Louvain, and on his return to Cambridge he was appointee
junior treasurer of his college. In 1534 he was one of the
university proctors, and he signed the decree of the university
against the jurisdiction of the pope in England. About this
time Ridley, who was now chaplain to the university, began to
distinguish himself as an orator and a disputant, and to show
leanings to the reformed faith. Having proceeded B.D. in
1537, he was appointed by Thomas Cranmer, archbishop oi
Canterbury, one of his chaplains, and in April 1538 the same
prelate instituted him to the vicarage of Herne in Kent. In
1540 he was chosen master of Pembroke Hall; in 1541 he became
chaplain to Henry VIII. and canon of Canterbury. In 1543 he
was accused of heretical teaching and practices, but he managed
to alky the suspicions of the royal commissioners, although
just after his exculpation he finally abandoned the doctrine of
transubstantiation.
In 1547 Ridley was presented by his college to the Cambridge-
shire living of Soham, and in September of the same year he was
nominated bishop of Rochester. Edward VI. was now on the
throne and the new bishop was in high favour. He was one of
the visitors who were appointed to establish protestantism in
the university of Cambridge; in 1548 he helped to compile the
English prayer book; and in 1549 he was one of the com-
missioners who examined Bishops Gardiner and Bonner. He
concurred in their deprivation and succeeded Bonner in the
see of London. Having signed the letters patent settling the
English crown on Lady Jane Grey, Ridley, in a sermon preached
at St Paul's cross on the pth of July 1553, affirmed that the
princesses Mary and Elizabeth were illegitimate and that the
succession of the former would be disastrous to the religious
interests of England. When Lady Jane's cause was lost,
however, he went to Framlingham to ask Queen Mary's pardon,
but at once he was arrested and sent to the Tower of London.
From his prison he wrote in defence of his religious opinions,
and early in 1554 he, with Cranmer and Latimer, was sent to
Oxford to be examined. He defended himself against a number
of divines, but was declared a heretic, and this was followed by
his excommunication. He refused to recant, and in October
1555 he was tried for heresy under the new penal laws,
being degraded and sentenced to death. With Cranmer and
Latimer he met his end at the stake in Oxford on the i6th
of October 1555.
Ridley was a voluminous writer, but many of his writings have been
lost. The Works of Nicholas Ridley D.D. were edited for the Parker
Society by the Rev Henry Christmas in 1841. His Life was written
by Dr Gloucester Ridley in 1763, and there is a memoir of him in
H. C. G. Moule s edition of the bishops' Declaration of the Lord's
Supper (1895). See also John Foxe's Acts and Monuments (new
ed., 1877); J. Strypes Memorials of Cranmer (new ed., Oxford,
ut ; T A Bu et f History of the Reformation (new ed., Oxford,
H' w- Fr ?" de f Hftory of England (1881 fol.); and J. Lin-
gard s History of England (1854-55).
RIDOLFI, or RIDOLFO, ROBERTO DI (1531-1612), Italian
conspirator, belonged to a famous family of Florence, where
he was born on the i8th of November 1531. As a banker he
had business connexions with England, and about 1555 he settled
in London, where he soon became a person of some importance
and consorted with William Cecil and other prominent men
During the early years of Elizabeth's reign he began to take a
more active part in politics, associating with the discontented
Roman Catholics in England and communicating with their
friends abroad. In 1570 he set to work on the plot against the
queen which is usually associated with his name. His intention
was to marry Mary, queen of Scots, to the duke of Norfolk and
to place her on the English throne. With the aid of John
Lesley, bishop of Ross, he gained the consent of these high
personages to the conspiracy, and then in 1571 he visited the
duke of Alva at Brussels, Pius V. at Rome, and Philip II. at
Madrid to explain to them his scheme and to gain their active
assistance thereto. His messenger, by name Charles Baillie
(1542-1625), was, however, seized at Dover, and in other ways
the English government heard of the intended rising. Conse-
quently, Norfolk and Lesley were arrested, the former being
condemned to death in January 1572. Ridolfi, who was then
in Paris, could do nothing when he heard this news, and his
scheme collapsed. Afterwards he served the pope, but much
of his later life was spent in Florence, where he became a senator
and where he died on the i8th of February 1612
RIEGER, PHILIPP FRIEDRICK VON (1818-1903), Bo-
hemian politician and publicist, was born on the i8th of
December 1818 at Semil in the circle of JiCin, Bohemia. He
first came into prominence as one of the Czech leaders in the
revolution of 1848. He was returned by seven constituencies
to the ReiMstag at Vienna, where he was the leader of the
Czech party. In 1853 he married a daughter of the historian
Palacky. In 1858 he started the Slomik nautny, the Czech
national encyclopaedia, the first volume of which was published
in 1859, the nth and last in 1874. He was also instrumental in
founding the first Czech political daily newspaper published in
Prague, which appeared on the ist of January 1861, and of which
he was for awhile the editor. After the issue of the " October
diploma" of 1860, Rieger, with his father-in-law, Palacky,
undertook the leadership of the reconstituted Czech party, and
after the decision of this party in 1863 no longer to attend the
Austrian Reichsrath, he led the agitation in favour of the restora-
tion of the Bohemian kingdom. In 1871 he conducted the
negotiations with the Hohenenwarth ministry for a federal
constitution of the empire, which broke down owing to his
extreme attitude in the matter of Bohemian independence.
On the reappearance of the Czechs in the Bohemian diet (1878)
and the Austrian Reichsrath (1879) Rieger was one of the leaders
of the federalist majority supporting Count Taaffe's government
and the chief of the so-called " Old Czechs." On his seventieth
nrthday (December 10, 1888) he received a national gift of
100,000 gulden; but, in spite of this evidence of his popularity,
his conservatism, his close connexion with the Bohemian nobility
and his clerical tendencies brought him into conflict with the
growing influence of the radicaf " Young Czech " party, and in
1891, together with the other " Old Czechs," he was defeated
at the poll. In March 1897 he was created a baron (Freiherr)
ind given a seat in the Upper House. He continued occasionally
o interfere in politics; but his influence was now at an end,
hough when he died, on the 3rd of March 1903, his funeral
at Prague was made the occasion of a magnificent demonstra-
ion of respect.
RIEGO NUNEZ, RAFAEL DEL (1784-1823), Spanish
army officer, who has the melancholy distinction of having
begun the long series of political military mutinies pronuncia-
mientosin Spain, was born at Santa Maria de Tuna in Asturias
n the 2nd of April 1784. He was educated for the legal pro-
ession at Oviedo, and passed the necessary examinations. But
n 1807 he enlisted in the guard. When the French invasion
ook place in 1808 he was employed by the junta of Asturias
nd placed in command of a newly raised battalion. He was
aken prisoner at the battle of Espinosa de los Monteros, on
he loth and nth of November 1808, and was sent to France.
During his years of imprisonment he, like many others of his
ountrymen, was converted to liberalism on the French model,
tiego had the good fortune to escape and to reach England after
arious wanderings in Switzerland and Germany. In England
RIEHM RIEMANN
321
he was incorporated with other rescued or escaped Spaniards,
in a corps equipped by the British government, and was sent
to Spain in 1814. He continued in service as a military officer,
and was commandant of the second battalion of the regiment
" Asturias," which formed part of the army collected at Cadiz
to be sent to South America in 1819. Service in America was
unpopular with the soldiers, and there was much discontent
in the country with the government of King Ferdinand VII.
A conspiracy was formed among the officers to use the army
for the purpose of forcing the king to grant a constitution.
They were betrayed by a general who at first professed to
sympathize with them, and many were arrested. Riego was
apparently not suspected, and he decided to act on his own
account. On New Year's Day 1820 he made his pronuncia-
miento with his regiment at the village of Cabezas de San Juan.
He proclaimed for the constitution drawn up by the Cortes in
1812, which was unworkable, and which the chiefs of the con-
spiracy did not propose to restore. He hoped to seize Cadiz,
but it was held by a loyal officer, and for a time no popular
movement took place. Riego now started on a revolutionary
propaganda through Andalusia at the head of his regiment.
The country proved hostile or at the best indifferent. His
following gradually melted away, and he was about to flee to
Portugal when Galicia revolted. The rebellion extended rapidly,
and the king was compelled to yield. When the liberals were
in possession of power they would gladly have kept Riego in a
subordinate place. But he came to the capital, where he was
soon the most popular spokesman of the extreme parties.
There he discredited himself by his vanity, and shocked even
the populace of Madrid by appearing drunk at the theatre.
He was at last persuaded to accept the military command in
Aragon, which he thought below his merits. He began intrigues
and agitations. The government was strong enough to put
him under arrest at Lerida. When the new Cortes was
elected in 1822, he was chosen deputy for his native city Oviedo,
and the radicals selected him as president of the chamber on
the 1 7th of February 1823. The unceasing intrigues of the
king, the incapacity of the moderate parties and the hysterical
excitement of the mob combined to make anarchy worse daily.
Riego was the noisiest shouter of all. When the French inter-
vention took place, he helped to carry the king to Cadiz, and
he fought a few unsuccessful skirmishes with the invaders.
He was at last captured at a farmhouse near Arguillos in the
province of Jaen. Unfortunately for him, he fell into the hands
of the royalist volunteers, by whom he was carried to the capital.
On his way he was repeatedly mobbed and had many narrow
escapes from being torn to pieces. He was hanged at Madrid
in the Plaza de la Cebada on the 7th of November 1823. At the
end he professed abject repentance for his impiety and dis-
loyalty. The popular revolutionary tune of Spain, the " himno
de Riego," is named after him, and his picture is hung in the
Cortes, but he was a poor creature, and a bad example of the
light-headed military agitators who have caused Spain much
misery.
H. Baumgarten, Geschichte Spaniens (Berlin, 1865-1871).
RIEHM, EDUARD KARL AUGUST (1830-1888), German
Protestant theologian, was born at Diersburg in Baden on the
20th of December 1830. He studied theology and philology at
Heidelberg and later at Halle under Hermann Hupfeld, who
persuaded him to include Arabic, Syriac and Egyptian. Enter-
ing the ministry in 1853, he was made vicar at Durlach soon
afterwards, and became a licentiate in the theological faculty at
Heidelberg. In 1854 he was appointed garrison-preacher at
Mannheim; and in 1858 he was licensed to lecture at Heidelberg,
where in 1861 he was made professor extraordinarius. In 1862
he obtained a similar post at Halle, and in 1866 was promoted
to the rank of professor ordinarius. Throughout his life he
followed Hupfeld's plan in his scientific treatment of the Old
Testament that of reconciling the results of a free criticism
with a belief in divine revelations. His practical experience of
pastoral work also proved of service to him when he became a
professor of theology, for " if there is one quality more striking
than another in the writings of Riehm, it is that of sympathy
with orthodox believers" (T. K. Cheyne). In 1865 Riehm was
made a member of the commission for the revision of Luther's
translation of the Bible, and became one of the editors of the
quarterly review, Theologische Studien und Kritiken. He died
on the 5th of April 1888.
His works include: Die Gesetzgebung Mosis im Lande Moab (1854),
in which the Deuteronomic law book is assigned to the second
half of the reign of Manasseh; Der Lehrbegriff des Hebrderbriefs
(1858-^59, 2nd ed. 1867); Hermann Hupfeld, Lebens-und Charakter-
bildeines deutschen Professors (1867); Die Messianische Weissagung
(1875, 2nd ed. 1883; Eng. trans. 1890); Religion und Wissen-
schaft (1881); and the well-known Handworterbuch des biblischen
Altertums (2 vols., 1884; 2nd. ed". revised by F. Baethgen, 1892-94).
After his death were published the Einleitung in das Alte Testament
(1889, ed. by A. Brandt), in which the date of the Deuteronomic
law book is placed earlier than in his book on the legislation of
Moses shortly before or at the beginning of the reign of Hezekiah;
and his Alttestameniliche Theolpgie (1889, ed. by Pahncke). See
Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie, and T. K. Cheyne, Founders of
Old Testament Criticism.
RIEL, LOUIS (1844-1885), Canadian agitator, son of Louis
Riel and Julie de Lagemaundie're, was born at St Boniface, on
the 23rd of October 1844, according to his own account, though
others place his birth in 1847. Though known as a half-breed,
or Metis, and though with both Indian and Irish ancestors, his
blood was mainly French. From July 1866 he worked for two
years at various occupations in Minnesota, returning in July 1868
to St Vital, near St Boniface. In 1869 the transfer of the
territorial rights of the Hudson's Bay Company to the dominion
of Canada gave great uneasiness to the Metis', and in October
1869 a party led by Riel turned back at the American frontier
the newly appointed Canadian governor; in November they
captured Fort Garry (Winnipeg), the headquarters of the
Company, and called a convention which passed a bill of rights.
In December a provisional government was set up, of which
on the 29th of December Riel was made president, and which
defeated two attacks made on it by the English-speaking
settlers of the vicinity. So far the M6tis had been within their
rights, but Riel was flighty, vain and mystical, and his judicial
murder on the 4th of March 1870 of Thomas Scott, an Orange-
man from Ontario, roused against him the whole of English-
speaking Canada. An expedition was equipped and sent out
under Colonel Garnet, later Lord, Wolseley, which captured
Fort Garry on the 24th of August 1870, Riel decamping. (See
STRATHCONA, LORD.) He was not arrested, and on the 4th of
August 1871 urged his countrymen to combine with the Cana-
dians against a threatened attack from American Fenians, for
which good service he was publicly thanked by the lieutenant-
governor. In 1872 for religious reasons he changed his name to
Louis David Riel. In October 1873 he became member of the
Dominion parliament for Provencher, came to Ottawa and took
the oath, but did not sit. On the i6th of April 1874 he was
expelled the House, but in September was again elected for
Provencher; on the loth of February 1875 he was outlawed, and
the seat thereby again vacated. In 1877-78 he was for over a year
a patient in the Beauport asylum for the insane, but from 1879
to 1884 he lived quietly in Montana, where in 1881 he married
Marguerite Bellimeure. In 1884 in response to a deputation
from the Metis, who had moved west to the forks of the Saskat-
chewan river, he returned to Canada to win redress for their
wrongs. His own rashness and the ineptitude of Canadian
politicians and officials brought on a rising, which was crushed
after some hard fighting, and on the isth of May 1885 Riel
surrendered. He was imprisoned at Regina, was tried and on
the ist of August found guilty of treason, and on the i6th of
November was hanged at Regina, meeting his fate with courage.
His death was the signal for a fierce outburst of racialism in
Quebec and Ontario, which nearly overthrew the Conservative
government of the Dominion.
See J. S. Willison, Sir Wilfrid Laurier, vol. i.; George Bryce,
History of the Hudson's Bay Company (1900); and the Canadian
daily press for 1885.
RIEMANN, GEORG FRIEDRICH BERNHARD (1826-1866),
German mathematician, was born on the i7th of September
XXIII. II
322
RIEMANN
1826, at Breselenz, near Dannenberg in Hanover. His father,
Friedrich Bernhard Riemann, came from Mecklenburg, had
served in the war of freedom, and had finally settled as pastor
in Quickborn. Here with his five brothers and sisters Riemann
spent his boyhood and received, chiefly from his father, the
elements of his education. He showed at an early age well-
marked mathematical powers, and his progress was so rapid in
arithmetic and geometry that he was soon beyond the guidance
not only of his father but of schoolmaster Schulz, who assisted in
the mathematical department of his training.
In 1840 he went to Hanover, where he attended the lyceum,
and two years later he entered the Johanneum at Luneburg.
The director, Schmalfuss, encouraged him in his mathematical
studies by lending him books (among them Leonhard Euler's
works and Adrien Marie Legendre's Theory of Numbers), which
Riemann read, mastered and returned within a few days. In
1846 Riemann entered himself as a student of philology and
theology in the university of Gottingen. This choice of a
university career was dictated more by the natural desire of his
father to see his son enter his own profession, and by the poverty
of his family, than by his own preference. He attended lectures
on the numerical solution of equations and on definite integrals
by M. A. Stern, on terrestrial magnetism by Goldschmidt, and
on the method of least squares by K. F. Gauss. It soon became
evident that his mathematical studies, undertaken at first
probably as a relaxation, were destined to be the chief business
of his life. He proceeded in the beginning of 1847 to Berlin,
attracted thither by that brilliant constellation of mathematical
genius whose principal stars were P. G. L. Dirichlet, C. G. J.
Jacobi, J. Steiner and F. G. M. Eisenstein. He appears to have
attended Dirichlet's lectures on theory of numbers, theory of
definite integrals, and partial differential equations, and Jacobi's
on analytical mechanics and higher algebra. It was during this
period that he first formed those ideas on the theory of functions
of a complex variable which led to most of his great discoveries.
One stirring social incident at least marked this part of his life,
for, during the revolutionary insurrection in March 1848, the
young mathematician, as a member of a company of student
volunteers, kept guard in the royal palace from 9 o'clock on the
morning of the 24th of March till i o'clock on the afternoon of
the following day.
In 1850 he returned to Gottingen and began to prepare his
doctor's dissertation, busying himself meanwhile with " Natur-
philosophie " and experimental physics. This double cultiva-
tion of his scientific powers had the happiest effect on his
subsequent work; for the greatest achievements of Riemann
were effected by the application in pure mathematics generally
of a method (theory of potential) which had up to this time
been used solely in the solution of certain problems that arise
in mathematical physics.
In November 1851 he obtained his doctorate, the thesis being
" Grundlagen fur eine allgemeine Theorie der Functionen einer
veranderlichen complexen Grosse." This memoir excited the
admiration of Gauss, and at once marked its author's rank
as a mathematician. The fundamental method of research
which Riemann employed has just been alluded to; the results
will be best indicated in his own words:
"The methods in use hitherto for treating functions of a complex
variable always started from an expression for the function as its
definition, whereby its value was given for every value of the argu-
ment ; by our investigation it has been shown that, in consequence
of the general character of a function of a complex variable, in a
definition of this sort one part of the determining conditions is a
consequence of the rest, and the extent of the determining conditions
has been reduced to what is necessary to effect the determination.
This essentially simplifies the treatment of such functions. Hitherto,
in order to prove the equality of two expressions for the same
function, it was necessary to transform the one into the other,
i.e. to show that both expressions agreed for every value of the
variable; now it is sufficient to prove their agreement to a far less
extent" [merely in certain critical points and at certain boundaries].
The time between his promotion to the doctorate and his
habilitation as Privatdozent was occupied by researches
undertaken for his Habilitationsschrift, by " Naturphilosophie,"
and by experimental work. The subject he had chosen for his
Habilitationsschrift was the " Representation of a Function
by Means of a Trigonometrical Series," a subject which Dirichlet
had made his own by a now well-known series of researches.
It was fortunate, no doubt, for Riemann that he had the kind
advice and encouragement of Dirichlet himself, who was then
on a visit at Gottingen during the preparation of his essay;
but the result was a memoir of such originality and refinement
as showed that the pupil was fully the equal of the. master.
Of the customary three themes which he suggested for his trial
lecture, that " On the Hypotheses which form the Foundation
of Geometry" was chosen at the instance of Gauss, who was
curious to hear what s6 young a man had to say on this difficult
subject, on which he himself had in private speculated so pro-
foundly (see GEOMETRY, NON-EUCLIDIAN).
In 1855 Gauss died and was succeeded by Dirichlet, who
along with others made an effort to obtain Riemann's nomina-
tion as extraordinary professor. In this they were not success-
ful; but a government stipend of 200 thalers was given him,
and even this miserable pittance was of great importance, so
straitened were his circumstances. But this small beginning
of good fortune was embittered by the deaths of his father and
his eldest sister, and by the breaking up of the home at Quick-
born. Meantime he was lecturing and writing the great memoir
(Borchardt's Journal, vol. liv., 1857) in which he applied the
theory developed in his doctor's dissertation to the Abelian
functions. It is amusing to find him speaking jubilantly of
the unexpectedly large audience of eight which assembled to
hear his first lecture (in 1854) on partial differential equations
and their application to physical problems.
Riemann's health had never been strong. Even in his
boyhood he had shown symptoms of consumption, the disease
that was working such havoc in his family; and now under
the strain of work he broke down altogether, and had to retire
to the Harz with his friends Ritter and R. Dedekind, where he
gave himself up to excursions and " Naturphilosophie." After
his return to Gottingen (November 1857) he was made extra-
ordinary professor, and his salary raised to 300 thalers. As
usual with him, misfortune followed close behind; for he lost
in quick succession his brother Wilhelm and another sister.
In 1859 he lost his friend Dirichlet; but his reputation was
now so well established that he was at once appointed to
succeed him. Well-merited honours began to reach him; and
in 1860 he visited Paris, and met with a warm reception there.
He married Elise Koch in June 1862, but the following month
he had an attack of pleurisy which proved the beginning of a
long illness that ended only with his death. His physician
recommended a sojourn in Italy, for the benefit of his health,
and Weber and Sartorius von Waltershausen obtained from
the government leave of absence and means to defray the cost
of the journey. At first it seemed that he would recover;
but on his return in June 1863 he caught cold on the Spliigen
Pass, and in August of the same year had to go back to Italy.
In November 1865 he returned again to Gottingen, but, although
he was able to live through the winter, and even to work a few
hours every day, it became clear to his friends, and clearest of
all to himself, that he was dying. In order to husband his few
remaining days he resolved in June 1866 to return once more
to Italy. Thither he journeyed through the confusion of the
first days of the Austro-Prussian War, and settled in a villa
at Selasca near Intra on Lago Maggiore. Here his strength
rapidly ebbed away, but his mental faculties remained brilliant
to the last. On the igth of July 1866 he was working at his
last unfinished investigation on the mechanism of the ear.
The day following he died. Few as were the years of work
allotted to him, and few as are the printed pages covered by
the record of his researches, his name is, and will remain, a
household word among mathematicians. Most of his memoirs
are masterpieces full of original methods, profound ideas
and far-reaching imagination.
The collected works of Riemann were published by H. Weber,
assisted by R. Dedekind (8vo, Leipzig, 1876; 2nd ed., 1892).
RIENZI RIESA
323
At the end of this volume there is a touching account of his life
by the latter. (G. CH.)
RIENZI, COLA DI (c. 1313-1354), tribune of the Roman
people, was born in Rome, being the son of a tavern-keeper
named Lorenzo Gabrini. His father's Christian name was
shortened to Rienzo,and his own, Nicholas, to Cola; hence the
Cola di Rienzi, or Rienzo, by which he is generally known. His
early years were passed at Anagni. Having devoted much
time to the study of the Latin writers, historians, orators and
poets, and filled his mind with stories of the glories and the
power of ancient Rome, he turned his thoughts to the task of
restoring his native city to its pristine greatness, his zeal for
this work being quickened by the desire to avenge his brother,
who had been killed by a noble, a member of the ruling class.
He became a notary and a person of some importance in the
city, and was sent in 1343 on a public errand to Pope Clement
VI. at Avignon. He discharged his duties with ability and
success, and although the boldness with which he denounced
the aristocratic rulers of Rome drew down upon him the enmity
of powerful rren, he won the favour and esteem of the pope, who
gave him an official position at his court. Returning to Rome
about April 1344 he worked for three years at the great object
of his life, the restoration of the city to its former position of
power. He gathered together a band of supporters, plans
were drawn up, and at length all was ready for the rising. On
the ipth of May 1347 heralds invited the people to a parliament
on the Capitol, and on the 2oth, the day being Whit-Sunday,
the meeting took place. Dressed in full armour and attended
by the papal vicar, Cola headed a procession to the Capitol;
here he addressed the assembled crowd, speaking " with
fascinating eloquence of the servitude and redemption of
Rome." A new series of laws was published and accepted
with acclaim, and unlimited authority was given to the author
of the revolution. Without striking a blow the nobles left
the city or went into hiding, and a few days later Rienzi took
the title of tribune (Nicholaus, severus et clemcns, libertatis,
pacts justiciaeque tribunus, et sacre Romane Reipublice liberator).
His authority quickly and quietly accepted by all classes,
the new ruler governed the city with a stern justice which was
in marked contrast to the recent reign of licence and disorder.
In great state the tribune moved through the streets of Rome,
being received at St Peter's with the hymn Veni Creator spiritus,
while in a letter the poet Petrarch urged him to continue his
great and noble work, and congratulated him on his past
achievements, calling him the new Camillus, Brutus and
Romulus. In July in a sonorous decree he proclaimed the
sovereignty of the Roman people over the empire, but before
this he had set to work upon his task of restoring the authority
of Rome over the cities and provinces of Italy, of making the
city again capul mundi. He wrote letters to the cities of Italy,
asking them to send representatives to an assembly which
would meet on the ist of August, when the formation of a great
federation under the headship of Rome would be considered.
On the appointed day a number of representatives appeared,
and after some elaborate and fantastic ceremonials Rienzi, as
dictator, issued an edict citing the emperor Louis the Bavarian
and his rival Charles, afterwards the emperor Charles IV., and
also the imperial electors and all others concerned in the dispute,
to appear before him in order that he might pronounce judgment
in the case. On the following day the festival of the unity of
Italy was celebrated, but neither this nor the previous meet-
ing had any practical result. Rienzi's power, however, was
recognized in Naples, whence both Queen Joanna and her
bitter foe, King Louis of Hungary, appealed to him for pro-
tection and aid, and on the i$th of August he was crowned
tribune with great pomp, wreaths of flowers being placed on
his head. Gregorovius says this ceremony " was the fantastic
caricature in which ended the imperium of Charles the Great.
A world where political action was represented in such guise
was ripe for overthrow, or could only be saved by a great
mental reformation." He then seized, but soon released,
Stephen Colonna and some other barons who had spoken
disparagingly of him. But his power was already beginning
to wane. His extravagant pretensions only served to excite
ridicule. His government was costly, and to meet its many
expenses he was obliged to lay heavy taxes upon the people.
He offended the pope by his arrogance and pride, and both pope
and emperor by his proposal to set up a new Roman empire,
the sovereignty of which would rest directly upon the will of
the people. In October Clement gave power to a legate to
depose him and bring him to trial, and the end was obviously
in sight. Taking heart, the exiled barons gathered together
some troops, and war began in the neighbourhood of Rome.
Rienzi obtained aid from Louis of Hungary and others, and
on the zoth of November his forces defeated the nobles in a
battle just outside the gates of Rome, a battle in which the
tribune himself took no part, but in which his most distinguished
foe, Stephen Colonna, was killed. But this victory did not
save him. He passed his time in feasts and pageants, while
in a bull the pope denounced him as a criminal, a pagan and
a heretic, until, terrified by a slight disturbance on the isth of
December, he abdicated and fled from Rome. He sought refuge
in Naples, but soon he left that city and spent over two years
in an Italian mountain monastery.
Emerging from his solitude Rienzi journeyed to Prague,
which he reached in July 1350, and threw himself upon the
protection of the emperor Charles IV. Denouncing the temporal
power of the pope he implored the emperor to deliver Italy,
and especially Rome, from their oppressors; but, heedless of
his invitations, Charles kept him in prison for more than a year
in the fortress of Raudnitz, and then handed him over to
Clement, who had been clamouring for his surrender. At
Avignon, where he appeared in August 1352, Rienzi was tried
by three cardinals, and was sentenced to death, but this judgment
was not carried out, and he remained in prison in spite of
appeals from Petrarch for his release. Freedom, however, was
at hand. In December 1352 Clement died, and his successor,
Innocent VI., anxious to strike a blow at the baronial rulers
of Rome, and seeing in the former tribune an excellent tool
for this purpose, pardoned and released his prisoner. Giving him
the title of senator, he sent him to Italy with the legate, Cardinal
Albornoz, and having collected a few mercenary troops on the
way, Rienzi entered Rome in August 1354. He was received
with great rejoicings and quickly regained his former position
of power. But this latter term of office was destined to be
even shorter than his former one had been. Having vainly
besieged the fortress of Palestrina, he returned to Rome, where
he treacherously seized the soldier of fortune, Fra Monreale,
who was put to death, and where, by other cruel and arbitrary
deeds, he soon lost the favour of the people. Their passions
were quickly aroused and a tumult broke out on the 8th of
October. Rienzi attempted to address them, but the building
in which he stood was fired, and while trying to escape in
disguise he was murdered by the mob. Rienzi was the hero
of one of the finest of Petrarch's odes, Spirito gentil, and also
of some beautiful verses by Lord Byron. He was a man of
vivid, but disordered, imagination, without possessing any
conception of statesmanship. In 1887 a statue of the tribune
was erected at the foot of the Capitoline Hill in Rome.
Rienzi's life and fate have formed the subject of a famous novel
by Bulwer Lytton, of an opera by Wagner and of a tragedy by
Julius Mosen. His letters, edited by A. Gabrielli, are published in
vol. vi. of the Fonti per la storia d Italia (Rome, 1890). See also
Papencordt, Cola di Rienzo und seine Zeit (Hamburg, 1841) ; Auriac,
Etude historique sur N. Rienzi (Amiens, 1885); E. Rodocanachi,
Cola di Rienzi (Paris, 1888); KUhn, Die Entwickelung der Bundnis-
pldne Cola di Rienzos im Jahre 1347 (Berlin, 1905) ; A. yon Reumpnt.
Geschichte der Stadl Rom (1867-70); and F. Gregorovius, Geschichte
der Stadt Rom im Mittelatter, vol. vi. (Eng. trans., by A.
Hamilton, 1898). (A. W. H>)
RIESA, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony,
pleasantly situated on the left bank of the Elbe, 30 m. N.W. of
Dresden, on the main line of railway to Leipzig, and at the
junction of lines to Chemnitz, Elsterwerda and Nossen. Pop.
14,073. The river is here crossed by a fine bridge, a
324
RIESENER RIESENGEBIRGE
sandstone and iron structure, carrying both railway and road,
and replacing the one carried away by floods in 1875. The
town contains two Evangelical churches, a castle, formerly a
convent and now used as a town hall, and several schools.
There is a harbour with quays and a dockyard, also rolling-
mills and saw-mills, ironworks and sandstone quarries. Other
industries are the manufacture of furniture, beer, soap, carriages
and bricks. The most important shipping station on the Elbe
in Saxony, Riesa is the lading-place for goods to and from
Bavaria, and a mart for herrings, petroleum, wood, coal and
grain. A constant passenger steamboat communication is
maintained with Meissen and Dresden; and, owing to the
artillery practice ranges at Zeithain, on the right bank of the
Elbe, Riesa has become of recent years one of the chief depots
of the Saxon army. Riesa received municipal rights in 1632,
and after a period of decay was again raised to the rank of
a town in 1859.
RIESENER, JEAN HENRI (1734-1806), French cabinet-maker
of the Louis XVI. period, was born at Gladbach near Cologne.
At an early age he went to Paris, where he entered the workshop
in the Arsenal of Jean Francois Oeben (?..). When that great
master died, Riesener became foreman of the works; two years
later he married Mme. Oeben, and in 1 768 was admitted " maitre-
menuisier-ebeniste." His wife died in 1776, and in 1782 he
espoused, as his second wife, Anne Grezel, daughter of a bourgeois
of Paris. The union was unhappy, and when, under the first
Republic, divorce was legalized, the marriage was dissolved.
When Riesener contracted his first marriage he possessed little
or nothing; his second contract of marriage recited that in cash
and in the money due to him by Louis XVI. he was worth more
than 20,000, without counting the finished work in hand, bronze
models, jewels and personal effects and invested funds. Thus in
fifteen years he had accumulated a f ortuneamountingin all to about
40,000. By that time there had been conferred upon him the
title, formerly enjoyed by Oeben, of " Ebeniste du Roi." He died
on the 6th of January 1806, in the Enclos des Jacobins, leaving
an only son, Henri Francois (1767-1828), a distinguished portrait-
painter of the First Empire. Riesener was unquestionably the
greatest of the Louis Seize cabinet-makers. His name is stamped
upon the Bureau du Roi in the Louvre, and although the original
conception of that master-work was due to Oeben, it cannot be
doubted that its consummate finish and perfect achievement
must in great measure be attributed to the man who completed
it. Occasionally there may, perhaps, be some lack of spon-
taneity in his forms, but his work is generally at once bold and
graceful. His marquetry presents an extraordinary finish; his
chiselled bronzes are of the first excellence. He was especially
distinguished for his cabinets, in which he employed many
European as well as exotic woods. Wreaths and bunches of
flowers form the centres of the panels; on the sides are often
diaper patterns in quiet colours. Yet despite his distinction as
a maker of cabinets his high-water mark was reached in the
Bureau du Roi, finished in 1769 and consequently belonging
rather to the Louis Quinze than the Louis Seize period, and
a not altogether dissimilar cylinder bureau believed to have
been made for Stanislas Leszczynski, king of Poland, now in the
Wallace Collection. Stanislas died in 1766, but the desk was not
completed until February 20, 1769, as appears by the inscription
accompanying the maker's signature. Upon its completion it
passed into the possession of the French crown and was included
in a sale of the royal furniture which took place in Holland. It
was purchased by Sir William Hamilton, then British Minister
at the Hague, and appears to have passfid out of his hands when
he left Naples, where it was purchased by Sir Richard Wallace.
At Buckingham Palace there is a third bureau on the same lines.
These pieces are triumphs of marquetry. They are inlaid with
trophies of musical instruments, doves, bouquets and garlands of
flowers; the bronze vases and " galleries" are exquisite they
may possibly be the work of Gouthiere, but are more probably
from the hands of Duplessis. For several years this great artist
appears to have used the models of his master Oeben, but there
was a gradual transition to a style more individual, more
delicately conceived, with finer but hardly less vigorous lines.
By the time he had been working alone for ten years he had
completely embraced the Louis Seize manner he had, perhaps,
some responsibility for it. One of the most distinguished of his
achievements for the court was the famous flat writing-table
now at the Petit Trianon, for which he received only 200. The
extent of these royal orders may be gauged from the fact that
between 1775 and 1785 Riesener received 500,000 livres from
the Garde Meubles, notwithstanding that during the whole of this
period Gondouin the architect was the official designer of furniture
for the royal palaces. Like so many other artists he was con-
demned in the end to sacrifice to the false taste of his day,
and a certain number of his creations, otherwise delightful,
were vitiated by being mounted with panels of Sevres, Wedg-
wood and other china. The beautiful little secretaire in the
Jones collection in the Victoria and Albert Museum suffers
seriously by this lapse.
RIESENGEBIRGE (Bohemian Krkonose), or Giant Moun-
tains, a lofty and rugged group on the boundary of Silesia and
Bohemia, between the upper courses of the Elbe and the Oder.
They form the highest portion of the Sudetic system which
separates south-east Prussia from the Austrian empire, and
finds its natural continuation towards the N.W. in the Erz-
gebirge, the Thuringian Forest and the Harz Mountains.
Adjoining the Isergebirge and the Lausitzergebirge on the
W., and the Eulengebirge and the Adlergebirge on the E. and
S.E., the Riesengebirge proper run S.E. and N.W. between the
sources of the Zacken and the Bober, for a distance of 23 m.,
with a breadth of 14 m. They cover an area of about 425 sq. m.,
three-fourths of which is in Austrian, and the remainder in
Prussian territory. The boundary line follows the crest of the
principal chain or ridge (Riesenkamm), which stretches along
the northern side of the group, with an average height of over
4000 ft. The principal peaks are the Reiftrager (4430 ft.), the
Hohe Rad (4968 ft.), the Great Sturmhaube (4862 ft.), the Little
Sturmhaube (4646 ft.), and, near the east extremity, the
Schneekoppe or Riesenkoppe (5266 ft.), the loftiest mountain
in northern or central Germany. Roughly parallel to this
northern ridge, and separated from it by a long narrow valley
known as the Siebengriinde, there extends on the S. a second and
lower chain, of broad massive " saddles," with comparatively
few peaks. The chief heights here are Kesselkoppe (478 ft.),
the Krkonose (4849 ft.), the Ziegenriicken and the Brunnen-
berg (5072 ft.). From both ridges spurs of greater or less length
are sent off at various angles, whence a magnificent view is
obtained from Breslau to Prague; the lowlands of Silesia,
watered by the Oder, and those of Bohemia, intersected by the
Elbe and the Moldau, appearing to lie mapped in relief. The
summit is crowned by a chapel dedicated to St Lawrence, which
once also served as a traveller's shelter. Since 1850 the chapel
has been restored to its religious use, and a hotel for the accom-
modation of tourists is built close by. A remarkable group of
isolated columnar rocks are those known as the Adersbacher
Felsen in a valley on the Bohemian side of the Riesengebirge,
9 m. W.N.W. of Braunau.
On its northern side this mountain group rises ruggedly and
precipitously from the Hirschberg valley; but on its southern
side its slope towards Bohemia is very much more gradual.
The scenery is in general bold and wild. The Bohemian ridge
is cleft about the middle by a deep gorge through which pour
the headwaters of the river Elbe, which finds its source in the
Siebengriinde. The Iser, Bober, Aupa, Zacken, Queiss, and a
great number of smaller streams also rise among these mountains
or on their skirts; and small lakes and tarns are not unfrequent
in the valleys. The Great and Little Schneegruben two deep
rocky gorge-like valleys in which snow remains all the year
round lie to the north of the Hohe Rad.
Nearly the whole of the Riesenkamm and the western portion
of the southern chain are granite; the eastern extremity of the
main ridge and several mountains to the south-east are formed of a
species of gneiss; and the greater part of the Bohemian chain,
especially its summits, consists of mica-slate. Blocks of these
minerals lie scattered on the sides and ridges of the mountains and
RIETI RIFLE
325
in the beds of the streams ; and extensive turf moors occupy many
of the mountain slopes and valleys. The lower parts of the Riesenge-
birge are clad w .th forests of oak, beech, pine and fir; above 1600 ft.
only the last two kinds of trees are found, and beyond about
3950 ft. only the dwarf pine (Pinus Pumilio). Various alpine
plants are found on the Riesengebirge, some of them having been
artificially introduced on the Schneekoppe. Wheat is grown at
an elevation of 1800 ft. above the sea-level, and oats as high as
2700 ft. Th<; inhabitants of this mountain region, who are tolerably
numerous, ef pecially on the Bohemian side, live for the most part,
not in villages, but in scattered huts called " Bauden." They
support themselves by the rearing of cattle, tillage, glass-making
and linen-weaving. Mining is carried on only to a small extent for
arsenic, although there are traces of former more extensive workings
for other metals.
The Riesengebirge has of late years been made easily accessible
by railway, several branches from the main lines, both on the
Silesian and Bohemian side, penetrating the valleys, and thus many
spots in the Riesengebirge are a good deal frequented in the summer.
The Schneekoppe and other summits are annually visited by a
considerable number of travellers, notably the spas of Warmbrunn
(near Hirschberg) and Flinsberg on the Gneis, and Gorbersdorf,
known as a climate health resort for consumptives. The Riesenge-
birge is the legendary home of Number Nip (Rubezahl), a half-
mischievous, half-friendly goblin of German folklore, and various
localities in the group are more or less directly associated with his
name.
See Beemann's Oratio de monte Giganteo (Frankfort a. O. 1679) ;
Daniel, Deutschland, vol. i. pp. 277-78; and Gebauer, Ldnder-und
Volkerkunde, vol. i.
RIETI (anc. Rente), a city and episcopal see of Italy, in the
piovince of Perugia, 255 m. by rail and 15 m. direct S.S.E. of
Terni, which is 70 m. by rail from Rome. Pop. (1901) 14,145
(town), 17,716 (commune). It occupies a fine position 1318 ft.
above sea-level on the right bank of the Velino (a torrent sub-
tributary to the Tiber), which at this point issues from the
limestone plateau; the old town occupies the declivity and the
new town spreads out on the level. While with its quaint red-
roofed houses, its old town walls (restored about 1250), its castle,
its cathedral (i3th and isth centuries), its episcopal palace
(1283), and its various churches and convents Rieti has no small
amount of medieval picturesqueness; it also displays a good deal
of modern activity in vine and olive growing and cattle-breeding.
The fertility of the neighbourhood is celebrated both by Virgil
and by Cicero. A Roman bridge over the Turano, and the
Palazzo Vincentini by Vignola deserve to be mentioned.
Reate was reached from Rome by the Via Salaria (q.v.), which
may originally have ended there, and a branch road ran from it
to Interamna. While hardly mentioned in connexion with the
Punic or Civil Wars, Reate is described by Strabo as exhausted by
these long contests. Its inhabitants received the Roman franchise
at the same time with the rest of the Sabines (290 B.C.), but it appears
as a praefectura and not as a municipium down to the beginning
of the empire. It was never made a colonia, though veterans of
the Praetorian guard and of the eighth (Augusta) and ninth legions
were settled there by Vespasian, who belonged to a Reatine family
and was born in the neighbourhood. For the contests of the
Reatines with the people of Interamna see TERNI. In 1 148 the town
was besieged and captured by Roger I. of Sicily. In the struggle
between church and empire it always held with the former; and it
defied the forces of Frederick II. and Otho IV. Pope Nicholas IV.
long resided at Rieti, and it was there he crowned Charles II. of
Anjou king of the Two Sicilies. In the I4th century Robert, and
afterwards Joanna, of Naples managed to keep possession of Rieti
for many years, but it returned to the States of the Church under
Gregory IX. About the year 1500, the liberties of the town, long
defended against the encroachments of the popes, were entirely
abolished. An earthquake in 1785 was in 1799 followed by the
much more disastrous pillage of Rieti by the papal troops for a
space of fourteen days.
RIETSCHEL, ERNST FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1804-1861),
German sculptor, was born at Pulsnitz in Saxony. At an early
age he became an art student at Dresden, and subsequently
a pupil of Rauch in Berlin. He there gained an art studentship,
and studied in Rome in 1827-28. After returning to Saxony
he soon brought himself into notice by a colossal statue of
Frederick Augustus, king of Saxony; was elected a member of
the academy of Dresden, and thenceforth became one of the
chief sculptors of his country. In 1832 he was elected to the
Dresden professorship of sculpture, and had many foreign orders
of merit conferred on him by the governments of different
countries. He died at Dresden in 1861.
Rietschel's style was very varied; he produced works imbued
with much religious feeling, and to some extent he occupied the
same place as a sculptor that Overbeck did in painting. Other
important works by him were purely classical in style. He was
specially famed for his portrait figures of eminent men, treated with
much idealism and dramatic vigour; among the latter class his
chief works were colossal statues of Goethe and Schiller for the
town of Weimar, of Weber for Dresden and of Lessing for Brunswick.
He also designed the memorial statue of Luther for Worms, but died
before he could carry it out. The principal among Rietschel's
religious pieces of sculpture are the well-known Christ-Angel, and a
life-sized Pieta, executed for the king of Prussia. He also worked a
great deal in rilievo, and produced many graceful pieces, especially
a fine series of bas-reliefs representing Night and Morning, Noon and
Twilight, designed with much poetical feeling and imagination.
For a good biography of Rietschel and account of his works see
Appermann, Ernst Rietschel (Leipzig, 1863). (J. H. M.)
RIEU, CHARLES PIERRE HENRI (1820-1902), Swiss
Orientalist, was born at Geneva in 1820. He studied at Bonn
University, where he received his doctor's degree in 1843. He
entered the British Museum in 1847, and after twenty years of
service, a new post, that of keeper of Oriental manuscripts,
was created for him. He completed in 1871 the second part,
dealing with Arabian MSS., of the Catalogus codicum manu-
scriptorum orientalium, which had been begun by William
Cureton, and he issued a supplementary volume in 1894. He
also drew up a Catalogue of the Turkish Manuscripts (1888)
and a Catalogue of the Persian Manuscripts (4 vols., 1870-95),
the latter being a storehouse of information on the books and
their authors. In 1895 he was made professor of Arabic in the
university of Cambridge in succession to Robertson Smith. He
died in London on the igth of March 1902.
RIEVAULX, a village in the North Riding of Yorkshire,
England, 3 m. W. by N. of the small town of Helmsley, which
is served by a branch of the North-Eastern railway. Here,
exquisitely situated in a deep wooded valley, are the ruins of
Rievaulx Abbey, a foundation by Walter 1'Espec in 1131 for
Cistercians. The principal remains are those of the cruciform
church, mainly Early English in date, and of the finest workman-
ship. There are considerable fragments of the refectory, and
all the important domestic buildings may be traced. A beautiful
prospect over the ruins and the valley is seen from the terrace
on the eastern flanking hill.
RIFFIANS, the name given to the Berbers of the Rlf district
of Morocco, the mountain region bordering the north coast
from Ceuta eastward nearly to the borders of Algeria and forming
part of the Atlas range. The name, it has been suggested, is
identical with Libyan or Libi. A peculiarity of the Rlf dialect
is the change of the Arabic " 1 " to " r," and this would seem
to support this derivation, " b " and " f " being interchangeable
through " v." The Rimans are only nominally subject to the
sultan of Morocco, against whose authority they are in constant
revolt. They are typical Berbers in physique, tall, well made
and muscular, with European features and fair skins bronzed
by the sun. In morality they are singularly superior to their
neighbours. In order to prevent youthful unchastity, marriages
are contracted between children of eight years old, the girl
being brought home to live with the lad at his parents' home
till a child is born, when a separate dwelling is provided for the
youthful couple. The women are noted for their beauty.
The Rimans understand and speak Arabic very little. They
were among the fiercest and most cruel of the pirates of the
north coast of Africa. Even now they are entirely untrust-
worthy in this respect. See further BERBERS, MOROCCO,
MOORS, KABYLES, MZABITES.
RIFLE, a firearm which may be shortly defined as a musket
in which, by grooves (cf. Ger. riffeln, to groove) in the bore
or otherwise, the projectile is forced to rotate before leaving
the barrel. This rotatory motion, maintained during flight,
equalizes any irregularities in the form or weight of the bullet,
and so lessens the tendency to depart from a straight line, and
also in a measure overcomes atmospheric resistance. Rifling
was invented about 1520, by Gaspard Roller or Kollner, a
gunmaker of Vienna, according to some authorities; by August
Kotter of Nuremberg, according to others. It has been said
326
RIFLE
that at first the grooves were made straight, with the object
of admitting a tight-fitting bullet and relieving the effects of
fouling, and that the virtue of spiral grooving was subsequently
discovered by accident. But this theory is unsupported. The
earliest known rifle barrels have spiral grooving. The amount
of turn varied in old rifles from a half or three-quarters turn
to one turn in two to three feet. The form and depth of the
grooving and the number of grooves also greatly varied.
Historical Development of Military Rifles. For the chief
infantry firearms that preceded the modern military rifle, see
GUN, ARMS AND ARMOUR (firearms), ARQUEBUS, &c. Rifles
were at first used for amusement. There are, however, in-
stances of their occasional employment in war in the I7th
and 1 8th centuries. In 1631 the landgrave of Hesse had
a troop of riflemen. Ten years later Maximilian of Bavaria
had several troops armed with rifled arquebuses. Louis XIII.
armed his bodyguard with rifles. Napoleon withdrew the rifle
from those of his troops to whom it had been issued during the
wars of the Republic, nor did the French make any considerable
use of it again until 1830, when the Chasseurs d'Orleans were
armed with it for the invasion of Algeria. The British learnt
the value of rifles during the American War of Independence,
when the government subsidized continental Jagers armed
with rifles to oppose the American riflemen. After the war
these corps disappeared, and though they are now represented
by the 6oth (King's Royal) Rifles, the senior rifle corps in the
British Army is the Rifle Brigade, raised in 1800 as the gsth Regi-
ment and armed with a flint-lock weapon known as " Baker's
Rifle, " which weighed pj Ib. The barrel was 23 ft. long, its
calibre 20-bore, with seven grooves making a quarter-turn in
its length. A small wooden mallet was at first supplied with
this rifle to make the ball enter the barrel, and it was loaded
with great difficulty. In 1826 Delvigne, a French infantry
officer, invented a breech with abrupt shoulders on which the
spherical bullet was rammed down until it expanded and filled
the grooves. The objection was that the deformed bullet had
an erratic flight. Delvigne's system was subsequently improved
upon by Thouvenin, who introduced into the breech an iron
stem, upon which the bullet, now of conical form, rested, and
was expanded by a sharp blow with the iron ramrod when
loading. In William IV. 's reign the Brunswick percussion
rifle 1 was introduced into the British rifle regiments. Its weight
with bayonet was n Ib 5a oz.; length of barrel, 2 ft. 6 in.,
with two grooves making one turn in the length of the barrel;
weight of spherical belted bullet, 557 grs.; diameter, -704 in.;
charge of powder, 2\ drs. This rifle was not easily loaded, soon
fouled, and shot wild beyond 400 yds.
In 1835 W. Greener produced a new expansive bullet, an oval
ball, a diameter and a half in length, with a flat end, perforated,
in. which a cast metallic taper plug was inserted. The explosion
of the charge drove the plug home, expanded the bullet, filled
the grooves and prevented windage. A trial of the Greener
bullet in August 1835 proved successful. The range and
accuracy of the rifle were retained, while the loading was made
as easy as with a smooth-bore musket. The invention was,
however, rejected by the military authorities on the ground
that the bullet was a compound one. In 1852 the Government
awarded Minie, a Frenchman, 20,000 for a bullet of the same
principle adopted into the British service. In 1857 Greener
received a belated reward of 1000 for " the first public suggestion
of the principle of expansion. " The Minie bullet contained an
iron cup in a cavity at the base of the bullet. In 1851 a rifled
musket of the Minie pattern was introduced into the British
army, and, though not generally issued, was used in the Kaffir
War of 1851, and in the Crimea. Its weight with bayonet
was 10 ft 8J oz., length of barrel 3 ft. 3 in., with four grooves
making one turn in 72 in.; diameter of bore -702 inch;
1 The percussion principle, invented by the Rev. Alexander John
Forsyth (1768-1843) in 1805, was not accepted for military arms
until the introduction of this rifle. A small and belated money
grant was made to Forsyth in 1843. See Major-General A. J. F.
Reid's memoir of Forsyth (1910).
charge of powder 2j drs., and sighted from i-x> to 1000 yds
The form of its bullet was at first conoidal, aftei wards changed
to cylindro-conoidal, with a hemispherical iron cup. In 1855
the Enfield rifle, having in a series of trials compe. ed favourably
with the Minie and Lancaster rifles, was introduced into the
British army; it was used during the latter part of the Crimean
war, having there replaced the Mini6 rifle and tl'e percussion
musket, and remained the general weapon of the er tire infantry
until the introduction of the breech-loader in the year 1867.
This rifle weighed, with bayonet, 9 Ib 3 oz., barrel 39 in.;
diameter of bore -577 in.; three-grooved, with one turn in
78 in. It fired a bullet of cylindro-conoidal form with
hollow base, weighing 530 grains, made up into cartridges and
lubricated as for the Minie rifle, adapted to this rifle by Pritchett,
who was awarded 1000 by the Government. This bullet was
wrapped in greased paper round the cylindrical part half-way
up its length. Short rifles of the same pattern, with five-grooved
barrels 2 ft. 9 in. long and a sword bayonet, were supplied
to the 6oth Rifles and to the Rifle Brigade. Two small carbines
of the same principle were at this time introduced for the cavalry
and artillery, also a rifled pistol.
In 1854, on the suggestion of General Lord Hardinge, Sir
Joseph Whitworth, the first mechanician of the day, began to
consider the subject of rifling, and after a long series of experi-
ments the Whitworth rifle was produced with hexagonal bore,
45-in. calibre, and with one turn in 20 in. It was tried at
Hythe in 1857, and completely defeated the Enfield rifle up to
1800 yds. upon a fixed rest. This trial and Whitworth's experi-
ments proved the advantages of a sharp twist, a smaller bore,
and elongated projectile; but Whitworth's rifle was never
adopted into the Government service, probably because the
hexagonal rifling wore badly, and owing to the difficulty of
equal mechanical perfection in all similar rifles and ammunition.
Several improvements were subsequently made in the sighting,
grooving and some other details of the Enfield rifle. In 1855 a
boxwood plug to the bullet was used.
Between 1857 and 1861 four breech-loading carbines were
experimentally introduced in the cavalry viz. Sharp's, Terry's,
Green's, and Westley-Richards'. Sharp's and other breech-
loading carbines and also Spencer repeating carbines were used
by the Federal cavalry in the American Civil War. The general
adoption of the breech-loading principle may be said to
date from 1867. The
Prussians were the
first to see its great
advantages, and
about 1841 had
adopted the cele-
brated needle-gun
(?..), a bolt-action
weapon. In 1864
and 1866 committees
were appointed by
the British War
Office to report on
breech-loading arms,
and after protracted
experiments, Jacob
Snider's method of
conversion of the
muzzle - loading En-
field to a breech-
loader (fig. i) was
adopted, with the me-
tallic cartridge - case
improved in i86^by
Colonel Boxer, R A. FlG , ._ Snider R!fle . ( Text Book of Small
All available En- Arms> by ^^^ O f the Controller,
field rifles were thus H.M. Stationery Office.)
converted, and new
arms made with steel barrels instead of iron. Great Britain
was the first to adopt for her army a breech-loading
RIFLE
327
rifle with metallic cartridge-case, which secured the perfect
obturation of the breech. The Snider breech was a hinged
block, a type much in favour at the time. The French simil-
arly converted their muzzle-loaders, the converted weapon
being known as the Tabatiere or snuff-box. Other breech
actions on the same principle were the Austrian Werndl and the
Bavarian Podewils and Werder rifles. But these were only
transitional arms. In 1866 France adopted the bolt-action
Chassep6t (?..); in 1867 Sweden the Hagstrom, and Russia the
Carte; in 1868 Italy the Carcano. All these were breech-
loaders firing paper cartridges containing their own means of
ignition. After further experiments by a fresh committee the
Martini-Henry rifle (fig. 2) was definitely adopted by the British
FIG. 2. Martini-Henry.
Government in 1871, with the short chamber Boxer-Henry
ammunition. This rifle was a combination of Martini's block-
action breech mechanism with Henry's barrel of -45-in. calibre,
firing a papered bullet of 480 grains from Boxer cases with a wad
of wax lubrication at base of bullet, as proposed by Henry.
The Henry rifling had seven grooves with one turn in 22 in.;
the lands and the centres of the grooves were contained in the
same circle. About the same time or a little later the various
powers re-armed their infantry with breech-loaders of different
patterns and names, all of which were of about n mm. (-433 in.)
calibre, and nearly all of the bolt-action type.
The next stage in the history of military firearms was the
introduction of the repeating or magazine system. The
Winchester rifle, an American invention which appeared in
1865, was one of the earliest magazine rifles. This weapon was
used by Turkey to some extent in the Russo-Turkish War of
1877-78, but Germany was the first great power to provide its
army with a magazine rifle. In 1884 it converted the 1871
pattern Mauser of -443 -in. bore into a magazine rifle, holding eight
cartridges in a tube magazine in the fore end. In 1885 France
followed with the Lebel, which had an enormous advantage in
its smokeless powder. In 1886 the question of the best calibre
for small arms was reopened in England. In this year, 1886,
Austria had adopted a Mannlicher rifle, -433 bore, with a straight-
pull bolt. This rifle was the first adopted by any European
nation embodying Lee's box magazine, an invention patented
in 1879 and 1882, and consisting of a box, in rear of and below
the entrance to the chamber, containing the cartridges. Another
important improvement, the steel clip loader containing five
cartridges, was also introduced with this rifle. In 1888 these
rifles were converted to .315 bore, firing black powder cartridges;
and in 1890, on the introduction of smokeless powder, the sights
were re-graduated. In 1887 the British Small Arms Committee,
after experiments with the small-calib're rifle invented in 1883
by the Swiss Major Rubin, director of the Federal laboratory
at Thun, recommended the small calibre for adoption into the
British service. The essential features of Rubin's system were
the employment of a compound bullet with a leaden core in a
copper envelope, and the use of a compressed charge of black
powder. In 1888 a pattern of -303-^. calibre rifle, rifled on
the Metford system and with the improved Lee bolt and maga-
zine, was approved for trial by British troops. The Metford
rifling is as follows: diameter of bore, -303 in.; depth of rifling,
004 in.; width of lands, -023 in.; twist of rifling, one turn in
10 in. (left-hand) ; radial grooves, seven in number. About 1862,
and later, W. E. Metford had carried out an exhaustive series of
experiments on bullets and rifling. He invented the important
system of light rifling, with increasing spiral with a hardened
bullet. The Metford match rifle was prominent in all N.R.A.
competitions from 1871 to 1894. In 1887 he laid down for
the Small Arms Committee the proper proportions for the
grooving, spiral and cartridge chamber of the -303 military
rifle. This weapon proved satisfactory and was adopted by the
War Office as the Lee-Metford rifle, Mark I., in December 1888.
It had a magazine of eight cartridges. In 1891 the Mark II.
pattern was approved, with a ten-cartridge magazine, a simpli-
fied bolt, and many minor improvements. A magazine carbine
with barrel 21 in. long and a six-cartridge magazine, otherwise
identical with the Lee-Metford Mark II., was also approved.
The Lee-Metford Mark II. rifle was subsequently further im-
proved in its rifling to resist the wear of smokeless powder, and
also in its bolt action, and became known as the Lee-Enfield
rifle, and under that name was officially adopted as the rifle of
the British army. The number of grooves were reduced from
seven to five. Neither the Lee-Metford nor the Lee-Enfield
has increasing spiral grooves, which are found inconvenient for
military arms from a manufacturing point of view. 1 The L.M.
and L.E. carbines are similar to the shorter models of the
rifles, but are covered for the whole length of the barrel by a
wooden handguard and take only six cartridges; the fore-sights
are protected by wings on the nose-cap, and the long-range
sights are omitted. These, as also the Martini-Metford and
Martini-Enfield carbines (falling-block action small-bores), have
practically been replaced by the "short" rifle described below.
The efficiency of the modern small-bore magazine rifle is
largely due to the production of smokeless nitro-compound
powder. France was the first country to adopt, about 1885, a
smokeless powder with the Lebel magazine rifle. It was known
as " Vieille " powder, or " Poudre B " (after General Boulanger).
Since then smokeless explosives have been universally adopted
in all small-bore magazine military rifles. The smokeless
explosive known as " Cordite "or" Cordite M.D." (see CORDITE)
is used for the cartridges of the Lee-Metford and Lee-Enfield
rifles and rifle-calibre machine guns. (H. S.-K.)
Military Rifles of To-day. About 1900, the various armies
were equipped with weapons of nearly equal efficiency. The
weights varied between 8J and 9^ fo, the lengths between
49 and 52 in.; the calibres were -315, -311, -303, with one or
two -256. None of the rifles were sighted to less than 2000 yds.,
and nearly all had a " fixed " or " battle " sight. All were
bolt-action rifles, and had a muzzle velocity of about 2000 f.s.
(the -256 Mannlichers, about 2300 f.s.). Except France, with
the tube-magazine Lebel, Denmark and the U.S.A. with the
horizontal-box Krag-Jorgensen, and Great Britain, all nations
used multiple-loading by clip or charger. With Lebel and
Krag-Jorgensen weapons, multiple-loading is a practical im-
possibility, but in Great Britain the charger was deliber-
ately rejected. It was desired to use the rifle normally as a
1 Of all modern military rifles, the Italian 1891 weapon alone has
an increasing twist.
RIFLE
single-loader, and to reserve the magazine (which held ten
cartridges, or twice as many as the multiple-loading Mausers,
Mannlichers, &c.) for emergencies. But from about 1903 this
equivalence of infantry weapons began to be disturbed by two
new influences: the tendency towards a " short " rifle, and
the introduction of the pointed bullet.
In the first, Switzerland took the lead with the short Schmidt-
Rubin in looo. But amongst the greater powers, England
and the United States alone have followed her example. At
the close of the South African War Great Britain issued
looo short Lee-Enfield rifles experimentally, and in 1903 the
" short rifle " was actually approved and issued generally.
Since then it has been improved in details. The barrel was
shortened by 5 in., multiple-loading by charger was introduced,
and by the Musketry Regulations of 1909 magazine fire was
laid down as the normal, single-loading being forbidden. The
change met with very considerable opposition, especially from
target-shooting experts, who maintained that a long rifle, so
perfected in details as to be equal to the short in every point
except in length, must be more accurate. The view of the
military authorities, which was maintained in spite of criticism,
was that for service purposes, and especially for prolonged
snap-shooting, the handier weapon was preferable. One
important factor in the decision was the desire to give the
cavalry a weapon with which, when dismounted, it could fight
the infantry rifle on equal terms. A more serious objection
than that of want of superfine accuracy in bull's-eye shooting
was the loss of 5 in. of reach in bayonet fighting. This objec-
tion was met in 1907 by the introduction of a new pattern
bayonet with a blade 5 in. longer. In 1908 the long Lee-
Enfield and Lee-Metford rifles in store were converted
for charger-loading (fig. 3), fitted with safety catches and
FIG. 3. Charger-loading L.E. (Text Book of Small Arms,
by permission.)
new sights, and issued to the infantry of the Territorial
Force in 1909 and 1910. For target purposes many rifle shots
prefer this converted weapon to the short rifle (fig. 4).
FIG. 4. L.E. Short Rifle. (Text Book of Small Arms,
by permission.)
The United States in 1904 replaced the Krag-Jorgensen (hand-
loading horizontal magazine) by the short Springfield. A sort
of spring bayonet was at first fitted to this rifle, but it was soon
replaced by an ordinary sword bayonet.
The pointed bullet (" Spitz-geschoss " or " S ") was introduced
by Germany in 1905, and her example was quickly followed
by France (balle D) and other powers. Its advantage is a
considerable flattening of the trajectory, chiefly on account
of the lessened resistance of the air. This latter allows of a
reduction in the sectional density and consequently in the
weight of the bullet. Thus velocities up to 2900 foot-seconds
are realized, which enables the " dangerous space " to be
very greatly augmented (see fig. 20). The "fixed sight"
range with the " S" bullet is 700 yds., as against the Lee-Enfield's
500. It was announced in the House of Commons in 1910
that a modified bullet was being experimented with, and that
some increase in the fixed-sight range was expected to be obtained,
but the relatively weak breech action of the Lee-Enfield which
is due chiefly to the rearward position of the locking lugs does
not allow designers much freedom in the matter of increasing
velocities, as the chamber pressure has to be kept low. It
will be seen from the table that other rifles are constructed to
stand a much higher pressure.
But both these improvements are destined to be eclipsed
in importance by the adoption of the automatic rifle. The
application of the automatic principle to the modern high-
velocity small-arm of precision has been occupying the attention
of the small-arms experts of all armies and of numerous private
inventors for some years past. These numerous attempts
have, in the case of the rifle, been largely doomed to failure
because of the necessary limitations of space and weight;
although the automatic principle has been successfully applied
both to machine guns (}..) and to pistols (q.v.). In these
weapons the work of extracting the empty cartridge-case,
re-loading and re-cocking, is accomplished either by the motive
power of the recoil or of the gas generated by the explosion
of the powder, thus enabling a rapid and continuous fire to be
maintained to the full capacity of the weapon's magazine. In
the case of machine guns the firing also is automatic, but self-
firing rifles are not very desirable as infantry weapons and in
addition are so heavy as to approximate to machine guns.
Of the recoil-operated class of automatic rifles there are
two subdivisions, " short-recoil " and " long-recoil. " In the
former, which is most favoured by inventors, the barrel, body
and bolt recoil together for a short distance, about j in., in
which space the bolt is unlocked, and the bolt then recoils
freely in the body. The bolt is run forward in reloading by
a spring. In the long-recoil type the barrel, body and bolt
recoil the whole distance, and the barrel and body are run up by
one spring, the bolt by another. Several such rifles have been
shown at the N.R.A. meetings at Bisley; the Rexer, Mauser and
Woodgate rifles being on the long-recoil, the Halle on the short-
recoil principle. Gas-operated rifles, like the Hotchkiss and
Colt machine guns, have fixed barrels and are worked by a
portion of the powder-gases which is allowed to escape from
the barrel through a small hole near the muzzle, thence entering
a cylinder and working a piston in connexion with the breech
mechanism. No automatic rifle has as yet (August 1910) been
issued as a service weapon by any power, the problem of ensuring
certainty in action under service conditions i.e. with grit and
dirt in the working parts being the principal difficulty.
Great Britain. There are two principal types of Lee-Metford
and Lee-Enfield rifles in the service, the " short " and the " charger-
loading." The former is carried by all units (cavalry included)
of the regular army, by the yeomanry cavalry of the Territorial
Force, and by units of the Officers' Training Corps. The latter is
used by the infantry of the Territorial Force. There exist, further,
the older, non-charger-loading Lee-Metford and Lee-Enfield rifles,
a few carbines of the same type, and some Martini-Metford and
Martini-Enfield carbines which have the -303 barrel and cartridge
with the falling-block Martini action. -45 Martini-Henry rifles and
carbines, and even Sniders, are still used by local police forces in
some of the smaller colonies.
The " long " charger-loading Lee-Enfield is converted from
earlier patterns by the addition of a 'charger guide, the stripping
of the bolt-cover, and improvements in the sighting. The action
of the breech mechanism ' is as follows (the breech mechanism of
the " short " rifle being practically the same) : The breech is
closed by a bolt (I) which slides in a bolt-way cut in the body;
the bolt-head (lo) abuts against the base of the cartridge when the
rifle is loaded, and when the knob is turned down the whole is locked.
On the right side of the bolt is a solid rib, and on the left side a lug;
these support the bolt on firing by contact with the " resisting
shoulder on the right, and the rear face of the " lug seating "
on the left of the body. Underneath the bolt there are two recesses
and two studs. The bolt-head is screwed to the bolt and is fitted
with an extractor claw. The bolt-head, instead of being rigidly
attached to the bolt, is so far independent that it remains stationary
while the bolt is revolved. Inside the bolt is the arrangement
of striker (V) and spring (W), and at its rear end, forming the
working connexion between trigger and striker, is the " cocking-
piece " (X) which 4s fitted with a safety-catch (not in the old pattern
rifle illustrated). This cocking-piece (which cannot turn) has a long
tongue projecting to the front, lying along the under side of the
bolt, and the front end of this tongue (Y), called the " full-bent,"
1 The annexed figures show the old pattern weapon. In both the
existing patterns a safety catch is fitted, the magazine spring is of
a different shape and there is no bolt-cover. But the essential
parts of the action remain the same.
RIFLE
329
engages the nose of the trigger sear when the weapon is loaded (a
groove in the tongue, called the " half-bent " (Z), serves as a half-
cock arrangement, and could be used as a safety-catch if the
proper safety-catch were damaged). The trigger sear (K) is a
bell-crank lever, the upper long arm of which is put in and out of
contact with the " full-bent," and the lower or short arm is connected
to the trigger. The magazine holds ten cartridges, which rest on a
platform, underneath which is the magazine spring that pushes the
platform and cartridges up. A " cut-off " is fitted in the " long "
and in some marks of the " short " rifle. This is a sort of lid to the
magazine, enabling the magazine to be kept full while the rifle is
being used as a single loader. But the present musketry regula-
tions forbid single-loading, and the cut-off is now only closed for
special purposes, such as unloading a single cartridge (miss-fire,
&c.) without unloading the magazine. The magazine is loaded by
FIGS. 7 and 8. Lee-Metford.
inserting a charger in the " charger guides " (these, attached to
the body, form a sort of bridge over the bolt) and forcing down the
strip of cartridges into the magazine (charger guides not shown
in diagrams). The action of the mechanism is as follows:
Suppose that the rifle has been fired and the magazine is full. On
beginning to turn up the knob of the bolt, the Tatter is revolved,
but the cocking-piece (the tongue being held by a groove in the body)
and the bolt-head remain stationary. Soon, however, a cam on
the bolt comes in contact with a stud on the cocking-piece and
the latter is brought slightly to the rear, pulling in the point of the
striker and partly compressing the spring. At the same time the
lug on the left of the bolt, in contact with the front face of a recess
in the body (both being cut slantwise to a screw pitch), forces the
bolt and with it the claw of the extractor, which grips the base of
the cartridge-case, to slide backwards a little. As the bolt con-
tinues to turn the rib on the right of it comes up clear of the body
and the whole bolt, with the bolt-head, can thus be drawn back
until the bolt-head comes against the resisting shoulder on the
right of the body and the extractor attached to it flings out the
fired cartridge-case. Another cartridge then comes up from the
magazine and lies in front of the bolt-head ready to be pushed home.
At this moment (the beginning of loading) the stud on the cocking-
piece has fallen into one of the grooves on the bolt, and as the bolt
is pushed forward the tongue or full-bent comes against the nose
of the trigger sear and is held there, while the rest of the boh
mechanism goes on. Thus between the moving bolt and the fixed
cocking-piece the striker spring is further compressed, and when the
sloping faces of the bolt lugs and ribs engage the resisting portion*
of the body a last forward push is given to the bolt and the spring
is completely compressed, ready to propel the striker forward when
the full-bent is released from the nose of the sear. Figs. 5-8 of the
older pattern rifle show the working of the breech mechanism.
Instead of the older single pull-off of the trigger the "short" rifle,
like many Continental weapons, has a double pull-off.
This is provided for by suitably shaping the portion of
the trigger which is in contact with the short arm of the
sear. The " short " rifle has also a somewhat different
pattern of safety-catch.
The sights of British service rifles up to 1903 were of
a very simple type, the fore-sight a " barleycorn " of
triangular shape, and the back-sight a plain leaf with slid-
ing bar into which a V was cut, the tip of the fore-sight seen
in the middle of the V being brought on to the mark.
In the long charger-loader this form of back-sight has been
greatly modified, and in the " short " rifle it has been alto-
gether abolished. The barleycorn fore-sight has been replaced
in both cases by an upright blade, protected from injury by two
ears or wings, and the V by a U aperture. For elevation the long
rifle has still a slide on a vertical leaf, but the movement of this
slide is controlled no longer merely by its tight fit but by a clamping
screw. The sight of the short rifle is larger and also quite different
in appearance and principle. There is a leaf and on it a slide, but the
slide (controlled by clamping studs) works on a Cam-shaped bed;
its position on the leaf, affecting the point of contact with the cam-
shaped bed, elevates the leaf to the required amount, the actual
sighting U being on the extremity of the leaf. The short rifle has
also a ' fine adjustment " which admits of minor changes of eleva-
tion within the usual 50 yds. graduation. Both the long and the
short rifles have " wind-gauges," or mechanisms for fine lateral
adjustment of the central U sighting aperture, so as to point the
axis of the barrel a little to the left or the right of the line of sight
to compensate for wind, error of the individual rifle, &c. In both
rifles, on the left side of the stock, is a long-distance sight (graduated
to 2800 yds.), which consists of an aperture sight near the bolt and
a dial and movable pointer near the hand-guard. The short rifle
is cased from breech to muzzle in a wooden hand-guard ; all patterns
of long^ rifle have only a short wooden hand-guard just behind the
back-sight bed. _The bayonet in the long nfle is secured to the
fore-end by a spring catch and to the barrel by a ring passing over
the muzzle. This traditional, and still usual, arrangement has
been abandoned in the short rifle, as the vibration of the barrel
on discharge is more or less checked by the extra weight of the
bayonet, and therefore the shooting of the rifle differs according as
it is fired with or without the bayonet fixed. With the short rifle
the bayonet is fixed to two metal fastenings, a plug for the ring
and a catch for the handle.
Continental European Rifles. These are for the most part of the
Mauser and the Mannlicher types. The Mauser is a bolt weapon
with box magazine. The bolt is simple, without separate bolt-
head, and is held by two bolt-lugs at its front end engaging with
recesses in the body (the German Mauser has an extra lug near
the rear end). Near the rear end there is a cam-shaped recess,
which, engaging with a stud on the cocking-piece, partially forces
back the cocking-piece and spring when the bolt is revolved. When
the bolt lever is turned up and the bolt begins to revolve, the cocking-
piece and bolt plug, which together form the connexion between
the bolt and the trigger, do not revolve, but are forced back slightly,
so as to begin the compression of the striker spring. Then, the
bolt lever being so shaped as to bear against an inclined-plane edge
on the body, the bolt comes back a little, and with it the extractor
jaw and the empty cartridge-case. Lastly, when the bolt has turned
through a right angle, all studs are opposite their slots and ways
in the body, and the bolt can be drawn back. At the farthest
rearward position of the bolt the cocking-stud on the cocking-piece
is well behind the nose of the trigger sear, and is thus held when the
bolt is pushed forward again, the spring being thereby compressed.
All Mauser rifles have a safety-catch and a double pull-off. None
have cut-offs except the Turkish pattern. All are constructed for
clip or charger loading, but the box magazine contains only five cart-
ridges as against the Lee-Enfield's ten. Mauser rifles, which are
perhaps the strongest and least complicated of magazine arms, are
used in the German, Belgian, Spanish, Portuguese and Turkish
armies, and were also used by the Boers in the South African War.
The type adopted by each of these nations differs from the rest in
details only. The German rifle has a long guardless sword bayonet,
fixed to the fore-end only and not connected with the barrel, and a
peculiar form of back-sight, which bears some resemblance to the
xxm. ii a
330
RIFLE
slide and bed arrangement of the British " short " rifle. The special I to the change of leverage, power at the commencement and rapidity
feature of the Belgian Mauser is a thin steel casing for the barrel, | at the end of the pull. The weapon is a clip loader. The Dutch,
FIG. 9. Belgian Mauser. (Text Book of Small Arms,
by permission.)
FIG. 90. Spanish Mauser. (Text Book of Small Arms,
by permission.)
which is supposed to act as a hand-guard or cooler and to free the
barrel from disturbing influences due to its connexion with the
fore-end ; but it is expensive, and if strong adds unduly to the weight
FIG. 10. German Mauser, 1898. (Text Book of Small Arms,
by permission.)
of the weapon. The older German magazine
rifle, pattern 1888, had a barrel casing, but this
was given up when the new 1898 pattern was
introduced. The bayonets of the Belgian and
Spanish patterns are very short knives.
The Mannlicher rifle, which is extensively
used for sporting and target work, has been
adopted for military purposes by various states,
notably Austria-Hungary. Both the 1890 and
FIG. 13. Mannlicher, 1895.
Rumanian and other Mannlichers have not straight-pull bolts,
but the usual turn-over levers and locking-lugs.
FIG. 14. Austrian Mannlicher Carbine. (Text Book of Small Arms,
by permission.)
France. The breech mechanism of this rifle (see fig. 15) calls for
no special remark. Its bolt is very similar to that of the British
rifle. Its special peculiarity is the once popular tube magazine
under the fore-end. This has many defects as compared with the
box magazine. It is more cumbrous for the same number of cart-
ridges; its feed and cut-off mechanism is very complicated; the
balance of the rifle is altered as the magazine empties; the placing
of the cartridges base to point, even when the bullet has a flat point,
is not unattended with danger, especially when the magazine is
full and the spiral spring strongly compressed; lastly, loading by
any form of charger is practically impossible.
FIG. 15. Lebel Rifle.
FIG. 1 1. Austrian Mannlicher, 1895. (Text Book of Small Arms,
by permission.)
1895 patterns of Austrian Mannlicher have " straight-pull "
bolts; that is, bolts which are not turned for locking. The
FIG. 12. Mannlicher, 1890.
bolts are in two parts, which " telescope " into each other. In
the 1890 pattern (see fig. 12), when the bolt is home
against the cartridge and the " lever cylinder " I', which carries
the bolt knob, is further pushed forward, the hinged block K
is caused to drop in front of tie resistance-piece Q, and so locks
the bolt I against the cartridge. In the 1895 pattern (see
fig. 13), the final pushing forward of the lever cylinder causes
the head of the bolt I to turn and projections on its head to lock
into recesses SS just in rear of the breech. The turning is due to
helical feathers (20) on the inside of the lever cylinder I' working
in grooves in the rear of the bolt I. The 1890 pattern has a double
pull-off. It will be seen from the figure that as the trigger is pulled
the bearing is taken first at (8) and then at (9). This gives, owing
FIG. 16. Lebel Rifle.
United States. Up to 1904 the U.S. army had the Krag-Jorgensen
rifle, in which, as shown in fig. 17, the magazine was placed hori-
zontally under the breech action. At this time most of the second
line troops had still the old-fashioned (black powder) Springfield
rifle, a single loader with a hinged block similar to the rifles of the
" sixties " in Europe, such as the Snider, the Tabatiere and the
Werndl. 1 Since 1904, however, the regular army has been re-armed
with a short rifle (fig. 18) which in its action has a general resem-
blance to a Mauser. As at first issued, the new Springfield had a rod
bayonet which, when not in use, lay within the fore-end of the stock,
and when required was run forward and fastened by a catch. This
novelty was, however, soon discarded in favour of a sword bayonet
16 in. long. The United States navy had until about 1900 the
Lee " straight-pull " rifle. The Russian " 3-line " and the Japanese
1 The Springfield was, however, a much improved model of this
kind of weapon, dating from 1884 only.
RIFLE
30th year ' (1900) and " 38th year " (1907) rifles are bolt-action
weapons, with no special peculiarities. The Swiss rifle (Schmidt-
Rubin) is a remarkable weapon of the straight-pull type, short, and
possessing a relatively low velocity. (X.)
FIG. 17. Krag-Jorgensen.
The Use of Ike Rifle in War.
The study of " musketry " as
distinct from target shooting may
, be said to date from the Franco-
German War. Previously mili-
tary students and practical
soldiers concerned themselves
rather with the tactical question
of fire-power fire versus shock,
bullet versus bayonet and so on
FIG. 1 8. U.S. Short Rifle. (Text Book of Small Arms,
by permission.)
than with the technical question of its application. This was
natural enough in the days of short-range fighting. But
when bullets began to cause losses at 1000 yds. and more
from the firing point, formations that presented the least
vulnerable target had to be discovered and tested, aiming
grew more difficult as the range increased, and firing by
word of command in large units became practically impos-
sible. The very accuracy and range of modern weapons
involved new problems. The necessity, in the larger area of
effective fire, of setting the sights to the distance of the mark
made further demands on fire-discipline and brought up the
difficult problem of judging distance. The possibilities of
varying the rate of fire conferred by the magazine rifle also
demanded close study. Each war, as it came, produced fresh
evidence as to what was possible and what was not in matters
of fire-control, the best rate of fire for effect, the range at
which fire should be opened, and other half-tactical, half-
technical problems. Thus, although many points still remain
in the region of controversy, certain ideas and principles
are almost universally accepted as the basis of service
musketry.
The leading idea is that of the " cone of dispersion." A
modern rifle, even fired from a fixed rest under good conditions,
will not place shot after shot in the same spot, but the shot-
marks on the target form a more or less close " group." When
to this error of the rifle and the ammunition there is added
the personal error of the marksman, the group is larger, and in
the collective fire of a squad it is larger still. Now the trajectories
of bullets that do not strike in the same place naturally do
not coincide, and the group on the target is represented in
the air by a cone or sheaf of trajectories. The bullets of this
sheaf striking the ground on either side of the target form
on the ground a much elongated ellipse. The ellipse containing
90 % of the bullets fired is called the beaten zone. It is
usual, however, to calculate from the " effective " zone, or that
which contains 75% of bullets. Within the " effective " zone,
and at its centre, is found the closely grouped " nucleus " of
50% of bullets. With the British -303 rifle in collective fire,
the depths of these zones are :
Nucleus.
Effective.
Beaten.
500 yds.
IOOO
1500
120 yds.
7 ..
60
220 yds.
120
100
320 yds.
I7<> ..
140
The target aimed at and sighted for is at the centre of the
zone (see fig. 19). The height of the grouping on a vertical
target compared to the depth of the grouping on the ground
is of course proportionate to the tangent of the angle of descent;
hence, small as is the group on a vertical target at 500 yds.,
the beaten zone is no less than 320 yds. deep. For the same
reason, as the range, and consequently the angle of descent,
increases, the beaten zone diminishes in depth. Another
factor is the " dangerous space." This is the space between
" first catch," i.e. the point at which the bullet (in a sheaf,
the lowest bullet) comes low enough to catch a man's head, and
." first graze," that at which it strikes the ground. The extent
of this dangerous space varies of course with the height of the
man's head. In the case of a mounted man, at icoo yds.,
it is 105 yds., while in that of a sharpshooter lying down, it is
only 13 yds. (in addition of course to the beaten zone).
As nowadays nearly all targets, on service, are lying or three-
quarters concealed figures, the dangerous space as compared
with the beaten zone is at such .a range too small to count
as a factor. It is, however, important at shorter ranges, 500
yds. and under (700 and under with the new-pointed bullets).
Here the advantages of flat trajectory make themselves felt.
Within this distance the bullet is at no point in its career
too high to be dangerous to a standing man or a horseman.
A lying figure is in danger at any distance beyond 350 yds.
if the sights are set to 500 yds. (front half of effective zone
no yds., dangerous space 52 yds.). This is the theory under-
lying the 500 yds. " fixed sight " or " battle-sight," a setting
which holds good for all less ranges, and can be put on the
rifle instantly and without looking at the back-sight graduations.
Sight! 500 yards.
Sights 700 uds.
800 900' I -<l/, ; . ,
. ' - -fffKtl., . -' ;
1 M(I i
FIG. 19. Beaten Zone.
Trajtctorttt of Marttiti-
Hri>rt/.L*e- Cmfifld,and
a.' '38 milli-S"bulM
IK if It j' above gnuitdl
HtiaMi **agtintcJ 30
MM
y
E
h
Uani-
fieight
L*<v
^z
=
3
1C
KDYDS
I
o
3(
X>
>o '
5(
)O
6C
O
TOO
FIG. 20. Trajectories.
These facts, taken in conjunction with the imperfections
of the most skilful individual marksmanship and the chances
of wrong estimation of distance, are the basis of the musketry
training and practice of to-day. At the School of Musketry,
Hythe, the standard of judging distance is " not more than
332
RIFLE
DETAILS OF MODERN
(From the British official
AUSTRIA
AND
BULGARIA.
BELGIUM.
DENMARK.
GREAT BRITAIN.
FRANCE.
GERMANY.
Pattern of the Year .
1895.
1889.
1889.
1907.
1907.
1886.
1898.
Designation ....
MANNLICHER.
MAUSER.
KRAG-
JORGENSEN.
CHARGER
LOADING
LEE-ENFIKLD,
MARK I.
SHORT
LEE-ENFIELD,
MARE III.
LEBEL.
MAUSER.
Magazine System
Box
Box
Horizontal-box
Box
Box
Tube
Box
Number of Cartridges in Magazine
5
5
5
10
xo
8
5
Charger or Clip ....
Cut off
Clip
No
Yes
Ch.
No
Yes
Ch.
Yes
No
Ch.
Yes
Yes
Ch.
Yes
Yes
No
Yes"
No
Ch.
No
Yes
Safety Bolt
Weight:
Without bayonet .
With bayonet ....
s n> sj oz.
8 Ib 15 j oz.
8 Ib ) oz.
g 1!) g.j OZ.
9 Ib nj oz.
IO Ib 4J OZ.
9 ft 4 oz.
10 Ib 34 oz.
8 Ib 2} oz.
9 Ib loj oz.
9 !b 3} oz.
10 It) I ^ OZ.
9 Ib.
9 Ib 14 oz.
Length:
Without bayonet .
With bayonet ....
4 ft. 2 in.
4 ft. 1 1 -5 in.
4 ft. 2-25 in.
4 ft. 11-75 in.
4 ft. 4-75 in.
S ft. 3 m.
4ft. 1-5 in.
5 ft. 1-5 in.
3 ft. 8-5 in.
5 ft. 1-7 in.
4 ft. 3-12 in.
5 ft. 11-84 in.
4 ft. I
5 ft. 9'
4 in.
75 in.
Barrel:
L "* h ' ' ' {mm.
Calibre . . . .in.
30-12
8
35
30-67
7-65
301
32-9
8
315
30-19
7-7
303
25-19
7-7
303
31-496
8
315
29-05
7'9
3I
Rifling:
Number of grooves .
Twist (to right, except in Lee-
Enfield and Lebel) i turn in>
calibres . . .|
4
31
4
32-5
6
37-5
5
3
5
i
4
30
4
30-2
Sights:
Lowest for ....
Highest for ....
Cartridge:
Length . . . .in.
Weight .... grs.
500 paces
(410 yds.)
2600 paces
(2132 yds.)
3-0
455
500 m.
(547 yds.)
2000 m.
(2187 yds.)
3-055
441
300 m.
(328yds.)
i goo m.
(2078 yds.)
3;o
460
183 m.
(200 yds.)
2560 m.
(2800 yds.)
3-05
415
250 m.
(273 yds.)
2000 m.
(2187 yds.)
2-95
447 415
200
(219
200C
(2187
3-22
431
m.
rds.)
m.
yds.)
3-18
369-9
Bullet:
Shape of point
Round
Round
Round
Round
Round Pointed
Round
Pointed
Material of envelope
Steel, lubricated
CN.
C.N.
C.N.
c M 5 Copper zinc
/ no envelope
Steel, coated
with C.N.
Steel, coated >
with C.N. J
Length . . . .in.
Diameter (max.)
Weight . . . .grs.
1-24
3228
244
1-205
31
219
1-187
323
237
I-JS
3"
215
I-22I I-625
3223 -327
231 198
1-235
3189
227
1-105
323
154-5
Chaine:
Weight . . . .grs.
Propellant
4 N 2 :c 4
N.G. a 3 n'd N.C.
tfc 9S
31-5
Cordite
42-43 46-2
N.C. N.C.
ftc 5
48-4
N.C.
Muzzle Velocity . . . f.s.
34
2034
1968
2060
2073 2380
2093
2882
Chamber Pressure:
Tons on sq. in.
ig-7
19-7
IS-'
is-s
I7-7S 17-75
21
17-5
too yds. wrong at any range." Now at 1000 yds. an error
in judging distance of 13 yds. above or below the true
range will cause all the shots of a particular rifle to fall away
from the target, and the better the marksman i.e. the closer
his group the more necessary is perfection in judging distance,
a perfection which in reality seems unattainable. The British,
musketry regulations therefore lay it down that the individual
marksman's fire at service targets is unprofitable at ranges
of more than 600 yds. Beyond that distance collective fire,
controlled and directed by an officer or non-commissioned
officer, is the rule. The question as to whether fire is to be
opened in any given set of circumstances is decided by the fire-
director, who considers first whether the probable error in
judging distance is greater than half of the effective zone
for the estimated range. If it is so, he must order " com-
bined sights," i.e. half of the units under his command use one
elevation, the rest another, which method artificially increases
the dispersion of the bullets and thereby the probability of
the target being included in the zone. This, however, makes
the fire less effective, and in practice cannot profitably be used
by any body of rifles of less than 80 or 100. The commander
of only a single section, therefore, however tempting the
target, must refrain from opening fire at all. At medium
ranges, however, controlled and directed fire is effective,
and at such ranges troops should still be sufficiently in
NOTE. C.N.= Cupro-nickel. N.G. = Nitro-glycerine.
hand to execute the fire-director's orders. Within decisive
ranges fire-direction has to give place to fire-control. All that
the strongest commander can enforce is the opening and ceasing
of fire when he gives the order, and success is sought through
making the individual soldier skilful at rapid and snap shooting.
Black bull's-eyes on white targets are now used only to teach
men to make uniformly good shooting, which is shown by the
closeness of the shot-grouping. The rest of the musketry course
is fired against grey-green " head and shoulders " targets or
brown silhouettes, and consists of slow, rapid and snap shooting,
from behind cover, at disappearing or running targets, &c.
In 1909 special attention began to be paid to visual training,
both as an aid to judging distance and as an actual ingredient
of fire-discipline. A method of indicating targets which origin-
ated in the French army was adopted and improved upon,
consisting essentially of giving two or three conspicuous
" auxiliary marks," in artillery language, and naming the target
with reference to them. Judging distance is generally associ-
ated with fire-distipline practices, and men are frequently
exercised in locating and ranging upon a hidden skirmisher,
300-800 yds. away. Perhaps the most important modifica-
tion of musketry training, within recent years, has been the
adoption of rapid fire in " bursts," as the normal procedure
for infantry, instead of slow continuous fire. The complete
cessation of fire at intervals enables the leaders to observe the
RIFLE
333
MILITARY MAGAZINE RIFLES.
Text Book of Small Arms, 1909.)
GREECE.
HOLLAND.
ITALY.
JAPAN.
PORTUGAL.
RUMANIA.
RUSSIA.
SPAIN.
SWITZER-
LAND.
TURKEY.
UNITED
STATES.
1903.
1895.
1891.
1907.
1904.
1893.
1894.
.896.
1900.
.893.
1904.
MANNLICHKR-
SCUONAUER.
MANNLICHER.
MANNUCHER-
CARCANO.
YEAR '38.
MAUSER-
VERCUIERO.
MANNLICIIER.
" 3-Lmz "
NAGANT.
MAUSER.
SCHIIIDT-ROBIN
SHORT RIFLE.
MAUSER.
SHORT
SpRj.scriEU).
Box
Box
Box
Box
Box
Box
Box
Box
Box
Box
Box
5
S
6
5
5
5
5
5
6
5
5
Ch.
No
Yes
Clip
No
Yes
Clip
No
Yes
Ch.
No
Yes
Ch.
No
Yes
Clip
No
Yes
Ch.
No
Yes
Ch.
No
Yes
Ch.
No
Yei
Ch.
Yes
Yes
Ch.
Yes
Yes
8 Ib sH oz.
9 Ib
9 Ib II oz.
10 Ib 6K oz.
8 Ib 6Ji oz.
9 ft) 3 oz.
8 Ib 10 oz.
9 Ib 9 oz.
8 Ib. 13 oz.
9 Ib. 9% oz.
8 Ib I2KOZ.
9 Ib vYi oz.
8 Ib isK oz.
9 Ib II>4 OZ.
9 Ib 6K oz.
10 Ib i'/i oz.
8 ft KOI.
8 Ib ioK oz.
9 ft i oz.
10 Ib 8 oz.
8 ft 8oz.
9 IbSoz.
4 ft..
4 ft. 10 in.
4 ft. 3 in.
5 ft. 0-75 in.
4 ft. 2-75 in.
5 ft. 2-375 in.
4 ft. 2-75 in.
S ft. 5-75 in.
4 ft.
4 ft. n^ in.
4 ft. 0-5 in.
4 ft. 10-25 in.
4 ft. 3-875 in.
5 ft. 9 in.
4 ft. 0-625 in.
4 ft. 10-5. in.
3 ft. 7-12 in.
4 ft. 10-75 in.
4 ft. 0-6 in.
5 ft. 6-6 in.
3 ft. 7-21 in.
4 ft. 11-21 in.
18-56
6-5
256
31-125
6-5
256
30-75
6-5 ,
256
31-3
6-s
256
29-08
6 ' 5 *
256
28-56
6 ' 5 *
256
31-5
7-62
3
29-031
'-2,6
23-33
7-5
295
29-134
7-65
301
23-79
762
30
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
3
4
4
tvi
32-2
30-7
30-76
30-8
31-6
31-4
36
33-2
200 m.
(219 yds.)
2000 m.
(2187 yds.)
200 m.
(219 yds.)
2000 m.
(2187 yds.)
600 m.
(656 yds.)
2000 m.
(2187 yds.)
400 m.
(437 yds.)
2000 m.
(2187 yds.)
200 m.
(219 yds.)
2000 m.
(2187 yds.)
500 m.
(547 yds.)
2000 m.
(2187 yds.)
400 paces
(310 yds.)
2700 paces.
(2096 yds.)
400 m.
(437 yds.)
2000 m.
(2187 yds.)
300 m.
(328 yds.)
1 200 m.
(1312 yds.)
250 m.
(273 yds.)
2000 m.
(2187 yds.)
183 m.
(200 yds.)
2187 m.
(2850 yds.)
J' S
3-05
338
3-0
331-8
2-98
348-S
3-26
3-05
35
3-02S
363
3-08
373-5
3-043
434
3-07
416
3-33
302
Round
5 Steel, coated
( withCN.
I-I24
263
JS9-3
Round
Steel, coated /
with C. N. J
1-23
2637
162-
Round
CN.
1-182
266
163-0
Round
Copper
1-28
26
162-9
Round
55-3
Round
C.N.
1-244
2637
162
Round
C.N.
1-194
308
214
Round
CN.
1-2X
2843
172-8
Round
r Nickel plated
< steel envelope
( over point
1-18
319
212-5
Round
15 Steel, coated
( with C. N.
I-2I2
3"
211-3
Pointed
C.|N. pointed
1-08
308
ISO
A
fc 6
30-09
Balistite
32-0
N.C.
31-8
N.G. and N.C.
' N'C.
33
Pyroxiline
38-3S
N.C.
30-7
N.C.
4O-2
N.C.
so
Pyro-cellulose
2223
2433
2395
2396
2347
2400
1985
2296
1920
2066
2600
20- 1 3
17-1
17-47
22-3
17-1
19-7
1978
N.C.=.Nitro-cellulose.
progress of the engagement, to change their target, to economize
ammunition, to select the ground for the next rush and the
next burst of fire, and to regain control of the men, whom a
prolonged fire-fight hypnotizes and rivets to the ground. The
chief use of " slow " fire, which is generally employed by skir-
mishers working in pairs, is to keep the enemy under; the storm
of well-directed " rapid fire " the fire-director should hold in
his own hands, ready to release it at the right moment. Slow
fire averages 3 rounds a minute, rapid (aimed) 8-12. The con-
figuration of the ground has often a great influence on fire effect.
If the target is on a sharp forward slope, the beaten zone is
greatly diminished in depth, ranging errors are no longer neutra-
lized by the flatness of trajectory and (the bullets meeting
the ground at a steeper angle) the dangerous space is reduced;
if, on the other hand, the slope descends gently in rear of the
target so that the falling bullets instead of making a pattern
upon the ground, skim along' parallel to the surface, the zone
is increased. For instance, at 1500 yds., if there is a reverse
slope of about 5 in rear of the target the depth of the beaten
zone is tenfold that of the zone for the same range on level
ground. Similarly if the target is on the crest of a hill and the
firers below, the " over " half of the cone of fire may graze
the reverse slope or pass far above, according as the re-
veise slope is gentle or sharp with respect to the (line of sight.
The normal position for the firing infantryman in action is
lying; the kneeling position is used for firing from behind cover,
the sitting for firing down hill. Standing, formerly the usual
position, is now employed chiefly for firing behind cover with
the rifle rested, and for snap-shooting during an advance when
it is undesirable to halt and lie down. As regards cover, it
may be mentioned that well-covered or intrenched troops
generally shoot less accurately than troops in the open, the
soldier in security being loth to expose himself long enough
to take careful aim. This was particularly noticeable in the
Russo-Turkish War, and its effect is to create a zone of unaimed
fire behind the assailants' fighting line, which sometimes causes
serious losses to his supports and reserves. The relation
between the cone of dispersion of peace-time experiments, even
when these are specially designed to establish that relation
(for example, series fired in France by third-class shots, after
a long march without food), has never been satisfactorily estab-
lished. An arbitrary figure of one-tenth or one-twentieth of
peace-time effect has generally been assumed as representing
war results, but some think that however the normal cone may
be multiplied or divided, no relation can be found between peace
and war effect, and that in battle the brave men aim and fire
as if on the practice range, and the rest fire absolutely at hazard.
From a musketry point of view, this brings again into the fore-
ground the question of distance-judging, as, if the sights be
wrongly set, the more accurate the fire the less its effect, and a
334
RIFLE
mistake would nullify even the small amount of aimed fire that
can be reckoned upon. Peace-time experiments have their
value and it is very great in establishing data as to the
effect of fire on troops in different formations, the limits of
permissible error in ranging, &c., on the principle that of two
methods, that which is proved to be better in peace would in
much the same proportion be found better in war. (C. F. A.)
See T. F. Fremantle, The Book of the Rifle; W. W. Greener,
The Gun and its Development; the British official Text Book of
Small Arms (1909); and Musketry Regulations (1909); C. B.
Mayne, Infantry Fire Tactics; and Taffin, " Tir de Combat " (Revue
d'infanterie, 1909).
Match or Target Rifle. The sport or pastime of target shooting
has many times changed its character, owing to the steady
improvement in the rifle and the different ranges or distances
at which shooting is practised. Range usually governs the
construction of the target rifle, long-range rifles not being
necessarily the best weapons for a short range of, say, 200 yds.
Limitations such as the amount of powder charge, weight of
bullet and rifle are also usually imposed in order to place all
competitors on equal terms. The long-range match rifle is not
the superior of the military rifle as a weapon, but as a scientific
shooting instrument is the best small-arm produced. The
ordinary target rifle is a hybrid arm, combining the points of
the long-range match, modern military and best sporting rifles.
The miniature match rifle is used for short-range practice.
Shooting at fixed marks has been practised continuously
in Switzerland from medieval times. A club (" Societe de
1'harquebuse et de la Navigation ") has existed in Geneva since
1474; and the Zurich " Schutzen-Gesellschaft " since about the
same date. It is not clear at what period rifles were introduced
in these clubs. From the beginning of the ipth century up to
1844 the rifle generally used in Great Britain had a polygrooved
barrel -630 in. in diameter, with spherical ball, and the arm
weighed from n to 15 Ib. It was not fired in military fashion,
but had a handle extending downwards fixed in front of the
trigger-guard, which was grasped by the left hand, the left arm
being steadied against the body. This method of shooting is
still sometimes followed by Swiss and German riflemen. Target
shooting as a sport or business was rarely practised in Great
Britain until after the formation of the Volunteer Force in 1859.
The inauguration of the " National Rifle Association " in 1860
opened a new and most important era in the history and develop-
ment of the rifle. This institution was established " for the en-
couragement of rifle corps and the promotion of rifle shooting
throughout Great Britain. ... As a national pastime to make
the rifle what the bow was in the days of the Plantagenets, the
familiar weapon of those who stand forth in the defence of their
country." The first meeting of the N.R.A. was held at Wimbledon
in 1860. The first shot was fired by Queen Victoria 1 from a
Whitworth rifle on a machine rest, at 400 yds., and struck
the bull's-eye. The Whitworth muzzle-loading rifle won many
of the important prizes at this and subsequent meetings prior
to 1871. Its most important features, arrived at after exhaustive
experiments, were a smaller bore of -450 in., with a twist of
rifling of one turn in 20 in., and an elongated mechanically
fitting projectile. Long-range rifle construction is also largely
indebted to Whitworth for the highly accurate and superior
tools and processes introduced by him in this branch of manu-
facture.
In 1866 and after, Metford's system of hardened expanding
bullets and shallow rifling gradually superseded the mechanically
fitting system of Whitworth, and the Whitworth rifle gradually
lost its position. In 1861, the Henry grooving for a cylindrical
'The "Queen's" or "King's" prize is the highest distinction
to which a rifle shot can attain. The competition is one of three
stages, the first and second eliminating all but the best 100 com-
petitors. The bronze medal of the N.R.A. is awarded to the
highest scorer in the first stage, the silver medal to the leader in
the second, and the King's prize and N.R.A. gold medal to the
winner in the last stage: 71 shots in all are fired at distances up
to looo yds., and the winners' scores of late years have been
320 to 325 out of a possible 355. Only the service rifle is allowed.
bullet, a modification of the Whitworth, first appeared. In
1864, Rigby, with a five-grooved rifle and a mechanically fitting
bullet, tied with the Whitworth rifle in the preliminary rifle
trial of the N.R.A. at 1000 yds., and in a subsequent trial took
the first place. By 1871 the Whitworth rifle had given place
to the Metford system with hardened cylindrical bullets, shallow
rifling and increasing spiral. In 1867 the modern breech-
loading rifle with a metallic cartridge was first introduced.
The Metford system of rifling greatly assisted its development.
In this year Rigby also produced a new model long-range rifle
designed on the lines followed by Metford. In 1869 the Henry
barrel came to the front. In 1870 the Martini-Henry, the new
service arm, won the duke of Cambridge's prize, the extreme
range in this competition being 800 yds. In 1871 the Snider
breech-loader replaced the Enfield muzzle-loader, and the
Martini-Henry replaced the Whitworth in the later stages 800,
900 and icoo yds. of the Queen's prize. The Metford barrel
was also used in breech-loaders, and the duke of Cambridge's
prize for the first time fired at 1000 yds. fell to it. During
the twenty-three years from 1871 to 1894 the Metford military
match rifle only four times failed to win this prize, while it
took a preponderating share of other prizes. The years 1872
and 1873 marked a decided advance in the military breech-
loader, though for fine shooting the muzzle-loader still seemed
hard to equal. In 1875 a team of American riflemen first visited
Wimbledon with " army-pattern " breech-loading rifles, which
were cleaned out after every shot, and met with considerable
success. A feature of their shooting was the " back position,"
then a novelty. In 1877 the superiority of the cleansable and
cleansed breech-loader over the increased fouling of the muzzle-
loader was clearly demonstrated, though the muzzle-loader did
not at once disappear. In 1878 the highest scores ever made
with the muzzle-loader in Great Britain were recorded, greater
care in cleaning the rifle after every shot being observed. ...
In 1883 the N.R.A. Council altered the conditions, wiping out
after every shot was forbidden, but muzzle-loaders were not
disqualified. The result was that the American type of rifle
disappeared. The poor shooting of the Martini at icoo yds.
induced the Council to take the retrograde step of reducing the
maximum range for the Queen's prize to 900 yds. In 1890 the
N.R.A. first met at the new ranges at Bisley. This year was
noticeable for the excellent shooting made in the " any " rifle
competitions by the Gibbs-Metford match rifle, particularly at
1000 yds. range. The accepted type was -461 calibre; 7 grooves
0045 in. in depth; 80 grains of special black gunpowder, and a
bullet of 570 grains. In 1892 and 1893 the Lee-Metford -303
rifle with cordite ammunition was first used by the army teams.
In 1890 and later the Hon. T. F. Fremantle, Captain Gibbs and
some others used Metford's copper-coated bullets in the Gibbs-
Metford rifle with success. In 1895 many match rifle shots
followed their example. In 1895 and 1896 the -303 was equalled,
and in some instances beaten, by the smaller-calibre Mannlicher
rifle. This was partly due to faulty Lee-Metford ammunition.
The -303 now proved its superiority to the -450 Martini, especi-
ally at the longer ranges. The Bisley meeting of 1896 practically
closed the series of contests with both the Martini and the
military match rifles. The Volunteers were thenceforth armed
with the -303.
The results of the Bisley meetings since 1895 have proved that
rifles of the -303 class, the British -303 rifle particularly, are not
so good for match rifles pure and simple as the larger bores using
black powder. The light bullets are more subject to deflection
by the wind at long ranges than the heavier speed-retaining
bullets of the larger bores. No nitro-powder used appears to
have equalled the black powder in regularity of shooting. At
the same time the object of the N.R.A. competitions is to
encourage the use of the military service rifle in the first place,
and in the case of the " any " rifle competitions to encourage
the production of weapons of the highest efficiency for military
purposes. Acting on these principles the rifles allowed by the
N.R.A. regulations (1907) are classed as follows: Class I.
Service rifle (S.R.): government pattern -303 magazine rifles;
RIFLE
335
sights strictly in accordance with service pattern. 1 Class II.
Match rifles (M.R.): any breech-loading rifle complying with the
following conditions: maximum weight of barrel, 3j Ib; maximum
calibre, -325; stock sufficiently strong for service purposes, and
without pad or shoe on the heelplate; minimum pull of trigger,
4 Ib; sights, of any description. Class III. Military breech-
loading rifles (M.B.L.); any rifle, that is either (a) the regulation
military rifle of any country; or (6) a breech-loading rifle comply-
ing with the following conditions: maximum weight, exclusive
of bayonet, 8J Ib; maximum calibre, -315; minimum pull of
trigger, 4 Ib. Sights may be of any description except telescopic
or magnifying, but must be fixed to the barrel and must be
strong enough for military purposes. Class IV. Sporting rifles:
calibre, any; minimum pull of trigger, 3 Ib; sights, open or such
as are sanctioned by the council or committee. The Lyman back-
sight and the Beech combination fore-sight have been sanctioned.
No lateral adjustment of fore- or back-sight is permitted. The
miniature rifles allowed fall into two classes, " military," with
open sights, only, and " any," with no restrictions as to sights
except that magnifying and telescopic sights are forbidden.
Modern American Target Rifles. In America, according to
some authorities, there are three recognized departments of
target shooting namely off-hand shooting; shooting from a
simple rest; and shooting from a machine rest, with telescopic
or any other sight. For the first two classes small-bore rifles
of -380 calibre or under only are used. The usual weight is from
8 to 10 Ib, with 28- or 3O-in. barrel. Light charges for the
shorter ranges are used. In the -380 bore only 55 grains of
powder with a 33O-grain bullet is employed. In the second-class
contests, from a simple rest, the barrel is longer and the weight
increased to just under 1 2 Ib. The bore is generally -380. The
usual range is 200 yds. The third-class shooting from a
machine rest, generally with telescopic sights, is not much
practised. Every kind of rifle is employed, usually of large bore
and weighing from 20 to 60 Ib. The long-range breech-loading
match rifle, with which so much fine shooting was done when
wiping out after each shot was allowed, weighed about 10 Ib;
the breech mechanism, any falling block, as the Sharp, Farquhar-
son, Deeley, and Edge or Wiley, that admitted the insertion
of the cleaning rod at the breech; length of barrel, 32 to 34 in.;
seven or more grooves -003 to -005 in depth with a complete
turn in 20 in. A sharp continual spiral and very shallow
grooves constituted the feature of the American plan. Rigby's
plan was similar, with one turn in 18 in. and eight grooves,
the lands being about half the width of the grooves. In the
Wiley the grooves were fewer and wider. The Metfoid is an
increasing twist, starting with one turn in 60 in. and finishing
with one in 20, or sharper. The usual bore of the American long-
range rifle was -458 or -461; powder, 76 grains of special " foul-
ing " rifle powder; elongated cylindrical bullet of 540 grains.
The pull-off was under 3 Ib. During recent years smaller-bore
smokeless-powder rifles have also been used.
Continental Match Rifles. The target rifle used by continental
maiksmen for medium ranges is a modification of the old
pattern Swiss rifle, with scroll guard, hollowed butt plate and
hair trigger. This latter, a mechanical device to free the
tumbler from the sear without sufficient pull on the trigger to
influence the aim, is disallowed in military arms.
Sporting Rifles. Prior to 1845 smooth-bore guns with double
charge of powder and an ounce spherical ball were generally
preferred to rifles for sporting purposes and for large game;
i6-bore muzzle-loading rifles were occasionally used by
British sportsmen in the East Indies before that date, firing
1 1 drs. of powder with a spherical ounce ball. These rifles
were sighted to 200 yds., but the trajectory was high and the
penetration weak; they were also difficult to load when foul.
The twist of the rifling was also too rapid, causing the bullet
to strip with heavy charges of powder. According to Captain
Forsyth and others, up to 1860 there was no known rifle suitable
1 The N.R.A. have recently sanctioned the use of the aperture
sight in service rifles, provided it be attached to the weapon by
the hinge-pin which fastens the ordinary folding leaf.
for sporting purposes in India. Rifles of i2-bore gauge,
firing a spherical ball, were subsequently made, with broad
and shallow grooves making one turn in 10 ft. The bullet, of
the same diameter as the bore, was loaded with a thin patch
that took the grooving. These rifles proved very successful,
possessing velocity equal to a smooth-bore of the same calibre,
accuracy for sporting distances, flat trajectory and great
striking power. In 1855 W. Greener produced the " Cape
rifle " for South African sport, calibre -450 or -500; rifling,
two deep grooves with one turn in 26 in., with a flanged bullet
to fit the grooves; weight, 12 Ib; sighted up to 1200 yds.
This rifle was successful, and others were built by Purdey, who
in 1856 named the pattern " Express Train." Since that date
the word " express " has been generally used to denote a rifle
possessing high velocity, flat trajectory and long fixed-sight
range. 2 In America small-bore rifles were used earlier in the
1 9th century. The celebrated Kentucky rifles were of various
sizes, firing spherical balls of 90, 60 and 40 to the Ib, and
were renowned for their accuracy and fixed-sight range up to
100 yds. Some maintain that the express rifle was developed
from the Kentucky model. The modern express rifle may
be defined as a breech-loading rifle with a height of trajectory
not exceeding 4$ in. at 150 yds., with a muzzle velocity of at
least 1750 f.s. These rifles are usually 5- to 7-grooved,
double-barrelled, with 26- to 28-in. barrels of -360, -400, -450,
500 and -577 bores, weighing respectively from 6J to 7 Ib,
7 to 8 Ib, 7$ to 9 ft, 8J to 10 ft and ioj to 12 ft. The re-
spective average charges are: bullet, 150 grains; powder,
50 grains; 209 and 82; 270 and no; 340 and 130; 520 and
160; the fixed-sight ranges, 130, 160, 150/130 and 120 yds.
Double and single express rifles of -303 bore with 26-in. barrels
are also made.
Since the invention of cordite powder and the advent of
the small-bore high-velocity rifle for military purposes, the
variety of sporting rifles with different-sized bores has increased.
Sporting cordite express rifles are now made, both single- and
double-barrelled, of the following calibres: -256, -265, -276,
33. -31, -360, -370, -375, -400, -450, -500, -577 and -600. Some
of these calibres, such as -500, -577 and -600, are seldom used with
cordite. The -450 cordite express is the largest bore high-
velocity rifle recommended.
The modern . small-bore military rifle already described
possesses all the best qualities of an express sporting rifle
namely accuracy, flat trajectory, high muzzle velocity and long
point-blank or fixed-sight range up to 200 yds. The muzzle
velocity of the -303 bore with black powder is 1850 f.s.; with
cordite, 2100 f.s. The hollow-pointed or slit expanding bullet
is generally used in these high-velocity rifles, as in the black-
powder express, for ordinary sporting purposes, with the solid
metal cartridge-case. The pointed bullet is also sometimes
used, generally with the -375 and -475 calibre rifles, and gives
an increased muzzle velocity of 2500 f.s. The trajectory of the
cordite rifle is stated to be 10 in. flatter at 200 yds. than that of
a black-powder rifle of similar calibre and corresponding charge.
The variety of bores in sporting rifles is due largely to restrictions
on the importation of arms of the military calibres (especially
303) into India and South Africa.
The sights of sporting express rifles are of some variety, and
are usually designed and made with special care. The open V
* The term " point-blank range " is often used in this connexion.
Strictly speaking, there is no such thing as " point-blank range,"
the bullet commencing to drop immediately it leaves the muzzle
of the rifle. The path or trajectory of the bullet if fired horizontally
is therefore always a downward curve. The higher the muzzle
velocity the flatter is this curve. The " fixed-sight," or so-called
" point-blank " range, is usually taken at such range, generally
loo yds. with black powder, and with such elevation as render the
amount of drop of the bullet or curve of its path practically imma-
terial for sporting purposes, say a maximum of 4! in. At shorter
range this curve would therefore take the bullet so much above
the line of fixed-sight aim, and must where necessary be allowed for.
With the high-velocity small-bore rifle the fixed-sight range can be
increased to 200 yds. for the sporting rifle; and for military purposes
in the field to 500 yds. and (with pointed bullets) even more.
33^
RIFLEMAN-BIRD
back-sight on an ivory pyramid with two or three leaves up to
300 yds., and the enamelled bead fore-sight, are the most usual
form. The more elaborate Lyman and Beech peep-sights are
also popular. One or two varieties of telescope sight, attachable
to the barrel, are also made by some leading gunmakers, and
have been used with success in the field. Solid-drawn brass
cartridge-cases are now always used for sporting rifles, except
occasionally for some of the larger bores, in which paper car-
tridges may be used. The peculiarity of the express bullet
is its hollow point, which is intended to ensure the expansion
of the projectile on impact. This diminishes its penetration,
but translates its velocity or energy into " shock." If greater
penetration is needed, the leaden bullet is hardened with mercury
or tin, or the military nickel-coated bullet is used. Explosive
bullets filled with detonating powder were at one time used in
express and large-bore rifles for large game. These are now
practically abandoned, owing to their uncertainty of action and
the danger in handling them. The use of the large 4- and
8-bore black-powder rifles is restricted to the hunting of large
and dangerous game. These are usually double-barrelled.
The 4-bore weighs from 14 to 18 tt> with 2o-in. barrels, and
fires a charge of 12 to 14 drs. of powder, with a spherical bullet
of 1510 grs. The great weight of this rifle is against its
general use. The 8-bore rifle weighs from iij to 15 Ib with
20- to 24-in. barrels, with a charge of 8 to 12 drs. of powder
with a spherical ball. These rifles are accurate and effective
up to 120 yds. Rook and rabbit rifles are usually single-
barrel breech-loading rifles of from -220 to -380 bore, hammerless,
ejectors. The range is ordinarily restricted to 200 yds.
Combined rifles and shot-guns are generally used in countries
where the kind of game to be met with is not known beforehand,
and by emigrants who can only afford one gun. These weapons
are double-barrelled (-450 rifle barrel and i6-bore short
barrel; or -500 rifle and i2-bore shot). Such a gun has
many drawbacks, being too heavy for a shot-gun and too light
for a rifle, with a bad balance. More modern combinations
of the rifle and shot-gun are Holland's " Paradox," a smooth
bore with the last three inches of the barrel ratchet-rifled,
Lancaster's " Colindian " twisted oval bore, and Bland's
" Euoplia " with " invisible " undulating rifling. All these
weapons fire heavy bullets more or less accurately up to
loo yds., are also used as shot-guns, and are made double-
or single-barrelled and of various calibres, i2-bore being the
most common. There is also Greener's " under and over,"
the rifle barrel being topmost (usually i6-bore shot-gun barrel
and -450 rifle barrel). The Morris tube also enables a shot-gun
to be utilized as a small-bore rifle or a large rifle as a saloon
rifle fdr gallery practice. The automatic principle has not yet
been applied to sporting rifles.
Miniature Rifles. In 1905 a War Office miniature or cadet
rifle for instruction purposes was officially adopted by the British
military authorities. The details of this rifle were determined
by a committee, upon which the National Rifle Association and
the Society of Miniature Rifle Clubs were represented. It is a
single-loading bolt-action rifle of -22 calibre with military
sights (the aperture sight being barred), shooting a rim-fire
cartridge having a 4O-gr. bullet propelled by 5 grs. of black
gunpowder or its equivalent in some smokeless explosive. It
is used at ranges from 25 yds. up to a maximum of 200 yds.
The official adoption of such a rifle was largely due to the
civilian rifle club movement, which was the outcome of the South
African War, and in which the Society of Miniature Rifle Clubs
has played an important part. Until the recent official adoption
of the miniature rifle, the council of the N.R.A. regarded
marksmanship with the service rifle as its main object of en-
couragement, and the service rifle itself as the orthodox weapon.
The Society of Miniature Rifle Clubs, on the other hand, makes
the encouragement of the use of low-power rifles its special
object, with few restrictions as to type of sights, rifle or ammuni-
tion. Numerous civilian rifle clubs have adopted the -22 calibre
rifle, in many cases with aperture sights, with marked success,
and British rifle-makers were encouraged to cater for this new
demand for low-power rifles. Such weapons can be far more
widely and generally used than the ordinary service weapon,
owing to their smaller cost, cheaper ammunition, absence of
recoil, and their convenience for use at short covered ranges
in crowded centres of population. In many parts of Great
Britain there is practically no alternative between low-power
short-range practice and no shooting at all. The N.R.A. has
now admitted the miniature -22 calibre rifle upon equal terms
with the service rifle. The miniature rifle has, to some extent,
taken the place of the Morris tube and " adaptors " previously
used for rifle practice at short ranges. 1 The Morris tube consists
of a small-rifled barrel, usually chambered for the 2g7/23o-bore
cartridge, and capable of being fitted inside the barrel of the
ordinary service weapon, which thus becomes available as a
miniature rifle for short-range practice. The Morris tube has
been adopted by the British War Office, and affords an excellent
means of training the recruit. " Adaptors " are dummy
cartridge-cases fitted into the breech of the ordinary rifle, by
means of which a shorter cartridge firing a lighter charge of
powder, but with a bullet of the same calibre as the rifle, can
be used for short-range practice. One of the first English
miniature target rifles was the " Sharpshooters' Club " rifle,
on the Martini principle, of -310 calibre, manufactured and
introduced by W. W. Greener, and suitable for ranges from
50 to 300 yds. This rifle was adopted by many rifle clubs, and
in 1901 established a record in the miniature rifle competition
at Bisley. Miniature rifle shooting has been much encouraged
throughout the United Kingdom by the establishment of the
Light Rifle Championship competition under the auspices of
the Society of Miniature Rifle Clubs. In 1907 Queen Alexandra
presented a cup for this event. (H. S-K.)
RIFLEMAN-BIRD, or RIFLE-BIRD, names given by the
English in Australia to a very beautiful inhabitant of that
country, 2 probably because in coloration it resembled the well-
known uniform of the rifle-regiments of the British army,
while in its long and projecting hypochondriac plumes and short
tail a further likeness might be traced to the hanging pelisse
and the jacket formerly worn by the members of those corps.
The cock bird is clothed in velvety-black generally glossed with
rich purple, but having each feather of the abdomen broadly
tipped with a chevron of green bronze, while the crown of the
head is covered with scale-like feathers of glittering green, and
on the throat gleams a triangular patch of brilliant bluish
emerald, a colour that reappears on the whole upper surface
of the middle pair of tail-quills. The hen is greyish-brown
above, the crown striated with dull white; the chin, throat
and a streak behind the eye are pale ochreous, and the lower
parts deep buff, each feather bearing a black chevron. According
to James Wilson (///. Zoology, pi. xi.), specimens of both sexes
were obtained by Sir T. Brisbane at Port Macquarie, whence,
in August 1823, they were sent to the Edinburgh Museum, where
they arrived the following year; but the species was first
described by W. Swainson in January 1825 (Zool. Journal,
i. 481) as the type of a new genus Ptiloris, more properly
written Ptilorrhis, 3 and it is generally known in ornithology as
P. paradisea. It inhabits the northern part of New South Wales
and southern part of Queensland as far as Wide Bay, beyond
which its place is taken by a kindred species, the P. victoriae
of J. Gould, which was found by John Macgillivray on the shores
and islets of Rockingham Bay. Farther to the north, in York
Peninsula, occurs what is considered a third species, P. alberti,
1 In the military forces short-range practice now takes two forms
practice with Morris tube or miniature rifle, and practice with
the full-sized rifle and ammunition on specially protected 3O-yd.
ranges.
2 Curiously enough, its English name seems to be first mentioned
in ornithological literature by Frenchmen R. P. Lesson and Garnot
in 1828, who say (Voy. " Coquille," Zoologie, p. 669) that it was
applied "pour rappeler que ce fut un soldat de la garnison [of New
South Wales] qui le tua le premier " which seems to be an insufficient
reason, though the statement as to how the first specimen was ob-
tained may be true.
3 Some writers have amended Swainson's faulty name in the form
Ptilornis, but that is a mistake.
RIGA RIGAUD
337
very closely allied to and by some authorities thought to be
identical with the P. magnified (Vieillot) of New Guinea the
"Promerops" of many writers. From that country a fifth
species, P. wilsoni, has also been described by Mr Ogden (Proc.
Acad. Philadelphia, 1875, P- 45*, pi- 25). Little is known of
the habits of any of them, but the rifleman-bird proper is
said to get its food by thrusting its somewhat long bill
under the loose bark on the boles or boughs of trees,
along the latter of which it runs swiftly, or by searching
for it on the ground beneath. During the pairing-season the
males mount to the higher branches and there display and trim
their brilliant plumage in the morning sun, or fly from tree to
tree uttering a note which is syllabled " yass " greatly prolonged,
but at the same time making, apparently with their wings, an
extraordinary noise like that caused by the shaking of a piece
of stiff silk stuff. Verreaux informed D. G. Elliot that he
believed they breed in the holes of trees and lay white eggs;
but on that score nothing is really known. The genus Ptilorrhis,
thought by Gould to be allied to Climacteris, has been generally
placed near Epimachus, which is now considered, with Drepanornis
and Seleucides, to belong to the Passerine Paradiseidae, or birds-
of-paradise, and in his Monograph of that family all the species
then known are beautifully figured by D. G. Elliot. (A. N.)
RIGA (Esth. Ria-Lin), a seaport of Russia, 366 m. by rail
S.W. of St Petersburg, the capital of the government of Livonia.
The Gulf of Riga, too m. long and 60 m. in width, with shallow
waters of inconsiderable salinity (greatest depth, 22 fathoms),
freezes to some extent every year. The town is situated at the
southern extremity of the gulf, 8 m. above the mouth of the
Dvina, which brings Riga, by means of inland canals, into water
communication with the basins of the Dnieper and the Volga.
Below the town the river divides into several branches, among
islands and sandbanks, receiving before it enters the sea the
Bolderaa river, and expanding towards the east into wider
lacustrine basins. Having direct railway communication with
the fertile parts of southern and south-eastern Russia, Riga
has become the second port for foreign trade on the Baltic,
ranking next after St Petersburg. The port freezes on an average
127 days every year. The larger ships cannot reach Riga, and
are unloaded at Ust-Dvinsk (formerly Dunamiinde). By no
means all the trade with the interior is transported by the
railways; no inconsiderable portion of the goods is carried by
water.
Riga consists of four parts the old town and the St Peters-
burg and Moscow suburbs on the right bank of the Dvina, and
the Mitau suburb on the left bank, the two sides being connected
by a floating bridge, which is removed in winter, and by a
viaduct, 820 ft. long. The old town still preserves its Hanseatic
features high storehouses, with spacious granaries and cellars,
flanking the narrow, winding streets. The only open spaces
are the market-place and two other squares, one of which,
facing the citadel, is adorned with a granite column erected
(1818) in commemoration of the defeat of Napoleon I. in 1812.
The suburbs, with their broad and quiet boulevards on the
site of the former fortifications, are steadily growing. The
St Petersburg suburb is the seat of the German aristocracy
and merchant community.
Few antiquities of the medieval town remain. The oldest
church, the Dom (St Mary's), founded in 1215, was burned in
1547, and the present building dates from the second half of
the 1 6th century, but has been thoroughly restored since 1883.
Its organ, dating from 1883, is one of the largest in the world.
St Peter's church, with a beautiful tower 412 ft. high, was erected
in 1406-9. The castle, built in 1494-1515 by the master of
the Knights of the Sword, Walter von Plettenberg a spacious
building often rebuilt is the seat of the Russian authorities.
The " House of the Black Heads," a corporation or club of
foreign merchants, was founded in 1330, and subsequently
became the meeting-place of the wealthier youth of the place.
Of the recent erections, the polytechnic, the exchange, the
monument of the German writer, Johann Gottfried von Herder,
who lived at Riga towards the end of the i8th century, the
gymnasiums (schools) of Lomonosov and Alexander I. and the
large bonded warehouse are worthy of notice. The esplanade
(where a Greek cathedral built in 1877-84 now stands), the
Wohrmann Park and the Imperial Park are much visited. Riga
gives name to an archiepiscopal see of the Orthodox Greek
Church and to an episcopal see of the Roman Catholic Church,
and is the headquarters of the XX. army corps. IB the environs,
Dubbeln and the sea-bathing resorts of Bilderlingshof and
Majorenhof have numerous visitors in summer.
The population, which was 102,590 in 1867, increased to 168,728
in 1881 and to 282,943 in 1897, so that Riga now ranks seventh
in the empire in order of population; 47% of the inhabitants
are Germans, 25% Russians and 23% Letts, with a small
admixture of Esthonians, Jews, &c. The city has a commercial
school (1903), a municipal library, the Dom museum, an art museum
with picture gallery (1904-5), technical and theological middle
schools and a pilot and navigation school. Industrial activity
has developed and includes railway-carriage works, works for the
manufacture of machinery, oil mills and breweries. Owing to its
communication by water and rail with the forests of White Russia
and Volhynia, Riga is a great mart for timber. Flax and linseed
also occupy a prominent place, Riga being the chief Russian port
for _ the extensive flax-producing region of north-west Russia.
Owing to the great railway which crosses the country from Riga
to Smolensk, afterwards dividing into two branches, to Orenburg
and Tsaritsyn on the lower Volga respectively, Riga is the store-
house and place of export for hemp coming by rail from west central
Russia, and for corn, Riga merchants sending their buyers as far
east as Tambov. Oats, in particular, are extensively exported to
England from the central provinces. Wheat, barley, eggs, butter,
oilcake, hides, tallow, leather, tobacco, rugs, feathers and other
items add considerably to the total value of the exports, which
increased from if million sterling in 1851-60. to 8-14 millions
sterling in 1901-5. The imports, consisting chiefly of salt, fish,
wine, cotton, metals, machinery, coal, oils, fruits and tobacco, are
also rapidly increasing: whereas in 1851-60 they were valued at
about i million sterling, in 1901-5 they reached 6-nJ millions
sterling.
History. Riga was founded in 1158, as a storehouse at the
mouth of the Diina (Dvina), by a few Bremen merchants.
About 1190 the Augustinian monk Meinhard erected a monastery
there, and in 1199-1201 Bishop Albert I. of Livonia obtained
from Pope Innocent III. permission for German merchants to
land at the new settlement, and chose it for his seat, exercising
his power over the neighbouring district in connexion with the
Teutonic Knights. As early as the first half of the I3th century
the young city obtained the right of electing its own magistracy,
and enlarged the walls erected during Albert I.'s time. It joined
the Hanseatic League, and from 1253 refused to recognize the
rights of the bishop and the knights. In 1420 it fell once more
under the rule of the bishop, who maintained his authority until
1 566, when it was abolished in consequence of the Reformation.
Sigismund II., king of Poland, took Riga in 1547, and in 1558
the Russians burned its suburbs and many ships in the river.
In 1561 Gotthard Ketteler publicly abdicated his mastership
of the order of the Teutonic Knights, and Riga, together with
southern Livonia, became a Polish possession; after some
unsuccessful attempts to reintroduce Roman Catholicism,
Stephen Bathory, king of Poland, recognized the religious
freedom of the Protestant population. Throughout the I7th
century Riga was a bone of contention between Sweden, Poland
and Russia. In 1621 Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, took
it from Poland, and held it against the Poles and the Russians,
who besieged it in 1656. During the Northern War between
Sweden and Russia, it was courageously defended (1700), but
after the battle of Poltava it succumbed, and was taken in July
1 710 by the Russians. In 1781 it was made by Russia the capital
of the Riga viceroyalty, but fifteen years later, the viceroyalty
having been abolished, it was made the capital of Livonia. In
1812, the approach of the French being apprehended, the
suburbs were burned. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)
RIGAUD, HYACINTHE (1650-1743), French painter, born
at Perpignan on the 2oth of July 1659, was the descendant of a
line of artists. Having early lost his father, he was sent by
his mother to Montpellier, where he studied under Pezet and
was helped by Ranc, then to Lyons, and in 1681 to Paris. There,
whilst following the regular course of academical instruction,
338
RIGBY RIGGING
Rigaud produced a great number of portraits so good that
Le Brun advised him to give up going to Rome and to devote
himself wholly to this class of work. Rigaud, although he had
obtained the Grand Prix, followed this advice, and for sixty-two
years painted at the rate of thirty to forty portraits a year,
all carried through with infinite care by his own hand. His
portraits of himself, of the sculptor Desjardins (Louvre), of
Mignard and of Le Brun (Louvre) may be cited as triumphs of
a still more attractive, if less imposing, character than that
displayed in his grand representations of Bossuet (Louvre) and
Louis XIV. (Louvre), while his beautiful portraits of his mother,
Marie Serre (Louvre), must for ever remain amongst the master-
pieces of French art. Rigaud, although the great successes to
which he owed his fame were won without exception in portrait-
painting, persisted in pressing the Academy to admit him
as an historical painter. This delayed his reception, and it
was not until January 1700 that he succeeded in obtaining
his desire. He presented as his diploma works a St Andrew
(Louvre) and the portrait of Desjardins already mentioned,
exhibited at the salon of 1704, and filled in turn all the various
posts of academical distinction. He died on the 27th of
December 1743, having never recovered from the shock of
losing his wife in the previous year. He had many pupils, and
his numerous works had the good fortune to be reproduced
by the greatest of French engravers Edelinck, Drevet, Wille,
Audran and others.
RIGBY, RICHARD (1722-1788), English politician, was the
only son of Richard Rigby (d. 1730) of Mistley Hall, Essex, a mer-
chant who made a fortune through his connexion with the South
Sea Company. Young Rigby became an associate of Frederick,
prince of Wales, and entered parliament in 1745. He is chiefly
known to fame through his connexion with John Russell, 4th
duke of Bedford, and the " Bloomsbury gang," his audacity
earning for him the title of the " brazen boatswain " of the
"crew." In 1758 he became secretary to Bedford, who was
lord lieutenant of Ireland, and in the following year he was
given the sinecure office of master of the rolls for Ireland.
Following the political fortunes of the duke he became vice-
treasurer of Ireland in 1765, and in 1768 he obtained the lucrative
position of paymaster-general of the forces. Rigby often spoke
in parliament, and in 1 769 he shared in the opposition to Wilkes.
In 1784 he was obliged to resign his position as paymaster-
general, and he was somewhat surprised and embarrassed when
he was requested to pay over the large sum of public money
which was in his possession. He left a great fortune when he
died at Bath on the 8th of April 1788. A rapacious and un-
scrupulous politician, Wraxall says Rigby " possessed talents
for addressing a popular assembly which were sustained by a
confidence that nothing could abash."
RIGG, JAMES HARRISON (1821-1909), English Noncon-
formist divine, was born at Newcastle-on-Tyne on the i6th of
January 1821. His father was a Wesleyan minister and sent
his son to the Old Kingswood School, Bristol, where he subse-
quently became an assistant teacher. In 1845 he entered
the Wesleyan ministry, and during the agitation of 1849-52
wrote successfully in exposition and defence of the polity of
Methodism. In 1857 he published Modern Anglican Theology,
an acute criticism of the writings of Coleridge, Hare, Maurice,
Kingsley and Jowett. The book was timely and well received,
and though Kingsley at first resented the criticism he afterwards
became a cordial friend of the writer. Rigg had now become a
leading figure in his own church, and in 1868 was appointed
Principal of the Westminster Wesleyan Training College for
day-school teachers, a post which he held with growing dis-
tinction for 35 years. In 1870 he was elected on the first School
Board for London, one of the most remarkable assemblies
of modern times, and took, an important part in providing
the syllabus of religious instruction and framing the religious
settlement for teachers.
In 1873 he wrote National Education in its Social Conditions
and Aspects. A resolute opponent of secular education, he main-
tained that the state ought not to compete with the churches,
but welcome their aid in the work of national education. He
was also strongly against the adoption of a rigid universal code.
In 1886 he sat on the Royal Commission of Education, and was
brought into close contact with Matthew Arnold, and with
Dean Stanley, Bishop Temple and other Anglican prelates,
who held him in high esteem. In 1877 he became chairman
of the second London district of Methodism, and for fourteen
years helped to make the history of his church in the home
counties. In 1878 he was elected president of conference
and again in 1892. From 1881 he was ministerial treasurer of
the Wesleyan Missionary Society, taking an active part in its
work. He resigned his principalship in 1903 and died at
Brixton on the I7th of April 1909. Dr Rigg was universally
honoured as the Nestor of Wesleyan Methodism, in the
development of which he had taken a foremost part for over
60 years. His Connexional Economy is a standard work, and
his Living Wesley a most discriminating study of the character
and work of its subject. His Oxford High Anglicanism (1895)
showed how keenly he followed modern developments in the
Church of England. His lifelong principle was that Methodism
is " a church friendly to all, but owing allegiance to none."
See Life by John Telford (London, 1909).
RIGGING (A.S. wrigan or wrihan, to clothe), the general
term, in connexion with ships, for the whole apparatus of spars
(including both masts and yards), sails and cordage, by which
the force of the wind is utilized to move the hull against the
resistance, and with the support, of the water. (See also
SHIP and SHIPBUILDING). The word is often used as meaning
the cordage only, but this is a too limited, and even an irra-
tional, use of the term. A ship is not rigged until she is pro-
vided with all the spars, sails and cordage required to move
and control the hull. The straight or curved pieces of wood
or metal, called davits, from which the boats carried along
the bulwarks are hung, belong to the rigging. All are fastened
directly or indirectly to the hull, and all are required to com-
plete her " clothing." Vessels of all classes, from the smallest
sailing-boat up to the largest ship, are classed according to
the particular combination of their spars, sails and cordage.
" Cutter," " brig," or " ship," are only convenient abbrevia-
tions for " cutter-rigged," " brig-rigged," or " ship-rigged."
They are of such or such a " rig." It is strictly correct to
speak of the rigging of a mast or a yard, or of a boom, when
all that is meant is the special set of ropes, of whatever size
or material, required to keep them in their place, or withdraw
them from it, when they have to be moved in the ship. In
such cases the part is looked upon as a whole, and is mentally
abstracted from the total of the vessel's rigging.
The basis of all rigging is the mast (q.v.), whether it be com-
posed of one or of many pieces of wood or metal. The mast
is held up and controlled by ropes, which are classed together
as the " standing rigging," because they are " that part (of
the whole rigging) which is made fast, and not hauled upon "
(Admiral Smyth, Sailor's Word-Book). This must be under-
stood subject to the restriction that in the case of a mast com-
posed of several parts, including topmast and topgallant mast,
these subdivisions may be, and often are, lowered. The back-
stays, and other ropes which keep the top and topgallant
masts in place, are therefore only " comparative fixtures. "
The bowsprit, though it does not rise from the deck but projects
from the bow, is in fact a mast. The masts, including the
bowsprit, support all the sails, whether they hang from the
" yards," which are spars slung to the mast, or from " gaffs,"
which are spars projecting from the mast, or, as in the case of
the " jibs," are triangular sails, travelling on ropes called
" stays," which go from the foremast to the bowsprit and
suspended by halliards. The bowsprit is subdivided like other
masts. The bowsprit proper corresponds to the lower fore-,
main- or mizzen-mast. The jib-boom, which is movable and
projects beyond the bowsprit, corresponds to a topmast;
the flying jib-boom, which also is movable and projects beyond
the jib-boom, answers to a topgallant mast. The whole body
of ropes by which the yards, booms and sails are manipulated
RIGGING
339
constitute the " running rigging," since they are " in constant
use, to trim yards, and make or shorten sail " (Admiral Smyth,
op. cit.). The rigging must also provide the crew with the
means of going aloft, and with standing ground to do their
work when aloft. Therefore the shrouds (see below) are
utilized to form ladders of rope, of which the steps are called
ratlines,' by which the crew can mount. Near the heads of
the lower masts are the tops platforms on which men can
stand and in the same place on the topmasts are the " cross-
trees," of which the main function is to extend the topgallant
shrouds. The yards are provided with ropes, extending from
the middle to the extremities or arms, called horses, or foot-
ropes, which hang about 2 or 3 ft. down, and on which
men can stand. The material of which the cordage is made
has differed, and still differs greatly. Leather has been used.
must be adapted to resist two kinds of pressure, the longitudinal,
whether applied by the wind or by the motion of the vessel
when pitching (i.e. plunging head and stern alternately into
the hollow of the sea), and the lateral, when the wind is blow-
ing on the side and she is rolling. The longitudinal pressure
is counteracted by the bobstays, stays and backstays. A
reference to fig. i will show that the bobstays hold down the
bowsprit, which is liable to be lifted by the tug of the jibs, and of
the stays connecting it with the" fore-topmast. If the bowsprit
is lifted the fore-topmast loses part of its support. In the
case of a small vessel, the lifting of a bowsprit would wreck
her whole system of rigging in an instant. If fig. i is
followed from the bow to the mizzenmast, it will be seen that
a succession of stays connect the masts with the hull of the ship
or with one another. All pull together to resist pressure from
FIG. I. The Spars and Rigging of a Frigate. References are not repeated for each mast where the names and functions are identical,
i, bowsprit; 2, bobstays, three pairs; 3, spritsail-gaffs, projecting on each side of the bowsprit the ropes at the extremities
are jib-guys and flying jib-guys; 4, jib-boom; 5, martingale- stay, and below it the flying-jib martingale; 6, back-ropes;
7, flying jib-boom; 8, fore-royal stay, flying jib-stay and halliards; 9, fore-topgallant-stay, jib-stay and halliards; 10, two
fore-topmast-stays and fore-topmast staysail halliards; n, the foretop-bowlines, stopped into the top and two fore-stays;
12, two fore-tacks; 13, fore-truck; 14, fore-royal mast, yard and lift; 15, topgallant mast, yard and lift; 16, fore-top mast!
topsail-yard, lift and reef-tackle; 17, foretop, fore-lift, and topsail-sheet; 18, foremast and fore-shrouds, nine pairs; 19, fore-
sheets; 20, fore-gaff; 21, fore-topmast backstays and topsail tye; 22, royal and topgallant backstays; 23, fore-royal-braces
and main-royal-stay; 24, fore-topgallant braces and main-topgallant-stay; 25, standing parts or fore-topsail-braces and main-
topmast-stays; 26, hauling parts of fore-topsail-braces and main-top-bowlines; 27, fore parts of fore-braces; 28, mainstays;
29, main-tacks; 30, main-truck; 31, main-royal-braces; 32, mizzen-royal-stay and mizzen-royal-braces ; 33, main-topgallant-
braces and mizzen-topgallant-braces; 34, standing parts'of main-topsail-braces and mizzen-topmast-stay ; 35, mizzen-topsail-
braces; 36, hauling parts of main-topsail-braces, mizzen-top-bowlines and cross-jack-braces; 37, main-braces and mizzen-
stay; 38, standing part of peak halliards; 39, vangs, similar on each gaff; 40, ensign staff; 41, spanker-boom; 42, quarter-
boat's davits; 43, one of the davit topping-lifts and wind-sail; 44, main-yard-tackle; 45, a bull-rope.
During historic times, however, the prevailing materials have
been hemp or esparto grass (Machrocloa, or Stipa tenacissima) ,
and in recent days chain and wire. As the whole of the rigging
is divided into standing and running, so a rope forming part
of the rigging is divided into the " standing part " and the
" fall." The standing part is that which is made fast to the mast,
deck or block. The fall is the loose end or part on which the
crew haul. The block is the pulley through which the rope
runs. " Standing " in sea language means " fixed " thus the
standing part of a hook is that which " is attached to block,
chain or anything which is to heave the hook up, with a weight
hanging to it; the part opposite the point " (Smyth, sub voce).
" Tackle " is the combination of ropes and blocks; the com-
bination of cables and anchors constitutes the " ground tackle.''
The function of all cordage may be said to be to pull, for the
purpose either of keeping the masts in their places, or of moving
spars and sails. The standing rigging which supports the masts
in front. Pressure from behind is met by the backstays, which
connect the topmasts and topgallant masts with the sides of
the vessel. Lateral pressure is met by the shrouds and breast-
backstays. A temporary or " preventer " backstay is used
when great pressure is to be met. Seamen have at all times
had recourse to special devices to meet particular dangers.
When Dundonald, then captain of the " Pallas " frigate, was
chased by a French squadron in stormy weather, he fortified
his masts by ordering " all the hawsers " (large ropes a little
less strong than the cables which hold the anchor) " in the ship
to be got up to the mast heads, and hove taut," i.e. made fast
to the side. Thus she was able to carry more sail than would
have been possible with her normal rigging. The running rigging
by which all spars and sails are hoisted, or lowered and spread
or taken in, may be divided into those which lift and lower
the lifts, jeers, halliards (haulyards) and those which hold
down the lower corners of the sails the tacks and sheets. A
340
RIGGING
long technical treatise would be required to name the many
combinations of cordage and spars which make up the total
rigging. All that is attempted here is to give the main lines
and general principles or divisions.
The vessel dealt with here is the fully rigged ship of three or
more masts. But she includes all the others and the principles
are the same. The simplest of all forms of rigging is the dipping
lug, a quadrangular sail hanging from a yard, and always
hoisted on the side of the mast opposite to that on which the
wind is blowing (the lee side). When the boat is to be tacked
so as to bring the wind on the other side, the sail is lowered
and rehoisted. One rope can serve as halliard to hoist the sail
and as a stay when it is made fast on the weather side on which
the wind is blowing. The difference between such a craft and
the fully rigged ship is that between a simple organism and a
very complex one; but it is one of degree, not of kind. The
steps in the scale are innumerable. Every sea has its own
type. Some in eastern waters are of extreme antiquity, and
even in Europe vessels are still to be met with which differ
very little if at all from the ships of the Norsemen of the gth
and loth centuries. For a full account of these varieties of
rigging the reader may be referred to Mast and Sail in Europe
and Asia (London, 1906), by H. Warington Smyth.
When the finer degrees of variation are neglected the types of
rigging may be reduced to comparatively few, which can be classed
by the shape of their sail and the number of their masts. At the
bottom of the scale is such a craft as the Norse herring boat (fig. 2).
FIG. 2. Norse Herring Boat.
She has one quadrangular sail suspended from a yard which is
hung (or slung) by the middle to a single mast which is placed (or
stepped) in the middle of the boat. She is the direct representative
of the ships of the Norsemen. Her one sail is a " course " such as
is still used on the fore and mainmasts of a fully developed ship;
a topsail may be added (as in fig. 3) and then we have the beginning
FIG. 3. Nordland Boat.
of a fully clothed mast. A very similar craft called a Humber keel
is used in the north of England. The lug sail is an advance on
the course, since it is better adapted for sailing on the wind, with
the wind on the side. When the lug is not meant to be lowered,
and rehoisted on the lee side, as in the dipping lug mentioned above,
it is slung at a third from the end of the yard, and is called a standing
lug. A good example of the lug is the Chinese junk (fig. 4). The
FIG. 4. Four-masted Junk.
lug is a " lifting sail," and does not tend to press the vessel
down as the fore and aft sail does. Therefore it is much used by
fishing vessels in the North
Sea. The type of the fore
and aft rig is the schooner
(fig. 5). The sails on the
masts have a gaff above
and a boom below. These
spars have a prong called
" the jaws," which fit to
the mast, and are held in
place by a " jaw rope " on
which are threaded beads
called trucks. Sails of this
shape are carried by fully
rigged ships on the mizzen-
mast, and can be spread
on the fore and main.
They are then called try- FIG. 5. Schooner. I, bowsprit, with
sails and are used only in martingale to the stem; 2, fore-
bad weather when little topmast-stay, jib and stay-foresail;
sail can be carried, and 3, fore-gaff-topsail; 4, foresail and
are hoisted on the trysail mainstays; 5, main-gaff-topsail; 6,
mast, a small mast attached mainsail; 7, end of boom,
to the great one. The
Lateen (Latin) sail (fig. 6) is a triangular sail akin to the lug, and
is the prevailing type of the Mediterranean. These original types,
FIG. 6. Lateen Rig.
even when unmodified by mixture with any other, permit of large
variations. The number of masts of a lugger may vary from one
to five, and of a schooner from two to five or even seven. A small
lug may be carried above the large one, and a gaff topsail added to
the sails of a schooner. A small-masted fore-and-aft-rigged vessel
may be a cutter (fig. 7) or sloop. But the pure types may be com-
bined, in topsail schooner, brigantines, barquentines and barques,
when the topsail, a quadrangular sail hanging from and fastened
to a yard, slung by the middle, is combined with fore and aft sails.
The lateen rig has been combined with the square rig to make such
a rigging as the xebec a three-masted vessel square rigged on the
main, and lateen on the fore and mizzen. Triangular sails of the
RIGGING
34*
FIG. 7. Cutter Yacht. I , bow-
sprit and martingale; 2, jib
behind it is the foresail;
3, cross-trees and topmast-
shroud; 4, pennant desig-
nating the club to which she
belongs; 5, gaff -topsail; 6,
peak of gaff, hoisted by peak
and throat halyards; 7,
mainsail ; 8, end of boom and
topping-lift.
From Sir George V. C. llolmes's Ancient and Modem Skips, Part I., by permission of the Controller of H.M. Stationery Office.
FIG. 8. Sail Plan of the " Santa Maria."
same type as the jibs can be set on the stays between the masts of
a fully rigged ship, and are then known as staysails. But it can
only be repeated that the variations are innumerable. Studding-
sails are pieces added to increase the breadth (spread) of sails, and
require the support of special yards, booms and tackle.
The development of the rigging of ships is a very obscure
subject. It was the work of centuries, and of practical men
who wrote no treatises. It has never been universal. A
comparison of the
four - masted junk
given above with
the figures of ships
on medieval seals
shows at least much
similarity. Yet by
selecting a few lead-
ing types of succes-
sive periods it is
possible to follow
the growth of the
fully rigged ship, at
least in its main
lines, in modern
times.
Fig. 8 gives the sail
plan of the " Santa
Maria," the flagship
of Columbus. It is
a modern reconstruc-
tion, made in 1893 in
Spain at the Carraca
arsenal, but is based
on good authority.
She has only the fixed
bowsprit, with a yard
and a sail hanging
from it, the spritsail
ird and spritsail.
he foremast has one
course, the mainmast
a course and topsail,
the mizzen a _ lateen
sail. Fig. 9 is the
" Sovereign of the
Seas," a British warship of 1637. She still has only the
fixed bowsprit, but a small upright mast has been erected at
the end, which serves to spread a sprit topsail. In some cases
at least a sprit topgallant sail was used. The mizzenmast still
carries a lateen sail, but topsails have been added, and the whole
rigging has multiplied and developed. Between the " Sovereign
of the Seas " and the fully developed ship given in fig. I the most
apparent differences are in the rigging of the bowsprit and the
mizzenmast. The sprit topmast has disappeared, and is replaced
From Sir George V. C Holmes's Ancient and Modem Ships, Part I., by permission of the Controller of H.M. Stationery Office.
FIG. 9. The " Sovereign of the Seas."
342
RIGHT ASCENSION RIGHTS OF MAN
by the jib-boom. The square spritsail, which could not be trained
fore and aft, and was of feeble effect in keeping the ship's head from
turning to windward, has been replaced by the jib. The spritsail
yard (which continued in use till after 1850) has disappeared and
has been replaced by the spritsail gaffs, two fixed spars which slope
downwards and help to support the " jib-guys," the lateral supports
of the booms. For a time, and after the use of spritsails had been
given up, the spritsail yard continued to be used to discharge the
function now given to the gaffs (see Smyth, Sailor's Word-Book,
sub voce). The changes in the mizzen have an obscure history.
About the middle of the i8th century it ceased to be a pure lateen.
The yard was retained, but no sail was set on the forearm. Then
the yard was given up and replaced by a gaff and a boom. The
new sail was called the spanker. It was, however, comparatively
narrow, and when a greater spread of sail was required, a studding-
sail (at first called a " driver ") was added. At a later date
" spanker " and " driver " were used as synonymous terms, and
the studding-sail was called a " ringtail." The studding-sails are
the representatives of a class of sail once more generally used. In
modern times a sail is cut of the extreme size which is capable of
being carried in fine weather, and when the wind increases in strength
it is reefed i.e. part is gathered up and fastened by reef points,
small cords attached to the sail. Till the I7th century at least
the method was often to cut the courses small, so that they could
be carried in rough weather. When a greater spread of sail was
required, a piece called a bonnet was added to the foot of the sail,
and a further piece called a drabbler could be added to that. It is
an example of the tenacious conservatism of the sea that this
practice is still retained by the Swedish small craft called " lodjor "
in the Baltic and White Sea. It will be easily understood that no
innovation was universally accepted at once. Jib and sprit topsail,
lateen, mizzen and spanker, and so forth, would be found for long
on the sea together.
The history of the development of rigging is one of adjustment.
The size of the masts had to be adapted to the ship, and it was
necessary to find the due proportion between yards and masts.
As the size of the medieval ship increased, the natural course
was to increase the height of the mast and of the sail it carried.
Even when the mast was subdivided into lower, top and
topgallant, the lower mast was too long, and the strain of the
sail racked the hull. Hence the constant tendency of the
ships to leak. Sir Henry Manwayring, when giving the proper
proportions of the masts, says that the Flemings (i.e. the
Dutch) made them taller ("taller" and "taunt" were for
long used to mean the same thing) than the English, which
again forced them to make the sails less wide. A tall sail
could not be cut so wide as a lower one without putting an
excessive strain on the mast. He says that the Flemings found
an advantage in working to windward, but that they " wronged "
(i.e. racked) their ships. The English preferred a less lofty
mast and a wider spread of sail.
It is very difficult to say what changes in the proportions of
masts and yards took place in English ships between the early
1 7th and the igth centuries. The difficulty arises largely not only
from insufficient knowledge of the earlier period, but from the fact
that a scale was fixed only after trials, and by degrees. Manwayring,
for instance, when giving the proportion of the topmasts to lower
masts, says: " The topmasts are ever half so long as the masts into
which they belong; but there is no absolute proportion in these,
and the like things, for if a man will have his mast short, he may
the bolder make his topmast long." In some respects the change
was certainly slight. In the early iyth century, in England at
least, the length of the mainmast was fixed by taking four-fifths
of the breadth of the ship and multiplying by three. Two centuries
later the method was to take the length of the lower deck and the
extreme breadth, add them together, and divide by two. If we
take a 74-gun ship of about the year 1820, which was 176 ft. long
on the lower deck and 48 ft. 8 in. wide, she would have, by the
system then used, a mainmast of 112 ft. Manwayring's system
would have given her one of 117 ft. But in the proportions of the
masts to one another there was a change. In the I7th century the
foremast was four-fifths of the main, and the bowsprit was of the
same length as the foremast. In the igth the foremast was eight-
ninths of the mainmast, while the bowsprit was seven-elevenths
of the mainmast in the largest ships, and three-fifths in the others.
When we come to the relative proportions of masts and yards the
difficulty increases, for the standard was not the same. The seamen
of the 1 7th century calculated the length of the mainyard not by
the size of the mast but by the length of the keel. The mainyard,
which was the standard for the others, ought according to " the
best and most absolute " estimate to be five-sixths of the length
of the keel. But Manwayring again explains that " the proportion
is not absolute." If it was followed, the yards of a 17th-century
ship must have been rather longer than in a vessel of a hundred
and fifty and two hundred years later, when the mainyard was
eight-ninths of the mainmast, and a regular scale was fixed through-
out. Even so Manwayring's warning that " the proportion was not
absolute " must be borne in mind. Changes were constant. The
development of the famous American clippers made a considerable
one. So has the growth of the vast four- and five-masted iron sailing
ships of recent days. Individual captains have fitted ships according
to ideas of their own. It has always happened that extra sails
have been invented and set by ingenious devices for particular
purposes. One large sail requires more men to handle it than
several small ones. For this reason it is that in recent times the
topsails of merchant ships have been divided into upper and lower,
with a great loss of beauty, but an increase of convenience. To
the same cause, the wish to economize in the size of the crew, is to
be attributed the introduction of machinery for reefing sail from
the deck, which is also an easier and a safer process than going aloft
to reef them by hand. In a general way it may be said that the
development of the rigging has been towards establishing a fair
balance between the fore and after spread of canvas. Until the
jib was invented in the l8th century, a ship which was sailing on
the wind was subject to a disproportionate pressure aft. If she
was at all given to " griping " that is to say, inclined to turn head
to wind (and all ships are liable to have ways and manners which
are mysterious in origin and not seldom incurable), the mizzen-sail
could not be used, for if it had been she would never have been
" put of the wind." Therefore when close-hauled (sailing with the
wind on the side and somewhat from before her centre) she lost the
use of part of her sail. The spritsail which could not be trained
fore and aft was no use " on the wind."
A few words may be added concerning the tops. In the
earlier form of ships the -top was a species of crow's nest placed
at the head of the mast to hold a look-out, or in military opera-
tions to give a place of advantage to archers and slingers.
They appear occasionally as mere bags attached to one side
of the mast. As a general rule they are round. In the i6th
century there were frequently two tops on the fore- and main-
masts, one at the head of. the lower, another at the head of
the topmast, where in later times there have only been the two
traverse beams which make the crosstrees. The upper top
dropped out by the I7th century. The form was round, and so
continued to be till the i8th century when the quadrangular
form was introduced. In quite recent times the military tops
of warships have resumed the circular form.
AUTHORITIES. The present writer is indebted to Admiral Sir
Cyprian A. G. Bridge, G.C.B., whose practical acquaintance with
the older type of sailing ship as well as with the modern steamship
makes his authority specially valuable, for the correction or
confirmation of the technical details in the above article. Among
the literature of the subject, reference may be made to the following
works: Sir Henry Manwayring, The Seaman's Dictionary (London,
1644) ; Darcy Lever, The Young Sea Officer's Sheet Anchor (London,
1808); Sir George Nares, Seamanship (Portsmouth, 1882); Vice-
Admiral Edmond Paris, La Musee de marine du Louvre (Paris,
1883). (D. H.)
RIGHT ASCENSION, in astronomy, that co-ordinate of a
heavenly body defined by the angle which the meridian passing
through it makes with the" prime meridian through the vertical
equinox (see ASTRONOMY).
RIGHTS OF MAN AND OF THE CITIZEN, DECLARATION
OF, a sort of manifesto issued in 1789 by the Constituent
Assembly in the French Revolution, to be inscribed at the head
of the constitution when it should be completed. It stated
the fundamental principles which inspired the revolution.
Historians have traced a connexion with the declarations
of rights which preceded the constitution of some of the states
of the American Union, especially of Virginia, but the situation
in France at the time, and the influence of the writings of the
philosophes made the proposal for such a statement very natural.
The declaration overturned the political and social principles
upon which the existent regime stood. It has served as a
base for modern civil legislation and is still a force in European
history. The final text voted by the Assembly was accepted by
the king on the 5th of October 1789, at first conditionally, then
with modifications. It contains a preamble and 17 articles.
They proclaim and define political equality and liberty in its
various manifestations, determine the character of the law
and the conditions of its application, and state at the same
time the restrictions upon the individual will which are necessary
RIGORD RIMBAUD
343
for the benefit of society: Similar declarations were attached
to the constitution of 1793 and to that of the year III.
See E. Blum, La Declaration des droits de I'homme el du citoyen,
text with commentary (Paris, 1902) ; L. Bourgeois and A. Metin,
Declaration des droits de I'homme et du citoyen, 1789 (Paris, 1901) ;
G. Jellinck, Die Erkldrung der Menschen und Biirgerrechte (Leipzig,
1895). This study has been translated into English by Rudolf
Tombo (New York), and has aroused considerable controversy;
see E. Boutmy, " La Declaration des droits de I'homme et du citoyen
et M. Jellinck," in Annales des sciences politiques for the I5th of
July 1902; also E. Walsh, La Declaration des droits de I'homme et
du citoyen et I'assemblee constituant, Travaux preparatoires (Paris,
RIGORD (c. 1150-c. 1209), French chronicler, was probably
born near Alais in Languedoc, and became a physician. After-
wards becoming a monk he entered the monastery of Argenteuil,
and then that of St Denis, and described himself as regis
Francorum chronographus. Rigor wrote the Gesta Philippi
Augusti, dealing with the life of the French king, Philip
Augustus, from his coronation in 1179 until 1206. The work,
which is very valuable, was abridged and continued by William
the Breton (q.v.). The earlier part of the Gesta speaks of the
king in very laudatory terms, but in the latter part it is much
less flattering in its tone. It is published in tome xvii. of
Dom Bouquet's Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France
(Paris, 1738-1876); and with introduction by H. F. Delaborde
(Paris, 1882-85). A French translation of the Gesta is in tome
xi. of Guizot's Collection des memoires relatifs a I'histoire de
France (Paris, 1825). Rigord also wrote a short chronicle of
the kings of France.
See A. Potthast, Bibliotheca historica (Berlin, 1896); and A.
Molinier, Les Sources de I'histoire de France, tome iii. (Paris, 1903).
RIGORISM. (Lat. rigor, stiffness, firmness), a philosophical
term applied by Kant specially to those moralists who take up
an anti-hedonist or ascetic standpoint. In general the term
is opposed to " latitudinarianism " or " indifferentism,"-
respectively a morality of compromise and a morality of pure
indifference, and signifies insistence upon the strictest inter-
pretation of a principle, rule or criterion. Thus, in Roman
Catholic theology, a rigorist holds that in cases of conscience
the proper course is to adhere to the strict wording of the law
in question.
RILEY, JAMES WHITCOMB (1853- ), American poet,
was born in Greenfield, Indiana, in 1853. He spent several
years as an itinerant sign-painter, actor and musician. During
this vagabond experience he had opportunities to revise plays
and compose songs, and was brought into close touch with
the rural folk of Indiana, becoming familiar with their life and
speech. About 1873 he first contributed verses, especially in
the Hoosier dialect, to the papers, and he soon became local
editor of the Anderson (Ind.) Democrat. In August 1877, over
the initials " E.A.P.," he printed in the Kokomo (Indiana)
Dispatch a poem, Leonainie, in the manner of Poe. 1 The press
throughout the country copied the poem, .and many critics
of acknowledged authority believed it to have been' actually
written by Poe, until the hoax was explained by the paper in
which it first appeared. To the Indianapolis Daily Journal
Riley contributed many poems, the best known being a series
in dialect which purported to have been written by one " Ben-
jamin F. Johnson, of Boone," a farmer. These he published
in book form, under the same pen-name, as The Old Swimmin'
Hole and 'Leven More Poems (1883). He wrote short stories and
sketches, some of unusual merit, but is known almost exclusively
as a poet. Of his poems some are in conventional English, many
others in the Hoosier dialect of the Middle- West. His materials
are the homely incidents and aspects of village and country life,
1 The poem was accompanied by a statement from the editor
of the paper that it was " from the gifted pen of the erratic poet,
Edgar Allan Poe," and by a circumstantial story to the effect that
the poem had been found written on the fly-leaf of an old Latin-
English dictionary then owned by " an uneducated and illiterate
man " in Kokomo, who had received it from his grandfather, in
whose tavern, near Richmond, Va., it had been left by " a young man
who showed plainly the marks of dissipation."
especially of Indiana, and his manner is marked by delicate
imagination and naive humour and tenderness.
The bulk of his work appeared in The Boss Girl and Other Sketches
(1886), republished in 1891 as Sketches in Prose; Afterwhiles (1887);
Pipes o' Pan at Zekesbury (1888); Rhymes of Childhood (1890);
Neighborly Poems (1891); The Flying Islands of the Ni%ht (1891),
a fantastic blank verse drama; Green Fields and Running Brooks
(1892); Poems Here at Home (1893); Armazindy (1894), which
contains the poem " Leonainie "; A Child-World (1896), reminiscent
of his own boyhood; The Rubdiydt of Doc Sifers (1897); Home
Folks (1900); The Book of Joyous Children (1902); His Pa's
Romance (1903); A Defective Santa Claus (1904); and in several
books of selections, such as Old Fashioned Roses (1889), published
in England; Child Rhymes (1808); Love Lyrics (1899); The Golden
Year (1899), published in England; Farm Rhymes (1901); An Old
Sweetheart of Mine (1902); Out to Old Aunt Mary's (1904); Songs o'
Cheer (1905) ; Morning (1907) ; and Songs of Summer (1908).
RIMBAUD, JEAN ARTHUR (1854-1891), French poet and
adventurer, was born at Charleville, in the Ardennes, on the 2Oth
of October 1854. He was the second son of a captain in the
French army, who in 1860 abandoned his wife and family.
From early childhood Arthur Rimbaud, who was severely
brought up by his mother, displayed rich intellectual gifts and a
sullen, violent temperament. He began to write when he was
ten, and some of the poems which now appear in his works belong
to his fifteenth year. Before he was sixteen, in consequence of a
violent quarrel with his mother, the boy escaped from Charleville
with a packet of his verse, was arrested as a vagabond, and for a
fortnight was locked up in the Mazas prison, Paris. A few days
after being taken home Rimbaud escaped again, into Belgium,
where he lived for some time as a tramp, Almost starved, but
writing verses with feverish assiduity. In February 1871 he left
his mother for a third time, and made his way to Paris, where he
knew no one, and whence, after very nearly dying of hunger and
exposure, he begged his way back to Charleville. There he wrote
in the same year the extraordinary poem of Le Bateau ivre, which
is now hailed as the pioneer of the entire " symbolist " or
" decadent " movement in French literature in all its forms.
He sent it to Verlaine, who encouraged the boy of seventeen
(whom he supposed to be a man of thirty) to come again to Paris.
Rimbaud spent from October 1871 to July 1872 in the capital,
partly with Verlaine, partly as the guest of Theodore de Banville,
and served in the army of the Commune. With Verlaine he
travelled for thirteen months, after the fall of the Commune,
through England and Belgium, where in 1873 he published the
only work which he ever printed, Une Saison en Enfer, in prose;
in this he gives an allegorical account of his extravagant relations
with Verlaine, which ended at Brussels by a double attempt of
the latter to murder his young companion. On the second
occasion Rimbaud was dangerously wounded by Verlaine's
revolver, and the elder poet was imprisoned at Mons for two
years. Meanwhile Rimbaud, deeply disillusioned, determined
to abandon Europe and literature, and he ceased at the age of
nineteen to write poetry. He settled for a while at Stuttgart,
studying German, and in 1875 he disappeared. He set out on
foot for Italy, and after extraordinary adventures found employ-
ment as a day-labourer in the docks at Leghorn. Returning to
Paris, he obtained a little money from his mother, and then
definitely vanished. For sixteen years nothing whatever was
heard of him, but it is now known that he embarked as a Dutch
soldier for the Sunda Isles, and, presently deserting, fled to
Sumatra and then to Java, where he lived for some time in the
forest. Returning to Europe, after a vagabond life in every
capital, he obtained in 1880 some menial employment in the
quarries of Cyprus, and then worked his way to Aden and up
into Abyssinia, where he was one of the pioneers of European
commercial adventure. Here he settled, at Harrar, as a trader
in coffee and perfumes, to which he afterwards added gold and
ivory; for the next eleven years, during which he led many
commercial expeditions into unknown parts of northern Africa,
Shoa and Harrar were his headquarters, and he lived almost
entirely with the natives, and as one of themselves. From 1888
to 1891, having prospered greatly as a merchant, he became
a sort of semi-independent chieftain, intriguing for France, just
344
RIME ROYAL RIMINI
outside the borders of civilization. From documents which
were first produced in 1902 it appears that from 1883 to 1889
Rimbaud was in close relations with the Ras Makonnen and with
Menelek, then only king of Shoa. At the death of the Negus
John, in 1888, he was concerned in the formation of the empire
of Ethiopia. From this time Rimbaud had a palace in the town
of Harrar, and intrigued with the French government in favour
of Menelek and against Italy. Meanwhile, in 1886, believing
Rimbaud to be dead, Verlaine had published his poems, under
the title of Les Illuminations, and they had created a great
sensation in Paris. In this collection appeared the sonnet on the
vowels, attributing a different colour to each: "A noir, E blanc,
I rouge, U vert, O bleu wyelles." But the author, in his Abyssinian
hut of palm-leaves, was, and remained, quite unconscious of the
fact. In March 1891 a tumour in his knee obliged Rimbaud to
leave Harrar and go to Europe for surgical advice. He reached
Marseilles, but the case was hopeless ; the leg had to be amputated,
and Rimbaud died there in hospital on the loth of November
1891. The poems of Rimbaud all belong to his earliest youth.
Their violent originality, the influence which they have exercised
upon younger writers, the tumultuous existence of their author,
and the strange veil of mystery which still hangs over his
character and adventures, have given to Rimbaud a remarkable
fascination. His life has been written by M. Paterne Berrichon
(1897), and valuable reminiscences by his sister, Mile Isabella
Rimbaud. His (Euvres were collected in 1898 by MM. Berrichon
and Delahaye, and in 1901 his statue was unveiled at Charleville.
(E. G.)
See also Lettres de Jean Arthur Rimbaud (Egypte, Arabic, Athiopie},
1899, edited by P. Berrichon; Paul Verlaine, Les Poetes maudits
(1884); George Moore, Impressions and Opinions: Two Unknown
Poets (1891) ; and A. Symons, The Symbolist Movement in Literature
(1900).
RIME ROYAL, the name given to a strophe or stanza-form,
which is of Italian extraction, but is almost exclusively identi-
fied with English poetry from the fourteenth to the early
seventeenth centuries. It appears to be formed out of the
stanza called Ottava rima (q.v.), by the omission of the fifth
line, which reduces it to seven lines of three rhymes, arranged
ababbcc. It was earliest employed with skill, if not, as seems
probable, invented, by Chaucer, who composed his long romantic
poem of Trotius and Cressida in rime royal, of which the following
is an example:
" And as the new-abashecl nightingale,
Thet stinteth first when she beginneth sing,
When that she heareth any herde tale,
Or in the hedges any wight stirring,
And, after, siker doth her voice out-ring,
Right so Cresseyda, when her drede stint,
Opened her heart, and told all her intent."
The " Prioress' Tale," in the Canterbury Tales, offers another
particularly beautiful proof of Chaucer's skill in the use of the
rime royal. In the fifteenth century this stanza was habitually
used, in preference to heroic verse, by Hoccleve and Lydgate,
and, with more melody and grace, by the unknown writer of
The Flower and the Leaf. In the sixteenth century, rime royal
was chosen by Hawes as the vehicle of his Pastime of Pleasure
(1506) and by Barclay in his Ship of Fools (1509); it was now
regarded as the almost exclusive classical form for heroic poetry
in England, and it had long been so accepted in Scotland,
where The King's Quair of King James I., the Fables of Henry-
son and The Thistle and the Rose of Dunbar had closely followed
Chaucer's pattern. The greater part of that huge poetic mis-,
cellany, The Mirror for Magistrates (1550-1610), was written
in rime royal, Sackville's momentous Induction among the
rest. The seven-line stanza began to go out of fashion with
the revival of Elizabethan poetry, but we find it still used in
Spenser's Hymn of Heavenly Beauty, Shakespeare's Lucrece and
the Orchestra of Sir John Davys. After 'the first decade of the
seventeenth century rime royal went out of fashion. Since then
it has been occasionally revived, but not in poems of great
length or particular importance. Rime royal should always
be written in iambic metre, and be formed of seven lines of equal
length, each containing ten syllables.
RIMINI, a town and bishop's see of Italy, in the province
of Forli, Emilia, on the Adriatic coast, 69 m. S.E. of Bologna
by rail. Pop. (1901) town, 18,022; commune, 46,801. The
city is bounded on three sides by water. It faces the Adriatic
to the north, has the torrent Aprusa, now called Ausa, on the
east and the river Marecchia on the west. It stands 'n a
fertile plain, which on the southern side soon swells into pleasant
slopes backed by the jagged peaks of the Umbrian Apennines.
The foremost foothill of the range is the steep crag of Mons
Titanus, crowned by the towers of the republic of San Marino.
Rimini attracts numerous visitors for the sea-bathing at Porta
Marina. It has mineral springs, and the industries comprise
fisheries, ironworks and foundries, sulphur furnaces, silk-
mills, rope walks, match factories, brickworks, flourmills and
furniture. Its main interest, however, is historical. Apart
from the ancient buildings, &c., referred to below, Rimini
can boast of a good public library, founded by the jurist Gam-
balunza in 1617, a municipal picture gallery, an archaeological
museum, a technical school (1882) and a bronze statue of
Pope Paul V. The ancient castle of Sigismondo Malatesta,
now dilapidated, has in recent years been used as a prison.
History. Rimini is the ancient Ariminum (q.v. for its early
history and remains). During the middle ages the history
of Rimini has no importance. Alternately captured by Byzan-
tines and Goths, it was rigorously besieged by the latter in
A.D. 538. They were, however, compelled to retreat before the
reinforcements sent by Belisarius and Narses; thus the Byzan-
tines, after various vicissitudes, became masters of the town,
appointed a duke as its governor, and included it in the exarchate
of Ravenna. It afterwards fell into the power of the Longo-
bards, and then of the Franks, who yielded it to the pope, for
whom it was governed by counts to the end of the loth century.
Soon after this period the imperial power became dominant in
Rimini. In 1157 Frederick I. gave it, by imperial patent, the
privilege of coining money and the right of self-government;
and in the I3th century we find Rimini an independent com-
mune waging war on the neighbouring cities.
In the year 1216, Rimini, being worsted by Cesena, adopted
the desperate plan of granting citizenship to two members
of the powerful Malatesta tribe, Giovanni and Malatesta, for
the sake of their aid and that of their vassals in the defence
of the state and the conduct of the war. This family quickly
struck root in the town and gave birth to future tyrants; for
in 1237 Giovanni was named podesta, and this office was the
first step towards the sovereign power afterwards assumed by
his descendants. Meanwhile, Rimini was torn by the feuds of
Guelf and Ghibelline. The latter were the dominant party in
the days of Frederick II., although very unpopular on account
of the grievous taxes imposed by the empire. Accordingly,
the majority of the urban nobles joined the Guelfs and were
driven into exile. But before long, as the Swabian power
declined in Italy, the Guejf party was again predominant.
Then followed a long period of confusion, in which, by means
of conspiracies and crimes of every kind, the Malatesta succeeded
in becoming masters and tyrants of Rimini. Giovanni Malatesta
had died in 1247 and been succeeded by his son Malatesta,
born in 1212, and surnamed Malatesta da Verrucchio. This
chieftain, who lived to be a hundred years old, had ample time
to mature his ambitious designs, and was the real founder of
his house. Seizing the first suitable moment, he placed himself
at the head of the exiled Guelfs, and restored them to Rimini.
Then, as the empire acquired fresh strength in Italy, he quietly
bided his time and, on the descent of the Angevins, again
assumed the leadership of the Guelfs who now had the upper
hand for a long time. Being repeatedly elected podesta for
lengthy terms of office, he at last became the virtual master
of Rimini. Nor was he checked by Rome. Pope Boniface VIII.
was fully aware of the rights and traditional pretensions of the
Holy See, but preferred to keep on good terms with one who had
so largely contributed to the triumph of the Guelfs in Romagna.
Accordingly he not only left Malatesta unmolested, but in
1299 conferred on him fresh honours and estates, so that
RIMINI
345
his power went on increasing to the day of his death in
1312-
Four sons had been born to Malatesta Malatestino, Giovanni
the Lame, Paolo the Handsome, and Pandolfo; but only the
oldest and youngest survived him. Giovanni the Lame
(Sciancato), a man of a daring impetuosity only equalled by
his ugliness, had proved so useful a general to Giovanni da
Polenta of Ravenna as to win in reward the hand of that
potentate's beautiful daughter, known to history as Francesca
da Rimini. But her heart had been won by the handsome
Paolo, her brother-in-law; and the two lovers, being sur-
prised by Giovanni, were murdered by him on the spot (1285).
This episode of the story of the Malatesta has been imnlortalized
in Dante's Inferno. Giovanni died in 1304. Thus in 1312
Malatestino became lord of Rimini, and on his decease in 1317
bequeathed the power to his brother Pandolfo.
Pandolfo died in 1326, leaving two heirs, Malatesta and
Galeotto. The former was nicknamed Guastafamiglia, because,
although at first willing to let his brother share his power, he
rid himself by violence and treachery of other kinsmen who
claimed their just rights to a portion of the state. His intent
was to become sole lord and to aggrandize his tiny principality.
But the reigning pope, Innocent VI., despatched the terrible
Cardinal Albornoz to Romagna, and it was speedily reduced
by fire and sword. In 1355 the Malatesta shared the fate of
the other potentates of the land. Nevertheless, it was the
cardinal's policy to let existing governments stand, provided
they promised to act in subordination to the papal see. Thus
he granted the Malatesta brothers the investiture of Rimini,
Pesaro, Fano and Fossombrone, and they arranged a division
of the state. Guastafamiglia took Pesaro, which was held
by his descendants down to the brothers Carlo and Galeazzo.
The former of these, who died in 1439, was father to the Parisina
beheaded in Ferrara, whose tragic love story has been sung
by Byron. The latter won the title of " Flnetto " (the In-
capable) by the foolish sale of his rights over Pesaro to the
Sforza in 1447.
Galeotto, on the other hand, retained the lordship of Rimini,
ruling tranquilly and on good terms with the popes, who allowed
him to add Cervia, Cesena and Bertinoro to his states. Dying
in 1385 at the age of eighty, he left two sons Carlo, who
became lord of Rimini, and Pandolfo, who had Fano for his
share. Carlo (1364-1429) was energetic, valiant and a friend
of the popes, who named him vicar of the church in Romagna.
He was a patron of letters and the arts, and during his reign
his court began to be renowned for its splendour. As he left
no issue, his inheritance was added to that of his brother
Pandolfo, and Fano was once more united to Rimini. Pandolfo
(1370-1427) had led the life of a condottiere, taking a prominent
part in the Lombard wars following on the death of Galeazzo
Maria Visconti, and held rule for some time in Brescia and
Bergamo. He left three natural sons < who were declared
legitimate by Pope Martin V. Theeldest, Galeotto (1411-1432),
was an ascetic, gave little or no attention to public business,
and, dying early, bequeathed the state to his brother Sigis-
mondo Pandolfo. The third son, Novello Malatesta (1418-1465)
ruled over Cesena.
Sigismondo (1417-1468) is the personage to whom Rimini owes
its renown during the Renaissance, of which indeed he was one
of the strangest and most original representatives. He was
born in Brescia, and when called to the succession, at the age
of fifteen, had already given proofs of valour in the field. His
knowledge of antiquity was so profound as to excite the admira-
tion of all the learned men with whom he discoursed, even when,
as in the case of Pius II., they chanced to be his personal
enemies. To him is due the erection of the church of St Francis,
or temple of the Malatesta, one of the rarest gems of the
Renaissance and the greatest of Rimini's treasures (see below
for description) .
Of so dissolute a life that, although married, he had children
by several mistresses at the same time, he gave vent to all his
passions with a ferocity that was bestial rather than human.
And as the crowning contradiction of his strange nature
from his youth to the day of his death he remained the devoted
lover of the woman for whose sake he became a poet, whom
he finally made his wife, and whom he exalted in every way,
even to the point of rendering her almost divine honours.
Yet this love never availed to check his excesses. On assum-
ing power in 1432, Sigismondo was already affianced to the
daughter of Count Carmagnola; but when that famous leader
was arraigned as a traitor by the Venetians, and igno-
miniously put to death, he promptly withdrew from his
engagement, under the pretext that it was impossible to
marry the child of a criminal. In fact, he aimed at a higher
alliance, for he espoused Ginevra d'Este, daughter of the
duke of Ferrara, and his entry into Rimini with his bride
in 1434 was celebrated by splendid festivities. In 1437
a son was born to him, but died within the year, and in
1440 the young mother followed it to the grave. Every
one declared that she died by poison administered by her
husband. This, however, was never proved. The duke of
Ferrara remained his friend, nor is it known what motive
Sigismondo could have for wishing to get rid of his wife. Two
years afterwards he married Polissena, daughter of the famous
condottiere Francesco Sforza, who in 1443 bore him a son named
Galeotto Roberto. But by this time he was already madly
in love with Isotta degli Atti, and this was the passion that
endured to his death. The lady succeeded in gaining an
absolute ascendancy over him, which increased with time.
She bore him several children, but this did not prevent his
having others by different concubines. Such being the nature
of the man, it is not astonishing that, as his ardour for Isotta
increased, he should have little scruple in ridding himself of his
second wife. On the ist June 1450 Polissena died by strangling,
and on the 3oth of the same month Isotta's offspring were
legitimated by Nicholas V.
It is only just to record that, although Malatesta's intrigue
with Isotta had long been notorious to all, and he had never
sought to conceal it, no one ever accused her of either direct
or indirect complicity in her lover's crimes. Isotta's history,
however, is a strange one, and opens up many curious questions.
She was of noble birth and seems to have attracted Sigismondo's
notice as early as 1438, for at the age of twenty he produced
verses of some merit in praise of her charms. She was indeed
widely celebrated for her beauty and intellect, culture, firmness
and prudence; and even Pope Pius II. proclaimed her worthy
to be greatly loved. When Sigismondo was absent she governed
Rimini wisely and well, and proved herself a match for the
statesmen with whom she had to deal. The leading poets of
the court dedicated to her a collection of verses entitled Isollaei,
styled her their mistress and the chosen of Apollo. Artists of
renown perpetuated her features on canvas, on marble and on
many exquisite medals, one of which has a- closed book graven
on the reverse, with the inscription " Elegiac " in allusion to
poems she was said to have written. Nevertheless, Yriarte,
in his book on the Malatesta and Rimini, asserted that there
was documentary evidence to prove that Isotta was unable
to sign her own name. But it is not at all surprising that Isotta
should have her letters written and signed by another hand,
when such was by no means an uncommon practice among the
princes and nobilities of her day. Lucrezia Borgia, for instance,
frequently did the same. It is besides simply incredible that a
woman of the Italian Renaissance of Isotta's birth, standing
and reputation should have been unable to write.
Her marriage with Malatesta did not take place until 1456;
but of the ardent affection that had long bound them together
there are stronger proofs than the lover's juvenile verses, or
than even the children Isotta had borne to him. For, more
than all else, the temple of St Francis has served to transmit
to posterity the history of their loves. Malatesta decided on
building this remarkable church as a thankoffering for his
safety, during a dangerous campaign undertaken for Pope
Eugenius IV. about the year 1445.
The first stone was laid in 1446, and the work was carried on
RIMINI
with so much alacrity that mass was performed in it by the
close of 1430. Sigismondo entrusted the execution of his plans
to Leo Battista Alberti, who had to encase in a shell of classic
architecture a 13th-century Franciscan church. The original
edifice being left intact, it was a difficult question how to deal
with the windows and the Gothic arches of the interior. Alberti
solved the problem with marvellous skill, blending the old
architecture with the new style of the Renaissance, and giving
it variety without destroying its unity of effect.
Being eager to adorn his temple with the most precious
marbles, Sigismondo's veneration for antiquity did not prevent
him from pillaging many valuable classical remains in Rimini,
Ravenna and even in Greece. Such was the zeal with which
Alberti pursued his task that the exterior of the little Rimini
church is one of the finest and purest achievements of the
Renaissance, and surpasses in beauty and elegance all the
rest of his works. But it is much to be deplored that he should
have left the upper part of the facade unfinished. Alberti
came to Rimini, made his design, saw the work begun and
then left it to be carried out by very skilful artists, on whom
he impressed the necessity of faithfully preserving its general
character so as " not to spoil that music."
The internal decorations, especially the enormous quantity
of wall ornaments, consisting chiefly of scrolls and bas-reliefs,
were executed by different sculptors under the personal direction
of Malatesta, who, even when engaged in war, sent continual
instructions about their work. It is difficult to give an exact
idea of this extraordinary church to those who have no personal
acquaintance with it. The vault was never finished, and still
shows its rough beams and rafters. The eight side chapels
alone are complete, and their pointed arches spring from
Renaissance pilasters planted on black marble elephants, the
Malatesta emblems, or on baskets of fruit held by children.
The surface of the pilasters is divided into compartments
encrusted with bas-reliefs of various subjects and styles. Every-
where on the balustrades closing the chapels, round the base
of the pilasters, along the walls, beneath the cornice of both the
exterior and the interior of the church there is one ornament
that is perpetually repeated, the interwoven initials of Sigis-
mondo and Isotta. This monogram is alternated with the
portrait and arms of Malatesta; and these designs are en-
wreathed by festoons linked together by the tyrant's second
emblem, the rose. The most singular and characteristic
feature of this edifice is the almost total absence of every
sacred emblem. Rather than to St Francis and the God of
the Christians it was dedicated and that while Sigismondo's
second wife still lived to the glorification of an unhallowed
attachment. Nature, science and antiquity were summoned
to celebrate the tyrant's love for Isotta. The bas-reliefs of
one of the chapels represent Jupiter, Venus, Saturn, Mars and
Diana, together with the signs of the zodiac. And these sub-
jects are derived, it appears, from a poem in which Sigismondo
had invoked the gods and the signs of the zodiac to soften
Isotta's heart and win her to his arms. The pageants of Mars
and Diana seem to have been suggested by the Trionfi of
Petrarch. Elsewhere we see prophets and sibyls, personifications
of the theological virtues and of the sciences. The delicate
bas-reliefs of botany and medicine, history and astronomy,
have been judged by some writers to be Grecian, on account of
the ancient appearance of their marble, their inscriptions in
Greek and Latin, and others that have never been deciphered.
But a moment's examination of the sculptures is enough to
destroy this hypothesis. Besides, some of the inscriptions are
very easily read and record " Apollo Ariminaeus " and " Jupiter
Ariminaeus."
In the first chapel on the left is the family tomb of the
Malatesta, with sculptured records of their triumphs and of
their alleged descent from Scipio Africanus. Better worthy of
notice is the third chapel to the right, known as that of the
Angels, on account of the angels and children carved on its
pillars. It is nominally dedicated to the archangel Michael,
whose statue is enshrined in it; but the figure has the face of
Isotta, the ruling deity of this portion of the church. For here
is the splendid and fantastic tomb erected to this lady, during
her life and previous to the death of Sigismondo's second wife.
No monument, be it remarked, is raised over the burial-place
of Ginevra and Polissena. The urn of Isotta's sarcophagus
is supported by two elephants, and bears the inscription,
" D. Isottae Ariminensi B. M. Sacrum, MCCCCL." The "D."
has been generally interpreted as " Divae " and the "B. M." as
" Beatae Memoriae." But some, unwilling to credit such
profanity, allege that the letters stand for " Bonae Memoriae."
Nevertheless, all who have seen the church must admit the
improbability of similar scruples.
The numerous artists employed on the interior of the church
were under the direction of the proto-maestro Matteo de Pasti
the celebrated medallist. And indeed the peculiar and fantastic
character of the sculptures in this chapel frequently recalls the
designs of his famous works. .All this decoration is in strange
contrast with the grandly austere simplicity of the facade and
outer walls of the church. There no ornament disturbs the
harmony of the lines. The frieze beneath the cornice, re-
producing the lovers' initials and the Malatestian ensigns, is
in such very low relief that it only enhances the perfection of
" that music " produced by the marvellous skilJ of Alberti.
Also the colour of the stone, a soft creamy white, adds to the
general beauty of effect. And everything both within and
without contributes to the profane and pagan character which
it was Sigismondo's purpose to impress on the Christian church.
On each of its outer walls are seven arched recesses, intended
to contain the ashes of the first literati and scientists of his
court. In the first, to the right, is the urn of the poet Basinio,
one of his pensioners, in the second that of Giusto de' Conti,
author of some rhymes on the Bella Ma.no, while the third
bore the more famous name of Gemisthus Pletho. This well-
known Byzantine philosopher was the diffuser of Platonism in
Florence during the time of Cosimo de' Media, and had faith
in the revival of paganism. Returning to his own people,
he had died in the Morea. Sigismondo, having gone there
in command of the Venetian expedition against the Turks,
exhumed the philosopher's bones as holy relics, and brought
them to Rimini for worthy sepulture in his Christian pantheon.
All]this is solemnly recorded in the inscription, which is dated 1465.
The fourth sarcophagus was that of Roberto Valturio (d. 1489),
the engineer, author of De Re Militari, who had been Sigismondo's
minister and had aided him in the construction of the castle
of Rimini. The other urns on this side were placed by Malatesta's
successors, and the arches on the left wall remained untenanted.
Sigismondo understood the science of fortification. He
was also the first to discard the use of wooden bomb-shells,
and substitute others cast in bronze. As a soldier his numerous
campaigns had shown him to be possessed of all the best
qualities and worst defects of the free captains of his time. He
began his military career in 1432 in the service of Eugenius IV.;
but, when this pope doubted his good faith and transferred
the command to another, he sided with the Venetians against
him, though at a later date he again served under him. On
the decease of Filippo Maria Visconti in 1447 he joined the
Aragonese against Venice and Florence; but, presently changing
his flag, fought valiantly against Alphonso of Aragon and forced
him to raise the siege of Piombino. In 1454 he accepted a
command from the Sienese; but suddenly, after his usual fashion,
he made peace with the enemies of the republic, and had to save
himself by flight from arrest for his perfidy. It was then that
the letters from Isotta were confiscated. After this he began
scheming to hasten the coming of the Angevins, and took
part in new and more hazardous campaigns against adversaries
such as the duke of X^rbino, Sforza of Milan, Piccinino, and,
worst of all, the Sienese pope, Pius II., his declared and mortal
foe. This time Sigismondo had blundered; for the cause of
Anjou was hopelessly ruined in Italy. He was therefore driven
to make his submission to the pope, but, again rebelling, was
summoned to trial in Rome (1460) before a tribunal of hostile
cardinals. All the old charges against him were now revived
RIMMER
347
and eagerly confirmed. He was pronounced guilty of rapine,
incendiarism, incest, assassination and heresy. Consequently
he was sentenced to the deprivation of his state (which was
probably the main object of the trial), and to be burnt alive as
a heretic.
This sentence, however, could not easily be executed, and
Sigismondo was only burnt in effigy. But the pope marked
the intensity of his hatred by causing the dummy to be carved
and dressed with such lifelike resemblance that he was almost
able to persuade himself that his hated enemy was really con-
sumed in the flames. Malatesta could afford to laugh at this
farce, but he nevertheless prepared in haste for a desperate
defence (1462). He knew that the bishop Vitelleschi, together
with the duke of Urbino and his own brother Novello Malatesta,
lord of Cesena, were advancing against him in force; and, being
defeated by them at Pian di Marotta, he was driven to Rome
in 1463 to again make submission to the pope. This time he
was stripped of all his possessions excepting the city of Rimini
and a neighbouring castle, but the sentence of excommunication
was withdrawn. The once mighty tyrant of Rimini found
himself reduced to penury with a state chiefly composed of a
single town. He therefore took service with the Venetians,
and in 1464 had the command of an expedition to the Morea.
Here his movements were so hampered by the interference of
the commissioners of the republic that, with all his valour, he
could achieve no decisive success. In 1466 he was able to return
to Rimini, for Pius II. was dead, and the new pope, Paul II.,
was less hostile to him. Indeed, the latter offered to give him
Spoleto and Foligno, taking Rimini in exchange; but Malatesta
was so enraged by the proposal that he went to Rome with a
dagger concealed on his person, on purpose to kill the pope.
But, being forewarned, Paul received him with great ceremony,
and surrounded by cardinals prepared for defence; whereupon
Sigismondo changed his mind, fell on his knees and implored
forgiveness. His star had now set for ever. For sheer subsist-
ence he had to hire his sword to the pope and quell petty
rebellions with a handful of men. At last, his health failing,
he returned to his family, and died in Rimini on the 7th of
October 1468, aged fifty-one years.
He was succeeded, according to his desire, by Isotta and his
son Sallustio. But there was an illegitimate elder son by
another mother, named Roberto Malatesta, a valiant and
unscrupulous soldier. Befriended by the pope, this man
undertook to conquer Rimini for the Holy See, but came there
to further his own ends instead (zoth October 1469), and, while
feigning a desire to share the government with Isotta and her
son, resolved, sooner or later, to seize it for himself. This
aroused the pope's wrath, and Roberto instantly prepared for
defence. Finding an ally in the duke of Urbino, whose eyes
were now opened to the aggressive policy of the church, he was
able to repulse its forces. Paul II. died soon after, and was
succeeded by Sixtus IV. Roberto's position was now mere
secure, and in order to strengthen his recent alliance he betrothed
himself to the daughter of the duke of Urbino. The next step
was to dispose of his rival kindred. On the 8th of August 1470
Isotta's son was found murdered in a well belonging to the
Marcheselli family; and a bloodstained sword, placed in their
courtyard by Roberto, made it appear as though they had
been guilty of the crime. Towards the end of the same year
Isotta died also, apparently of a slow fever, but really, it was
believed, by poison. Another of her sons, Valerio, born in
1453, still lived, but he was openly put to death by Roberto
on a trumped-up charge of treason. In 1475 the new tyrant
celebrated his nuptials with the duke of Urbino's daughter,
and, being again taken into favour by the pope, valiantly
defended him in Rome against the attacks of the duke of
Calabria, and died there in 1482 of the hardships endured in
the war. His widow was left regent during the minority of his
son Pandolfo, who was nicknamed Pandolfaccio on account
of his evil nature. Directly he was of age, he seized the reins of
government by killing some relations who had plotted against
Mm, and crushed another conspiracy in the same way. A
daring soldier, he distinguished himself at the battle of the
Taro against the French; but his tyranny made him hated
by his subjects. In 1 500, when Ccsare Borgia fell on Romagna
with violence and fraud, this Malatesta shared the fate of
other petty tyrants and had to fly for his life. After the fall
of the Borgia he returned, but, being bitterly detested by his
people, decided to sell his rights to the Venetians, who had long
desired to possess Rimini, and who gave him in exchange
the town of CittadeUa, some ready money, and a pension for
life.
This arrangement was naturally disapproved by Rome,
and especially by Julius II.; he therefore contrived the league
of Cambray on purpose to ruin the Venetians, who were crush-
ingly defeated in 1509. Thereupon the pope, having accom-
plished his own ends, made alliance with the Venetians, who
were now prostrate at his feet, and, with them, the Spaniards
and the Swiss, fought against the French at Ravenna in 1512.
Here the French were victors, but owing to their heavy losses
and the death of their renowned leader, Gaston de Foix, were
compelled to retreat. Thus Julius became master of Rimini
and the other coveted lands. Malatesta made more than one
attempt to win back his city, but always in vain, for his subjects
preferred the papal rule, and in 1528 Pope Clement VII. became
definite master of the town. Thus, after two hundred and
fifty years, the sway of the Malatesta came to an end, and
Pandolfo was reduced to beggary. He died in 1534, leaving
a daughter and two sons in great poverty. The elder, Sigis-
mondo, after various military adventures, died at Reggio
d'Emilia in 1543; and Malatesta, the younger, went to fight
in the Scotch and English wars, and was never heard of again.
Sigismondo had left male heirs who made another attempt
to regain Rimini in 1555, but Pope Paul IV. declared them
deposed in perpetuity in punishment of Pandolfaccio's mis-
deeds.
From that time the Malatesta became citizens of Venice;
their names were inscribed in the Golden Book, and they were
admitted to the grand council. With the death, in 1716, of
Christina Malatesta, the wife of Niccolo Boldu, the Rimini
branch of the family became extinct. The descendants of
Giovanni, brother of Malatesta da Verrucchio, who married one
of the Sogliano, were known as the Sogliano-Malatesta. The
representatives of this branch settled in Rome.
The history of Rimini practically ends with its independence.
It fell into obscurity under the rule of the popes, and was not
again mentioned in history until, in 1831 and 1845, it began
taking a prominent part in the revolutionary movements
against papal despotism and in favour of Italian independence.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Battaglini, Memorie Storiche di Rimini e de' suoi
signori, pubblicati con note di G. A. Zanetti (Bologna, 1789); Fossati,
Le tempi di Malatesta di Rimini (Foligno, 1794); Moroni, Dizionario
di erudizione storico-ecclesiastica (vol. Ivii., s.v. " Rimini ") ; Ch.
Yriarte, Rimini: Un Condottiere au XV. Siecle: Etudes sur lei
lettres et les arts a la cour des Malatesta (Paris, 1882); Tonini,
Storia di Rimini (Rimini, 1848-62) ; E. Hutton, Sigismondo Malatesta
(London, 1906). (P. V.)
RIMMER, WILLIAM (1816-1879), an American artist, was
born in Liverpool, England, on the 2oth of February 1816.
He was the son of a French refugee, who emigrated to Nova
Scotia, where he was joined by his wife and child in 1818,
and who in 1826 removed to Boston, where he earned a living
as a shoe-maker. The son learned the father's trade; at fifteen
became a draughtsman and sign-painter; then worked for a
lithographer; opened a studio and painted some ecclesiastical
pictures; in 1840 made a tour of New England painting
portraits; lived in Randolph, Mass., in 1845-55 as a shoe-
maker, for the last years of the decade practising medicine;
practised in East Chelsea and received a diploma from the
Suffolk County Medical Society; and in 1855 removed to
East Milton, where he supplemented his income by carving
busts from blocks of granite. In 1860 he made his head of
St Stephen (now in the Boston Athenaeum) and in 1861 his
" Falling Gladiator " (since 1880 in the Boston Museum of Fine
Arts), which Truman H. Bartlett calls " the most remarkable
348
RIMSKY-KORSAKOV RINDERPEST
work of sculpture that has yet [1882] been produced in this
country . . . powerful, wonderful, but not alluring." Rimmer's
sculptures, except those mentioned and " The Fighting Lions "
(now in the Boston Art Club), " A Dying Centaur " (in the
Boston Museum of Fine Arts), and a statue of Alexander Hamil-
ton (made in 1865 for the city of Boston), were soon destroyed.
He worked in clay, not modelling but building up and chiselling;
almost always without models or preliminary sketches ; and
always under technical disadvantages and in great haste ; but
his sculpture is anatomically remarkable and has an " early-
Greek " simplicity and strength. He published Elements of
Design (1864) and Art Anatomy (1877), but his great work
was in the class-room, where his lectures were illustrated with
blackboard sketches. His studies in line suggest William
Blake in their imaginative power. He died on the 2oth of
August 1879.
See Truman H. Bartlett, The Art Life of William Rimmer (Boston,
1882).
RIMSKY-KORSAKOV, NICOLAS ANDREIEVICH (1844-
1908), Russian composer, was born at Tikhvin, Novgorod,
on the i8th (N.S.) of March 1844. He was one of the musical
amateurs who, with Borodin, Cui and Moussorsky, gathered
round Balakirev in St Petersburg in the days when Wagner was
still unknown. By 1865 he had written a symphony (in E minor)
which in that year was performed the first by a Russian
composer under Balakirev's direction, and in 1873 he definitely
retired from the navy, having been appointed a professor in
the St Petersburg Conservatoire. The same year witnessed
his marriage to a talented pianist, Nadejda Pourgold, and the
production of his first opera, Pskovitianka. This was followed
by May Night, (1878), The Snow Maiden (1880), Mlada (1892),
Christmas Eve (1894), Sadko (1895), Mozart and Salieri (1898),
The Tsar's Bride (1899), Tsar Saltana (1900), Servilia (1902),
Kostchei the Immortal (1902), Kites (1905). But his operas
attracted less attention abroad than his symphonic compositions,
which show a mastery of orchestral effect combined with a fine
utilization of Russian folk-melody and a happy feeling for
" programme music," his writing being peculiarly individual
and distinctive in its restraint and avoidance of violent methods.
Notable among these works are his first symphony, his second
(Op. 9) Antar, his third (Op. 32), and his orchestral suites and
overtures, his Spanish Capriccio (1887) being particularly
appreciated. He also wrote a number of beautiful songs,
pianoforte pieces, &c., and he eventually took Balakirev's
place as the leading conductor in St Petersburg, never sparing
himself in assisting in the musical development of the Russian
school. He died there on the 2oth of June 1908.
RINDERPEST (German for " cattle-plague," which is the
English synonym), one of the most infectious and fatal diseases
of oxen, sheep, goats, camels, buffaloes, yaks, deer, &c.; a
virulent eruptive fever which runs its course so rapidly and
attacks such a large percentage of ruminants when it is intro-
duced into a country, that from the earliest times it has ex-
cited terror and dismay. It is an Asiatic malady, and has
prevailed extensively in south Russia, central Asia, China,
Indo-China, Burma, India, Persia, Ceylon and the Malay
Archipelago. Thence it has at times been carried into Europe,
and towards the end of the I9th century into South Africa.
It appeared in Egypt in 1844 and 1865, Abyssinia in 1890,
Japan in 1892, and the Philippines in 1898.
It has been noted that its irruptions into Europe in the
earlier centuries of our era always coincided with invasions
of barbarous tribes in the east of Europe; and even at a later
period the disease accompanied the events of war, when troops
with their commissariat moved from the east towards the west,
or cattle, when they were carried in the same direction. One
of the earliest recorded irruptions of cattle-plague into western
Europe occurred in the 5th century after the sanguinary in-
vasion of the Huns under Attila, the expulsion of the Goths
from Hungary, and the fierce internecine wars of the whole
Germanic population. The disease appears then to have been
carried from Hungary through Austria to Dalmatia, while
by Brabant it obtained access to the Low Countries, Picardy,
and so on to the other provinces of France. In the curious
poem De Mortibus Bovum written by St Severus, who lived
at that period, the course and destructiveness of the disease
are specially alluded to. Many invasions of Europe are de-
scribed, and in several of these Britain was visited by it as
in 809-10, 986-87, 1223-25, 1513-14, and notably in 1713,
I74S, 1774, I799- In 1865 and 1872 it was imported direct
from Russia. In 1870-71 it destroyed 70,000 cattle in France,
30,000 in Alsace-Lorraine, and 10,000 in Germany. In England
an outbreak occurred in 1877, when it was imported from
Germany, where the disease continued until 1879.
The infective agent has not been positively identified, but
it is known to exist in all the various secretions and excretions,
in the flesh, blood and various organs of the body. Contagion
may be direct or indirect, and the disease may be conveyed
to healthy cattle by contaminated fodder, litter, water, clothing,
pasture, sheds, railway wagons, hides, horns and hoofs. Attend-
ants, cats, dogs, birds, vermin and flies may spread the infection.
Definite symptoms of the disease may not be recognized until
the expiration of three to six days after exposure, the period
of incubation.
Symptoms. Like some other general diseases, this does not
offer any exclusive or pathognomonic symptoms, but is rather
characterized by a group of functional and anatomical altera-
tions. An exact knowledge of its symptoms and necroscopical
appearances is of the utmost importance, as its extension and
consequent ravages can only be arrested through its timely
recognition and the immediate adoption of the necessary sanitary
measures. Intense fever, diarrhoea or dysentery, croupous in-
flammation of the mucous membranes in general, sometimes a
cutaneous papular eruption, and great prostration mark the
course of the affection, which is frequently most difficult to
diagnose during life, especially if its presence is not suspected.
Its introduction and mode of propagation can, hi many instances,
be ascertained only at a late period, and when great loss may
already have been sustained. In the majority of cases the
examination of the carcase of an animal which has died or been
purposely killed is the best' way to arrive at a correct diagnosis.
Indeed, this is practically the only certain means of concluding
as to the presence of the malady, as there are considerable varia-
tions in the chief symptoms with regard to their intensity as well
as in the secondary symptoms or epiphenomena.
Among cattle indigenous to the regions in which this malady
may be said to be enzootic the symptoms are often compara-
tively slight, and the mortality not great. So much is this the
case that veterinary surgeons who can readily distinguish the
disease when it affects the cattle of western Europe, can only
with difficulty diagnose it in animals from Hungary, Bessarabia,
Moldavia, or other countries where it is always more or less
prevalent. In these the indications of fever are usually of brief
duration, and signs of lassitude and debility are, in some in-
stances, the only marks of the presence of this virulent disorder
in animals which may, nevertheless, communicate the disease in
its most deadly form to the cattle of other countries. Slight
diarrhoea may also be present, and a cutaneous eruption,
accompanied by gastric disturbance, running at the eyes, and
occasional cough. In the more malignant form the fever runs
high, 106 to 107 Fahr., and all the characteristic symptoms. are
well marked: dulness, sunken eyes, eruption on the skin,
discharges from eyes, nose and mouth, shivering fits, difficult
breathing, dry, harsh cough, miliary eruptions on the gums,
accumulation of bran-like exudate within the lips, fetid breath,
with certain nervous phenomena, and dysenteric dejections.
Death generally occurs in four or five days, the course of the
disorder being more ra^pid with animals kept in sheds than with
those living in the open, and in summer than in winter. The
post-mortem appearances are most marked in the digestive canal,
and comprise red spots and erosions on the palate, lips, tongue
and pharynx; intense congestion of the lining of the fourth
stomach, which in places is covered with a grey or reddish
pultaceous deposit, under which the membrane is deeply
RING
349
ulcerated. Similar lesions are seen in the small intes-
tine, caecum and rectum. The membrane lining the air
passages is congested throughout, and the lungs are emphy-
sematous.
In recent years much has been done in Russia and India
towards the prevention of rinderpest by inoculation and the
use of immunizing sera. In South Africa the bile method (or
the injection of bile obtained from cattle dead of rinderpest),
discovered by Koch, in 1896; bile with admixture of glycerine,
recommended by Edington; the simultaneous injection of serum
and rinderpest blood, introduced by Turner and Kolle in 1897,
and repeated injection of fortified serum alone, have been
employed, more or less successfully, in conferring immunity. But
elsewhere the main line of action has been in the direction of
preventing the introduction of the disease by prohibiting the
importation of cattle from infected countries.
RING (O.E. hring; a word common to Teutonic languages, 1
and probably cognate with the Lat. circus, Gr. dpKos or Kpucos,
Skt. chakra, wheel, circle, cf. also " harangue "), in art, a band
of circular shape of varying sizes, made of any material and used
for various purposes, but, particularly, a circular band of gold,
silver or other precious or decorative material used as an orna-
ment, not only for the finger, but also for the ear (see EARRING),
or even for the nose, where it is still worn by certain races in
India and Africa. The word is also used of many objects which
in structure take the shape of a circle or hoop, such as the tracheal
rings, the circular-shaped bands of cartilage in the walls of the
windpipe, the " annual rings," or concentric layers of wood
produced each year in the trunks of trees, &c. In transferred
senses " ring " is also applied to an enclosed space, whether
circular, oval or otherwise: hence to the arena of a circus or
hippodrome, the enclosure for a boxing contest, or to the place
on a racecourse reserved for the bookmakers for the purpose of
betting. A particular application in a transferred sense is that
to a combination of persons in trade for the purpose of con-
trolling markets, prices, etc.
In the art sense (see also GEMS), the English and German
" ring " corresponds to the Gr. SaxruXios, Lat. anntdus, Fr. anneau.
The enlarged part of a ring on which the device is engraved is
called the " bezel," the rest of it being the " hoop." To decorate
the human finger with a ring, if possible with one combining
beauty, value and a distinctive character, was a widely spread
natural impulse. At an early period, when the art of writing
was known to but very few, it was commonly the custom for men
to wear rings on which some distinguishing sign or badge was
engraved (Trl<rrifiov), so that by using it as a seal the owner could
give a proof of authenticity to letters or other documents. Thus,
when some royal personage wished to delegate his power to one
of his officials, it was not unusual for him to hand over his signet
ring, by means of which the full royal authority could be given
to the written commands of the subordinate (cf. Gen. xli. 42;
Esth. viii. 2). Among the Battas of Sumatra rings of a certain
form are used to this day as passports.
The earliest existing rings are naturally those found in the
tombs of ancient Egypt. The finest examples date from about
the XVIIIth to the XXth Dynasty; they are of pure
gold, simple in design, very heavy and massive, and have
usually the name and titles of the owner deeply sunk in
hieroglyphic characters on an oblong gold bezel. Rings worn in
Egypt by the poorer classes were made of less costly materials,
such as silver, bronze, glass or pottery covered with a siliceous
glaze and coloured brilliant blue or green with various copper
oxides. Some of these had hieroglyphic inscriptions impressed
while the clay was moist. Other examples have been found
made of ivory, amber and hard stones, such as carnelian.
Another form of ring used in the Xllth and subsequent dynastie:
of Egypt had a scarab in place of the bezel, and was mounted on
a gold hoop which passed through the hole in the scarab and
allowed it to revolve.
1 " To ring," in the sense of to make a bell sound, is a different
word. It also appears in various Teutonic languages and is pro-
bably of onomatopoeic origin, and may be akin to Lat. clangor.
Cylin-
der*.
In ancient Babylonia and Assyria finger rings do not appear
Lo have been used. In those countries the signet took a different
[orm, namely, that of a cylinder cut in crystal or other
bard stone, and perforated from end to end. A cord
was passed through it, and it was worn on the wrist
like a bracelet. This way of wearing the signet is more than
once alluded to in the Old Testament (Gen. xxxviii. 18,
R.V., and Cant. viii. 6).
Within the limits necessarily imposed by its purpose the finger
ring assumed a considerable variety of form, according to its date
and place of origin.
In the Cretan and Mycenaean periods a characteristic form of
ring had a broad flat bezel, not organically connected with
the hoop, and having an incised design in the gold. The
use of inset stones hardly occurs, but rings from Enkomi and
Aegina of the late Mycenaean period have inset paste decorations.
The Phoenician type of ring was primarily intended to carry
a scarab or scarabaeoid, usually in a box setting on a swivel,
called for by the fact that the flat base of the scarab would be
wanted for sealing purposes, but in wear would be most con-
veniently turned inwards. Strength being necessary, the hoop
became massive. A similar arrangement of the signet-scarab
is found attached to a twisted ring, which, from its shape, must
have been meant to be suspended, and which is shown thus worn
on some of the Cypriote terra-cottas.
The Greek ring of an early period has a characteristic flattened
bezel, for an intaglio design in the gold. Such engravings attained
great freedom and beauty in the sth and 4th Centuries B.C. An
alternative form was a swivel ring for a scarab or scarabaeoid,
imitating the Phoenician shape. When the stone was flat and
inset the bezel became a mass of metal to hold it securely.
Among the Greeks signet rings were very largely worn. In
Sparta a sumptuary law was passed at an early time to forbid
any substance more valuable than iron to be used for o^*
signet rings; but in other parts of the Hellenic world Hags.
there appears to have been no restriction of this sort.
In some of the numerous tombs of Etruria and Kertch (Panti-
capaeum) in the Cimmerian Bosphorus gold rings of great
magnificence have been discovered, apparently of the finest
Greek workmanship.
FIG. i.' FIG. 2.
Fig. i shows a ring from the 'Crimea with a finely engraved
scarabaeus in gold, with an intaglio engraving on the base.
Fig. 2, also from the Crimea, has a cornelian carved in lion
form in place of the scarab, and haSjan intaglio figure on the base
of a running lion.
FIG. 3. FIG. 4.
Fig. 3 shows a Greek ring with an incised design in a plain
bezel.
Fig. 4 is a ring from which the idea of a signet is entirely
wanting.
1 Figs. 1-6, 8 and 9 are from Dr Robert Forrer's ReaUexikon,
by permission of W. Spemann, Berlin and Stuttgart.
350
RING
FIG. 5.
Roman
nogs.
The Etruscans used very largely the gold swivel ring mountec
with a scarab, a form of signet probably introduced from
Egypt. Some found in Etruscan tombs have rea
Egyptian scarabs with legible hieroglyphs; others
probably the work of Phoenician or native engravers
have rude copies of hieroglyphs, either quite or partially illegible,
A third and more numerous class of Etruscan signet rings have
scarabs, cut usually in sard or carnelian, which are a link
between the art of Egypt and that of Greece, the design cut
on the flat side being Hellenic in style,
while the back is shaped like the
ordinary Egyptian scarabaeus beetle.
One from Etruria, now in the British
Museum, is formed by two minutely
modelled lions whose bodies form the
hoop, while their paws hold the
bezel, a scarab engraved with a lion
of heraldic character. An alterna-
tive type of Etruscan ring (as in
fig. 5) has an. incised design on the
gold bezel, or a flat stone set in the
rigid bezel. In either case the Etruscan rings tend to ex-
travagance in size and elaboration.
The Romans appear to have imitated the simplicity of
Lacedaemonia. Throughout the republic none but iron rings
WMe W m by the bulk f tne citizens > and even tne se
were forbidden to slaves. Ambassadors were the first
who were privileged to wear gold rings, and then only
while performing some public duty. Next senators, consuls,
equites and all the chief officers of state received the jus annuli
aurei. In the Augustan age many valuable collections ' of
antique rings were made, and were frequently offered as gifts
in the temples of Rome. One of the largest and most valuable
of the dactyliothecae was dedicated in the temple of Apollo
Palatinus by Augustus's nephew Marcellus (Pliny, H.N.
xxxvii. 5). The temple of Concord in the Forum contained
another; in this collection was the celebrated ring of Polycrates,
king of Samos, the story of which is told by Herodotus; Pliny,
however, doubts the authenticity of this relic (H.N. xxxvii. 2).
Different laws as to the wearing of rings existed during the
empire: Tiberius made a large property qualification necessary
for the wearing of gold rings in the case of those who were not
of free descent (Pliny, H.N. xxxiii. 8) ; Severus conceded the right
to all Roman soldiers; and later still all free citizens possessed the
jus annuli aurei, silver rings being worn by freedmen and iron by
slaves. Under Justinian even these restrictions passed away.
In the rings of the Roman period the decoration is no longer
an accessory of the bezel alone. It modifies the form of the
hoop, which may be polygonal or angular (see fig. 6). The
ring here figured is set vlth an eye, as an amulet, capable of
turning on a swivel.
In the 3rd and 4th centuries Roman rings were made en-
graved with Christian symbols. Fig. 7 shows two silver rings
of the latter part of the 4th century which were found in 1881
concealed in a hole in the pavement of a Roman villa at Fifehead
FIG
FIG. 8.
FIG. 7. Roman silver
rings.
Neville, Dorset, together with some coins of the same period.
Both have the monogram of Christ, and one has a dove within an
olive wreath rudely cut on the silver bezel. These rings are of
special interest, as Roman objects with any Christian device
have very rarely been found in Britain.
Fig. 8 is a choice example of a gold key-ring of the Christian
period, with good wishes inscribed in pierced gold work accipe
dulcis, multis annis (Brit. Mus.).
Part of FIG. 9. Part of FIG. 9.
Fig. 9 is a gold ring from Smyrna (Brit. Mus.) with seven
incised intaglio medallions, with a figure of Christ on the bezel.
Assigned to the 5th century.
Large numbers of gold rings have been found in many parts
of Europe in the tombs of early Celtic races. They are usually
of very pure gold, often penannular in form with a
slight break, that is, in the hoop so as to form a
spring. They are often of gold wire formed into a
sort of rope, or else a simple bar twisted in an ornamental
way. Some of the quite plain penannular rings were used in
the place of coined money.
Throughout the Middle Ages the signet ring was a thing of great
importance in religious, legal, commercial and private matters.
The episcopal ring 1 was solemnly conferred upon the newly
made bishop together with his crozier, a special formula for
this being inserted in the Pontifical. In the earliest
references to rings worn by bishops, there is nothing
to distinguish them from other signet rings. In
A.D. 610 the first mention has been found of the episcopal ring
as a well-understood symbol of dignity. It is clear that it
was derived from the signet. It was only in the i2th century
and onwards that it was brought into mystical connexion with
the marriage ring. In the time of Innocent III. (1194) the
ring was ordered to be of pure gold mounted with a stone that
was not engraved; but this rule appears not to have been
strictly kept. Owing to the custom of burying the episcopal
ring in its owner's coffin, a great many fine examples still exist.
Among the splendid collection of rings formed by the dis-
tinguished naturalist Edmund Water-
ton, and now in the South Kensington
Museum, is a fine gold episcopal ring
decorated with niello, and inscribed
with the name of Alhstan, bishop of
Sherborne from 824 to 867 (see fig.
10). In many cases an antique gem FIG. I0 - Ring of Bishop
was mounted in the bishop's ring, and Alhstan.
often an inscription was added in the gold setting of the gem
:o give a Christian name to the pagan figure. The monks of
Durham, for example, made an in-
taglio of Jupiter Serapis into a portrait
of St Oswald by adding the legend
CAPVT s. OSWALDI. In other cases the
engraved gem appears to have been
merely regarded as an ornament with-
out meaning as, for example, a
magnificent gold ring found in the
coffin of Seffrid, bishop of Chichester
(1125-1151), in which is mounted a
nostic intaglio. Another in the Water-
ton collection bears a Roman cameo
n plasma of a female head in high
relief; the gold ring itself is of the
1 2th century.' More commonly the
episcopal ring was set with a large
sapphire, ruby or other stone cut en cabochon, that is, without
: acets, and very magnificent in effect (see fig. n). It was
1 See a paper by Edm. Waterton in Arch. Jour. xx. p. 224, also
Cabrol, Diet, d'arch. chretienne, s.v. " Anneaux."
FIG. 11. 13th-century
episcopal ring of
Italian workmanship,
of gold, set with a
sapphire en cabochon.
RING-GOAL
Papal
Hags.
worn over the bishop's gloves, usually on the forefinger of
the right hand; and this accounts for the large size of the
hoop of these rings. In the isth and i6th centuries bishops
often wore three or four rings on the right hand in addition
to a large jewel which was fixed to the back of each glove.
The papal " Ring of the Fisherman " (annulus piscatoris)
bears the device of St Peter in a boat, drawing a net from
"Rlngot the water. The first mention of it, as the well-under-
the stood personal signet ring of the pope, that has been
Fisher- found, occurs in a letter of Clement IV. in 1265.
After the middle of the isth century it was no longer
used as the private seal of the popes, but was always attached
to briefs. After the death of a pope the ring is broken. A new
ring with the space for the name left blank is taken into the con-
clave, and placed on the finger of the newly elected pontiff, who
thereupon declares what name he will assume, and gives back
the ring to be engraved (see Waterton, Archaeologia, 40, p. 138).
The so-called papal rings, of which many exist dating from
the isth to the I7th centuries, appear to have been given
by the popes to new-made cardinals. They are very
large thumb rings, usually of gilt bronze coarsely
worked, and set with a foiled piece of glass or crystal.
On the hoop is usually engraved the name and arms of the
reigning pope, the bezel being without a device. They are of
little intrinsic value, but magnificent in appearance.
The giving of a ring to mark a betrothal was an old Roman
custom. The ring was probably a mere pledge, pignus, that
Betrothal tne contract would be fulfilled. In Pliny's time
and conservative custom still required a plain ring of iron,
wedding but the gold ring was introduced in the course of the
flags. 2n j cen t ur y. This use of the ring, which was thus
of purely secular origin, received ecclesiastical sanction, and
formulae of benediction of the ring exist from the nth century.
The exact stages by which the wedding ring developed from
the betrothal ring can no longer be traced.
Gemel or gimmel rings, from the Latin gemellus, a twin,
were made with two hoops fitted together, and could be worn
either together or singly; they were common in the
l6tn an< * T 7 tn centuries, and were much used as
betrothal rings.
Posy rings, so called from the " poesy " or rhyme engraved
on them, were specially common in the same centuries. The
name " posy ring " does not occur earlier than the i6th
century. A posy ring inscribed with " Love me
and leave me not " is mentioned by Shakespeare
(Mer. of Yen., act v. sc. i). The custom of inscribing rings
with mottoes or words of good omen dates from a very early
time. Greek and Roman rings exist with words such as ZHCAIC,
XAIPE, KAAH, or wtis mels Claudia vivas. In the Middle Ages
many rings were inscribed with words of cabalistic power, such
as anamzapta, or Caspar, Melchior and Balthasar, the supposed
names of the Magi. In the i?th century they were largely used
as wedding ring?, with such phrases as " Love and obaye,"
" Fear God and love me," " No gift can show the love I owe,"
" God above increase our love " or " Mulier viro subjecta esto."
In the same century memorial rings with a name and date
of death were frequently made of very elaborate form, en-
amelled in black and white; a not unusual design was
two skeletons bent along the hoop, and holding a
coffin which formed the bezel.
Cramp rings were much worn during the Middle Ages as a
preservative against cramp. They derived their virtue from
being blessed by the king; a special form of service
was used for this, and a large number of rings were
consecrated at one time, usually when the sovereign
touched patients for the king's evil.
Decade rings were not uncommon, especially in the isth
century; these were so called from their having ten knobs
along the hoop of the ring, and were used, after the
rtn^" manner of rosaries, to say nine aves and a paternoster.
In some cases there are only nine knobs, the bezel
of the ring being counted in, and taking the place of the gaude
Posy
riags.
in a rosary. The bezel of these rings is usually engraved with
a sacred monogram or word.
In the isth and i6th centuries signet rings engraved with
a badge or trademark were much used by merchants and
others; these were not only used to form scab, but Mer-
the ring itself was often sent by a trusty bearer as cbmni*'
the proof of the genuineness of a bill of demand. 1 lia **'
At the same time private gentlemen used massive rings wholly
of gold with their initials cut on the bezel, and a graceful knot
of flowers twining round the letters. Other fine gold rings of
this period have coats of arms or crests with graceful lambrequins.
Poison rings with a hollow bezel were used in classical times;
as, for example, that by which Hannibal killed himself, and
the poison ring of Demosthenes. Pliny records that,
after Crassus had stolen the gold treasure from under Hag*.
the throne of Capitoline Jupiter, the guardian of the
shrine, to escape torture, " broke the gem of his ring in his
mouth and died immediately." The medieval anello delta
morte, supposed to be a Venetian invention, was actually used
as an easy method of murder. Among the elaborate ornaments
of the bezel a hollow point made to work with a spring was
concealed; it communicated with a receptacle for poison in a
cavity behind, in such a way that the murderer could give
the fatal scratch while shaking hands with his enemy. This
device was probably suggested by the poison fang of a snake.
A very large and elaborate form of ring is that used during
the Jewish marriage service. Fine examples of the i6th and
1 7th centuries exist. In the place of the bezel is a
model, minutely worked in gold or base metal, of a rlag*.
building with high gabled roofs, and frequently
movable weathercocks on the apex. This is a conventional
representation of the temple at Jerusalem.
Perhaps the most magnificent rings from the beauty of the
workmanship of the hoop are those of which Benvenuto Cellini
produced the finest examples. They are of gold, richly chased
and modelled with caryatides or grotesque figures, and are
decorated with coloured enamels in a very skilful and elaborate
way. Very fine jewels are sometimes set in these magnificent
pieces of 16th-century jewellery.
Thumb rings were commonly worn from the I4th to the
1 7th century. Falstaff boasts that in his youth he
was slender enough to " creep into any alderman's rings.
thumb ring" (Shakes., Hen. IV., Pt. I., act ii. sc. 4).
The finest collections of rings formed in Britain have been
those of Lord Londesborough, Edmirnd Waterton (now in
the Victoria and Albert Museum) and the collection in the
British Museum, which was greatly augmented in 1897 by
the bequest of the late Sir A. W. Franks.
Bibliography. Licetus, De Anulis antiquis (Udine, 1645); Kirch-
mann, De Annulis (Schleswig, 1657); King, Antique Gems and
Rings, 1872; Marshall, Catalogue of Finger Rings in the British
Museum, 1907; Cabrol, Dictionnaire d'archeologie chretienne, s.v.
"Anneaux"; articles of Waterton in Archaeologia and Archaeo-
logical Journal. (J. H. M. ; A. H. SM.)
RING-GOAL, a game for two persons played on a ground,
or indoor rink, 78 ft. long by 10 ft. wide, with a ring of split
cane about 75 in. in diameter and weighing about 3$ oz.,
which is propelled in the air by means of two sticks, resembling
miniature billiard-cues, which are held inside the ring. The
goals corisist of two uprights 8 ft. high and 10 ft. apart, from
which a net is stretched on an incline, so that its base will be a
few feet behind the goal-line, and the object of the game is
to drive the ring into these goals, each goal made scoring one
point. The ring must be propelled by the server and caught
by his opponent, on one or both of his sticks, if he can, and
so returned alternately, and a point is scored for either player
if it be stopped by his opponent in any other manner. A
point is also scored for the receiver if the server, who begins
the game, throw the ring so that it falls to the ground before
The celebrated ring given to Essex by Queen Elizabeth was
meant to be used for a similar purpose. It is set with a fine cameo
portrait of Elizabeth cut in sardonyx, of Italian workmanship.
352
RINGWOOD RIO CUARTO
the receiver can catch it between the creases, which are lines
drawn across the court 6 ft. from the goal-lines, or the ring
be driven out of court. Eleven points constitute a game.
Ring-goal was invented by an under-graduate of Keble College,
Oxford, about 1885, and was played at Oxford, but without
attracting any wide popularity.
RINGWOOD, a market town in the New Forest parliamentary
division of Hampshire, England, 103^ m. S.W. by W. from
London by the London & South- Western railway. Pop.
(1901) 4629. It lies pleasantly on the river Avon, which
here divides into numerous branches, flowing through flat
meadow land. The church of SS. Peter and Paul, which
was almost entirely reconstructed in 1854, the town hall and
corn exchange are the chief buildings. A large agricultural
trade and manufactures of agricultural implements, linen
goods and woollen gloves are carried on.
RINGWORM (or TINEA TONSURANS), a disease of the scalp
(especially common within the tropics); it consists of bald
patches, usually round, and varying in diameter from half
an inch up to several inches, the surface showing the broken
stumps of hairs and a fine whitish powdering of desquamated
epidermic scales. In scrofulous subjects matter is sometimes
produced, which forms crusts, or glues the hair together, or
otherwise obscures the characteristic appearance. The disease
is due to a parasite, Trichophyton tonsurans, which exists
mostly in the form of innurrierable spores (with hardly any
mycelium), and is most abundant within the substance of the
hairs, especially at their roots. If a piece of the hair near
the root be soaked for a time in dilute liquor potassae and
pressed flat under a cover-glass, the microscope will show it
to be occupied by long rows of minute oval spores, very uniform
in size, and eacl* bearing a nucleus.
The same fungus sometimes attacks the hairs of the beard,
producing a disease called " sycosis." Sometimes it invades
the hairless regions of skin, forming " tinea circinata ";
circular patches of skin disease, if they be sharply defined by a
margin of papules or vesicles, may be suspected of depending
on the tinea-fungus. Interesting varieties of tinea are found
in some of the Pacific and East Indian islands. Among the
best remedial agents are various mercurial preparations. But
in modern practice much success has been found in X-raying
the patch in order to remove the dead and diseased hairs, thus
leaving a free channel for the passage of antiseptic applications
to the follicles. The exposures are followed by inunction of a
mercurial preparation or of a lotion of tincture of iodine with
methylated spirit.
See also FAVUS.
RINTOUL, ROBERT STEPHEN (1787-1858), British
journalist, was born at Tibbermore, Perthshire, in 1787, and
educated at the Aberdalgie parish school. After serving his
apprenticeship to the printing trade he became the printer
and subsequently the editor of the Dundee Advertiser. In 1826
he came to London, and in July 1828, with the assistance of
friends, founded The Spectator. In it Rintoul strongly
supported the Reform Bill, and to him was due the catch-
phrase " The bill, the whole bill, and nothing but the bill."
After conducting The Spectator for more than thirty years,
he sold it shortly before his death, which occurred on the
22nd of April 1858.
RINUCCINI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1592-1653), archbishop
of Fermo, was born in Rome on the isth of September 1592,
being the son of a senator. He studied at several Italian
universities, became chamberlain to Pope Gregory XV., and in
1625 was made archbishop of Fermo. His participation in
Irish politics, which is his chief title to fame, began during the
later stages of the Civil War when Ireland was the scene of
universal disorder. In 1645 Ppe Innocent X. despatched him
to that country as papal nuncio; he landed at Kenmare with
-arms and money in October 1645, and took up his residence at
Kilkenny. Before this time the Roman Catholics had banded
themselves together for defence. Called the Confederate
Catholics, they had set up a provisional government, and when
the nuncio reached Kilkenny they were engaged in negotiating
for peace with the lord lieutenant, the marquess, afterwards
duke, of Ormonde. Rinuccini took part in the proceedings,
but as his demands were ignored he refused to recognize the
peace which was concluded in March 1646, and gaining the
support of the Irish general, Owen Roe O'Neill, he used all his
influence, both ecclesiastical and political, to prevent its
acceptance by others. To a large extent he succeeded. Meet-
ing at Waterford, the clergy condemned the treaty and several
towns took up the same attitude. The nuncio's most pliant
helper was now Edward Somerset, earl of Glamorgan, after-
wards marquess of Worcester, who had been sent to Ireland by
Charles I., and who had entered into communication with
Rinuccini when the latter first arrived in that country. Gla-
morgan bound himself to carry out all the wishes of the nuncio,
who intended that he should supplant Ormonde. In September
1646 Rinuccini took over the conduct of affairs. He im-
prisoned his opponents on the council and tried to arrange for
an attack on Dublin. ' But there was no harmony among his
subordinates, his military plans failed and soon all parties
were tacitly ignoring him. Leaving Kilkenny he stayed for
some time in Galway, and in February 1649 he left Ireland.
After visiting Rome he returned to Fermo in 1650 and died
on the 5th of December 1653.
See G. Aiazzi, La Nunziatura in Irlanda (Florence, 1844), English
translation as The Embassy in Ireland, by A. Hutton (Dublin, 1873) ;
and S. R. Gardiner, History of the Great Civil War, vols. iii. and iv.
(I905)-
RIOBAMBA or ROYABAMBA, a town of Ecuador, capital
of the province of Chimborazo, on the railway between Guaya-
quil and Quito, about 85 m. E.N.E. of the former. Pop. (1900,
estimate) 12,000. It stands in a barren, sandy basin of the
great central plateau, drained by the Chambo, a tributary of
the Pastaza, on the old road running southward from Quito
into Peru, 9039 ft. above sea-level, and in full view of the
imposing heights of Chimborazo, Carahuairazo (Carguairazo),
Tunguragua and Altar. Though 300 ft. lower than Quito,
its climate is considerably colder, owing, perhaps, to its more
exposed situation and the vicinity of so many snow-clad peaks.
It is a town of unusually wide streets and one-storeyed adobe
houses, being so laid out and built because of earthquakes.
It has very little importance as a commercial or industrial
centre, having only a small trade and a few unimportant in-
dustries. The present town dates from 1797, when the great
earthquake of that year destroyed the old town then situated
12 m. W., near the existing village of Cajabamba. The ruins
of the old town indicate that it was much larger and finer than
its successor.
RIO CUARTO, a town of Argentina in the province of Cordoba,
119 m. S. of the city of that name, and about 500 m. N.W.
of Buenos Aires. Pop. (1904, estimate) 12,000. It stands
1440 ft. above sea-level and about half-way across the great
Argentine pampas, on the banks of a river of the same name
which finds an outlet through the Carcaranal into the Parana
near Rosario. The town is built on the open plain and is
surrounded with attractive suburbs. It is the commercial
centre of a large district and has a large and lucrative trade.
Its geographical position gives it great strategical importance,
and the government maintains here a large arsenal and a
garrison of the regular army. The surrounding country belongs
to the partially arid pampa region and is devoted to stock-
raising cattle, horses, sheep and goats. Irrigation is em-
ployed in its immediate vicinity. Previous to 1872 this region
was overrun by the Ranqueles, a warlike tribe of Indians, but
the vigorous reprisals of General Ivanovski in that year,
supplemented by the tactful intervention of the Franciscan
missionaries, who have a convent in this town, put an end to
these hostile forays and gave full opportunity for the industrial
development of the country. There are some manufacturing
industries in the town. The National Andine railway passes
through Rio Cuarto, and branch lines connect with the Buenos
Aires and Pacific line all of which give railway communication
RIO DE CONTAS RIO DE JANEIRO
with Buenos Aires, Rosario, Tucuman, Cordoba, San Luis
and Mendoza.
RIO DE CONTAS, or VILLA DE CONTAS, a town of Brazil
in the state of Bahia, 230 m. S.W. from the city of Bahia, on
the Brumado (Contas-Pequeno), a head stream of the Rio de
Contas (Jussiape), which rises on the eastern slope of the neigh-
bouring Serra das Almas, and flows S.E. and E. to the Atlantic
coast at Barra do Rio de Contas. Pop. (1890), including
rural districts, 17,318. The surrounding country is fertile
and produces sugar, cotton, mandioca and tobacco, but has
lost much of its prosperity through the droughts that have
devastated the interior of the state, and because of the costs of
transporting produce to market. Stock-raising was at one time
an important industry here. The town was founded in 1715
by some " Paulistas " who discovered gold there in the sands
of the river. It became a " villa " in 1724, but was soon
afterward moved down the river 5 m. to a more convenient
site on the high road between Bahia and Goyaz.
RIO DE JANEIRO, a maritime state of Brazil, bounded N.
by Minas Geraes, E. by Espirito Santo and the Atlantic, S. by
the Atlantic, and W. by Sao Paulo. It is one of the smaller
states of the republic and has an area of 26,635 sq.m.; pop.
(1900) 926,585. The state is traversed longitudinally by the
Serra do Mar, which divides it into a low, narrow, irregular
coastal zone, and a broad elevated river valley through which
the Parahyba flows eastward to the Atlantic. The eastern
part of this valley widens out into a great alluvial plain on
which are to be found some of the richest sugar estates of
Brazil. The central mountainous region is heavily wooded,
the coast region is hot and in places malarial, but the valleys
are fertile and well watered. The Parahyba valley has long
been celebrated for its fertility, and was for many years the
centre of the coffee-producing industry. The exhaustion of
the soil and antiquated methods of cultivation have caused a
great decline in this industry, and many of its coffee plantations
are now either abandoned or are producing but a fraction of
earlier crops. Stock-raising has been slowly developing since
the abolition of slavery (1888) and the decline in coffee pro-
duction, and the state now possesses large herds of cattle and
droves of swine.
The state's agricultural and pastoral products are coffee, sugar,
rum, Indian corn, mandioca (both bitter and sweet), cotton, tropical
fruits, cattle, hogs, butter, cheese, fresh milk and lard. The
state is well watered by the Parahyba (q.v.) and its tributaries
and by numerous short streams flowing from the Serra do Mar to
the coast. Manufacturing has been developed largely because
of the fine water power supplied by the mountain streams, and
among the manufactures are cotton, woollen, silk and jute fabrics,
brick, tile and rough pottery, sugar, rum, vehicles, furniture, beer
and fruit conserves. The state is well provided with railways,
which include the Central do Brazil, Leopoldina, Melhoramentos
and Rio do Ouro. The Central line runs from the city of Rio de
Janeiro N.N.W. across the Serra do Mar to the Parahyba valley,
where it divides into two branches at the station of Barra do
Pirahy, one running westward to Sao Paulo, and the other eastward
and northward into Minas Geraes. Besides these there are a
number of short railways called the Theresopolis, Uniao Valen-
ciana, Rio das Flores, Bananal, and Vassourense lines. The total
extension of these railways in the state in 1907 was 1445 m. Other
than Nictheroy, the ports of the state are Sao Joao da Barra,
Macahe' or Imbetiba, Cabo Frio and Paraty, but they are visited
only by the smaller coasting vessels.
The capital of the state is Nictheroy on the E. side of the
Bay of Rio de Janeiro, and other cities and towns, with their
populations in 1890 except where otherwise stated, are: Campos
(estimate, in 1907, 35,000), on the lower Parahyba in the midst
of a rich sugar-producing region; Rio Bonito (19,321); Ita-
borahy (17,817); Barra Mansa (14,449), on the upper Parahyba;
Rezende (14,370), in a fertile district of the upper Parahyba;
Petropolis (q.v.); Cantagallo (about 9000), in a rich coffee
district of the Serra do Mar; Paraty (10,765), a small port on
the W. side of the bay of Angra dos Reis; Valenga (11,965);
Vassouras (9666); Sao Fidelis (11,770), a river port on the
lower Parahyba having steamboat communication with Campos;
Macahe (about 7000 in 1900), an old port on the eastern coast of
XXIII. 12
353
the state at the mouth of the Macah6 river whose original
anchorage has been filled with silt, and that of Imbctiba, in
the vicinity, with which it is connected by tramway, is now
used by vessels both for the town and the Macah6 and Campos
railway; Barra do Pirahy (7750), an important station and
junction of the Central do Brazil railway on the N. side of
the Serra do Mar, with large manufacturing and commercial
interests; Parahyba do Sul (7343), in a fertile, long-settled
district in the N.E. part of the state; Marica (10,373); Cabo
Frio (10,382); Pirahy (10,429); Saquarema (12,489); Nova
Friburgo (9857); and Araruama (9087).
RIO DE JANEIRO (in full, SXo SEBASTIAO DO Rio DE
JANEIRO, colloquially shortened to Rio), a city and port of Brazil,
capital of the republic, and seat of an archbishopric, on the
western side of the Bay of Rio de Janeiro, or Guanabara, in lat.
2554'23"S.,long. 438 ; 34*W. (the position of the Observatory).
The city is situated in the S.E. angle of the Federal District
(Districto Federal) formerly known as the Neutral Municipality
(Municipio Neulro), an independent district or commune
with an area of 538 sq. m., which was detached from the pro-
vince of Rio de Janeiro in 1834. The city stands in great
part on an alluvial plain formed by the filling in of the western
shore of the bay, which extends inland from the shore-line in a
north-westerly direction between a detached group of mountains
on the S. known as the Serra da Carioca, and the imposing
wooded heights of the Serra do Mar on the N. The spurs of
the Carioca range project into this plain, in some places, closely
up to the margin of the bay, forming picturesque valleys within
the limits of the city. Some of the residential quarters follow
these valleys up into the mountains and extend up their
slopes and over the lower spurs, which, with the hills covered
with buildings rising in the midst of the city, give a picturesque
appearance. At the entrance to the bay is the Sugar Loaf
(Pao de Assucar), a conical rock rising 1212 ft. above the water-
level and forming the terminal point of a short range between
the city and the Atlantic coast. The culminating point of
that part of the Carioca range which projects into and partly
divides the city is the Corcovado (Hunchback), a sharp rocky
peak 2329 ft. high overlooking the Botafogo suburb and ap-
proachable only on the wooded N.W. side. These spurs are
covered with luxuriant vegetation, excepting their perpendi-
cular faces and the slopes occupied by the suburbs. Consider-
ably beyond the limits of the city on its S.W. side, but within
the municipality, is the huge isolated flat-topped rock known
as the Gavea, 2575 ft. high, which received its name from its
resemblance to the square sail used on certain Portuguese craft.
The sky-line of this range of mountains, as seen by the ap-
proaching traveller some miles outside the entrance to the bay,
forms the rough outline of a huge reclining figure called " the
sleeping giant," the facial profile of which is also known as
" Lord Hood's nose."
The entrance to the bay, between the Sugar Loaf on the W.
and the Pico on the E., with fortress of Santa Cruz on one
side and the fort of Sao Joao on the other, is about a mile
wide and free from obstructions. Almost midway in the
channel are the little island and fort of Lage, so near the level
of the sea that the spray is sometimes carried completely
over it. On the W. is the semicircular bay of Botafogo,
round which are grouped the residences of one of the richest
suburbs; on the E., the almost land-locked bay of Jurujuba
(see NICTHEROY). The bay extends northward nearly i6j
nautical miles, with a maximum breadth of n m. and a
minimum, between the arsenal of war (Ponla do Calaboufo)
and the opposite Ponta da Gravata, of about 3500 yds. The
shore-line is irregular, and has been modified by the construction
of sea-walls and the filling in of shallow bays. Close to the
shore are the islands of Villegaignon (occupied by a fort),
Cobras (occupied by fortifications, naval storehouses, hospital
and dry docks), Santa Barbara and Enxadas, the site of the
Brazilian naval school. A small island just above the lower
anchorage, which is occupied by port officials, was once known
as Rat island, and is now called Ilha Fiscal. There is one lake
354
RIO DE JANEIRO
within the urban limits, the Lag6a de Rodrigo de Freitas,
near the Botanical Garden, separated from the sea by a narrow
sand beach, which is being gradually filled in. Several small
streams from the hills are conspicuous only in times of heavy
rains.
The oldest part of the city, which includes the commercial
section, lies between Castle and Santo Antonio hills on the S.
and Sao Bento, Conceicao and Livramento hills on the N.,
and extends inland to the Praca da Republica, though the
defensive works in colonial times followed a line much nearer
the bay. This section during the past century has extended
southward along the bay shore in a string of suburbs known as
the Cattete and Botafogo, with that of Larangeiras behind
the Cattete in a pretty valley of the same name, and thence
on or near the Atlantic coast as Largo dos Leoes, Copacabana
and Gavea, the last including the Botanical Garden. The
greatest development has been northward and westward, where
are to be found the suburbs of Cidade Nova, Sao Christovao,
Engenho Novo, Praia Formoso, Pedregulho, Villa Isabel,
Tijuca, and a number of smaller places extending far out
on the line of the Central railway. The extreme length of
the city along lines of communication is little less than 20 m.
Streets. Some of the most modern streets on the plain have
been laid out with Spanish-American regularity, but much the
greater part seems to have sprung into existence without any plan.
Most of the streets of the old city are parallel and cross at right
angles, but they are narrow and enclose blocks of unequal size.
Each suburb is laid out independently, with straight streets where
the ground permits, and crooked ones where the shore-line or
mountain contour compels. Since the beginning of the 2Oth
century large sums have been borrowed and expended on new
avenues, the widening and straightening of old streets, and the
improvement of the water-front between the Passeio Publico and
the southern extremity of the Praia de Botafogo by the construc-
tion of a grand boulevard, partly on reclaimed land. One of these
improvements consists of a central avenue cut across the old city
from a point on the water-front near the Passeio Publico northward
to the Saude water-front. The shore-line boulevard, called the
Avenida Beira-Mar, is about 43 m. long, the. wider parts being
filled in with gardens. It was undertaken in 1903, during the
administration of President Rodrigues Alves, as part of a vast
scheme to improve the sanitary and traffic conditions of the city,
including the construction of a new shore-line and filling in the
shallow parts of the shore, which had long been considered one of
the prime causes of the unhealthy state of the city. Another
improvement was the completion and embellishment of the Mangue
canal, originally designed as an entrance to a central market for
the boats plying on the bay, but now destined for drainage purposes
and as a public pleasure ground. This canal, as completed, is
nearly 2 m. long, enclosed with stone walls, crossed by a number
of iron bridges and bordered by lines of royal palms. The most
famous street of the old city is the Rua do Ouvidor, running west-
ward from the market-place to the Largo de Sao Francisco de
Paula, and lined with retail shops, caf<5s and newspaper offices.
It has long been a favourite promenade, and fills an important part
in the social and political life of the city. The principal business
street is the Rua Primeiro de Marc.o, formerly called Rua Direita,
which extends from the Praga 15 de Novembro northward to Sao
Bento Hill. All these old streets, excepting the last, are narrow
and paved with squared granite blocks, and have their vehicle
traffic regulated to go in one direction only. The side walks are
very narrow, and the gas lamps are attached to the walls of the
buildings. The streets and suburbs are served by five groups of
tramway lines Jardim Botanico, Santa Thereza, Sao Christovao,
Villa Isabel, and Carris Urbanos all using electric traction but
the last. The streets are lighted with electricity and gas, the
Ouvidor and some other narrow streets having a great number
of gas-pipe arches across them for decorative illumination on fescal
occasions.
Parks. The public parks and gardens are numerous and include
the Botanical Garden with its famous avenue of royal palms
(Oreodoxa regia); the Passeio Publico (dating from 1783), a small
garden on the water-front facing the harbour entrance; the Jardim
d'Acclamacao, forming part of the Prac.a da Republica (once known
as the Campo de Sant' Anna) with its artistic walks and masses of
shrubbery; the Praca Tiradentes (the old Largo do Rocio, after-
wards rechristened Praga da Constituicao) with its magnificent
equestrian statue of Dom Pedro I. executed by the French sculptor
Luiz Rochet; the Praca 15 de Novembro on the water-front facing
the old city palace; and a number of smaller squares with and
without gardens.
Water Supply and Sewerage Drainage. The water supply
is derived from three sources: the small streams flowing
down the mountain sides which serve small localities; the old
Carioca aqueduct, dating from colonial times, which collects
a considerable supply from the small streams of the Serra da
Carioca and brings it into the city through a covered conduit
which once crossed the gap between Santa Thereza and Santo
Antonio hills on two ranges of stone arches (now used as a
viaduct by the Santa Thereza Tramway Company); and the
modern Rio do Ouro waterworks, which brings in an abundant
supply from the Serra do Tinqua, N.W. of the city the length
of the iron mains being 33 m. between the principal collecting
reservoir and the main distributing reservoir at Pedregulho,
near the Ponta do Caju. There are three other distributing
reservoirs in different parts of the city, and the supply, which
has been augmented since the works were inaugurated in 1885,
is good and ample. An extensive system of sewers was con-
structed by the City Improvements Co., an English corporation,
which initiated the work in 1853; and a separate system
of rain-water drains. The Leicester system is used because
the greater part of the sewers are below sea-level, and it is
necessary to use powerful pumps.
Climate. The climate of Rio de Janeiro is hot, humid
and debilitating, the temperature ranging from 50 to 99-5 F.
in the shade, with an average for the year of 74, and the rainfall
being about 44 in. The greater part of the city is only 2 or 3 ft.
above sea-level, is surrounded by mountains, and has large
areas of water, swamp and wet soil in its vicinity. But the
unhealthiness of Rio de Janeiro in past years may be charged
to insanitary conditions and not to the climate. Yellow
fever, whose first recorded appearance was in December 1849,
was for many years almost a regular yearly visitant, and the
mortality from it has been terrible. Smallpox also is prac-
tically endemic, owing in great part to negligent sanitary super-
vision. Since 1900 there have been several mild outbreaks of
bubonic plague. These dangerous diseases are slowly disappear-
ing as sanitary conditions are improved. The death-rate from
tuberculosis, however, is high, and apparently shows no abate-
ment. This is undoubtedly due to constitutional weakness
arising from bad nutrition and the habit of sleeping in closed
or badly ventilated apartments. Malarial fevers , are also
common, and diseases of the digestive organs, in great part
easily preventible, figure among the principal causes of death.
According to official returns for the five years 1900-1905, the
average number of deaths was 15,926, or 20^4 per 1000. Among
the deaths 2789 were from tuberculosis, 1200 from smallpox,
778 from malarial diseases, 331 from la grippe, and 106 from
beri-beri. There were no unusual epidemics during those
years, and the rate given may be considered normal.
Buildings. There remain many public edifices and dwellings
of the colonial period, severely plain in appearance, with heavy
stone walls and tile roofs. The old city palace facing upon Praga
15 de Novembro, once the residence of the fugitive Portuguese
sovereign Dom Joao VI., is a good example. The igth century
brought no important modifications until near its close, when
French and Italian styles began to appear, both in exterior decora-
tion and in architectural design. The new Praca do Commercio
(Merchants' Exchange) and Post Office on Rua 1 de Mar?o, and
the national printing office near the Largo da Carioca, are notable
examples. Since then exterior ornamentation and architectural
eccentricities have run riot, and the city is now a mixture of the
plain one-storey and two-storey buildings of the Portuguese type,
and fanciful modern creations, embellished with stucco and over-
topping the others by many storeys. Although a metropolitan
see, Rio has no cathedral, the old imperial chapel facing the Praca
15 de Novembro being used for that purpose. The foundations
were once laid for a great cathedral on the Largo de Sao Francisco
de Paula, but the building stone was taken for a neighbouring
theatre, and the foundations were afterwards used for the Poly-
technic School. The most noteworthy church is the Candelaria
church, in the commercial district, whose twin towers and graceful
dome form one of the most conspicuous landmarks of the city.
It was begun in 1775, but was not finished until near the end of the
igth century. Its fine proportions, however, are concealed by
commercial buildings and by the narrow streets. Among many
other churches, usually plain and bare of interior decoration, are
the popular Sao Francisco de Paula church, on the square of
that name; the Carmo church in Rua 1 de Marc.o; the Cruz dos
Militares church in the same street; the Rosario church in the
RIO DE JANEIRO
street of that name, belonging to a fraternity of negroes and once
occupied by the episcopal chapter; and the prettily situated
octagonal Gloria church on a hill of that name overlooking the
lower bay. Another church of the same name faces on the Largo
do Machado and shows the peculiar combination of a Greek temple
surmounted by a modern spire. The British residents have an
unpretentious chapel in Rua Evaristo da Veiga, the Methodists a
more modern structure on the Largo do Cattete and the Presby-
terians a chapel near Praca Tiradentes. There is religious tolera-
tion in Brazil, but down to the organization of the republic no
non-Catholic church or chapel was permitted to have a spire or
other outward symbol of a place of worship.
Among public buildings of an official character the following are
noteworthy. The old city palace facing on Praca 15 de Novembro,
dates from 1743 and was the residence of the royal governors and
Dom Joao VI., but is now used by the national telegraph offices.
The Sao Christovao palace, in the suburb of that name, was the
residence of the Emperor Dom Pedro II. It is a rambling structure
now occupied by the National Museum. The Cattete palace, on the
street of that name, originally a private residence, is now the official
residence of the President, richly decorated within and partly sur-
rounded by a handsome park. The Itamaraty palace near the
Praca da Republica, a typical private residence of the better class,
was purchased for and occupied by the first presidents and is now
occupied by the ministry of foreign affairs. The palace of justice,
on Rua Primeiro de Margo, is one of the finest edifices in the city;
and the ministry of industry and public works, on the south side of
the Praca 15 de Novembro may be noticed. The ministry of war
has its offices in the immense military quartel (barracks) on the
north side of the Praca da Republica, and the ministry of marine
in the naval arsenal at the foot of Sao Bento Hill. The ministry
of finance is in the Treasury building on Rua do Sacramento an
immense structure of no special architectural merit. The Senate
occupies a plain unattractive building on the west side of the Praca
da Republica, and the Chamber of Deputies an ugly colonial
building in Rua da Misericordia, originally used as a city hall and
jail. A new legislative palace is designed to occupy the block
on the west side of the Praca Tiradentes. There are a number of
theatres, but the city had no large theatre of architectural merit
previous to the construction of the Municipal Theatre at the inter-
section of the Avenida Central with Rua 13 de Maio, with an elegant
marble facade in the French Renaissance style. Bull-fights have
never been popular in Rio de Janeiro, but horse-racing is a favourite
sport, and the Jockey Club maintains a racecourse in the Sao Fran-
cisco Xavier suburb. Other notable buildings are the ornate
Monroe palace at the intersection of the Central and Beira-Mar
avenues, the Praca do Commercip (Commercial Exchange) on Rua
1 de Margo, the Caixa da Amortizagao on the Avenida Central, the
custom-house with its extensive warehouses, the terminal station
of the Central railway at the N.W. angle of the Praca da Republica,
and the library building of the Gabinete Portuguez da Leitura with
its exquisite " Manuelino " facade of Lisbon marble.
Education. Although much money is given to hospitals
and asylums, Rio de Janeiro has no great educational institu-
tions either public or private. The Medical School may be
considered the only distinctively professional school in the
city. The Polytechnic School, occupying an interesting old
building on the Largo de Sao Francisco de Paula, is chiefly
devoted to civil engineering. The Gymnasio Nacional, formerly
the Collegio D. Pedro II., is a boys' college of a high school
grade, located on Rua Floriano Peixoto, with an internato or
boarding-school in Rua de S. Francisco Xavier. The college
dates from 1735, when it was founded as an asylum for orphan
boys destined for the Church. In 1837 it became a state
institution and took the name of the Emperor Dom Pedro II.
One of the most noteworthy schools of the city is the Lycen de
Artes e Officios, located on Rua 13 de Maio, opposite the opera-
house; it dates from 1858 and has been the means of giving
instruction to a multitude of clerks, artisans and others,
through its night classes. Another important school, partly
of this class, is the Instituto Benjamin Constant, located in
a fine new edifice on the Praia da Saudade, Botafogo. The
public schools of Rio de Janeiro are defective both in organiza-
tion and administration; the non-attendance of children from
the higher classes, and the antagonism of the Church to schools
under purely secular administration, must be held responsible
for the backwardness of these schools. The episcopal seminary
on Castle Hill, called the " Seminario Episcopal de Sao Jose,"
founded in 1739 and devoted exclusively to the education of
priests, is the best classical school in the city. There are a
number of charitable institutions devoted to the education of
orphans, the blind and the deaf and dumb, which are admirably
355
equipped and administered. Among other educational in-
stitutions are a conservatory of music, school of fine arts,
normal school, a national library with upwards of 260,000
volumes and a large number of manuscripts, maps, medals
and coins, the national observatory on Castle Hill, the national
museum now domiciled in the Sao Christovao palace in the
midst of a pretty park, a zoological garden in the suburb of
Villa Isabel, and the famous Botanical Garden founded by Dom
Joao VI. in 1808 and now a horticultural experiment station.
Hospitals, &c. Rio de Janeiro is well provided with hospitals,
asylums and benevolent institutions. Chief of these is the Miseri-
cordia Hospital, popularly known as the " Santa Casa," belonging
to a religious brotherhood dating from 1591. In addition to a large
income from rentals, the Santa Casa receives the product of certain
port taxes in return for opening its wards to the crews of all vessels
in port. Other public hospitals are a lepers' hospital in Sao Chris-
tovao, the military and naval hospitals, the Sao Sebastiao hospital
and the isolation and contagious diseases hospitals in Jurujuba.
There are also a number of private hospitals maintained by church
brotherhoods and charitable associations; among them are the
Portuguese hospital in Rua de Santo Amaro and the Strangers'
Hospital (American and British) in Botafogo. Most prominent
among the asylums is the Hospicio Nacional for the insane,
on the Praia da Saudade, Botafogo, which was erected 1842-52,
and is one of the most completely equipped institutions of its class
in the world. There are two public cemeteries: Sao Francisco
de Xavier, in Sao Christovao, and Sao Joao Baptista, in Botafogo,
the former having an unconsecrated section for Protestants. Be-
sides these there are five private cemeteries, the one belonging to
the British colony being on a hill overlooking the Gambda shore-
line.
Harbour, Communications and Commerce.-^-The port and
harbour of Rio de Janeiro are the largest and most important
in the republic. The entrance is open to vessels of the largest
draught, and there is sufficient deep-water anchorage inside for
the navies of the world. The lower anchorage, where the officers
of health visit vessels, is below Ilha Fiscal, and the upper, or
commercial anchorage, is in the broad- part of the bay above
Ilha das Cobras, the national coasting vessels occupying the
shallower waters near the Saude and Gamb6a districts. The
custom-house occupies a considerable part of the shore-line in
front of the old city, and has a protected basin for the discharge
of lighters. The new port works, under construction since
1903, consist of a new water-front for the Saude, Gamboa and
Sacco de Alferes districts, in which the shipping interests are
centred, and a continuation of the sea-wall across the shallow
Sao Christovao bay to the Ponta do Caju, the large reclaimed
area to be filled in by the removal of some small hills. The
commercial quays are built in deep water and permit the
mooring alongside of the largest vessels. The total length of
the commercial quays is about 3800 yds. Railway and tram-
way connexions are provided and both electric and hydraulic
power are available. Special surtaxes are levied on imports
to meet the interest and redemption charges on the loans
raised for the execution of these important works. Another
improvement is the extension of the sea-wall southward from
the ferry -slips (Praca 15 de Novembro) to the Ponta do Cala-
bouco (war arsenal), providing protected basins for the arsenal
and enclosing small reclaimed areas. With the completion
of these improvements the water-front of the city will consist
entirely of deep-water walls from Botafogo to the Ponta do
Caju, with the exception of a short section between the Ponta
do Calabouco and the Avenida Central. The port is in regular
communication with the principal ports of Europe and America.
The coastwise service is good, though rates are high. Railway
communication with the interior is maintained by the Central
do Brazil (formerly the Dom Pedro II.), Leopoldina and Melhora-
mentos lines, besides which there is a short passenger line up
to the Corcovado about z| m. long, an electric line to Tijuca,
and a narrow-gauge line running out to the Rio do Ouro water-
works. There is daily communication with Petropolis by a
branch line of the Leopoldina system, and also by a steamer
to the head of the bay and thence by rail up the serra. Ferry--
boats cross the bay to Nictheroy at intervals of 20 minutes, and
smaller craft provide communication with the islands of Gober-
nador and Paqueta.
356
RIO DE JANEIRO
Rio de Janeiro is the seaport for a large area of the richest, most
productive and most thickly settled parts of Brazil, including the
states of Rio de Janeiro and Minas Geraes and a small part of
eastern Sao Paulo. Its exports include coffee, sugar, hides, cabinet
woods, tobacco and cigars, tapioca, gold, diamonds, manganese
and sundry small products. Rio is also a distributing centre in the
coasting trade, and many imported products, such as jerked beef
(fame secca), hay, flour, wines, &c., appear among the coastwise
exports, as well as domestic manufactures. The total exports for
1905 were officially valued at 62,572,033 milreis gold, or a little
over one-sixth the exportation of the whole country. Formerly
Rio led all other ports in the export of coffee, but the enormous
increase in production in the state of Sao Paulo has given Santos
the lead. The exports of coffee from Rio in 1908 amounted to
3,062,268 bags of 60 kilogrammes each, officially valued at about
$27,846,000. The coffee-producing area tributary to this port is
slowly decreasing, owing to the exhaustion of the soil and the
greater productiveness of Sao Paulo. The imports include wheat,
our, Indian corn, jerked beef (carne secca), lard, bacon, wines and
liquors, butter, cheese, conserves of all kinds, coal, cotton, woollen,
linen and silk textiles, boots and shoes, earthen- and glasswares,
railway material, machinery, furniture, building material, including
pine lumber, drugs and chemicals, and hardware. The imports
For 1905 aggregated 103,874,724 milreis gold, or about two-fifths
the importation of the whole republic. The shipping arrivals in
1908 were as follows: from foreign ports, 1195 steamers of 3,479,357
tons and 75 sailing vessels of 84,474 tons; from national ports,
243 foreign steamers of 582,633 tons, 773 national steamers of 475,587
tons and 294 national sailing vessels of 20,250 tons in all 2580 vessels
of 4,642,301 tons.
Manufactures. The industrial activities of Rio Janeiro have been
largely increased since the organization of the republic through
increased import duties on foreign products. There were a number
of protected industries before this, but they made slight impression
on imports. Rio de Janeiro has manufactures of flour from imported
wheat, cotton, woollen and silk textiles, boots and shoes, ready-
made clothing, furniture, vehicles, cigars and cigarettes, chocolate,
fruit conserves, refined sugar, biscuits, macaroni, ice, beer, artificial
liquors, mineral waters, soap, stearine candles, perfumery, feather
flowers, printing type, &c. There are numerous machine end repair
shops, the most important of which are the shops of the Central
railway. One of the most important industrial enterprises in the
city is the electric plant belonging to the Rio de Janeiro Light
and Power Company, which supplies electric currents for public
and private lighting, and power for the tramways and many
industries. The hydro-electric works are situated about 50 m.
N.W. of the city in a valley of the Serra do Mar, where a large
reservoir has been created by building a dam across the 'Rio das
Lages.
Government. Rio de Janeiro is governed by a prefect, who
represents the national government, and a municipal council which
represents the people. The prefect is appointed by the President
of the republic for a term of four years, and the appointment must
be confirmed by the Senate. There are seven direclorias, or boards,
under the prefect, each one assigned to a special field of work, chief
among which are education, health and public assistance, public
works and transportation, and finance. The municipal council is
elected by direct suffrage for a term of two years, and is composed
of 15 members. The funded debt of the city on the 3Oth of June
1907 was 7,000,677, a part of which is guaranteed by the national
government. There is some confusion in administration and
accounts, however, and it is sometimes difficult to determine the
exact situation. The Federal District is represented in Congress
by 2 senators and 10 deputies, and is credited with the rights and
privileges of citizenship. On the other hand, the city is a garrison
town and a district under the direct administration ol the national
executive, who appoints its chief executive, controls its police force,
and exercises part control over its streets, squares and water front.
In the work of improving the city, the national government assumed
the expense of the commercial quays, the filling of the Sao Christovao
bay, the opening of the Mangue canal and its embellishment, the
opening of the Avenida Central, the extension of the sewage system
and the addition of new sources to the water supply, while the city
was responsible for the Avenida Beira-Mar, the opening of a new
avenue from the Largo da Lapa westward to Rua Frei Caneca, the
removal of the Morro do Senado, the widening of some streets
crossing the Avenida Central and the opening and straightening of
other streets.
History. The discovery of the Bay of Rio de Janeiro is
attributed by many Portuguese writers to Andre Goncalves,
who entered its waters on the ist of January 1502, and believed
that it was the mouth of a great river, hence the name Rio de
Janeiro (River of January). Another Portuguese navigator,
Martim Affonso de Souza, visited it in 1531, but passed on to
Sao Vicente, near Santos, where he established a colony. The
first settlement in the bay was made by an expedition of French
Huguenots under the command of Nicholas Durand Villegaignon,
who established his colony on the small island that bears his
name. In 1560 their fort was captured and destroyed by a
Portuguese expedition from Bahia under Mem de Sa, and in
1567 another expedition under the same commander again
destroyed the French settlements, which had spread to the
mainland. The victory was won on the zoth of January, the
feast-day of St Sebastian the Martyr, who became the patron
saint of the new settlement and gave it his name Sao Sebastiao
do Rio de Janeiro. The French had named their colony La
France Antarctique, and their island fort had been called Fort
Coligny. In 1710 a French expedition of five vessels and about
looo men under Duclerc attempted to regain possession, but was
defeated; its commander was captured and later assassinated.
This led to a second French expedition, under Duguay Trouin,
who entered the bay on the 1 2th of September 1711, and captured
the town on the 22nd. Trouin released Duclerc's imprisoned
followers, exacted a heavy ransom and then withdrew. The
discovery of gold in Minas Geraes at the end of the I7th century
greatly increased the importance of the town. It had been made
the capital of the southern captaincies in 1680, and in 1762 it
became the capital of all Brazil. In 1808 the fugitive Portuguese
court, under the regent Dom Joao VI., took refuge in Rio de
Janeiro, and gave a new impulse to its growth. It was thrown
open to foreign commerce, foreign mercantile houses were
permitted to settle there, printing was introduced, industrial
restrictions were removed, and a college of medicine, a military
academy and a public library were founded. Dom Joao VI.
returned to Portugal in 1821, and on the 7th of September 1822
Brazil was declared independent and Dom Pedro I. became its
first emperor. There was no resistance to this declaration in
Rio de Janeiro. There were some political disorders during the
reign of Dom Pedro I., who was finally harassed into an abdica-
tion in favour of his son, Dom Pedro II., on the 7th of April 1831.
The regency that followed was one of many changes, and led in
July 1840 to a declaration of the young prince's majority at the
age of fifteen. A long and peaceful reign followed, disturbed
only by the struggles of rival political factions. In 1839 a
steamship service along the coast was opened, but direct com-
munication with Europe was delayed until 1850, and with the
United States until 1865. These services added largely to the
prosperity of the port. The first section of the Dom Pedro II.
railway was opened in 1858, and the second or mountain section
in 1864, which brought the city into closer relations with the
interior. In 1874 submarine communication with Europe was
opened, which was soon afterwards extended southward to the
Platine republics. The first coffee tree planted in Brazil was in
a convent garden of Rio de Janeiro. On the 1 5th of November
1889 a military revolt in the city under the leadership of General
Deodoro da Fonseca led to the declaration of a republic and
the expulsion of the imperial family, which was accomplished
without resistance or loss of life. Disorders followed, a naval
revolt in 1891 causing the resignation of President Deodoro da
Fonseca, and another in 1893-94 causing a blockade of the port
for about six months and the loss of many lives and much
property from desultory bombardments. There have been since
that time some trifling outbreaks on the part of agitators allied
with the extreme republican element, but at no time was the
security of the government in danger.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Nearly all books relating to Brazil devote some
attention to its capital city. The history of its settlement and
colonial development will be found in Robert Southey, History of
Brazil (3 vols., London, 1810-^19). For descriptions of the city,
the customs and manners of its people and some of the larger
political events during the first three-quarters of the igth century,
see R. Walsh, Notices of Brazil in 1828 and 1829 (2 vols., London,
1830); Thomas Ewbank, Life in Brazil (New York, 1856); M. D.
Moreira de Azevedp, O Rio de Janeiro (2 vols., Rio de Janeiro, 1877) ;
and J. C. Fletcher and D. P. Kidder, Brazil and the Brazilians
(gth ed., Boston, 1879), especially chapters iv. to xiy. For later
descriptions, see A. J. Lamoureux, Hand-Book of Rio de Janeiro
(Rio de Janeiro, 1887); Frank Vincent, Around and About South
America (New York, 1890), chapters xxv. to xxix. ; Marguerite
Dickins, Alon$ Shore with a Man-of-V/ar (Boston, 1893); Arthur
Dias, // Brasile Attuale (Nivelle, Belgium, 1907; also in French
and, Portuguese), pp. 367-449.
RIO DE ORO RIO GRANDE DO
357
RIO DE ORO, a Spanish possession on the N.W. coast of
Africa. It is bounded W. by the Atlantic, E. and S. by Saharan
territory under French protection. The northern frontier, where
the protectorate adjoins the territory of the semi-independent
tribes south of Morocco, is undefined. The most northerly
point claimed by Spain on the coast is Cape Bojador. The
southern and eastern boundaries were defined by a Franco-
Spanish convention in 1900. The frontier traverses the middle
of the Cape Blanco promontory, then runs eastward along the
parallel of 21 20' N. till it meets the meridian of 13 W., whence
it turns first N.W. and afterwards N.E., meeting the tropic of
Cancer at 12 W. and thereafter runs due N. Forming part of
the Sahara, Rio de Oro is nearly waterless. Oases are few and
the sparse population consists almost entirely of nomad Arabs
and Berbers. They are Mahommedans. In the south is the
hilly country called Adrar Suttuf, not to be confounded with
Adrar Temur (see ADRAR and SAHARA). The estimated area of
the protectorate is 70,000 sq. m.
The peninsula of Rio de Oro, where is the principal Spanish
settlement, occupies the central part of the coast-line in 23 50'
N., 16 W., and is united to the mainland by a sandy isthmus.
Its length is 23 m., its breadth ij to 2 m. and it is on an average
about 20 ft. above sea-level. The bay between peninsula and
mainland the so-called Rio de Oro is 22 m. long, 5 broad,
navigable over two-thirds of its extent, with good anchorage in
most of the channel, but the bar at its mouth is not always easy
to pass in rough weather. The peninsula has very sparse
vegetation, except in its southernmost part near Cape Durnford.
At the head of the bay is a small island Isla Herne.
The climate is generally temperate, and not unhealthy except
in the autumn. Esparto grass and manzanilla are grown in many
places, but European plants are not easily acclimatized. On the
peninsula and in the neighbouring country there are many wolves,
foxes, hyenas, gazelles, lizards, hares, pelicans and large crows.
The natives rear cattle, sheep, camels, and have but few horses.
In contrast with the sterility of the land the sea throughout the coast
of Rio de Oro abounds in fish, especially cod. The fishing industry
is in the hands of the Canary Islanders and of the French.
The estuary between the mainland and the peninsula was taken
by its Portuguese discoverers in the middle of the i5th century
for a river, and, obtaining there a quantity of gold dust from the
natives, they named it Rio d'Ouro (Gold River), Rio de Oro
being the Spanish form. At a spot about 50 m. inland from
the head of the estuary a Portuguese trading station was estab-
lished, of which ruins exist, but the activity of the Portuguese
was before long transferred to the true auriferous regions of the
Gulf of Guinea.
Spain's interest in the Saharan coast dates from the i3th
century, but was particularly directed to that part nearest the
Canary Islands, a strip of coast over which she now exercises no
sovereignty. The site of the fort of Santa Cruz de Mar Pequena,
established in 1476, though not identified, was north of Capo
Bojador. The protection of the Canary Islanders engaged in
the fisheries south of that point occasioned, however, the presence
of Spanish warships in these waters, and small trading stations
were formed at Rio de Oro, Cape Blanco and elsewhere. To
preserve the interests thus acquired, Spain in January 1885
took the territories on the coast between capes Blanco and
Bojador under her protection. The year before the Hispano-
American Company had built a trading station on Rio de Oro
peninsula, but in 1885 it was destroyed by the natives. The
company renewed its operations, but subsequently ceded its
rights to the Transatlantic Company of Barcelona. The exten-
sion inland of Spanish influence was opposed by France, which
claimed a protectorate over the Sahara. The conflicting claims
of the two powers were finally settled by the convention of 1900,
which fixed the frontier in the manner stated. The administra-
tion is carried on under the control of the captain-general of the
Canary Islands.
RIO GRANDE, a North American river, which rises in the
San Juan Mountains of southern Colorado, flows S.E. and S.
in Colorado, S. by W. and S.E. through New Mexico, and S.E.
between Texas and Mexico to the Gulf of Mexico. Its length
is approximately 2200 m., and for about 1300 m. it forms the
international boundary between the United States and Mexico.
It presents many features of a complex physiographic type,
being first a river of the Rocky Mountains, then of the in-
terior deserts and then of the Atlantic Coastal Plain. It also
presents a complicated geological history, as it includes what
were originally several distinct streams. The Mexicans call
it the Rio del Norte in its upper course, the Rio Bravo in the
" Big Bend," from the mouth of the Conchas river to the
mouth of the Devils river, and the Rio Grande only in its
course through the Coastal Plain. From its headwaters,
12,000 ft. above the sea, it rushes rapidly down a mountain
canyon to San Luis Valley, in Colorado. It flows with moderate
speed through this broad valley, enters a long canyon with a
maximum depth of 400 ft., about 4 m. above the boundary
between Colorado and New Mexico, and is hemmed in between
canyon walls rising as high as 1000 ft. or between the sides
of narrow mountain valleys throughout its course through
New Mexico. It passes through a series of picturesque
canyons, some of them 1750 ft. in depth, in the " Big Bend,"
and becomes a silt-laden stream with a shifting channel in
its passage through the Coastal Plain. Except in the flood
season of May and June, the quantity of water which, for
irrigation and by evaporation, is taken from the Rio Grande
between its entrance to the San Luis Valley and the mouth
of the Conchas, is greater than that received, and as a con-
sequence it is an intermittent stream in this region. The
flow of the Conchas is constant, and in the'" Big Bend " the
volume of the Rio Grande is enhanced by springs which break
out in the bed. The total flow of the Rio Grande is ten times
greater in some years than in others, and when its waters have
been highest there have been great floods in its lower course
and so much shifting of its banks as to cause international
complications. Even in its course through the Coastal Plain
its channel is so much obstructed by sand bars that it is of
little importance for navigation. As the increasing diversion
of the water of the Upper Rio Grande for irrigation in Colorado
and New Mexico resulted in a scarcity of water for this purpose
in Mexico, that country complained, and to remedy the evil
the Reclamation Service of the United States proposed the
construction by the United States of a storage dam across
the river near Engle, New Mexico, which would form a storage
reservoir having a capacity of 2,000,000 acre-feet and from
which Mexico should be furnished with 60,000 acre-feet of
water annually. Mexico agreed to this proposal and a treaty
covering the matter was proclaimed in January 1907. The
principal towns and cities on the river are: Brownsville,
Texas; Matamoros, Mexico; Laredo, Texas; El Paso,
Texas; and Ciudad Juarez, Mexico.
RIO GRANDE DO SUL, a southern frontier state of Brazil,
bounded N. by the state of Santa Catharina, E. by the Atlantic,
S.. by Uruguay and W. by Uruguay and Argentina the
Uruguay river forming the boundary line with the latter.
Area, 91,333 sq. m. Pop. (1000) 1,149,070, an increase of
251,615 since 1890. The northern part of the state lies on the
southern slopes of the elevated plateau extending southward
from Sao Paulo across the states of Parana and Santa
Catharina, and is much broken by low mountain ranges whose
general direction across the trend of the slope gives them the
appearance of escarpments. A range of low mountains extends
southward from the Serra do Mar of Santa Catharina and
crosses the state into Uruguay. West of this range is a vast
grassy plain devoted principally to stock-raising the northern
and most elevated part being suitable in pasturage and climate
for sheep, and trje southern for cattle. East of it is a wide
coastal zone only slightly elevated above the sea; within it
are two great tide-water lakes Lagda dos Patos and Lagda
Mirim which are separated from the ocean by two sandy,
partially barren peninsulas. The coast is one great sand
beach, broken only at one point that of the outlet of the two
lakes, called the Rio Grande, which affords an entrance to
navigable inland waters and several ports. There are two
RIO GRANDE DO SUL
distinct river systems in Rio Grande do Sul that of the
eastern slope draining to the tide-water lakes, and that of
the La Plata basin draining westward to the Uruguay. Fully
one-third of the state belongs to the La Plata drainage basin.
The larger rivers of the eastern group are the Jacuhy, Sinos,
Cahy, Gravatahy and Camaquam, which flow into the Lagoa
dos Patos, and the Jaguarao which flows into the Lag6a Mirim.
All of the first named, except the Camaquam, discharge into
one of the two arms or estuaries opening into the northern
end of Lag6a dos Patos, which is called the Rio Guahyba,
though in reality it is not a river. It is broad, comparatively
deep and about 35 m. long, and with the rivers discharging
into it affords upwards of 200 m. of fluvial navigation. The
Jacuhy is one of the most important rivers of the state, rising
in the ranges of the Coxilha (Cuchilla) Grande of the North
and flowing S. and S.E. to the Guahyba estuary, with a course
of nearly 300 m. It has two large tributaries the Vaccacahy
from the S. and the Taquary from the N. besides many
small streams. The Jaguarao, which forms part of the boundary
line with Uruguay, is navigable 26 m., up to and beyond the
town of Jaguarao. Of the many streams flowing northward
and westward to the Uruguay, the largest are the Ijuhy-
guassu, of the plateau region, the Ibicuhy, which has its source
in the central part of the state, near Santa Maria, and flows
westward to the Uruguay a short distance above Uruguayana
and the Quarahim, or Quarahy, which forms part of the
boundary line with Uruguay. The Uruguay river itself is
formed by the confluence of the Rio das Canoas and Rio Pelotas
in about long. 51 30' W. With its southern confluent, the
Rio Pelotas, which has its source in the Serra do Mar, on the
Atlantic coast, it forms the northern and western boundary
line of the state down to the mouth of the Quarahim, on the
Uruguayan frontier. In addition to the Lagoa dos Patos and
Lagoa Mirim there are a number of small lakes on the sandy,
swampy peninsulas that lie between the coast and these two,
and there are others of a similar character along the northern
coast. The largest lake is the Lagoa dos Patos (Lake of the
Patos an Indian tribe inhabiting its shores at the time of
the discovery), which lies parallel with the coast-line, N.E.
and S.W., and is about 133 m. long exclusive of the two arms
at its northern end, 25 and 35 m. long respectively, and of its
outlet, the Rio Grande, about 24 m. long. Its width varies
from 22 to 36 m. The lake is comparatively shallow and filled
with sand banks, making its navigable channels tortuous and
difficult. The Lag6a Mirim occupies a similar position farther
S., on the Uruguayan frontier, and is about 108 m. long by
6 to 22 m. wide. It is more irregular in outline and discharges
into Lag&a dos Patos through a navigable channel known as
the Rio Sao Goncalo. A part of the lake lies in Uruguayan
territory, but its navigation, as determined by treaty, belongs
exclusively to Brazil. Both of these lakes are evidently the
remains of an ancient depression in the coast-line shut in by
sand beaches built up by the combined action of wind and
current. They are of the same level as the ocean, but their
waters are affected by the tides and are brackish only a short
distance above the Rio Grande outlet.
Rio Grande lies within the South Temperate zone and has a mild,
temperate climate, except in the coastal zone where it is semi-tropical.
There are only two well-marked seasons, though the transition periods
between them (about two months each) are sometimes described
as spring and autumn. The winter months, June to September,
are characterized by heavy rains and by cold westerly winds, called
minuanos, which sometimes lower the temperature to the freezing
point, especially in the mountainous districts. Snow is unknown,
but ice frequently forms on inland waters during cold winter nights,
only to disappear with the first rays of the sun. In summer, which
is nominally a dry season, light rains are common, northerly and
easterly winds prevail, and the temperature rises _to 95 in the
shade. Cases of insolation are not rare. Malaria is unusual and
the state has a high reputation for healthiness, though insanitary
conditions are responsiole for various diseases in large communities.
The principal industry of the state is stock-raising, especially on
the southern plains, where large estancias (ranches) are to be found.
This industry originated with the Jesuit missions on the Uruguay
early in the ijth century, and its development here has been much
the same as in Argentina and Uruguay. No general effort was
made before the 2oth century to improve the herds by the importa-
tion of better breeds, and the industry was practically in a state
of decay until higher tariff rates were imposed on imported came
secca (jerked beef) toward the end of the 1 9th century. The export
of live-stock is insignificant, the practice being to sell the cattle to
the xarqueadas or saladeros where they are slaughtered for xarque,
charqui or carne secca, which is usually prepared by salting and
drying in the sun. The jerked beef is largely exported to other
Brazilian states for consumption, while the hides and other by-
products are exported to Europe and the United States. The
importance of the industry is shown in the exports of 1905, in
kilogrammes, viz.: jerked beef, 37,555,951; dry hides, 4,735,987;
salted hides, 12,141,779; beef extract, 16,712; ox-tongues, 498,577;
tallow, 6,174,189; and large quantities of leather, horns, hoofs,
bone-ash and preserved meats. Horses, mules, sheep, goats and
swine are also raised; the raising of sheep being fostered by the
building of woollen factories, and that of swine by the higher duties
on imported pork and lard. In some parts of the state agriculture
claims much attention, especially in the forested districts of the
north where colonies of foreign immigrants have been established.
The principal products are wheat, Indian corn, rice, beans, pease,
onions, garlic, farinha de mandioca (cassava flour), potatoes, tomatoes,
cabbage, fruit, tobacco and peanuts all of which find a ready
market on the coast. Grapes are grown in several localities (Sao
Leopoldo, Alegrete, Bage, &c.) for wine-making, and the industry
has become important the export in 1905 being 2,092,417 litres.
The forest products include herva matte or Paraguay tea (Ilex
paraguayensis), timbers and lumber, and vegetable fibre (crina
vegetal). Coal of an inferior quality is mined at Sao Jeronymo, on
a small tributary (Arroio dos Ratos) of the Jacuhy river, and has
been discovered in other localities. Lime is burned at Cacapava,
and at some other places. Gold, copper and iron are said to exist,
but are not mined. Considerable progress has been made in manu-
facturing industries, among whose products are: woollen, cotton
and jute textiles, leather, wheat, flour, boots, shoes and sandals
(tamnacos), wines and liquors, beer, macaroni, biscuits and other
prepared foods, cigars and cigarettes, hats, matches, soap, candles
and wrapping paper. Much of this diversity in production is due
to the foreign element in the population.
The railway lines in the state are: the Porto Alegre to Novo
Hamburgo (27 m.), with an extension to Taquary (28 m.); Porto
Alegre to Uruguayana, completed from Margem do Taquary ( Bank
of the Taquary) to Cacequy (232 m.) ; Santa Maria to Passo Fundo
(221 m.); Rio Grande to Bag6 (175 m.), with 14 m. in branches at
Rio Grande; an extension from Cacequy to Bag6 (129 m.); and
the Quarahim to Itaquy (109 m.). All these except the last have
been taken over by the national government and leased to the
Belgian " Compagnie auxiliare de Chemin de Fer au Br6sil," which
has undertaken to complete the line from Cacequy to Uruguayana
(161 m.), from Margem do Taquary to Neustadt, on the Novo
Hamburgo jine (60 m.), and some other branches. The Quarahim
to Itaquy line belongs to an English company and runs from the
Uruguayan frontier, where it connects with the North-Western of
Uruguay, northward to Uruguayana and the naval station of Itaquy.
The population in 1900 was 1,149,070. There is a large
foreign element: in 1905 the total number of foreigners residing
in the state was estimated at 400,000 (not including children
born in the country), and of Germans at 250,000. The first
German colony was founded in 1824 and settled in 1825 in the
rich forested country N. of Porto Alegre, and many large and
prosperous communities have been established since then in
spite of the wars and political agitations in the state. Several
of these colonies, such as Sao Leopoldo, Novo Hamburgo
and Conde d'Eu (now Garibaldi), have become important towns
and are no longer under colonial administration. Italian
colonies were subsequently established, also with good results,
but an Irish colony founded at Monte Bonito, near Pelotas,
about 1851, failed completely. The capital of Rio Grande do
Sul is Porto Alegre at the northern extremity of Lag&a dos
Patos, and its two next most important cities are Rio Grande
and Pelotas, both at the southern extremity of the same lake.
Among other important cities and towns, with population
returns for 1900, are Alegrete (11,438), prettily situated in the
W. part of the state on the Porto Alegre to Uruguayana railway;
Bage (13,463), about 173 m. by rail N.W. of Rio Grande in
a picturesque mountainous region, 702 ft. above sea-level;
Jaguarao (9000), on a river of the same name and opposite the
Uruguayan town of Artigas, with steamboat communication
with Rio Grande; Cacapava (8781 in 1890) in a fine grazing
district in the central part of the state, 1732 ft. above sea-level;
Quarahim, or Quarahy (about 6500), a town of much commercial
RIO GRANDE DO SUL
359
importance on the Quarahim river opposite the Uruguayan
town of Santo Eugenio, and surrounded by a rich grazing country
which supports one of the largest saladeros in the state; Sao
Leopoldo; Santa Maria da Bocca do Monte; and Uruguayana.
The territory was first settled along the Uruguay river by
the Jesuits when they were compelled to abandon their missions
on the upper Parana. Between 1632 and 1707, they founded on
the E. side of the Uruguay seven missions all under Spanish
jurisdiction which became highly prosperous, and at the time
of their transfer from Spanish to Portuguese rule by a treaty
of 1750 had an aggregate population of about 14,000, living
in villages and possessing large herds of cattle and many
horses. A joint effort of the two powers in 1753 to enforce
the treaty, remove the Indians to Spanish territory, and mark
the boundary line, led to resistance and a three years' war,
which ended in the capture and partial destruction of the
missions. On the coast the first recognized settlement a
military post at Estreito, near the present city of Rio Grande
was made in 1737. Before this, and as early as 1680, according
to some chroniclers, the region S. of Santa Catharina was
occupied by settlements, or penal colonies, of degradados
(banished men) and immoral women from Santos, Sao Vicente
and Sao Paulo, and was known as the " Continente de Sao
Pedro." In 1738 the territory (which included the present
state of Santa Catharina) became the Capitania d'El Rei and
was made a dependency of Rio de Janeiro. Territorial dis-
putes between Spain and Portugal led to the occupation by
the Spanish of the town of Rio Grande (then the capital of the
capitania) and neighbouring districts from 1763 to 1776, when
they reverted to the Portuguese. The capture of Rio Grande
in 1 763 caused the removal of the seat of government to Y'iamao
at the head of Lagoa dos Patos; in 1773 Porto dos Cazaes, re-
named Porto Alegre, became the capital. In 1801 news of
war between Spain and Portugal led the inhabitants of Rio
Grande to attack and capture the seven missions and some
frontier posts held by the Spaniards since 1763; since 1801
the boundary lines established by treaty in 1777 have re-
mained unchanged. The districts of Santa Catharina and
Rio Grande had been separated in 1 760 for military convenience,
and in 1807 the latter was elevated to the category of a capi-
lania-geral, with the designation of " Sao Pedro do Rio Grande,"
independent of Rio de Janeiro, and with Santa Catharina as a
dependency. In 1812 Rio Grande and Santa Catharina were
organized into two distinct comarcas, the latter becoming an
independent province in 1822 when the empire was organized.
In 1835 a separatist revolution broke out in the province and
lasted ten years. It was reduced more through the use of
money and favours than by force of arms; but the province had
suffered terribly in the struggle and did not recover its losses
for many years. An incident in this contest was the enlist-
ment of Garibaldi for a short time with the forces of the separa-
tists. In 1865 a Paraguayan army invaded the state and on
the 5th of August occupied the town of Uruguayana. On the
1 8th of September following, the Paraguayan general (Esti-
garribia) surrendered without a fight an unusual occurrence
in the remarkable war that followed. Political agitations have
been frequent in Rio Grande do Sul, whose people have some-
thing of the temperament of their Spanish neighbours, but no
important revolution occurred after the " ten years' war "
(1835-45) until the presidency at Rio de Janeiro of General
Floriano Peixoto, whose ill-considered interference with the
state governments led to the revolt of 1892-94, under Gumers-
indo Saraiva. In this struggle the revolutionists occupied
Santa Catharina and Parana, capturing Curityba, but were
eventually overthrown through their inability to obtain
munitions of war. An incident in this struggle was the death
of Admiral Saldanha da Gama, one of the most brilliant officers
of the Brazilian navy and one of the chiefs of the naval revolt
of 1893-94, who was killed in a skirmish on the Uruguayan
frontier at the close of the war.
RIO GRANDE DO SUL, or SAO PEDRO DO Rio GRANDE DO SUL
(sometimes SAO PEDRO and commonly Rio GRANDE), a city and
port of the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, on the western
side of the Rio Grande (as the outlet of the Lagoa dos Patos is
called), about 6 m. from its mouth and nearly 780 m. S.W. of
Rio de Janeiro, in lat. 32 7' S., long. 52 8' W. Pop. (1800)
of the municipio (area, about 656 sq. m.) 24,653; of the city,
including its suburbs, 20,193; (1000, estimate) of the city,
22,000, and of the city and its suburbs, 30,000. Rio Grande
is the coast terminus of the Rio Grande to Bage railway, which
now forms part of the railway system of the state leased to
the Belgian Compagnie Auxiliare de Chemin de Fer au Bresil.
Some of the principal streets are served by tramways, and
the Rio Grande to Bage railway has an extension to its shipping
wharf called " Estacao Maritima " (ij m.), a branch to some
points on the river (1} m.), and a branch to Costa do Mar, on
the ocean coast (n m.). The city is a port of call for several
steamship lines, and has direct communication with European
ports. The bar at the mouth of the river, however, restricts
traffic to vessels of light draught, not exceeding 12 to 15 ft. Ex-
tensive improvements, at an estimated cost of about 13$
millions of dollars, were undertaken in 1908 for deepening
the bar to admit vessels of 30 ft. draught.
The city is built on a low sandy peninsula, barely 5 ft. above
sea-level, formed by two arms of the Rio Grande projecting
westward from the main channel, the peninsula being part of
a large sandy plain extending southward along the coast to
Lagoa Mirim. The level of the plain is broken by ranges of
sand dunes, some of which rise not far from the city on the
south-and south-east. The openness of the surrounding country
and the proximity of the sea give to Rio Grande unusually
healthy conditions, which, however, are largely counteracted by
defective sanitary arrangements. Not infrequently the deaths
exceed the births, and epidemics of contagious diseases make
deadly inroads upon the population. The city has been de-
veloped irregularly, but the streets are for the most part broad,
and the principal ones are well paved. Gas lighting was
introduced about 1871, and in 1908 acetylene was used for
public lighting. In one of the public squares is a shaft com-
memorating the abolition of slavery, and said to be the only
monument in Brazil of that character. There is a notable
scarcity of shade trees in the streets and squares, though dowers,
shrubbery and some kinds of fruit trees are grown. In pleasing
contrast to the drifting sands which surround the city is the
fertile Ilha dos Marinheiros (Sailor's Island) lying directly in
front of the port; it is highly cultivated and supplies the
market with fruit and vegetables. The water-front has been
improved by substantial stone walls, which permit the mooring
of light-draught vessels alongside.
Among noteworthy public buildings and institutions are the
municipal palace, the parochial church of Sao Pedro, dating from
the l8th century, the modern church of N.S. de Bomfim, the beauti-
ful Protestant Episcopal church (Gothic), the public hospital
(Hospital de Caridade), the hospital of the Beneficencia Portugueza,
the public library (Bibliotheca Riograndense), created and main-
tained by private effort and containing about 30,000 volumes, the
old custom-house and the quartel-gercU (military barracks). Rio
Grande is wholly a commercial and industrial city. Its exports
include salted jerked beef (carne secca. or xarque), preserved meats,
tongues, hides, horns, hoofs, woollen fabrics, Paraguay tea, beans,
onions, fruit, flour, farinha de mandioca (cassava flour), lard, soap,
candles and leather. Its manufactures include cotton, woollen
and jute fabrics, wheat flour, biscuits, cigars and cut tobacco, beer,
artificial drinks, boots, shoes and sandals (alpergatas) , soap and
candles, fireworks, ice, earthenware, hats, cast-iron and leather.
The pioneer woollen factory in Brazil, and one of the largest in the
country, is in Rio Grande.
Rio Grande was founded in 1737 by Jos6 da Silva Paes,
who built a fort on the river near the site of the present city
and called it Estreito. In 1745 the garrison and settlement
was removed by Gomes Freire d'Andrade to its present site,
which became a " villa," in 1751, with the name of Sao Pedro do
Rio Grande, and a " cidade " (city) in 1807. It was the capital
of the captaincy down to 1763, when it was captured by a
Spanish force from Buenos Aires under the command of its
governor, Don Pedro Zeballos, the seat of government being
then removed to Viamao at the northern end of Lag6a dos
3 6
RIOJA RIOT
Patos. The city was occupied by the national forces in the ten
years' war which began in 1835, and in 1894 it was unsuccess-
fully besieged by a small insurgent force that had attempted to
overthrow the government at Rio de Janeiro.
RIOJA, LA, an Andine province of Argentina, bounded N. by
Catamarca, E. by Catamarca and Cordoba, S. by San Luis and
San Juan and W. by San Juan and Chile. Area, 34,546 sq. m.
Pop. (1895) 69,502; (1902, estimate) 82,099. The province is
traversed from N. to S. by eastern ranges of the Andes and is
separated from Chile by the Cordillera itself. The western part
of the province is drained by the Bermejo, which flows south-
ward into the closed lacustrine basin of Mendoza. The eastern
side of the province is arid, but in the extreme N. some small
streams flow northward into Catamarca. The scanty waters
of these streams are used for irrigation purposes. The principal
industry of the province is that of mining, its mineral resources
including gold, silver, copper, nickel, tin, cobalt, coal, alum and
salt. Its best known mines are those of the Sierra de Famatina,
16,400 ft. above sea-level, where an aerial wire line is used for
transportation to Chilecito in the valley below. The develop-
ment of mining industries is seriously hindered by lack of water.
For the same reason, agriculture is in a very backward condition.
The climate is hot and dry, and there is no cultivation of the soil
except in the valleys of the Cordillera and a few other places
where irrigation is possible. Under these conditions, there are
grown wheat (a limited extent), grapes, oranges, olives and
tobacco. Alfalfa is grown to a considerable extent and is used for
feeding the herds of cattle driven across country to Chile. The
capital of the province is La Rioja (pop., 1904, about 6000), on the
eastern flank of the Sierra de Velasco, about 1770 ft. above sea-
level and near the gorge of Sanagasta, through which a small
stream, also called Rioja, flows northward and affords water for
the gardens, vineyards and orchards that surround it. The
wines of Rioja are highly esteemed and are an important source
of income for the district. The town is connected by rail with
Cordoba and Catamarca. It was founded in 1591 by Velasco
and in 1894 was destroyed by an earthquake from which it has
only partially recovered. The most important town in the
province is the mining centre of Chilecito, or Villa Argentina
(pop., 1904, about 4000), about 2950 ft. above sea-level near the
Famatina mines.
RIOM, a town of central France, capital of an arrondissement
in the department of Puy-de-D&me, 8 m. N. by E. of Clermont-
Ferrand by rail. Pop., town, 7839; commune, 10,627. Riom is
situated on the left bank of the Ambene, on an eminence rising
above the fertile plain of Limagne. It is surrounded with boule-
vards and has wide streets, but the houses, being built of black
lava, have a sombre appearance. Some belong to the isth and
i6th centuries, and have turrets and carved stonework. The
church of St Amable, of Romanesque and early Gothic archi-
tecture, dates from the I2th century, but has been restored
in modern times. It has fine carved woodwork of the
I7th century. The church of Notre-Dame du Marthuret (isth
century) has a well-known statue of the Virgin at its western
entrance. The Sainte-Chapelle of the i4th and isth centuries
is a relic of the palace of Jean de Berry, duke of Auvergne, and
contains fine stained glass. Near it stands a statue of the
chancellor Michel de I'H&pital, who was born near Riom. The
rest of the site of the palace is occupied by the law courts.
Other interesting buildings are the belfry of the i6th century
and a mansion of the same period known as the Maison des
Consuls. The town possesses numerous fountains, some of which
are of the Renaissance period.
Riom is the seat of a court of appeal, a court of assizes and a
sub-prefect, and has tribunals of first instance and commerce
and a communal college. It has a state manufactory of tobacco,
and carries on the preparation of fruit preserves. Trade is in
grain, wine, vegetables, fruit, nut-oil and Volvic stone.
Riom (Ricomagus or Ricomum of the Romans) was long the
rival of Clermont. Along with Auvergne it was seized for the
crown by Philip Augustus, and it was the capital of this province
under the dukes of Berry and Bourbon.
RIO NEGRO, a territory of Argentina lying between the
Colorado river and the 42nd parallel S. lat., within the geographical
area formerly known as Patagonia, bounded N. by the territories
of Neuquen and La Pampa, E. by the province of Buenos Aires
and the Atlantic, S by the territory of Chubut and W. by Chile
and Neuquen. Area, about 75,924 sq. m.; pop. (1895) 9241;
(1904, estimate) 18,648. That part of it lying between the
Colorado and Negro rivers has much of the formation and
characteristics of the " sterile pampas," but with irrigation the
greater part of it can be utilized for agriculture and grazing.
South of the Negro the country is arid, barren and lies in great
shingle-covered terraces sloping eastward to the Atlantic; its
larger part is practically uninhabitable, only the river valleys
and the foot-hills of the Andes having a regular water supply.
The rivers of the territory are the Colorado, which forms a part
of its northern boundary, and the Negro, formed by the con-
fluence of the Limay (which forms part of the western boundary)
and Neuquen on the boundary between Rio Negro territory and
the territory of Neuquen. These rivers have no tributaries of im-
portance within the territory, but the Limay receives some small
streams from the Andean slopes. Lake Nahuel-Huapi lies partly
in this territory (see NEUQUEN), and there are several small lakes
scattered over the shingly steppes. The Atlantic coast-line
of the territory has one deep indentation the Gulf of San
Matias but, owing to the arid surroundings, there are no ports
or towns upon it. The only industry of importance is grazing,
cattle being raised for export to Chile, and a few sheep for their
wool. The capital is Viedma (pop. in 1895, estimate, 1500), on
the right bank of the Rio Negro, 22 m. from its mouth and
opposite Carmen de Patagones, a town and port of Buenos Aires.
There are other small settlements on the Rio Negro, which is
navigable up to the Neuquen frontier (about 450 m.), but the
only place of importance is General Roca (about 2300), a military
and supply station situated a few miles below the confluence of
the Limay and Neuquen rivers and connected with Bahia Blanca
and Buenos Aires by a branch of the Great Southern railway.
RIO PARDO (formerly Villa do Rio Pardo), a town of Brazil
in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, on the left bank of the Jacuhy
at its confluence with the Pardo. Area (of the municipality)
1737 sq. m. Pop. (1890) of the municipality, 19,346; (1908,
estimated) of the town, 3500. The town is about 80 m. due
west of Porto Alegre, with which it is connected by rail and
steamer. The Jacuhy is navigable by small steamers to this
place, which was once an important military station and
commercial centre. Its military importance has considerably
declined through railway extension. The surrounding districts
are fertile but only slightly cultivated, and stock-raising is its
chief industry. The town had its origin in a frontier fort built
at this point by the Portuguese in 1751, but did not reach the
dignity of a " villa " until 1809.
RIOT (O. Fr. riote, of uncertain etymology), the gravest
kind of breach of the peace, short of treason, known to the
English law. It consists in a tumultuous disturbance of the
peace by an assemblage of three or more persons who, with
intent to help one another against any one who opposes them
in the execution of some enterprise, actually execute that
enterprise in a violent and turbulent manner, to the terror of
the people. It is not necessary that violence should be used
to any person or damage done to any property. Whether
the enterprise itself is lawful or unlawful is not material, the
gist of the offence lying in the mode in which the enterprise
is carried out (The Trafalgar Square Riots, 1888, 16 Cox. Cr.
Cas. 420, 427; Stephen, Dig. Crim. Law, 6th ed., art. 77).
Nor is it material whether the enterprise is of a private or a
public nature, though in the latter case the rioters may also
be guilty of sedition or treason. An assembly in its inception
perfectly lawful may become a riot if the persons assembled
proceed to form and execute a common purpose in the manner
above stated, although they had no such purpose when they
first assembled. Riot differs from " Affray " in the number
of persons necessary to constitute the offence, from an " Un-
lawful Assembly " in that actual tumult or violence is an
RIOT
361
essential element, and from " Rout," which may be described
as a beginning or endeavour to create a riot. It was considered
as early as the I4th century that the English common law gave
an insufficient remedy against riot. In 1360 the statute of
34 Edward III. gave jurisdiction to justices to restrain, arrest
and imprison rioters. In 1393 the statute of 17 Richard II.
conferred similar powers on the sheriff and posse comitatus.
Numerous other acts extending the common law were passed,
especially in the Tudor reigns (see Stephen, History of the
Criminal Law, vol. i. p. 202). Both these acts above mentioned
are still on the statute book, but the earliest act now in force
of real importance as to this offence is the Riot Act (1716),
which creates certain statutory offences for riot attended by
circumstances of aggravation. That act makes it the duty of
a justice, sheriff, mayor or other authority, wherever twelve
persons or more are unlawfully, riotously and tumultuously
assembled together, to the disturbance of the public peace, to
resort to the place of such assembly and read the following
proclamation: " Our Sovereign Lord the King chargeth and
commandeth all persons being assembled immediately to dis-
perse themselves, and peaceably to depart to their habitations
or to their lawful business, upon the pains contained in the
act made in the first year of King George for preventing
tumultuous and riotous assemblies. God save the King."
It is a felony to obstruct the reading of the proclamation or to
remain or continue together unlawfully, riotously and tumultu-
ously for one hour after the proclamation was made or for one
hour after it would have been made but for being hindered.
The act requires the justices to seize and apprehend all persons
continuing after the hour, and indemnifies them and those who
act under their authority from liability for injuries caused
thereby. The punishment for the felony is penal servitude
for life or for a term of not less than three years, or imprison-
ment with or without hard labour for not more than two years.
Prosecutions for an offence against the act must be commenced
within twelve months after the offence.
By s. ii of the Malicious Damage Act 1861 (which is a re-
enactment of a similar provision made in 1827 in consequence
of the frame-breaking riots) , it is a felony for persons riotously
and tumultuously assembled together to the disturbance of
the public peace to unlawfully and with force demolish or
begin to demolish or pull down or destroy any building, public
building, machinery or mining plant. The punishment is
the same as for a felony under the Riot Act. By s. 12 it is
a misdemeanour to injure or damage such building, &c. The
punishment is penal servitude from three to seven years, or
imprisonment as in the case of the two felonies above described.
Under the Shipping Offences Act (1793) a riotous assemblage
of three or more seamen, ship's carpenters and other persons,
unlawfully and with force preventing and hindering or obstruct-
ing the loading or unloading or the sailing or navigation of any
vessel, or unlawfully and with force boarding any vessel with
intent to prevent, &c., is punishable on a first conviction as
a misdemeanour by imprisonment from six to twelve months,
and on a second conviction as a felony by penal servitude from
three to fourteen years. And under the Offences against the
Person Act 1861 (s. 40) summary penalties are provided for
forcible interference with seamen in the exercise of their lawful
occupation.
Besides these enactments there are others aimed at similar
offences, such as smuggling, forcible entry and detainer,
tumultuous petitioning (1661, 13 Charles II.), holding large
political meetings within a certain distance of Westminster
Hall during the sitting of parliament (Seditious Meetings Act
1817). For these offences see Stephen, Dig. Cr. Law, 6th ed.,
arts. 81-87.
It is the duty of a magistrate at the time of a riot to assemble
subjects of the realm, whether civil or military, for the purpose
of quelling the riot. In this duty he is aided by the common
law, and a statute of 1414 (Henry V.), under which all subjects
of the realm are bound to assist on reasonable warning, and by
various enactments enabling the authorities to call out the
militia, yeomanry and reserve forces for the suppression of
riot, and to close public-houses where a riot is apprehended
(Licensing Act 1872). It is his duty to keep the peace; if
the peace be broken, honesty of intention will not avail him if
he has been guilty of neglect of duty. The question is whether
he did all that he knew was in his power and which could
be expected from a man of ordinary prudence, firmness and
activity. The law as thus stated is gathered from the opinions
of the judges on the trials of the lord mayor of London and
the mayor of Bristol on indictments for neglect of duty at the
time of the Gordon riots of 1780 and the Bristol riots in 1831.*
In addition to his liability to an indictment at common law,
a defaulting magistrate is subject under the provisions of acts
of 1411 (Henry IV.) and 1414 (Henry V.) to a penalty of 100
for every default, the default to be inquired of by commission
under the great seal. A matter of interest is the extent of the
protection afforded by the Riot Act to soldiers acting under
the commands of their officers. The question was dealt with
by Lord Bowen and his fellow-commissioners in the report on
the Featherstone riots (Parl. Paper, 1893-1894, c. 7234). The
substance of their views is as follows:
By the law of England every one is bound to aid in the
suppression of riotous assemblages. The degree of force, how-
ever, which may be lawfully employed in their, suppression
depends on the nature of each riot, for the force used must
always be moderated and proportioned to the circumstances
of the case and to the end to be attained. The taking of life
can only be justified by the necessity for prdtecting persons or
property against various forms of violent crime, or by the
necessity of dispersing a riotous crowd which is dangerous
unless dispersed, or in the case of persons whose conduct has
become felonious through disobedience to the provisions of the
Riot Act, and who resist the attempt to disperse or apprehend
them. The necessary prevention of such outrage on person or
property justifies the guardians of the peace in the employment
against a crowd of even deadly weapons. Officers and soldiers
are under no special privileges and subject to no special re-
sponsibilities as regards the principle of the law. A soldier for
the purpose of establishing civil order is only a citizen armed
in a particular manner. He cannot because he is a soldier be
exonerated if without necessity he takes human life. The duty
of magistrates and peace officers to summon or abstain from
summoning the assistance of the military depends in like manner
on the necessities of the case. A soldier can act only by using
his arms. The weapons he carries are deadly. They cannot
be employed at all without danger to life or limb, and in these
days of improved rifles and perfected ammunition without
some risk of danger to distant and possibly innocent bystanders.
To call for assistance against rioters from those who can interfere
only under such grave conditions ought, of course, to be the last
expedient of the civil authorities. But when the call for help
is made and a necessity for assistance from the military has
arisen, to refuse such assistance is in law a misdemeanour.
The whole action of the military when once called in ought
from first to last to be based on the principle of doing, and
doing without fear, that which is absolutely necessary to prevent
serious crime, and of exercising care and skill with regard to
what is done. No set of rules exists which governs every
instance or defines beforehand any contingency that may arise.
The presence of a magistrate is not essential, but is usual, and
of the highest value to aid the commander of the troops by local
knowledge. But his presence or absence has no legal effect on
the duties or responsibilities of the military to use their arms
when it becomes necessary to do so, and without recklessness
or negligence and with reasonable care and caution; and where
they have so acted the killing of a rioter is justifiable homicide,
and the killing of an innocent bystander is homicide by mis-
adventure. It is not usual to resort to extremities with rioters
until after reading the proclamation under the Riot Act (1716),
1 Reports of these trials will be found in the State Trials, New
Series, vol. iii. pp. I, 1 1. Most of the important cases of riot are
collected or referred to in that series.
362
RIO TINTO
but this preliminary is by no means a condition precedent to
the exercise of the common-law powers of suppressing riots.
The crown cannot charge upon the local rates the expense
of maintaining soldiers called into a district by the magistrates
to suppress a riot (re Glamorgan County Council, L.R. 1899,
2 Q.B. 536); but the cost of extra police drafted in for the
like purpose falls on the rates of the district into which they
are drafted (see Police Act 1890, s. 25). Until 1886 persons
whose property was damaged by riot had a civil remedy of
an exceptional character by action against the hundred in
which the riot took place. This remedy was a survival of
the pre-Conquest liability of the hundred to guarantee the
orderly conduct of its inhabitants. The hundred was made
liable in case of robbery by the Statute of Winchester (i285). 1
That and subsequent acts were repealed in the reign of George
IV., and their provisions were consolidated by an act of 1827
which gave a remedy against the hundred in the case of
felonious demolition of churches, chapels, houses, machinery,
&c., being feloniously demolished by rioters. The last instance
of the use of this exceptional remedy was in the case of a riot
at Worthing, and the remedy was abolished in 1886. When the
Piccadilly riots occurred in that year no one knew that the
injured shops were in the hundred of Ossulston, and difficulties
arose in applying the old procedure. So an ex post facto statute
was passed "(the Metropolitan Police Compensation Act 1886)
for a special settlement of the claims, and the old statutes
were repealed and replaced by the Riot Damage Act 1886.
Under this act compensation is payable where rioters have
injured or destroyed houses, shops, buildings, fixed or movable
machinery and appliances prepared or used for or in connexion
with manufactures or agriculture, or for mines or quarries, or
vessels stranded or in distress (see WRECK), or have injured,
stolen, or destroyed property in houses, shops or buildings.
The compensation is payable out of the police rate for the
district in which the damage is done; or if it was done afloat,
for the district nearest to the scene of action. The claim is
made on the police authority for the district. The time and
form for making claims and the mode of fixing the amount
of compensation is regulated by rules made by the Home
Secretary on the 3oth of June 1894 (Stat. R. and O. 1894,
No. 636). In adjusting the amount regard is had to the conduct
of the claimant, viz. as to precautions taken by him, his share,
if any, in the riot, or provocation offered to the rioters.
Failure to carry out a programme for athletic sports has been
held to debar a claimant from compensation for damage done
by a riot among the disappointed spectators who had paid to
see the sports. The claimant must give credit for insurance
money, or any other compensation received in respect of the
damage; but the insurers or persons who paid such com-
pensation may file a claim against the police rate for the
amount paid by them. Persons dissatisfied with the award
of the police authority may sue for the recovery of their claim
subject to a liability to pay all the costs if they do not get
judgment for more than the amount awarded. The action,
if it is not for more than 100, is to be brought in the county
court. The remedy is available in the case of stranded ships
plundered by rioters (s. 515 of the Merchant Shipping Act
1894).
The Riot Act does not extend to Ireland, but similar
provisions are contained in an act of the Irish Parliament passed
in 1787 as amended by acts of 1831 and 1842. These acts
create a special offence punishable by penal servitude for life,
viz. sending notices, letters or messages inciting or tending
to riot. Under the Criminal Procedure Ireland Act 1887
(a temporary act) summary proceedings may be taken against
rioters. The civil remedy against the county or borough
for malicious injury to property, real or personal, including
ships in distress and their cargo, is wider than in England or
Scotland, but it includes malicious injury by rioters where
1 There is a curious exception still on the Statute-book depriving
persons robbed while travelling on the Lord's Day of any right to
compensation from the hundred (Lord's Day Act 1677, s. 5).
the injury is a crime within the Malicious Damage Act of 1861.
Claims are now dealt with in the county court, and not as formerly
by the grand jury and judge of assize (Local Government
Ireland Act 1898, s. 5).
In Scotland a riot may be either " rioting and mobbing "
or " rioting and breach of the peace." The first is much the
same as riot in English law. Mobbing consists in the assembling
of a number of people and then combining against order or
peace to the alarm of the lieges (Alison, Cr. Law of Scotland,
vol. i. p. 509; Macdonald, Criminal Law, 180). The second
offence occurs when concourse or a common purpose are
wanting. Numerous acts against rioting and unlawful convoca-
tion were passed by the Scottish parliament, beginning in 1487.
The Riot Act (1716) applies to Scotland. There is a civil
remedy against the county or burgh in which a riot takes
place in respect of damage done by the rioters to houses,
churches, buildings and ships, and buildings or engines used
in trade or manufacture. The remedy is given by a series of
statutes of 1716, 1812, 1816, 1817 and 1894. The procedure
for its enforcement is now regulated by the Riotous Assemblies
(Scotland) Act 1822, and amending statutes. The county
or burgh authorities may adjust claims without litigation,
and pay them out of the general assessments.
British Dominions. In India the offence of riot, as defined
by s. 146 of the Penal Code, consists in the use of force or
violence by an unlawful assembly (which must consist of at
least five persons, s. 141), or by any member thereof in the
prosecution of the common object of such assembly (see Mayne,
Ind. Criminal Law, ed. 1896, p. 489). In Ceylon and the
Straits Settlements provisions based on the Indian Code are
in force. In most of the settled Colonies the English law as to
riot applies subject to local legislation. The Criminal Codes
of Canada (1892, ss. 79-86), New Zealand (1893, ss. 83-89)
and Queensland (1899, ss. 61-67) adopt the substance of the
English law as to riot, in terms borrowed from the English
draft Code of 1880. In those of the West Indies whose common
law is based on that of France, Holland or Spain, the English
law as to riot has been applied by ordinance, e.g. in British
Guiana (Criminal Code 1893, tit. xix), and St Lucia (Criminal
Code 1888, tit. xxv). In the South African colonies the English
law of riot does not apply, but under the Dutch Roman law
there exists a similar offence, known as " public violence "
(vis publica), i.e. the use of violence and force by which the
public rest and order is endangered and the authority of the
lawful authorities and officials is set at naught. The offence
was capital (see Van Leeuwen, Roman-Dutch Law, tr. by Kotze,
1886, vol. ii. p. 294; Morice, English and Roman-Dutch Law,
1903, p. 334). Similar provisions based on the French Penal
Code are in force in Mauritius (Penal Code of 1838).
United States. In the United States the law is based upon
that of England (see Bishop, Amer. Cr. L., 8th ed., 1892,
vol. i. s. 534, vol. ii. ss. 1143 et seq.). In some states there
is a statutory proclamation for the dispersion of rioters in terms
almost identical with those of the British Riot Act. The
city, town, or county is by the statutes of many states
rendered liable for damage caused by rioters, with or without
a remedy over against the persons who did the damage (see
revised Laws of Massachusetts, ed. 1902, chap. 211, sects. 2, 8).
RIO TINTO (MiNAS DE Rio TINTO), a mining town of south-
western Spain, in the province of Huelva; near the source of
the river Tinto, and at the terminus of a light railway from the
port of Huelva. Pop. (1900) 11,603. Ri Tinto is one of the
greatest copper-mining centres in the world; and it is from the
discoloration of its waters by copper ore that the river derives
its name. Besides the town of Minas, several villages are peopled
by the native miners, whose numbers exceed 10,000; and one is
occupied solely by British mine officials. The surrounding
country is covered for miles with heaps of slag, and has been
reduced to a desert. In 1903 the output of the mines included
840,000 tons of copper ore, worth more than $00,000, besides
a relatively small quantity of iron and manganese. Almost the
entire product is despatched to Huelva for shipment to Great
RIOU RIPON, IST MARQUESS OF
Britain. Rio Tinto was probably first exploited by the Cartha-
ginians; vestiges of later Roman workings may still be seen.
After the Moorish conquest, in 711, it was neglected until 1725,
when the mines were leased to a Swede named Wolters. Their
modern importance dates from 1872, when a syndicate of London
and Bremen capitalists purchased them from the Spanish
government for nearly 4,000,000.
RIOU, EDWARD (1758 ?-i8oi), British sailor, entered the
navy at an early age. In 1780 he was promoted lieutenant,
and nine years later he was in command of the " Guardian " when
that vessel, crowded with convicts, struck a hidden rock off the
African coast. Riou, after parting with as many of his men as
the boats would hold, not only successfully navigated his half-
sinking ship 400 leagues to the Cape of Good Hope, but
kept order amongst the panic-stricken convicts, an achievement
which had few parallels in naval annals, and won Lieutenant
Riou's immediate promotion. He did not long remain a com-
mander and in 1791 he was posted. Under Sir John Jervis he
was present at the operations about Martinique and Guadeloupe
in 1 794, and in the "Amazon" he accompanied the expedition under
Sir Hyde Parker to the Baltic in 1801. His frigate led the way
through the Channel at Copenhagen, and in the battle he was
attached as commodore of a light squadron to Nelson's division.
Through the grounding of three ships of the line, Riou and his
frigates found themselves opposed to the full force of the great
Trekroner battery. Early in the fight he was wounded, but refused
to leave the deck, and, as he was sitting on a gun-carriage and
directing his men's fire, he was cut in two by a cannon ball.
Nelson, who had not known him before this expedition, had
conceived a great affection for Riou, and spoke of his loss as
" irreparable." Brenton, the naval historian, declared that he
had all the qualities of a perfect officer. Parliament com-
memorated the memory of the " gallant good Riou " by a
memorial in St -Paul's Cathedral.
RIOUW, RHIOUW or BINTANG, an archipelago of the Dutch
East Indies, E. of Sumatra, and separated from the Malay
Peninsula by the Straits of Singapore. With the Lingga,
Karimon, Tambelan, Anambas andNatuna Islands, to the N.E.,
E. and S., and the territory of Indragiri in Sumatra, it forms the
Dutch residency of Riouw and dependencies. The seat of
government is at Tanjong Pinang, a small port of 4060 inhabit-
ants (including 160 Europeans and about 2000 Chinese), on the
S.W. coast of the chief island, Bintang or Riouw. The total area
of the residency is about 17,550 sq. m., and its population (1905)
112,216, of whom considerably over a quarter are Chinese.
These cultivate gambier and pepper successfully in Bintang, and
there is a considerable trade in wood. Bintang has an area of
about 440 sq m., and is surrounded by many rocks and small
islands, making navigation dangerous. The soil is not fertile,
and much of it is swampy. There is an assistant residency of
Lingga, to which belongs the island of Singkep, where extensive
tin-deposits are worked. Geologically the Riouw and Lingga
Islands are appendages of the Malay Peninsula, not of Sumatra.
Bintang is mentioned by Marco Polo under the name of Pentam,
which is not far from the genuine Malay name Bentan, said to
mean a half-moon. After the Portuguese conquest of Malacca
(1511), the expelled Mahommedan dynasty took up its residence
on Bintang, where it long fostered piracy.
RIPLEY, GEORGE (1802-1880), American critic and man of
letters, was born at Greenfield, Massachusetts, on the 3rd of
October 1802. He graduated first in his class at Harvard in
1823. From 1826 to 1840 he was pastor of a Unitarian church
in Boston, subsequently retiring from the active ministry alto-
gether. It was during those years that there grew up in New
England that form of thought or philosophy known as Tran-
scendentalism. Ripley was prominent, if not the leader, in all
practical manifestations of the movement; and it was largely
by his earnestness and practical energy that certain of its more
tangible results were brought about. The first meeting of the
Transcendental Club was held at his house in September 1836.
He was a founder and a chief supporter of the magazine, the
Dial, which was the organ of the school from 1841 to 1844. Most
important of all, however, he was the originator of " The Brook
Farm Institute of Education and Agriculture." Until the
abandonment of this experiment in 1847, Ripley was its leader,
cheerfully taking upon himself all kinds of tasks, teaching
mathematics and philosophy in the school, milking cows and
attending to other bucolic duties, and after June 1845 editing
the weekly Harbinger, an organ of " association," which he
continued to edit in New York from 1847 until it was dis-
continued in 1849. The failure of Brook Farm (q.v.) left Ripley
poor and feeling keenly the defeat of his project; but the event
forced him at last to devote himself to that career of literary labour
in which the real success of his life was achieved. In 1849 he
joined the staff of the New York Tribune, and in a short time
became its literary editor. This position, which, through his
steadiness, scholarly conservatism and freedom from caprice
as a critic, soon became one of great influence, he held until his
death in New York City on the 4th of July 1880.
During the greater part of the time of his connexion with the
Tribune, Ripley was also an adviser of a prominent publishing
house, an occasional contributor to the magazines, and a co-
operator in several literary undertakings. The chief of these
was the American Cyclopaedia, which as the New American
Cyclopaedia so named to distinguish it from Francis Lieber's
Encyclopaedia Americana was issued, under the editorship of
Ripley and Charles A. Dana, in 1857-63, a revised edition, with
the word " new " dropped from the title, being issued under the
same editorship in 1873-76. He also issued, in translation, a
series of Specimens of Foreign Standard Literature (14 vols.,
1838-42). Ripley was twice married, first in 1827 to Miss
Sophia Willard Dana (d. 1861), a daughter of Francis Dana
and a conspicuous figure at Brook Farm; and second, in
1865, to a young German widow, Mrs Augusta Schloss-
berger, who survived him and subsequently married Alphonse
Pinede.
A biography of Ripley (Boston, 1882), written by the Rev. O. B.
Frothingham, forms one of the volumes of the " American Men of
Letters Tl series. (E. L. B.)
RIPLEY, a market town in the Ilkeston parliamentary
division of Derbyshire, England, 10 m. N. by E. of Derby,
on a branch of the Midland railway. Pop. of urban district
(1901) io,m. It lies on high ground between the valleys of
the Derwent and the Erewash. In the neighbourhood there
are extensive collieries, and coke is largely manufactured.
Besides iron foundries, blast furnaces and boiler works, the
town possesses silk and cotton mills. The charter for the
market was granted by Henry III. The district has a large
industrial population. To the west of Ripley lies the township
of HEAGE (pop. 2889).
RIPON, GEORGE FREDERICK SAMUEL ROBINSON, IST
MARQUESS OF (1827-1909), British statesman, only son of the
ist earl of Ripon and his wife Lady Sarah, daughter of Robert
Hobart, 4th earl of Buckinghamshire, was born in London
on the 24th of October 1827. The Robinson family was
descended from an eminent Hamburg merchant, William
Robinson (1522-1616), who represented York in parliament
in Elizabeth's reign. His great-grandson was in 1660 created
a baronet. Thomas Robinson, ist Baron Grantham (1695-
1770), son of a later holder of the baronetcy, was created a
peer in 1761, having been an indefatigable diplomatist pleni-
potentiary at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, and secretary of
state. The 2nd Baron Grantham (1738-1786), ambassador
at Madrid, and foreign secretary under Lord Shelburne, had
two sons. The elder of these, succeeding as 3rd Baron
Grantham (1781-1859), became in 1833 2nd Earl de Grey,
in right of his maternal aunt, and assumed the surname of de
Grey; he was lord-lieutenant of Ireland (1841-44). The
younger, Frederick John (1782-1859), created Viscount Code-
rich in 1827 and earl of Ripon in 1833, was the well-known
" Prosperity Robinson " who was chancellor of the exchequer
from 1823 to 1827; as Lord Goderich he became prime
minister (and a peculiarly weak one) from August 1827 to
January 1828, colonial secretary in 1831 and 1832, lord privy
RIPON
seal (1833-34), president of the Board of Trade (1841-43), and
president of the India board (1843-46).
His son, the future marquess, began his political life as
altachS to a special mission to Brussels in 1849. In 1851 he
married Henrietta Vyner (d. 1907), and their eldest son, after-
wards known as Earl de Grey, was born in 1852. Under his
courtesy title of Viscount Goderich he was returned to the House
of Commons for Hull in 1852 as an advanced Liberal. In 1853
he was elected for Huddersfield, and in 1857 for the West
Riding of Yorkshire. In January 1859 he succeeded to his
father's title, and in November of the same year to that of
his uncle, Earl de Grey. A few months after entering the
Upper House he was appointed under-secretary for war, and
in February 1861 under-secretary for India. Upon the death
of Sir George Cornewall Lewis in April 1863 he became secre-
tary for war, with a seat in the cabinet. In 1866 he was ap-
pointed secretary of state for India. On the formation of the
Gladstone administration in December 1868, Lord Ripon was
appointed lord president of the council, and held that office
until within a few months of the fall of the government in
1873, when he resigned on purely private grounds. In 1869
he was created a Knight of the Garter. In 1871 Lord Ripon
was appointed chairman of the High Joint-Commission on the
Alabama claims, which arranged the treaty of Washington.
In recognition of his services he was elevated to a marquessate
(1871). In 1874 he became a convert to Roman Catholicism,
and this involved his resignation of the office of grand master
of the English Freemasons. On the return of Gladstone to
power in 1880 Lord Ripon was appointed viceroy of India,
the appointment exciting a storm of controversy, the marquess
being the first Roman Catholic to hold the viceregal office.
He went out to reverse the Afghan policy of Lord Lytton,
and Kandahar was given up, the whole of Afghanistan being
secured to Abdur Rahman. The new viceroy was also called
upon to decide grave questions between the native population
and the resident British, and he resolved upon a liberal policy
towards the former, among his measures being the repeal of
the Vernacular Press Act, the extension of local government
and the appointment of an Education Commission. He
extended the rights of the natives, and in certain directions
curtailed the privileges of Europeans. Several of the viceroy's
measures, notably the Ilbert Bill of 1883 so named after
its author Sir Courtenay Ilbert irritated the Anglo-Indian
population, and it was fiercely assailed. The purpose of this
bill was disclosed in the statement that " the government of
India had decided to settle the question of jurisdiction over
European British subjects in such a way as to remove from
the code, at once and completely, every judicial disqualification
which is based merely on race distinctions," in fact to subject
Europeans in certain cases to trial by native magistrates.
This announcement raised a storm of indignation among the
European community in India, and the government were
obliged virtually, though not avowedly, to abandon their
measure. Act III. of 1884 was a compromise, which, while
subjecting Europeans to the jurisdiction of native district magis-
trates or sessions judges, reserved to them the right to demand
trial by a jury of which at least half should be Europeans.
There probably never was a viceroy so unpopular among
Anglo-Indians or so popular with the natives. On Lord
Ripon's departure from India in November 1884 there were
extraordinary manifestations in his favour on the part of the
Hindu population of Bengal and Bombay, and more than
a thousand addresses were presented to him. On his arrival
in England the marquess delivered a number of vigorous
speeches in defence of his admins tration. In 1886 he became
first lord of the admiralty in the third Gladstone ministry;
and on the return of the Liberals to power in 1892 he was
appointed colonial secretary, which post he continued to hold
until the resignation of the government in 1895. He was
included in Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman's cabinet at the
close of 1905 as lord privy seal, an office which he retained in
1908 when Mr Asquith formed his new ministry, but which
he resigned later in the same year. He died at his seat, Studley
Royal, near Ripon, on the gth of July 1909, when his only son,
Earl de Grey, who has been treasurer of the queen's household
since 190-1, became the 2nd marquess. For many years Lord
Ripon was president of the Yorkshire College of Science at
Leeds, and chairman of the West Riding County Council.
RIPON, a cathedral city and municipal borough in the
Ripon parliamentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire,
England, 214 m. N.N.W. from London, on the North-Eastern
railway. Pop. (1901) 8230. It is pleasantly situated at the
confluence of the streams Laver and Skell with the river Ure,
which is crossed by a fine bridge of nine arches. The streets are
for the most part narrow and irregular, and, although most of
the houses are comparatively modern, some of them retain the
picturesque gables characteristic of earlier times. The cathedral,
although not ranking among those of the first class, is cele-
brated for its fine proportions, and is of great interest from the
various styles of architecture which it includes. Its entire
length from E. to W. is 266 ft., the length of the transepts
130 ft., and the width of the nave and aisles 87 ft. Besides a
large square central tower, there are two western towers. The
cathedral was founded on the ruins of St Wilfrid's abbey about
680, but of this Saxon building nothing now lemains except
the crypt, called St Wilfrid's Needle. The present building
was begun by Archbishop Roger (1154-81), and to this Tran-
sition period belong the transepts and portions of the choir.
The western front and towers, fine specimens of Early English,
were probably the work of Walter de Grey, archbishop of York
(d. 1255), and about the close of the century the eastern portion
of the choir was rebuilt in the Decorated style. The nave,
portions of the central tower, and two bays of the choir are
Perpendicular, having been rebuilt towards the close of the isth
century. Earlier than the rest of the fabric (except the crypt)
is part of the chapter-house and the vestry, adjoining the
south side of the choir, and terminating eastward in an apse.
This is pure Norman work, and there is a crypt of that period
beneath, which was formerly filled with unburied bones. There
are a number of monuments of historical and antiquarian
interest. The diocese includes rather less than one-third of
the parishes of Yorkshire, and also a small part of Lancashire.
The bishop's palace, a modern building in Tudor style, is
situated in extensive grounds about a mile from the town. In
the vicinity is the domain of Studley Royal, the seat of the
marquess of Ripon, which contains the celebrated ruins of
Fountains Abbey (q.v.). The principal secular buildings are
the town hall, the public rooms, and the mechanics' institution
(1894) where technical and other classes are held. There are
several old charities, including the hospital of St John the
Baptist, founded in 1109 but modernized; the hospital of
St Anne, founded probably in the reign of Henry VI. by an
unknown benefactor; and the hospital of St Mary Magdalene
for women. This last was founded by Thurstan, archbishop of
York (1114-41), as a secular community, one of the special
duties of which was to minister to lepers. In the i3th century
a master and chaplain took the place of the lay brethren, and
in 1334 a chantry was founded. The chapel remains, with its
interesting Norman work, its low side-windows, said to have
allowed the lepers to follow the services, and its pre-Reformation
altar of stone, a rare example. There is a considerable trade
in varnish, and the saddle-trees and other leather goods pro-
duced here are in high repute. The borough is under a mayor,
4 aldermen, and 12 councillors. Area, 1809 acres.
Ripon (In Rhypum, Ad Ripam) owed its origin to the mon-
astery founded in the 7th century. A certain king, Alchfrith,
is said to have given the site of the town to Eata, abbot of
Melrose, to found a- monastery, but before it was completed
Eata was deposed for refusing to celebrate Easter according
to the Roman usage, and St Wilfrid was appointed the first
abbot. Another version of the story, however, says that the
land was given to St Wilfrid, who himself built the monastery.
Ripon is said to have been made a royal borough by Alfred
the Great, and King ^Ethelstan, after his victory at Brunanburh
RIPON RIPPERDA
365
in 937, is stated to have granted to the monastery sanctuary,
freedom from toll and taxes, and the privilege of holding a court,
although both charters attributed to him are known to be
spurious. At the same time he is said to have given the manor
to Wulfstan, archbishop of York. About 950 the monastery
and town were destroyed by King Edred during his expedition
against the Danes, but the monastery was rebuilt by the arch-
bishops of York, and about the time of the Conquest was
changed to a collegiate church. In 1318, when the Scots in-
vaded England, Ripon only escaped being burnt a second
time by the payment of 1000 marks. The custom of blowing
the wakeman's horn every night at nine o'clock is said to have
originated about A.D. 700. It was probably at first a means of
calling the people together in case of a sudden invasion, but
was afterwards a signal for setting the watch. A hom with
a baldric and the motto " Except the Lord keep the city the
watchman waketh but in vain " forms the mayor's badge.
The archbishops of York as lords of the manor had various
privileges in the town, among which were the right of holding
a market and fair, and Archbishop John, being summoned
in the reign of Henry I. to answer by what right he claimed
these privileges, said that he held them by prescription and by
the charter of King ^Ethelstan. Henry I. afterwards granted
or confirmed to Archbishop Thomas a fair on the feast of St
Wilfrid and four following days. The fairs and markets be-
longed to the archbishops of York until they were transferred
to the bishop of Ripon in 1837. In 1857 they were transferred
to the ecclesiastical commissioners, from whom they were
purchased by the corporation of Ripon in 1880. From before
the Conquest until the incorporation charter of 1604 Ripon
was governed by a wakeman and 12 elders, or aldermen,
but in 1604 the title of wakeman was changed to mayor, and
12 aldermen and 24 common councilmen were appointed. The
manufacture of cloth was at one time carried on in Ripon, but
was almost lost in the i6th century when the town was visited
by Leland. The making of spurs succeeded the cloth manu-
facture and became so noted that the saying " as true as Ripon
rowells " was a well-known proverb. This manufacture died
out in the i8th century. Ripon was summoned to send two
members to parliament in 1295, and occasionally from that
time until 1328-29. The privilege was revived in 1553, after
which the burgesses continued to send two members until 1867,
when they were allowed only one. This latter privilege was
taken away by the Redistribution Bill of 1885, and it now gives
its name to one of the divisions of the county.
See Victoria County History, Yorkshire; and W. Harrison, Ripon
Millenary: a Record of the Festival and a History of the City, arranged
under its Wakemen and Mayors from the year 1400 (1892).
RIPON, a city of Fond du Lac county, Wisconsin, U.S.A.,
on Silver Creek, about 22 m. W. of Fond du Lac, and about
75 m. N.W. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1890), 3358; (1900), 3818,
of whom 885 were foreign-born; (1905), 3811; (1910), 3739-
Ripon is served by the Chicago & North-Western, and the
Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways. The city has a
Carnegie library, which also houses the library of the Ripon
Historical Society, and is the seat of Ripon College (non-
sectarian, co-educational), which was founded in 1850 as the
Lyceum of Ripon, and was named Ripon College in 1864;
in 1908 it had 23 instructors and 279 students. There are
grain elevators and various manufactories, among the products
of which are cheese and other creamery products, flour, knit
goods, pickles and canned goods, woodenware, washing machines
and gloves.
The site of Ripon was purchased in 1838 by John Scott
Horner (1802-1883), of Virginia, secretary and acting-governor
of Michigan Territory in 1835, and the first secretary of Wis-
consin Territory in 1836-37, who named the village when
it was established in 1849 from the seat of his ancestors
in Yorkshire. In May 1844 a settlement, named Ceresco or
" the Wisconsin Phalanx," a Fourierist community, 1 organized
'The charter, granted by the legislature in 1845, contained
the following features: (i) property to be held in common;
in Southport (now Kenosha), had been established in the
vicinity. A " Long House," 400 ft. in length, was erected,
which contained tenements, an amusement or lecture hall,
and a dining-room where all ate at a common table, and where
board was provided at cost, sometimes as low as sixty-three
cents per week. The " class of usefulness " was divided
into three groups, agricultural, mechanical and educational,
with such subdivisions as necessity dictated, and an exact
account of labour was kept. The community prospered
materially from the start. In the second season it consisted
of thirty families with property valued at $27,725; in 1846
there were 180 resident members, and the net profit for the
year was $9029. Eventually differences of opinion arose as
to the division of labour, and the common dining-hall did
not prove popular. Rivalry developed with the village of
Ripon, and the community gave up its charter at the close of
1850, dividing property valued at $40,000 among the share-
holders. On the whole it was one of the most successful ex-
periments in communism ever tried in America. In 1858
Ripon absorbed the village of Ceresco and was chartered as a
city. At Ripon started one of the disconnected movements
that resulted in the founding of the Republican party.
See D. P. Mapes, History of Ripon (Milwaukee, Wis., 1873);
Consul W. Butterfield, History of Fond du Lac County (1880) ; W. A.
Hinds, American Communities and Co-operative Colonies (3rd ed.,
Chicago, 1908), and F. A. Flower, History of the Republican Parly
(1884).
RIPPERDA, JOHN WILLIAM, BARON, and afterwards duke
of (1680-1737), political adventurer and Spanish minister, was
a native of Groningen in the Netherlands. According to a
story which he himself set going during his adventures in Spain,
his family was of Spanish origin. But there does not appear
to be any foundation for this assertion. The name was not
uncommon in Groningen, and was borne by several persons
of some note in the i6th and i7th centuries, one of whom
was a follower of William the Silent. They were people of
some position, possessing " lordships " at Jansinia, Poelgast,
and other places, and some at least of them were Roman
Catholics. John William, if he was, as he asserted, born a
Roman Catholic, conformed to Dutch Calvinism in order to
obtain his election as delegate to the states-general from
Groningen. In 1715 he was sent by the Dutch government
as ambassador to Madrid. Saint-Simon says that his char-
acter for probity was even then considered doubtful. The
fortune of Orry, Alberoni and other foreigners in Spain, showed
that the court of Philip V. offered a career to adventurers.
Ripperda whose name is commonly spelt. Riperda by the
Spaniards devoted himself to the Spanish government, and
professed himself a Roman Catholic. He first attached himself
to Alberoni, and after the fall of that minister he became the
agent of Elizabeth Farnese, the restless and intriguing wife
of Philip V. Though perfectly unscrupulous in money matters,
and of a singularly vain and blustering disposition, he did under-
stand commercial questions, and he has the merit of having
pointed out that the poverty of Spain was mainly due to the
neglect of its agriculture. But his fortune was not due to any
service of a useful kind he rendered his masters. He rose by
undertaking to aid the queen, whose influence over her husband
was boundless, in her schemes for securing the succession to
Parma, Plasencia and Tuscany for her sons. Ripperda was
sent as special envoy to Vienna in 1725. He behaved with
ridiculous' violence, but the Austrian government, which
was under the influence of its own fixed idea, treated him
seriously. The result of ten months of very strange diplomacy
was a treaty by which the emperor promised very little, but
and shares to be sold at $25; (2) land to be limited to 40 acres for
each member of the corporation; (3) a unanimous vote of the
managers necessary for admission; (4) an annual settlement of
profits on the basis of one-quarter credit to dividend on stock, and
three-quarters credit to labour; (5) free public schools, capital
paying three-quarters and labour one-quarter of cost; and
(6) complete religious toleration and no involuntary taxation
for church support.
3 66
RISHANGER RISTITCH
Spain was bound to pay heavy subsidies, which its exhausted
treasury was quite unable to afford. The emperor hoped to
obtain money. Elizabeth Farnese hoped to secure the Italian
duchies for her sons, and some vague stipulations were made
that Charles VI. should give his aid for the recovery by Spain
of Gibraltar and Minorca. When Ripperda returned to Madrid
at the close of 1725 he asserted that the emperor expected
him to be made prime minister. The Spanish sovereigns, who
were overawed by this quite unfounded assertion, allowed him
to grasp the most important posts under the crown. He
excited the violent hostility of the Spaniards, and entered
into a complication of intrigues with the French and English
governments. His career was short. In 1726 the Austrian
envoy, who had vainly pressed for the payment of the promised
subsidies, came to an explanation with the Spanish sovereigns.
It was discovered that Ripperda had not only made promises
that he was not authorized to make, but had misappropriated
large sums of money. The sovereigns who had made him duke
and grandee shrank from covering themselves with ridicule by
revealing the way in which they had been deceived. Ripperda
was dismissed with the promise of a pension. Being in terror
of the hatred of the Spaniards, he took refuge in the English
embassy. To secure the favour of the English envoy, Colonel
William Stanhope, afterwards Lord Harrington, he betrayed
the secrets of his government. Stanhope could not protect
him, and he was sent as a prisoner to the castle of Segovia.
In 1728 he escaped, probably with the connivance of the govern-
ment, and made his way to Holland. His last years are obscure.
It is said that he reverted to Protestantism, and then went to
Morocco, where he became a Mahommedan and commanded
the Moors in an unsuccessful attack on Cejuta. But this story
is founded on his so-called Memoirs, which are in fact a Grub-
street tale of adventure published at Amsterdam in 1740. All
that is really known is that he did go to Morocco, and that he
died at Tetuan in 1737.
See Arnold Ritter von Arneth, Prinz Eugen von Savoyen
(Vienna, 1864), for the negotiations of 1725, and Gabriel Syveton,
Une Cour et un aventurier au XVIII' siecle (Paris, 1896). His
Memoirs were translated into English by J. Campbell, London,
I750-
RISHANGER, WILLIAM (c. 1250-0. 1312), English chronicler,
made his profession as a Benedictine at St Alban's abbey in
1271, of which he perhaps became the official chronicler. The
most important of his writings is the Narratio de bellis apud
Lewes et Evesham. Though written many years afterwards
and drawn from other sources, it is a spirited account of the
barons' war. He ,is so great an admirer of Simon de Montfort
that this work has been called a hagiography. He is credited
with the authorship of a chronicle covering the period 1250-
1306; this has been disputed, but the work is printed under
his name by Riley. Another work of his, of not much im-
portance, is a chronicle entitled Recapilulalis brevis de gestis
domini Edwardi, &c. He is probably not the author of other
works commonly attributed to him.
AUTHORITIES. Wilhelmi Rishanger chronica et annales, Rolls
Series, Introduction ed. H. T. Riley; the Narratio de bellis apud
Lewes et Evesham, ed. J. O. Halliwell, Camden Society, 1840.
RISK, hazard, chance of danger or loss, especially the
chance of loss to property or goods which an insurance company
undertakes to make good to the insurer in return for the re-
current payment of a sum called the premium (see INSURANCE).
The word appears late in English, and in the I7th century in
the Fr. form risque or It. risco or risgo, for risico, risigo; cf.
Sp. riesgo. The Med. Lat. riscus, rischium, and risicum are
found, according to Du Cange (Gloss., qq.v.), as early as the
I3th century. Skeat (Etym. Diet., 1910) accepts Diez's sugges-
tion that the word is originally a sailor's term, and is to be
referred to Sp. risco, a steep rock, from Lat. resecare, to cut
back, shut off; thus Sp. arriesgar, to run into danger, means
literally " to go against a rock."
RIST, JOHANN VON (1607-1667), German poet, was born
at Ottensen in Holstein on the 8th of March 1607; the son of
the Lutheran pastor of that place. He received his early
training in Hamburg and Bremen; after studying theology
at Rinteln and Rostock, he became in 1633 private tutor in a
family of Heide, and two years later (1635) was appointed
pastor of the village of Wedel on the Elbe, where he laboured
until his death on the 3ist of August 1667. Rist first made his
name known to the literary world by a drama, Perseus (1634),
which he wrote while at Heide, and in the next succeeding
years he produced a number of dramatic works of which the
allegory Das friedewiinschende TeutsMand (1647) and Das
friedejauchzends Teutschland (1653) (new ed. of both by H. M.
Schletterer, 1864) are the most interesting. Rist soon became
the central figure in a school of minor poets, and honours were
showered upon him from every side. The emperor Ferdinand
III. crowned him laureate in 1644, ennobled him in 1653, and
invested him with the dignity of a Count Palatine, an honour
which enabled him to crown, and to gain numerous poets for
the Elbschwanen order, a literary and poetical society which
he founded in 1656. He had already, in 1645, been admitted,
under the name " Daphnis aus Cimbrien," to the literary order
of Pegnitz, and in 1647 he became, as " Der Rustige," a member
of the Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft. It is, however, as a writer
of church hymns (see HYMNS) that Rist is best known to fame.
Among these several are still retained in the evangelical hymn
book: e.g. O Eivigkeit, du Donnerwort and Ermunt're dich,
mein schwacher Geist. Collections of his poems appeared
under the titles Musa Teutonica (1634) and Himmlische Lieder
(1643)-
Selections of Rist's writings have been published by W. Miiller
in vol. viii. of his Bibliothek deutscher Dichter des 17. Jahrh. (1822-
1838), and by K. Goedeke and E. Goeze (1885). See T. Hansen,
Johann Rist und seine Zeit (1872); K. T. Gaedertz, J. Rist als
niederdeutscher Dramatiker (Jahrb.f. niederdeutsche Sprache, vol. vii.,
1881); and M. von Waldberg's article in the Allg. deutsche Bio-
graphie.
RISTITCH (or RISTICH), JOVAN (1831-1899), Servian states-
man, was born at Kragugevats in 1831. He was educated at
Belgrade, Heidelberg, Berlin and Paris. After failing to
obtain a professorship in the high school of Belgrade, he was
appointed in 1861 Servian diplomatic agent at Constantinople.
His reputation was enhanced by the series of negotiations
which ended in the withdrawal of the Turkish troops from
the Servian fortresses in 1867. On his return from Constanti-
nople he was offered a ministerial post by Prince Michael, who
described him as " his right arm," but declined office, being
opposed to the reactionary methods adopted by the prince's
government. He had already become the recognized leader
of the Liberal party. After the assassination of Prince
Michael in 1868, he was nominated member of the council of
regency, and on the 2nd January 1869 the first Servian con-
stitution, which was mainly his creation, was promulgated.
When Prince Milan attained his majority in 1872, Ristitch
became foreign minister; a few months later he was appointed
prime minister, but resigned in the following autumn (1873).
He again became prime minister in April 1876, and conducted
the two wars against Turkey (July i87O-March 1877 and
December i877-March 1878). At the congress of Berlin he
laboured with some success to obtain greater advantages for
Servia than had been accorded to her by the treaty of San
Stefano. The provisions of the treaty of Berlin, however,
disappointed the Servians, owing to the obstacles now raised
to the realization of the national programme; the Ristitch
government became unpopular, and resigned in 1880. In
1887 King Milan (who had assumed the royal title in 1882),
alarmed at the threatening attitude of the Radical party,
recalled Ristitch to power at the bead of a coalition cabinet;
a new constitution x was granted in 1888, and in the following
year the king abdicated in favour of his son, Prince Alexander.
Ristitch now became head of a council of regency, entrusted
with power during the minority of the young king, and a
Radical ministry was formed. In 1892, however, Ristitch
transferred the government to the Liberal party, with which
he had always been connected. This step and the subsequent
RISTORI RITSCHL, A.
367
conduct of the Liberal politicians caused serious discontent in
the country. On the ist (i3th) of April 1893 King Alexander,
by a successful stratagem, imprisoned the regents and ministers
in the palace, and, declaring himself of age, recalled the
Radicals to office. Ristitch now retired into private life.
He died at Belgrade on 4th September 1899. Though cautious
and deliberate by temperament, he was a man of strong will
and firm character. He was the author of two published
works: The External Relations of Servia from 1848 to 1867
(Belgrade, 1887) and A Diplomatic History of Servia (Belgrade,
1896). 0- D. B.)
RISTORI, ADELAIDE (1822-1906), Italian actress, was born
at Cividale del Friuli on the 3oth of January 1822, the daughter
of strolling players. As a child she appeared upon the stage,
and at fourteen made her first success as Francesca da Rimini in
Silvio Pellico's tragedy. She was eighteen when for the first
time she played Mary Stuart in an Italian version of Schiller's
play. She had been a member of the Sardinian company and
also of the Ducal company at Parma for some years before her
marriage (1846) to the marchese Giuliano Capranica del Grille
(d. 1861); and after a short retirement she returned to the stage
and played regularly in Turin and the provinces. It was not
until 1855 that she paid her first professional visit to Paris, where
the part of Francesca was chosen for her debut. In this she was
rather coldly received, but she took Paris by storm in the title
r61e of Alfieri's Myrrha. Furious partisanship was aroused by
the appearance of a rival to the great Rachel. Paris was divided
into two camps of opinion. Humble playgoers fought at gallery
doors over the merits of their respective favourites. The two
famous women never actually met, but the French actress seems
to have been convinced that Ristori had no feelings towards her
but those of admiration and respect. A tour in other countries
was followed (1856) by a fresh visit to Paris, when Ristori
appeared in Montanelli's Italian translation of Legouve's Medea.
She repeated her success in this in London. In 1857 she visited
Madrid, playing in Spanish to enthusiastic audiences, and in 1866
she paid the first of four visits to the United States, where she
won much applause, particularly in Giacometti's Elizabeth, an
Italian study of the English sovereign. She finally retired from
professional life in 1885, and died on the gth of October 1906
in Rome. She left a son, the marchese Georgio Capranica del
Grillo. Her Studies and Memoirs (1888) provide a lively account
of an interesting career, and are particularly valuable for the
chapters devoted to the psychological explanation of the
characters of Mary Stuart, Elizabeth, Myrrha, Phaedra and
Lady Macbeth, in her interpretation of which Ristori com-
bined high dramatic instinct with the keenest and most critical
intellectual study.
See also Kate Field, Adelaide Ristori: A Biography (New York,
1867) ; E. Peron Kingston, Adelaide Ristori: A Sketch of her Life
(1856); Daily Telegraph (London, Oct. 10, 1906).
RITCHIE, CHARLES THOMSON RITCHIE, IST BARON
(1838-1906), English politician, was born at Dundee, and
educated at the City of London school. He went into business,
and in 1874 was returned to parliament as Conservative member
for the Tower Hamlets. In 1885 he was made secretary to the
Admiralty, and from 1886 to 1892 president of the Local Govern-
ment Board, in Lord Salisbury's administration, sitting as
member for St George's in the East. He was responsible for the
Local Government Act of 1888, instituting the county councils;
and a large section of the Conservative party always owed him a
grudge for having originated the London County Council. In
Lord Salisbury's later ministries, as member for Croydon, he was
president of the Board of Trade (1895-1900), and home secretary
(1895-1900); and when Sir Michael Hicks-Beach retired in 1902,
he became chancellor of the exchequer in Mr Balfour's cabinet.
Though in his earlier years he had been a " fair-trader," he was
strongly opposed to Mr Chamberlain's movement for a pre-
ferential tariff (see the articles on BALFOUR, A. J., and CHAMBER-
LAIN, J.), and he resigned office in September 1903. In December
1905 he was created a peer, but he was in ill-health, and he died
at Biarritz on the 9th of January 1906.
RITCHIE, DAVID GEORGE (1853-1903), Scottish philosopher,
was born at Jedburgh, son of the Rev. George Ritchie, D.D.
He had a distinguished university career at Edinburgh, and
Balliol College, Oxford, and after being fellow of Jesus and tutor
of Balliol was elected professor of logic and metaphysics at St
Andrews. He was president of the Aristotelian Society in 1898.
Among his works are: Darwinism and Politics (1889); Prin-
ciples of Stale Interference (1891); Darwin and Hegel (1893);
Natural Rights (1895); a translation with R. Lodge and P. E.
Matheson of Bluntschli's Theory of the State (1885) ; many articles
in Mind, Philosophical Review, &c. His Philosophical Studies
was edited with a memoir by R. Latta (1005).
RITSCHL, ALBRECHT (1822-1889), German theologian,
was born at Berlin on the 25th of March 1822. His father,
Georg Karl Benjamin Ritschl (1783-1858), became in 1810
pastor at the church of St Mary in Berlin, and from 1827 to 1854
was general superintendent and evangelical bishop of Pomerania.
Albrecht Ritschl studied at Bonn, Halle, Heidelberg and
Tubingen. At Halle he came under Hegelian influences through
the teaching of Julius Schaller (1810-1868) and J. H. Erdmann
(b. 1805). In 1845 he was entirely captivated by the Tubingen
school, and in his work Das Evangelium Marcions und das
kanonische Evangelium des Lukas, published in 1846, he appears
as a disciple of F. C. Baur. This did not last long with him,
however, for the second edition (1857) of his most important
work, on the origin of the old Catholic Church (Die Entstehung
der alt-kathol. Kirche), shows considerable divergence from
the first edition (1850), and reveals an entire emancipation
from F. C. Baur's method. Ritschl was professor of theology
at Bonn (extraordinarius 1852; ordinarius 1859) and Gottingen
(1864; Consistorialrath also in 1874), his addresses on religion
delivered at the latter university snowing the impression made
upon his mind by his enthusiastic studies of Kant and Schleier-
macher. Finally, in 1864, came the influence of Rudolf Lotze.
He wrote a large work on the Christian doctrine of justification
and atonement, Die Christliche Lehre von der Rechtfertigung und
Versohnung, published during the years 1870-74, and in 1880-86
a history of pietism (Die Geschichte des Pietismus). His system
of theology is contained in the former. He died at Gottingen
on the 2oth of March 1889.
His son, OTTO RITSCHL (b. 1860), after studying at Gottingen,
Bonn and Giessen, became professor at Kiel (extraordinarius)
in 1889 and afterwards at Bonn (extraordinarius 1894; or-
dinarius 1897). He has published, amongst other works,
Schleiermachers Stellung zum Christentum in seinen Reden iiber
die Religion (1888), and a Life of his father (2 vols., 1820-96).
Ritschl claims to carry on the work of Luther and Schleier-
macher, especially in ridding faith of the tyranny of scholastic
philosophy. His system shows the influence of Kant's destruc-
tive criticism of the claims of Pure Reason, recognition of the
value of morally conditioned knowledge, and doctrine of the
kingdom of ends; of Schleiermacher's historical treatment
of Christianity, regulative use of the idea of religious fellowship,
emphasis on the importance of religious feeling; and of Lotze's
theory of knowledge and treatment of personality. Ritschl's
work made a profound impression on German thought and
gave a new confidence to German theology, while at the same
time it provoked a storm of hostile criticism: his school has
grown with remarkable rapidity. This is perhaps mainly due
to the bold religious positivism with which he assumes that
spiritual experience is real and that faith has not only a legiti-
mate but even a paramount claim to provide the highest inter-
pretation of the world. The life of trust in God is a fact, not
so much to be explained as to explain everything else. Ritschl's
standpoint is not that of the individual subject. The objective
ground on which he bases his system is the religious experi-
ence of the Christian community. The " immediate object of
theological knowledge is the faith of the community," and
from this positive religious datum theology constructs a " total
view of the world and human life." Thus the essence of
Ritschl's work is systematic theology. Nor does he painfully
work up to his master-category, for it is given in the knowledge
3 68
RITSCHL, F. W.
of Jesus Christ revealed to the community. That God is love
and that the purpose of His love is the moral organization
of humanity in the " Kingdom of God " this idea, with its
immense range of application is applied in Ritschl's initial
datum.
From this vantage-ground Ritschl criticizes the use of Aristotel-
ianism and speculative philosophy in scholastic and Protestant
theology. He holds that such philosophy is too shallow for theology.
Hegelianism attempts to squeeze all life into the categories of
logic: Aristotelianism deals with " things in general " and ignores
the radical distinction between nature and spirit. Neither Hegel-
ianism nor Aristotelianism is " vital " enough to sound the depths
of religious life. Neither conceives " God " as correlative to human
" trust " (cf. Theologie und Metaphysik, esp. p. 8 seq.). But Ritschl's
recoil carries him so far that he is left alone with merely " practical "
experience. " Faith " knows God in His active relation to the
" kingdom," but not at all as " self-existent."
His limitation of theological knowledge to the bounds of human
need might, if logically pressed, run perilously near phenomenalism ;
and his epistemology ( we only know things in their activities ")
does not cover this weakness. In seeking ultimate reality in the
circle of " active conscious sensation," he rules out all " meta-
physic." Indeed, much that is part of normal Christian faith
e.g. the Eternity of the Son is passed over as beyond the range
of his method. Ritschl's theory of "value-judgments" (Werthur-
theile) illustrates this form of agnosticism. Religious judgments of
value determine objects according to their bearing on our moral and
spiritual welfare. They imply a lively sense of radical human
need. This sort of knowledge stands quite apart from that
produced by " theoretic " and " disinterested " judgments. The
former moves in a world of " values," and judges things as they are
related to our " fundamental self-feeling. ' The latter moves in
a world of cause and effect. (N.B. Ritschl appears to confine
Metaphysic to the category of Causality.) The theory as formulated
has such grave ambiguities, that his theology, which, as we have seen,
is wholly based on uncompromising religious realism, has actually
been charged with individualistic subjectivism. If Ritschl had
clearly shown that judgments of value enfold and transform other
types of knowledge, just as the " spiritual man " includes and trans-
figures but does not annihilate the " natural man," then within the
compass of this spiritually conditioned knowledge all other know-
ledge would be seen to have a function and a home. The theory
of value-judgments is part too of his ultra-practical tendency:
both " metaphysic " and " mysticism " are ruthlessly condemned.
Faith-knowledge appears to be wrenched from its bearings and sus-
pended in mid-ocean. Perhaps if he had lived to see the progress
of will-psychology he might have welcomed the hope of a more
spiritual philosophy.
A few instances will illustrate Ritschl's positive systematic theo-
logy. The conception of God as Father is given to the community
in Revelation. He must be regarded in His active relationship to
the " kingdom," as spiritual personality revealed in spiritual pur-
posiveness. His " Love " is His will as directed towards the realiza-
tion of His purpose in the kingdom. His " Righteousness " is His
fidelity to this purpose. With God as " First Cause " or " Moral
Legislator" theology has no concern; nor is it interested in the
" speculative " problems indicated by the traditional doctrine of
the Trinity. " Natural theology " has no value save where it leans
on faith. Again, Christ has for the religious life of the community
the unique value of Founder and Redeemer. He is the perfect
Revelation of God and the Exemplar of true religion. His work in
founding the kingdom was a personal vocation, the spirit of which
He communicates to believers, " thus, as exalted king," sustaining
the life of His Kingdom. His Resurrection is a necessary part of
Christian belief (G. Ecke, pp. 198-99). "Divinity" is a predi-
cate applied by faith to Jesus in His founding and redeeming
activity. We note here that though Ritschl gives Jesus a unique
and unapproachable position in His active relation to the kingdom,
he declines to rise above this relative teaching. The " Two Nature "
problem and the eternal relation of the Son to the Father have no
bearing on experience, and therefore stand outside the range of
theology.
Once more, in the doctrine of sin and redemption, the governing
idea is God's fatherly purpose for His family. Sin is the contra-
diction of that purpose, and guilt is alienation from the family.
Redemption, justification, regeneration, adoption, forgiveness,
reconciliation all mean the same thing the restoration of the
broken family relationship. All depends on the Mediation of
Christ, who maintained the filial relationship even to His death,
and communicates it to the brotherhood of believers. Everything
is defined _ by the idea of the family. The whole apparatus of
" forensic " ideas (law, punishment, satisfaction, &c.) is summarily
rejected as foreign to God's purpose of love. Ritschl is so faithful
to the standpoint of the religious community, that he has nothing
definite to say on many inevitable questions, such as the relation
of God to pagan races. His school, in which J. G. W. Herrmann,
Julius Kaftan and Adolf Harnack are the chief names, diverges
from his teaching in many directions; e.g. Kaftan appreciates the
mystical side of religion, Harnack's criticism is very different from
Ritschl's arbitrary exegesis. They are united on the value of faith-
knowledge as opposed to " metaphysic."
See A. Ritschl, Die Christliche Lehre von der Rechtfertigung
und Versohnung (3rd ed., 1889) ; Unterricht in der Christltchen
Lehre (very many editions) ; and Theologie und Metaphysik (2nd
ed., 1887), give his main position. Many historical and other
works besides. E. Bertrand, Une nouvelle conception de la redemp-
tion. La Doctrine de la justification el de la reconciliation dam le
systeme de Ritschl (1891); H. Schoen, Les Origines historiques de la
theologie de Ritschl (1893); G. Ecke, Die theologische Schule, A.
Ritschl's und die evangelische Kirche der Gegenwart (1897); James
Orr, The Ritschlian Theology and the Evangelical Faith (London,
1898); and A. E. Garvie, The Ritschlian Theology (Edinburgh,
1899), in both of which the bibliography of the movement is given.
Cf. Otto Pfleiderer, Development of Theology in Germany since Kant
(1890). The German literature on the subject is very large; see
article in Herzog-Hauck, vol. xvii.
RITSCHL, FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1806-1876), German
scholar, was born in 1806 in Thuringia. His family, in which
culture and poverty were hereditary, were Protestants who
had migrated several generations earlier from Bohemia.
Ritschl was fortunate in his school training, at a time when
the great reform in the higher schools of Prussia had not yet
been thoroughly carried out. His chief teacher, Spitzner,
a pupil of Gottfried Hermann, divined the boy's genius and
allowed it free growth, applying only so much either of stimulus
or of restraint as was absolutely needful. After a wasted year
at the university of Leipzig, where Hermann stood at the
zenith of his fame, Ritschl passed in 1826 to Halle. Here he
came under the powerful influence of Reisig, a young " Her-
mannianer " with exceptional talent, a fascinating personality
and a rare gift for instilling into his pupils his own ardour for
classical study. The great controversy between the " Realists "
and the " Verbalists " was then at its height, and Ritschl
naturally sided with Hermann against Boeckh. The early
death of Reisig in 1828 did not sever Ritschl from Halle, where
he began his professorial career with a great reputation and
brilliant success, but soon hearers fell away, and the pinch of
poverty compelled his removal to Breslau, where he reached
the rank of " ordinary " professor in 1834, and held other
offices. The great event of Ritschl's life was a sojourn of
nearly a year in Italy (1836-37), spent in libraries and museums,
and more particularly in the laborious examination of the
Ambrosian palimpsest of Plautus at Milan. The remainder
of his life was largely occupied in working out the material then
gathered and the ideas then conceived. Bonn, whither he
removed on his marriage in 1839, and where he remained for
twenty-six years, was the great scene of his activity both as
scholar and as teacher. The philological seminary which he
controlled, although nominally only joint-director with Welcker,
became a veritable officina litterarum, a kind of Isocratean
school of classical study; in it were trained many of the fore-
most scholars of the last forty years. The names of Georg
Curtius, Ihne, Schleicher, Bernays, Ribbeck, Lorenz, Vahlen,
Hiibner, Biicheler, Helbig, Benndorf, Riese, Windisch, who
were his pupils either at Bonn or at Leipzig, attest his fame and
power as a teacher. In 1854 Otto Jahn took the place of the
venerable Welcker at Bonn, and after a time succeeded in
dividing with Ritschl the empire over the philological school
there. The two had been friends, but after gradual estrange-
ment a violent dispute arose between them in 1865, which for
many months divided into two hostile forces the universities
and the press of Germany. Both sides were steeped in fault,
but Ritschl undoubtedly received harsh treatment from the
Prussian government, and pressed his resignation. He ac-
cepted a call to Leipzig, where he died in harness in 1876.
Ritschl's character was strongly marked. The spirited
element in him was^powerful, and to some at times he seemed
overbearing, but his nature was noble at the core; and, though
intolerant of inefficiency and stupidity, he never asserted his
personal claims in any mean or petty way. He was warmly
attached to family and friends, and yearned continually after
sympathy, yet he established real intimacy with only a few.
He had a great faculty for organization, as is shown by his
RITSON RITTER, H.
369
administration of the university library at Bonn, and by the
eight years of labour which carried to success a work of infinite
complexity, the famous Priscae Latinitatis Monumenla Epi-
graphica (Bonn, 1862). This volume presents in admirable
facsimile, with prefatory notices and indexes, the Latin in-
scriptions from the earliest times to the end of the republic.
It forms an introductory volume to the Berlin Corpus Inscrip-
tionum Lalinarum, the excellence of which is largely due to the
precept and example of Ritschl, though he had no hand in the
later volumes. The results of Ritschl's life are mainly gathered
up in a long series of monographs, for the most part of the
highest finish, and rich in ideas which have leavened the
scholarship of the time.
As a scholar, Ritschl was of the lineage of Bentley, to whom
he looked up, like Hermann, with fervent admiration. His
best efforts were spent in studying the languages and literatures
of Greece and Rome, rather than the life of the Greeks and
Romans. He was sometimes, but most unjustly, charged with
taking a narrow view of " Philologie." That he keenly ap-
preciated the importance of ancient institutions and ancient
art both his published papers and the records of his lectures
amply testify. He devoted himself for the most part to the
study of ancient poetry, and in particular of the early Latin
drama. This formed the centre from which his investigations
radiated. Starting from this he ranged over the whole remains
of pre-Ciceronian Latin, and not only analysed but augmented
the sources from which our knowledge of it must come. Before
Ritschl the acquaintance of scholars with early Latin was
so dim and restricted that it would perhaps be hardly an
exaggeration to call him its real discoverer.
To the world in general Ritschl was best known as a student
of Plautus. He cleared away the accretions of ages, and by
efforts of that real genius which goes hand in hand with labour,
brought to light many of the true features of the original. It
is infinitely to be regretted that Ritschl's results were never
combined to form that monumental edition of Plautus of which
he dreamed in his earlier life. Ritschl's examination of the
Plautine MSS. was both laborious and brilliant, and greatly
extended the knowledge of Plautus and of the ancient Latin
drama. Of this, two striking examples may be cited. By
the aid of the Ambrosian palimpsest he recovered the name
T. Maccius Plautus, for the vulgate M. Accius, and proved it
correct by strong extraneous arguments. On the margin of
the Palatine MSS. the marks C and DV continually recur,
and had been variously explained. Ritschl proved that they
meant " Canticum " and " Diverbium," and hence showed
that in the Roman comedy only the conversations in iambic
senarii were not intended for the singing voice. Thus was
brought into strong relief a fact without which there can be no
true appreciation of Plautus, viz. that his plays were comic
operas rather than comic dramas.
In conjectural criticism Ritschl was inferior not only to his
great predecessors but to some of his contemporaries. His
imagination was in this field (but in this field only) hampered
by erudition, and his judgment was unconsciously warped by
the desire to find in his text illustrations of his discoveries.
But still a fair proportion of his textual labours has stood the
test of time, and he rendered immense service by his study of
Plautine metres, a field in which little advance had been made
since the time of Bentley. In this matter Ritschl was aided
by an accomplishment rare (as he himself lamented) in Germany
the art of writing Latin verse.
In spite of the incompleteness, on many sides, of his work
Ritschl must be assigned a place in the history of learning
among a very select few. His studies are presented principally
in his Opuscula collected partly before and partly since his
death. The Trinummus (twice edited) was the only specimen
of his contemplated edition of Plautus which he completed.
The edition has been continued by some of his pupils -Goetz,
Loewe and others.
The facts of Ritschl's life may be best learned from the elaborate
biography by Otto Ribbeck (Leipzig, 1879). An interesting and
discriminating estimate of Ritschl's work is that by Lucian Mueller
(Berlin, 1877). (J. S. R.)
RITSON, JOSEPH (1752-1803), English antiquary, was
born at Stock ton-on-Tees, of a Westmorland yeoman family,
on the 2nd of October 1752. He was educated for the law,
and settled in London as a conveyancer when twenty-two.
He devoted his spare time to literature, and in 1782 published
au attack on Warton's History of English Poetry. The fierce
and insulting tone of his Observations, in which Warton was
treated as a showy pretender, and charged with cheating and
lying to cover his ignorance, made a great sensation in literary
circles. In nearly all the small points with which he dealt
Ritson was in the right, and his corrections have since been
adopted, but the unjustly bitter language of his criticisms roused
great anger at the time, much, it would appear, to Rit son's
delight. In 1783 Johnson and Steevens were assailed in the
same bitter fashion as Warton for their text of Shakespeare.
Bishop Percy was next subjected to a furious onslaught in the
preface to a collection of Ancient Songs (printed 1787, dated
1700, published I7Q2). The only thing that can be said in
extenuation of Ritson's unmatchable acrimony is that he
spared no pains himself to ensure accuracy in the texts of
old songs, ballads and metrical romances which he edited.
His collection of the Robin Hood ballads is perhaps his greatest
single achievement. Scott, who admired his industry and
accuracy in spite of his temper, was almost the only man who
could get on with him. On one occasion, when he called in
Scott's absence, he spoke so rudely to Mrs Scott that Leyden,
who was present, threatened to " thraw his -neck " and throw
him out of the window. Spelling was one of his eccentricities,
his own name being an example: Ritson is short pronunciation
for Richardson. As early as 1796 Ritson showed signs of
mental collapse, and on the icth of September 1803 he became
completely insane, barricaded himself in his chambers at
Gray's Inn, made a bonfire of manuscripts, and was finally
forcibly removed to Hoxton, where he died on the 23rd of the
month.
RITTENHOUSE, DAVID (1732-1796), American astronomer,
was born at Germantown, Pennsylvania, on the 8th of April
1732. First a watchmaker and mechanician he afterwards
became treasurer of Pennsylvania (1777-89), and from 1792 to
1795 director of the U.S. mint (Philadelphia). He was largely
occupied in 1763 and in 1779-86 in settling the boundaries of
several of the states. He was a fellow of the Royal Society of
London, and a member of the American Philosophical Society;
and was elected president of the latter society in 1791. As an
astronomer, Rittenhouse's principal merit is that he introduced
in 1 786 the use of spider lines in the focus of a transit instrument.
His priority with regard to this useful invention was acknow-
ledged by E. Troughton, who brought spider lines into universal
use in astronomical instruments (see von Zach's Monatliche
Correspondenz, vol. ii. p. 215), but Felice Fontana (1730-
1805), professor of physics at the university of Pisa, and
afterwards director of the museum at Florence, had already
anticipated the invention in 1775, though no doubt this fact was
unknown to Rittenhouse. His researches were published in
the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society (1785-
1799). He died at Philadelphia on the 26th of June 1796.
See Memoir (1813) by William Barton.
RITTER, HEINRICH (1791-1869), German philosopher,
was born at Zerbst on the 2ist of November 1791, and died at
Gottingen on the 3rd of February 1869. He studied philosophy
and theology at Gottingen and Berlin until 1815. In 1824
he became extraordinary professor of philosophy at Berlin,
whence he was transferred to Kiel, where he occupied the chair
of philosophy from 1833 to 1837. He then accepted a similar
position at the university of Gottingen, where he remained
till his death. His chief work was a history of philosophy
(Geschichte der Philosophic) published in twelve volumes at
Hamburg from 1829 to 1853. This book is the product of a
wide and thorough knowledge of the subject aided by an
impartial critical faculty, and its value is demonstrated by the
37
RITTER, K. RITUAL
fact that it has been translated into almost all the languages
of Europe. He wrote also accounts of ancient schools of
philosophy, the lonians, the Pythagoreans and the Megarians.
Beside these important historical works, he published a large
number of treatises of which the following may be mentioned:
Versuch zur Verstandigung iiber die neuesle deutsche Philosophic
zeit Kant (1853); Die christliche Philosophic bis auf die
neuesten Zeiten (2 vols., 1858-59), a work which supplemented
the Geschichte; Abriss der philosophischen Logik (1824);
Ueber das Verhaltnis der Philosophic zum Leben (1835);
Historia philosophiae Graeco-Romanae (in collaboration with
Preller, 1838; 7th ed., 1888); Kleine philosophische Schriften
(1839-40); System der Logik und Metaphysik (1856);
Encyklopddie der philosophischen Wissenschaften (1862-64);
Ernest Renan, uber die Naturwissenschaften und die Geschichte
(1865); Ueber das Base und seine Folgen (1869). Of these
latter, the one best known in England is the History of Greek
and Roman Philosophy, which, by reason of the excellence
of its arrangement and its judicious quotations and notes, is
almost indispensable to the student of ancient philosophy.
RITTER, KARL (1779-1859), German geographer, was born
at Quedlinburg on the 7th of August 1779, and died in Berlin
on the 28th of September 1859. His father, a physician, left
his family in straitened circumstances, and Karl was received
into the Schnepfenthal institution then just founded by
Christian Gotthilf Salzmann (1744-1811) for the purpose of
testing his educational theories. The Salzmann system was
practically that of Rousseau; conformity to natural law
and enlightenment were its watchwords; great attention was
given to practical life; and the modern languages were
carefully taught, to the complete exclusion of Latin and Greek.
Ritter already showed geographical aptitude, and when his
schooldays were drawing to a close his future course was
determined by an introduction to Bethmann Hollweg, a banker
in Frankfort. It was arranged that Ritter should become
tutor to Hollweg's children, but that in the meantime he should
attend the university at his patron's expense. His duties as
tutor in the Hollweg family began at Frankfort in 1798 and
continued for fifteen years. The years 1814-19, which he
spent at Gottingen in order still to watch over the welfare
of his pupils, were those in which he began to devote him-
self exclusively to geographical inquiries. He had already
travelled extensively in Europe when in 1817-18 he brought
out his first masterpiece, Die Erdkunde im Verhaltnis zur
Natur und zur Geschichte des Menschen (Berlin, 2 vols., 1817-
1818). In 1819 he became professor of history at Frankfort,
and in 1820 professor extraordinarius of history at Berlin,
where shortly afterwards he began also to lecture at the military
college. He remained in this position till his death. The
second edition of his Erdkunde (1822-58) was conceived on a
much larger scale than the first, but he completed only the
sections on Africa and the various countries of Asia. The
service rendered to geography by Ritter was especially notable
because he brought to his work a new conception of the subject.
Geography was, to use his own expression, a kind of physiology
and comparative anatomy of the earth: rivers, mountains,
glaciers, &c., were so many distinct organs, each with its own
appropriate functions; and, as his physical frame is the basis
of the man, determinative to a large extent of his life, so the
structure of each country is a leading element in the historic
progress of the nation. Moreover, Ritter was a scientific
compiler of the first rank. Among his minor works may be
mentioned Vorhalle europaischer Volkergeschichten vor Herodot
(Berlin, 1820); Die Stupas . . . an der indobaktrischen
Konigsstrasse und die Kolosse von Bamiyan (1838); Einleitung
zur allgemeinen vergleichenden Geographie (Berlin, 1852);
" Bemerkungen iiber Veranschaulichungsmittel raumlicher Ver-
haltnisse bei graphischen Darstellungen durch Form u. Zahl,"
in the Trans, of the Berlin Academy, 1828. After his death selec-
tions from his lectures were published under the titles Geschichte
der Erdkunde (1861), Allgemeine Erdkunde (1862), and Europa
(1863). Several of his works (e.g. the " Palestine " volumes
of his Erdkunde) were translated into English. " Karl Ritter "
foundations were established in his memory at Berlin and
Leipzig, for the furtherance of geographical study.
See G. Kramer, Karl Ritter, ein Lebensbild (Halle, 1864 and 1870;
2nd ed., 1875) ; W. L. Gage, The Life of Karl Ritter (London, 1867) ;
F. Marthe, " Was bedeutet Karl Ritter fiir die Geographie," in
Zeitsch. derGes.f. Erdk. (Berlin, 1879). All Ritter' s works mentioned
above were published at Berlin.
RITUAL (from Lat. ritus, a custom, especially a religious
rite or custom), a term of religion, which may be defined as
the routine of worship. This is a " minimum definition ";
" ritual " at least means so much, but may stand for more.
Without some sort of ritual there could be no organized method
in religious worship. Indeed, viewed in this aspect, ritual is
to religion what habit is to life, and its rationale is similar,
namely, that by bringing subordinate functions under an effort-
less rule it permits undivided attention in regard to vital issues.
This analogy for it is safer to regard such applications of
individual psychology to social phenomena as only analogies
may be carried a step further. Just as the main business of
habit is to secure bodily equilibrium in order to allow free
play to the mental life, so the chief task of routine in religion
is to organize the activities necessary to its stability and con-
tinuance as a social institution, in order that all available
spontaneity and initiative may be directed into spiritual
channels. Such organization will naturally affect far more
than the forms of worship; but these at least, to judge from
the past history of religion, cannot but submit extensively
to its influence. The nature of religion, as the sociologist under-
stands it, is bound up with its congregational character.
In order that inter-subjective relations should be maintained
between fellow-worshippers, the use of one or another set of
conventional symbols is absolutely required; for example,
an intelligible vocabulary of meet expressions, or (since this
is, perhaps, not indispensable) at any rate sounds, sights,
actions and so on, that have come by prescription to signify
the common purpose of the religious society, and the means
taken in common for the realization of that purpose. In this
sense, the term " ritual," as meaning the prescribed ceremonial
routine, is also extended to observances not strictly religious in
character.
But, whilst ritual at least represents routine, it tends, his-
torically speaking, to have a far deeper significance for the
religious consciousness. A recurrent feature of religion, which
many students of its phenomena would even consider constant
and typical, is the attribution of a more or less self-contained
and automatic efficacy to the ritual procedure as such. Before
proceeding to considerations of genesis, it will be convenient
briefly to analyse the notion as it appears in the higher religions.
Two constituent lines of thought may be distinguished. Firstly,
there is the tendency to pass beyond the purely petitionary
attitude which as such can imply no more than the desire,
hope or expectation of divine favour, and to take for granted
the consummation sought, a deity that answers, a grace and
blessing that are communicated. Only when such accomplish-
ment of its end is assumed can efficacy be held to attach to
the act of worship. Secondly, there is the tendency to identify
such a self-accomplishing act of worship with its objective
expression in the ritual that for purposes of mutual under-
standing makes the body of worshippers one.
The Magical Element in Ritual. Exactly similar tendencies
to impute efficacy, and to treat the ritual procedure as the
source of that efficacy are typically characteristic of magic,
and their reappearance in religion can hardly be treated as a
coincidence, seeing that magic and religion would appear to
have much in common, at any rate during the earlier stages
of their development. In magic a suggestion is made orally,
or by dramatic action, or most often in both ways together,
that is held ipso facto to bring about its own accomplishment.
A certain conditionality attaches to the magical operation,
inasmuch as each magician is subject to interference on the
part of other magicians who may neutralize his spell by a
RITUAL
37 1
counter spell of equal or greater power; nevertheless, the in-
trinsic tone is that of a categorical assertion of binding force
and efficacy. Again, in magic the self-realizing force is apt to
seem to reside in the suggestional machinery rather than in the
spiritual qualifications of the magician, though this is by no
means invariably the case. On the whole, however, spells
and ceremonies are wont to be regarded as an inheritable and
transferable property containing efficacy in themselves. And
what is true of magic is equally true of much of primitive, and
even of relatively advanced, religion. Dr J. G. Frazer has
pronounced the following to be marks of a primitive ritual:
negatively, that there are no priests, no temples and no gods
(though he holds that departmental, non-individual " spirits "
are recognized) ; positively, that the rites are magical rather
than propitiatory (The Golden Bough, and ed. ii. 191). If we
leave it an open question whether, instead of " spirits," it
would not be safer to speak of " powers " (to which not a
soul-like nature, but simply a capacity for exercising magic,
is attributed), this characterization may be accepted as apply-
ing to many, if not to all, the rites of primitive religion. Thus
the well-known totemic ceremonies of Central Australia afford
a striking example of rites of a deeply religious import in the
sense that the purpose they embody is that of consecrating
certain functions of the common life (see RELIGION) yet
almost wholly magical in form. They resolve themselves on
analysis into (i) direct acts of magical suggestion, and (2) acts
commemorative of the magical doings of mythical ancestors,
the purport of which may be regarded as indirectly and con-
structively magical, on the principle that in magic to mention
a thing's origin is to control it, to recount another's wonder-
working is to reproduce his power, and so on. It is to be noted,
however, that other Australian rites are found, notably those
that accompany initiation in the south-eastern region, over
which anthropomorphic beings having enough individuality
to rank as " gods " undoubtedly preside; but even here,
though traces of propitiatory worship may be discernible (the
evidence being scanty and conflicting), acts of pure magic
are decidedly to the fore. And what is true of the most
primitive and unreflective forms of cult remains true of more
advanced types which have become relatively self-conscious.
There is little or no felt opposition between processes imply-
ing control and processes of a propitiatory character in the
religion of the Pueblo Indians, which American ethnologists
have been so successful in expounding, or, to mount to a still
higher level, in the Vedic, Assyrian or Egyptian cults. The
leading idea, we may even say, is that expressed so happily
by a character in Kenan's Le Pretre de Nemi: " L'ordre du
monde depend de 1'ordre des rites qu'on observe " (cf. A. Lang,
Myth, Ritual and Religion, 2nd ed. i. 251). As regards the
most developed forms of religion, whilst the old procedure
largely survives unchanged, its original intention is disowned
by theologians, though it may be doubted if the popular mind
is always strong enough to withstand the appeal of prima facie
appearance.
This proneness to impute efficacy to ritual is immensely
reinforced by another social proclivity, more or less distinct in
its ultimate nature, which causes the rite to rank as a divine
ordinance or command. Naturally if the god manifests himself
by means of certain forms, if he is reputed to have founded or
revealed them, or if he has been known to evince displeasure
at departures from them, there is strong reason to think that
such forms are efficacious, and that in a sense of themselves,
namely, by being what they are. At the sociological level
of thought this divine sanction has to be treated as the echo
of a social sanction which ratifies and protects religious
custom. In early society the influence of what Walter Bagehot
(in Physics and Politics, gth ed. p. 102) calls the " persecuting
tendency " in enforcing custom is on the whole not markedly
in evidence. The lact is that imitation in a homogeneous group
produces such unanimity that, with the help of some education,
notably the instruction given at the time of initiation, all non-
conformity is nipped in the bud. Of the Central Australian
ceremonies we read that they " had to be performed in precisely
the same way in which they had been in the Alcheringa (lit.
' dream-time ' = age of mythical tribal ancestors). Everything
was ruled by precedent; to change even the decoration of a per-
former would have been an unheard-of thing; the reply, ' It was so
in the Alcheringa,' was considered as perfectly satisfactory by way
of explanation " (B. Spencer and F. Gillen, The Native Tribes of
Central Australia, 324). Here we perceive the social sanction of
public opinion insensibly merging in a supernatural sanction.
The tribe is a religious partnership with a divine past with which
it would not willingly break. As Mr Lang well puts it, " Ritual
is preserved because it preserves luck " (loc. cit.). Given an
intrinsic sacredness, it is but a step to associate definite gods with
the origin or purpose of a rite, whose interest it thereupon
becomes to punish omissions or innovations by the removal of
their blessing (which is little more than to say that the rite loses
its efficacy), or by the active infliction of disaster on the com-
munity. In the primitive society it is hard to point to any
custom to which sacredness does not in some degree attach, but,
naturally, the more important and solemn the usage, the more
rigid the religious conservatism. Thus there are indications
that in Australia, at the highly sacred ceremony of circumcision,
the fire-stick was employed after stone implements were known;
and we have an exact parallel at a higher level of culture, the
stone implement serving for the same operation when iron is
already in common use (Spencer and Gillen, ib. 401 : cf. E. B.
Tylor, Early History of Mankind, 3rd ed. p. 217).
The Interpretation of Ritual. A valuable truth insisted on by
the late W. Robertson Smith (Religion of the Semites, 17 sqq.)
is that in primitive religion it is ritual that generates and sustains
myth, and not the other way about. Sacred lore of course cannot
be dispensed with; even Australian society, which has hardly
reached the stage of having priests, needs its Oknirabata or
" great instructor " (Spencer and Gillen, ib. 303) . The function of
such an expert, however, is chiefly to hand on mere rules for
the performance of religious acts. If his lore include sacred
histories, it is largely, we may suspect, because the description
and dramatization of the doings of divine persons enter into
ritual as a means of magical control. Similarly, the sacred
books of the religions of middle grade teem with minute prescrip-
tions as to ritual, but are almost destitute of doctrine. Even in
the highest religions, where orthodoxy is the main requirement,
and ritual is held merely to symbolize dogma, there is a remark-
able rigidity about the dogma that is doubtless in large part due
to its association with ritual forms many of them bearing the
most primeval stamp. As regards the symbolic interpretation of
ritual, this is usually held not to be primitive; and it is
doubtless true that an unreflective age is hardly aware of the
difference between " outward sign " and " inward meaning,"
and thinks as it were by means of its eyes. Nevertheless,
it is easier to define fetishism (a fetish " differing from an idol in
that it is worshipped in its own character, not as the symbol,
image or occasional residence of a deity," New English Dictionary,
Oxford, 1901) than it is to bring such a fetishism home to any
savage people, the West African negroes not excluded (cf . A. B .
Ellis, The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Cold Coast of W. Africa,
192). It is the magic power, virtue or grace residing in, and
proceeding from, the material object a power the communica-
bility of which constitutes the whole working hypothesis of
the magico-religious performance that is valued in those cases
where native opinion can be tested. Moreover, it must be
remembered that in the act of magic a symbolic method is
consciously pursued, as witness the very formulas employed:
" As I burn this image, so may the man be consumed," or the
even more explicit, " It is not wax I am scorching; it is the liver,
heart and spleen of So-and-so that I scorch " (W. W. Skeat.
Malay Magic, 570) ,where appearance and reality are distinguished
in order to be mystically reunited. Now it is important to
observe that from the symbol as embodying an imperative to the
symbol as expressing an optative is a transition of meaning that
involves no change of form whatever; and, much as theorists
love to contrast the suggestional and the petitionary attitudes,
372
RITUAL
it is doubtful if the savage does not move quite indifferently to
and fro across the supposed frontier-line between magic and
religion, interspersing " bluff " with blandishment, spell with
genuine prayer. Meanwhile the particular meanings of the
detailed acts composing a complicated piece of ritual soon tend
to lose themselves in a general sense of the efficacy of the rite as a
whole to bring blessing and avert evil. Nay, unintelligibility
is so far from invalidating a sacred practice that it positively
supports it by deepening the characteristic atmosphere of
mystery. Even the higher religions show a lingering predilection
for cabalistic formulas.
Changes in Ritual. Whilst ritual displays an extraordinary
stability, its nature is of course not absolutely rigid; it grows,
alters and decays. As regards its growth, there is hardly a
known tribe without its elaborate body of magico-religious
rites. In the exceptional instances where this feature is
relatively absent (the Masai of E. Africa offer a case in point),
we may suspect a disturbance of tradition due to migration
or some similar cause. Thus there is always a pre-existing
pattern in accordance with which such evolution or invention
as occurs proceeds. Unconscious evolution is perhaps the
more active factor in primitive times; imitation is never exact,
and small variations amount in time to considerable changes.
On the other hand, there is also deliberate innovation. In
Australia councils of the older men are held day by day during
the performance of their ceremonies, at which traditions are
repeated and procedure determined, the effect being mainly
to preserve custom but undoubtedly in part also to alter it.
Moreover, the individual religious genius exercises no small
influence. A man of a more original turn of mind than his
fellows will claim to have had a new ceremony imparted to him
in a vision, and such a ceremony will even be adopted by another
tribe which has no notion of its meaning (Spencer and Gillen,
ib. 272, 278, 281 n.). Meanwhile, since little is dropped whilst
so much is being added, the result is an endless complication
and elaboration of ritual. Side by side with elaboration goes
systematization, more especially when local cults come to be
merged in a wider unity. Thereupon assimilation is likely to
take place to one or another leading type of rite for instance,
sacrifice or prayer. At these higher stages there is more need
than ever for the expert in the shape of the priest, in whose
hands ritual procedure becomes more and more of a conscious
and studied discipline, the naive popular elements being steadily
eliminated, or rather transformed. Not but what the trans-
ference of ritualistic duties to a professional class is often the
signal for slack and mechanical performance, with consequent
decay of ceremonial. The trouble and worry of having to
comply with the endless rules of a too complex system is apt to
operate more widely namely, in the religious society at large
and to produce an endless crop of evasions. Good examples
of these on the part alike of priests and people are afforded by
Toda religion, the degenerate condition of which is expressly
attributed by Dr W. H. R. Rivers to " the over-development
of the ritual aspect of religion" (The Todas, 454-55). It is
interesting to observe that a religion thus atrophied tends to
revert to purely magical practices, the use of the word of power,
and so on (ib. ch. x.). It is to be noted, however, that what
are known as ritual substitutions, though they lend themselves
to purposes of evasion (as in the well-known case of the Chinese
use of paper money at funerals), rest ultimately on a principle
that is absolutely fundamental in magico-religious theory
namely, that what suggests a thing because it is like it or a
part of it becomes that thing when the mystic power is there
to carry the suggestion through.
The Classification of Rites. More than one basis of division
has suggested itself. From the sociological point of view
perhaps the most important distinction in use is that between
public and private rites. Whilst the former essentially belong
to religion as existing to further the common weal, the latter
have from the earliest times an ambiguous character, and
tend to split into those which are licit " sacraments," as they
may be termed and those which are considered anti-social
in tendency, and are consequently put beyond the pale of
religion and assigned to the " black art " of magic. Or the
sociologist may prefer to correlate rites with the forms of social
organization the tribe, the phratry, the clan, the family and
so on. Another interesting contrast (seeing how primary a
function of religion it is to establish a calendar of sacred seasons)
is that between periodic and occasional rites one that to a
certain extent falls into line with the previous dichotomy. A
less fruitful method of classing rites is that which arranges
them according to their inner meaning. As we have seen,
such meaning is usually acquired ex post facto, and typical
forms of rite are used for many different purposes; so that
attempts to differentiate are likely to beget more equivocations
than they clear up. The fact is that comparative religion
must be content to regard all its classifications alike as pieces
of mere scaffolding serving temporary purposes of construction.
Negative Rites. A word must be added on a subject dealt
with elsewhere (see TABOO, GENNA), but strictly germane to the
matter in hand. What have the best, if not the sole, right to
rank as taboos are ritual interdictions (see M. Mauss in L' Annie
sociologique, ix. 249). Taboo, as understood in Polynesia,
the home of the word, is as wide as, and no wider than, religion,
representing one side or aspect of the sacred (see RELIGION).
The very power that can help can also blast if approached
improperly and without due precautions. Taboos are such
precautions, abstinences prompted, not by simple dread or
dislike, but always by some sort of respect as felt towards
that which in other circumstances or in other form has healing
virtue. Thus the negative attitude of the observer of taboo
involves a positive attitude of reverence from which it becomes
in practice scarcely distinguishable. To keep a fast, for instance,
is looked upon as a direct act of worship. It must be noted,
too, that, whereas taboo as at first conceived belongs to the
magico-religious circle of ideas, implying a quasi-physical
transference of sacredness from what has it to one not fit to
receive it, it is very easily reinterpreted as an obligation imposed
by the deity on his worshippers. The law observed by a
primitive religious community abounds in negative precepts,
and if early religion tends to be a religion of fear it is because
the taboo-breaker provides the most palpable objective for
human and divine sanctions. In the higher religions, to be
pure remains amongst the most laudable of aspirations, and,
even though the ceremonial aversion of a former age has be-
come moralized, and a purity of heart set up as the ideal, it
is on " virtues of omission " that stress is apt to be laid, so
that a timorous propriety is too often preferred to a forceful
grappling with the problems of life. There are signs, however,
that the religious consciousness has at length come to appreciate
the fact that the function of routine in religion as elsewhere
is to clear the way for action.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. A comprehensive study of ritual as such from the
comparative standpoint remains yet to be written. Some leading
ideas on the subject are struck out by E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture'
(1903), ch. 18; and A. Lang, Myth, Ritual and Religion 2 (1899);
whilst the whole of J. G. Frazer's vast collection of facts in The
Golden Bough'' (1900) illustrates ritual, more especially on its magical
side; see also W. Robertson Smith, Lectures on the Religion of the
Semites (1889). A very valuable work of restricted range but
embodying a method that might fruitfully be applied to the whole
subject of ritual is H. Hubert and M. Mauss, " Essai sur la nature et
sur la fonctipn du sacrifice" in L'Annee sociologique, ii.; in close
connexion with the above should be studied S. Levi, La Doctrine
du sacrifice dans les Brahmanas (1899); W. Caland and V. Henry,
L'Agnistoma, description complete de la forme normale du sacrifice
de Soma dans le culte vcdique (1906); see also H. Oldenberg, Die
Religion des Veda (1894); A. Hillebrant, Ritual Litteratur: Vedische
Opfer und Zauber (1896). Admirable descriptions of Australian
ritual are to be found in B. Spencer and F. J. Gillen, The Native
Tribes of Central Australia (1899) and The Northern Tribes of Central
Australia (1904). On North American rituals very excellent studies
exist in A. C. Fletcher, "The Hako: A Pawnee Ceremony," in
zznd Report of Bureau of American Ethnology; see also various
papers by the same authoress in Peabody Reports; likewise in J. W.
Fewkes, " Tusayan Katchinas," in Ifth Rep. of B. of A. Eth.; and
id., " Hopi Katchinas," in 2ist Rep.; M. C. Stevenson, "_The Zuni
Indians, in 2$rd Rep.; cf. F. H. Gushing, "Zuni Fetiches," in
2nd Rep. The following works pay special attention to ritual
RITUAL MURDER RIVE-DE-GIER
373
features: L. R. Farnell, The Cults of the Greek States (1896-1907);
A. Moret, Le Rituel du culte divin journalier en Egypte (1902) ; A. de
Marchi II culto private di Roma antica (1902). (R. R. M.)
RITUAL MURDER, a general term for human sacrifice in
connexion with religious ceremonies. False accusations as
to the practice of ritual murder by Jews and Christians have
often been made. " The Christians of the second and third
centuries suffered severely under them " (Strack). Justin
Martyr (150-160) in his Second Apology (ch. 12) vigorously
defends the Christian community against this charge; Octavius,
Minucius Felix, Tertullian, Origen and other Church Fathers
all refer to the subject and indignantly repudiate the atrocious
libel that the Eucharist involved human sacrifice. The myth
was revived against the Montanists, and in the later middle
ages against various sects of heretical Christians. In recent
years the accusation has been again levelled against
" foreigners " during the disturbances in China. The chief
sufferers, however, from the charge were the Jews. The
charge was never coherently defined, but a notion prevailed
that at the Passover Christian blood was used in Jewish rites.
For this belief there is no foundation whatever, as is proved in
the classical treatise 1 on the subject by Hermann L. Strack,
Regius Professor of Theology at Berlin University. The first
occasion on which the medieval Jews were accused of the murder
of a Christian child was at Norwich in 1144. In the following
century other instances of the charge occurred on the Con-
tinent, and by this time (middle of the I3th century) the legend
had grown into a belief that " the Jews of every province
annually decide by lot " which congregation or town is to be
the scene of the mythical murder. It is easy to understand
how in ages when the Jews were everywhere regarded with
superstitious awe, such stories to their detriment would find
ready credence, but the revival of the myth in recent times by
the anti-Semite is a deplorable instance of degeneration. It
is only necessary here to refer to the Lincoln case (1255), the
Trent case (1475) and more recently the Damascus case (1840),
the Tisza-Eszlar affair (1882), the Xanten charge (1891) and
the Polna case (1899). All of these charges sometimes
invented by malicious seceders from the Jewish fold were
followed by spoliation and tragic persecution of the Jews.
On the other hand many Jewish proselytes to Christianity
have strenuously defended the Jews from the charge, among
them may be particularly named Prof. D. Chwolson (Blutan-
klage, 1901). In 1840 a protest against the charge was signed
by 58 Jewish-Christians, the list being headed by M. S. Alex-
ander, Anglican bishop at Jerusalem. Further testimonies
of a similar kind are collected in Strack (op. cit. p. 239). Many
of the popes have issued bulls exonerating the Jews (cf. Strack,
p. 250); similarly temporal princes have often taken a similar
step (ibid. p. 260). Many Christian scholars and ecclesiastics
have felt it their duty to utter protests in favour of the Jews.
Among them have been the most eminent Christian students
of Rabbinism of recent times, e.g. Professors Alexander McCaul,
P. Lagarde, Franz Delitzsch, A. Merx, T. Noldeke, C. Siegfried,
A. Wunsche, G. H. Dalman and J. von Dollinger. A careful
examination of the evidence (with a complete acquittal of
the Jews) is contained in a notable work by a Catholic priest,
F. Frank, Der Rilualmord wr dem Gerichtshofen der Wahrheit
und der Gerechtigkeit (1901, 1902). The literature on the other
side is entirely antisemitic and in no instance has it survived
the ordeal of criticism. The most notorious exponent of the
charge was A. Rohling, the worthlessness of whose writings
on the subject is exposed by (among many others) Strack
(op. cit. pp. 155 seq.).
A list of some of the most "important of the cases is given by
J. Jacob in the Jewish Encyclopedia, iii. 266-67. (I. A.)
RIVA, a fortified district town of Tirol, Austria, near the
Italian frontier. Pop. (1900) 7550. It is a lake port anc
steamship station at th,e northern extremity of the Lago d
Garda. There are two forts on the Monte Brione a little over
1 Das Blut im Glauben und Aberglauben (Eng. trans., The Jew and
Human Sacrifice, London, 1909).
a mile north-east of the town, and the old castle of La Rocca
was reconstructed and extended in accordance with modern
requirements in 1850. The Minorite Church (1603), with
altar pictures by Guido Reni and other Italian painters, is
much frequented as a place of pilgrimage. In addition to its
ransit trade and the entertainment of visitors, the principal
resources of the town are the manufacture of paper, iron wares
and pottery, the cultivation of the silk-worm and the olive
;ree, and a considerable commerce in timber, planks and coal.
Riva is connected with the Ledro valley by a picturesque
road which passes in a series of tunnels and galleries along the
rocky and precipitous west shore of the lake.
RIVAL, one who competes with another, one who strives
:o out-do or excel another or to gain an object or end before
or in preference to another. The Latin rivalis, which was
!n classical Latin used of a competitor in love, meant by de-
rivation one who used the same brook or stream (rivus) as
another, hence a neighbour; thus in the Digest, xliii. 20, i. 26,
" si inter rivales, id est qui per eundem rivum aquam ducunt,
sit contentio de aquae usu." The term naturally applied
more particularly to those who lived on opposite sides of a
stream which would be a frequent subject of dispute as to
rights.
RIVAROL, ANTOINE DE (1753-1801), French writer and
epigrammatist, was born at Bagnols in Languedoc on the
26th of June 1753, and died at Berlin on the nth of April
1801. It seems that his father was an innkeeper but a man
of cultivated tastes. The son assumed the title of comte de
Rivarol, and asserted his connexion with a noble Italian family,
but his enemies said that the name was really Riverot, and
that the family was not noble. After various vicissitudes he
appeared in Paris in 17.77. After winning some academic
prizes, Rivarol distinguished himself in the year 1784 by a
treatise Sur I'universalite de la langite franfaise, and by a
translation of the Inferno. The year before the Revolution
broke out he, with some assistance from a man of similar but
lesser talent, Champcenetz, 2 compiled a lampoon, entitled
Petit Almanack de nos grands hommes pour 1788, in which
some writers of actual or future talent and a great many
nobodies were ridiculed in the most pitiless manner. When
the Revolution developed the importance of the press, Rivarol
at once took up arms on the Royalist side, and wrote in the
Journal politique of Antoine Sabatier de Castres (1742-1817)
and the Actes des Apdtres of Jean Gabriel Peltier (1770-1825).
But he emigrated in 1792, and established himself at Brussels,
whence he removed successively to London, Hamburg and
Berlin. Rivarol has had no rival in France except Piron
in sharp conversational sayings. These were mostly ill-natured,
and mostly have a merely local application. Their brilliancy,
however, can escape no one. His brother, Claude Frangois
(1762-1848), was also an author. His works include Isman,
ou le fatalisme (1795), a novel; Le Veridique (1827), comedy;
550} sur les causes de la revolution }ran$aise (1827).
The works of Antoine de Rivarol were published in five volumes
(Paris, 1805); selections (Paris, 1858) with introductory matter
by Sainte-Beuve and others, and that edited in 1862 (2nd ed., 1880)
by M. de Lescure, may be specified. See also M. de Lescure's
Rivarolet la societe franc.aise pendant la revolution el f emigration
(1882), and Le Breton's Rivarol, sa vie, ses idfes (1895).
RIVE-DE-GIER, a town of east-central France, in the
department of Loire, 14 m. E.N.E. of St Etienne, on the
railway to Lyons. Pop. (1906) 15,338.
Situated on the Gier and the Canal de Givors, it is principally
dependent on the coal industry, giving its name to a coal-
basin which is a continuation of that of St Etienne. It has
glass works, the products of which are celebrated on account
of the fineness and purity of the sand found on the banks of
1 Louis Rene Quantin de Richebourg, Chevalier de Champcenetz
(1760-1794), died on the scaffold. He is not to be confounded with
Louis Pierre, marquis de Champcenetz, governor of the Tuilcries
in 1789, who escaped in 1792 through the protection of Mme. Elliott,
mistress of the due d'Orleans.
374
RIVER RIVER ENGINEERING
the Rhone and the Sa6ne. There are also iron and steel works
where iron goods and ironmongery of all kinds are manufactured.
Rive-de-Gier is a place of some antiquity, as appears from
remains of Gallo-Roman buildings, and mosaics and coins
found at various times. In the time of Henry IV. the working
of the mines had already given to the locality a measure of
importance.
RIVER, any considerable stream of water flowing in a defined
channel. The origin and subsequent formation of rivers and
the valleys along which they flow are considered under
GEOGRAPHY, Principles of Geography, and GEOLOGY, viii.
The word " river " is an adaptation of the 0. Fr. rivere (mod.
riviere), which descends through Med. Lat. rivera, Low. Lat.
riparia, in the sense of river-bank and river, from ripa, bank.
The Latin for a stream or river is rivus, whence rivulas, a small
stream, Eng. " rivulet," which is, therefore, distinct in origin
from " river," though probably the sense of rivus influenced
the Med. Lat. rivera. The etymology of rivus and ripa is
disputed; some scholars refer both to the root ri-, to drop,
flow; others take ripa to be from the root seen hi Gr. epdirtiv,
to tear, English " rive," the sense being a broken cliff or steep
bank.
RIVER BRETHREN, the name of a group of three Christian
communities in the United States of America, descended from
Swiss settlers near the Susquehanna river in Pennsylvania in
1750. The first pastor was Jacob Engle, who became head of
the community in 1770. Their system is based on literal
obedience to the commands of the New Testament, and they
have points of similarity both with the Mennonites and with
the Dunkards. They practise foot-washing and baptism by
trine immersion; are strict Sabbatarians and simple in their
manner of life. The three branches are: (i) The Brethren
in Christ, who are the most, elaborately organized and are
numerous in Ohio, Pennsylvania and Kansas; they have
also formed churches in New York and in Canada, and missions
in South Africa, India and Texas. In 1909 they had 174
ministers, and 65 churches with 3675 communicants. (2) The
Old Order, or Yorker Brethren, consists of a small body which
separated from the main body in 1843 and maintained more
strictly the original practice. They are found specially in
York county, Pennsylvania (whence the name " Yorkers ").
In 1909 they had 24 ministers, 9 churches, and 423 com-
municants. (3) The United Zion's Children date from 1853,
when a small body left the parent communion on minor questions
of administration. They had in 1909 22 ministers and 28
churches with 749 communicants, all in Pennsylvania.
RIVER ENGINEERING. Before undertaking works for the
improvement of rivers, either with the object of mitigating the
effects of their inundations, or for increasing and extending their
capabilities for navigation, it is most important that their
physical characteristics should be investigated in each case, for
these vary greatly in different rivers, being dependent upon the
general configuration of the land, the nature of the surface
strata and the climate of the country which the rivers traverse.
Physical Characteristics of Rivers
The size of rivers above any tidal limit and their average fresh-
water discharge are proportionate to the extent of their basins,
and the amount of rain which, falling over these basins, reaches
the river channels in the bottom of the valleys, by which it is
conveyed to the sea.
River Basins. The basin of a river is the expanse of country,
bounded by a winding ridge of high ground, over which the
rainfall flows down towards the river traversing the lowest part
of the valley; whereas the rain falling on the outer slope of the
encircling ridge flows away to another river draining an adjacent
basin. River basins vary in extent according to the configura-
tion of the country, ranging from the insignificant drainage-areas
of streams rising on high ground very near the coast and flowing
straight down into the sea, up to immense tracts of great con-
tinents, when rivers, rising on the slopes of mountain ranges far
inland, have to traverse vast stretches of valleys and plains before
reaching the ocean. The size of the largest river basin of any
country depends on the extent of the continent in which it is
situated, its position in relation to the hilly regions in which
rivers generally rise and the sea into which they flow, and the
distance between the source and the outlet of the river drain-
ing it.
Great Britain, with its very limited area, cannot possess large
river basins, its largest being that of the Thames with an area of
5244 sq. m. Even on the mainland of Europe, river basins
augment in extent on proceeding eastwards with the increasing
width of the continent; in France the largest basin is that of the
Loire with an area of 45,000 sq. m., while the Rhine has a basin
of 86,000 sq. m. with a length of 800 m., the Danube a basin of
312,000 sq. m. with a length of 1700 m., and the Volga a basin of
563,000 sq. m. with a length of 2000 m. The more extensive
continents of Asia, Africa and North and South America possess
still larger river basins, the Obi in Siberia having a basin of about
1,300,000 sq. m. and a length of 3200 m., the Nile a basin of
1,500,000 sq. m. with a length of over 4000 m., and the Missis-
sippi, flowing from north to south, having a basin of 1,244,000
sq. m. with a length of 4200 m. The vast basin of the Amazon
of 2,250,000 sq. m. is due to the chain of the Andes almost
bordering the Pacific coast-line, so that the river rising on its
eastern slopes has to traverse nearly the whole width of South
America at its broadest part before reaching the Atlantic
Ocean.
Available Rainfall. The rainfall varies considerably in different
localities, both hi its total yearly amount and in its distribution
throughout the year; also its volume fluctuates from year to year.
Even in small river basins the variations in rainfall may be
considerable according to differences in elevation or distance from
the sea, ranging, for instance, in the Severn basin, with an area of
only 4350 sq. m., from an average of under 30 in. in the year to
over 80 in. The proportion, moreover, of the rain falling on a
river basin which actually reaches the river, or the available
rainfall in respect to its flow, depends very largely on the nature
of the surface strata, the slope of the ground and the extent to
which it is covered with vegetation, and varies greatly with
the season of the year. The available rainfall has, indeed, been
found to vary from 75% of the actual rainfall on impermeable,
bare, sloping, rocky strata, down to about 15% on flat, very
permeable soils.
Fall of Rivers. The rate of flow of rivers depends mainly upon
their fall, though where two rivers of different sizes have the
same fall, the larger river has the quicker flow, as its retardation
by friction against its bed and banks is less in proportion to its
volume than that of the smaller river. The fall of a river corre-
sponds approximately to the slope of the country it traverses;
and as rivers rise close to the highest part of their basins, gener-
ally in hilly regions, their fall is rapid near their source and
gradually diminishes, with occasional irregularities, till, in tra-
versing plains along the latter part of their course, their fall
usually becomes quite gentle. Accordingly, in large basins,
rivers in most cases begin as torrents with a very variable flow,
and end as gently flowing rivers with a comparatively regular
discharge.
Variations in the Discharge of Rivers. The irregular flow of
rivers throughout their course forms one of the main difficulties
in devising works, either for mitigating inundations or for
increasing the navigable capabilities of rivers. In tropical
countries, subject to periodical rains, the rivers are in flood during
the rainy season and have hardly any flow during the rest of the
year; whilst in temperate regions, where the rainfall is more
evenly distributed throughout the^year, evaporation causes the
available rainfall to be much less in hot summer weather than in
the winter months, eo that the rivers fall to their low stage in the
summer and are very liable to be in flood in the winter. In fact,
with a temperate climate, the year may be divided into a warm
and a cold season, extending from May to October and from
November to April respectively; the rivers are low and moderate
floods are of rare occurrence during the first period, and the
rivers are high and subject to occasional heavy floods after a
RIVER ENGINEERING
375
considerable rainfall during the second period in most years.
The only exceptions are rivers which have their sources amongst
mountains clad with perpetual snow, and are fed by glaciers;
their floods occur in the summer from the melting of the snows
and ice, as exemplified by the Rhone above the Lake of Geneva,
and the Arve which joins it below. But even these rivers are
liable to have their flow modified by the influx of tributaries
subject to different conditions, so that the Rhone below Lyons
has a more uniform discharge than most rivers, as the summer
floods of the Arve are counteracted to a great extent by the low
stage of the Saone flowing into the Rhone at Lyons, which has
its floods in the winter when the Arve on the contrary* is low.
Transportation of Materials by Rivers. Another serious ob-
stacle encountered in the improvement of rivers consists in the
large quantity of detritus brought down by them in flood-time,
derived mainly from the disintegration of the surface-layers of
the hills and slopes in the upper parts of the valleys by glaciers,
frost and rain. The power of a current to transport materials
varies with its velocity, so that torrents with a rapid fall near the
sources of rivers can carry down rocks, boulders and large stones,
which are by degrees ground by attrition in their onward course
into shingle, gravel, sand and silt, simultaneously with the gradual
reduction in fall, and, consequently, in the transporting force of
the current. Accordingly, under ordinary conditions, most of
the materials brought down from the high lands by the torrential
water-courses are carried forward by the main river to the sea, or
partially strewn over flat alluvial plains during floods; and the
size of the materials forming the bed of the river or borne along
by the stream is gradually reduced on proceeding seawards, so
that in the Po, for instance, pebbles and gravel are found for
about 140 m. below Turin, sand along the next 100 m., and
silt and mud in the last no m. When, however, the fall is
largely and abruptly reduced, as in the case of rivers emerging
straight from mountainous slopes upon flat plains, deposit
necessarily occurs, from the materials being either too large or
too great in volume to be borne along by the enfeebled current ;
and if the impeded river is unable to spread this detritus over the
plains, its bed becomes raised by deposit, causing the river in
flood-time to rise to a higher level. The materials, moreover,
which are carried in suspension or rolled along the bed of the
river to the sea, tend to deposit when the flow of the river
slackens and is finally brought to rest on encountering the great
inert mass of the sea, especially in the absence of a tide and any
littoral current, and this is the cause of the formation of deltas
with their shallow outlets, barring the approach to many large
rivers.
Influence of Lakes on Rivers. Sometimes a peculiar depression
along part of a valley, with a rocky barrier at its lower end,
causes the formation of a lake in the course of the river flowing
down the valley. The intervention of a lake makes the river,
on entering at the upper end, deposit all the materials with which
it is charged in the still waters of the lake; and it issues at the
lower end as a perfectly clear stream, which has also a very
regular discharge, as its floods, in flowing into the lake, are
spread over a large surface, and so produce only a very slight
raising of the level. This effect is illustrated by the river
Rhone, which enters the Lake of Geneva as a very turbid,
torrential, glacier stream, and emerges at Geneva as a sparkling,
limpid river with a very uniform flow, though in this particular
case the improvement is not long maintained, owing to the
confluence a short distance below Geneva of the large, rapid,
glacial river, the Arve.
The influence of lakes on rivers is, indeed, wholly beneficial,
in consequence of the removal of their burden of detritus and
the regulation of their flow. Thus the Neva, conveying the
outflow from Lake Ladoga to the Baltic, is relieved by the
lake from the detritus brought down by the rivers flowing into
the lake; and the Swine outlet channel of the Oder into the
Baltic is freed from sediment by the river having to pass through
the Stettiner Haff before reaching its mouth. The St Lawrence,
again, deriving most of its supply from the chain of Great Lakes
of North America, possesses a very uniform flow.
River Channels. The discharge of the rainfall erodes the
beds of rivers along the lowest parts of the valleys; but floods
occur too intermittently to form and maintain a channel large
enough to contain the flow. A river channel, indeed, generally
suffices approximately to carry off the average flow of the river,
which, whilst comprising considerable fluctuations in volume,
furnishes a sufficiently constant erosive action to maintain a
fairly regular channel; though rivers having soft beds and
carrying down sediment erode their beds during floods and
deposit alluvium in dry weather. As the velocity of a stream
increases with its fall, the size of a channel conveying a definite
average flow varies inversely with the fall, and the depth
inversely with the width. A river channel, accordingly, often
presents considerable irregularities in section, forming shallow
rapids when the river flows over a rocky barrier with a con-
siderable fall, and consisting of a succession of pools and shoals
when the bed varies in compactness and there are differences
in width, or when the river flows round a succession of bends
along opposite banks alternately.
A river flowing through a flat alluvial plain has its current
very readily deflected by any chance obstruction or by any
difference in hardness of the banks, and generally follows a
winding course, which tends to be intensified by the erosion
of the concave banks in the bends from the current impinging
against them in altering its direction round the curves. Some-
times also a large river, bringing down a considerable amount
of detritus, shifts its course from time to time, owing to the
obstruction produced by banks of deposit, as exemplified by
the Po in traversing the portion of the Lombardy plains between
Casale and the confluence of the Ticino.
Floods of Rivers. The rise of rivers in flood-time depends
not merely on the amount of the rainfall, but also on its dis-
tribution and the nature of the strata on which it falls. The
upper hilly part of a river basin consists generally of imperme-
able strata, sometimes almost bare of vegetation; and the
rain flowing quickly down the impervious, sloping ground
into the water-courses and tributaries feeding the main river
produces rapidly rising and high floods in these streams, which
soon pass down on the cessation of the rain. The river Marne,
draining an impermeable part of the Upper Seine basin, is
subject to these sudden torrential floods in the cold season,
as illustrated by a diagram of the variations in height of the
river at St Dizier from November to March 1903-4 (fig. 2).
On the contrary, rain falling on permeable strata takes longer
in reaching the rivers; and the floods of these rivers rise more
gradually, are less high, continue longer and subside more
slowly than in rivers draining impervious Strata, as indicated
by the diagram of the Little Seine at Nogent during the same
period, which has a permeable basin (fig. i). A main river
fed by several tributaries, some from impermeable and others
from permeable strata, experiences floods of a mixed character,
as shown by the diagram of the same floods in 1903-4 of the
Seine at Paris, below the confluence of the torrential Marne
and Yonne, where the floods of the gently flowing Upper Seine
and other tributaries with permeable basins also contribute to
the rise of the river (fig. 3).
High floods are caused by a heavy rainfall on land already
sodden by recent rains at a period of the year when evaporation
is inactive, and especially by rain falling on melting snow. A
fairly simultaneous rainfall over the greater part of a moderate-
sized river basin is a tolerably common occurrence; and under
such conditions, the floods coming from the torrential tri-
butaries reach their maximum height and begin to subside
before the floods from the gently flowing tributaries attain
their greatest rise. Exceptional floods, accordingly, only occur
in a main river when a heavy rainfall takes place at such
periods over different parts of the basin that the floods of the
various tributaries coincide approximately in attaining their
maximum at certain points in the main river.
Mitigation of Floods and Protection from Inundations. As the
size of the channel of a river is generally quite inadequate
to carry down the discharge of floods, the river overflows its
RIVER ENGINEERING
banks in flood-time and inundates the adjacent low-lying lands
to an extent depending upon the level of the ground and the
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FIG. i. Little Seine at Nogent.
FIG. 2. Marne at St Dizier.
FIG. 3. Seine at Paris.
volume and height of the flood. An enlargement of the bed
of the river, principally by deepening it, in order to increase
its discharging capacity sufficiently to prevent inundations,
is precluded by the cost, and also, in rivers bringing down
sediment, by the large deposit that would take place in the
enlarged channel from the reduction in the velocity of the
current when the flood begins to subside. Where, however,
the depth of a tidal river has been considerably increased by
dredging for the extension of its sea-going trade, the enlarge-
ment of its channel and the lowering of its low-water line
have greatly facilitated the passage of land floods from the
river above for some distance up, and consequently reduced
their height; for instance, the Glasgow quays along the deepened
Clyde are no longer subject to inundation, and the lands and
quays bordering the Tyne have been relieved from flooding
for nearly 10 m. above Newcastle by the deepening of the river
from Elswick to the sea (fig. 18).
Sometimes works are carried out in a river valley for dim-
inishing the height of floods by delaying the discharge of part
of the rainfall into the main river; whilst others are designed
to increase the discharging efficiency of the river channels.
In certain cases, moreover, it is very important to restrict or to
prevent the inundation of some riparian districts by embank-
ments; and occasionally low-lying lands are so unfavourably
situated that pumping has to be resorted to for the removal
of their drainage waters.
Works in River Valleys for diminishing Floods. Rain falling
on bare, impervious, hilly slopes rapidly flows into the nearest
water-course, carrying with it any loose soil or disintegrated
materials met with in its rush down the ravines, thereby in-
tensifying the torrential character of the river, increasing
the height of its floods and adding to the sediment obstructing
its course to the sea. By encouraging the growth of vegetation
and restricting its use for pasturage, and by planting trees on
the mountain slopes, which have often been denuded of their
natural covering by the reckless clearing of forests, the flow
of the rain off the slopes is retarded; the soil, moreover, is
bound together by the roots of the plants, and the surface
strata are protected from disintegration by the covering of
grass and leaves, so that the amount of detritus carried down
into the river is greatly reduced.
Proposals have sometimes been made to reduce the height
of floods in rivers and restrict the resulting inundations by
impounding some of the flood discharge by the construction of
one or more dams across the upper valley of a river, and letting
it out when the flood has passed down. This arrangement,
however, is open to the objection that in the event of a second
flood following rapidly on the first, there might not be time
to empty the reservoir for its reception. The cost, moreover,
of the formation of such reservoirs could rarely be justified
merely far the purpose of reducing' the flood-level along an
ordinary river valley. Nevertheless, when this provision
against floods can be combined with the storage of water-
supply for a town, it becomes financially practicable. Thus
two masonry dams erected across the narrow valley of the
river Furens, a torrential tributary of the Loire, form two
reservoirs for the supply of the town of St Etienne, in which
the water is kept down several feet below the full level in
order to provide for the reception of the surplus flood-waters,
and thereby protect St Etienne from inundation. Storage
reservoirs also, formed solely for water-supply or irrigation,
provided adequate compensation water is discharged from
them during dry weather, are advantageous, like lakes, in
regulating the flow of the river below.
When a river flowing through flat plains has a very small
fall, it requires a proportionately large channel to carry away
the drainage waters of the valley; and, accordingly, the low-
lying lands bordering the river are very subject to inundations
if the rainfall over the higher ground is allowed to flow straight
down into the bottom of the valley. By intercepting, how-
ever, the flow off the high parts of the valley in small channels
excavated along the slopes, termed " catch-water drains,"
the ample fall available from this higher elevation can be
utilized for conveying the flow farther down the valley; and
the congested river is thereby relieved for a certain part of
its length from the rainfall over the higher ground.
Methods of increasing the Discharging Efficiency of River Channels.
The discharging efficiency of a river within the limits of
its bed depends on the fall and the cross-section of the channel.
The only way of increasing the fall is to reduce the length of
the channel by substituting straight cuts for a winding course.
This involves some loss of capacity in the channel as a whole,
and in the case of a large river with a considerable flow it is
very difficult to maintain a straight cut, owing to the tendency
of the current to erode the banks and form again a sinuous
channel. Even if the cut is preserved by protecting the banks,
it is liable to produce changes, shoals and a raising of the
flood-level in the channel just below its termination. Never-
theless, where the available fall is exceptionally small, as in
lands originally reclaimed from the sea, such as the English
fen districts, and where, in consequence, the drainage is in a
great measure artificial, straight channels have been formed
for the rivers; and on account of the importance of preserving
these fertile, low-lying lands from inundation, additional
straight channels have been provided for the discharge of
the rainfall, known as drains in the fens. Except where a
town is exposed to inundations, a considerable modification
of the course of a river and an enlargement of its channel do
not produce a reduction in the damage from its floods com-
mensurate with the expenditure involved.
The removal of obstructions, whether natural or artificial,
from the bed of a river furnishes a simple and efficient means
of increasing the discharging capacity of its channel, and,
consequently, of lowering the height of floods; for every
impediment to the flow, in proportion to its extent, raises the
level of the river above it so as to produce the additional arti-
ficial fall necessary to convey the flow through the restricted
channel, thereby reducing the total available fall. Accidental
obstructions, brought down by floods, such as trunks of trees,
boulders and accumulations of gravel, require to be periodic-
ally removed. In the absence of legal enactments for the
RIVER ENGINEERING
377
conservancy of rivers, numerous obstructions have in many
cases been placed in their channel, such as mining refuse, sluice-
gates for mills, fish-traps, unduly wide piers for bridges and
solid weirs, which impede the flow and raise the flood-level.
Stringent prohibitions with regard to refuse, the enlargement
of sluice-ways and the compulsory raising of their gates for
the passage of floods, the removal of fish-traps which are fre-
quently blocked up by leaves and floating rubbish, a reduction
in the number and width of the piers of bridges when rebuilt,
and the substitution of movable weirs for solid weirs, greatly
facilitate the discharge of a river, and consequently lower its
flood-level.
Prediction of Floods in Rivers. By erecting gauges in a fairly
large river and its tributaries at suitable points, and keeping
continuous records for some time of the heights of the water
at the various stations, the rise of the floods in the different
tributaries, the periods they take in passing down to definite
stations on the main river, and the influence they severally
exercise on the height of the floods at these places, are ascer-
tained. With the help of these records, by observing the
times and heights of the maximum rise of a particular flood
at the stations on the various tributaries, the time of arrival
and height of the top of the flood at any station on the main
river can be predicted with remarkable accuracy two or more
days beforehand. By telegraphing these particulars about a
high flood to places on the lower river, the weir-keepers are
enabled to open fully beforehand the movable weirs for the
passage of the flood, and the riparian inhabitants receive
timely warning of the impending inundation.
Embankments along Rivers to prevent Inundations. Where
portions of a riverside town are situated below the maximum
flood-level, or when it is important to protect land adjoining
a river from inundations, the overflow of the river must be
confined within continuous embankments on both sides. By
placing these embankments somewhat back from the margin
of the river-bed, a wide flood-channel is provided for the dis-
charge of the river directly it overflows its banks, whilst leaving
the natural channel unaltered for the ordinary flow. Low
embankments may be sufficient where only exceptional summer
floods have to be excluded from meadows. Occasionally the
embankments are raised high enough to retain the floods during
most years, whilst provision is made for the escape of the
rare exceptionally high floods at special places in the embank-
ments, where the scour of the issuing current is guarded against,
and the inundation of the neighbouring land is least injurious.
In this manner, the increased cost of embankments raised
above the highest flood-level of rare occurrence is saved, and
the danger of breaches in the banks from an unusually high
flood-rise and rapid flow, with their disastrous effects, is avoided.
Both the above methods afford the advantage of relieving the
embanked channel of some of the sediment deposited in it
by the confined flood-waters, when the surplus flow passes
over the embankments.
When complete protection from inundations is required,
the embankments have to be raised well above the highest
flood-level, after allowing for the additional rise resulting
from the confinement of the flood within the embankments,
instead of spreading over the low-lying land; and they have
to be made perfectly watertight and strong enough to resist
the water-pressure and current of the highest floods. The
system has been very extensively adopted where large tracts
of fertile alluvial land below flood-level stretch for long dis-
tances away from the river. Thus the fens of Lincolnshire,
Cambridgeshire and Norfolk are protected from inundations
by embankments along their rivers and drains; a great portion
of Holland is similarly protected; and the plains of Lombardy
are shut off from the floods of the Po by embankments along
each side of the river for a distance of about 265 m., ex-
tending from Cornale, 89 m. below Turin, to its outlet.
The system has been developed on a very extensive scale along
the alluvial valley of the Mississippi, which is below the high flood-level
of the river from Cape Girardeau, 45 m. above Cairo, to the Gulf
of Mexico, and has a length of 600 m. in a straight line with a
width ranging between 20 and 80 m., and an area of 20,790 sq. m.
These embankments, having been begun by the French settlers in
Louisiana, are called levees, and have a total length of 1490 m.
They, however, do not afford complete protection from inundations,
as they are not quite continuous and are not always strong enough
to withstand the water-pressure of high floods, which have at Vicks-
burg a maximum rise of 59 ft. above the lowest stage of the river,
and tend to increase in height owing to the improved drainage
following on the extension of cultivation. Breaches, or crevasses
as they are termed in the United States, resulting from a deficiency
in the strength or consistency of the banks, or from their being
overtopped or eroded by the current, produce a sudden rush of the
flood-waters through the opening, which is much more damaging
to the jand in the neighbourhood of the breach than a gradual
jnundation. Moreover, the velocity of the outflowing water is
intensified by the sloping down of the land on these alluvial plains
for some distance away from the river, owing to the raising of the
ground nearest the river by the gradual deposit of layers of sediment
from the flood-waters when they begin to overflow the river banks.
The levees on the Mississippi are breached in weak places every year
during the spring floods, and are liable to be destroyed along con-
siderable lengths by the rapid erosion resulting from their being
overtopped by exceptional floods at intervals of about ten years;
and in places they are undermined and overthrown by changes in
the course of the river from the caving-in of concave banks at bends,
necessitating reconstruction some distance back from the river at
points thus threatened. When towns have been established below
the flood-level of an adjoining river, like New Orleans on the
Mississippi and Szegedin on the Theiss in Hungary, the channel of
the river should be improved to facilitate the passage of floods past
the town. The town also must be enclosed within very solid
embankments, raised above the highest possible flood-level, to
obviate the contingency of an exceptional flood, or a gradually
raised flood-level, overtopping the protecting bank at a Tow part,
leading to an inevitable breach and a catastrophe such as overwhelmed
the greater part of Szegedin in March 1879.
Effect of Embankments in raising the River Bed. A most
serious objection to the formation of continuous, high em-
bankments along rivers bringing down considerable quantities
of detritus, especially near a part where their fall has been
abruptly reduced by descending from mountain slopes on to
alluvial plains, is the danger of their bed being raised by deposit,
producing a rise in the flood-level, and necessitating a rais-
ing of the embankments if inundations are to be prevented.
Longitudinal sections of the Po taken in 1874 and 1901 show
that its bed was materially raised in this period from the
confluence of the Ticino to below Caranella, in spite of the
clearance of sediment effected by the rush through breaches;
and therefore the completion of the embankments, together
with their raising, would only eventually aggravate the injuries
of inundations they have been designed to prevent, as the
escape of floods from the raised river must sooner or later
occur.
The periodical devastating floods of the Hwang Ho or Yellow
River in China are due to the raising of the bed of its embanked
channel by detritus brought down from the hills, followed by the
raising of the banks, whereby the river is forced to flow above the
level of the plains. When the river was first embanked, a consider-
able space was left between it and its banks on each side, which
allowed for deviations in the channel, and also afforded a fair area
for the deposit of detritus away from its bed, and a good width for
the discharge of floods. Later, however, in order to appropriate
and bring under regular cultivation the riparian land thus prudently
left within the embankments and exposed to every flooa, lines of
inner embankments were formed close to the river, thereby greatly
confining the flood-waters, and, consequently, raising the flood-level
and the river-bed, besides exposing these embankments to under-
mining by merely a moderate change in position of the river channel.
This reckless policy of securing additional land regardless of con-
sequences has greatly contributed to the more frequent occurrence
of the very widespread inundations resulting from the bursting of
the vast volume of pent-up flood-waters through breaches in the
banks, which descend with torrential violence upon the plains below,
causing great destruction of life and property.
The restriction of the floods on the lower Mississippi by the levees,
placed about double the width apart of the ordinary channel, has
caused the river to enlarge its very soft alluvial bed, resulting in a
lowering of the water-line at the low stage; and it is, therefore,
anticipated that the further scour by floods when the levees have
been made continuous will, in this instance, prevent any material
raising of the flood-level by the levees.
Protection of Vessels during Floods. On large open rivers,
where vessels during high floods are exposed to injury from
378
RIVER ENGINEERING
large floating debris and ice floes, shelter can be provided
for them in refuge ports, formed in a recess at the side under
the protection of a solid jetty or embankment constructed
in the river parallel to the bank, these ports being closed against
floods at their upper end and having their entrance at the
lower end facing down-stream. Many such ports have been
provided on several German and North American rivers;
where the port, being near a town, is lined with quay walls,
it can also be used for river traffic, a plan adopted at the refuge
port on the Main just below Frankfort (fig. 8).
Regulation of Rivers for Navigation.
As rivers flow onward towards the sea, they experience a
considerable diminution in their fall, and a progressive increase
in the basin which they drain, owing to the successive influx
of their various tributaries. Thus gradually their current
becomes more gentle and their discharge larger in volume
and less subject to abrupt variations; and, consequently,
they become more suitable for navigation. Eventually, large
rivers, under favourable conditions, often furnish important
natural highways for inland navigation in the lower portion
of their course, as, for instance, the Rhine, the Danube and
the Mississippi; and works are only required for preventing
changes in the course of the stream, for regulating its depth,
and especially for fixing the low-water channel and concen-
trating the flow in it, so as to increase as far as practicable
the navigable depth at the lowest stage of the water-level.
Regulation works for increasing the navigable capabilities of
rivers can only be advantageously undertaken in large rivers
with a moderate fall and a fair discharge at their lowest stage;
for with a large fall the current presents a great impediment
to up-stream navigation, and there are generally great varia-
tions in water-level, and when the discharge becomes very
small in the dry season it is impossible to maintain a sufficient
depth of water in the low-water channel.
Removal of Shoals. The possibility of securing uniformity of
depth in a river by the lowering of the shoals obstructing the channel
depends upon the nature of the shoals. A soft shoal in the bed of
a river is- due to deposit from a diminution in velocity of flow,
produced by a reduction in fall and by a widening of the channel,
or to a loss in concentration of the scour of the main current in passing
over from one concave bank to the next on the opposite side. The
lowering of such a shoal by dredging merely effects a temporary
deepening, for it soon forms again from the causes which produced
it. The removal, moreover, of the rocky obstructions at rapids,
though increasing the depth and equalizing the flow at these places,
produces a lowering of the river above the rapids by facilitating the
efflux, which may result in the appearance of fresh shoals at the
low stage of the river. Where, however, narrow rocky reefs or
other hard shoals stretch across the bottom of a river and present
obstacles to the erosion by the current of the soft materials forming
the bed of the river above and below, their removal may prove a
permanent improvement by enabling the river to deepen its bed by
natural scour.
The deepening of the bed of a non-tidal river along a considerable
length by dredging merely lowers the water-level of the river during
the low stage; and though this deepening facilitates the passage
of floods in the first instance, it does not constitute a permanent
improvement even in this respect, for the deposit of the detritus
brought down by the river as the floods abate soon restores the
river to its original condition. Nevertheless, where sand-banks
obstruct and divert the low-state channel of a river at its low stage,
as in parts of the Mississippi below Cairo, it has been found possible
before the river has fallen to its lowest level to form a channel
through these sand-banks, with a depth of 9 or 10 ft. and 250 ft.
wide, by suction dredgers, aided by revolving cutters or water-jets
(see DREDGING), which discharge the sand through floating tubes
into a part of the river away from the channel ; and the navigation
can thus be maintained throughout the low stage at a reasonable
cost. Though, however, these channels across the shoals, connect-
ing the deeper parts of the river, can be easily kept open on the
Mississippi till the return of the floods, they are obliterated by the
currents in flood-time, and have to be dredged out again afresh
every year on the abatement of the floods.
Regulation of the Low-Water Channel. The capability of a river to
provide a waterway for navigation during the summer or throughout
the dry season depends upon the depth that can be secured in the
channel at the lowest stage. Owing to the small discharge and
deficiency in scour during this period, it is important to restrict
the width of the low-water channel, and concentrate the flow in it,
and also to fix its position so that, forming the deepest part of the
bed along the line of the strongest current, it may be scoured out
every year by the floods, instead of remaining an undefined and
shifting channel. This is effected by closing subsidiary low-water
channels with dikes across them, and narrowing the channel at the
low stage by low-dipping cross dikes extended from the river banks
down the sfope, and pointing slightly up-stream so as to direct the
water flowing over them into a central channel (figs. 4 and 5).
The contraction also of the channel is often still more effectually
accomplished at some parts, though at a greater cost, by low
Regulation Works.
FIGS. 4 and 5. River Rhone.
FIG. 6. River Rhine.
longitudinal dikes placed along either side of the low-water channel,
some distance forward from the banks but connected with them
generally at intervals by cross dikes at the back to prevent the
current from scouring out a channel behind them during floods
(figs. 4 and 6). By raising these dikes only slightly above the
surface of the bed of the river, except where it is expedient to
produce accretion for closing an old. disused channel or rectifying
the course of the river, the capacity of the channel for discharging
floods is not affected; for the slight obstruction to the flow pro-
duced by the dikes at the sides is fully compensated for by the
deepening of the low-water channel in the central course of the
river.
This system of obtaining a moderate increase in depth during
the low stage of a river, whilst leaving the river quite open for
navigation, has been adopted with satisfactory results on several
large rivers, of which the Rhone, the Rhine and the Mississippi furnish
notable examples. Regulation works were preferred on the Rhone
to canalization from Lyons nearly to its outlet, in spite of its large fall,
which reaches in some places I in 250, on account of the considerable
quantities of shingle and gravel carried down by the river; the
comparative regularity of the discharge, owing to the flow being
derived from tributaries having their floods at different times of
the year, has aided the effects of the works, which have produced
an increase of about 3! ft. in the available navigable depth below
Lyons at the lowest water-level. Owing, however, to the unfavour-
able natural condition of the river, the depth does not exceed 5 ft.
at this stage; and the rapid current forms a serious impediment
to up-stream navigation. The Rhine is much better adapted for
improvement by regulation works than the Rhone, for it has a
basin more than double the area of the Rhone basin, and its fall
does not exceed 3-1 ft. per mile up at Strassburg and 2-5 ft. per
mile through the rocky defile from Bingen to Kaub, and is much
less along most of the length below Strassburg. These works
systematically carried out in wide shallow reaches between the
Dutch frontier and Mainz, aided by dredging where necessary, have
secured a navigable depth at the low stage of the river of 10 ft.
from the frontier to Cologne, 8J ft. from Cologne to Kaub, and
6j ft. through the rocky defile up to Bingen, beyond which the same
depth is maintained up to Phihppsburg, 22j m. above Mannheim.
Works, moreover, are in progress by which it is anticipated that the
minimum depth of 63 ft. will be extended up to Strassburg by 1916.
The Mississippi also, with its extensive basin and its moderate fall
in most parts, is well suited for having its navigable depth increased
RIVER ENGINEERING
379
by regulation works, which have been carried out below St Paul in
shallow and shifting reaches, with the object of obtaining a mini-
mum navigable depth during the low stage of 6 ft. along the upper
river from St Paul to St Louis just below the confluence of the
Missouri, and 8 ft. thence to Cairo at the mouth of the Ohio.
Various materials are used for the regulation works according to
the respective conditions and the materials available in the locality.
On the Rhone below Lyons with its rapid current, the dikes have
been constructed of rubble-stone, consolidated above low water
with concrete. The dikes on the Rhine consist for the most part
of earthwork mounds protected by a layer of rubble-stone or pitch-
ing on the face, with a rubble mound forming the toe exposed to
the current; but occasionally fascines are employed in conjunction
with stone or simple rubble mounds. The dams closing subsidiary
channels on the Mississippi are almost always constructed of fascine
mattresses weighted with stone; but whereas the regulating dikes
on the upper river are usually similar in construction, a common
form for dikes in the United States consists of two parallel rows of
piles filled in between with brushwood or other materials not affected
by water, and protected at the sides from scour by an apron of
fascines and stone. Other forms of dikes sometimes used are
timber cribs filled with stone, single rows of sheet piling, permeable
dikes composed of piles supporting thin curtains of brushwood for
promoting silting at the sides, and occasionally rubble-stone in
places needing special protection.
Protecting and Easing Bends. Unless the concave banks of a river
winding through wide, alluvial plains are protected from the scour
of the current, the increasing curvature presents serious impediments
to navigation, sometimes eventually becoming so intensified that
the river at last makes a short cut for itself across the narrow strip
of land at the base of the loop it has formed. This, however, pro-
duces considerable changes in the channel below, and disturbances
in the navigable depth. Protection, accordingly, of concave banks
is necessary to prevent excessive curvature of the channel and
changes in the course of a river. On the Mississippi the very easily
ordinary summer level has to be raised by impounding the
flow with weirs at intervals across the channel (see WEIR),
while a lock (see CANAL and DOCK) has to be provided alongside
the weir, or in a side channel, to provide for the passage of
vessels (fig. 8). A river is thereby converted into a succession
of fairly level reaches rising in steps up-stream, providing
a comparatively still- water navigation like a canal; but it
differs from a canal in the introduction of weirs for keeping
up the water-level, in the provision for the regular discharge
of the river at the weirs, and in the two sills of the locks being
laid at the same level instead of the upper sill being raised
above the lower one to the extent of the rise at the lock, as
usual on canals. Canalization secures a definite available
depth for navigation; and the discharge of the river generally
is amply sufficient for maintaining the impounded water-
level, as well as providing the necessary water for locking.
The navigation, however, is liable to be stopped during the
descent of high floods, which in many cases rise above the locks
(fig. 7); and it is necessarily arrested in cold climates on all
rivers by long, severe frosts, and especially on the break-up of
the ice.
Instances of Canalized Rivers. Many small rivers, like the Thames
above its tidal limit, have been rendered navigable by canalization,
and several fairly large rivers have thereby provided a good depth
for vessels for considerable distances inland. Thus the canalized
Seine has secured a navigable depth of loj ft. from its tidal limit
up to Paris, a distance of 135 m., and a depth of 6J ft. up to Mon-
tereau, 62 m. higher up. Regulation works for improving the
river Main, from its confluence with the Rhine opposite Mainz up
FRANKFORT.
OFFENBACH.
OKRIFTEL.
KOSTHEIM.
VERTICAL SCALE 1,000
o 50
24MIUS
FIG. 7. Canalized River Main.
eroded banks are protected along their upper, steeper part by stone
pitching or a layer of concrete, and below low-water level by fascine
mattresses weighted with stone, extended a short distance out on
the bed to prevent erosion at the toe. Dikes, also, projecting into
the channel from the banks reduce the curvature of the navigable
channel by pushing the main current into a more central course ;
whilst curved longitudinal dikes placed in the channel in front of
concave banks (figs. 4 and 6) are still more effective in keeping the
current away from the banks, which is sometimes still further pro-
moted by dipping cross dikes in front (fig. 5).
Regulation of Depth. The regulation works at bends, besides
arresting erosion, also reduce the differences in depth at the bends
and the crossings, since they diminish the excessive depth round
the concave banks and deepen the channel along the crossings, by
giving a straighter course to the current and concentrating it
by a reduction in width of the channel between the bends (figs. 4
and 5). Where there are deep pools at intervals in a river, shoals are
always found above them, owing to the increased fall which occurs
in the water line on approaching the pool, to compensate for the very
slight inclination of the water-line in crossing the pool, which serves
for the discharge of the river through the ample cross-section of
this part of the river-bed. These variable depths can be regulated
to some extent by rubble dikes or fascine mattress sills deposited
across the bed of the pool, so as to reduce its excessive depth, but not
raised high enough to interfere at all with the navigable depth.
These obstructions in the pool raise the water-line towards its upper
end, in order to provide the additional fall needed to effect the
discharge through the pool with its diminished cross section; and
this raising of the water-line increases the depth over the shoal
above the pool, so that the general depth in these irregular parts
of a river is rendered more uniform, with benefit to navigation.
Canalization of Rivers.
Rivers whose discharge is liable to become quite small at
their low stage, or which have a somewhat large fall, as is
usual in the upper part of rivers, cannot be given an adequate
depth for navigation by regulation works alone; and their
to Frankfort, having failed to secure a minimum depth of 3 ft.
at the low stage of the river, canalization works were carried out in
1883-86 by means of five weirs in the 22 m. between the Rhine and
Frankfort, and provided a minimum depth of 6J ft. (figs. 7 and 8).
FIG. 8. Locks, Weir and Haven near Frankfort.
This depth was subsequently increased by dredging the shoaler
portion towards the upper end of each reach, due to the rise of the
river-bed up-stream, so as to attain a minimum depth of ^\ ft. just
below the lowest lock, and 7f to 8J ft. in the other reaches: whilst
a sixth weir was erected at Offenbarh above Frankfort (fig. 7).
The Great Kanawha, Ohio, and other rivers, furnish instances of
canalization works in the United States.
Limits to Canalization. On ascending a river it becomes increas-
ingly difficult to obtain a good depth by canalization in the upper
part, owing to the progressive inclination of the river-bed ; thus, even
on the Seine, with its moderate fall, whereas a depth of loj ft. has
been obtained on the Lower Seine by weirs placed on the average
I3J m. apart, on the Upper Seine weirs are required at intervals of
only about 4! m. to attain a depth of 6J ft. Accordingly, the
higher parts of rivers are only suitable for floating down trunks of
trees felled on the hills, or rough rafts of timber, conveying small
loads of produce, which are broken uo on reaching their destination.
Moreover, sometimes an abrupt fall or rocky shoals make it necessary
to abandon a section of the nver and to continue the navigation by
lateral canal.
Small River Outlets exposed to Littoral Drift.
Rivers with a small discharge flowing straight into the sea
on an exposed coast are more or less obstructed at their outlet
3 8o
RIVER ENGINEERING
by drift of shingle or sand carried along the coast by the waves
in the direction of the prevailing winds. When the flow falls
very low in dry weather, the outlet of a river is sometimes
completely closed by a continuous line of beach, any inland
or tidal waters merely trickling through the obstruction;
and it is only on the descent of floods that the outlet is opened
out. In rivers which always have a fair fresh- water discharge,
or a small fresh-water flow combined with a tidal flow and ebb,
the channel sometimes has its direct outlet closed, and is
deflected parallel to the shore till it reaches a weak place in
the line of beach, through which a new outlet is formed; or,
where the current is strong enough to keep the outlet open,
a bar is formed across the entrance by the littoral drift, reducing
the navigable depth.
Jetties at River Outlets. The bar formed by littoral drift across
the outlet of a river not charged with sediment and flowing into a
tideless sea can be lowered by carrying out solid jetties on each side
of the outlet across the foreshore, so as to scour the bar by con-
centrating the issuing current
over it. Thus by means of
jetties, aided by dredging, the
depth at the entrance to the
Swine mouth of the Oder has
been increased from 7 ft. to
22j ft. ; the approach channels
to the river Pernau (fig. q) and
other Russian rivers flowing
into the Baltic have been
deepened by jetties, and the
outlet channels of some of the
rivers flowing into the Great
Lakes of North America have
been improved by crib-work
jetties and dredging.
Where the littoral drift is
powerful enough to divert the
outlet of a river, as in the case
of the river Yare, which at one
time was driven to an outlet
$ m. south of its direct course
into the sea at Yarmouth, and
the river Adour in France,
whose outlet, owing to the
FIG. 9.-
-Jetty Outlet into Baltic :
River Pernau.
violent storms of the Bay of Biscay, was liable to be shifted 18 m.
from its proper position, it has proved practicable to fix as well as
to deepen the outlet by means of jetties (fig. 10). In such cases,
F.TIpoo o Sooo la/BOoFI
FIG. 10. Shifting Outlet, fixed by Jetties: River Yare.
however, where the rivers flow into tidal seas, it is important to
place the jetties sufficiently apart to avoid any loss of tidal influx,
since the tidal flow assists the fresh-water discharge in keeping the
outlet open; whereas, with rivers flowing into tideless seas, a
moderate restriction of the width between the jetties increases the
scour. The tortuous and somewhat shifting outlet channel of the
Scheur branch of the river Maas, emerging on to a sandy coast
where the rise of tide is small, and obstructed at its mouth by a
bar, has been replaced by a straight cut across the Hook of Holland,
and by an outlet guided across the foreshore and fixed in position
by fascine mattress jetties (see JETTY), the maintenance of the
depth at the mouth by the tidal and fresh waters being aided by
frequent dredging (figs. II and 12).
Deltaic Outlets of Tideless Rivers.
Large rivers heavily charged with sand and silt, when their
current is gradually arrested on entering a tideless sea,
deposit these materials as a constantly advancing fan-shaped
shoal in front of their mouths, through which comparatively
shallow diverging channels, almost devoid of fall, have to
force their way in order to convey the fresh-water discharge
HlLU. 74alO
FIGS. II and 12. Jetty Outlet into North Sea: River Maas.
into the sea (fig. 13). These deltaic channels deposit their
burden of sediment in front of their outlets, forming bars which
MILCS.S
to MILES.
FIG. 13. Mississippi Delta.
advance with the delta and whose rate of progress seawards
and distance in front of each outlet are proportionate to the
discharge of the several channels. A channel simply dredged
on the bar in front of one of the outlets of a deltaic river is
only maintained for a moderate period on account of the large
volume of deposit continually accumulating at the outlet.
Thus the channel in front of the outlet of the south-west pass
of the Mississippi delta, when deepened from 13 ft. to 18 ft.
over its bar by dredging many years ago, was soon silted up
again on the discontinuance of the dredging; whilst the depth
of the outlet channel of one of the branches of the Volga delta,
which was increased from 4 ft. to 8 ft., could only be maintained
by regular yearly dredging.
Parallel Jetties at Delta Outlets. In order to procure and maintain
for some time an adequate deepening across the bar in front of the
outlets of delta channels, recourse has been had to the scour of the
issuing current concentrated and extended out to the bar by parallel
jetties, forming prolongations seawards of the banks of the channel.
The requisite conditions for the success of this system of improve-
ment are a good depth in the sea beyond the bar, allowing of a
considerable deposit of alluvium before the increased depth is
interfered with, and a littoral current carrying a portion of the
alluvium away from the outlet, both of which retard the progression
of the delta in front of the outlet and the inevitable eventual forma-
tion of a new bar farther out. The rate of advance of a delta
depends also on the proportion of solid matter contained in the
river water and on fhe specific gravity and size of the particles of
alluvium discharged into the sea ; for the heavier and coarser materials,
and especially those which are rolled along the bed of the channels,
come first to rest. Moreover, as the larger channels of_a delta
bring down a larger volume of alluvium on account of their larger
discharge, and as their bars form farther seawards from their
outlets owing to the issuing current being less rapidly arrested in
proportion to the volume discharged, the rate of advance of the
RIVER ENGINEERING
delta in front of an outlet is proportionate to the size of the channel,
and the length of the jetties required for lowering the bar by scour
in front of any channel is proportionate to the discharge of the
channel. Consequently, the conditions are more unfavourable for
the improvement of the outlets of the larger delta channels than
of the smaller ones; though, on the other hand, the larger channels
crossing the delta are generally more suitable for navigation on
account of their size, and the natural depth over their bars is greater
owing to the larger discharge.
The discharge of the mam branch of the Rhone, which formerly
flowed into the Mediterranean and the Gulf of Foz through six
. mouths, was in 1852-57 concentrated in the direct eastern
channel by embankments along sides, which closed all the
lateral channels. The entire flow of the river, being thus discharged
through the eastern outlets, increased fora time the depth over its bar
from 4i ft. to 9} ft. ; but as the great volume of alluvium brought
down, including an unusually large proportion of sand rolled along the
bed of the river, was also all discharged through the one outlet, the
bar soon formed again farther out, and naturally advanced with
the delta in front of the outlet more rapidly than formerly when the
deposit was distributed through six divergent mouths. Accordingly,
the very moderate deepening produced by the embankments was
not long maintained, and the average depth over the bar has not
exceeded 6$ ft. for many years past ; the St Louis Canal was con-
structed to provide a deeper outlet for the navigation. 1 This want
of success was due to the selection of an outlet opening on a sheltered,
somewhat shallow bay, instead of a southern outlet discharging into
deep water in the Mediterranean and having a deep littoral current
flowing across it, and also resulted from the closing of all the other
outlets, whereby the whole of the deposit, as well as all the discharge,
was concentrated in front of the badly situated eastern outlet.
The southern Roustan branch was reopened in 1893 to prevent the
silting-up of the outlet of the St Louis Canal.
The Danube traverses its delta in three branches, the northern
one of which, though conveying nearly two-thirds of the discharge
_ . of the river, is unsuitable for improvement owing to its
splitting up along portions of its course into several
channels, and eventually flowing into the sea through twelve
mouths of a small independent delta advancing about 250 ft. annually
across a shallow foreshore. The central Sulina branch was selected
for improvement in 1858 in preference to the southern St George's
branch, which had a more favourably situated outlet and a better
channel through the delta, on account of the much smaller expenditure
required for carrying out jetties to the bar in front of the Sulina
outlet, which was only half the distance from the shore of the bar
of the St George's outlet, owing to the much smaller discharge of
the Sulina branch. 2 The jetties, begun provisionally in 1858 and
subsequently consolidated and somewhat extended, were finally
completed in 1877. They increased the depth over the bar from
an average of about 9 ft. previously to 1858 up to 2oJ ft. in 1873,
which was maintained for many years. In 1893, however, the
increasing draught of vessels rendered a greater depth necessary;
the wide inshore portion of the jetty channel was therefore narrowed
by inner parallel jetties, and a powerful dredger was set to work in
the jetty channel and outside, whereby the depth was increased to
24 ft. in 1897, and was fairly maintained up to 1907, when a second
dredger became necessary to cope with the shoaling. The somewhat
small ratio of sediment to discharge in the Danube, the fineness of the
greater portion of this sediment, its comparatively moderate amount
owing to the small proportion of the discharge flowing through the
Sulina branch, and its partial dispersion by the southerly littoral
current and wave action, have prevented the rapid formation of a
shoal in front of the Sulina outlet. Nevertheless, the lines of sound-
ings are gradually advancing seawards in the line of the outlet
channel, and there are signs of the formation of a new bar farther
out, whilst the deposit to the south by the current and waves has
deflected the deepest channel northwards. Accordingly, a pro-
longation of the jetties will eventually be necessary, notwithstanding
the removal of a portion of the deposit from the outlet channel
by dredging.
The selection of the outlet of the south pass of the Mississippi
delta for improvement by parallel jetties in 187679, in spite of the
. . m south-west pass possessing a larger channel and a better
, . " depth over its bar, was due, as at the Danube, to motives
of economy, as the bar of the south-west pass was twice as
far off from the shore as that of the south pass (fig. 13). There fascine
mattress jetties, weighted with limestone, and with large concrete
blocks at their exposed ends (see JETTY), 2\ and i\ m. long, and
curved slightly southwards at their outer ends to direct the sedi-
ment-bearing current more directly at right angles to the westerly
littoral current, increased the depth of 8 ft. over the bar in 1875
up to 31 ft. between the jetties and out to deep water (fig. 14).
The prolonged current of the river produced by the jetties has, as
at the Sulina outlet, carried the main portion of the heavier sedi-
ment into fairly deep water, so that the greatest advance of the
1 L. F. Vernon-Harcourt, Rivers and Canals, 2nd ed. pp. 187-90,
plate 5, figs. I and 9.
2 Ibid, plate 5, figs. 2, 3, 4 and 10.
foreshore in front of the south pass has occurred in the 7o-ft. line
of soundings, though the shallower soundings have also advanced.
CAJT FT
I
moor JCTTICS.
MIAM LOW TIOI.
o i a 9 MILIS.
FIG. 14. Deltaic Jetty Outlet, South Pass, Mississippi.
The shoaling, however, in the jetty channel necessitated its reduction
in width by mattresses and spurs from 1000 ft. to 600 ft., and also
dredging to maintain the stipulated central depth of 30 ft., and 26 ft
depth for a width of 200 ft., out to deep water; whilst the outer
channel was deflected to the east and narrowed by the alluvium
carried westwards by the littoral current and also deposited in front
of the jetty outlet. Accordingly, dredging has been increasingly
needed to straighten the channel outsioe and maintain its depth
and width ; and since the United States engineers took in hand its
maintenance in 1901, the available depth of the outlet channel has
been increased from 26 ft. up to 28 ft. by extensive suction dredging.
In order to provide for the increasing requirements of sea-going
vessels, the dredging of a channel 35 Ft. deep and 1000 ft. wide,
cut from the large south-west pass outlet to deep water in the gulf,
was begun at the end of 1903; and jetties of fascine mattresses
weighted with stone and concrete blocks have been carried out about
4 and 3 m. respectively from the shore on each side of the outlet
for maintaining the dredged channel ' (fig. 15). These works differ
FT 5,000.
FIG. 15. Deltaic Jetty Outlet, South-West Pass, Mississippi.
from the prior improvement of the south pass in the adoption mainly
of suction dredging for the formation of the channel in place of
scour alone, so that it will be unnecessary to restrict the width of
the jetty channel to secure the desired depth; whilst as the dis-
charge through the south-west pass is rather more than three times
the discharge through the south pass, and the bar is double the
distance seawards of the outlet, the slightly converging jetties, in
continuation of the south-west pass, are placed about 3400 ft.
apart at their outer ends, and have been given about twice the
length of the south pass jetties. As soon as the dredging of the
channel has been completed (which depends on the appropriations
granted by Congress) the south pass will be abandoned, and the
south-west pass will form the navigable approach. Dredging will
be required for preserving the depth of the outlet of the south-west
pass; and when the large volume of sand and other alluvium dis-
charged by the pass accumulates in front sufficiently to begin forming
a bar farther out, an extension of the jetties will be necessary to
maintain the elongated channel free from drift, and extend the
scour, especially in flood-time.
Improvement of Tidal Rivers for Navigation.
Whereas the size of tideless rivers depends wholly on their
fresh-water discharge, the condition of tidal rivers is due to the
configuration of their outlet, the rise of tide at their mouth, the
distance the tide can penetrate inland, and the space available
for its reception. Accordingly, tidal rivers sometimes, even
when possessing a comparatively small fresh-water discharge,
develop under favourable conditions into large rivers in their
lower tidal portion, having a much better natural navigable
channel at high tide than the largest deltaic rivers, as shown
by a comparison of the Thames, the Humber and the Elbe
with the Danube, the Nile and the Mississippi. Tidal water
is, indeed, unlimited in volume; but, unlike the drainage
waters which must be discharged into the sea, it only flows
up rivers where there is a channel and space available for its
* Report of the Chief of Engineers for 1906, pp. 382 and 1296 and
charts.
3 8 2
RIVER ENGINEERING
reception. Consequently, it is possible to exclude the tide by
injudicious works, such as the sluices which were erected long
ago across the fen rivers to secure the low-lying lands from the
inroads of the sea; the tidal influx is also liable to be reduced
by accretion in an estuary resulting from training works. The
great aim, on the contrary, of all tidal river improvement
should be to facilitate to the utmost the flow of the flood-tide
up a river, to remove all obstructions from the channel so as
to render the scouring efficiency of the flood and ebb tides as
great as possible, and by making the tidal flow extend as far up
the river as possible to reduce to a minimum the period of
slack tide when deposit takes place.
Tidal Flow in a River. The progress of the flood-tide up a river
and the corresponding ebb are very clearly shown by a diagram
giving a series of simultaneous tidal lines obtained from simultaneous
observations of the height of the river Hugh during a high spring-
tide in the dry season, taken at intervals at several stations along
the river, and exhibiting on a very distorted scale the actual water-
level of the river at these periods (fig. 16). The steep form assumed
^
"162 MILES "S 75 59 53 35
FIG. 1 6. Simultaneous Tidal Lines: River Hugli.
by the foremost part of the flood-tide lines from the entrance to
beyond Chinsura, attaining a maximum in the neighbourhood of
Konnagar and Chinsura, indicates the existence of a bore, caused
by the sand-banks in the channel obstructing the advance of the
flood-tide, till it has risen sufficiently in height to rush up the river
as a steep, breaking wave, overcoming all obstacles and producing
a sudden reversal of the flow and abrupt rise of the water-level,
as observed on the Severn, the Seine, the Amazon and other rivers.
A bore indicates defects in the tidal condition and the navigable
channel, which can only be reduced by lowering the obstructions
and by the regulation of the river. No tidal river of even moderate
length is ever completely filled by tidal water; for the tide begins
to fall at its mouth before the flood-tide has produced high water
at the tidal limit, as most clearly shown in the case of a long tidal
river by the Hugli tidal diagram. Every improvement of the
channel, however, expedites and increases the filling of the river,
whilst the volume of water admitted at each tide is further augmented
by the additional capacity provided by the greater efflux of the
ebb, as indicated by the lowering of the low-water line.
Deepening Tidal Rivers by Dredging. The improvement of tidal
rivers mainly by dredging is specially applicable to small rivers
which possess a sufficient navigable width, like the Clyde and the
Tyne; for such rivers can be considerably deepened by an amount
of dredging which would be quite inadequate for producing a similar
increase in depth in a large, wide river, with shifting channels.
Both the Clyde below Glasgow and the Tyne below Newcastle were
originally insignificant rivers, almost dry in places at low water of
spring-tides; and the earliest works on both rivers consisted mainly
in regulating their flow and increasing their scour by jetties and
training works. They have, however, been brought to their present
excellent navigable condition almost wholly, since 1840 on the Clyde
and 1861 on the Tyne, by continuous systematic dredging, rendered
financially practicable by the growing importance of their sea-going
traffic. The Clyde has been given a minimum depth of about
22 ft. at low water of spring-tides up to Glasgow, and can admit
vessels of 27 to 28 ft. draught. In the Tyne (figs. 17 and 18), it
was decided in 1902 to provide a minimum dredging depth in the
river channel at low water of 25 ft. from the sea to the docks, of
20 ft. thence to Newcastle and of 18 ft. up to Scotswood, the rise
of spring-tides increasing these depths by 15 ft. In 1906 it was
determined to make the channel 30 ft. deep at low water of spring-
tides from the sea to the docks, and in 1908 to deepen it between
the docks and Newcastle swing bridge from 20 to 25 ft., and also
between the swing bridge and Derwenthaugh from 18 to 25 ft.
The natural scour of these rivers has been so much reduced by such
an exceptional enlargement of their channels that a considerable
amount of dredging will always be required to preserve the depth
attained.
Regulation and Dredging of Tidal Rivers. Considerable improve-
ments in the navigable condition of tidal rivers above their outlet
or estuary can often be effected by regulation works aided by dredg
ing, which ease sharp bends, straighten their course and render
Miiu.ii
FIGS. 17 and 18. Improvement of Tidal River by dredging:
River Tyne.
their channel, depth and flow more uniform. Examples are the
Nervion between Bilbao and its mouth (figs. 19 and 20), and the
FlGS. 19 and 20. Training Tidal River and protection of Outlet:
River Nervion.
Weser from Bremen to Bremerhaven at the head of its estuary
(figs. 21 and 22). These works resemble in principle the regulation
works on large rivers with only a fresh-water discharge, previously
described; but on tidal rivSrs the main low-water channel should
alone be trained with an enlarging width seawards to facilitate
the tidal influx, and the tidal capacity of the river above low water
should be maintained unimpaired.
To secure a good and fairly uniform depth on a tidal river, it is
essential that the flood and ebb tides should follow the same course,
in order to combine their scouring efficiency, and form a single,
continuous deep channel. In wide, winding reaches, however, the
flood tide in ascending a river follows as direct a course as practic-
able; and on reaching a bend, the main flood-tide current, in being
deflected from its straight course, hugs the concave bank, and,
keeping close alongside the same bank beyond the bend, cuts into
the shoal projecting from the convex bend of the bank higher up,
forming a blind shoaling channel, as clearly indicated near the
Moyapur Magazine in fig. 23, and a little below Shipgunj Point in
fig. 24. This effect is due to the flood-tide losing its guidance, and
consequently its concentration, at the change of. curvature beyond
the termination of the concave bank, where it spreads out and
passes gradually over, in its direct course, to the next concave bend
above along the opposite bank. The ebb tide, on the contrary,
descending the river, follows the general course of the fresh-water
discharge in all rivers, its main current in the Moyapur reach keeping
close along the concave bank between Ulabana and Hiragunj
Point, and crossing over opposite the point to the next concave
bank below (fig. 23) ; whilst in the James and Mary reach the
main ebb-tide current runs alongside the concave bank in front
of Ninan and Nurpur, and crosses over near Hugli Point to the
opposite concave bank below Gewankhali (fig. 24). The main
currents, accordingly, \>i the flood and ebb tides in such reaches
act quite independently between the bends, forming channels on
opposite sides of the river and leaving a central intervening shoal.
The surveys of the two reaches of the Hugli, represented in figs. 23
and 24, having been taken in the dry season, exhibit the flood-tide
channels at their deepest phase, and the ebb-tide channels in their
worst and least continuous condition.
In tidal rivers the main ebb-tide current, being reinforced by
RIVER ENGINEERING
383
REMCN.
IntNIRHAVCN.
57MILE5.
FIGS. 21 and 22. Training Tidal River at Estuary: River Weser.
the fresh-water discharge, generally forms the navigable channel,
which is scoured out during floods. Narrowing the river between
the bends to bring the two channels together would unduly restrict
the tidal flow; and in a river like the Hugli dependent on the tidal
influx for the maintenance of its depth for two-thirds of the year,
and with channels changing with the wet and dry seasons, so that
deepening by dredging in the turbid river could not be permanent,
training works below low water to bring the ebb-tide current
into the flood-tide channel, which latter must not be obstructed
at all, offer, aided by dredging, the best prospects of improve-
ment.
FIG. 23. Moyapur Reach, River Hugli, Jan. 1896.
FIG. 24. James and Mary Reach, River Hugli, April 1890.
The average rate of enlargement adopted for the trained channel
ot the Nervion, in proportion to its length, is I in 75 between Bilbao
and its mouth, and I in 71 for the Weser from Bremen to Bremer-
haven; and these ratios correspond very nearly to the enlargement
of the regulated channel of the Clyde from Glasgow to Dumbarton
of I in 83, and of the Tyne from Newcastle to its mouth of I in 75.
Accordingly, a rate of enlargement comprised between I in 70 and
i in 80 for the regulated or trained channel of the lower portion of
a tidal river with a fairly level bed may be expected to give satis-
factory results.
Works at the Outlet of Tidal Rivers. Tidal rivers flowing straight
into the sea, without expanding into an estuary, are subject to the
obstruction of a bar formed by the heaping-up action ol the waves
and drift along the coast, especially when the fresh-water discharge
is small; and the scour of the currents is generally concentrated
and extended across the beach by parallel jetties for lowering the
bar, as at the outlets of the Maas (figs. 1 1 and 12) and of the Nervion
(figs. 19 and 20). In the latter case, however, the trained outlet
was still liable to be obstructed by drift during north-westerly
storms in the Bay of Biscay ; and, except in the case of large rivers,
the jetties have to be placed too close together, if the scour is to be
adequate, to form an easily accessible entrance on an exposed
coast. Accordingly, a harbour has been formed in the small bay
into which the Nervion flows by two converging breakwaters,
which provides a sheltered approach to the river and protects the
outlet from drift (fig. 19), and a similar provision has been made
at Sunderland for the mouth of the Wear; whilst the Tynemouth
piers formed part of the original design for the improvement of the
Tyne, under shelter of which the bar has been removed by dredging
(fig. 17).
Training Works through Sandy Estuaries. Many tidal rivers flow
through bays, estuaries or arms of the sea before reaching the
open sea, as, for instance, the Mersey through Liverpool Bay,
the Tees through its enclosed bay, the Liffey through Dublin
Bay, the Thames, the Ribble, the Dee, the Shannon, the
Seine, the Scheldt, the Weser and the Elbe through their re-
spective estuaries, the Yorkshire Ouse and Trent through the
Humber estuary, the Garonne and Dordogne through the Gironde
estuary, and the Clyde, the Tay, the Severn and the St Lawrence
through friths or arms of the sea. These estuaries vary greatly in
their tidal range, the distance inland of the ports to which they give
access, and the facilities they offer for navigation. Some possess a
very ample depth in their outer portion, though they generally
become shallow towards their upper end ; but dredging often suffices
to remedy their deficiencies and to extend their deep-water channel.
Thus the St Lawrence, which possesses an ample depth from the
Atlantic up to Quebec, has been rendered accessible for sea-
going vessels up to Montreal by a moderate amount of dredging;
whilst dredging has been resorted to in parts of the Thames and
Humber estuaries, and on the Elbe a little below Hamburg, to pro-
vide for the increasing draught of vessels; and the Mersey bar
in Liverpool Bay, about 1 1 m. seawards of the actual mouth of the
river, has been lowered by suction dredging from a depth of about
9 ft. down to about 27 ft. below low water of equinoctial spring
tides, to admit Atlantic liners at any state of the tide.
Some estuaries, however, are so encumbered by sand banks
that their rivers can only form shallow, shifting channels through
them to the sea ; and these channels require to be guided or fixed
by longitudinal training walls, consisting of mounds of rubble
stone, chalk, slag or fascines, in order to form sufficiently deep stable
channels to be available for navigation. The difficulty in such
works is to fix the wandering channel adequately, and to deepen it
RIVER ENGINEERING
sufficiently by the scour produced between the training walls,
without placing these walls so close together and raising them so
high as to check the tidal influx and produce accretion behind them,
thereby materially reducing the volume of tidal water entering
and flowing out of the estuary at each tide. The high training
works in the Dee estuary, carried out in the i8th century with the
object of land reclamation, unduly narrowed the channel, and led it
towards one side of the estuary; and though they effectually fixed
the navigation channel, they produced very little increase in its
depth, but caused a very large amount of sand to accumulate in
the estuary beyond, owing to the great reduction in tidal volume
by the reclamations, and diminished considerably the channel
through the lower estuary in width and depth without checking its
wanderings. 1 The training of the channel of the Kibble through
its estuary below Preston, for improving its depth and rendering
it stable, was begun in 1839, and has been gradually extended at
intervals; but the works have not yet been carried out to deep
water, and a shifting, shallow channel still exists through the
sand banks, between the end of the training walls and the open
sea. The high training walls adopted along the upper part of the
channel enabled the upper end of the estuary on both sides to be
tide (figs. 2 and 26). The channel, however, was made too narrow
between Aizier and Berville and was subsequently enlarged, and
large tracts of land were reclaimed in the upper estuary. The
reduction in tidal capacity by the reclamations, together with the
fixing and undue restriction in width of the channel, occasioned
very large accretions at the back of the lower portions of the training
walls and at the sides of the estuary beyond them, and an extension
of the sand banks seawards. Moreover, the channel has always
remained shallow and unstable beyond the ends of the training
walls down to deep water near the mouth of the estuary. 1
Conclusions about Training Works in Estuaries. Experience
has proved that training works through sandy estuaries, by
stopping the wanderings of the navigable channel, produce an
increase in its depth, and, consequently, in the tidal scour for main-
taining it. This scour, however, being concentrated in the trained
channel, is withdrawn from the sides of the estuary, which in its
natural condition is stirred up periodically by the wandering
channel ; and, therefore, accretion takes place in the parts of the
estuary from which the tidal scour and fresh-water discharge have
been permanently diverted, especially where an abundance of sand
from outside, put in suspension by the action of the prevalent
HARFLEUB
GALE 600
600.
HAVRE. HONFLEUR
H.W.C.T. HO*
BERVILLE. LA ROOUE.
QUIILEBEUF.
SCALE TO PLAN AND HORIZONTAL SCALE TO SXCTI
10 IS ( 30
VERTICAL SCALE to SECTION 800 .
FT So e So loo FT
i i i i t i i i
FIGS. 25 and 26. Training Works in Sandy Estuary : Rivi r Seine.
aaMiLts.
reclaimed for a length of 4 m.; whilst the half-tide training
walls below, placed unduly close together, have led to considerable
accretion at the sides of the estuary and some extension of the
sand banks seawards. Moreover, by fixing the channel near the
northern shore they have enabled the landowners to carry out large
reclamations on the southern foreshore. These works, however,
besides fixing the navigable channel, have increased its depth,
especially in the upper part, and augmented the tidal scour along it
by lowering the low-water line; and the trained channel is further
deepened by dredging. The training works in the Weser estuary
have been confined to constructing a single low training wall at the
upper end, which forms a trumpet-shaped outlet for the river below
Bremerhaven, and to guiding the navigable channel by occasional
low dikes at the side and closing minor channels, so as to concentrate
the tidal scour and fresh-water discharge in it, whilst additional
depth is obtained by dredging (fig. 21). A remarkable improve-
ment has been effected in the navigable condition of the upper
portion of the Seine estuary by training works, begun in 1848; for
in place of a shallow, intricate channel through shifting sand banks,
whose dangers were at times intensified by a bore, a stable deep
channel has been provided down to about half-way between Berville
and St Sauveur, rendering access easy to the river above at high
1 L. F. Vernon-Harcourt, Rivers and Canals, 2nd ed. pp. 289-
293, and plate 9, figs. 13 and 14.
winds blowing into the estuary, is brought in by the flood-tide, as
in the cases of the estuaries of the Dee, the Ribble and the Seine.
This accretion reduces the tidal capacity of the estuary, and, pro-
ducing a diminution in the tidal volume passing through the outlet,
promotes the extension of the sand banks seawards, as indicated
by the difference in the outer portions of the longitudinal sections
of different dates of the Weser and Seine estuaries (figs. 22 and 26).
To prevent as far as possible the reduction in tidal capacity, the
training walls should not be raised more above low-water level than
absolutely necessary to fix the channel; and the rate of enlarge-
ment of their width apart should not be less than I in 80 at the
upper end, and should increase considerably towards the mouth
of the estuary so as to form a trumpet-shaped outlet. The loss of
scour in the channel resulting from this enlargement must be com-
pensated for by dredging to attain the requisite depth. Training
works partially carried out through an estuary have the advantage
of reducing the length of shallow channel to be traversed between
deep water and the entrance to the deepened river; but as these
works produce no influence on the channel for any distance beyond
their termination, a shallow, shifting channel is always found be-
tween the end of the trained channel and deep water. Accordingly,
when training works are started at the head of a sandy estuary,
provision should always be made in their design for their eventual
1 Id. pp. 293-300, and plate 9, figs, n and 12.
RIVER-HOGRIVERS, 4 TH EARL
385
prolongation to deep water at the mouth of the estuary, to ensure
the formation of a stable, continuous, navigable channel. Experi-
ments with a model, moulded to the configuration of the estuary
under consideration and reproducing in miniature the tidal ebb
and flow and fresh-water discharge over a bed of very fine sand, in
which various lines of training walls can be successively inserted, 1
are capable in some cases of furnishing valuable indications of the
respective effects and comparative merits of the different schemes
proposed for works which have often evoked very conflicting
opinions and have sometimes produced most unexpected results.
(L. F. V.-H.)
RIVER-HOG, a sportsman's name for the African wild "pigs
of which the southern representative is known to the Boers
as the bosch-vark (" bush-pig "). They constitute a genus,
Potamochoerus, nearly allied to the typical pigs of the genus
Sus (see SWINE), from which they are distinguishable by the
presence in the males of a long horny ridge below the eye;
while they are further characterized by their thick coat of
bristly and often brightly coloured hair, and by tufts of long
bristles at the tips of the elongated and pointed ears. The
southern P. choeropotamus, of southern and east Africa, is
typically a greyish-brown animal, but one of its eastern
representatives is orange-red. . In north-east Africa occurs
the allied P. johnstoni, while in Kordofan and Abyssinia this is
in turn replaced by P. hassama. The most remarkable member
of the group is, however, the red river-hog, P. porcus, which is
a heavy, short-legged species remarkable for its bright red
colour, the great length of the ear-tufts and the white rings
round the eyes. It is a native of the great forest-tracts, ex-
tending from Senegambia, Liberia and Angola on the W.,
to Monbuttu in the E. Very noteworthy is the occurrence of
a small yellow-haired representative of the group (P. lanatus)
in Madagascar, which evidently must have reached its present
habitat from the mainland. (R. L.*)
RIVERINA, a large tract of pastoral country between the
rivers Murray and Darling in New South Wales, Australia.
It gives name to the see of an Anglican bishop who has his
seat at Hay. The chief towns are Deniliquin, Hay, Moulamein,
Oxley and Booligal.
RIVERS, EARL, an English title held in succession by the
families of Woodville or Wydeville, Darcy and Savage. In
1299 John Rivers, or de Ripariis, was summoned to parliament
as a baron, and his son John was similarly summoned by
Edward II. The earldom was created for Sir Richard Wood-
ville in 1466 and remained in this family until 1491. (For
the three earls of his line see below.) As borne by the Wood-
villes the title was not derived from the name of a place, but
from an ancient family name, Redvers, or Reviers, members
of this family, whose arms are quartered on the Rivers shield,
having been sometime earls of Devon.
From 1626 to his death in 1640 the earldom was held by
Thomas Darcy, Viscount Colchester, from whom it descended
by special remainder to his grandson John (c. 1610-1654), the
son of his daughter Elizabeth (d. 1651) by her marriage with
Sir Thomas Savage (d. 1635), who was created Viscount Savage
in 1626. John's son Thomas (c. 1626-1694) was the 3rd earl,
and his grandson Richard the 4th earl (see below). The title
became extinct when John, the 5th earl, died about 1735.
A new barony of Rivers, held by the family of Pitt and its
later representative, that of Pitt-Rivers, was in existence from
1776 to 1880.
RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND
EARL (c. 1442-1483), statesman and patron of literature, and
author of the first book printed on English soil, was born
probably in 1442. He was the son of Richard de Wydeville
and his wife, Jacquetta de Luxemburg, duchess of Bedford.
His father was raised to the peerage in his son's infancy, and
was made earl of Rivers in 1466. Anthony, who was knighted
before he became of age, and fought at Towton in 1461,
married the daughter of Lord Scales, and became a peer jure
uxoris in 1462, two years after the death of that nobleman.
Being lord of the Isle of Wight at the time, he was in 1467
appointed one of the ambassadors to treat with the duke of
1 Rivers and Canals, 2nd ed. pp. 327-342, and plate 10.
xxiii. 13
Burgundy, and he exalted his office by challenging Anthony,
comte de la Roche, the bastard of Burgundy, to single fight in
what was one of the most famous tournaments of the age (see
the elaborate narrative in Bcntley's Excerpta Hislorica, 176-
182). In 1469 Anthony was promoted to be lieutenant of
Calais and captain of the king's armada, while holding other
honorary posts. His father and brother were beheaded after
the battle of Edgecot, and he succeeded in August of that year
to the earldom. He accompanied Edward in his temporary
flight to the Continent, and on his return to England had a share
in the victory of Barnet and Tewkesbury and defended London
from the Lancastrians. In 1473 he became guardian and
governor to the young prince of Wales, and for the next few
years there was no man in England of greater responsibility
or enjoying more considerable honours in the royal service.
It is now that for the first time we become aware of Lord
Rivers's literary occupations. His mother, the duchess, died
in 1472, and his first wife in 1473; in 1475 and the following
year he went on pilgrimage to the holy places of Italy; from
this time forth there was a strong tincture of serious reflection
thrown over his character; he was now, as we learn from Caxton,
nominated " Defender and Director of the Siege Apostolic for
the Pope in England." Caxton had in 1476 rented a shop in
the Sanctuary at Westminster, and here had set up a printing-
press. The first MS. which he undertook in London was one
sent to him by " the noble and puissant lord, Lord Antone,
Erie of Ryvyers," consisting of a translation " into right good
and fayr Englyssh " of Jean de Teonville's French version of
a Latin work, " a glorious fair mirror to all good Christian
people." In 1477 Caxton brought out this book, as Dictes
and Sayengis of the Philosophers, and it is illustrious as the first
production of an English printing-press. To this succeeded
the Moral Proverbs of Christine de Pisan, in verse, in 1478, and
a Cordial, in prose, in 1479. The original productions of Lord
Rivers, and, in particular, his Balades against the Seven Deadly
Sins, are lost. In 1478 a marriage was arranged between him
and Margaret, sister of King James III. of Scotland, but it
was mysteriously broken off. Rivers began to perceive that
it was possible to rise too high for the safety of a subject, and
he is now described to us as one who " conceiveth well the
mutability and the unstableness of this life." After the death
of Edward IV., he became the object of Richard III.'s peculiar
enmity, and was beheaded by his orders at Pontefract on the
25th of June 1483. He was succeeded by his brother Richard,
the 3rd and last earl of the Wydeville family, who died in
1491. Lord Rivers is spoken of by Commines as " un tres-
gentil chevalier," and by Sir Thomas More as " a right honour-
able man, as valiant of hand as politic in counsel." His
protection and encouragement of Caxton were of inestimable
value .to English literature, and in the preface to the Dictes
the printer gives an account of his own relations with the
statesman which illustrates the dignity and modesty of Lord
Rivers in a very agreeable way. Rivers was one of the purest
writers of English prose of his time.
" Memoirs of Anthony, Earl Rivers " are comprised in the His-
torical Illustrations of the Reign of Edward the Fourth (ed. W. H.
B[lack]). (E. G.)
RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660-1712), was
the second son of Thomas, 3rd earl; and after the death about
1680 of his elder brother Thomas, styled Viscount Colchester,
he was designated by that title until he succeeded to the
peerage. Early in life Richard Savage acquired notoriety
by his dare-devilry and dissipation, and he was, too, one of
the most conspicuous rakes in the society of the period.
After becoming Lord Colchester on his brother's death he
entered parliament as member for Wigan in 1681 and procured
a commission in the Horseguards under Sarsfield in 1686.
He was " the first nobleman and one of the first persons "
who joined the prince of Orange on his landing in England,
and he accompanied William to London. Obtaining promo-
tion in the army, he served with distinction in Ireland and in
the Netherlands, and was made major-general in 1693 and
3 86
RIVERS, EARL RIVES
lieutenant-general in 1702. In 1694 he succeeded his father
as 4th Earl Rivers. He served abroad in 1702 under Marl-
borough, who formed a high opinion of his military capacity
and who recommended him for the command of a force for an
invasion of France in 1706. The expedition was eventually
diverted to Portugal, and Rivers, finding himself superseded
before anything was accomplished, returned to England,
where Marlborough procured for him a command in the cavalry.
The favour shown him by Marlborough did not deter Rivers
from paying court to the Tories when it became evident that the
Whig ascendancy was waning, and his appointment as constable
of the Tower in 1710 on the recommendation of Harley and
without Marlborough's knowledge was the first unmistakable
intimation to the Whigs of their impending fall. Rivers now
met with marked favour at court, being entrusted with a
delicate mission to the elector of Hanover in 1710, which was
followed by his appointment in 1711 as master-general of the
ordnance, a post hitherto held by Marlborough himself. Swift,
who was intimate with him, speaks of him as " an arrant
knave "; but the dean may have been disappointed at being
unmentioned in Rivers's will, for he made a fierce comment on
the earl's bequests to his mistresses and his neglect of his
friends. In June 1712 Rivers was promoted to the rank of
general, and became commander-in-chief in England; he
died a few weeks later, on the i8th of August 1712. He
married in 1679 Penelope, daughter of Roger Downes, by whom
he had a daughter Elizabeth, who married the 4th earl of
Barrymore. He also left several illegitimate children, two of
whom were by Anne, countess of Macclesfield. Rivers's intrigue
with Lady Macclesfield was the cause of that lady's divorce
from her husband in 1701. Richard Savage, the poet, claimed
identity with Lady Macclesfield's son by Lord Rivers, but
though his story was accepted by Dr Johnson and was very
generally believed, the evidence in its support is faulty in
several respects. As Rivers left no legitimate son the earldom
passed on his death to his cousin, John Savage, grandson of
the 2nd earl, and a priest in the Roman Catholic Church, on
whose death, about 1735, all the family titles became extinct.
See William Coxe, Memoirs of Marlborough (3 vols., London,
1818); Letters and Despatches of Marlborough, 17021712, vol. v.,
edited by Sir G. Murray (5 vols., London, 1845); Gilbert Burnet,
History of his own Time (6 vols., Oxford, 1833) ; F. W. Wyon,
History of Great Britain during the Reign of Queen Anne (2 vols.,
London, 1876) ; G. E. C., Complete Peerage, vol. vi. (London, 1895).
RIVERS, RICHARD WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, EARL
(d. 1469), was a member of a family of small importance long
settled at Grafton in Northamptonshire. His father, Richard
Woodville, was a squire to Henry V., and afterwards the
trusted servant of John of Bedford, in whose interest he was
constable of the Tower during the troubles with Humphrey
of Gloucester in 1425. The younger Richard Woodville was
knighted by Henry VI. at Leicester in 1426. He served under
Bedford in France, and after his master's death married his
widow Jacquetta of Luxemburg. The mesalliance caused
some scandal, but Woodville enjoyed the king's favour and
continued to serve with honour in subordinate positions in
France. He also distinguished himself at jousts in London
(Chronicles of London, 146, 148). On the gth of May 1448
Henry VI. created him Baron Rivers. His associations made
him a strong Lancastrian. For some years he was lieutenant
of Calais in Henry's interests. In 1459, when stationed at
Sandwich to prevent a Yorkist landing, he was surprised by
Sir John Dinham, and taken prisoner with his son Anthony
to the earl of Warwick at Calais. He was, however, released
in time to fight for Henry VI. at Towton. Early in the reign
of Edward IV. Rivers recognized that the Lancastrian cause
was lost and made his peace with the new king. The marriage
of his eldest daughter, Elizabeth, widow of Sir John Grey of
Groby, to Edward on the ist of May 1464, secured the fortunes
of his family. Rivers was appointed treasurer on the 4th of
March 1466, and a little later created earl. Elizabeth found
great alliances for her younger brothers and sisters, and the Wood -
ville influence became all-powerful at court. The power of
this new family was very distasteful to the old baronial party,
and especially so to Warwick. Early in 1468 Rivers's estates
were plundered by Warwick's partisans, and the open war of
the following year was aimed to destroy the Woodvilles. After
the king's defeat at Edgecot, Rivers and his second son, John,
were taken prisoners at Chepstow and executed at Kenilworth
on the 1 2th of August 1469. Rivers had a large family. His
third son, Lionel (d. 1484), was bishop of Salisbury. All his
daughters made great marriages: Catherine, the sixth, was
wife of Henry Stafford, 2nd duke of Buckingham (q.v.).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The chief contemporary authorities are the
Paston Letters, ed. Dr James Gairdner, The Chronicles of London,
ed. C. L. Kingsford (1905), and the Chronicles of Commines
and Waurin. See also some notices in Calendars of State Papers,
Venetian, ed. Rawdon Browne. For modern accounts see Sir James
Ramsay's Lancaster and York (1892), The Political History of
England, vol. iv., by Professor C. Oman, and The Complete Peerage,
by G. E. Qokayne]. For Earl Anthony's connexion with Caxton
consult William Blades's Life of Caxton (1861-63). (C. L. K.)
RIVERSIDE, a city of southern California, U.S.A., and the
county-seat of Riverside county, situated on the Santa Ana
river, in the San Bernardino valley. Pop. (1890) 4683; (1900)
7973 (!5 2 5 foreign-born); (1910) 15,212. It is served by the
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the Southern Pacific and the San
Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake railways'. The city occupies a
slope (about 800-1000 ft. above sea-level), rising toward the east
is beautifully built and is a winter and health resort. In the
Albert S. White Park there is a notable collection of cacti; and
Huntington Park is high and rocky, is well planted with trees
and has a finely shaded automobile drive. Magnolia Avenue,
bordered with pepper-trees, is 10 m. long and 130 ft. wide; and
Victoria Avenue is similarly parked and lined with semi-tropical
trees. Riverside is the seat of an important (non-reservation)
boarding-school for Indians, Sherman Institute (1903), which in
1908 had 699 students. Riverside is devoted to the cultivation
of oranges, lemons and other subtropical fruits, and has a large
trade in these products. It is in the centre of the finest orange
district of the state; near Huntington Park is the state citrus
experiment station (1906), with an experimental orchard of
20 acres. The cultivation of navel oranges was first introduced
from Brazil into the United States at Riverside in 1873; the two
original trees, protected by an iron railing, were still standing
in 1909. The domestic water supply is obtained from artesian
wells. In 1870 the site of the present city, then called Jurupa
Rancho, the name of the old Spanish grant, was purchased by
the Southern California Colony Association. The settlement
was chartered in 1883 as a city, with limits including about
56 sq. m. Riverside county was not organized until ten years
later. From 1895 there were no saloons in the city.
RIVES, WILLIAM CABELL (1793-1868), American political
leader and diplomat, was born in Nelson county, Virginia, on the
4th of May 1793. He attended Hampden-Sidney and William and
Mary colleges, was admitted to the bar, and practised in Nelson
county (till 1821) and afterwards in Albemarle county. In
politics a Democrat, he served in the state constitutional con-
vention in 1816, in the Virginia House of Delegates in 1817-19
and in 1822. and in the Federal House of Representatives in
1823-29. From 1829 to 1832 he was minister to France; in 1833
he entered the United States Senate, but in the following year
resigned. From 1836 to 1845 he again served in the Senate, and
in 1849-53 ne was again minister to France. In February 1861
he was a delegate to the Peace Conference in Washington; he
opposed secession, but was loyal to his state when it seceded,
and was one of its representatives in the Confederate Congress
during the Civil War. He died at the country estate of Castle
Hill, Albemarle county, Virginia, on the 25th of April 1868.
Rives was the author of several books, the most important being
his Life and Times of James Madison (3 vols., Boston, 1850-68),
the completion of which was prevented by his death. He was
the father of Alfred Landon Rives (1830-1903), an engineer of
some prominence, whose daughter, Amelie Rives (1863- ),
became well known as a novelist, her best known book being The
RIVET RIVOLI VERONESE
38?
Quick or the Dead? (1888); she married John A. Chanler in
1888, and after their divorce married in 1896 Prince Pierre
Troubetzkoy of Russia.
RIVET (O. Fr. rivet, from river, to fix, fasten together, of
unknown origin; Skeat compares Icel. rifa, to stitch together),
a metal pin or bolt used to fasten metal plates together. A
rivet, made of wrought iron, copper or other malleable substance,
is usually made with a head at one end, the other end being
hammered out after passing through the plates so as to keep them
closely fastened together. A " bolt " differs from a rivet in
that one or both ends have screw-threads to hold a nut (see
SHIPBUILDING).
RIVIERA, the narrow belt of coast which lies between the
mountains and the sea all round the Gulf of Genoa in the
north of Italy, extending from Nice on the W. to Spezia on
the E. It is usually spoken of as Riviera di Ponente (" the
coast of the setting sun "), the portion between Nice and the
city of Genoa; and as Riviera di Levante (" the coast of the
rising sun "), the portion from Genoa to Spezia. All this district,
being open to the S. and sheltered from the N. and E. winds,
enjoys a remarkably mild climate (winter mean, about 49
Fahr.); so much so that the vegetation in many places par-
takes of a subtropical character (e.g. the pomegranate, agave,
prickly pear, date, palm and banana). Large numbers of
flowers, especially roses, violets, hyacinths, &c., are grown
near Nice, Mentone, Bordighera and other towns, and sent
to the London and Paris markets. Bordighera is particularly
noted for its noble groves of date-palms, one of the few places
in Europe where these trees grow. The uncommon mildness
of the climate, conjoined with the natural beauty of the coast
scenery, the steep sea-crags, the ruined towers and the range
of the Maritime Alps, attracts thousands of invalids and
convalescents to spend the winter in the chain of towns and
villages which stretch from the one end of the Riviera to the
other, while these resorts are frequented for sea-bathing in
summer by the Italians. Proceeding from W. to E. the following
are the places to which visitors principally resort: Nice, Monaco
(an independent principality), Monte Carlo, Mentone (the
last town on the French Riviera), Ventimiglia, Bordighera,
Ospedaletti, San Remo, Porto Maurizio, Oneglia, Diano Marina,
Alassio, Arenzano, Pegli (in the Riviera di Ponente), and Nervi,
Santa Margherita, Rapallo, Chiavari, Sestri Levante, Levanto,
Spezia, and San Terenzo (Lerici) in the Riviera di Levante.
The Riviera labours, however, under the grave drawback of
being liable to earthquakes. In the igth century there were
four such visitations, in 1818, 1831, 1854 and 1887, which
especially affected the western Riviera. A railway runs -close
along the shore all through the Riviera, the distance from
Nice to Genoa being 116 m., and the distance from Genoa
to Spezia 56 m. In the latter stretch the line burrows through
the many projecting headlands by means of more than eighty
tunnels. The pearl of the eastern Riviera is the stretch (6 to
7 m.) between Rapallo and Chiavari. Lord Byron and Shelley
both lived and wrote on the shores of the Gulf of Spezia, and
Dickens wrote The Chimes at Genoa.
RIVIERE, BRITON (1840- ), English artist, was born
in London on the I4th of August 1840. His father, William
Riviere, was for some years drawing-master at Cheltenham
College, and afterwards an art teacher at Oxford. He was
educated at Cheltenham College and at Oxford, where he
took his degree in 1867. For his art training he was indebted
almost entirely to his father, and early in life made for him-
self a place of importance among the artists of his time. His
first pictures appeared at the British Institution, and in 1857
he exhibited three works at the Royal Academy, but it was
not until 1863 that he became a regular contributor to the
Academy exhibitions. In that year he was represented by
"The Eve of the Spanish Armada," and in 1864 by a "Romeo
and Juliet." Subjects of this kind did not, however, attract
him long, for in 1865 he began, with a picture of a " Sleeping
Deerhound," that series of paintings of animal-subjects which
has sinc t e occupied him almost exclusively. Among the most
memorable of his productions are: "The Poacher's Nurse"
(1866), "Circe" (1871), "Daniel" (1872), "The Last of
the Garrison" (1873), "Lazarus" (1877), " Persepolis "
(1878), " In Manus Tuas, Domine " (1879), " The Magician's
Doorway " (iSSz), " Vae Victis " (1885), " Rizpah " (1886),
" An Old-Worlu Wanderer " (1887), " Of a Fool and his Folly
there is no End " (1889), " A Mighty Hunter before the Lord "
(1891), " The King's Libation " (1893), " Beyond Man's Foot-
steps " (1894), now in the National Gallery of British Art;
"Phoebus Apollo" (1895); "Aggravation" (1806), " St
George " (1000), and " To the Hills " (1001). He has also
painted portraits; and at the outset of his career made
some mark as an illustrator, beginning with Punch. He
was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy in 1878, and
R.A. in 1881, and received the degree of D.C.L. at Oxford
in 1891.
See Sir Walter Armstrong, " Briton Riviere, R.A. ; His Life and
Work," Art Annual (1891).
RIVINGTON, CHARLES (1688-1742), British publisher, was
born at Chesterfield, Derbyshire, in 1688. Coming to London
as apprentice to a bookseller, he took over in 1711 the publish-
ing business of Richard Chiswell (1630-1711), and, at the sign
of the Bible and the Crown in Paternoster Row, he carried on
a business almost entirely connected with theological and
educational literature. He also published one of Whitefi^ld's
earliest works, and brought out an edition of the Imitation
of Christ. In 1736 Rivington founded the company of book-
sellers who called themselves the " New Conger," in rivalry
with the older association, the " Conger," dating from about
1700. In 1741 he published the first volume of Richardson's
Pamela. Charles Rivington died on the 22nd of February
1742, and was succeeded by his two sons, John (1720-1792)
and James (1724-1802). James emigrated to America, and
pursued his trade in New York (see NEWSPAPERS, U.S.A .) ; John
carried on the business on the lines marked out by his father,
and was the great Church of England publisher of the day.
In 1760 he was appointed publisher to the Society for Pro-
moting Christian Knowledge, and the firm retained the agency
for over seventy years. Having admitted his sons Francis
(1745-1822) and Charles (1754-1831) into partnership he
undertook for the " New Conger " Association the issue of a
standard edition of the works of Shakespeare, Milton, Locke
and other British classics; also Cruden's Concordance. John
Rivington died on the i6th of January 1792. In 1810 John
(1779-1841), the eldest son of Francis, was admitted a partner.
In 1827 George (1801-1858) and Francis (1805-1885), sons of
Charles Rivington, joined the firm. Rivington contracted
further ties with the High Church party by the publication
(1833, &c.) of Tracts for the Times. John Rivington died on
the zist of November 1841, his son, John Rivington (1812-
1886) having been admitted a partner in 1836. George Riving-
ton died in 1858; and in 1859 Francis Rivington retired,
leaving the conduct of affairs in the hands of John Rivington
and his own sons, Francis Hansard (b. 1834) and Septimus
(b. 1846). In 1890 the business was sold to Messrs Longmans
(q.v.). A business of the same character was, however, carried
on from 1889 to 1893 by Mr Septimus Rivington and Mr John
Guthrie Percival, as Percival & Co. This was changed
in 1893 to Rivington, Percival & Co.; and in 1897 the firm
revived its earlier title of Rivington & Co., maintaining its
reputation for educational works and its connexion with the
Moderate and High Church party.
See The House of Rivington, by Septimus Rivington (1894); alsc
the Publishers' Circular (isth January 1885, 2nd June 1890).
RIVOLI VERONESE, a village of Venetia, Italy, in the
province of Verona, on a hill on the right bank of the Adige,
13 m. N.W. of Verona, 617 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901)
1340. It is celebrated as the scene of the battle in which,
on the isth of January 1797, Napoleon inflicted a decisive
defeat upon the Austrians commanded by Josef Alvintzi,
Baron von Barberek (1735-1810) (see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY
WARS). A famous street in Paris (Rue de Rivoli) commemorates
3 88
RIXDORF ROADS AND STREETS
the victory, and under the empire Marshal Massena received
the title of duke of Rivoli. The strong positions around Rivoli,
which command the approaches from Tirol and the upper
Adige into the Italian plain, have always been celebrated in
military history as a formidable obstacle, and Charles V. and
Prince Eugene of Savoy preferred to turn them by difficult
mountain paths instead of attacking them directly. Minor
engagements, such as rearguard actions and holding attacks,
have consequently often taken place about them, notably
in the campaign of 1796-97. An engagement of this character
was fought here in 1848 between the Austrian and the Pied-
montese troops.
RIXDORF, a town of Germany, lying immediately south
of Berlin, of which it practically forms a suburb, though
retaining its own civic administration. Pop. (1880) 18,729;
0895) S9)495> ( I 95) 1 53>65o. It is connected with the
metropolis by a railway (Ring-bahn) and by an electric tramway.
It contains no public buildings of any interest, and is almost
entirely occupied by a large industrial and artisan population,
engaged in the manufacture of linoleum, furniture, cloth,
pianos, beer, soap, &c.
Rixdorf is chiefly interesting as a foundation of Moravian
Brethren from Bohemia, who settled here in 1737 under the
protection of King Frederick William I. German Rixdorf,
which is now united with Bohemian Rixdorf, was a much more
ancient place, and appears as Richardsdorf in 1630 and as
Riegenstorp in 1435. Before 1435 it belonged to the order of
the Knights of St John.
RIZZIO, or RICCIO, DAVID (c. 1533-1566), secretary of
Mary (<?..), queen of Scots, was a native of Turin, and came
to Scotland in 1561 in the train of the Piedmontese ambassador.
The queen wanted a bass singer, and he entered her service
as a musician, becoming also her valet de chambre, and in
1564 private foreign secretary. After her marriage to Darnley
in 1565 his influence with Mary became paramount, and he
gave himself great airs and affected considerable state,
practically superseding Maitland of Lethington as secretary
of state. His elevation aroused the active hostility of Darnley
and the other nobles, and he was suspected of being the queen's
lover. On the evening of the 9th of March 1566, the earls
of Morton and Lindsay, with armed followers, entered
Mary's supper chamber at Holyrood, seized Rizzio, hacked
him to death with daggers, and threw his body into the
courtyard.
See Ruthven's Narrative of Riccio's Murder (1836) ;and the articles
on MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS, and allied biographies.
ROACH (Leuciscus rutilus), a small fish belonging to the
Cyprinid family, the genus Leuciscus having many represen-
tatives in Europe, in which the rudd, the chub and the dace
are included. It may attain a length of over 12 in., but a
roach of 2 Ib is an unusually large one. It is good sport for
anglers, but is not esteemed for the table. The general colour is
silvery, with reddish fins. It does not occur in Ireland. In
America, the " golden shiner " minnow (Abramis chrysoleucus} is
sometimes called a roach.
See Greville Fennell's Book of the Roach, 1870.
ROADS AND STREETS. These words embrace the two
divisions into which the lines of communication made by man
for vehicular and pedestrian traffic between different places may
be roughly classified. In current usage " road " is applied as a
general term for all broad made ways from place to place,
whether with separate side-paths for foot-passengers or not,
while " street " is confined to the roads through towns, villages
and other inhabited places, more or less lined by houses and other
buildings on either side. The present article is confined to the
methods adopted in making roads, from the first great road-
makers, the Romans, down to modern times. The roadways of
times anterior to the Romans, at least in Europe, were merely
the tracks worn by the feet of pedestrians and animals, and the
wheels of vehicular traffic.
Etymologically considered, " road " in its current usage is late
in its appearance. The first quotation in the New English
Dictionary is from Shakespeare (/ Henry IV. 2, i. 16). The true
O.E. word was weg, way, common to Teut. languages, and
probably allied to Lat. via. The O.E. rod meant the act of
riding, and is formed from ridan, to ride, and is thus used of a
journey on horseback, and in compounds of a track or course,
cf . suianrad, the swan's track, a poetic word for the sea- or stream-
rod, course of a stream, hweolrad, wheel-track, &c. A special use
of the word, occurring as early as the Anglo-Saxon Chron.
c. 900, was for a hostile foray, an " inroad," a " raid," which is the
N. Eng. doublet of " road," and has superseded it in general use.
Another use, which still survives, and shows the origin, is that
of a space of water where ships may " ride at anchor in security
from stress of weather, a roadstead." " Street " (O.E. straet)
represents the Lat. strata via, paved way (from slernere, to strew,
pave). It is one of the few words adopted in O.E. from the
Romans.
The earliest roads about which anything definite is known,
so far as construction is concerned, are those of ancient Rome,
one of the oldest of which and the most celebrated
for the grandeur of its works the Appian Way was roads."
commenced in 312 B.C. Roman roads are remarkable
for preserving a straight course from point to point regardless of
obstacles which might have been easily avoided. They appear
to have been often laid out in a line with some prominent land-
mark, and their general straightness is perhaps due to con-
venience in setting them out. In solidity of construction they
have never been excelled, and many of them still remain, often
forming the foundation of a more modern road, and in some
instances constituting the road surface now used. It is con-
sequently possible, with the help of allusions of ancient writers,
to follow the ideal mode of construction, though this was not
always adopted. Two parallel trenches were first cut to mark
the breadth of the road; loose earth was removed until a solid
foundation was reached; and it was replaced by proper material
consolidated by ramming, or other means were taken to form a
solid foundation for the body of the road. This appears often
to have been composed of four layers, generally of local materials,
though sometimes they were brought from considerable distances.
The lowest layer consisted of two or three courses of flat stones,
or, when these were not obtainable, of other stones, generally
laid in mortar; the second layer was composed of rubble masonry
of smaller stones, or a coarse concrete; the third of a finer
concrete, on which was laid a pavement of polygonal blocks of
hard stone jointed with the greatest nicety. The four layers are
found to be often 3 ft. or more in thickness, but the lower ones
were dispensed with on rock, on which the paving stones were
sometimes laid almost directly. The paved part of a great road
appears to have been about 14 ft. wide, and on either side, and
separated from it by raised stone edgings, were unpaved side-
ways, each of half the width of the paved road. Where, as on
many roads, the surface was not paved, it was made of hard
concrete, or pebbles or flints set in mortar. Sometimes clay and
marl were used instead of mortar, and it would seem that where
inferior materials were used the road was made higher above the
ground and rounder in cross section. Streets were paved with
large polygonal blocks laid as above described, and footways
with rectangular slabs. Specimens are still to be seen in Rome
and Pompeii, while in Britain many of the roads were of hard
gravel or had a cobbled surface. There are no traces of Roman
influence in the later roads in England, but in France the Roman
method appears to have been followed to some extent when new
roads were constructed about the beginning of the i8th century.
A foundation of stones on the flat was laid, and over that two layers
of considerable thickness, of larger and smaller stones, bordered
by large stones on edge, which appeared on the surface of the
road. In 1764 Tresaguet set the foundation-stones on edge and
reduced the thickness of the upper layers, and his method was
generally followed until the influence of John Loudon McAdam
(1756-1836) began to be felt. A French chaussee with accote-
ments still retains some ' resemblance to the old Roman
roads.
ROADS AND STREETS
389
The almost incredibly bad state of the roads in England
towards the latter part of the zyth century appears from the
English accounts cited by Macaulay (Hist. c. iii.). It was due
roads, chiefly to the state of the law, which compelled each
parish to maintain its own roads by statute labour, but
the establishment of turnpike trusts and the main-
tenance of roads by tolls do not appear to have effected
any great improvement. At the time of Arthur Young's six
months' tour in 1770 the roads would seem to have been almost
as bad as ever, and it is doubtful if there was much improvement
up to the beginning of the igth century. The turnpike roads
were generally managed by ignorant and incompetent men until
Telford and McAdam brought scientific principles and regular
system to their construction and repair. The name of Telford
is associated with a pitched foundation, which he did not always
use, but which closely resembled that which had been long in use
in France, and the name of McAdam often characterizes roads
on which all his precepts are disregarded. Both insisted on
thorough drainage and on the use of carefully prepared materials,
and adopted a uniform cross section of moderate curvature
instead of the exaggerated roundness given before; but, while
Telford paid particular attention to a foundation for the broken
stone, McAdam disregarded it, contending that the subsoil,
however bad, would carry any weight if made dry by drainage
and kept dry by an impervious covering. McAdam was engaged
more with the repair of old roads than with the construction of
new ones, and, though it is not possible to agree with all his
doctrines, the improvement which he effected in road manage-
ment and maintenance was great and lasting.
Construction of Roods. A road should be as short as possible
between two points to be connected, but straightness must
often be sacrificed to avoid difficulties and expense
and to secure good gradients. The latter should be
as easy as practicable, having regard to the country to be
traversed, and it is desirable that there should be a ruling
gradient than which none should be steeper. On the level maca-
damized road in ordinary repair the force which the horse has
to put forth to draw a load may be taken as one-thirtieth of
the load. But in going uphill the horse has also to lift the
load, and the additional force to be put forth on this account
is very nearly equal to the load drawn, divided by the rate
of gradient. Thus on a gradient of i in 30 the force spent in
lifting is one-thirtieth of the load, and in ascending a horse has
to exert twice the force required to draw the load on a level.
In descending, on the other hand, on such a gradient, the
vehicle, when once started, would just move of itself without
pressing on the horse. A horse can without difficulty exert
twice his usual force for a time, and can therefore ascend
gradients of i in 30 on a macadamized surface without sensible
diminution of speed, and can trot freely down them. These
considerations have led to i in 30 being generally considered
as the ruling gradient to be aimed at on first-class roads, though
i in 40 has been advocated. Telford adopted i in 30 as the
ruling gradient on the Holyhead road through North Wales,
and there are only two gradients steeper, in places where they
were unavoidable. All unnecessary rises and falls should be
avoided, but a dead level is unfavourable for drainage, and on
this account i in 100 to i in 150 is the flattest gradient that
is desirable. Such slight rises and falls are probably rather
favourable than otherwise to ease of draught by horses.
In transverse section, roads in the United Kingdom generally
consist of a carriage-way, with spaces on each side, on one or
both of which there may be a footpath, and fences and
'section ditches. The width of the carriage-way may be from
15 ft., which allows of the easy passage of two vehicles,
to 30 or 50 ft. for roads of importance near towns. The side
spaces may be from 4 or 5 to 8 or 10 ft. wide; wide sides give
the sun and air access to the road, and tend to keep it dry, and
also afford space for the deposit of road materials and scrapings.
In cuttings or on embankments the transverse section has of
course to be modified. The road surface should have just
enough convexity to throw the wet off freely, and a very moder-
ate amount is sufficient when a good surface is maintained. On
a too convex road the traffic keeps to the middle, and wears
ruts which retain the water, so that the surface is not so dry
as with a flatter section which allows the traffic to distribute
itself over the whole width. Telford used a cross section
differing slightly from an arc of a circle in being more convex
in the middle than at the sides. J. Walker recommended two
straight lines joined in the middle of the road by a curve, and
inclined about i in 24 towards the sides, the objection to which
is that the flat sides are liable to wear hollow. On the whole
a curve of the form of a flat ellipse is the best; the rise in the
curve from the sides to the centre need not exceed one-fortieth
of the width, and one-sixtieth is generally enough on well-kept
roads. It is generally best to obtain the requisite convexity
by rounding the formation surface or seat of the road and giving
a uniform thickness to the coating of stone, but often, especially
in country roads where the traffic is not very heavy and keeps
mainly to the centre, the formation is made level and the
convexity is obtained by using more road material at the centre
than the sides. When there is not a kerb there should be a
" shouldering " of sods and earth on each side to keep the
road materials in place, and to form with the finished surface
the water tables or side channels in which the surface drainage
is collected, to be conveyed by outlets at frequent intervals
to the side ditches. The outlets are open cuts through the
sides or drains beneath the footpaths. The side ditches should
be deep enough thoroughly to drain the foundation of the
road, and cross or mitre drains under the road communicating
with the side ditches may be required in wet soil. A thorough
drainage of the subsoil is of the greatest importance, and it is
economical in the end to go to considerable expense to secure
it. In a cutting, or where there are no side ditches, the surface
water may be taken off by gratings and under drains beneath
the side channels.
Macadam Roads. The thickness to be given to a road made
altogether of broken stone will depend on the traffic it is in-
tended for. On a good well-drained soil a thickness of 6 in.
will make an excellent road for ordinary traffic, and McAdam's
opinion that 10 in. of well-consolidated material was sufficient
to carry the heaviest traffic on any substratum if properly
drained has proved to be generally correct. In a new road the
loss of thickness during consolidation must be allowed for,
and the materials should be laid about one-half thicker than the
coating is intended to be. When the materials are not rolled,
a thickness of 3 to 6 in. should be laid first, and when that has
partly consolidated under the traffic other coats may be added
to make up the full thickness. There is great wear and waste
of the materials in consolidating if they are laid too thickly at
once. Inferior material is sometimes used in the lower part of
the road coating, especially when the surface is to be of granite
or other hard expensive stone. Thus flints or gravel may be
used for the lower 5 or 6 in. of a road to be coated with 3 or
4 in. of granite. Telford covered the broken stone of new roads
with 15 in. of gravel to act as a binding material. McAdam
absolutely interdicted the use of any binding material, leaving
the broken stone to work in and unite by its own angles under
the traffic.
If the ideas of the inventor are strictly followed, macadam,
when the fine network of joints is thinly masked with hardened
mud worn from the stone, comes near to a perfect surface.
But stones that will pass through a ring of a given size may
be twice as much in length, and unless their form is about that
of a cube not exceeding ij in. on its longest side, they cannot
be rammed or rolled into the regular mosaic characteristic of
the true macadam. The best modern roads are of hand-
broken stone dressed slightly on the surface with stone chips,
while the mass of the road-metal is kept free from any kind of
binding. Some roadmakers, however, have found the large
irregularly shaped stones from the machine so difficult to con-
solidate that they have had to reconsider the question of binding.
The engineer of Central Park, New York, found that, with the
greatest care and attention to rolling, such stones would not
390
ROADS AND STREETS
consolidate properly without admixture; indeed they became
more intractable the more they were abraded by rolling. G. F.
Deacon of Liverpool advocated a binding composed of large
chips of trap rock or else of siliceous gravel from the size of
three-quarters of an inch down to that of a pin's head, together
with about one-fourth part of macadam sweepings obtained
in wet weather. This will enable the roller to consolidate the
road-metal in a third of the time required for broken stone
alone. The harder materials here suggested differ essentially
from the sand and dirt formerly used for binding, since they fill
up all the vacant spaces and cannot be washed down.
A new road is preferably finished by rolling, since in that
way the materials are consolidated with less waste, and wear
and tear of vehicles is saved. A 1 5-ton steam-roller, 7 ft.
wide, giving upwards of 2 tons weight per foot can thoroughly
consolidate 1000 to 2000 sq. yds. of newly laid materials per
day.
A pitched foundation, as used by Telford, consists of flat
stones set on edge in courses across the road with the broader
edges downwards. All inequalities must be knocked off,
and small stones and chips must be firmly pinned into the
interstices with a hammer, so as to form a regular convex
surface with every stone fixed firmly in place. A foundation
of cem'ent concrete 6 in. thick was used by Sir J. Macneill on
the Highgate Archway (London) road on a bad clay bottom,
and common lime concrete was subsequently used elsewhere.
A bed of lias lime concrete 1 2 in. thick was laid as a foundation
in Southwark Street and on the Thames Embankment, but it
is too expensive for a macadamized road under ordinary cir-
cumstances. Foundations of large and rough hard-core should
be rolled down to a surface close enough to keep the finer pieces
of road-metal from dropping down, so as to create hollows
which, though they may escape the roller, will be detected
by the laden wheel and by the pounding of the heavy hoof.
But there is no foundation equal to sand, which has the pro-
perty of spreading pressure over an enlarged area. A 12 -in.
bed of sand rolled down to 8 in. has been recommended, but
military engineers have found that a layer of so little as 3 or
4 in. is sufficient as a foundation for macadam in very bad
ground that has been rolled, or on an embankment that has
had time to settle.
Tar Macadam. Broken stone mixed with some bituminous
composition has been found very suitable for suburban roads,
and for towns where the nature of the traffic requires smooth
roadways reasonably free from noise and dust. In its simplest
form, tar macadam is made from a good hard limestone broken
into the usual sizes, the fine chips being used for top-dressing.
In a shed a large hearth is formed of stone flagging, under which
the flues of a furnace are constructed, and upon the hearth the
broken stone is spread in a layer just as thick as the heat may
be able to penetrate, to dry off the moisture and make the
stones distinctly hot. The load of an ordinary barrow is
tipped on an iron plate and gas tar is poured over it (from
8 to 12 gals, per cubic yard), while a couple of men with
shovels turn it over exactly as they would turn concrete. No
more tar should be used than is required completely to blacken
the whole surface of every stone; and when this has been
done, the stone can be thrown upon the heap, where it may be
kept for one or two months, under cover, to allow the volatile
oils to evaporate. Fine sittings are treated in the same way.
When it has been properly seasoned, the mass should assume
a greenish lustre; and when cut into by a shovel, the particles
will cling together and creep down slowly so that the heap is
said to be " alive." In that state it may be used. The tar
ought to be boiled, and if too thin, a little pitch may be added
to it, though not enough to make the heap consolidate. A
mixture of tar with pitch and creosote oil is used by more
precise makers, one formula being 12 gals, tar, J cwt. pitch
and 2 gals, creosote oil to a ton of stone. But these ingredients
differ considerably in their chemical composition, and the pro-
portions have to be varied according to experience. Moreover,
as regards the tar and pitch used in the manufacture of pave-
ments, the varieties that come directly from a vegetable source
are liable to melt in hot and to become brittle in cold weather;
coal tar is only moderately proof against these extremes.
Tar macadam must be put down in dry weather. If the
material seems too dry, hot tar may be applied as before, but
only as an expedient, and with great economy, so that the
pavement may not soften in the sun. Upon a well-rolled
foundation of hard material a layer of the coarser macadam
should be put and rolled, then a layer of the smaller grade.
For a road of light traffic a coat of the fine siftings may be put
down and heavily rolled to a finished surface. For a road of
heavier traffic the second coat should be dressed before rolling
with tarred stone of a gauge of three-quarters of an inch to an
inch and a quarter, and rolled first with a roller of not more
than 10 or 12 cwt., then with one of 30 cwt. After the traffic
has been turned on the road for a few days it should again be
rolled as heavily as may be necessary to restore any parts that
have been disturbed. But such roads are often consolidated
by steam-rollers of 10 or 15 tons. For refacing an old road
the prongs attached to a steam-roller will easily lift the old
layer. Small depressions may be well tarred and levelled up
with fine stuff, and the whole surface may be dressed every
three years with tar and a fresh coat of fine chips. If the
surface of the road is irregular, water will hang upon it, and
frost may cause it to become slippery. The lack of affinity
between granite and bitumen prevents the use of tar macadam
upon roads of heavy traffic.
Concrete Macadam. Rocks h'ke granite and syenite may be
used in combination with Portland cement. The ingredients
are mixed in about the proportion of four parts of broken stone
that has first been well wetted, one and a quarter or two parts
of clean sharp sand, and one of cement put on in two layers,
the second being rolled by hand to the required shape and to
a good surface. It should remain for two or three weeks to
dry and set. Want of elasticity may be urged against concrete
macadam, and it is productive of dust, but in some cases it has
proved satisfactory.
Gravel Roads. Smooth rounded gravel is unsuitable for
roads unless a large proportion of it is broken, and about an
eighth part of ferruginous clay added for binding. Rough
pit gravel that will consolidate under the roller may be applied
in two or more layers, but each must be of similar composition,
or the smaller stuff will work downwards. A gravel road
should be always under inspection, and repairs should be done
without delay. A track for equestrian exercise should be
made of hoggin or fine gravel, that will remain soft when raked
or harrowed and watered. It should be well drained. A
foundation of rough hard core will let the hoggin pass down into
it, so that the hard core will appear at the surface. The best
material is rough chalk sufficiently rolled to stop the gravel
while draining off the surface water.
Stone Pavements. Early pitched roadways consisted of
pebbles or rounded boulders (" cobblestones ") bedded in the
natural surface or in sand or gravel. The next step in advance
was to employ roughly squared blocks; but the wide and
irregular joints admitted the water to the subsoil, and the mud
worked up and the stones sank irregularly under the traffic.
Telford, who was called upon to report on the street pavements
of the parish of Hanover Square in 1824, saw the necessity of
cutting off all connexion between the subsoil and the paving
stones. He recommended a bed of about 6 in. of clean river
ballast, rendered compact by being travelled upon for some
time before the paving was laid, but he subsequently considered
that nothing short of 12 in. of broken stone, put on in layers
4 in. thick and completely consolidated by carriages passing
over them, would answer the purpose. He recommended
paving stones of considerable depth and of from 4! to 6 or
7! in. in breadth for the greatest thoroughfares, and he pointed
out the importance of working the stones flat on the face and
square on all sides, so as to joint close and preserve the bed
or base as nearly as possible of the same size as the face, and
of carefully placing together in the same course stones of equaj
ROADS AND STREETS
39 1
breadth. Many pavements thus laid with stones of consider-
able breadth still remain, but experience proved that it was
a mistake to suppose that broad stones having a larger base
would support better the weight and shocks of heavy traffic;
on the contrary, a wide stone has a tendency to rock on its
bed, and also to wear round on the top and become slippery.
To obtain an evener surface and a better foothold for the
horses the stones were reduced in width, and in 1840 a granite
pavement was laid by Walker on Blackfriars Bridge, which
may be considered the first of modern set pavements. The
stones were 3 in. broad and 9 deep; they were laid on a bed
of concrete i ft. thick and were jointed with mortar. The
reduction of breadth to about 3 in. was generally followed,
but it was some time before a concrete foundation was
employed to any great extent, the frequent breaking up to
which streets are subject having prevented it. In London a
foundation of broken stone has been continued in some thorough-
fares, the sets being evenly bedded in gravel upon it and rammed
with a heavy wooden rammer. Hard core a mixture of broken
stone, clinker, brick rubbish and old building materials has
also been largely used to form a foundation. In the northern
towns of England cinders have been employed, and where the
traffic is exceptionally heavy a pitched foundation of stones
on edge has been laid when the sets were not paved upon an
old macadamized surface. The concrete for a foundation to
a paved street should be made with the best Portland cement,
thoroughly mixed in proper proportions with the sand and
gravel or other materials used, water being added as sparingly
as possible. A thickness of 6 in. of well-made cement concrete
is sufficient for the heaviest traffic, and it can be cut out in
slabs for pipe-laying or repairs and can be relaid and cemented
in its place. To obtain the best result a new foundation should
not be paved upon for a week. A foundation of bituminous
concrete is sometimes used where only a thin bed can be laid,
in consequence of there being an old foundation which it is
undesirable to disturb. It is made by pouring a composition
of coal-tar, pitch and creasote oil while hot over broken stone
levelled and rolled to the proper form, and then spreading a thin
layer of smaller broken stone over the surface and rolling it in.
It has the advantage that it can be paved upon a few hours
after it has been laid.
The best materials for pavement sets are the hard igneous
and metamorphic rocks, though millstone grit and other hard
sedimentary rocks of the same nature are used when the traffic
is comparatively light. Excessively hard stone which wears
smooth and slippery is objectionable in spite of its durability.
Joints simply filled in with gravel are of course pervious to
water, and a grout of lime or cement does not make a per-
manently watertight joint, as it becomes disintegrated under
the vibration of the traffic. Grouted joints, however, make a
good pavement when there is a foundation of concrete or
broken stone or hard core. Where there is not a regular
foundation imperviousness in the joints is of great importance.
In some of the Lancashire towns the joints have for many
years past been made by first filling them with clean gravel,
well shaken in by ramming, and then pouring in a composition
of coal-tar, pitch and creasote oil, which is allowed to percolate
and fill up the interstices, the pavement being finished by
covering it with small gravel. Joints so formed are impervious
to wet and have a certain amount of elasticity; the foundation
is kept dry; and the pavement with bituminous grout of this
kind keeps its form well for many years. The objection is
made that in hot weather the composition runs from the joints
and makes the streets unpleasant for foot-passengers.
A pavement consisting of broad, smooth, well-jointed blocks
of granite for the wheel tracks, and pitching between for the
horse track, was laid by Walker in Commercial Road (London)
for the heavy traffic to the West India Docks in 1825, and
similar pavements have been successfully used elsewhere,
principally for heavy traffic, in streets only wide enough for
one vehicle. In Milan, Turin and other towns of northern
Italy tramways of the same sort are extensively used for the
ordinary street traffic. The tractive force required is small,
while the foothold on the horse track is good; but the tram-
stones are slippery for horses to pass over. The rigidity of
the roadway renders it more suitable for slow heavy traffic
than for light quick vehicles, and the improvement in other
pavements has limited the application of this one in ordinary
streets.
Brick Paving. Since about 1885 brick as a paving for
carriage-ways has been adopted to a considerable extent,
chiefly in the form of shale bricks, in American cities. The
clay is a hydrated silicate of alumina, containing about 24%
of alumina with 15% of iron, lime, soda, potash and magnesia.
Lime is injurious, but alkalis to the extent of 3% are needed
to ensure a slight degree of vitrification. Various tests arc
used to determine their liability to absorb moisture and to
be abraded. That for abrasion is made by rolling half-bricks
in an iron barrel or rattler in company with pieces of cast-
iron for a given time, and noting the effect on the surfaces,
but particularly on the angles, which should be tough enough
to resist chipping. Comparisons are also made with test
pieces of granite that are mixed with the bricks. To guard
against chipping, the best-made bricks are pressed over again,
and the upper angles rounded to a radius of three-eighths of
an inch. Upon a foundation of concrete or well-rolled ballast
a cushion or bed of coarse sand from half an inch to 3 in.
thick is laid, and on this the bricks are set. They are
then rolled till level, or are heavily rammed, a plank being
interposed between the bricks and the rammer. No channel-
courses are used. Pitch is poured in at the joints, but by no
means on the surface, as that would make them slippery.
Brick roadways have stood well under hard wear for fourteen
years. Although in the United Kingdom bricks are produced
unequalled for hardness and finish, no serious attempt has
been made to introduce a tough brick for roadways that will
neither chip nor wear smoothly. In various experiments with
bricks that seemed most suitable they stood hard traffic for
about a year. Clay of absolutely uniform character, and
kilns that will ensure perfect equality in firing, are requisite.
Slag bricks, made to interlock in the form of a double hexagon,
the surface being grooved to a small pattern, have stood good
tests for wear and foothold on a perfectly level surface. Many
attempts have been made to use compositions, into which
asphalt or cement usually enters, for making blocks or slabs,
square or hexagonal, that can be laid down on a concrete
foundation. A mosaic of macadam set in an iron frame is
fixed by running molten slag into the back of the block. Small
square pieces of oak are formed into blocks, end-grain upwards.
Staffordshire blue bricks, made with holes to hold wooden
plugs, have been used with some success. Broad blocks not
firmly fixed down usually become loose and tilt when subjected
to traffic.
Asphalt Paving. Asphalt was first used for street paving
in Paris in 1854. It was introduced in London in 1869, when
Threadneedle Street was paved by the Val de Travers Asphalt
Company, and since then it has been extensively used for
paving both streets and footways. The material is a hard
limestone impregnated with bitumen in the proportion of
from 6 to 8% in the Seyssel rock, and from 10 to 12 in that
from Val de Travers. Asplialts containing less than the former
proportion have not sufficient coherence for street pavements,
and those containing more than the latter proportion soften
from heat in the summer. Asphalt is employed either as a
mastic or compressed. The mastic is previously prepared in
cakes and is melted for use in caldrons with a small quantity
of bitumen, and for a street pavement is thoroughly mixed
with sand or grit. It is spread in one thickness on a concrete
foundation, covered with sand, and beaten to an even surface.
This material has not proved so successful for street surfaces
as compressed asphalt. To produce this, the rock asphalt,
previously reduced to a fine powder by mechanical means,
is heated in revolving ovens to from about 220 to 250 F.,
spread while still hot, and compressed into a solid mass by hot
392
ROADS AND STREETS
disk-shaped rammers, and afterwards smoothed with irons
heated to a dull redness. The original rock is thus, as it were,
reconstructed by taking advantage of the power of coherence
of the molecules under pressure when hot. In heating the
powder the moisture combined in the limestone must be driven
off without reducing the proportion of the bitumen more than
is unavoidable. The powder cools very slowly, and may be
conveyed long distances from the ovens; it may even be kept
till the next day before use. When laid it should still retain
a temperature of from 150 to 200. It is spread evenly with
a rake by skilled workmen for the whole width of the street
to a thickness about two-fifths greater than the finished coating
is intended to be. Ramming is commenced with light blows
to ensure equality of compression throughout, and is continued
with increased force until the whole is solidified. The ramming
follows up the spreading, so that a joint is required only when
the work is interrupted at the end of a day, or from some other
cause. In a few hours after it has been laid an asphalt pave-
ment may be used for traffic. When finished, its thickness
may be from ij to 2j in., according to the traffic; a greater
thickness than the latter cannot be evenly compressed with
certainty. The asphalt loses thickness by compression under
the traffic for a long time and to the extent, it is said, of one-
fifth or one-fourth, but the wear appears to be very small.
The wear-resisting power of the asphalt is due to its elasticity;
tracks are made by the wheels at first, but when thoroughly
compressed by the traffic the surface retains little or no trace
of the heaviest loads. Repairs are easily and quickly made by
cutting out defective places and ramming in fresh heated
powder, which can be done in the early morning without
stopping the traffic. An unyielding foundation is indispensable ;
it should be of the best Portland cement concrete, 6 in. in
thickness, which must be well set and perfectly dry throughout
before the asphalt is laid, or the steam generated on the
application of the hot powder will prevent coherence and lead
to cracks and holes in the asphalt, which quickly enlarge under
the traffic. For the same reason the asphalt should be laid
in dry weather. The concrete foundation must be carefully
formed to the proper profile, with an inclination towards the
sides of not more than i in 50, which is sufficient with so
smooth a surface. About i in 50 is the steepest gradient at
which an asphalt pavement can be safely laid. When either
dry or wet it affords good foothold for horses, but when
beginning to get wet, or drying, it is often extremely slippery.
This is said to be due to dirt on the surface, and not to the
nature of the material. Sand is strewed over the surface to
remedy the slipperiness; it tends, however, to wear out the
asphalt, and great cleanliness is the best preventive. An
asphalt pavement can be kept cleaner than any other, is
impervious to moisture, and dries quickly. While the road
is kept clean, a very slight depression is made by the horse-
shoe, which for foothold is a great advantage. The noise
made on asphalt by horse-traffic is about the same as that
made on hard wood, and is not much more than is necessary
for the safety of foot-passengers. In American cities asphalt
has been adopted in a totally different form. All asphalt
pavements are composed of a very large proportion, perhaps
five parts in six, of a hard non-bituminous material. In
America it is found cheaper to get the purer bitumen of the
island of Trinidad, and to procure in the localities the bulky
material required for admixture a coarse angular sand with a
little pure carbonate of lime. An asphaltic cement is made
from refined asphaltum. Of this, from 12 to 15% is used
with 70 to 80% of sand and 5 to 15% of limestone dust.
These materials are heated and stirred together into a stiff
mastic paste to form the wearing surface of the road. Upon
the concrete foundation is first spread a layer of fine bituminous
concrete called '" binder, " i| in. thick, to unite the wearing
surface to the concrete foundation. Upon the binder the
asphalt is laid to a thickness of 2 in., being spread with iron
rakes and brought to its finished surface by the steam roller.
Obviously this is a process requiring great judgment and
experience; but the system has become established in America,
to the exclusion of European methods. Its great recom-
mendation is the freedom from slipperiness that is said to result
from the admixture of sharp sand, and this freedom is really
the one quality in which asphalt pavement is seriously deficient.
This system has been introduced into England.
Wood-Paving. Wood pavements were introduced in England
in 1839. Hexagonal blocks of fir, 6 to 8 in. across and 4 to 6
deep, were bedded in gravel laid on a foundation previously
levelled and beaten. The blocks were either bevelled off at the
edges or grooved across the face to afford foothold. Other wood
pavements were tried in London about the same time, but they
soon got out of order from unequal settlement of the blocks, and
most of them lasted but a few years. The " improved wood
pavement" was first used in London in 1871. After the
foundation was formed to the proper cross-section a bed of sand
4 in. deep was laid, upon which came two layers of inch deal
boards saturated with boiling tar, one layer across the other.
The wooden blocks were 3 in. wide, 5 deep, and 9 long; they
were dipped in tar and laid on the boards with the ends close
together, but transversely the courses were spaced by fillets
of wood three-fourths of an inch wide nailed to the floor and
to the blocks. The joints were filled up with clean pebbles
rammed in, and were run with a composition of pitch and tar,
the surface being dressed with boiling tar and strewed with
small sharp gravel and sand. In this pavement a somewhat
elastic foundation was provided in the boards, which were also
intended to prevent unequal settlement of the blocks; but the
solidity of the pavement depended upon its water-tightness,
for, when the surface water reached the sand, as it did sooner
or later, settlement and dislocation of the blocks under the
traffic arose. Pavements on this system were laid between
1872 and 1876, and were kept in repair and relaid from time
to time, but about 1877 the plank foundation was abandoned
for a foundation of cement concrete, which is now generally
employed. Australian hard woods have to a large extent
supplanted the fir and pine which were at one time used as the
materials for wood-paving. The softer woods, which afford
reasonably good foothold and are comparatively noiseless,
wear rapidly under heavy traffic, and are very liable to decay.
Moreover, the wood actually used has been of mixed qualities,
and when a block fails, those near it suffer; thus holes are
formed, so that the pavement has to be renewed before its
time. English oak and beech, which are perhaps too hard,
have been used with varying results; but the Australian
woods of the genus Eucalyptus have been most extensively
tried, and with the most satisfactory results. Those which
are best known are jarrah and kauri, but tallow wood, black-
butt, blue-gum, red-gum, and spotted-gum, with others, have
been tried. Of these, one or two are too dense and hard to
afford foothold, others are not easily procured, but jarrah and
kauri are used extensively. When cut from the matured
heart-wood they are uniform in quality, hard enough for dura-
bility, and rough enough to afford fairly good foothold. A
very large quantity of wood has been used in London under
the name of American red-gum. In substance it comes between
the soft and hard woods above mentioned. Wood blocks for
paving must be cut with the utmost precision as to the depth
of 5 or 6 in. and the breadth of 3 in. The usual length
of 8 or 9 in. should also be kept well enough for bond. A
long block is liable to tilt. As to depth, although a slight
depression may be of little account, the least projection in a
block will be immediately noted as a jolt by the swift-moving
wheel. The laying and jointing of wood blocks on concrete
is still a matter of experiment. They may be set on a half-inch
bed of sand, which is supposed to, though it is doubtful whether
it actually does, make the pavement elastic to the tread. If
the blocks are not accurately gauged, the sand enables the
paviour to adjust them to a uniform surface. But the practice
most approved is to pave directly upon the smoothly finished
concrete, trusting for elasticity to the wood. On the revival
of wood-paving it was thought necessary, for foothold, to leave
ROADS AND STREETS
393
wide joints filled with small gravel grouted with cement; but
this is mischievous. The cement breaks up, and when the
blocks shrink, the filling-in is driven downwards, and when
they again get wet, they have less room to expand, the side
kerbs are driven back, and the foot-pavements are displaced,
so as to require relaying. To guard against this, a space of
about 2 in. has been left between the pavement and the kerb,
to be temporarily filled with clay or sand, which can be cleared
out as the pavement expands. But cement has no affinity
for wood, and its use, together with the wide joints that were
thought necessary to give foothold, has been abandoned.
They permitted the edge of the block to be beaten down below
the centre, so as to produce a succession of ridges, having much
of the character of a " corduroy " road. Asphalted felt placed
in the joints has not succeeded. A method very successfully
adopted is to leave the end joints slightly open, and to place
strips or laths one-tenth of an inch thick between the courses,
so that hot pitch can be poured down to fill the joint and cover
the surface. The roadway is then strewn with fine sharp gravel.
Hard-wood blocks so laid expand very slightly, so that a space
of an inch and a quarter is sufficient between the kerb and
the two courses of blocks that are usually laid parallel to it ;
this, when filled with pitch, is more than enough to allow for
expansion. Paving has been laid with close joints, small
vessels of hot pitch being provided, into which each paviour
dips the blocks more or less completely before laying them;
but wood blocks are more commonly laid dry, a little pitch
being brushed over the surface. The gradual abandonment of
the wide joints once considered necessary for foothold will be
noticed. Soft wood seems to wear under very heavy traffic
about five times as fast as hard wood.
Plank Roads. In opening up a new country, roads, temporary
or permanent, must be made with such materials as may
happen to be at hand. The plank road often used in American
forests makes an excellent track for all kinds of traffic.
Upon that side of the space devoted to the road, which the
heavy traffic leading to a town will use, two parallel rows of
sills 15 to 20 ft. long, 12 in. wide and 4 deep are laid longi-
tudinally flatwise 4 ft. from centre to centre, the earth being
well packed and rammed to the level of their faces. The joints
are not opposite; a short piece of sill is put either under or
by the side of each joint. Cross-boards about 8 ft. 3 in. long
and 3 in. thick are laid down loosely, so that groups of four
boards together will project on alternate sides of the road
3 or 4 in., forming a shoulder to enable vehicles to get on to
the track at any point. The remainder of the road space is
formed as an earthen track, 12 ft. wide, for light vehicles.
Its slope outwards may be i in 16, that of the plank road i
in 32. If the soil is too bad for the earthen track, short lengths
of plank road of double width are made at intervals to form
passing places. The cross boards are spiked down on five
sills, and are sprung so as to give a fall both ways.
Log Roads. The log road is formed across swamps by
laying young trees of similar length close together. This is
ridiculed as a " corduroy " road, but it is better than the
swamp. Good temporary roads may be made by laying
down half logs roughly squared upon the ground, close
together or with spaces between of a couple of inches, into
which earth is well rammed. They may be 8 or 9 ft. long,
alternate logs being made to project a foot on each side for
convenience of driving on and off the track.
Charcoal Roads. When fuel is available, good roads can be
formed of burned materials. Clay is burned into ballast for
foundations, or for a temporary track. In American forests
charcoal roads have been largely used. Logs from 6 in. to
2 ft. in diameter are piled along the whole route, the
stack being 9 ft. broad at the base, 6 ft. high and 2 ft.
broad at the top. Dry materials for lighting are intermixed,
and the stack is covered up with sods and earth from the side
ditches. When burned, the charcoal is simply raked down so
as to form a i s-ft. road of a well-rounded section. These roads
are dry and hard, and otherwise satisfactory.
The mode of carrying a road across a bog upon a foundation
of faggots or brushwood is well known. In India the native
roads have been made equal to heavy traffic by laving branches
of the mimosa across the track. And in the great plains, where
the soil, when dry, would otherwise be made deep in dust, this
is entirely prevented by laying across the track a coarse reed
or grass like the pampas-grass, and covering it with 3 or 4 in.
of loam.
Sand Dressing. In carrying traffic over a clay soil a covering
of 3 or 4 in. of coarse sand will entirely prevent the formation
of the ruts which would otherwise be cut by the wheels; and
if the ground has already been deeply cut up, a dressing of
sand will so alter the condition of the clay that the ridges will
be reduced by the traffic, and the ruts filled in.
Noiseless Roads. A comparatively noiseless pavement may
be formed with bricks made of cork granulated and mixed with
fibre and asphalt; they are set in pitch, and seem to be suit-
able for rather steep gradients. For a perfectly noiseless
pavement, such as is specially required where a carriage entrance
under bedrooms is used by night, no substance is equal to
indiarubber. For this purpose it is made in inch sheets about
3 ft. wide and as long as the width of the roadway; it is fixed
over concrete and secured by iron clips. This arrangement
carries the whole of the passenger traffic to St Pancras Station,
London, and also a considerable amount of traffic passing under
the Euston Square Station Hotel.
Dustless Roads. The necessity for making roads dustless
has been rendered urgent by the advent <Sf the motor-car.
The oldest and least efficacious method is to convert the dust
into mud by the aid of the watering cart; at the best, however,
the improvement is temporary, though attempts have been
made to obtain more lasting results by using a solution of some
hygroscopic salt such as calcium chloride. Various special
preparations of petroleum and other oils have been introduced
as palliatives, but the most promising treatment for existing
macadam roads consists in distributing tar by hand or machine
over the surface, care being taken to make the application in
fine weather when the roads are dry. The radical solution of
the problem, however, is to be sought in the adoption of
improved methods and materials for construction, probably
with a bituminous binding or matrix.
This same problem of the motor-car, which, by its rapidity
of movement, rendered many of the old country roads in
England (suitable, or at least tolerable, as they were for slow-
moving traffic) positively dangerous for the new traffic by
reason of their narrowness, sharp corners, &c., has been re-
sponsible for the passing by the legislature of a very important
measure, the Development and Road Improvement Funds
Act 1909. This act, in its second part, deals with the question
of road improvement, and establishes a Road Board, making
it a body corporate. The Board is given powers to make
advances to county councils or other highway authorities for
the construction of new roads or the improvement of existing
roads, as well as itself to construct and maintain new roads.
The expression " improvement of roads " is defined by the
act as including the widening of a road, the cutting off corners,
levelling, treating a road for mitigating dust nuisance, &c.
Power is given to the Board to acquire land for the purposes
of road improvements. The expenses of the Board are met
out of a road improvement grant each year, the greater part of
which it was proposed should be provided by diverting the
tax on motor spirit and on motor vehicles levied under the
Finance Act of 1909-10.
Watering. On macadamized roads in Great Britain watering is
only good for the road itself when the materials are of a very sili-
cious nature and in dry weather. With other materials the effect
is to soften the road and increase wear. In and near towns water-
ing is required for the comfort of the inhabitants, but it _ should
not be more than enough to lay the dust without softening the
road, and the amount required for this may be greatly reduced by
keeping the surface free from mud, and by sweeping off the dust
when slightly wetted. Pavements are watered to cleanse them as
well as to lay the dust, but it must be remembered that both wood
394
ROAN ROANOKE
and asphalt are more slippery when wet, and that therefore watering
should be obviated as far as possible by thorough cleansing. Hydro-
static vans, by improvements in the distributing pipes and regulating
valves, water a wide track uniformly with an amount of water
which can be regulated at pleasure. Where hydrants exist in con-
nexion with a water supply at high pressure, street watering can be
effected by a movable hose and jet, a method much more effective
in cleansing the surface, but using a much larger quantity of water.
Another method which has been tried, but not much used, is to lav
perforated pipes, at the back of the kerb on each side of the road,
from which jets are thrown upon the surface. The first cost is
considerable, and the openings for the jets are liable to choke and
get out of order. Deliquescent salts have been used for street
watering, by which the surface is kept moist, but at the expense
of the moisture in the air. Sea water has the same effect in a less
degree.
Cleansing. The principal streets of a town are generally cleansed
daily, either by hand-sweeping and hand-scraping or by machines.
Sir Joseph Whitworth's machine consists of a series of revolving
brooms on an endless chain, whereby the mud or dust is swept up
an incline into the cart. A less costly and cumbersome machine
consists of a revolving brush mounted obliquely, which sweeps a
track 6 ft. wide and leaves the dust or mud on one side to be
gathered up by hand. A horse scraping-machine which delivers
the mud at the side is also used, the 'blades of the scrapers being
mounted obliquely and covering a width of 6 ft. For general
use, more especially in the country, scraping-machines, worked by a
man from side to side of the road, and scraping a width of about
4 ft., are more convenient.
All street surfaces suffer from the constant breaking up and dis-
turbance to which they are subjected for the purpose of laying and
repairing gas and water pipes. Subways, either under the middle
of the road or near the kerbs, in which the pipes may be laid and be
always accessible, have often been advocated, and in a few instances
have been constructed; but they have not hitherto found general
favour.
Footways. Gravel is the most suitable material for country or
suburban footways; it should be bottomed with a coarser material,
well drained and should be laid with a roller. An inclination
towards the kerb of about half an inch in a foot may be given, or
the surface may be rounded, to throw off the wet. Where greater
cleanliness is desirable and the traffic is not too great a coal-tar
concrete similar to that already described, but of smaller materials,
makes a good and economical footway. The coating should be 2 5
or 3 in. thick, composed of two or three layers each well rolled,
the lower layer of materials of about ij in. gauge, and the upper
of a half or a quarter of an inch gauge, with Derbyshire spar or fine
granite chippings over all. Concrete footways require to be carefully
made and must be allowed to set thoroughly before they are used.
Concrete has a tendency to crack from contraction, especially when
in a thin layer, and it is better to lay a footway in sections, with
joints at intervals of about 2 yds. Concrete slabs, especially when
silicated and constituting artificial stone, make an excellent footway.
The material is composed of crushed granite, gravel or other suit-
able material, mixed with Portland cement and cast in moulds, and
when set saturated with silicate of soda. This paving has proved
more durable than York stone flagging, but it is more slippery,
especially when made with granite. York stone makes a good and
pleasant foot pavement, but is somewhat expensive considering
its durability; it is apt to wear unevenly and to scale off when the
stone is not of the best quality. It should not be laid of a less thick-
ness than 2 in.; 2\ or 3 in. are more usual. The flags should
be square jointed, not under-cut at the edges, and should be well
bedded and jointed with mortar. Caithness flag is much more
durable than York stone and wears more evenly; it is impervious
to wet and dries quickly by evaporation. The edges are sawn, and
the hardness of the stone renders it difficult to cut it to irregular
shapes or to fit openings. Staffordshire blue bricks and bricks made
of scoria from iron furnaces are both very durable, though somewhat
brittle. Asphalt either laid as mastic or compressed is extensively
used for footways; the former is considered inferior in durability
to York stone and the latter superior to it. Asphalt should not be
laid less than three-fourths of an inch thick on 4 in. of cement
concrete, and I in. of asphalt is desirable where there is great traffic.
Footways in a street must be retained by a kerbing of granite,
York stone, Purbeck or other stone sufficiently strong to stand the
blows from wheels to which it is subjected. It should be at least
4 in. wide and 9 deep and in lengths of not less than 3 ft. A
granite kerb is usually about 12 by 6 in., either placed on edge or
laid on the flat. When set on edge a kerb is generally bedded on
gravel with a mall; when laid on the flat a concrete bed is desirable.
In a macadamized street pitched or paved water channels are
required to prevent the wash of the surface water from undermining
the kerb. The pitching consists of cubical blocks of hard stone
about 4 in. deep, bedded on sand or mortar, or preferably on
a bed of concrete. A paved channel consists of flat stones about
I ft. wide inclining slightly towards the kerb. Moulded bricks
and artificial stone are also used both for side channelling and for
kerbing. Such an inclination must be given to the channel as will
bring the surface water to gullies placed at proper intervals, and
the level of the kerbing and consequently of the footway will depend
to some extent on the surface drainage as well as on the levels of
adjacent houses. To lay out a street satisfactorily the longitudinal
and transverse sections must be considered in relation to these
matters as well as to the levels of intersecting streets.
ROAN (0. Fr. rouan, rouen; Ital. roano, rovano; perhaps
connected with rufus, red), a word applied to a variety of
colour in an animal's coat, especially that of a horse, where
there is a mixture of grey or white hair with the prevailing
tint of bay, chestnut or sorrel. A sorrel when thus modified
is either a strawberry-roan or a cream-roan. The term is
also used of a soft, flexible kind of leather made of sheepskin,
used in bookbinding as a substitute for or in imitation of
morocco; but in this sense the origin is doubtful.
ROANNE, a town of east-central France, capital of an ar-
rondissement in the department of Loire, on the left bank
of the Loire, 54. m. N.W. of Lyons on the Paris-Lyons railway
to Moulins. Pop. (1906) 33,981. The chief buildings are a
modern town hall and the church of St fitienne (1835-1843),
built in the Flamboyant Gothic style. The lycee occupies
the buildings of the old college dating from the early iyth
century. A fine bridge of seven arches connects Roanne with
the industrial suburb of Le Coteau on the right bank of the
river. The town is the seat of a sub-prefect, of tribunals of
first instance and of commerce, of a chamber of commerce
and a board of trade-arbitration, and has lycees for both sexes.
Cotton goods form the staple manufacture, and cotton-spinning
is also important. The making of knitted woollen articles
gives employment to large numbers of women in the town and
district. There are besides extensive engineering works,
foundries, dye-works, tanneries, pottery and tile-works and
other industrial establishments. As the centre of the Roannais
coalfield, Roanne has trade in coal and coke. It is also the
terminus of the Roanne-Digoin Canal and the real starting-
point of the Loire navigation.
Roanne (Rodomna, or Roidomna) was an ancient city of the
Segusiani and a station on the great Roman road from Lyons
to the ocean. In 1447 the lordship of Roannais became the
property of the celebrated banker Jacques Cceur, from whom
it passed as the result of a law-suit to the family of Gouffier.
In their favour the title was raised to the rank of marquisate
and in 1566 to the rank of duchy; it became extinct in the
first half of the i8th century.
ROANOKE, a river of the South Atlantic Slope, U.S.A. With
the Staunton, which rises in the Appalachian Valley in south-
western Virginia, it constitutes one river, and, flowing in a
general south-easterly direction, crosses the boundary between
Virginia and North Carolina just above the Fall Line and
discharges into Albemarle Sound. It is nearly 400 m. long,
with a drainage area of 9237 sq. m. The United States govern-
ment adopted a project in 1871 for clearing a channel with a
minimum depth of 5 ft. at low water from its mouth to Weldon,
a distance of 129 m., and in 1909, when the project was 80%
completed, vessels drawing 4 ft. of water could ascend at low
stages nearly to Weldon. The main river and its principal
tributary, the Dan, are also navigable, for many miles above
the Fall Line, by pole boats. In 1829 the Weldon Canal,
1 2 m. long, was opened to afford a passage around the falls, but
it was abandoned in 1850.
ROANOKE, a city in (but administratively independent of)
Roanoke county, Virginia, on the Roanoke river, about 55 m.
W.S.W. of Lynchburg. Pop. (1890) 16,159; (1900) 21,495,
of whom 5834 were negroes; (1910 census) 34,874. Roanoke
is served by the Virginian railway, by the main line and the
Shenandoah and the Winston-Salem divisions of the Norfolk
& Western railway, and by electric railway to Vinton and to
Salem. The city is about 900 ft. above sea-level and is sur-
rounded by high hills; its picturesque situation and its nearness
to famous mineral springs make it a health resort. On a
mountain slope, about % m. from the city limits, is the Virginia
College for Young Ladies; 7 m. north of the city, at what was
ROARING FORTIES ROBERT I.
395
formerly called Botetourt Springs (there is a sulphur spring),
is Hollins Institute (1842) for girls; and in the city are the
National Business College, the City Hospital (1899), private
hospitals, and St Vincent's Orphan Asylum (1893) for boys,
under the Sisters of Charity. Stock-raising, tobacco-growing,
and coal and iron-mining are the industries of the district.
Roanoke's factory product in 1005 was valued at $5,544,907
(2-7% more than in 1900). Its railway car repair and con-
struction shops, belonging to the Norfolk & Western railway,
employed in that year 66.9% of the total number of factory
wage-earners; pig-iron, structural iron, canned goods, bottles,
tobacco, planing-mill products and cotton are among the
manufactures. The municipal water supply comes from a
reservoir at Crystal Springs at the foot of Mill Mountain near
the city Emits. Roanoke was the town of Big Lick (founded
about 1852; incorporated in 1874; pop. in 1880, 669) until
1882, when it received its present name; in 1884 it was char-
tered as a city.
ROARING FORTIES, the name given to the zone in the
southern hemisphere, near the 4oth parallel of latitude, in which
the north-westerly " anti-trade " winds attain their greatest
development. Since the belt lies in the Great Southern Ocean
(q.v.), and is little interrupted by land, the " planetary circula-
tion " undergoes little modification and barometric gradients
are steep. The " brave west winds " are accordingly of great
strength, and, as in the corresponding belt of the northern
hemisphere, the movement is largely broken up into the low
and high pressure vortices known as cyclones and anticyclones.
ROBBEN ISLAND, an island at the entrance of Table Bay,
7 m. N.N.W. of Cape Town. It is some 4 m. long by 2 broad.
At its southern end is a lighthouse with a fixed light visible for
20 m. It got its name (robben, Dutch for seal) from the seals
which formerly frequented it, now only occasional visitants.
The island when discovered was uninhabited. It is first
mentioned by an English seaman named Raymond, who states
that in 1591 seals and penguins were there in large numbers.
In 1614 ten criminals from London were landed on the island to
form a settlement and supply fresh provisions to passing ships.
The attempt, which ended in failure, is interesting as the first
recorded settlement of English in South Africa. In the i8th
century the slate quarries of Robben Island were extensively
worked by the Dutch of Cape Town. The island is now noted
for its leper asylum and its convict establishment. For many
years an asylum for lunatics was also maintained, but in 1904
the lunatics were removed to the mainland. The common
rabbit, brought from England, abounds, but its introduction
to the mainland is prohibited. As early as 1657 criminals were
banished to the island by the Dutch authorities at Cape Town;
it has also served as the place of detention of several noted
Kaffir chiefs.
See G. F. Gresley, " The Early History of Robben Island," in The
Cape Illustrated Magazine (Oct. 1895).
ROBBER SYNOD, the name given to an irregular ecclesiastical
council held at Ephesus in A.D. 449. See EPHESUS, COUNCIL or.
ROBBERY (from O. Fr. rober, to steal), the unlawful and
forcible taking of goods or money from the person of another
by violence or threatened violence. Robbery is larceny (q.v.)
with violence. It is a specific offence under the Larceny Act
1861, and is punishable by penal servitude for any term not
exceeding fourteen years and not less than three years, or im-
prisonment for any term not exceeding two years, with or
without hard labour. Under the Garrotters Act 1863, whipping
may be added as part of the sentence for robbery. In Scots
law robbery is termed stouthrief.
United States. The nature of the offence is practically the
same in America as in England, but what constitutes robbery
is provided by statute in each state, as is also the punishment.
The chief difference between English and American law is that
the latter often divides the offences into grades and takes a
liberal view of what constitutes force or fear. Train robbery
is specially dealt with in some states owing to the prevalence
of that species of crime.
Federal Statute. Congress has made it piracy punishable with
death to commit robbery on the high scaa or on shore or in any
harbour out of the jurisdiction of any state by landing from a
piratical vessel (U.S. Rev. St. 1047).
In Alabama it is train robbery to " enter upon or go near to
any locomotive, engine, or car, on any railroad and by threats or
exhibition of a deadly weapon or discharging a pistol or gun on or
near such engine or car induce or compel any one to deliver upany-
thing of value. It is punishable at the discretion of the jury by
death or imprisonment for not less than ten years. Any one who
stops, impedes or detains any locomotive or car with intent to
commit train robbery must be punished by imprisonment for not
less than ten nor more than thirty years. Conspiring to commit
train robbery is punishable to the same extent (Crim. Code,
5480-5482).
In Arizona, California and Missouri the " fear " may be that of
the person robbed or of any relative of his or member of his family
or of any one in his company. The punishment is imprisonment
for not less than five years.
In Arkansas and Missouri extorting money or property by black-
mail is an "attempt to rob"; it is punishable by not less than
one nor more than five years' imprisonment. In Georgia larceny
from the person is statutory robbery (Hickey \. State (1906), 125,
Ga. 145).
Louisiana. Train robbery is punishable by imprisonment for not
less than five nor more than ten years.
Missouri. Train robbery is punishabje by death or imprisonment
for not less than ten years. It may consist in placing an obstruction
on the line with intent to rob.
Massachusetts. Robbery, committed when armed with a
dangerous weapon, is punishable by imprisonment for life (Rev. L.,
1902, ch. 207, $ 17).
Minnesota. The extreme penalty for robbery is forty years'
imprisonment (L. 1005, ch. 114).
New Jersey. The extreme penalty is $3000 fine or twelve years'
imprisonment.
Texas. Falsely personating an officer and by means of arrest
extorting money is robbery (Burnside v. State (1907), 102, S.W.
Rep. 178).
ROBERT I., "THE BRUCE" (1274-1329), king of Scotland,
was the son of the 7th Robert de Bruce, earl of Carrick by
right of his wife Marjorie, daughter of Niel, or Nigel, earl of
Carrick, and was the eighth in direct male descent from a
Norman baron who came to England with William the Con-
queror. After the death of Margaret, the " maid of Norway,"
in 1290, Bruce's grandfather, the 6th Robert de Bruce, lord of
Annandale, claimed the crown of Scotland as the son of Isabella,
the second daughter of David, earl of Huntingdon, and great-
granddaughter of King David I.; but John de Baliol, grandson
of Margaret, the eldest daughter of Earl David, was preferred
by the commissioners of Edward I.
The birthplace of Bruce is not certainly known, but was
probably Turnberry, his mother's castle on the coast of Ayr.
The date is the nth of July 1274. His youth is said by an
English chronicler to have been passed at the court of Edward I.
At an age when the mind is quick to receive the impressions
which give the bent to life he must have watched the progress
of the great suit for the crown of Scotland. Its issue in 1292
in favour of Baliol led his grandfather to resign Annandale
to his son, the 7th Robert de Bruce, who either then or after
the death of his father in 1295 assumed the title of lord of
Annandale. Already on his wife's death in 1292 he had
resigned the earldom of Carrick to his son, the future king,
who presented the deed of resignation to Baliol at Stirling in
August 1293, and offered the homage which his father, like
his grandfather, was unwilling to render. Feudal law required
that the king should take seisin of the earldom before regranting
it and receiving the homage, and the sheriff of Ayr was directed
to take it on Baliol's behalf. As the disputes between Edward I.
of England and Baliol, which ended in Baliol losing his kingdom,
commenced in this year, it is doubtful whether Bruce ever
rendered homage; but he is henceforth known as earl of
Carrick, though in a few instances this title is still given to his
father. Both father and son sided with Edward against Baliol.
In April 1294 the younger Bruce had permission to visit Ireland
for a year and a half, and as a further mark of Edward's favour
a respite of all debts owing by him to the exchequer.
In August 1 296 Bruce and his father swore fealty to Edward I.
at Berwick, but in breach of this oath, which had been renewed
39 6
ROBERT I.
at Carlisle, the younger Robert joined Sir William Wallace,
who raised the standard of Scottish independence in the name
of Baliol after that king had surrendered his kingdom to Edward
in 1296. Urgent letters were sent ordering Bruce to support
John de Warenne, earl of Surrey, Edward's general, in the
summer of 1297; but, instead of complying, he assisted to
lay waste the lands of those who adhered to Edward. On
the 7th of July Bruce and his friends were forced to make
terms by a treaty called the capitulation of Irvine. The
Scottish lords were not to serve beyond the sea against their
will, and were pardoned for their recent violence, in return
owning allegiance to Edward. The bishop of Glasgow, James
the steward, and Sir Alexander Lindesay became sureties for
Bruce until he delivered his daughter Marjorie as a hostage.
Wallace almost alone maintained the struggle for freedom
which the nobles, as well as Baliol, had given up, and Bruce
had no part in the honour of Stirling Bridge in September 1297,
or the reverse of Falkirk, where in July 1 298 Edward in person
recovered what his generals had lost, and drove Wallace into
exile. Shortly afterwards Bruce appears again to have sided
with his countrymen; Annandale was wasted, while he, as
Walter of Hemingford says, "when he heard of the king's
coming, fled from his face and burnt the castle of Ayr which
he held." Yet, when Edward was forced by home affairs
to quit Scotland, Annandale and certain earldoms, including
Carrick, were excepted from the districts he assigned to his
followers, Bruce and other earls being treated as waverers
whose allegiance might still be retained. About 1299 a regency
was appointed in Scotland in the name of Baliol, and a letter
of Baliol mentions Robert Bruce, lord of Carrick, as regent,
along with William of Lamberton, bishop of St Andrews, and
John Comyn the younger, a strange combination Lamberton
the friend of Wallace, Comyn the enemy of Bruce, and Bruce
a regent in name of Baliol. Comyn in his own interest as
Baliol's nephew and heir was the active regent; the insertion
of the name of Bruce was an attempt to secure his co-operation.
For the next four years he kept studiously in the background,
waiting his time. A statement of Peter Langtoft that he
was at the parliament of Lincoln in 1301, when the English
barons repudiated the claim of Pope Boniface VIII. to the
suzerainty of Scotland, is not to be credited, though his father
may have been there. In the campaign of 1304, when Edward
renewed his attempt on Scotland and reduced Stirling, Bruce
supported the English king, who in one of his letters to him
says, " If you complete that which you have begun, we shall
hold the war ended by your deed and all the land of Scotland
gained." But, while apparently aiding Edward, Bruce had
taken a step which bound him to the patriotic cause. On
the nth of June, five weeks before the fall of Stirling, he met
Lamberton at Cambuskenneth and entered into a secret bond
by which they were to support each other against all adversaries
and undertake nothing without consulting together. The
death of his father in 1304 may have determined his course,
and led him to prefer the chance of the Scottish crown to his
English estates and the friendship of Edward.
This determination closes the first chapter of his life; the
second, from 1304 to 1314, is occupied by his contest for the
kingdom, which was really won at Bannockburn, though
disputed until the treaty of Northampton in 1328; the last,
from 1314 to his death in 1329, was the period of the establish-
ment of his government and dynasty by an administration
as skilful as his generalship. It is to the second of these that
historians, attracted by its brilliancy even amongst the many
romances of history and its importance to Scottish history,
have directed most of their attention, and it is during it that
his personal character, tried by adversity and prosperity,
gradually unfolds itself. But all three periods require to be
kept in view to form a just estimate of Bruce. That which
terminated in 1304, though unfortunately few characteristics,
personal or individual, have been preserved, shows him by his
conduct to have been the normal Scottish noble of the time.
A conflict of interest and of bias led to contradictory action,
and this conflict was increased in his case by his father's re-
sidence in England, his own upbringing at the English court,
his family feud with Baliol and the Comyns, and the jealousy
common to his class of Wallace, the mere knight, who had
rallied the commons against the invader and taught the nobles
what was required in a leader of the people. The merit of
Bruce is that he did not despise the lesson. Prompted alike
by patriotism and ambition, at the prime of manhood he chose
the cause of national independence with all its perils, and stood
by it with an unwavering constancy until he secured its triumph.
Though it is crowded with incident, the main facts in the
central decade of Bruce's life may be rapidly told. The fall
of Stirling was followed by the capture and execution of Wallace
in London in August 1305. Edward hoped still to conciliate
the nobles and gain Scotland by a policy of clemency to all who
did not dispute his authority. A parliament in London in
September 1305 to which Scottish representatives were sum-
moned, agreed to an ordinance for the government of Scotland,
which, though on the model of those for Wales and Ireland,
treating Scotland as a third subject province under an English
lieutenant, was in other respects not severe. Bruce is reputed
to have been one of the advisers who assisted in framing it;
but a provision that his castle of Kildrummy was to be placed
in charge of a person for whom he should answer shows that
Edward, not without reason, suspected his fidelity. The
details of his final breach with the English king are somewhat
obscure. According to one account, the bond between Bruce
and Lamberton was revealed to Edward by Comyn while
Bruce was at the English court. Alarmed by a hint dropped
by Edward, he left England secretly, and in the church of the
Friars Minorite at Dumfries on the icth of February 1306 met
Comyn, whom he slew before the high altar for refusing to join
in his plans. So much is certain, though the precise incidents
of the interview are variously told. It was not their first
encounter, for a letter of 1299 to Edward from Scotland
describes Comyn as having seized Bruce by the throat at a
meeting at Peebles, where they were with difficulty reconciled
by the regents.
The bond with Lamberton was now sealed by blood, and the
confederates lost no time in putting it into execution. Within
little more than six weeks Bruce, collecting his adherents in
the south-west, passed from Lochmaben to Glasgow and thence
to Scone, where he was crowned king of Scotland on the 27th
of March 1306. Two days later Isabella, countess of Buchan,
claimed the right of her family, the Macduffs, earls of Fife,
to place the Scottish king on his throne, and the ceremony
was repeated with an addition flattering to the Celtic race.
Though a king, Bruce had not yet a kingdom, and his efforts
to obtain it were disastrous failures until after the death of
Edward I. In June 1306 he was defeated at Methven, and
on the nth of August he was surprised in Strathfillan, where
he had taken refuge. The ladies of his family were sent to
Kildrummy in January 1307, and Bruce, almost without a
follower, fled to the island of Rathlin. Edward came to the
north in the following spring On his way he granted the
Scottish estates of Bruce and his adherents to his own followers,
Annandale falling to Humphrey de Bohun, 4th earl of Here-
ford. At Carlisle there was published a bull excommunicating
Bruce; and Elizabeth his wife, Marjorie his daughter, and
Christina his sister, were captured in a sanctuary at Tain,
while three of his brothers were executed. In a moment all
was changed by the death of Edward I. on the 7th of July
1307. Instead of being opposed to the greatest, Bruce had
now as his antagonist the feeblest of the Plantagenets. Quitting
Rathlin, he had made a short stay in Arran, and before Edward's
death had failed to v take Ayr and Turnberry, although he de-
feated Aymer de Valence, earl of Pembroke, at Loudoun Hill
in May 1306. After wasting the critical moment of the war in
the diversions of court life, the new English king, Edward II.,
made an inglorious march to Cumnock and back without
striking a blow; and then returned south, leaving the war to
a succession of generals. Bruce, with the insight of military
ROBERT I.
397
genius, seized his opportunity. Leaving Edward, now his only
brother in blood and almost his equal in arms, in Galloway,
he suddenly transferred his own operations to Aberdeenshire.
He overran Buchan either once or twice, and after a serious
illness defeated the earl of Buchan, one of his chief Scottish
opponents, near Inverurie on the 22nd of May 1308. Then
crossing to Argyllshire he surprised another body of his enemies
in the pass of Brander early in 1309, took Dunstaffnage, and
in March of this year held his first parliament at St Andrews.
In 1309 a truce scarcely kept was effected by Pope Clement V.
and Philip IV. of France, and in 1310, in a general council at
Dundee, the clergy of Scotland, all the bishops being present,
recognized Bruce as king. The support given to him by the
national church in spite of his excommunication must have
been of great importance in that age, and was probably due to
the example of Lamberton. The next three years was sig-
nalized by the reduction one by one of the strong places still
held by the English: Linlithgow towards the end of 1310,
Dumbarton in October 1311, Perth, by Bruce himself, in January
1312. Previous to these two latter successes the king had
made two raids into the north of England; after which Buittle,
Dalswinton and Dumfries were reduced, and Berwick was
threatened. In March 1313 his lieutenant Sir James Douglas
surprised Roxburgh, and Thomas Randolph surprised Edin-
burgh. In May Bruce was again in England, and though he
failed to take Carlisle, he subdued the Isle of Man. About the
same time Edward Bruce took Rutherglen and laid siege to
Stirling, whose governor, Sir Philip de Mowbray, agreed to
capitulate if not relieved before the 24th of June 1314.
Bruce's rapidity of movement was one cause of his success.
His sieges, the most difficult part of medieval warfare, though
won sometimes by stratagem, prove that he and his followers
had benefited from their early training in the wars of Edward I.
We know that he had been employed by that king to prepare
the siege-train for his attack on Stirling in 1304. By the close
of 1313 Berwick, Stirling and Bothwell alone remained English.
Edward II. felt that if Scotland was not to be lost a great effort
must be made. With the whole available feudal levy of
England, and a contingent from Ireland, he advanced from
Berwick to Falkirk, which he reached on the 22nd of June
1314. After a preliminary skirmish on Sunday the 23rd, in
which Bruce distinguished himself by a personal combat with
Sir Henry de Bohun, whom he felled by a single blow of his
axe, the battle of Bannockburn was fought on Monday the
24th; and the complete rout of the English determined the
independence of Scotland and confirmed the title of Bruce.
The details of the day, memorable in the history of war as well
as of Scotland, have been singularly well preserved, and re-
dound to the credit of Bruce, who had studied in the school
of Wallace as well as in that of Edward I. He had chosen and
knew his ground, lying between St Ninians and the Bannock,
a petty burn, yet sufficient to produce marshes dangerous to
heavily armed horsemen, while from the rising ground on his
right the enemy's advance was seen. His troops were in four
divisions: his brother Edward commanded the right, Randolph
the centre, Douglas the left. Bruce with the reserve planted
his standard at the Bore Stone, whence there is the best view
of the field. His camp-followers on the Gillies' Hill appeared
over its crest at the critical moment which comes in all battles.
The plain on the right of the marshes was prepared with pits
and spikes. But what more than any other point of strategy
made the fight famous was that the Scots fought on foot in
battalions with their spears outwards, in a circular formation
serving the same purpose as the modern square. A momentary
success of the English archers was quickly reversed by a flank
movement on the part of Sir Robert Keith. The Scottish
bowmen followed up this advantage, and the fight became
general; the English horse, crowded into too narrow a space,
were met by the steady resistance of the Scottish pikemen,
who knew, as Bruce had told them truly, that they fought for
their country, their wives, their children, and all that freemen
hold dear. The English rear Was either unable to come up in
the narrow space, or got entangled in the broken ranks of the
van. The first repulse soon passed into a rout, and from a
rout into a headlong flight, in which the English king himself
barely escaped. In the career of Bruce, Bannockburn was the
turning-point. The enthusiasm of the nation he had saved
forgot his tardy adhesion to the popular cause, and at the
parliament of Ayr on the 25th of April 1315 the succession
was settled by a unanimous voice on him, and, failing males
of his body, on his brother Edward and his heirs male, or failing
them on his daughter Marjorie and her heirs, if she married
with his consent. Soon afterwards she married Walter the
steward (d. 1326). As a result of Bannockburn, Bruce's queen
was restored to her husband; Stirling was delivered up to the
Scots; the north of England was ravaged, and Carlisle and
Berwick were besieged.
The last part of Bruce's life, from 1315 to 1329, began with
an attempt which was the most striking testimony that could
have been given to the effect of Bannockburn, and which,
had it succeeded, might have altered the future of the British
Isles. This was no less than the rising of the whole Celtic race,
who had felt the galling yoke of Edward I. and envied the
freedom the Scots had won. In 1315 Edward Bruce crossed to
Ireland on the invitation of the natives, and in the following
year the Welsh became his allies. In the autumn of 1316
Robert came to his brother, and together they traversed Ireland
to Limerick. Dublin was saved by its inhabitants committing
it to the flames, and, though nineteen victories were won, of
which that at Slane in Louth by Robert was. counted the chief,
the success was too rapid to be permanent. The brothers
retreated to Ulster, and, Robert having left Ireland in May
1317 to protect his own borders, Edward, who had been crowned
king of Ireland, was defeated and killed at Dundalk in October
1318. On his return Bruce addressed himself to the siege of
Berwick, a standing menace to Scotland. While he was preparing
for it two cardinals arrived in England with a mission from
Pope John XXII. to effect a truce, or, failing that, to renew
the excommunication of Bruce. The cardinals did not trust
themselves across the border; their messengers, however, were
courteously received by Bruce, but with a firm refusal to admit
the papal bulls into his kingdom because not addressed to him
as king. Another attempt by Adam Newton, guardian of the
Friars Minorite at Berwick, had a more ignominious result.
Bruce admitted Newton to his presence at Aldcamus or Old
Cambus, and informed him that he would not receive the bulls
until his title was acknowledged and he had taken Berwick.
On his return Newton was waylaid and his papers seized, not
without suspicion of Bruce's connivance. In March 1318 the
town and soon afterwards the castle of Berwick capitulated,
and Bruce wasted the English border as far as Ripon. In
December he held a parliament at Scone, where he displayed
the same wisdom as a legislator which he had shown as a general.
The death of his brother and his daughter rendered a resettle-
ment of the crown advisable, and it was settled on his grandson,
Robert, son of Marjorie and Walter the steward, in case Bruce
died without sons, with a provision as to the regency in case
of a minor heir in favour of Randolph. The defence of the
country was next cared for by regulations for the arming of the
whole nation, down to every one who owned the value of a cow,
a measure far in advance of the old feudal levy. Exports
during war, and of arms at any time, were prohibited. Internal
justice was regulated, and it was declared that it was to be done
to poor and rich alike. Leasing-making a Scottish term for
seditious language was to be sternly punished. The nobles
were exhorted not to oppress the commons. Reforms were also
made in the tedious technicalities of the feudal law. In Sep-
tember 1319 an attempt to recover Berwick was repelled by
Walter the steward, and Bruce took occasion of a visit to com-
pliment his son-in-law and raise the walls 10 ft.
The king's position was now so strong that foreign states
began to testify their respect. Bruges and Ypres rejected a
request of Edward II. to cut off the Scottish trade with Flanders.
Pope John, who had excommunicated Bruce, was addressed
ROBERT II.
by the parliament of Arbroath in April 1320 in a letter which
compared Bruce to a Joshua or Judas Maccabaeus, who had
wrought the salvation of his people, and declared they fought
" not for glory, truth or honour, but for that liberty which no
virtuous man will survive." Moved by this language and
conscious of the weakness of Edward, the pope exhorted him
to make peace with Scotland, and three years later Randolph,
now earl of Moray, procured the recognition of Bruce as king
from the papal see by promising aid for a crusade. In 1326
the French king, Charles IV., made a similar acknowledgment
by the treaty of Corbeil. Meantime hostilities more or less
constant continued with England, but, though in 1322 Edward
made an incursion as far as Edinburgh, the internal weakness
of his government prevented his gaining any real success, while
in October of this year Bruce again ravaged Yorkshire, defeated
the English near Byland, and almost captured their king. Some
of his chief nobles Thomas, earl of Lancaster, in 1321, and Sir
Andrew Harclay, earl of Carlisle, in 1322 entered into corre-
spondence with the Scots, and, though Barclay's treason was
detected and punished by his death, Edward was forced to
make a truce of thirteen years at Newcastle on the 3oth of May
1323, which Bruce ratified at Berwick. In 1327 Edward III.
became king of England, and one of the first acts of the new
reign, after a narrow escape of the young king from capture
by Moray, was the treaty of York, ratified at Northampton in
April 1328, by which it was agreed that " Scotland, according
to its ancient bounds in the days of Alexander III., should
remain to Robert, king of Scots, and his heirs free and divided
from England, without any subjection, servitude, claim or
demand whatsoever." Joanna, Edward's sister, was to be given
in marriage to David, the infant son of Bruce, born subsequent
to the settlement of 1318 and now recognized as heir to the
crown, and the ceremony was celebrated at Berwick on the
i2th of July 1328.
The chief author of Scottish independence barely survived
his work. He appears to have conducted an expedition to
Ireland in 1327, and on his return led a foray into England.
His last years were chiefly spent at the castle of Cardross on
the Clyde, which he acquired in 1326, and the conduct of war,
as well as the negotiations for peace, had been left to the young
leaders, Moray and Sir James Douglas, whose training was one
of Bruce's services to his country. Ever active, he employed
himself in the narrower sphere of repairing the castle and im-
proving its domains and gardens, in shipbuilding on the Clyde,
and in the exercise of the virtues of hospitality and charity.
The religious feeling, which had not been absent even during
the struggles of manhood, deepened in old age, and took the
form the piety of the times prescribed. He made careful
provision for his funeral, his tomb, and masses for his soul. He
procured from the pope a bull authorizing his confessor to
absolve him even at the moment of death. He died at Cardross
from leprosy, contracted in the hardships of earlier life, on the
7th of June 1329, and was buried at Dunfermline beside his
second wife, Elizabeth (d. 1327), daughter of Richard de Burgh,
earl of Ulster, whom he had married about 1304, and who bore
him late his only son, David, who succeeded him. Of two
surviving daughters, Matilda married Thomas Ysaak, a simple
esquire, and Margaret became the wife of William, earl of
Sutherland. Marjorie, an only child by his first wife, Isabella,
daughter of Donald, earl of Mar, had predeceased him. Several
children not born in wedlock have been traced in the records,
but none of them became in any way famous.
In fulfilment of a vow to visit the Holy Sepulchre, which he could
not accomplish in person, Bruce requested Douglas to carry his
heart there, but his faithful follower perished on the way, fighting
in Spain against the Moors, and the heart of Bruce, recovered by
Sir William Keith, found its resting-place at Melrose. When his
corpse was disinterred in 1821 the breast-bone was found severed
to admit of the removal of the heart, thus confirming the story
preserved in the verses of Barbour. That national poet collected
in the earliest Scottish poem, written in the reign of Bruce's grand-
son, the copious traditions which clustered round his memory.
It is a panegyric ; but history has not refused to accept it as a
genuine representation of the character of the great king, in spirit,
if not in every detail. Its dominant note is freedom the liberty
of the nation from foreign bondage, and of the individual from
oppression. It is the same note which Tacitus embodied in
the speech of Galgacus at the dawn of Scottish history. Often
as it has been heard before and since in the course of history,
seldom has it had a more illustrious champion than Robert the
Bruce.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The chief contemporary authorities for the life of
Bruce are coloured to some extent by the nationality of the writers.
On the Scottish side The Brus, a poem by John Barbour, edited
by W. W. Skeat (Edinburgh, 1894), and the Chronica genlis Scolorum
of John of Fordun, edited by W. F. Skene (Edinburgh, 1871-72), are
perhaps the most valuable. The Chronicon de Lanercost, edited by
J. Stevenson (Edinburgh, 1839), is also very important. The English
chronicles which may be consulted with advantage are those of
Walter of Hemingford, edited by H. C. Hamilton (London, 1848-49);
and of Peter Langtoft, edited by T. Wright (London, 1866-68),
and the Scalacronica of Thomas Gray, edited by J. Stevenson
(Edinburgh, 1836). For the documents of the time reference
should be made to the Calendar of Documents relating to Scotland,
edited by J. Bain (Edinburgh, 1881-88), Documents and Records
illustrating the History of Scotland, vol. i., edited by F. Palgrave
(London, 1837); the Rotuli Scotiae (London, 1814-19), and the
Fpedera of T. Rymer, vol. i. (London, 1704). The chief general
histories are: Sir D. Dalrymple, Lord Hailes, Annals oj Scotland
(Edinburgh, 1819); P. F. Tytler, History of Scotland (Edinburgh,
1841-43); J. H. Burton, History of Scotland, vol. ii. (Edinburgh,
1905) ; A. Lang, History of Scotland, vol. i. (Edinburgh, 1904) ;
R. Pauli, Geschichte von England (Hamburg, 1834-58). See also
Sir H. Maxwell, Robert the Bruce (London, 1897).
ROBERT II. (1316-1390), called "the Steward," king of
Scotland, was a son of Walter, the steward of Scotland (d. 1326),
and Marjorie (d. 1316), daughter of King Robert the Bruce,
and was born on the 2nd of March 1316. In 1318 the Scottish
parliament decreed that if King Robert died without sons
the crown should pass to his grandson; but the birth of a
son, afterwards King David II., to Bruce in 1324 postponed
the accession of Robert for nearly forty-two years. Soon after
the infant David became king in 1329, the Steward began to
take a prominent part in the affairs of Scotland. He was one
of the leaders of the Scottish army at the battle of Halidon
Hill in July 1333; and after gaining some successes over the
adherents of Edward Baliol in the west of Scotland, he and
John Randolph, 3rd earl of Moray (d. 1346), were chosen as
regents of the kingdom, while David sought safety in France.
The colleagues soon quarrelled; then Randolph fell into the
hands of the English and Robert became sole regent, meeting
with such success in his efforts to restore the royal authority
that the king was able to return to Scotland in 1341. Having
handed over the duties of government to David, the Steward
escaped from the battle of Neville's Cross in 1346, and was
again chosen regent while the king was a captive in England.
Soon after this event some friction arose between Robert and
his royal uncle. Accused, probably without truth, of desertion
at Neville's Cross, the Steward as heir-apparent was greatly
chagrined by the king's proposal to make Edward III. of
England, or one of his sons, the heir to the Scottish throne,
and by David's marriage with Margaret Logic. In 1363 he
rose in rebellion, and after having made his submission was
seized and imprisoned together with four of his sons, being
only released a short time before David's death in February
1371. By the terms of the decree of 1318 Robert now succeeded
to the throne, and was crowned at Scone in March 1371. His
reign in unimportant. Some steps were taken by the nobles to
control the royal authority. In 1378 a war broke out with
England; but the king took no part in the fighting, which
included the burning of Edinburgh and the Scottish victory at
Otterbourne in 1388. As age and infirmity were telling upon
him, the estates in 1389 appointed his second surviving son
Robert, earl of Fife, afterwards duke of Albany, guardian
of the kingdom. The king died at Dundonald on the i3th of
May 1390, and was buried at Scone. His first wife was
Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Robert Mure of Rowallan, a lady
who had formerly been his mistress. By her he had at least
four sons, the eldest of whom was his successor, King Robert III.,
and six daughters. By his second wife, Euphemia, daughter
of Hugh, earl of Ross, and widow of Moray, formerly his.
ROBERT III. ROBERT OF NAPLES
399
colleague as regent, he had two sons and several daughters;
and he had also many illegitimate children.
See Andrew of Wyntoun, The Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland,
edited by D. Laing (Edinburgh, 1872-1879); John of Fordun,
Scotichronicon, continued by Walter Bower, edited by T. Hearne
(Oxford, 1722); John Major, Historia majoris Britanniae, trans-
lated by A. Constable (Edinburgh, 1892); and P. F. Tytler,
History of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1841-1843).
ROBERT III. (c. 1340-1406), king of Scotland, was the
eldest son of King Robert II. by his mistress, Elizabeth Mure,
and was legitimatized when his parents were married about
1349. In 1368 he was created earl of Carrick, and he took
some part in the government of the kingdom until about 1387,
when he was disabled by the kick of a horse. It was probably
in consequence of this accident that his brother Robert, earl
of Fife, and not the crown prince himself, was made guardian
of the kingdom in 1389; but the latter succeeded to the throne
on his father's death in May 1390. At this time he changed
his baptismal name of John, which was unpopular owing to
its connexion with John de Baliol, for that of Robert, being
crowned at Scone in August 1390 as King Robert III. Al-
though he probably attended several parliaments the new
king was only the nominal ruler of Scotland, the real power
being in the hands of his brother, the earl of Fife. In 1399,
however, owing to the king's " sickness of the body," his elder
son, David, duke of Rothesay, was appointed lieutenant of the
kingdom; but this event was followed by an English invasion
of Scotland, by serious differences between Rothesay and his
uncle, Robert, now duke of Albany, and finally in March 1402
by Rothesay's mysterious death at Falkland. Early in 1406
the king's only surviving son, afterwards King James I., was
captured by the English; and on the 4th of April 1406 Robert
died, probably at Rothesay, and was buried at Paisley. He
married Annabella Drummond (c. 1350-1402), daughter of
Sir John Drummond of Stobhall, and, in addition to the two
sons already mentioned, had four daughters.
ROBERT I. (<? 865-923), king of France, or king of the
Franks, was the younger son of Robert the Strong, count
of Anjou, and the brother of Odo, or Eudes, who became king
of the western Franks in 888. Appointed by Odo ruler of
several counties, including the county of Paris, and abbot in
commendam of many abbeys, Robert also secured the office
of duke of the Franks, a military dignity of high importance.
He did not claim the crown of France when his brother died
in 898; but recognizing the supremacy of the Carolingian
king, Charles III., the Simple, he was confirmed in his offices
and possessions, after which he continued to defend northern
France from the attacks of the Normans. The peace between
the king and his powerful vassal was not seriously disturbed
until about 921. The rule of Charles, and especially his par-
tiality for a certain Hagano, had aroused some irritation;
and, supported by many of the clergy and by some of the most
powerful of the Prankish nobles, Robert took up arms, drove
Charles into Lorraine, and was himself crowned king of the
Franks at Reims on the 29th of June 922. Collecting an army,
Charles marched against the usurper, and on the isth of June
923, in a stubborn and sanguinary battle near Soissons, Robert
was killed, according to one tradition in single combat with
his rival. Robert left a son, Hugh the Great, duke of the
Franks, and his grandson was Hugh Capet, king of France.
See F. Lot, Les Dernier s Carolingiens (Paris, 1891); and E.
Lavisse, Histoire de France, tome ii. (Paris, 1903).
ROBERT II. (c. 970-1031), king of France, was a son of
Hugh Capet, and was born at Orleans. He was educated at
Reims under Gerbert, afterwards Pope Silvester II. As the
ideal of medieval Christianity he won his surname of " Pious "
by his humility and charity, but he also possessed some of the
qualities of a soldier and a statesman. His father associated
him with himself in the government of France, and he was
crowned in December 987, becoming sole king on Hugh's
death in October 996. Robert's reign is chiefly remembered
for its dramatic side. In 988 he had married Rosala, or
Susanna, widow of Arnold II., count of Flanders. This lady,
however, was much older than Robert, who repudiated her
in 989, fixing his affections upon Bertha, daughter of Conrad
the Peaceful, king of Burgundy, or Aries, and wife of Eudes I.,
count of Blois; and although the pair were related, and the
king had been godfather to one of Bertha's children, they were
married in 996, a year after the death of Eudes. Pope Gregory
V., whose favour Robert vainly sought to win by allowing
Arnulf, the imprisoned archbishop, to return to his see of
Reims and forcing Gerbert to flee to the court of the emperor
Otto III., excommunicated the king, and a council at Rome
imposed a seven years' penance upon him. For five years
the king braved all anathemas, but about 1002 he gave up
Bertha and married Constance, daughter of a certain Count
William, an intriguing and ambitious woman, who made life
miserable for her husband, while the court was disturbed by
quarrels between the partisans of the two queens. Still
attached to Bertha, Robert took this lady with him to Rome
in loio, but the pope refused to recognize their marriage, and
the king was forced to return to Constance. By this wife
Robert had four sons, and in 1017, the eldest of these, Hugh,
(1007-1025), was crowned as his father's colleague and successor.
After Hugh's death the king procured the coronation of his
second son, Henry, duke of Burgundy, afterwards king of
France, a proceeding which displeased Constance, who wished
her third son, Robert (d. 1075), afterwards duke of Burgundy,
to receive the crown. Robert's concluding days were troubled
by a rising on the part of these two sons, and after a short war,
in which he was worsted, the king died at Melun on the 2oth
of July 1031. The notable gain to France during this reign
was the duchy of Burgundy, which Robert claimed on the
death of his uncle, Duke Henry, in 1001. The other claimant,
however, Otto William, count of upper Burgundy, or Franche
Comte, offered so stubborn a resistance that it was not until
1015 that the king secured the duchy, which he gave as an
apanage to his son Henry. Nevertheless, Robert himself kept
a close oversight over its government, and this was one reason
which led to the revolt of .his sons in 1030. Owing to family
quarrels, he could not prevent the kingdom of Burgundy, or
Aries, from passing into the hands of the emperor Conrad II.,
and no serious results followed his interference in Flanders
or in Lorraine. Robert added to the royal domains, and was
greatly aided by the support of Richard II. and Richard III.,
dukes of Normandy, the latter of whom was his son-in-law.
His life was written by his chaplain, Helgaud, and this panegyric,
Epitoma vitae Roberti regis, is published by j. P. Migne in the
Patrologia Latina, tome cxli. (Paris, 184.4). See also C. Pfister,
fctudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux (Paris, 1885); and E. Lavisse,
Histoire de France, tome ii. (Paris, 1901).
ROBERT (1275-1343), king of Naples, was the son of Charles
II., duke of Anjou and king of Naples, and in his youth took
part in several expeditions to Sicily with the object of wresting
the island from Frederick III. of Aragon. But his efforts,
like those of his father and grandfather, proved fruitless, and
the Angevins were compelled at last to agree to the peace of
Caltabellotta (1302). On the death of Charles in 1309 Robert
succeeded to the throne, although his nephew Caroberto (Carlo
Roberto), son of his elder brother Charles Martel, who had
died before his father, had a prior claim. He was crowned by
Pope Clement V. at Avignon, and on the descent into Italy
of the emperor Henry VII. was appointed papal vicar in
Romagna to resist the imperialists; thenceforth he became
the recognized leader of the Guelphs or papal faction in Italy
and took part in all the wars against the Ghibellines. On various
occasions he obtained for himself or his sons the suzerainty
over Rome, Florence, and other cities, and was regarded as
the most powerful Italian prince of his day. Pope John XXII.
created him papal vicar in Italy against the emperor Louis
the Bavarian. In 13 20 Robert summoned his kinsman Philip V.
of France to Italy, and he waged war against Sicily once more
from 1325 to 1341, but failed to drive out the Aragonese. He
died in 1343, just as he was about to lead another expedition
to the island. Robert was a man of learning, devoted to
400
ROBERT OF NORMANDY ROBERT GUISCARD
literature, and a generous patron of literary men: he be-
friended the poet Petrarch, who admired the king so greatly
as to express the wish to see him lord of all Italy; while Boccaccio
celebrated the virtues and charms of Robert's natural daughter
Maria, under the name of Fiammetta. Dante was perhaps
too severe on Robert, whom he described as a re da sermone
(word king), and contemporary critics accused him of covetous-
ness, a fault partly excused by his pressing need of money to
pay the expenses of his perpetual wars. In spite of his power
and influence, his position as a leader of the Guelphs was greatly
shaken during the latter years of his reign, while at home he
was never able completely to subjugate his rebellious barons.
See G. Villani, Cronache; M. Murena, Vita di Roberto d'Angib, re
di Napoli (Naples, 1770); and Archivio storico Siciliano (1884,
viii. 511 seq.).
ROBERT, the name of two dukes of Normandy.
ROBERT I. (d. 1035), called Robert the Devil, was the younger
son of Richard II., duke of Normandy (d. 1026), who bequeathed
to him the county of Exmes. In 1028 he succeeded his brother,
Richard III., whom he was accused of poisoning, as duke of
Normandy. His time was mainly spent in fighting against
his rebellious vassals. At his court Robert sheltered the
exiled English princes, Edward, afterwards King Edward the
Confessor, and his brother Alfred, and fitted out a fleet for
the purpose of restoring them to their inheritance, but this
was scattered by a storm. When returning from a pilgrimage
to Jerusalem, he died at Nicaea on the 22nd of July 1035. His
successor as duke was his natural son, William the Conqueror,
afterwards king of England. In addition to winning for him
his surname, Robert's strength and ferocity afforded material
for many stories and legends, and he is the subject of several
poems and romances (see ROBERT THE DEVIL below).
ROBERT II. (c. 1054-1134) was the eldest son of William
the Conqueror. Although recognized in boyhood as his father's
successor in Normandy, he was soon dissatisfied with his
position, and about 1078, following a quarrel between his
brothers and himself, he revolted. He was obliged to fly
from his own country, but after a period of exile he returned,
raised some troops, and began to harry the duchy, wounding
his father during a skirmish at Gerberoi early in 1079. He
was, however, quickly forgiven, and passed two or three years
in England and in Normandy until 1083, when he entered upon
a second term of exile. When the Conqueror died in September
1087 Robert became duke of Normandy, but not king of England;
although he received offers of help, he took no serious steps
to displace his younger brother, King William II. In Normandy
his rule was weak and irresolute. He lost the county of Maine,
which for some years had been united with Normandy, and he
was soon at variance with his brothers, the younger of whom,
Henry, he seized and put into prison. In 1089 his duchy
was invaded by William II., who soon made peace with Robert,
the two agreeing to dispossess their brother Henry of his lands
in Normandy. This peace lasted until 1094, when occasions
of difference again arose and another struggle began, Robert
being aided by King Philip I. of France.
This warfare ended in 1096, when Robert set out on the first
crusade, having raised money for this purpose by pledging his
duchy to William for 10,000 marks. With his followers he
journeyed to Constantinople; then he took part in the siege
of Nicaea, the battle of Dorylaeum, and the famous battle
under the walls of Antioch in June 1098. He shared in the
siege of Jerusalem and other exploits of the crusade, while one
account says that he was offered and refused the crown of
the new Latin kingdom. Having won a great reputation both
for valour and for generosity, the duke left Palestine and
arrived in Normandy in September noo.
William Rufus died while Robert was on his homeward way,
and in Italy the Norman duke was greeted as king of England;
but when he reached Normandy he learned that the English
throne was already in the possession of Henry I. In July
iioi he crossed over to England, intending to contest his
brother's title, but Henry met him near Alton, in Hampshire,
and an amicable arrangement was made between them. Having
received presents and the promise of a pension, Robert went
quietly home. But the fraternal strife was not allayed. Henry
had interests in Normandy in addition to the county of Evreux,
which Robert ceded to him about 1102. Visits were exchanged,
but no lasting peace was made, and in 1106 the English king
crossed over to Normandy, where Robert was in great ex-
tremities. At the battle of Tinchebrai, fought on the 28th of
September 1106, Henry took his brother prisoner and carried
him to England. For twenty-eight years the unfortunate duke
was a captive, first in the Tower of London, and later in the
castles of Devizes and Cardiff, but the evidence goes to show
that he was not treated with cruelty. He died probably at
Cardiff on the loth of February 1134. Robert had a son,
William, called the Clito, and several natural children. He
was called Curthose, and also Gambaron, his figure being short
and stout. Although wanting in decision of character, he was
a skilled and able warrior, and the chroniclers tell many stories,
some of them obviously legendary, of his exploits in the Holy
Land.
The chief sources for the life of Robert II. are Ordericus Vitalis,
William of Malmesbury and other chroniclers of the time. See
E. A. Freeman, History of the Norman Conquest (1870-76), and
The Reign of Rufus (1882).
ROBERT GUISCARD [i.e. " the resourceful "] (c. 1015-1085),
the most remarkable of the Norman adventurers who con-
quered southern Italy. From 1016 to 1030 the Normans
were pure mercenaries, serving either Greeks or Lombards,
and then Sergius of Naples, by installing the leader Rainulf
in the fortress of Aversa in 1030, gave them their first pied-a-
terre and they began an organized conquest of the land. In
1030 there arrived William and Drogo, the two eldest sons of
Tancred of Hauteville, a petty noble of Coutances in Normandy.
The two joined in the organized attempt to wrest Apulia from
the Greeks, who by 1040 had lost most of that province. In
1042 Melfi was chosen as the Norman capital, and in September
of that year the Normans elected as their count William "Iron
Arm," who was succeeded in turn by his brothers Drogo,
" comes Normannorum totius Apuliae et Calabriae," and
Humfrey, who arrived about 1044. In 1046 arrived Robert,
the sixth son of Tancred of Hauteville. His tall stature,
blonde colouring and powerful voice are strikingly described
by Anna Comnena.
Guiscard soon rose to distinction. The Lombards turned
against their allies and Leo IX. determined to expel the Norman
freebooters. The army which he led towards Apulia in 1053
was, however, overthrown at Civitate on the Fortore by the
Normans united under Humfrey, Guiscard and Richard of
Aversa. In 1057 Robert succeeded Humfrey as count of
Apulia and, in company with Roger his youngest brother,
carried on the conquest of Apulia and Calabria, while Richard
conquered the principality of Capua. The Papacy, foreseeing
the breach with the emperor over investitures, now resolved
to recognize the Normans and secure them as allies. There-
fore at Melfi, on the 23rd of August 1059, Nicholas II. invested
Robert with Apulia, Calabria, and Sicily, and Richard with
Capua. Guiscard " by Grace of God and St Peter duke of
Apulia and Calabria and future lord of Sicily " agreed to hold
by annual rent of the Holy See and to maintain its cause.
In the next twenty years he made an amazing series of con-
quests. Invading Sicily with Roger, the brothers captured
Messina (1061) and Palermo (1072). Bari was reduced (April
1071) and the Greeks finally ousted from southern Italy.
The territory of Salerno was already Robert's; in December
1076 he took the city, expelling its Lombard prince Gisulf,
whose sister Sikelgaita he had married. The Norman attacks
on Benevento, a papal fief, alarmed and angered Gregory VII.,
but pressed hard by the emperor, Henry IV., he turned again
to the Normans, and at Ceprano (June 1080) reinvested Robert,
securing him also in the southern Abruzzi, but reserving
Salerno. Guiscard's last enterprise was his attack on the
Greek Empire, a rallying ground for his rebel vassals. He
ROBERT OF AUXERRE ROBERT OF TORIGNI
401
contemplated seizing the throne of the Basileus and took up
the cause of Michael VII., who had been deposed in 1078 and
to whose son his daughter had been betrothed. He sailed
with 16,000 men against the empire in May 1081, and by
February 1082 had occupied Corfu and Durazzo, defeating the
emperor Alexis before the latter (October 1081). He was, how-
ever, recalled to the aid of Gregory VII., besieged in San Angelo
by Henry IV. (June 1083). Marching north with 36,000 men
he entered Rome and forced Henry to retire, but an 6meute
of the citizens led to a three days' sack of the city (May 1084),
after which Guiscard escorted the pope to Rome. His son
Bohemund, for a time master of Thessaly, had now lost the
Greek conquests. Robert, returning to restore them, occupied
Corfu and Kephalonia, but died of fever in the latter on the
i$th of July 1085, in his yoth year. He was buried- in S. Trinita
at Venosa. Guiscard was succeeded by Roger " Borsa," his
son by Sikelgaita; Bohemund, his son by an earlier Norman
wife Alberada, being set aside. At his death Robert was
duke of Apulia and Calabria, prince of Salerno and suzerain
of Sicily. His successes had been due not only to his great
qualities but to the " entente " with the Papal See. He created
and enforced a strong ducal power which, however, was met
by many baronial revolts, one being in 1078, when he demanded
from the Apulian vassals an " aid " on the betrothal of his
daughter. In conquering such wide territories he had little
time to organize them internally. In the history of the Norman
kingdom of Italy Guiscard remains essentially the hero and
founder, as his nephew Roger II. is the statesman and
organizer.
The best modern authorities are F. Chalandon, Histoire de la
domination normande en Italic et en Sidle (Paris, 1907), and L. von
Heinemann, Geschichte der Normannen in Unteritalien (Leipzig,
1894). Contemporary authors: Amatus, Ysloire de li Normant, ed.
Delarc (Rouen, 1892); Geoffrey Malaterra and William of Apulia,
both in Muratori Rer. Ital. SS., vol. v., and Anna Comnena in
Corpus script, hist. Byz. (Bonn, 1839). (E. Cu.)
ROBERT OF AUXERRE (c. 1156-1212), French chronicler,
was an inmate of the monastery of St Marien at Auxerre. At
the request of Milo de Trainel (1155-1202), abbot of this house,
he wrote a Chronicon, or universal history, which covers the
period between the creation of the world and 1211. For the
years previous to 1181 this is merely a compilation from
Prosper of Aquitaine, Sigebert of Gembloux and others, but
it is an original authority for the period from 1181 to 1211.
It is one of the most valuable sources for the history of France
during the reign of Philip Augustus, and it also contains infor-
mation about other European countries, the Crusades and
affairs in the East. Molinier, in fact, describes the author as
one of the best historians of the middle ages. Robert was
evidently a man of great diligence and of sound judgment.
Two continuators took the work down to 1228 and it was
extensively used by later chroniclers. The original manu-
script is now at Auxerre.
The Chronicon was first published by N. Camuzat at Troyes in
1608; the best edition is in Band xxvi. of the Monumenta Germaniae
historica. Scriptores, with introduction by A. Holder - Egger.
Robert has been identified, but on very questionable grounds,
with a certain Robert Abolant, an official of the monastery of St
Marien, who died in 1214. See A. Molinier, Les Sources de Vhistoire
de France, tomes iii. and iv. (1903-1904).
ROBERT OF COURTENAY (d. 1228), emperor of Romania,
or Constantinople, was a younger son of the emperor Peter of
Courtenay, and was descended from the French king, Louis VI.,
while his mother Yolande was a sister of Baldwin and Henry
of Flanders, the first and second emperors of Constantinople.
When it became known in France that Peter of Courtenay was
dead, his eldest son, Philip, marquess of Namur, renounced
the succession to the Latin empire of Constantinople in favour
of his brother Robert, who set out to take possession of his
distracted inheritance, which was then ruled by Conon of
Bethune as regent. Crowned emperor on the 25th of March
1221, Robert, who was surrounded by enemies, appealed for
help to the pope and to the king of France; but meanwhile his
lands were falling into the hands of the Greeks. Some little
aid was sent from western Europe, but soon Robert was
compelled to make peace with his chief foe, John Ducas Vataces,
emperor of Nicaea, who was confirmed in all his conquests.
Robert promised to marry Eudoxia, daughter of the late
emperor of Nicaea, Theodore Lascaris I., a lady to whom he
had been betrothed on a former occasion; however, he soon
repudiated this engagement, and married a French lady,
already the fiancee of a Burgundian gentleman. Heading a
conspiracy, the Burgundian drove Robert from Constantinople,
and early in 1228 the emperor died in Achaia.
ROBERT OF GLOUCESTER, English chronicler, is known
only through his connexion with the work which bears his
name. This is a vernacular history of England, from the days
of the legendary Brut to the year 1270, and is written in rhymed
couplets. The lines are of fourteen syllables, with a break
after the eighth syllable. The author gives his name as Robert;
the dialect which he uses, and his acquaintance with local
traditions, justify the supposition that he was a monk of
Gloucester. He describes, from his own recollections, the bad
weather which prevailed in the neighbourhood of Evesham
on the day of the battle between the Montfortians and Prince
Edward (1265). He also alluded to the canonization of Louis IX.
of France, which took place in 1297. He probably wrote about
the year 1300. The earlier part of his chronicle (up to 1135)
may be from another hand, since it occurs in some manuscripts
in a shorter form, and with an exceedingly brief continua-
tion by an anonymous versifier. There is no good reason
for the theory that this part was translated from a French
original; nor does it contain any undoubted borrowings from
French sources. The authorities employed for the earlier part
were Geoffrey of Monmouth, Henry of Huntingdon, William of
Malmesbury, the English Chronicles, and some minor sources;
Robert, in making his recension of it, also used the Brut of
Layamon. From 1135 to 1256 Robert is still a compiler,
although references to oral tradition become more frequent as
he approaches his own time. From 1256 to 1270 he has the
value of a contemporary authority. But he is more important
to the philologist than to the historian. His chronicle is one of
the last works written in Old English.
Robert's chronicle was first edited by T. Hearne (2 vols., Oxford,
1724); but this text is now superseded by that of W. Aldis Wright
(2 vols., Rolls Series, 1887). Minor works attributed to the author
are: a Life of St Alban in verse (MS. Ashmole 43); a Life of St
Patrick, also in verse (MS. Tanner 17); a Life of St Bridget (MS.
C.C.C. Cambridge, 145); and a Life of St Alphege (MS. Cott.,
Julius D. ix). A Martyrdom of St Thomas Becket and a Life of St
Brendan, both attributed to Robert, were printed by the Percy
Society in 1845.
See T. D. Hardy's Descriptive Catalogue of MSS. i. 25, 68, iii.
181-9, 623; K. Brossman, Ober die Quellen der Chronik des R.
von Gloucester (Striegau, 1887); W. Ellmer in Anglia (1888), x. 1-37,
291-322; H. Stronmeyer, Der SM der Reimchronik R. von
Gloucester (Berlin, 1891). (H. W. C. D.)
ROBERT OF JUHIEGES (d. c. 1070), archbishop of Canter-
bury, was a Norman who became prior of St Ouen at Rouen
and then abbot of Jumieges. A close friend of the future king of
England, Edward the Confessor, he crossed over to England with
Edward in 1042, and in 1044 became bishop of London. In
English history Robert appears as the most trusted and the most
prominent of the king's foreign friends, and as the leader of
the party hostile to the influence of Earl Godwine. In 1051,
although the chapter had already made an election, Edward
appointed him archbishop of Canterbury. He seems to have
been sent by the king on an errand to Duke William of Nor-
mandy, and on the return of Godwine from exile in 1052 he fled
in great haste from England. He was outlawed and deposed,
and he died at Jumidges about 1070. The treatment of Robert
by the English was put forward by William the Conqueror as a
pretext for invading England.
See Two Saxon Chronicles, edited by J. Earle and C. Plummer
(Oxford, 1892); and E. A. Freeman, History of the Norman Con-
quest (Oxford, 1870-76).
ROBERT OF TORIGNI (c. 1110-1186), medieval chronicler,
was prior of Bee in 1149, and in 1154 became abbot of Mont
402
ROBERT THE DEVIL ROBERT, L. L.
St Michel, whence he is also sometimes called Robertas de
Monte. He died, according to Potthast, on the 29th of May
1 1 86. He wrote additions and appendices to the chronicle
of Sigebert of Genblours, covering the period A.D. 385-1100,
and a chronicle in continuation of Sigebert, extending from
iioo to 1186, of great value for Anglo-Norman history. Robert
was in a good position to obtain information, for the Mont St
Michel was one of the four great centres of pilgrimage in Europe.
But he was excessively timid and cautious, and hardly mentions
events, like the murder of Becket, which were subjects of con-
troversy. Besides, his style is that of the driest annalist. It is
for continental affairs between 1154 and 1170 that his informa-
tion is especially valuable. His notices of English affairs are
slight and sometimes misleading.
The best modern editions are the Chronique de Robert de Torigni,
&c., edited by Leopold Delisle for the Soc. de I'histoire de Normandie
(Rouen, 1872-1873), and Chronicle of Robert of Torigni, edited, with an
introduction, by Richard Hewlett (Rolls Series, No. 82, iv. 1889).
ROBERT THE DEVIL, hero of romance. He was the son of
a duke and duchess of Normandy, and by the time he was
twenty was a prodigy of strength, which he used, however,
only for outrage and crime. At last he learnt from his mother,
in explanation of his wicked impulses, that he was born in
answer to prayers addressed to the devil. He was directed by
the pope to a hermit, who imposed on him by way of penance
that he should maintain absolute silence, feign madness,
take his food from the mouth of a dog, and provoke ill-treat-
ment from the common people without retaliating. He became
court fool to the emperor at Rome, and delivered the city from
Saracen invasions in three successive years in the guise of an
unknown knight, having each time been bidden to fight by a
celestial messenger. The emperor's dumb daughter recovered
speech to declare the identity of the court fool with the deliverer
of the city, but Robert refused the hand of the princess and the
imperial inheritance, and ended his days in the hermitage of
his old confessor.
The French romance of Robert le Diable is one of the oldest
versions of the legend, and differs in detail from the popular
tales printed in the isth and i6th centuries. It was apparently
founded on folk-lore, not on the wickedness of Robert Guiscard
or any historical personage; but probably the name of Robert
and the localization of the legend may be put down to the
terror inspired by the Normans. In the English version the
hero is called Sir Gowther, and the scene is laid in Germany.
This metrical romance dates from the beginning of the isth
century, and is based, according to its author, on a Breton lay.
The legend had undergone much change before it was used by
E. Scribe and C. Delavigne in the libretto of Meyerbeer's opera
of Robert le Diable.
See Robert le Diable, ed. E. Loseth (Paris, 1903, for the Soc. des
anc. textes fr.) ; Sir Gowther, ed. K. Breul (Oppeln, 1886) ; M.
Tardel, Die Sage v. Robert d. Teufel in neueren deutschen Dichtungen
(Berlin, 1900). Breul's edition of the English poem contains an
examination of the legend, and a bibliography of the literature
dealing with the subject. The English prose romance of Robert
the Devyll was printed (c. 1510) by Wynkyn de Worde.
ROBERT THE STRONG Ge Fort) (d. 866), count of Anjou
and of Blois, is said by Richerus to have been the son of a
certain Witichin, but nothing definite is known about his
parentage or early life. Quickly attaining a prominent position
among the Frankish nobles, he appears as rector of the abbey
of Marmoutier in 852, and as one of Charles the Bald's missi
dominici, in 853; but soon afterwards he was among those
who rebelled against Charles, and invited the king's half-
brother, Louis the German, to invade West Francia. How-
ever, after the peace between Charles and Louis in 860 Robert
came to terms with his sovereign, who made him count of
Anjou and of Blois, and entrusted him with the defence of
that part of his kingdom which lay between the Seine and the
Loire, a district which had suffered greatly from the ravages
of the Normans and the Bretons. By his conduct in many
stubborn fights with these foes, Robert thoroughly earned his
surname and gained the confidence of the king, who gave him
the counties of Nevers and Auxerre. He was killed in battle
at Brissarthe in October 866, leaving two sons, Odo, or Eudes,
and Robert, both of whom became kings of the Franks. Robert
has been compared to the Maccabees, and the fact that he
was the ancestor of the Capetian kings of France has invested
him with historical importance.
See K. von Kalekstein, Robert der Tapfere (Berlin, 1871); and
E. Favre, udes, comte de Paris et roi de France (Paris, 1893).
ROBERT, HUBERT (1753-1808), French artist, born at
Paris in 1753, deserves to be remembered not so much for his
skill as a painter as for the liveliness and point with which he
treated the subjects he painted. The contrast between the
ruins of ancient Rome and the life of his time excited his
keenest interest; and, although he had started for Italy on
his own responsibility, the credit he there acquired procured
him the protection of the minister Marigny and an official
allowance. His incessant activity as an artist, his daring
character, his many adventures, attracted general sympathy
and admiration. In the fourth canto of his L' Imagination
Delille celebrated Robert's miraculous escape when lost in the
catacombs; later in life, when imprisoned during the Terror
and marked for the guillotine, by a fatal accident another
died in his place and Robert lived. The quantity of his work
is immense; the Louvre alone contains nine paintings by his
hand and specimens are frequently to be met with in provincial
museums and private collections. Robert's work has more
or less of that scenic character which justified his selection by
Voltaire to paint the decorations of his theatre at Ferney.
Robert died of apoplexy on the 15th of April 1808. His work was
much engraved by the abbe Le Non, with whom he had visited
Naples in the company of Fragonard during his early days;
in Italy his work has also been frequently reproduced by
Chatelain, Lienard, Le Veau, and others.
See C. Blanc, Hist, des peintres; Villot, Notice des tableaux du
Louvre; Julius Meyer, Gesch. mod.fr. Malerei.
ROBERT, LOUIS LEOPOLD (1794-1835), French painter,
was born at Chaux de Fonds (Neuchatel) in Switzerland on
the i3th of May 1794, but left his native place with the engraver
Girardet at the age of sixteen for Paris. He was on the eve
of obtaining the grand prix for engraving when the events of
1815 blasted his hopes, for Neuchatel was restored to Prussia,
and Robert was struck off the list of competitors as a foreigner.
Whilst continuing his studies under Girardet he had never
ceased to frequent the studio of David, and he now determined
to become a painter, and only returned to his native country
when his master himself was exiled. At Neuchatel he attracted
the notice of Roullet de Mezerac, who enabled him by a timely
loan to proceed to Rome. In depicting the customs and life
of the people, of southern Italy especially, he showed peculiar
feeling for the historical characteristics of their race. After
executing many detached studies of Italian life Robert conceived
the idea of painting four great works which should represent
at one and the same time the four seasons in Italy and the four
leading races of its people. In the " Return from the Fete of
the Madonna dell' Arco " (Louvre) he depicted the Neapolitans
and the spring. This picture, exhibited at the Salon of 1827,
achieved undoubted success and was bought for the Luxem-
bourg by Charles X.; but the work which appeared in 1831
the " Summer Reapers arriving in the Pontine Marshes " (Louvre) ,
which became the property of Louis Philippe established
the artist's reputation. Florence and her autumn vineyards
should now have furnished him with his third subject. He
attempted to begin it, but, unable to conquer his passion for
Princess Charlotte Napoleon (then mourning the violent death
of her husband, Robert's devoted friend), he threw up his work
and went to Venice, where he began and carried through the
fourth of the series, the " Fishers of the Adriatic." This work
was not equal to the " Reapers." Worn by the vicissitudes of
painful feeling, and bitterly discouraged, Robert committed
suicide before his easel on the 2Oth of March 1835, on the
tenth anniversary of the melancholy suicide of a brother to
whom he had been much attached.
ROBERT-FLEURY ROBERTS, EARL
403
See Villot, Notice des tableaux du Louvre; C. Blanc, Hist, des
peintres; Feuillet de Conches, Correspondence de L. L. Robert;
Julius Meyer, Gesch. mod.fr. Malerei.
ROBERT-FLEURY, JOSEPH NICOLAS (1797-1890), French
painter, was born at Cologne. He was sent by his family to
Paris, and after travelling in Italy returned to France and
made his first appearance at the Salon in 1824; his reputa-
tion, however, was not established until three years later, when
he exhibited " Tasso at the Convent of St Onophrius." En-
dowed with a vigorous original talent, and with a vivid imagina-
tion, especially for the tragic incidents of history, he soon rose
to fame, and in 1850 succeeded Granet as member of the
Academic des Beaux-Arts. In 1855 he was appointed professor
and in 1863 director of the Ecole des Beaux- Arts, and in the
following year he went to Rome as director of the French
Academy in that city. Among his chief works are: " A
Reading at Mme. de Sevignd's," " Scene of St Bartholomew,"
" Henry IV. taken to the Louvre after his Assassination "
(1836); "Triumphal Entry of Clovis at Tours" (1838), at
the Versailles Museum; " Le Colloque de Poissy " (1840), at
the Luxembourg Museum in Paris; " The Children of Louis
XVI. in the Temple" (1840); "Marino Faliero "; "An
Auto-da-fe," " Galileo before the Holy Office," at the Luxem-
bourg Museum; " Christopher Columbus received by the
Spanish Court " (1847), at the same gallery; " The Last
Moments of Montaigne" (1853); and "Charles V. in the
Monastery of Yuste " (1857). He died in Paris in 1890.
His son, TONY ROBERT-FLEURY (1837- ), French painter,
was born in Paris, and studied under his father and under
Delaroche and Leon Coignet. His first picture at the Salon,
in 1866, was a large historical composition of the " Warsaw
Massacres on April 8, 1861." In the following year his " Old
Women in the Place Navone, Rome " was bought for the
Luxembourg Museum, as was also the " Last Day of Corinth "
in 1870. In 1880 he painted a ceiling for the Luxembourg,
representing " The Glorification of French Sculpture." Tony
Robert-Fleury became president of the Societe des Artistes
francais in succession to Bouguereau. He acquired a great
reputation for his historical compositions and portraits; and
from his atelier have issued a great number of the best-known
painters of our day.
ROBERTS, DAVID (1796-1864), Scottish painter, was born
at Stockbridge, Edinburgh, on the 24th of October 1796. He
was apprenticed by his father, a shoemaker, for seven years to
a painter and house-decorator; and during this time he em-
ployed his evenings in the study of art. In 1820 he formed the
acquaintance of Clarkson Stanfield, then painting at the Pan-
theon, Edinburgh, at whose suggestion he sent three pictures
in 1822 to the Exhibition of Works by Living Artists, held
in Edinburgh. In the same year he removed to London,
where he worked for the Coburg Theatre, and was afterwards
employed, along with Stanfield, at Drury Lane. In 1824 he
exhibited at the British Institution a view of Dryburgh Abbey,
and sent two works to the first exhibition of the Society of
British Artists, of which he was elected president in 1831.
In the same autumn he visited Normandy, and the works
which were the results of this excursion began to lay the founda-
tion of the artist's reputation one of them, a view of Rouen
Cathedral, being sold for eighty guineas. His scenes for an
opera, The Seraglio, executed two years later, and the scenery
for a pantomime dealing with the naval victory of Navarino,
and two panoramas executed jointly by him and Stanfield,
were among his last work for the theatres. In 1829 he exhibited
the " Departure of the Israelites from Egypt," in which his style
first becomes apparent; three years afterwards he travelled in
Spain and Tangiers, returning in the end of 1833 with a supply
of effective sketches, elaborated into attractive and popular
paintings. His " Interior of Seville Cathedral " was exhibited
in the British Institution in 1834, and sold for 300; and he
executed a fine series of Spanish illustrations for the Landscape
Annual of 1836, while in 1837 a selection of his Picturesque
Sketches in Spain was reproduced by lithography.
In 1838 Roberts made a long tour in the East, and accumulated
a vast collection of sketches of a class of scenery which had
hitherto been hardly touched by British artists, and which
appealed to the public with all the charm of novelty. The
next ten years of his life were mainly spent in elaborating
these materials. An extensive series of drawings was litho-
graphed by Louis Haghe in Sketches in the Holy Land and
Syria, 1842-1849. In 1851, and again in 1853, Roberts visited
Italy, painting the " Ducal Palace, Venice," bought by Lord
Londesborough, the " Interior of the Basilica of St Peter's, Rome,"
" Christmas Day, 1853," and " Rome from the Convent of St
Onofrio," presented to the Royal Scottish Academy. His last
volume of illustrations, Italy, Classical, Historical and Pictu-
resque, was published in 1859. He also executed, by command of
Queen Victoria, a picture of the opening of the Great Exhibition
of 1851. In 1839 he was elected an associate and in 1841 a
full member of the Royal Academy; and in 1858 he was pre-
sented with the freedom of the city of Edinburgh. The last
years of his life were occupied with a series of views of London
from the Thames. He had executed six of these, and was at
work upon a picture of St Paul's Cathedral, when, on the 25th
November 1864, he died suddenly of apoplexy.
A Life of Roberts, compiled from his journals and other sources
by James Ballantine, with etchings and pen-and-ink sketches by
the artist, appeared in Edinburgh in 1866.
ROBERTS, FREDERICK SLEIGH ROBERTS, EARL (1832-
), British soldier, second son of General Sir Abraham
Roberts, G.C.B., was born at Cawnpore, ln.di;i, on the 3oth of
September 1832. Educated at Eton, Sandhurst and Addis-
combe, he obtained a commission in the Bengal Artillery on
1 2th December 1851. In the following year he was posted to
a field battery at Peshawar, where he also acted as aide-de-
camp to his father, who commanded the Peshawar division.
In 1856 Roberts was appointed to the quartermaster-general's
department of the staff, in which he remained for twenty-two
years, passing from one grade to another until he became
quartermaster-general in India. On the outbreak of the
Mutiny in 1857, Roberts, at first, was staff officer to the movable
column operating against the mutineers in the Punjab, suc-
cessively commanded by Colonels Neville Chamberlain and
John Nicholson, but, towards the end of June, he joined the
Delhi Field Force, and was deputy assistant quartermaster-
general with the artillery during the operations against Delhi.
He was wounded in the fight of the I4th of July, but was
sufficiently recovered in September to take command as a
regimental officer of the left half of No. 2 Siege Battery during
the siege. He rejoined the headquarters staff for the assault,
and took part in the storm and subsequent seven days' fighting
in the city. He then accompanied Colonel Greathed's column
to Cawnpore, and during September and October was present
at the actions of Bulandshahr, Aligarh, Agra, Bithur and
Kanauj. He served under Sir Colin Campbell at the second
relief of Lucknow in November, at the battle of Cawnpore on
the 6th of December, and the subsequent pursuit and defeat
of the Gwalior contingent near Shinrajpur. Roberts dis-
tinguished himself at the engagement of Khudaganj, on the
2nd of January 1858, by capturing, in single-handed combat,
a standard from two sepoys, and also by cutting down a sepoy
about to kill a sowar. For these acts of gallantry he was
recommended for the Victoria Cross. He was present at the
reoccupation of Fatehgarh on the 6th of January, the storm of
Mianganj in February, the siege and capture of Lucknow in
March, and the action at Kursi on the 22nd of that month,
after which he went home on sick leave. For his services in the
Mutiny he was seven times mentioned in despatches, received
the medal with three clasps, the Victoria Cross, and on his
promotion to captain, in October 1860, a brevet majority. On
the i7th of May 1859 he married, at Waterford, Miss Nora
Bews, and on his return to India was entrusted with the organiza-
tion of the viceroy's camps during the progresses through
Oudh, the North-West Provinces, the Punjab and Central India
in 1860 and 1861. In December 1863 he took part, under
404
ROBERTS, EARL
Major-General Garvock, in the Umbeyla campaign among the
mountains to the north of Peshawar, and was present at the
storm of Lalu, the capture of Umbeyla, and the destruction of
Mulka, receiving for his services the medal and clasp.
In 1867 Roberts was appointed assistant quartermaster-
general to Sir Donald Stewart's Bengal Brigade for Abyssinia.
He showed judgment in embarking each unit complete in
every detail, instead of despatching camp equipage in one
ship, transport in another, and so on, as was customary. He
arrived at Zula, Annesley Bay, in the Red Sea, the base of the
expedition, on the 3rd of February 1868, and remained there
as senior base staff officer during the four months' campaign.
At its close he superintended the re-embarkation of the whole
army. His duties were so well performed that Sir Robert Napier
sent him home with his final despatches. He was three times
" mentioned," and received a brevet lieutenant-colonelcy and
the war medal. He returned to India the following year as
first assistant quartermaster-general. In the autumn of 1871
he made the arrangements for the expedition into Lushai,
between south-east Bengal and Burma, fitted out two columns
under Brigadiers-General Bourchier and Brownlow, and himself
accompanied the first. A road, over 100 m. long, was cut
through dense gloomy forests in stifling heat, and the column
was attacked by cholera; but the object of the expedition
was successfully accomplished, and Roberts, who was present
at the capture of the Kholel villages and the action in the
Northlang range, and commanded the troops at the burning
of Taikum, was mentioned in despatches and made a Companion
of the Bath. On his return in March 1872, he became deputy
quartermaster-general in Bengal, and in 1875 quartermaster-
general and colonel. He settled the details of the great camp
of exercise at Delhi on the occasion of the visit of the prince
of Wales in January 1876, and attended H.R.H. at the man-
oeuvres. He also superintended the arrangements for the great
durbar at Delhi on the ist of January 1877, when Queen Victoria
was proclaimed empress of India.
In 1878 Roberts was appointed to the command of the
Frontier Field Force at Abbottabad, in Hazara; but in the
autumn, on the repulse of the Chamberlain Mission by the
Afghans, and the formation of three columns to advance into
Afghanistan by the Khyber, the Bolan and the Kurram passes,
he was given the command of the Kurram Field Force, with
the rank of major-general. Concentrating his column at Thai,
he advanced to Kurram towards the end of November, and
having formed an advanced base there, moved on to Habib
Kila. Under cover of preparations for a front attack on the
Peiwar Kotal, he reconnoitred that formidable position, and
on the night of the ist of December moved part of his force
to attack the Spingawi Kotal, in order to turn the Afghan left
flank, leaving the remainder of the force to feign a front attack
on the Peiwar, and to guard the camp. After a very difficult
night march the Spingawi Kotal was carried at daybreak on
the 2nd, and, later, the Afghans on the Peiwar Kotal, threatened
in rear, abandoned the position. The next morning Roberts
occupied the Peiwar, and on the 6th advanced to Ali Khel.
He reconnoitred the Shutargardan and the Sapari passes, and
made a strong reconnaissance through Khost, in which some
fighting took place, and at the end of January returned to Hagir
Pir, in Kurram, where his force remained in occupation. In
July Major Cavagnari, the British envoy to the new amir,
Yakub Khan, passed through Kurram on his way to Kabul,
and, shortly afterwards, Roberts left his Kurram command
and went to Simla to take his seat on the army commission,
where he strongly advocated the abolition of the three Presi-
dency armies, and the substitution for them of four army
corps, a measure which was carried out sixteen years later.
While he was at Simla, news arrived on the 5th of September
of the murder of Cavagnari and his companions at Kabul.
The Peshawar Valley Force had been broken up; Sir Donald
Stewart was still at Kandahar, but most of his troops had
started for India; Roberts, therefore, had the only force ready
to strike rapidly at Kabul. It was hastily reinforced, and he
hurried back to Kurram to take command, as a lieutenant-
general, of the Kabul Field Force (7500 men and 22 guns).
By the igth of September a brigade was entrenched on the
Shutargardan, and as Roberts advanced, the Amir Yakub
Khan came into his camp. An Afghan force of 8000 men
blocked the way in a strong position on the heights beyond
Charasia, and on the 6th of October Roberts repeated the
tactics that had done him such good service at the Peiwar in
the previous year, and sending Brigadier-General T. D. Baker
with the greater part of his force to turn the Afghan right
flank, threatened the pass in front with the remainder. By
the afternoon Baker had seized the position, and the enemy,
severely defeated, were in full retreat. Kabul was occupied
without further opposition.
The city was spared, but punishment was meted out to
those convicted of complicity in the murder of the British
Mission. Yakub Khan abdicated on the I2th of October,
and was eventually deported to India. The troops occupied
the Sherpur cantonments; but in November a religious war
was proclaimed by the Mullahs, and early in December, in order
to prevent a threatening combination of Afghan tribes against
him, Roberts moved out two columns to attack them in detail.
After considerable fighting around Kabul, the numbers of the
enemy were so great that he was forced to concentrate his
troops again at Sherpur, the defences of which had been greatly
improved and strengthened. Sherpur was invested by the
enemy, and early on the 23rd of December was attacked by
over 100,000 Afghans. They were driven off with great loss;
and on making a second attempt to storm the place, were
met by Roberts, who moved out, attacked them in flank, and
defeated them, when they broke and dispersed. Roberts now
recommended the political dismemberment of Afghanistan,
and negotiations were carried on with the northern tribes for
the appointment of an amir for the Kabul district only. On
the 5th of May Sir Donald Stewart arrived with his column
from Kandahar and assumed the supreme command in Afghan-
istan, Roberts retaining, under Stewart, the command of the
two Kabul divisions, and organizing an efficient transport
corps under Colonel R. Low, which was soon to be of inestimable
value. On the 22nd of July Abdur Rahman was proclaimed
Amir of Kabul; and Roberts was preparing to withdraw his
troops to India by the Kurram route, when news arrived that
a British brigade had been totally defeated at Maiwand on
the 27th of July, and that Lieutenant-General Primrose was
besieged in Kandahar. Roberts was ordered to proceed thither
at once with a specially selected column of 10,000 troops
and his new transport corps. He started on his famous
march on the gth of August and arrived at Kandahar on the
morning of the 3ist, having covered 313 miles in twenty-two
days. On the following day he fought the battle of Kandahar
and gained a complete victory. His services in the Afghan
campaigns of 1878 to 1880 are recorded in eight Gazettes, and
were recognized by the thanks of both Houses of Parliament,
of the Government of India, and of the Governor-General in
Council. He was created K.C.B., G.C.B. and a baronet, re-
ceived the medal with four clasps and the bronze star, and
was given the command of the Madras army.
Before proceeding to Madras, Roberts went home on furlough,
and when the news of the disaster at Majuba Hill in South
Africa arrived in London at the end of February 1881, he was
appointed governor of Natal and commander-in-chief in South
Africa. He arrived at Cape Town to find that peace had been
made with the Boers, and that instructions were awaiting him
to return home. The same year he attended the autumn
manoeuvres in Hanover as the guest of the German emperor.
He declined the post of quartermaster-general to the forces
in succession to Sir Garnet Wolseley, and returned to India,
arriving at Madras in November. The following year he visited
Burma with the viceroy, and in 1885 attended the meeting
between Abdur Rahman and Lord Dufferin at Rawalpindi at
the time of the Panjdeh incident, in connexion with which
he had been nominated to the command of an army corps in
ROBERTSON, F. W. ROBERTSON, G. C.
405
case of hostilities. In July he succeeded Sir Donald Stewart
as commander-in-chief in India, and during his seven years'
tenure of this high position instituted many measures for the
benefit of the army, and greatly assisted the development of
frontier communications and defence. At the end of 1886, at
the request of the viceroy, he took personal command for a
time of the forces in Burma, and organized measures for the
suppression of dacoity. For his services he received the medal,
was created G.C.I.E., and promoted supernumerary general.
In 1890 he did the honours of the army to Prince Albert Victor
at a standing camp at Muridki, and in 1891 his attention was
occupied with the Zhob and Hunza Nagar frontier campaigns.
On the ist of January 1892 he was raised to the peerage as
Baron Roberts of Kandahar and Waterford. In 1893 he left
India for good, and the G. C.S.I, was bestowed upon him. He
was promoted to be field-marshal in 1895, and in the autumn
of that year succeeded Lord Wolseley in the Irish command
and was sworn a privy councillor. At Queen Victoria's diamond
jubilee in 1897 he was created K.P.
After the disastrous actions in the Boer war in South Africa
in December 1899 at Magersfontein, Stormberg and Colenso,
where his only son was killed, Lord Roberts was sent out as
commander-in-chief. He arrived at Cape Town on the loth
of January 1900, and after organizing his force, advanced with
sound strategy on Bloemfontein, the capital of the Orange
Free State, and soon changed the aspect of affairs. The sieges
of Kimberley and Ladysmith were raised, and the Boer general,
Cronje, flying towards the capital, was overtaken at Paardeberg
and, after a fine defence, compelled to surrender, with 5000 men,
on the anniversary of Majuba Day, the 27th of February 1900.
Roberts entered Bloemfontein on the I3th of March, and after
six weeks' preparation, advanced on Pretoria, the capital of
the Transvaal. Mafeking was relieved on the i7th of May,
and Pretoria occupied on the 5th of June. The two Boer states
were annexed, and the war gradually assuming a guerilla
character, Roberts handed over the command to Lord Kitchener
and returned to England to fill the office of commander-in-chief
of the army in succession to Lord Wolseley.
He arrived in the Solent on the 2nd of January 1901, and
the same day, at Osborne, had an audience of Queen Victoria,
who handed him the insignia of the Order of the Garter. The
next day he was received at Paddington by the prince and
princess of Wales, and drove in procession to Buckingham
Palace, where he was entertained as the guest of the queen.
He again had an audience of the queen at Osborne on the I4th
of January on his elevation to an earldom, the last audience
given by her majesty before her death, which took place eight
days later. When the German emperor came to London for
the queen's funeral, he decorated Lord Roberts with the Order
of the Black Eagle. Earl Roberts received the thanks of both
Houses of Parliament and a grant of 100,000 for his services
in South Africa. In 1905 he resigned his post on the Committee
of National Defence, and devoted himself to attempting to
rouse his countrymen to the necessity of cultivating rifle-
shooting and of adopting systematic general military training
and service. As an author he is known by his Rise of Welling-
ton (1895), and his Forty-One Years in India (1897), an auto-
biography which has passed through numerous editions.
ROBERTSON, FREDERICK WILLIAM (1816-1853), English
divine, known as Robertson of Brighton, was born in London
on the 3rd of February 1816. The first five years of his life
were passed at Leith Fort, where his father, a captain in the
Royal Artillery, was then resident. The military spirit entered
into his blood, and throughout life he was characterized by
the qualities of the ideal soldier. In 1821 Captain Robertson
retired to Beverley, where the boy was educated. At the age
of fourteen he spent a year at Tours, from which he returned
to Scotland and continued his education at the Edinburgh
Academy and university. In 1834 he was articled to a solicitor
in Bury St Edmunds, but the uncongenial and sedentary
employment soon broke down his health. He was anxious
for a military career, and his name was placed upon the list
of the 3rd Dragoons, then serving in India. For two years he
worked hard in preparing for the army, but, by a singular
conjunction of circumstances and at the sacrifice of his own
natural bent to his father's wish, he matriculated at Brasenose
College, Oxford, just two weeks before his commission was
put into his hands. Oxford he did not find wholly congenial
to his intensely earnest spirit, but he read hard, and, as he
afterwards said, " Plato, Aristotle, Butler, Thucydides, Sterne,
Jonathan Edwards, passed like the iron atoms of the blood
into my mental constitution." At the same time he made a
careful study of the Bible, committing to memory the entire
New Testament both in English and in Greek. The Tractarian
movement had no attraction for him, although he admired
some of its leaders. He was at this time a moderate Calvinist
in doctrine, and enthusiastically evangelical. Ordained in
July 1840 by the bishop of Winchester, he at once entered on
ministerial work in that city, and during his ministry there
and under the influence of the missionaries Henry Martyn and
David Brainerd, whose lives he studied, he carried devotional
asceticism to an injurious length. In less than a year he was
compelled to seek 'relaxation; and going to Switzerland he
there met and married Helen, third daughter of Sir George
William Denys, Bart. Early in 1842, after a few months'
rest, he accepted a curacy in Cheltenham, which he retained
for upwards of four years. The questioning spirit was first
aroused in him by the disappointing fruit of evangelical doctrine
which he found in Cheltenham, as well as by intimacy with
men of varied reading. But, if we are to judge from his own
statement in a letter from Heidelberg in 1846, the doubts
which now actively assailed him had long been latent in his
mind. The crisis of his mental conflict had just been passed
in Tirol, and he was now beginning to let his creed grow again
from the one fixed point which nothing had availed to shift:
" The one great certainty to which, in the midst of the darkest
doubt, I never ceased to cling the entire symmetry and
loveliness and the unequalled nobleness of the humanity of
the Son of Man." After this mental revolution he felt unable
to return to Cheltenham, but after doing duty for two months
at St Ebbe's, Oxford, he entered in August 1847 on his famous
ministry at Trinity Chapel, Brighton. Here he stepped at
once into the foremost rank as a preacher, and his church was
thronged with thoughtful men of all classes in society and of
all shades of religious belief. His fine appearance, his flexible
and sympathetic voice, his manifest sincerity, the perfect
lucidity and artistic symmetry of his address, and the brilliance
with which he illustrated his points would have attracted
hearers even had he had little to say. But he had much to
say. He was not, indeed, a scientific theologian; but his in-
sight into the principles of the spiritutal life was unrivalled.
As his biographer says, thousands found in his. sermons "a
living source of impulse, a practical direction of thought, a
key to many of the problems of theology, and above all a path
to spiritual freedom." His closing years were full of sadness.
His sensitive nature was subjected to extreme suffering, arising
mainly from the opposition aroused by his sympathy with
the revolutionary ideas of the 1848 epoch. Moreover, he was
crippled by incipient disease of the brain, which at first in-
flicted unconquerable lassitude and depression, and latterly
agonizing pain. On the sth of June 1853 he preached for the
last time, and on the isth of August he died.
Robertson's published works include five volumes of sermons,
two volumes of expository lectures, on Genesis and on the epistles
to the Corinthians, a volume of miscellaneous addresses, and an
Analysis of " In Memoriam." See Life and Letters by Stopford A.
Brooke (1865).
ROBERTSON, GEORGE CROOM (1842-1892), Scottish
philosopher, was born at Aberdeen on the loth of March 1842.
In 1857 he gained a bursary at Marischal College, and graduated
M.A. in i so i, with the highest honours in classics and philo-
sophy. In 'the same year he won a Fergusson scholarship
of 100 a year for two years, which enabled him to pursue
his studies outside Scotland. He went first to University
406
ROBERTSON, J. ROBERTSON, W.
College, London; at Heidelberg he worked at German; at
Berlin he studied psychology, metaphysics and also physiology
under du Bois-Reymond, and heard lectures on Hegel, Kant
and the history of philosophy, ancient and modern. After
two months at Gottingen, he went to Paris in June 1863. In
the same year he returned to Aberdeen and helped Alexander
Bain with the revision of some of his books. In 1864 he was
appointed to help Professor Geddes with his Greek classes,
but he gave up the vacations to philosophical work. In 1866
he was appointed professor of philosophy of mind and logic
at University College, London. This post he retained until
ill-health compelled him to resign a few months before his
death in 1892. He lectured on logic, deductive and inductive,
systematic psychology and ethical theory. He left little
published work. A comprehensive work on Hobbes was
never completed, though part of the materials were used for
an article in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, and another portion
was published as one of Blackwood's " Philosophical Classics."
Together with Bain, he edited Crete's Aristotle, and was
the editor of Mind from its foundation in 1876 till 1891. He
was keenly interested in German philosophy, and took every
opportunity of making German works on English writers
known in the United Kingdom. In philosophy he followed
mainly Mill and Bain, but he was acquainted with all philo-
sophical literature. He was associated with his wife (a
daughter of Mr Justice Crompton) in many kinds of social
work; he sat on the Committee of the National Society for
Women's Suffrage, and was actively associated with its pre-
sident, John Stuart Mill. He warmly supported the admission
of women students to University College.
ROBERTSON, JOSEPH (1810-1866), Scottish antiquary,
was born at Aberdeen on the i;th of May 1810, the son of a
small shopkeeper. He was educated in Marischal College in
Aberdeen and was for some years engaged in literary and news-
paper work there and in Glasgow and Edinburgh. In 1839
he helped to found the Spalding Club, organized to publish the
historical, genealogical, topographical and literary remains of
the north-eastern counties of Scotland, and he edited eight
of its thirty-eight volumes. In 1853 he was appointed curator
of the historical and antiquarian department of the General
Register House, Edinburgh, hitherto a subordinate and un-
important office, but which, in his hands, became of the first
consequence to the interests of antiquarian literature in Scotland.
His inventory of the personal property and jewels of Mary Queen
of Scots, prefaced by a paper of great learning and research,
and his essays on Scottish architecture, preceded his greatest
work, published by the Bannatyne Club (1866), Concilia
Scotiae, Ecclesiae Scoticanae Statuta. In 1864 the University
of Edinburgh conferred upon him the honorary degree of LL.D.
He died on the I3th of December 1866.
ROBERTSON, THOMAS WILLIAM (1829-1871), English
actor and dramatist, was born at Newark on the gth of January
1829. As a dramatist he had a brief but very brilliant career.
The son of a provincial actor and manager, chief of a " circuit "
that ranged from Bristol to Cambridge, Robertson was familiar
with the stage from his childhood; he was the eldest of a large
family, the actress Margaret (Madge) Robertson (Mrs Kendal)
being the youngest. His success came late. A farcical comedy
by him, A Night's Adventure, was produced at the Olympic
under Farren's management as early as 1851, but this did not
make good his footing, and he remained for some years longer
in the provinces, varying his work as an actor with miscellaneous
contributions to newspapers. In 1860 he went to London, and
edited a mining journal to which he contributed a novel after-
wards dramatized with the title Shadow Tree Shaft. He was
at one time prompter at the Olympic under the management
of Charles Mathews. He wrote a farce entitled A Cantab,
which was played at the Strand Theatre in 1861. This brought
him a reputation in a Bohemian clique, but so little practica'
assistance that he thought of abandoning the profession to
become a tobacconist. Then, in 1864, came his first marked
success, David Garrick, produced at the Haymarket with
Edward Sothern in the principal character. It was not, how-
ever, till the production of Society at the Prince of Wales
Theatre in 1865, under the management of Miss Marie Wilton,
afterwards Mrs Bancroft, that the originality and cleverness
of the dramatist were fully recognized. Play-writer and
company were exactly suited one to another; the plays and
the acting together the small size of the playhouse being
also in their favour were at once recognized as a new thing.
Although some critics sneered at the " cup-and-saucer comedy,"
voted it absurdly realistic, said there was nothing in it but
commonplace life represented without a trace of Sheridanian
wit and sparkle, all London flocked to the little house in Totten-
ham Street, and the stage was at once inundated with imitations
of the new style of acting and the new kind of play. Robertson,
although his health was already undermined, rapidly followed
up Society with a series of characteristic plays which made
the reputation of himself, the company and the theatre. All
his best known plays (except David Garrick) were written
for the old Prince of Wales's under the Bancrofts, and that
regime is now an historical incident in the progress of the
English stage. Ours was produced in 1866, Caste in 1867,
Play in 1868, School in 1869, M.P. in 1870. Unhappily, Robert-
son enjoyed his success for but a short time. He died in London
on the 3rd of February 1871. His work is notable for its
masterly stagecraft, wholesome and generous humour, bright
and unstrained dialogue, and high dramatic sense of human
character in its theatrical aspects.
See Principal Dramatic Works of Robertson; with Memoir by his son
(1889) ; and T. E. Pemberton, Life and Writings of Robertson (1893).
ROBERTSON, WILLIAM (1721-1793), Scottish historian,
born at Borthwick, Mid Lothian, on the igth of September 1721,
was the eldest son of the Rev. William Robertson. He was
educated at the school of Dalkeith and the university of
Edinburgh. He was from the first intended for the ministry;
in 1743 he was presented to the living of Gladsmuir in East
Lothian, and two years later he lost both his father and his
mother, who died within a few hours of each other. The
support and education of a younger brother and six sisters then
devolved upon him, though at that time his income was less
than 100 a year. Robertson's inclination for study was never
allowed to interfere with his duties as a parish minister, and
his power as a preacher had made him a local celebrity while
still a young man.
His energy and decision of character were brought out vividly
by the rebellion of 1745. When Edinburgh seemed in danger
of falling into the hands of the rebels he joined the volunteers
in the capital. When the city was surrendered he was one of
the small band who repaired to Haddington and offered their
services to the commander of the royal forces. Such a man
could not remain in obscurity, and in 1746 he was elected a
member of the General Assembly, where his influence as leader
of the " moderate " party was for many years nearly supreme,
(see PRESS YTERIANISM).
During all this period of prominent activity in the public
life of Edinburgh, Robertson was busy with his historical
labours. His History of Scotland, begun in 1753, was published
in 1759. Till he had finished his book Robertson had never
left his native country; but the publication of his history
necessitated a journey to London, and he passed the early
months of the year 1758 partly in the capital and partly in
leisurely rambles in the counties of England. The success of
the History of Scotland was immediate, and within a month a
second edition was called for. Before the end of the author's
life the book had reached its fourteenth edition; and it soon
brought him other rewards than literary fame. In 1759 he
was appointed chaplain of Stirling Castle, in 1761 one of His
Majesty's chaplains in ordinary, and in 1762 he was chosen
principal of the university of Edinburgh. In May 1763 he
was elected Moderator of the General Assembly, and in August
of the same year the office of king's historiographer was revived
in his favour with a salary of 200 a year.
The rest of Robertson's life was uneventful. His History of
ROBERTSON, W. B. ROBERVAL
407
the Reign of the Emperor Charles the Fifth occupied ten con-
secutive years of labour. It appeared in three volumes quarto
in 1769. In 1777 he published his History of America and in
1791 his Disquisition concerning the Knowledge which the Ancients
had of India, which concluded his historical labours and ap-
peared only two years before his death, which occurred near
Edinburgh on the nth of June 1793. His fame had long been
European, and he left no rival in the field of historical com-
position save Gibbon alone.
For an adequate appreciation of Robertson's position in
British literature, and more especially of his rank as an historian,
we have to consider the country and the age in which he was
born and his own personal qualities and limits. Considering
the small size and poverty of the country, Scotland had made
a more than creditable figure in literature in the great age of
the Reformation and the Renaissance, and Scottish contribu-
tions to British literature in the last half of the i8th century
were distinctly superior to those produced in the southern
portion of the island.
Of the three great British historians of the i8th century two
were Scotsmen. The exact place of Robertson with regard to
his two friends Hume and Gibbon, and to such historians as the
rest of Europe had to offer, presents a question of some nicety,
because it is complicated by extraneous considerations, so to
speak, which should not weigh in an abstract estimate, but
cannot be excluded in a concrete and practical one. If we
regard only Robertson's potential historic power, the question
is not so much whether he was equal to either of his two friends
as whether he was not superior to both. The man who wrote
the review of the state of Europe prefixed to the History of
Charles V., or even the first book of the History of Scotland,
showed that he had a wider and more synthetic conception of
history than either the author of the Decline and Fall or the
author of the History of England. These two portions of
Robertson's work, with all their shortcomings in the eye of
modern criticism, have a distinctive value which time cannot
take away. He was one of the first to see the importance of
general ideas in history. He saw that the immediate narrative
of events with which he was occupied needed a background of
broad and connected generalizations, referring to the social state
of which the detailed history formed a part. But he did more
than this. In the appendix to the view of Europe called
" Proofs and Illustrations " he enters into the difficult and
obscure question of land tenure in Prankish times, and of the
origin of the feudal system, with a sagacity and knowledge
which distinctly advanced the comprehension of this period
beyond the point at which it had been left by Du Bos, Montes-
quieu and Mably. He was well acquainted with the original
documents, many of them, we may conjecture, not easy to
procure in Scotland. It must have been a genuine aptitude
for historical research of a scientific kind which led Robertson
to undertake the labour of these austere disquisitions of which
there were not many in his day who saw the importance. Gibbon,
so superior to him for wide reading and scholarship, has pointedly
avoided them. Robertson's yiews are now out of date. But
he deserves the honour of a pioneer in one of the most obscure
if also important lines of inquiry connected with European
history. On the other hand, it must be admitted that he showed
himself only too tame a follower of Voltaire in his general
appreciation of the middle ages, which he regarded with the
mingled ignorance and prejudice common in the i8th century.
In this particular he was not at all in advance of his age.
The neglect and gradual oblivion which have overtaken the
greater part of Robertson's historical work are owing to no
fault of his. He had not and could not have the requisite
materials: they were not published or accessible* Justice
requires that we should estimate his performance in view of the
means at his command, and few critics would hesitate to sub-
scribe to the verdict of Buckle, " that what he effected with his
materials was wonderful." His style is singularly clear, har-
monious and persuasive. The most serious reproach made
against it is that it is correct to a fault and lacks idiomatic vigour,
and the charge is not without foundation. But there can be
no doubt that, if Robertson's writings are less read than they
formerly were, the fact is to be attributed to no defects of style
but to the growth of knowledge and to the immense extension
of historical research which has inevitably superseded his
initiatory and meritorious labours.
By his wife, Mary Nisbet, whom he married in 1751, Robert-
son left three sons: William (1753-1835), who in 1805 was
raised to the Scottish bench as Lord Robertson; James, who
became a general in the British army; and David, who in 1799
married Margaret, sister of Colonel Donald Macdonald and
heiress of Kinloch-Moidart, whose surname he assumed.
There are lives of Robertson by Dugald Stewart (Edinburgh,
1801 and 1802), prefixed to most of the collective editions of his
works; by George Gleig, bishop of Brcchin (Edinburgh, 1812); and
by Lord Brougham in Lives of Men of Letters, &c. (1845-1846).
ROBERTSON, WILLIAM BRUCE (1820-1886), Scottish
divine, was born at Greenhill, St Ninians, Stirlingshire, on
the 24th of May 1820, and was educated at Glasgow University
and at the Secession Theological Hall, Edinburgh, where he
made the acquaintance of Thomas de Quincey, and on his recom-
mendation went to Halle and studied under Tholuck. After
travelling in Italy and Switzerland he was licensed to preach
by the presbytery of Stirling and Falkirk in 1843, and was soon
after ordained at the Secession (after 1847, the United Presby-
terian) Church in Irvine, Ayrshire. In this charge he remained
for 35 years, exercising from his pulpit a truly magnetic in-
fluence, not so discernible in his published sermons. From
1871 his health failed, in spite of several visits to Florence and
the Riviera. He resigned his charge in 1878 and died at Bridge
of Allan on the 2 7th of June 1886.
He wrote many hymns, among them a version of " Dies Irac ";
several of them, together with letters, &c., are fbvbe foundip the
Life by James Brown. A volume containing RobeHpon'sxfcxtures
on Martin Luther and other subjects was published in 1692.
ROBERVAL, GILLES PERSONNE (or PERSONIER) DE
(1603-1675), French mathematician, was born at Roberval,
near Beauvais, on the 8th of August 1602. His name was
originally Gilles Personne, that of Roberval, by which he is
known, being taken from the place of his birth. Like Ren6
Descartes, he was present at the siege of La Rochelle in 1627.
In the same year he went to Paris, where he was appointed to
the chair of philosophy in the Gervais College in 1631, and two
years later to the chair of mathematics in the Royal College of
France. A condition of tenure attached to this chair was that the
holder should propose mathematical questions for solution, and
should resign in favour of any person who solved them better than
himself; but, notwithstanding this, Roberval was able to keep
the chair till his death, which occurred at Paris on the 2yth of
October 1675.
Roberval was one of those mathematicians who, just before the
invention of the infinitesimal calculus, occupied their attention
with problems which are only soluble, or can be most easily solved,
by some method involving limits or infinitesimals, and in the
solution of which accordingly the calculus is always now employed.
Thus he devoted some attention to the quadrature of surfaces and
the cubature of solids, which he accomplished, in some of the
simpler cases, by an original method which he called the " Method of
Indivisibles " ; but he Tost much of the credit of the discoverv as he
kept his method for his own use, while Bonaventura Cavalieri published
a similar method which he himself had invented. Another of Rober-
val's discoveries was a very general method of drawing tangents, by
considering a curve as described by a moving point whose motion
is the resultant of several simpler motions. (See INFINITESIMAL
CALCULUS.) He also discovered a method of deriving one curve
from another, by means of which finite areas can be obtained
equal to the areas between certain curves and their asymptotes.
To these curves, which were also applied to effect some quadratures,
Evangelista Torricelli gave the name of " Robervallian lines."
Between Roberval and Descartes there existed a feeling of ill-will,
owing to the jealousy aroused in the mind of the former by the
criticism which Descartes offered to some of the methods employed
by him and by Pierre de Fermat; and this led him to criticize and
oppose the analytical methods which Descartes introduced into
geometry about this time. As results of Roberval's labours out-
side the department of pure mathematics may be noted a work
on the system of the universe, in which he supports the Copernican
system and attributes a mutual attraction to all particles of matter;
408
ROBES
and also the invention of a special kind of balance which goes by
his name.
His works were published in 1693 by the Abbe Gallois, in the
Recueil of the Memoires de I' Academic des Sciences.
See J. A. N. de C. Condorcet, Eloge de Robenial (Paris, 1773):
J. E. Montucla, Histoire des mathematiques (1802).
ROBES (Fr. robe, Late Lat. roba, raupa, meaning (i) spoils,
(2) robe, stuff, cf. Mod. Ital. roba, connected with a Teutonic
root raup, raub, German rauben and English rob), the name
generally given to a class of official costume, especially as worn
by certain persons or classes on occasions of particular solemnity.
According to Du Cange, the word robe was earliest used, in
the sense of a garment, of those given by popes and princes
to the members of their household or their great officers.
Thus Matthew Paris (Chron. Majora, Rolls Series, V. 38) tells
how, in 1248, the pope gave to some Tatar envoys " vestes
pretiosissimas quas Robas vulgariter appellamus, de escarleto
praeelecto, cum pellibus et furruris," with which Du Cange
compares the " festiva indumenta " given, e.g., by King John
magnatum suorum mullitudini at Christmas time (1214, Matt.
Paris, Rolls Series, II. 520) and the raubae papales scutiferorum,
and the like, given by the popes to members of their households,
after the fashion of a livery. It would, however, be perhaps
going too far to assume that, e.g., peers' robes were originally
the king's livery, for there seems to be no proof that this was
the case; but it is curious that in most early cases where robes
are mentioned, if not of cloth of gold, &c., they are of scarlet,
furred. A robe is properly a long garment, and the term
" robes " is now applied only in those cases where a long garment
forms part of the official costume, though in ordinary usage
it is taken to include all the other articles of dress proper to
the costume in question. The term " robes," moreover, con-
notes a certain degree of dignity or honour in the wearer.
We speak of the king's robes of state, of peers' robes, of the
robes of the clergy, of academic robes, judicial robes, municipal
or civic robes; we should not speak of the robes of a cathedral
verger, though he too wears a long gown of ceremony, and it
is even only by somewhat stretching the term " robes " that
we can include under it the ordinary academical dress of the
universities. In the case of the official costume of the clergy,
too, a distinction must be drawn. The vestimenta sacra are not
spoken of as " robes "; a priest is not " robed " but " vested "
for Mass; yet the rochet and chimere of an English bishop,
even in church, are more properly referred to as robes than as
vestments, and while the cope he wears in church is a vestment
rather than a robe, the scarlet cope which is part of his parlia-
mentary full dress is a robe, not a vestment. For the sake of
convenience the official, non-liturgical costume of the clergy
is dealt with under the general heading VESTMENTS and the
subsidiary articles (e.g. COPE).
The coronation robes of emperors and kings, representing as
they do the sacerdotal significance of Christian kingship, are
essentially vestments rather than robes (see CORONATION).
Apart from these, however, are the royal robes of state; in
the case of the king of England a crimson velvet surcoat and
long mantle, fastened in front of the neck, ermine lined, with a
deep cape or tippet of ermine. 1
The subject of official robes is too vast for any attempt
to be made to deal with it comprehensively here. All countries,
East and West, which boast an ancient civilization have re-
tained them in greater or less degree, and the tendency in
modern times has been to multiply rather than to diminish
their number. Even in republican France they survived the
Revolution, at least in the universities and the law courts.
But nowhere has custom been so conservative in this matter
as in the United Kingdom, where in this as in other matters
the wise Machiavellian principle has been followed of changing
1 For the sovereign's coronation robes, see " The King's Coronation
Ornaments," by W. St John Hope, in The Ancestor, vols. i. and ii.,
also L. Wickham Legg, English Coronation Records, 1901. The
" parliamentary robes " used to be of crimson or purple velvet,
furred with ermine. See the above, also the inventories of the
wardrobes of sovereigns, &c.
the substance of institutions without altering their outward
semblance. The present article, then, does not attempt to
deal with any but British robes, 2 under the headings of
(i) peers' robes, (2) robes in the House of Commons, (3) robes
of the Orders of Knighthood, (4) judicial and forensic robes,
(5) municipal and civic robes, (6) academic costume.
Peers' Robes. As early as the end of the I4th century peers
seem to have worn at their creation some kind of robe of honour;
this we may conclude from the description of the investiture
of the earl of Somerset in 1397 (Rot. Parl. iii. 343), which
says: " le dit Monsieur John fut amesnee devant le Roy en Parle-
ment entre deux Contes, c'est assavoir Huntyngdon et Mares-
chall, vestuz en un pane (Du Cange; pannus = 3. habitus vesti-
mentum) come vesture de honor "; while in accounts of various
creations of about the same time (Rot. Parl. iii. 205, 206)
are used the words " advenienteque . . . prefato Duce honorifice
. . . togato et ornato." An early illustration of their use is to
be found in an illumination on the foundation charter of King's
College, Cambridge (see fig. i), which represents the peers as.
From the foundation charter of King's College, Cambridge, 1446.
FIG. i. Peers spiritual and temporal.
early as 1446 wearing gowns, mantles and hoods of scarlet,
furred with miniver, the mantle opening on the right shoulder
and guarded with two, three or four bars of miniver, in the
form of short stripes high up on the shoulder. The origin of
these is as yet unknown, and it is not certain precisely when
the peers' velvet robe of estate was first used. At the corona-
tion of Henry VI. the king's own parliament robe was of scarlet
and miniver (Gregory's Chronicle, ed. Gairdner, Camden Soc.
pp. 165-70), so the peers' robes were certainly not yet of velvet;
at that of Henry VII. (see Rutland Papers, 1842; " Device
for the Coronation of Henry VII.") the king had a robe of
crimson velvet and ermine, but the " lords temporal! " are
only said to have been " in their robes "; at that of Henry VIII.
(see Hall's Chronicle) the king in his progress through the city
wore a crimson velvet robe furred with ermine, " his knights
and esquires for his body " wore crimson velvet, and " all the
gentlemen," &c., scarlet, while we hear of the " lords spiritual
and temporal, and of their costly and rich apparel, of several
devises and fashions," and notably of the duke of Bucking-
ham's robe of gold and needlework (Stow's Annals, p. 813),
which would show that the velvet robe of estate was not yet
worn at the king's coronation. The duke of Richmond at his
creation in 1525 (17 Henry VIII., see Brewer, Slate Papers, iv.
639) is described as clad in robes of estate, and the description
of the investiture says that " the patent was read, the robe,
sword, cap and circlet put on," and about this time references
are found to the " parliament robes " of peers, implying that
there were others.
An account of the coronation of Anne Boleyn in 1533, in
J. Nichols, Progresses of Queen Elizabeth, vol. i. p. i, says
that in her progress through the city " all the lordes for
the most part were clothed in crimson velvet," while at
1 In the United States few save Federal judges wear robes. The
scarlet judicial robes were discarded at the Revolution. Those of
black silk now worn are slightly modified academic gowns. John
"ay, first Chief Justice of the Supreme Court (1787), set the fashion
iy sitting in the LL.D. gown granted him by Columbia University.
ROBES
PLATE I
Printed by LdmunJ Evans* Ltd.
THE CORONATION ROBES
As worn by His Late Majesty King Edward VII.
By permission of His Ma/eity A.Vw.c faerie t'.
ROBES
PLATE II.
The Must Ancient Order of the Thistle.
The Must Illustrious order uf St. 1'atrk-k.
The Most Noble Order of the Garter.
The Most Honorable Order of the H.itli.
Baron in Coronation Robes.
Baron in Parliament Roll.--.
Robes lent fry l-de. .Vow i Karemeraft. ( haiu,-r\ I j<-
ROBES
409
Westminster the barons and viscounts wore their parliament
robes, 1 the earls, marquesses and dukes wearing their robes of
estate of crimson velvet " furred with ermins, poudred according
to their degrees." This was also the case at the coronation
of James I., and in Selden's Titles of Honour (3rd ed., 1672) the
illustrations show the baron and viscount in parliamentary
robes, the higher ranks in robes of estate. By the time of
James II. 's coronation, however, the baron and viscount had
the velvet robes of estate (see illustration on p. 188 of Perkins's
The Coronation Book, 1902, where the surcoat also appears to
have a pointed collar edged with white and to be sleeveless).
The colour of these seems to have been crimson at first, some-
times varying to purple. They consisted of a long gown or
surcoat with girdle, a mantle lined with ermine, a hood and a
tippet of ermine, the rows being as follows: for a duke 4, a
marquess 35, an earl 3, a viscount 2^, and a baron 2.
Till late in the i8th century peers continued to attend the
House of Lords in parliamentary robes, with the stars and
ribbons of their orders, but robes are now only worn in the
Bourse of Lords, e.g. at the opening of parliament, on occasions
when the sovereign gives his assent to bills by " royal commis-
sion " (when five or six peers on the government side appear in
robes, and the lord chancellor also wears his peer's robe of scarlet
ermine), and at the introduction of a newly created peer, when
the new peer and his two introducers wear their parliamentary
robes (over morning dress) during the ceremony of introduction
only. The mover and seconder of the Address no longer wear
robes, but uniform. On all the above occasions, and when
the peers as a body attend church or some other ceremony,
the parliamentary robe of scarlet cloth is worn; in the present
day it takes the form of a mantle opening on the right shoulder,
with a collar of " ermine," and guarded with rows of ermine
and gold lace round the right shoulder, varying in number
according to the rank of the wearer. The modern coronation
robes consist of a crimson velvet surcoat and a mantle with a
tippet of ermine and with rows of ermine as in the parlia-
mentary robes. The surcoat is no longer a gown, but a short
sleeveless garment.
For Scotland, an order of James II. (1455) prescribed for earls
" mantles of brown granick colour " open before, lined and faced
in front, as far as the girdle, with white fur, and with hoods to
match; for the other lords of parliament a red mantle lined with
silk or fur, with a furred hood, while James I. (and VI.) in 1606
had to issue an order restraining the Scotch peers from wearing
velvet robes in parliament, and confining them to those of scarlet
cloth (Miscellany of the Maitland Club, vol. i. p. 147). The robes of
the Scottish peers are now, of course, similar to those of the others.
The peeresses' robes at the coronation of Anne Boleyn are also
described in the account mentioned above. The duchess of Norfolk,
the train-bearer, was followed by " ladies being lords' wives " in
scarlet robes furred with " lettice," while Wriothesley (he. cil.)
adds that the duchess was also in scarlet. 1 The order of the earl-
marshal for the regulation of the peeresses' robes at the coronation
of James II. (given in J. H. T. Perkins's The Coronation Book, 1902,
pp. 202-5) shows that by then all peeresses wore the robes of state
of crimson velvet, and minutely regulates all details, such as shape,
ppwderings, length of train and width of the fur edging of the mantle.
They have changed very little up to the present day.
Robes of the Orders of Knighthood. The history of the robes
of the two oldest orders is given in great detail in Ashmole's
Order of the Garter (London, 1672) and Anstis's Order of the
Bath (London, 1725); see also G. F. Beltz, Memorials of the
Order of the Garter (London, 1841), p. 1-lii. In each case the robes
1 These are well described in the account of the openinjg of parlia-
ment by Henry VIII. in 1537 given in Wriothesley's Chronicle of
England (Camden Soc., 1875, ed. W. Hamilton): " all erles marques
and lordes, all in their Perliament robes of Scarlett furred with
white, and their hoodes about their neckes, which were forty in
number; everie duke having fower barres of white fur alongest
the right side of their robes, and everie earle having three bars, . .
and everie lord two barres in likewise."
2 " After her followed ladies being lordes' wives, which had
circotes of scarlet, with narrow sleeves, the breast all lettice, with
barres of pouders according to their degrees, and over that they
had mantles of scarlet furred, and every mantle had lettice about
the necke like a neckerchief, likewise poudered, so that by the
pouderings their degrees might be known. Then followed ladies
being knights' wives in gownes of scarlet."
consisted of a mantle, surcoat and hood. The robes of the
Garter were originally of blue woollen stuff, the surcoat and
hood being powdered with garters embroidered in silk and
gold. In the time of Henry VI. the mantle was first made of
velvet, and between the time of Elizabeth and of Charles I. it
seems to have been sometimes purple in colour. The surcoat
varied in colour from year to year; in the reign of the founder
alone, e.g., it was first blue, then black (possibly as a sign of
mourning for the plague), then " sanguine in grain." The hood
was made of the same material as the surcoat, and when hats
began to be worn, was carried hanging over the shoulder. The
number of garters embroidered on the surcoat and hood came
to be fixed by rank, but after Henry VI. the surcoat seems to
have been made of plain velvet. Robes were sometimes granted
to ladies in the early days (see Beltz, p. ccxxi., for a list of those
ladies), in which case the robe and hood were of the colour of
the surcoat worn by the knights that year, and powdered with
garters. The last lady to receive the robes was Margaret,
countess of Richmond, in 1488. At the present day the mantle
is of dark blue velvet, of the same colour as the ribbon, lined
with this taffeta, and with the star embroidered on the left
shoulder, the hood and surcoat of crimson velvet lined with
white taffeta, and with these are worn a doublet and trunk-
hose of white satin and a plumed hat (see Lawrence-Archer,
The Orders of Chivalry, p. 106).
The robes worn by the knights of the Bath created at the
coronation of Henry IV. were green with furred hoods, and a
white silk cord hanging from the left shoulder.* In the various
accounts of later creations of knights of the Bath quoted by
Anstis, the costume worn before the ceremonial bath seems to
have been a priest-like garment of russet or grey, with a girdle
and hood; after the bath, was put on a red surcoat and mantle,
the latter with a lace of white silk, from which hung a pair of
white gloves; and the final costume was a blue (later a purple)
velvet or satin gown, with hood furred with miniver (later lined
with sarcenet), and the white cord hanging from the shoulder,
until it should be removed by the sovereign or a lady for some
deed of valour. The mantle in the present day is of crimson
velvet lined with white over a white satin under-coat and
trunk-hose, and a plumed hat and white boots with red tops
are worn. The mantle of the Thistle is of dark green velvet
over surcoat, &c., of cloth of silver; that of St Patrick azure,
with doublet and trunk-hose of white satin; that of St
Michael and St George of Saxon blue satin lined with scarlet;
and that of the Star of India of light blue satin lined with
white.
House of Commons. The speaker of the House of Commons
wears on state occasions a black damask robe with gold lace
and a full-bottomed wig; in the House itself he wears a black
silk robe with train and a full-bottomed wig. The clerks at
the table wear barristers' gowns and wigs.
Judicial and Forensic Robes. It is frequently stated that
judicial robes had their origin in the dress of ecclesiastics.
But though ecclesiastics in early days frequently acted as
judges, and though, as Fortescue says, the Serjeant's long
robe was " ad instar sacerdotis," judicial robes more probably
arose from the ordinary civilian dress of the early i4th century.
The chief argument for the ecclesiastical origin has been found
in the coif (lena, birretum album), a cap of white linen or silk, tied
under the chin, and described by Fortescue as " the principal
or chief insignment and habit wherewith serjeants-at-law at
their creation are decked," which is said to have been used by
ecclesiastics to hide the tonsure when in court. This view is
disposed of by Pulling (The Order of the Coif, London, 1884).
More probably the coif was a head-dress in common use in
the I3th century, which survived as the distinguishing mark
of men of law. 4 As such it is found in a wardrobe-roll of
3 " Longues cottes vertes a estroictes manches fourres de menever,
et chapperons pareil fourres de menever, en guise de prelats; et
avoient les dits chevaliers sur la senestre espaule^ung double
cordeau de soye blanche a blanche houppettes pcndans " (Froissart).
4 Mr Oswald Barron, in The Ancestor, vols. v. (p. 105) and vii.
(p. 108 seq., plate xii.), has given reproductions of figures from MSS.
410
ROBES
Richard II. (1391, see Fairholt, ii. 341) in an entry for
" twenty-one linen coifs for counterfeiting men of the law in
the king's play at Christmas." The serjeant-at-law's " houve
of silk " is also mentioned in Piers the Plowman (latter half of
the 1 4th century) * together with his furred cloak. Chaucer,
at the same period, describes his serjeant-at-law as wearing a
party-coloured gown and girdle with bars. 2
The earliest document quoted by Planch^ and others with refer-
ence to judges' costume is a Close-roll of 20 Edw. III. (1347). See
also a wardrobe-roll of 21 Edw. III., and wardrobe accounts of
II Richard II. and 22 Henry VI., all quoted in Dugdale's Origines
Juridiciales, from which we gather that the robes of the judges
varied in colour, in the I4th and I5th centuries, from scarlet to
green or " violet in grain," and that their winter gowns were furred
with budge or miniver.
For the early I5th century there are more
data. Firstly, there is the illumination of
the serjeant-at-law in the Ellesmere MS. of
The Canterbury Tales (reproduced in Fur-
nivall's 6-text edition for the Chaucer
Society), in which he is shown wearing a short,
party-coloured rayed gown of red and blue,
lined with white fur, a hood and tippet edged
with white fur, and a white coif with two
little bands showing below the hood.
Secondly, there are a certain number of
effigies or brasses of judges and Serjeants
belonging to the first half of the I5th cen-
tury. 3 Of judges, an early brass is that of
Sir John Cassy (c. 1400) (see fig. 2). 4
For the second half of the I5th century
the authority is Chief-Justice Fortescue, who,
writing in the reign of Henry VI., describes
the dress of the serjeant-at-law as follows:
" Roba longa ad instar sacerdotis cum capicio
penulato circa humeros ejus, et desuper collo-
bium, cum duobus labellulis, qualiter uti solent
doctores legum in universitatibus quibusdam,
cum supra descripto birreto vestiebatur." " He
was clothed in a long robe, after the fashion
of a priest, with a furred cape about his
shoulders, and above it a hood, with two
bands, such as are used by doctors of laws
in some universities, with the coif as de-
scribed above " (De Laudihus Legum Angliae,
From a brass in Deerhurst cap. li.). Fortescue continues: " But being once
church, Gloucestershire. made a j ust j ce> instead of his hood, he shall
FIG. 2. Sir John wear a cloak closed upon his right shoulder,
Cassy, chief baron all the other ornaments of a Serjeant still re-
of the Exchequer maining; saving that a justice shall wear no
(c. 1400). party-coloured vesture, as a serjeant may,
and his cape is furred with miniver, whereas
the Serjeant's cape is furred with white lamb (budge)."
This description of Fortescue's is borne out by some illuminations
from a 15th-century MS. representing sittings of the four superior
of the I3th and I4th century, showing the coif worn by both clerks
and laymen.
1 Prol. line 210 (ed. Skeat, Clarendon Press) : " Jit houed there an
hondreth in houues of silke, seriauntz it seemed that serveden atte
barre " ; and iii. 293: " Shal no seriaunt for here seruyse were a
silk howue, Ne no pelure in his cloke, for pleding atte barre."
* Prol. line 382 (ed. Morris, Clarendon Press) : " He rood but
homely in a medlee cote Girt with a ceint of silk, with barres smale ;
of his array te(le I no longer tale."
3 The effigy " supposed to represent Sir Richard de Willoughby,
chief justice of the king's bench " temp. Edward III., illustrated by
Fairholt, p. 201, wears a long gown with girdle and skull-cap, no
distinctively judicial dress. The figure of Robert Grymbald (temp.
Henry II.), engraved from his seal by Dugdale, wears the ordinary
dress of the time.
4 See also that of Sir Hugh de Holes (1415; see Haines, Brasses, i.
xc), and a stone effigy of Sir William Gascoigne in Harwood Church,
Yorks (d. 1419, see Planch6, Cyclopaedia, i. 427). Of serjeants-at-law,
an early example is the brass of Nichol Rolond at Cople, Beds.
(c. 1410, see Druitt, Costume in Brasses, p. 221); also that of
Thomas Rolf at Gosfield, Essex (c. 1440, see Haines, p. 85), who
wears a gown, tabard, tippet, hood and coif, with two bands showing
below the hood, like the Ellesmere MS. figure. The inscription
calls Rolf " legi professus," which Haines takes to mean " professor
of law," Boutell and Clark (Archaeological Journal, vol. i. pp. 203-4)
consider that he is a serjeant-at-law. Druitt (p. 224) remarks on
the likeness of his tabard to that of a Master of Arts, but compares
a figure on a 15th-century cope, who also appears to be a serjeant-
at-law and wears a tabard. That a tabard sometimes formed part
of the dress of a Serjeant, can be seen in the extract from the Liber
famelicus of Sir James Whitelocke. quoted by Druitt, p. 225,
footnote.
courts in the time of Henry VI. (reproduced in A rchaeologia, vol. xxxix.
p. 358, &c., with an article by G. R. Corner; see plate). In them
we see the scarlet robes of the judges furred with min : ver, and the
party-coloured rayed gowns, tippets and hoods of the Serjeants,
besides the costume of the minor officials of the court. Both Serjeants
and judges wear the coif, certain of the judges also wearing furred
caps or turban-like head-dresses. The colour of the Serjeants'
party-coloured robes seems to have varied; 5 in these illuminations
they are blue and green, but by the 1 7th century, to quote Dugdale,
Origines Juridiciales, cap. 38 : " The robes they now use do still
somewhat resemble those of the justices of either bench, and are
of three distinct colours, viz. murrey, black, furred with white,
and scarlet ; but the robe which they usually wear at their creation
only is of two colours, viz. murrey and mouse colour; whereunto
they have a hood suitable, as also a coif of white silk or linen."
(See also Pulling, p. 218, and Druitt, p. 225.) Sir E. Brabrook
(Proceedings of the Soc. of Antiquaries, 2nd series, vol. iii. p. 414)
quotes descriptions of calls of Serjeants showing that as late as 1700
the Serjeants wore party-coloured gowns at their creation and during
the year following, and stating on what occasions they wore their
black, scarlet or purple gowns (the last with scarlet or purple hoods).
At the last general call (1736), and at the creation of a serjeant in
1762, party-coloured robes were still worn, but at a creation of 1809
they are no longer found. Until their final abolition the Serjeants
wore purple robes at their creation, and on ordinary occasions a
black cloth or silk gown, with a scarlet robe for state occasions.
Illustrations of judicial cos-
tumes in the i6th century are
to be found in vol. i. of
Vetusta Monumenta (Soc. of
Antiquaries, 1747), in which
are reproduced, firstly, a
' painted table in the King's
Exchequer," temp. Henry VII.,
on which the officials of the
Exchequer are shown wearing
long gowns, furred tippets
and mantles, with coifs (see
fig. 3) ; and secondly, a sitting
of the Court of Wards and
Liveries, temp. Elizabeth, in
which are shown Serjeants
wearing party-coloured gowns,
tippets, hoods and coifs (see
also Pulling, facing pp. 86
and 214).
About this time the square
cap, otherwise known as the
cornered, black or sentence
cap (the last from the fact of
its being put on by the judge when pronouncing sentence of death),
begins to be seen in monuments (cf. that of Sir Richard Harpur,
temp. Mary; Fairhold, p. 223). Sometimes this cap is worn over
the coif only, sometimes over the coif and skull-cap (cf. the portrait
of Sir Edward Coke, in Pulling, facing p. 180). The form also varies;
sometimes, as in the portrait of Coke, it has no ear-flaps, some
times, as in its present form, it has. The form with ear-flaps is
held by some to be a combination of the square cap and skull-cap.
The square cap was a mark of dignity, worn or carried on solemn
occasions, hence its use when pronouncing sentence of death, to
mark the solemnity of the moment.
Among the State Papers of 1625 is a " Discourse on what robes
and apparel the judges are to wear, and how the serjeants-at-law
are to wear their robes, and when," and on the 4th of July 1635
there was a " solemn decree and rule made by all the judges of the
courts at Westminster," which is quoted in Dugdale (loc. cit.) and
Pulling (p. 215, footnote).
This costume is illustrated in Hollar's engraving of the coronation
procession of Charles II. Towards the end of the I7th century
the judges took to wearing wigs, and have continued to wear them
ever since. The wearing of wigs naturally concealed the coif and
velvet skull-cap, so a device had to be invented by which they
could still be displayed. The expedient was hit upon of putting
a round patch of white stuff, with a black spot in the middle of it,
on the crown of the wig of certain of the judges, to represent the
coif and skull-cap. The rank of serjeant no longer existing, this
round patch has now disappeared, the only trace of it left being the
circular depression on the crown of the wig.
The costume of judges of the High Court at the present day
differs very little from that given in the order of 1635; but
the cap is carried in the hand as a part of the full dress, and
only worn when a judge is passing sentence of death. 6 The
'They were probably originally liveries; see G. R. Corner in
Archaeologia, also Pulling, op. cit. pp. 21112.
6 See an essay by Sir Herbert Stephen in Unwritten Laws and
Ideals, ed. E. H. Pitcairn (Smith, Elder, 1899), from which the
following paragraph is largely condensed.
From the Standard of Weights and Measures
(temp. Henry VIII.), in VtHisIa Monu-
menla (Soc. of Antiquaries), vol. i.
FIG. 3. Figures wearing coif.
ROBES.
PLATE III.
One of four illuminations belonging to a law treatise, temp. Hrnry f'l, found at
Whaddon Hall, Bucks, depicting five presiding judges of the Court of King's
Bench, wearing coifs and scarlet robes; below the King's Coroner, Attorney and
Masters of the Court; two ushers at table swearing the jury; a tipstaff in charge of
a fettered' prisoner, two sergeants at law in coif on either side; in foreground
six prisoners.
From Archteologia XXXIX.
ROBES
411
dress worn when trying criminal cases, attending church
officially, and on " red letter days" in the courts, consists of a
scarlet gown, with a broad black belt, a tippet trimmed with
white fur, known by courtesy as " ermine " (this is worn only
on state occasions), and a scarlet casting-hood, always worn
with the scarlet gown, the end of which is passed under the
belt. For summer the robes are of thinner stuff, faced with
slate-coloured silk instead of ermine. The full-bottomed wig
is worn on state occasions; at other times a wig is worn
similar to that of barristers, except that it has one vertical
curl just above the tail of the wig instead of the three rows
of horizontal curls going all the way round.
The judges of the King's Bench Division have also a black
gown, trimmed with ermine, which may be worn with the
scarlet casting-hood when they sit two or more together. The
summer equivalent of the black robes is in thin blue stuff,
faced with silk. A costume like that of King's Counsel, namely,
a black silk gown, with black cloth court suit, is the dress of
judges when sitting alone to try civil actions, and of vice-
chancellors and judges of the Chancery Division, but Sir
Herbert Stephen remarks that of late years certain of the judges
have preferred on grounds of comfort the black or blue gown
with scarlet casting-hood. The court dress of the judges of
the High Court and of Indian and colonial judges consists of a
black damask tufted gown, without train, worn over a black
velvet court suit, with full-bottomed wig, lace bands and
three-cornered silk hat. 1
The Lord Chancellor, when in the House of Lords, and sitting
on Appeals, wears a black silk trained gown, over a black
cloth court suit, with full-bottomed wig; he has also his
peer's robe (see above), and his state robe of black damask
with gold lace, worn over a velvet court suit, with full-bottomed
wig, lace bands, &c.; the purse is carried on state occasions
when in the royal presence. The state robe of the Master of
the Rolls, the Lords Justices of the Court of Appeal, and the
President of the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Divisions
is the same, except that they have not the purse, and similar
to it is the full-dress gown of the Speaker of the House of
Commons, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, &c. The Lords
Justices of the Court of Appeal sit in court in a costume similar
to that of King's Counsel.
The Lords of Appeal have no official robes, but sit in
ordinary civilian dress. On state occasions they wear their
peers' robes. The robes of state of the Lord Chief Justice of
England are the same as those of the judges of the High
Court, except that his are trained, and he wears the gold chain
of office, the " collar of SS."
The Scottish judges have two sets of robes, one for Justiciary
(i.e. the criminal court), which is also their full dress, and one
for civil causes (Court of Session). The dress for the President
and Ordinary Lords of Session was fixed in 1610 by an order
of James I., and was of purple cloth, faced with crimson satin,
with hood to match, the President's gown having crimson
velvet instead of satin. The four " extraordinary Sessionaries "
were to wear black velvet, satin, or silk gowns, lined with black.
The Lord Justice General wore a scarlet gown lined with ermine
and an ermine hood, the Lord Justice Deputy and Lord Justice
Clerk black gowns with crimson satin facings and hoods (see
Register of the Privy Council of Scotland, vol. viii. p. 612). At
the foundation of the High Court of Justiciary (1672) it was
enacted " that for the splendour of that court, all the judges sit
in red robes, faced with white, that of the Justice Generalls
being lined with ermine for distinction from the rest " (see
Acts of Parliament of Scotland, vol. viii. p. 88). The present
full dress of the Lord Justice General is a scarlet silk robe with
tippet and hood, the hood falling down the back; the collar
is of ermine, with which the tippet, sleeves and gown are edged
1 Minute details of court and Iev6e dress, judicial and legal, will
be found in Dress worn at Court (pp. 60-61), issued with the authority
of the Lord Chamberlain, and ed. H. A. P. Trendell, of the Lord
Chamberlain's department (London, 1908), also details of mourning
costume.
and the hood lined. The Lord Justice Clerk wears a scarlet
cloth robe and hood, and a white silk tippet lined with scarlet,
the silk being perforated with small holes to imitate ermine,
as also on the sleeves and edges of the gown. In front of the
tippet on each side are two crosses in scarlet silk, and on each
side of the gown six crosses. The ordinary Lords Commis-
sioners of Justiciary have robes the same as those of the Lord
Justice Clerk, except that the satin is not perforated. Instead
of the bands worn by English judges, the Scottish judges wear
a long fall in front.
The Bar. There appears to have been no official costume
for the bar until the end of the tyth century. Druitt (Costume
in Brasses, pp. 232-33) gives a list of several brasses of in lege
perili, or apprenticii ad legem, most of whom wear ordinary
civilian costume, occasionally with the addition of a high cap.
In the i6th and I7th centuries they wear the false-sleeved gown
worn by civilians. Before the iyth century the costume worn
by students at the Inns of Court and by " Utter Barristers "
consisted of a stuff gown, and sometimes, in term-time, a round
cap, which was worn in hall and in church (see Herbert, History
of the Inns of Court (1804), p. 230). In Westminster Hall
(see Pulling, p. 223) the same costume was worn, Benchers and
Readers having a more elaborate gown with facings of black
velvet and tufts of silk. Frequent laws were passed in the
i6th century and later, forbidding the wearing of swords,
cloaks, boots and spurs, &c., in hall, and insisting on the wearing
of gowns by students of the Inns of Court when walking in the
city. In the I7th century, barristers, like the judges, adopted
wigs, the full-bottomed wigs being confined to judges, " King's
Counsellors," &c., and ordinary counsellors wearing small wigs.
In Hollar's engraving of the coronation of Charles II. the King's
Counsel, the King's Attorney and Solicitor, and the Master of
the Rolls wear a laced gown with hanging sleeves. The silk gown,
full-bottomed wig and black court dress now worn by King's
Counsel is generally held to date from the funeral of Queen
Mary II., being the mourning dress worn by the wish of King
William for a considerable period after the queen's death, and
adopted as a convenient costume ever since. There is a well-
known jest of Chief Baron Pollock to the effect that " the Bar
went into mourning at the death of Queen Anne, and never
came out again," which bears out this theory as to the origin
of the costume. At the present time barristers wear black
stuff gowns, with small wigs having three rows of curls round
the head. King's Counsel wear black silk gowns over a cloth
court suit (cp. the expression " to take silk," i.e. to become a
K.C.); on full-dress occasions they wear a full-bottomed wig-,
and at court a black damask tufted gown over a velvet court
suit. This is also the dress for state occasions of the Attorney-
General, Solicitor-General, &c.
Municipal and Civic Robes. The word " livery," the use
of which is now practically confined to the costume of the
" livery companies," the dress of men-servants, &c., originally
meant an allowance of food or clothing granted to certain
persons (Lat. liber ata, Fr. livrfe). It is still used of the allowances
of food made to the fellows of certain colleges. As early as
the i3th century, according to Matt. Paris (Chron. Maj.;
Rolls Series, III. 337), we find the citizens of London assuming
a uniform dress to do honour to some great occasion, as, e.g.,
when in i 236 a body of them rode out to meet Henry III. and
Queen Eleanor, " sericis vestimentis ornati, cicladibus auro
textis circumdati, excogitatis mutatoriis amicti," or when 600
citizens rode out to meet Queen Margaret, wife of Edward I.,
" in one livery of red and white, with the cognizances of their
misteries embroidered upon their sleeves " (see Stow's Survey,
ed. Morley, p. 444). By the i4th century there is evidence
of the adoption of liveries by the trades and fraternities. At
the celebrations of the birth of Edward III. (see Riley's Mem-
orials, p. 105) the mayor and aldermen were " richly arrayed
in suits of robes," while the drapers, mercers and vintners
were also " in costume." This need not, however, refer to
liveries. G. Unwin (The Gilds of London, 1908) quotes a chron-
icler who records that by the year 1319 " many of the people
412
ROBES
of the trades of London were arrayed in livery," and an ordin-
ance of 1347 of the fraternity of the Mercers commanding that
" all those of the said mistery shall be clothed of one suit once
a year at the feast of Easter," and Riley (op. cit. p. 516) quotes
an order of 1389 allowing the sheriffs, on grounds of expense,
to proceed to Westminster by boat instead of on horseback,
" without there being any arraying of men of the trades in
like suit for that purpose; except that such men of the trades
as should wish to accompany them should walk in such suit
of vestments of the livery of their respective trade as they
might then have. " As to the liveries of the religious frater-
nities, Chaucer (Prol. 361) describes:
" An Haberdasher and a Carpenter
A Webbe, a Dyere, and a Tapicer,"
As, " clothed alle in a liveree
Of a solempne and greet fraternitee."
In 1389 there was a petition against the giving of liveries by
the fraternities, on the ground that these gatherings were
centres of political agitation, but in the statutes of Edward III.
and Richard II. against liveries members of guilds were expressly
excepted from these prohibitions. However, it was doubtless
deemed prudent to make sure of the privilege, and so, when the
livery companies were incorporated, they took care to have
their liveries authorized by their charters.
These liveries consisted of a gown and hood, though the
hood only was sometimes given; thus the Grocers' Company
had in 1430 55 members in the full livery, 17 in hoods
and 42 not in livery. It was also customary for such of the
companies as wished it to present liveries to outsiders, for
instance, to the mayor, should he belong to another company.
Thus in 1399 the Tailors gave liveries to the king, the prince
and the mayor, and hoods to the sheriffs.. But in 1415 and
1423 the mayor and aldermen were forbidden to receive any
livery except that of their own company. A similar custom
was that by which a member of any company might send to
the mayor a certain sum, receiving in return a suit of the livery
of the mayor's company. The colours of the various liveries
varied very much from time to time. Thus in 1414 the Grocers
wore liveries of scarlet and green, which were changed in 1418
to scarlet and black, in 1428 to scarlet and blue and in 1450 to
"violet in grain," with party-coloured hoods of violet and
crimson. At first both
gowns and hoods were
party-coloured, but later a
party-coloured hood was
worn with a gown of one
colour. The gowns were
also lined and edged with
*"*' fur. An early illustration
of the liveries is to be found
on the first charter of the
Leathersellers' Company,
granted them in 1444 by
Henry VI., where the
members of the company
FIG. 4. Liverymen of the Leather- are depicted kneeling
sellers' Company, from the charter before the king in short
of the Company granted by Henry party-coloured gowns of
red and blue, edged at
the neck, wrists and round the bottom with fur and with
white girdles (see fig. 4, Jfrom a coloured reproduction in W. H.
Black's History and Antiquities of the Leathersellers' Co.).
In the reign of Henry VIII., Holbein's picture of the king
giving a charter to the Barber-Surgeons' Company shows the
members of the latter wearing gowns of rich stuff, with red and
black party-coloured hoods, three of the figures also in coifs.
The form of gown which has survived, practically unchanged,
till the present day, may be seen on the second charter of the
Leathersellers' Company, granted them by James I. in 1604 (see
fig. 5, and for coloured plate see W. H. Black, op. cit.). Here
we see them in flat caps, long black furred gowns, with false
sleeves, and having on the right shoulder party-coloured hoods
Sed
FIG. 5. Liverymen of
sellers' Company, from
of James I. (1604).
Leather-
a charter
of scarlet and black, the end of which is cast over the left
shoulder and hangs down nearly to the edge of the gown.
Besides the liveries of the city companies, and those of the mayor
and sheriffs, there was often a special livery adopted by all the
citizens on some great
occasion, such as a visit of
the sovereign to the City.
W. St John Hope (Cor-
poration Plate and In-
signia, ii. 141) quotes a
number of such cases,
showing that the city
livery was sometimes
green, sometimes blue,
sometimes violet, some-
times red and white,
the city colours par ex-
cellence.
As to the costume of
the mayor, aldermen,
sheriffs, &c., we have seen
above the mayor " richly
costumed," and the alder-
men " in like suits of
robes," at the birth of
Edward III., and Riley
(op. cit.) gives an order of
1378, that the aldermen
are to ride to Westminster
in the mayor's proces-
sion, " arrayed in a cloak and hood at least, that are party-
coloured with red, scarlet and white, the red on the right side ;
while he quotes (from Letter -book H. fol. cxlvi) the amusing
sentence passed by his fellow-aldermen in 1382 on one John
Seley, for disregarding the order to have his green cloak for the
Whitsuntide procession lined with green taffeta. Thus before the
I5th century the aldermen apparently had not yet their scarlet
robes, but on state occasions wore the ordinary city livery. For
the early 15th century we have the Liber Albus (written c. 1419;
Rolls Series, ed. Riley), where we are told (p. 35) that "The Mayor,
Sheriff and Aldermen were wont to array themselves in like suits
of robes twice in the year, viz. when the mayor rode to Westminster
to take the oath, and on the day following the feast of SS. Simon
and Jude; and this raiment was trimmed with fur as befitting their
honourable rank; and they would also dress themselves in suits
of robes against the feast of Pentecost, these robes having a lining
of silk." The scarlet, violet and black robes, still worn by the
Lord Mayor, aldermen, &c., were early in use. There is an order
of 142 1 (8 Henry V.) that the aldermen should use " togis et armilausis
de scarleto," and in numerous accounts of royal receptions and other
solemn occasions in the City we are told that the mayor and alder-
men were in scarlet (W. St John Hope, in Corporation Plate and
Insignia, i., Introd. Ixxxv seq., and ii. 138-147, quotes a number
of these, and treats the whole subject of mayors', &c., robes very
fully) . The Liber Albus (i. i, ch. vi.) also shows us the mayor and alder-
men assembled at the Guildhall on the day of the election of the new
mayor induti togis de violet. As to the form of the dress in the 1 4th
and 1 5th century, we can see from brasses of lord mayors and aldermen
(see Haines, Manual, pp. cc-cci ; and Cotman, Norfolk Brasses. There
is a fine series of brasses of mayors, &c., at Norwich) that it consisted
of a long gown, a mantle fastened on the right shoulder and a hood.
As to the provincial mayors and aldermen there is evidence that
at quite an early date many of them followed the fashion of London ;
e.g. the Royal Charter of Nottingham, of 1448, contains the words:
" that the Aldermen of the same town forever . . . may use gowns,
hoods and cloaks of one suit and one livery together with furs and
linings suitable to these cloaks, in the same manner and form as
the Mayor and Aldermen of our city of London do use, the Statute
of Liveries . . . notwithstanding " (see Nottingham Records, ii. 205),
while the charter granted by Henry VI. to Kingston-on-Hull in
1440 contains practically the same words (see St J. Hope, i. Ixxxvi).
The costume of provincial mayors, &c., is shown by St John Hope
(loc. cit.) to have generally consisted of a scarlet furred gown and
cloak, with tippet or scarf of black velvet. The colour was not,
however, invariably scarlet, but varied to violet, blue and black,
sometimes even for the mayor. An account of the robes of modern
provincial mayors will be found in St J. Hope, p. Ixxxix seq. and
under the accounts of the various boroughs, passim.
There is some doubt as to when the Lord Mayor first began to wear
his robe of estate of crimson velvet. Stow (Survey, ed. Strype,
1720, ii. 165) says that at the reception of Henry VI. at Eltham the
mayor was in crimson velvet, the aldermen in scarlet with " sanguine "
hoods, but at the coronation of Edward V. (see St J. Hope) he wore
scarlet. At the coronation of Anne Boleyn (see ^riothesley's
Chronicle, loc. cit. supr., and Hall's Chronicle) the mayor wore his
crimson velvet robe of state, the aldermen and sheriffs scarlet;
and at the entry of Anne of Cleves into London the mayor was again
in his crimson velvet robe with his collar of gold, the aldermen and
councilmen in robes of black velvet with chains of gold (but see
ROBES
PLATE IV.
Lord Chief Justice of England in full
robes, scarlet and ermine, with
collar of S. S.
Judge of the Supreme Court of the
United States of America.
The Lord High Chancellor of Knirliuid,
in robes of State.
Lord Mayor of London, in full robes.
Judge of the High Court, England,
in black robes.
Ald<Tin:ni of tlir City "f l.
in iH-nrh robes.
Rota lent by Ede. Sen & Kai-enscraft. Chanter? Lane. London.
ROBES
St J. Hope, ii. 144, who quotes the order for these same robes,
from which it would appear that the mayor also wore black velvet).
About this period begin to occur notices of the wearing of official
robes by the wives of mayors and aldermen; e.g. for Lincoln there
is an entry in the corporation records in 1544:" Every alderman that
hath not been mayor to prepare for himself and his wife gowns of
crimson, and every one that hath been mayor to prepare for himself
and his wife gowns of scarlet and tippets of velvet to be worn at
all principal feasts " (see I4th repon,Hist. MSS. Commiss. App.VIII).
St John Hope (p. Ixxxix) quotes numerous instances in the l6th
century, in some of which the husband was liable to a heavy fine
in the event of his wife's non-compliance with the rule.
In 1568 (see Stow, and J. G. Nichols, Account of 55 Royal Pro-
cessions and Entertainments, pt. ii. p. 94) first appeared an " Order
observed by my Lord Mayor, Aldermen and Sheriffs, for their
meetings and wearing the apparel throughout the whole year,
according as formerly it hath been used," which has been altered
and revised from time to time by order of the Corporation, and is
still issued under the name of the Handbook of Ceremonials to the
officers of the City Corporation. In 1568 we find the aldermen and
sheriffs going to Westminster in the Lord Mayor's procession in
scarlet-furred gowns " and their cloaks borne with them," and in
1575 Nichols quotes a London citizen's description of the same
procession; "they of the livery in their long gowns, with hood
on the left shoulder, half black and half red. . . . The Mayor in a
long gown of scarlet, and on his left shoulder a hood of black velvet,
and a collar of SS. . . . The Aldermen in scarlet gowns, those
having been mayors with chains of gold, the others with black
velvet tippets." The Order of 1629 gives particulars of the various
gowns; the cloaks are violet from Michaelmas to Whitsuntide,
furred, for mayors and ex-mayors, with " amys," for aldermen with
" calabre," and scarlet in summer, lined with " changeable taffety "
and " green taffety " respectively.
After the i6th century the costume of the Lord Mayor can be
studied in successive " Orders " or Ceremonial Books, accounts of
coronations, &c., and in portraits and statues belonging to the
various city companies. Early in the igth century (1806) the Lord
Mayor began to wear on some state occasions a black robe with gokl
lace, similar to that of the Lord Chancellor. The Ceremonial Book
was thoroughly revised in 1864, and the latest edition is that issued
in 1906 (Handbook of Ceremonials, &c., " issued under the direction
and with the approval of the Privileges Committee of the Court of
Aldermen ").
At the present day the Lord Mayor has several sets of robes ;
a special coronation robe (see illustration in Naylor, Book of
the Coronation of George IV., 1837), a crimson velvet robe of
state like that of an earl, worn with the chain and jewel, e.g.
in the presence of the sovereign when in the city; 1 a black
robe of state trimmed with gold, which is worn with the chain
and jewel, e.g. at the Guildhall on Lord Mayor's Day; the
scarlet robes, which are worn, with or without the chain, on
most public occasions, such as the service at St Paul's on the
first day of the Easter Law Term, audiences of the sovereign,
the election of the Lord Mayor, the opening of the Central
Criminal Court, &c.; a violet gown, which is worn, e.g., when
the Lord Mayor elect is presented to the king, when he is sworn
in, at the election of sheriffs, &c., and a black gown worn in
church on Good Friday, &c. The aldermen wear scarlet on
most occasions of ceremony, ex-mayors " having the Cap of
Dignity attached to their gown, and being entitled to introduce
a sword and mace into their badges." Violet robes are also
worn on certain occasions marked in the almanac of the Alder-
man's Pocket-Book; and black gowns when the Lord Mayor
wears his. The sheriffs and recorders 2 have scarlet, violet
1 Sir G. G. Young in a pamphlet called The Place of the Lord Mayor
in proceeding through or within the City of London (1852), quotes
various royal visits to the city which seem to show that the Lord
Mayor did not always wear his crimson velvet robe on these occasions.
Thus in 1638 Charles I., on going to meet Marie de Medicis, was met
by the Lord Mayor in scarlet, which was also worn at the entry
of Charles II. in 1660. In 1702, when Queen Anne went to a thanks-
giving service at St Paul's, -the Lord Mayor wore crimson velvet,
with the collar and jewel; but in 1705, at the thanksgiving after
Blenheim, he met the queen on horseback, dressed in scarlet. In
1714, at the reception of George I., the Lord Mayor wore crimson
velvet robes.
2 The recorders had from an early date annual suits of robes like
' the mayor, aldermen, &c. See Liber Albus, p. 43: " Habet itaque
Recordator pro feodo de Camera totiens et talem vesturam lineatam
sive penulatum, quotiens et qualem Major et Aldermanni capiunt
annuatim." The chamberlain, common serjeant, &c., had also
gowns (see an order of 1523 in St J. Hope, ii. 146). For the
sword-bearer's cap of maintenance see article CAP and St John
and black gowns, and the members of the common council
have deep mazarine blue gowns, which seem to have been first
prescribed in 1761.
For Scotland an order of James I. and VI. of 1610 (see
Register of Privy Council, loc. cit.) ordered that the provosts,
aldermen, &c., of every borough should wear, for ordinary
occasions, black furred gowns, the officers of the chief boroughs
having also scarlet furred gowns for Sundays and other solemn
occasions, when the provost of Edinburgh was to wear a gold
chain.
Academic Costume. No thorough study has so far been made
of early English academic costume as compared with that of
the continental universities a study which ought to throw
much light on the subject. 1 A vexed question is that of how
far academic dress is derived from the ecclesiastical. Anthony
Wood's view, that it was derived from the tunica talaris and
cucullus of the Benedictines, would not now meet with much
support; but many writers seem to be unnecessarily anxious
to trace each item of the academic robes to some definite ecclesi-
astical garment. The medieval scholar was of course a clerk,
and had to wear the clerkly gown and the tonsure. But the
fact that this was the case makes it more difficult to distinguish
between academical and ecclesiastical robes, notably in the
case of brasses and other monuments of university graduates
and dignitaries who were also priests. Another source of
difficulty is the variety of names by which the different parts
of the academic costume are called in the university statutes
and elsewhere, resulting sometimes in inextricable confusion.
The earliest information as to English academic dress is
found in the second half of the i4th century. Certain early
statutes show that " excess in apparel " had already to be
rebuked in scholars (cf. the Constitution of Archbishop Strat-
ford, 1342), while the statutes of certain colleges require of the
scholars the tonsure and a " decent habit " suitable to a clerk
(cf. Statutes of Peterhouse, 1344, and of Merton Coll., Oxford),
i.e. a long gown (toga or tunica talaris), which it is stipulated
in some cases must be closed in front. Some colleges had
liveries, prescribed perhaps by the founder of the college and
laid down by the statutes. The differences of colour and shape
in the undergraduate gowns of most of the Cambridge colleges
are supposed to be a survival of this. There was also an ordinance
of Richard II. for King's Hall, Cambridge (1379), which fixed
the dress of a scholar as the roba talaris, over which, if a bachelor,
he should wear a tabard suited to his degree. The under-
graduates seem in the early days to have worn a hood, the
ordinary head-covering worn by all, but they gradually ceased
to do so, until nobody below the rank of a bachelor might
wear one.
It is proposed to give here (i) a list of the various parts of the
academic dress, with a few remarks on each; (2) a short
account of the early costume of the various degrees; (3) a
sketch of any changes which have taken place since the Refor-
mation.
The GOWN (toga, roba, or tunica talaris) was worn by all
degrees, as befitting clerks. It is hard to determine whether
there was at first any difference between the gown of the higher
degrees, which some maintain was the roba, and that of the
lower degrees, the toga or tunica talaris, but it seems improbable.
It was frequently fur-lined, but the use of the more costly furs
was forbidden to all below the degree of Master, except sons of
noblemen, or those possessing a certain income, bachelors using
budge (see in Anstey's Munimenla Academica, p. 301, the
Hope i. Ixxvi-lxxix. For mayor's and sheriff's chains see ibid,
pp. Ixxix-lxxxiv.
3 Practically the only detailed study of early English academic
costume is a paper on " English Academic Costume (Medieval),"
by Dr E. C. Clark, in Archaeolog. Journal, vol. 1. pp. 74 seq., 137 sea.
and 183 seq., which contains a mass of information, and upon which
the present article is to a great extent based. Rashdall (Universities
of Europe in the Middle Ages, vol. ii. pt. ii.) and Druitt (Costume
on Brasses, ch. ii.) each devote a chapter to the subject; Rashdall
treats of both the English and continental universities, not very
thoroughly, Druitt of English academic dress only, but thoroughly.
Clark gives many facts about foreign, as well as the English, costume.
414
ROBES
statute of 1432 de admissione ad pelluram). Students, and even
doctors in theology (Mun. Acad. ii. 393), were also restricted
to budge, and to sad-coloured habits. The robes of masters
were to be flowing and reach to the ankles (see Mun. Acad.
p. 212, an order of 1358 to the tailors not to stint the robes,
which should be " largae et talares," because clerks should be
distinguished from the laity).
The COPE, worn as part of academic dress over the gown,
probably originated in the ordinary cappa clericalis, or every-
day mantle of the clergy, which had been introduced into
general use in England by synods of 1222, 1237 and I268. 1
This kind of cope, closed in front, and originally black in colour,
is generally known as the cappa clausa, and sometimes, for
convenience' sake, had a slit in front to allow of the passage
of the hands. It was worn by Regent Masters when lecturing
FIG. 6. Members of New College, Oxford, from Chandler MS.
century).
(Mun. Acad. p. 421) and as a full dress by certain doctors. By
the second half of the i4th century differences of colour occur;
e.g. the Chancellor represented in a 14th-century miniature in
the Oxford Chancellor's Book (reproduced by J. W. Wells, The
Oxford Degree Ceremony (1906), facing p. 19) wears a scarlet
cope closed in front, lined with miniver and with tippet and
hood of miniver, and there is also a mention in an ancient
statute of Cambridge of a red cope worn by Inceptors in Canon
Law (Clark, p. 102). The Rev. N. F. Robinson (loc. cit. p. 195)
quotes the will of R. Browne, archdeacon of Rochester (d. 1452),
to prove that the habit of a doctor of civil law was violet;
he also thinks that that of a doctor of theology was green, and
of a doctor of canon law scarlet. By the i6th century all copes
were scarlet. Clark (p. 138) gives as evidence " Stokys' picture "
in the Cambridge Registrary. The scarlet cappa clausa has
1 See Rev. T. A. Lacey in Transactions of the St Paul's Ecclesio-
logical Society, vol. iv. (1900), p. 128, &c. Also Rev. N. F. Robinson
in the same (1898), pp. 181-220.
survived to the present day at Cambridge as the dress worn by
the Vice-Chancellor and by Regius Professors of Divinity, Law
and Medicine when presenting for degrees. It is now open
down the front, but the fur edging only reaches half-way down,
marking the place where the slit used to be. At Oxford the
so-called " cope " which is the Convocation robe of certain
doctors is not a real cope, but is probably derived from the
medieval tabard, the out-of-door dress worn by the clergy
and others, it having become customary by the beginning of the
i6th century for Regent Masters to wear the tabard at lectures
as more convenient than the cope (Rashdall, II. ii. 639, and
Mun. Acad. p. 421, where the pallium is spoken of as an alterna-
tive to the cappa clausa. The pallium is most probably to be
identified with the tabard). 2 The capa manicata mentioned in
Anstey (Mun. Acad. p. 421, &c.) seems to have been a shorter
gown with bell-shaped sleeves reaching to the elbow, and lined
with fur, worn by masters and bachelors of arts (see Druitt,
p. 124), and a shorter tabard is also occasionally found (Robinson's
Taberdum ad medias tibias). These are illustrated in fig. 6 from
a MS. of the isth century at New College, Oxford. 3 The D.D.'s
wear the cappa clausa, the other doctors tabards (see also
pi. iii., xvi. in Archaeologia, where William of Wykeham and
all the doctors wear long sweeping tabards, as ample as copes),
the Warden a shorter tabard, reaching just below the knees,
and the M.A.'s gowns or tabards with false sleeves.
The HOOD was originally worn by all scholars, as by every-
body, and had evidently no academic significance. Sometimes
a cap was also worn, the hood being thrown back (Chaucer's
" clerk of Oxenford " in the Ellesmere MS. illumination wears
a red skull-cap, and a furred tippet and hood, with the hood
falling rather back, though not on his shoulders). The liripipe 4
became somewhat elongated, as is seen in the hoods of the
so-called M.A. group in the Chandler MS. An early mention
of the undergraduate hood is the much-discussed Oxford
Statute of 1489 (Mun. Acad. p. 360), which reads: " ut nullus
de cetero scholaris non-graduatus (nobili sanguine insignitis
&c. exceptis) capitio quovis utatur publice . . . nisi liripipium
consutum habeat et non contextum, prout antiqua Universitatis
laudabilis consuetudo exposcit . . ." 6 but the undergraduate
1 Clark (pp. 1 38-39) treats of the pallium and tabard as two separate
garments, deciding that the pallium was a kind of tippet. Robinson
considers the pallium to correspond to the tabard, his taberdum
talare, which the Rev. T. A. Lacey (p. 128) also compares with the
chimere of Anglican bishops. (See article CHIMERE, where the
chimere is likewise traced to the tabard.) Moroni, Dizionario dell'
erudizione storica-ecclesiastica, s.v. zimarra, says that professors of
the university of Rome wear black zimarre while teaching. This
recalls the pallium of Regent Masters (Mun. Acad. p. 421) and
Inceptors in arts and medicine (id. p. 430).
8 The Chandler MS. The drawings from which the illustration
is taken are reproduced in the Transactions of the St Paul's Ecclesio-
logical Society, p. 208, with an explanatory article by the Rev. N. F.
Robinson, and in Archaeologia, vol. liii. pi. i., with notes by T. F.
Kirby. Robinson identifies the various groups of the Society of New
College on his plate i. (xv. in Archaeol.) by the aid of a statute of the
College settling the order of standing in choir and at processions,
and thus claims to settle the question of the dress of the various
kinds of Doctor and Bachelor, M.A.'s, &c., at the period.
* In the present article " liripipe " will be used of the tail of the
hood, " tippet " of the shoulder-cape, sometimes forming part of
the same garment as the hood, sometimes not, and " scarf ' of the
" tippet " or scarf, e.g. of D.D.'s, Anglican clergy.
6 that no non-graduate scholar (with the usual exceptions of
noblemen, &c.) shall wear any kind of hood in public, unless it
have the liripipe sewn on, and not woven in one piece, as the ancient
and venerable custom of the university demands." The meaning
of this is not clear; Anstey (marginal note ad loc.} takes it to mean
that the tail of the hood should be sewn to the hood; others that
the tail of the hood should be sewn down to the gown ; cf . Chaucer,
Prol. to Canon's, Yeoman's Tale: " Till that I understood How
that his cloke was sowed to his hood, For which, whan I hadde
long avysed me, I demed him some Chanoun for to be," which
shows that this method of sewing the hood, whatever it were, was
used to define rank; others again hold that "liripipium" here
means a tippet or shoulder-cape, and that for some reason the hood
was to be sewn to the tippet and not made all in one piece with it.
Rashdall reads " consuetum " instead of "consutum" (footnote ii.
p. 641). The Constitution of Archbishop Bourchier (1463) forbids
undergraduates to use liripipes or " tippets " round the neck in public
(Clark, p. 85), so the sewing down of the liripipe at the back may
ROBES
PLATE V.
D.C.L., Oxford.
D.D., Cambridge.
I.L.U.. Cumin id::.-.
Doctor of Music. Oxford.
D.D.. oxford.
XI. A.. Oxford.
M. A. .Cambridge.
M.A.. Trinity Colli-itr. Dublin.
Robes lent by Ede. Son & Ravemcnft. Chancery Lane. London.
ROBES
4*5
hood had gone out of use by the end of the i6th century. 1
Bachelors' hoods were to be lined throughout with fur (M un.
Acad. p. 361), which we learn from the statute de admissione ad
pelluram (1432) 'to have been budge. Masters and noblemen
might use miniver, or silk in summer (Mun. Acad. pp. 283, 301).
There were evidently hoods of at least two kinds for masters,
sometimes called respectively caputiun and epomis, whether
corresponding to the distinction between regents and non-
regents we do not know. (See Mun. Acad. p. 638, will of
Thomas Bray, M.A., and Robinson, loc. cit. In the Oxford
Corpus Statutorum of 1768 the epomis is worn with the ordinary
gown, the caputium with the scarlet habit.) At a later date,
at Cambridge, a distinction was made between the hoods of
non-regents, which were lined with silk, and those of regents,
which were lined with miniver. 2 Later again the regents wore
their hoods in such a way as to show the white lining, while
the non-regents wore theirs" squared," so that the white did not
show. Hence the name " White Hoods " and " Black Hoods "
given to the upper and lower houses of the old Senate respec-
tively. It is not settled when the modern colourings of hoods
arose; they probably followed those of -the gowns of the
faculties, but about these we are equally uncertain. The
Oxford Proctor still wears a miniver hood. The modern
Cambridge hood has preserved the original shape more closely
than the Oxford one, being a hood and tippet combined, the
hood having square corners. The tippet, which appears as
part of the early costume of certain doctors, was probably,
like the judges' tippet, originally the shoulder-cape forming
part of the same garment as the hood. Clark and others
would derive it from the almuce (<?..), but do not seem to
show any definite grounds for so doing. Its place seems to
have been taken by the scarf worn by D.D.'s, &c., probably
developed from the hood with long liripipe as worn turban-
wise on the head or as a scarf round the shoulders. It seems
rather far-fetched to derive the scarf from the two pendants
of the almuce. 3 (See article VESTMENTS and cp. the mayor's
scarf mentioned above.)
There seem to have been at least three varieties of academic
head-dress: 4 firstly, the doctor's skull-cap with " apex " as illustrated
in the Chandler MS. drawings; secondly, the square cap of cloth
as prescribed by Laud's statutes of 1636 for graduates and founda-
tion scholars (similarly for Cambridge by Burleigh's letter to the
vice-chancellor in 1588), with its counterpart of velvet worn by
doctors; thirdly, a round cloth cap prescribed by the Laudian
statutes and Burleigh's letter for undergraduates who were not
foundation scholars, with the round cap of velvet for doctors which
survives as part of their full dress to the present day. The square
cap was adopted at the universities, according to Robinson, after
1520, in imitation of the university of Paris. For the development
of .the modern " college cap," see BIRETTA. In this connexion
should be mentioned the term " tuft-hunting," i.e. attempting to
thrust oneself into the society of one's social superiors, derived from
the gold tufts or tassel worn by noblemen and fellow-commoners
on their college caps.
As to the dresses of the different degrees, the drawings from the
Chandler MS. give a good idea of the early costume. It is also
have been to prevent this improper use as a scarf. But in this case,
what is the force of " et non contextum "?
1 An interesting survival, which only disappeared about the
middle of the igth century, was the little black hood placed round
the neck of candidates going in for viva voce in all examinations
subsequent to responsions at Oxford. This was a survival of the
custom of conferring on sophistae generates, i.e. those who had passed
the first stage of the exercises for the B.A. degree, a hood of plain
black cloth. See A. Clark's Introduction to the Registers of Oxford
University, vol. ii. pt. i. p. 22 (Oxford Hist. Soc., 1887).
2 See Cains' Statutes (1557), also an account of the entertain-
ments at Cambridge on the visit of Queen Elizabeth, 1564, given in
Nichols, Progresses, vol. iii., " Theologiae Baccalaureos ac non-
Regentes primum, sericis caputiis induti, turn Regentes Magistri
suis pelliceis albescentibus decorati; tandem Juris Artiumque
Baccalaureos suis agninis bracceis conspicui,"
3 See Rev. E. Wickham Legg in Trans, of St Paul's Ecdes. Soc.
vol. iii. Also Lacey and Robinson (loc. cit.).
4 The subject is discussed in detail by Clark, " College Caps and
Doctors' Hats," in Archaeol. Journal, vol. Ixi., and N. F. Robinson,
" Pileus Quadratus," in Transact, of St Paul's Ecclesiological Socy.,
vol. v. pt. i. (1901). There is also much miscellaneous information
in C. Wordsworth, University Life in the i8th Century, p. 499 seq.
well illustrated by brasses.' Doctors of theology seem to have worn
a tippet but no hood. Masters of Arts seem to have worn a gown,
over which was a garment with bell-shaped sleeves reaching to the
elbow, a tippet and a hood (see Druitt, plate facing p. 136, and p. 135).
The same dress was sometimes worn by B.A.'s (see brass of John
Palmer, B.A., d. 1479, New College, Oxford, in Druitt, p. 141), and
bachelors of law and divinity, the latter being generally already
M.A.'s (Druitt, p. 139). Haines's theory is that after the middle of
the isth century the dress of the M.A.'s was changed, and they
wore a sleeveless tabard reaching to midway between ankle and
knee. This costume certainly occurs on brasses, chiefly of the
i6th or late isth centuries, but the change is hard to explain.'
Academic dress underwent much inquiry and some revision
at the time of the Reformation, chiefly in the direction of
sobriety and uniformity, " excess of apparel " being repressed
as severely as ever, but not with much more effect. 7 Burleigh's
letter to the Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge University (is8f),
and the statutes of Queen Elizabeth, strictly enforce the
wearing of cap and gown by all, and hoods and habits by
those entitled to wear them, and similar regulations were
made for Oxford by Laud's statutes of 1633, further details
being dealt with by a decree of 1770. Academic dress during
the I7th century may be further studied in Bedel Buck's
book (1665, see Appendix B. to Peacock, Observations on the
Statutes of the .University of Cambridge), and Loggan's plates
of academic costume in Oxonia Illustrata (1675) and Cantabrigia
Illustrata (1690, ed. J. W. Clark, 1005).
There have been few far-reaching changes since Loggan's
day. Cambridge has of late years inquired into and revised
her regulations as to dress, and in the Ordinances (latest ed.
1908, Statute A, cap. VII. p. 303) clear rules are laid down;
the Oxford regulations (see Staluta et Deer eta Univ. Oxon.
6 See for doctors' costume, J. G. and L. A. B. Waller's Series of
Monumental Brasses (London, 1864), plate of " Four Ecclesiastics,
from New College, Oxford, who are also illustrated in Druitt, pp. 131,
129, 119; and for M.A.'s and B.A.'s, Druitt, p. 135 seq. and plate
facing p. 136. On the brass of John Lowthe, D.C.L., should be
noticed the two curious long streamers or liripipes hanging from
the back of his tabard or hood. It is hard to say what they can
be; but the closest parallel is in the two streamers on the back of
the old Oxford commoners' gown, which were probably survivals
of sleeves. They are said to have given rise to the term " plucking,"
i.e. failing in examination, the story being that a man's creditors
might assemble at the conferring of degrees, and by " plucking " at
his gown prevent him from going up for his degree.
6 It is just possible that this sleeved garment may be the capa
manicata mentioned in Mun. Acad. p. 421, " nullus regens in artibus
... in capa manicata lectiones legal ordinarias, sea in pallio vel
capa clausa." Clark (pp. 188, 189, &c.) identifies the cappa manicata
with the tabard, but if, as suggested above, the pallium is the tabard,
the cappa manicata cannot be the same. Braun, Liturgische Ceu-an-
dung, p. 308, shows that a sleeved cope, called cappa manicata, did
develop from the cappa clericalis or everyday cope of the clergy,
at the end of the I2th century, its use being forbidden by various
synods. It is possible, then, that the capa manicata may have
been worn by non-regents, the tabard (which Haines alleges to
have been adopted generally by M.A.'s in the late 15th century),
or pallium, by regents.
7 The essential parts of Laud's statutes, Burleigh's letter, &c.,
with much other matter bearing on academic costume from the
l6th century onwards, will be found in C. Wordsworth's University
Life in the i8th Century (London and Cambridge, 1874, p. 485 seq.).
To the passages quoted by him may be added the following from
Johannis Berebloci Commentarii, an eye-witness's account of Queen
Elizabeth's visit to Oxford in 1566 (published in Elizabethan Oxford,
ed. C. Plummer, Oxford Hist. Soc., 1887) ; at one of the disputa-
tions Mr. Campion, M.A., was dressed as follows: " Toga ill! turn
Dalmatica talaris fuit, manicis remissis ac largitate sua dimuentibus.
Huic pallium inductum est undique consutum, praeter quam qua
dextro patebant aditus. Postremo erant humen superius pellibus
albis, candoreque lucentibus, redimiti. Atque hie turn habitus
fuit omnium magistrorum, praeterquam quod nonnulli, loco palluda-
menti illius pellicei, senco utebantur, omni colore vanegato."
This points to the wide-sleeved gown, tabard and hood as the
dress of masters, but the colour of the hood was evidently not
fixed. For Doctor White, D.C.L., " ei vestis Dalmatica fuerat
talaris, ex electiori et clarissima purpura; lato clavo coccineo
superius induebatur, additum postremo humeris paludamentum
est ejusdem colons, cum serico subtegmine, similique turn vestiti
habitu pmnes Doctores sedebant." Here vestis Dalmatica would be
the ordinary gown, clavus latus the scarlet gown, and paludamentum
the hood, as before. For costume up to the middle of the loth cen-
tury see Wall-Gunning, Ceremonies observed in the Senate House at
Cambridge (1828).
416
ROBESPIERRE
for 1909, Tit. xiv., de vestitu et habitu, pp. 327-328) have not
been revised lately, and some of them are a dead letter.
Doctors of both universities have three sets of robes:
firstly, the full-dress gown of scarlet cloth; secondly, the con-
gregation habit and hood of scarlet (now at Cambridge a cope,
at Oxford the so-called "cope"); thirdly, the black gown.
The. first is worn by all doctors except the doctor of music,
and is accompanied by the round cap of velvet. The Oxford
D.D. also wears a cassock, sash and scarf. The scarlet gown
is of a different and older shape than the M.A. and B.A. gowns.
As now worn, it is faced with silk of the same colour as the
hood of the faculty. The second, or cope, has now gone
almost out of use, but is still worn when presenting for degrees,
&c. It is sometimes worn over the black gown. There are
several types of black gown, but the tufted gown of Loggan's
day has now gone out of use. The M.D. and Mus.D. black
gowns at Cambridge are now made after the pattern of the
LL.D. gown, with wing-like sleeve and flap collar, trimmed
with black lace, but the D.D., D.Sc. and Litt.D. wear the
M.A. gown, the former with the scarf, the two latter with
lace on the sleeve, placed horizontally for D.Sc. and vertically
for Litt.D. Some doctors of divinity wear the full-sleeved
gown with scarf. The head-dress of a D.D. is the square
cap, that of the lay doctors the velvet bonnet with gold cord.
At Oxford, too, some doctors wear the M.A. gown, others the
doctor's laced gown. The M.A. and B.A. gowns are two
varieties of the civilian gown of the isth and i6th century.
The B.A. loose-sleeved gown is no longer worn with the sleeve
tucked up round the elbow.
The Oxford sleeveless commoner's gown, though still by
statute talaris, now reaches little below the waist, the
full-sleeved scholar's gown to the knees. The tufted silk
gown of the gentleman-commoner and the nobleman's gold-
laced gown are not yet abolished by statute, but have
fallen into disuse. Vice-Chancellors have no official costume,
but wear the habit of their degree. The Chancellors of the
older universities wear a black damask robe with gold lace,
and a black velvet square cap with gold tassel or a doctor's
velvet bonnet with gold cord; those of the newer universities
have robes " created " by the robe-makers, who are nowadays
to a large extent the arbiters of academic dress.
For the colours of the hoods of the various university degrees
see UNIVERSITIES ad fin. (C. B. P.)
ROBESPIERRE, MAXJMILIEN FRANCOIS MARIE ISIDORE
DE (1758-1794), French revolutionist, was born at Arras on
the 6th of May 1758. His family, according to tradition, was
of Irish descent, having emigrated from Ireland at the time of
the Reformation on account of religion, and his direct ancestors
in the male line had been notaries at the little village of Carvin
near Arras from the beginning of the i7th century. His grand-
father, being more ambitious, established himself at Arras
as an advocate; and his father followed the same profession,
marrying Jacqueline Marguerite Carraut, daughter of a brewer
in the same city, in 1757. Of this marriage four children were
born, two sons, and two daughters, of whom Maximilien was
the eldest; but in 1767 Madame Derobespierre, as the name
was then spelt, died, and the disconsolate widower at once
left Arras and wandered about Europe until his death at Munich
in 1769. The children were taken charge of by their maternal
grandfather and aunts, and Maximilien was sent to the college
of Arras, whence he was nominated in 1770 through the bishop
of his native town to a bursarship at the college of Louis-le-
Grand at Paris. Here he had for fellow-pupils Camille Des-
moulins and Stanislas Freron.
Completing his law studies with distinction, and having been
admitted an advocate in 1781, Robespierre returned to his
native city to seek for practice, and to struggle against poverty.
His reputation had already preceded him, and the bishop of
Arras, M. de Conzie, appointed him criminal judge in the diocese
of Arras in March 1782. This appointment, which he soon
resigned, to avoid pronouncing a sentence of death, did not
prevent his practising at the bar, and he speedily became
a successful advocate. He now turned to literature and
society, and came to be esteemed as one of the best writers
and most popular dandies of Arras. In December 1783 he was
elected a member of the academy of Arras, the meetings of
which he attended regularly; and, like all other young French-
men with literary proclivities, he began to compete for the
prizes offered by various provincial academies. In 1784 he
obtained a medal from the academy of Metz for his essay on
the question whether the relatives of a condemned criminal
should share his disgrace, the prize being divided between him
and Pierre Louis Lacretelle, an advocate and journalist in
Paris. An tloge on J. B. L. Cresset (1709-1777), the author
of Vert- Vert and Le Mediant, written for the academy of Amiens
in 1785, was not more successful; but Robespierre was com-
pensated for these failures by his great popularity in the little
literary and musical society at Arras known as the " Rosati,"
of which Carnot was also a member. There the sympathetic
quality of Robespierre's voice, which afterwards did him such
good service in the Jacobin Club, always caused his indifferent
verses to be loudly applauded by his friends.
In 1788 he took part in the discussion as to the way in which
the states-general should be elected, showing clearly and forcibly
in his Adresse & la nation artesienne that, if the former mode
of election by the meubers of the provincial estates were again
adopted, the new states-geu_ral would not represent the people
of France. Necker also perceived this, and therefore deter-
mined to make the old royal bailliages and senechausstes the
units of election, which thus took place on the basis of almost
universal suffrage. Under this plan the city of Arras was to
return twenty-four members to the assembly of the bailliage
of Artois, which was to elect the deputies. The corporation
claimed the right to a preponderating influence in these city
elections, and Robespierre headed the opposition, making
himself very conspicuous and drawing up the cahier, or table
of complaints and grievances, for the gild of the cobblers.
Although the leading members of the corporation were elected,
their chief opponent succeeded in getting elected with them.
In the assembly of the bailliage rivalry ran still higher, but
Robespierre had already made his mark in politics; by the
Avis aux habitants de Campagne (Arras, 1789), which is almost
certainly by him, he secured the support of the country electors,
and, though but thirty years of age, poor and without influence,
he was elected fifth deputy of the tiers etat of Artois to the
states-general.
When the states-general met at Versailles on sth May 1789,
the young deputy of Artois already possessed the one faculty
which was to lead him to supremacy: he was a fanatic. As
Mirabeau is reported to have said: " That young man believes
what he says: he will go far." Without the courage and wide
tolerance which make a statesman, without the greatest qualities
of an orator, without the belief in himself which marks a great
man, nervous, timid and suspicious, Robespierre yet believed
in the doctrines of Rousseau with all his heart, and would
have gone to death for them; and in the belief that they would
eventually succeed and regenerate France and mankind, he was
ready to work witl: unwearied patience. While the Constituent
Assembly occupied itself in drawing up a constitution, Robes-
pierre turned from the assembly of provincial lawyers and
wealthy bourgeois to the people of Paris. However, he spoke
frequently in the Constituent Assembly, and often with great
success, and was eventually recognized as second only to Petion
de Villeneuve if second to him as a leader of the small body
of the extreme left, the thirty voices, as Mirabeau contemptu-
ously called them. It is hardly necessary to examine minutely
Robespierre's speeches and behaviour before 1791, when the
death of Mirabeau left the way clear for the influence of his
party; but what is noteworthy, as proving the religious cast
of his mind and his belief in the necessity of a religion, is that
he spoke several times in favour of the lower clergy and laboured
to get their pensions increased. When he instinctively felt
that his doctrines would have no success in the Assembly, he
turned to the Society of the Friends of the Constitution, known
ROBESPIERRE
later as the Jacobin Club, which had consisted originally of
the Breton deputies only, but which, after the Assembly moved
to Paris, began to admit among its members various 'leaders
of the Parisian bourgeoisie. As time went on, many of the
more intelligent artisans and small shopkeepers became members
of the club, and among such men Robespierre found the hearers
he sought. They did more than listen to him: they idolized
him; the fanatical leader had found followers. As the wealthier
bourgeois of Paris and deputies of a more moderate type seceded
to the club of '89, the influence of the old leaders of the
Jacobins (Barnave, Duport, Alexandre de Lameth) diminished;
and when they themselves, alarmed at the progress of the
Revolution, founded the club of the Feuillants in 1791, the
followers of Robespierre dominated the Jacobin Club. The
death of Mirabeau strengthened Robespierre's influence in the
Assembly; but on the isth of May 1791 he proved his lack of
statesmanlike insight and his jealous suspicion of his colleagues
by proposing and carrying the motion that no deputies who
sat in the Constituent could sit in the succeeding Assembly.
The flight of the king on the 2oth of June and his arrest at
Varennes made Robespierre declare himself at the Jacobin
Club to be ni monarchiste ni ripublicain. After the " massacre "
of the Champ de Mars (on the i7th of July 1791) he established
himself, in order to be nearer to the Assembly and the Jacobins,
in the house of Duplay, a cabinetmaker in the Rue St Honore,
and an ardent admirer of his, where he lived (with but two
short intervals) till his death. At last came his day of triumph,
when on the 3Oth of September, on the dissolution of the Con-
stituent Assembly, the people of Paris crowned Petion and
himself as the two incorruptible patriots.
On the dissolution of the Assembly he returned for a short
visit to Arras, where he met with a triumphant reception. In
November he returned to Paris, and on the i8th of December
made a speech which marks a new epoch in his life. Brissot
de Warville, the time politique of the Girondin party which had
been formed in the Legislative Assembly, urged vehemently
that war' should be declared against Austria, and the queen
was equally urgent, in the hope that a victorious army might
restore the old absolutism of the Bourbons. Two men opposed
the projects of the queen and the Girondins Marat and
Robespierre. Robespierre feared a development of militarism,
which might be turned to the advantage of the reaction. This
opposition from those whom they had expected to aid them
irritated the Girondins greatly, and from that moment began
the struggle which ended in the coups d'etat of the 3ist of May
and the 2nd of June 1793. Robespierre persisted in his opposi-
tion to the war; the Girondins, especially Brissot, attacked
him violently; and in April 1792, he resigned the post of public
prosecutor at the tribunal of Paris, which he had held since
February, and started a journal, Le Dffenseur de la Constitution,
in his own defence. It is noteworthy that during the summer
months of 1792 in which the fate of the Bourbon dynasty
was being sealed, neither the Girondins in the Legislative As-
sembly nor Robespierre took any active part in overthrowing
it. Stronger men with practical instincts of statesmanship,
tike Danton and Billaud-Varenne, who dared to look facts in
the face and take the responsibility of doing while others were
talking, were the men who made the loth of August and took
the Tuileries. The Girondins, however, were quite ready to
take advantage of the accomplished fact; and Robespierre,
likewise, though shocked at the shedding of blood, was willing
to take his seat on the Commune of Paris, which had overthrown
Louis XVI., and might check the Girondins. The strong men
of the Commune were glad to have Robespierre's assistance,
not because they cared for him or believed in him, but because
of the help got from his popularity, his reputation for virtue,
which had won for him the surname of " The Incorruptible,"
and his influence over the Jacobin Club and its branches, which
spread all over France. He it was who presented the petition
of the Commune of Paris on i6th August to the Legislative
Assembly, demanding the establishment of a revolutionary
tribunal and the summoning of a Convention. The massacres
of September in the prisons, which Robespierre in vain at-
tempted to stop, showed that the Commune bad more confidence
in Billaud than in him. Yet, as a proof of his personal popu-
larity, he was a few days later elected first deputy for Paris
to the National Convention.
On the meeting of the Convention the Girondins immediately
attacked Robespierre; they were jealous of his influence in
Paris, and knew that his single-hearted fanaticism would never
forgive their intrigues with the king at the end of July. As
early as the 26th of September the Girondin M. D. A. Lasource
accused him of aiming at the dictatorship; afterwards he was
informed that Marat, Danton and himself were plotting to be-
come triumvirs; and eventually on the 29th of October Louvet
de Couvrai attacked him in a studied and declamatory harangue,
abounding in ridiculous falsehoods and obviously concocted
in Madame Roland's boudoir. But Robespierre had no diffi-
culty in rebutting this attack (5th of November), while he
denounced the federalist plans of the Girondins. All personal
disputes, however, gave way by the month of December 1792
before the great question of the king's trial, and here Robes-
pierre took up a position which is at least easily understood.
These are his words spoken on the 3rd of December: " This
is no trial; Louis is not a prisoner at the bar; you are not
judges; you are you cannot but be statesmen, and the
representatives of the nation. You have not to pass sentence
for or against a single man, but you have to take a resolution
on a question of the public safety, artd to decide a question of
national foresight. It is with regret that I pronounce the
fatal truth: Louis ought to perish rather than a hundred
thousand virtuous citizens; Louis must die, that the country
may live." This great question settled by the king's execution,
the struggle between Robespierre and the Girondins entered
upon a more acute stage, and the want of statesmanship among
the latter threw upon the side of the fanatical Robespierre
Danton and all those strong practical men who cared little
for personal questions, and whose only desire was the victory
of France in her great struggle with Europe. Had it been at
all possible to act with that group of men of genius whom
history calls the Girondins, Danton, Lazare Carnot, Robert
Lindet, and even Billaud-Varenne, would have sooner thrown
in their lot with them than with Robespierre, whom they
thoroughly understood; but the Girondins, spurred on by
Madame Roland, refused to have anything to do with Danton.
Government became impossible; the federalist idea, which
would have broken France to pieces in the very face of the
enemy, grew and flourished, and the men of action had to take
a decided part. In the month of May 1793 Camille Desmoulins,
acting under the inspiration of Robespierre and Danton,
published his Hisloire des Brissotins and Brissot dlmasqut;
Maximin Isnard declared that Paris must be destroyed if it
pronounced itself against the provincial deputies; Robespierre
preached insurrection at the Jacobin Club; and on the 3ist of
May and the 2nd of June the Commune of Paris destroyed the
Girondin party. For a moment it seemed as if France would
avenge them; but patriotism was stronger than federalism.
The defence of Lyons exasperated the men who were working
for France, and the armies who were fighting for her, and
on the 27th of July 1793, when the struggle was practically
decided, the Convention elected Robespierre to the new Com-
mittee of Public Safety. He had not solicited, so it seems,
nor even desired this election, yet it marks an important epoch,
not only in the life of Robespierre, but in the history of the
Revolution. Danton and the men of action had throughout
the last two years of the crisis, as Mirabeau had in the first
two years, seen that the one great need of France, if she was
to see the end of her troubles without the interference of foreign
armies, was the existence of a strong executive government.
The means for establishing the much-needed strong executive
were found in the Committee of Public Safety. The success
of this Committee in suppressing the Norman insurrection had
confirmed the majority of the Convention in the expediency
of strengthening its powers, and the Committee of General
xxni. 14
418
ROBESPIERRE
Security which sat beside it was also strengthened and given
the entire management of the internal police of the country. It
was not until Robespierre was elected to the Committee that
he became one of the actual rulers of France. Indeed, the
Committee was not finally constituted until the i3th of Septem-
ber, when the last two of the " great " twelve who held office
until July 1794 were elected. Of these twelve at least seven
Lazare Carnot, Billaud-Varenne, Collot d'Herbois, Prieur
Duvernois (of the Marne), Prieur (of the Cote d'Or), Jean Bon
Saint-Andre and Robert Lindet were essentially men of
action, and were entirely free from the influence of Robespierre.
Of the other four, Herault de Sechelles was a professed ad-
herent of Danton, Barere de Vieuzac was an eloquent Provencal,
who was ready to be the spokesman to the Convention of any
view which the majority of the Committee might adopt; and
only Georges Couthon and Saint-Just, devoted to Robespierre,
adroitly sustained his policy. It is necessary to dwell upon the
fact that Robespierre was always in a minority in the great
Committee in order to absolve him from the blame of being
the inventor of the Terror, as well as to deprive him of the glory
of the gallant stand made against Europe in arms.
After this examination of Robespierre's position it is not
necessary to investigate closely every act of the great Committee
during the year which was pre-eminently the year of the Terror;
the biographer is rather called upon to examine his personal
position with regard to the establishment of the Terror and the
fall of the Hebertists and Dantonists, and then to dwell upon
the last three months in which he stood almost alone trying to
work up an effective counterbalance to the power of the majority
of the great Committee. The Terrqr was the embodiment of
the idea of Danton, that it was necessary to have resort to
extreme measures to keep France united and strong at home
in order to meet successfully her enemies upon the frontier.
This idea was systematized by the Committee of Public Safety.
With the actual organization of the Terror Robespierre had
little or nothing to do; its two great engines, the revolutionary
tribunal and the almost absolute power in the provinces of
the representatives on mission, were in existence before he
joined the Committee of Public Safety, and the laws of the
maximum and of the suspects were by no means of his creation.
The reason why he is almost universally regarded as its creator
and the dominant spirit in the Committee is not hard to dis-
cover. Men Eke Lazare Carnot and Billaud-Varenne were
not conspicuous speakers in the Convention, nor were they
the idols of any section of the populace; but Robespierre
had a fanatical following among the Jacobins and was one of
the most popular orators in the Convention, on which his care-
fully prepared addresses often made a deep impression. His
panegyrics on the system of revolutionary government and
his praise of virtue led his hearers to believe that the system
of the Terror, instead of being monstrous, was absolutely
laudable; his pure life and admitted incorruptibility threw a
lustre on the Committee of which he was a member; and his
colleagues offered no opposition to his posing as their repre-
sentative and reflecting some of his personal popularity upon
them so long as he did not interfere with their work. Moreover,
he alone never left Paris, whilst all the others, except Barere,
were constantly engaged on missions to the armies, the navy
and the provinces. It has been asserted that Robespierre,
Couthon and Saint- Just took upon themselves the direction
of " la haute politique," while the other members acted only
in subordinate capacities; undoubtedly it would have suited
Robespierre to have had this believed, but as a matter of
fact he was in no way especially trusted in matters of supreme
importance.
After this explanation it may be said at once that Robes-
pierre was not the sole author of the overthrow of the Dantonists
and the Hebertists, though he thoroughly agreed with the
majority and had no desire to save them, the principles of
both parties being obnoxious to him. The Hebertists were
communists in the true meaning of the word. They held that
each commune should be self-governing, and, while admitting
the right of a central authority to levy men and money for
the purposes of the state, they believed that in purely internal
matters, as well as in determining the mode in whicu men and
money were to be raised, the local government ought to be
supreme. This position of the Hebertists was of course ob-
noxious to the Committee, who believed that success could
only be won by their retention of absolute power; and in
the winter of 1794-1795 it became obvious that the Hebertist
party must perish, or its opposition to the Committee would
grow too formidable owing to its paramount influence in the
Commune of Paris. Robespierre shared his colleagues' fear
of the Hebertist opinions, and he had a personal reason for
disliking that party of atheists and sansculottes, since he be-
lieved in the necessity of religious faith, and detested their
imitation of the grossness that belongs to the lowest class of
the populace. In 1792 he had indignantly thrown from him
the cap of liberty which an ardent admirer had placed upon
his head; he had never pandered to the depraved tastes of
the mob by using their language; and to the last day of his life
he wore knee-breeches and silk stockings and wore his hair
powdered. His position towards the Dantonist party was
of a different character. After having seen established the
strong executive he had laboured for, and having moved the
resolutions which finally consolidated the power of the Com-
mittee of Public Safety in September 1793, Danton retired
to his country house. But to his retreat came the news of the
means the Committee used to maintain their supremacy.
Danton did not believe that this continuous series of sacrifices
under the guillotine was necessary, especially since the danger
to the country had passed away with the victories of the
revolutionary army; hence he inspired Camille Desmoulins
to protest against the Terror in the Vieux Cordelier. Where
is this system of terror to end? What is the good of a tyranny
comparable only to that of the Roman emperors as described
by Tacitus? Such were the questions which Camille Des-
moulins asked under Danton's inspiration. This " moder-
antism," as it was called, was as objectionable to the members
of the Committee as the doctrines of the Hebertists. Both
parties must be crushed. Before the blows at the leaders of
those two parties were struck, Robespierre retired for a month
(from i3th February to i3th March 1794) from active business
in the Convention and the Committee, apparently to consider
his position; but he came to the conclusion that the cessation
of the Reign of Terror would mean the loss of that supremacy
by which he hoped to establish the ideal of Rousseau; for
Danton, he knew, was essentially a practical statesman and
laughed at his ideas and especially his politico-religious pro-
jects. He must have considered too that the result of his
siding with Danton would probably have been fatal to himself.
The result of his deliberations was that he abandoned Danton
and co-operated in the attacks of the Committee on the two
parties. On the isth of March he reappeared in the Con-
vention; on the igth Hebert and his friends were arrested;
and on the 24th they were guillotined. On the 3oth of March
Danton, Camille Desmoulins and their friends were arrested,
and on the 5th of April they too were guillotined.
It was not until after the execution of Danton that Robes-
pierre began to develop a policy distinct from that of his col-
leagues in the Committee, an opposition which ended in his
downfall. He began by using his influence over the Jacobin
Club to dominate the Commune of Paris through his devoted
adherents, two of whom, Fleuriot-Lescot and C. F. de Payan,
were elected respectively mayor and procureur of the Commune.
He also attempted to usurp the influence of the other members
of the Committee over the armies by getting his young adherent,
Saint-Just, sent on a mission to the frontier. In Paris Robes-
pierre determined to increase the pressure of the Terror: no
one should accuse him of moderantism; through the increased
efficiency of the revolutionary tribunal Paris should tremble
before him as the chief member of the Committee; and the
Convention should pass whatever measures he might dictate.
To secure his aims, Couthon, his other ally in the Committee,
ROBESPIERRE
419
proposed and carried on the loth of June the outrageous law
of 22nd Prairial, by which even the appearance of justice was
taken from the tribunal, which, as no witnesses were allowed,
became a simple court of condemnation. The result of this
law was that between the i2th of June and the 28th of July,
the day of Robespierre's death, no less than 1285 victims
perished by the guillotine in Paris. It was the bloodiest and
the least justifiable period of the Terror. But before this
there had taken place in Robespierre's life an episode of supreme
importance, as illustrating his character and his political aims:
on the yth of May he secured a decree from the Convention
recognizing the existence of the Supreme Being. This worship
of the Supreme Being was based upon the ideas of Rousseau
in the Social Contract, and was opposed by Robespierre to
Catholicism on the one hand and the Hebertist atheism on
the other. In honour of the Supreme Being a great fete was
held on the 8th of June; Robespierre, as president of the
Convention, walked first and delivered his harangue, and as he
looked around him he may well have believed that his position
was secured and that he was at last within reach of a supreme
power which should enable him to impose his belief on all
France, and so ensure its happiness. The majority of the
Committee found his popularity or rather his ascendancy,
for as that increased his personal popularity diminished
useful to them, since by increasing the stringency of the Terror
he strengthened the position of the Committee, whilst attract-
ing to himself, as occupying the most prominent position in
it, any latent feeling of dissatisfaction at such stringency.
Of the issue of a struggle between themselves and Robes-
pierre they had little fear: they controlled the Committee
of General Security through their alliance with its leaders,
Andre Amar and Marc Guillaume Alexis Vadier; they were
hopeful of obtaining a majority in the Convention; for they
knew that the chief deputies on the left, or " the Mountain,"
were Dantonists, who burned to avenge Danton's death;
while they felt sure also that the mass of the deputies of the
centre, or " the Marsh," could be hounded on against Robes-
pierre if they were to accuse him of aiming at the dictatorship
and pour on him the obloquy of having increased the Terror
when victory on the frontier rendered it less necessary; and
they knew finally that his actual adherents, though devoted
to him, were few in number. The devotion of these admirers
had been further excited by the news that a half-witted girl,
named Cecile Renault, had been found wandering near his
house, with a knife in her possession, intending to play the
part of Charlotte Corday. She was executed on the i7th of
June, on the very day that Vadier raised a laugh at Robes-
pierre's expense in the Convention by his report on the
conspiracy of Catherine Theot (q.v.), a mad woman, who had
asserted that Robespierre was a divinity.
Robespierre felt that he must strike his blow now or never.
Yet he was not sufficiently audacious to strike at once, as Payan
and Jean Baptiste Coffinhal, the ablest of his adherents, would
have had him do, but retired from the Convention for some
weeks, as he had done before the overthrow of the Hebertists
and the Dantonists, to prepare his plan of action. This retire-
ment seemed ominous to the majority of the Committee, and
they too prepared for the struggle by communicating with the
deputies of the Mountain, who were either friends of Danton
or men of proved energy like Barras, Freron and Tallien.
These weeks, the last of his life, Robespierre passed very peace-
fully, according to his wont all through the Revolution. He
continued to live with the Duplays, with whose daughter
fileonore he had fallen in love, and used to wander with her and
his favourite dog, a great Danish hound, named Bruant, in the
Champs Elysees during the long summer evenings. At last,
on the 26th of July, Robespierre appeared, for the first time for
more than four weeks, in the Convention and delivered a care-
fully studied harangue, which lasted for more than four hours,
in which he declared that the Terror ought to be ended, that
certain deputies who had acted unjustly and exceeded their
powers ought to be punished, and that the Committees of
Public Safety and General Security ought to be renewed. Great
was the excitement in the Convention: all wondered who were
the deputies destined to be punished; all were surprised that
the Terror should be imputed as a fault to the very Committee
of which Robespierre had been a member. The majority of the
Committee of Public Safety determined to act promptly. The
Convention, moved by Robespierre's eloquence, at first passed
his motions; but he was replied to by Joseph Cambon the
financier, Billaud-Varenne, Amar and Vadicr, and the Con-
vention rescinded their decrees and referred Robespierre's
question to their committees. On the following day, the 27th
of July, or in the revolutionary calendar the pth Thermidor,
Saint-Just began to speak on behalf of the motions of Robes-
pierre, when violent interruptions showed the temper of the
Convention. Jean Lambert, Tallien, Billaud-Varenne and
Vadier again attacked Robespierre; cries of " Down with the
tyrant!" were raised; and, when Robespierre hesitated in his
speech in answer to these attacks, the words " C'est le sang de
Danton qui t'etouffe " showed what was uppermost in the minds
of the Mountain. Robespierre tried in vain to gain a hearing,
the excitement increased and at five in the afternoon Robespierre,
.Couthon and Saint-Just, with two young deputies, Augustin
Robespierre (younger brother of Maximilien) and Philippe
Francois Joseph Lebas, the only men in all the Convention
who supported them, were ordered to be arrested. Yet all hope
for Robespierre was not gone; he was speedily rescued from
his prison, with the other deputies, by the troops of the Com-
mune and brought to the Hotel de Ville. There he was sur-
rounded by his faithful adherents, led by Payan and Coffinhal.
But the day was past when the Commune could overawe the
Convention; for now the men of action were hostile to the
Commune, and its chief was not a master of coups d'etat. On
the news of the release of Robespierre, the Convention had
again met, and declared the members of the Commune and the
released deputies outlawed. The national guards under the
command of Barras had little difficulty in making their way
to the H6tel de Ville; Robespierre was shot in the lower jaw
by a young gendarme named Meda while signing an appeal to
one of the sections of Paris to take up arms for him, though the
wound was afterwards believed to have been inflicted by him-
self; and all the released deputies were again arrested. After
a night of agony, Robespierre was the next day taken before
the tribunal, where his identity as an outlaw was proved, and
without further trial he was executed with Couthon and Saint-
Just and nineteen others of his adherents on the Place de la
Revolution on the loth Thermidor (28th July) 1794.
The character of Robespierre, when looked upon simply in
the light of his actions and his authenticated speeches, and apart
from the innumerable legends which have grown up about
it, is not a difficult cfne to understand. A well-educated and
accomplished young lawyer, he might have acquired a good
provincial practice and lived a happy provincial life had it
not been for the Revolution. Like thousands of other young
Frenchmen, he had read the works of Rousseau and taken them
as gospel. Just at the very time in life when this illusion had
not been destroyed by the realities of life, and without the
experience which might have taught the futility of idle dreams
and theories, he was elected to the states-general. At Paris
he was not understood till he met with his audience of fellow-
disciples of Rousseau at the Jacobin Club. His fanaticism
won him supporters; his singularly sweet and sympathetic
voice gained him hearers; and his upright life attracted the
admiration of all. As matters approached nearer and nearer
to the terrible crisis, he failed, except in the two instances of
the question of war and of the king's trial, to show himself a
statesman, for he had not the liberal views and practical instincts
which made Mirabeau and Danton great men. His admission
to the Committee of Public Safety gave him power, which he
hoped to use for the establishment of his favourite theories,
and for the same purpose he acquiesced in and even heightened
the horrors of the Reign of Terror. It is here that the
fatal mistake of allowing a theorist to have power appeared:
420
ROBILANT ROBIN HOOD
Billaud-Varenne systematized the Terror because he believed it
necessary for the safety of the country; Robespierre intensified
it in order to carry out his own ideas and theories. Robespierre's
private life was always respectable: he was always emphati-
cally a gentleman and man of culture, and even a little bit of a
dandy, scrupulously honest, truthful and charitable. In his
habits and manner of life he was simple and laborious; he was
not a man gifted with flashes of genius, but one who had to think
much before he could come to a decision, and he worked hard
all his life.
On the family of Robespierre see A. J. Paris in the Memoires
(2nd series, vol. iii.) of the Academy of Arras; the CEuvres de
Maximilien Robespierre (3 vols., 1840), published by Laponneraye
with preface by Armand Carrel, contain some of his speeches and
the memoirs of Charlotte Robespierre on her brothers. The standard
work on Robespierre's career is Ernest Hamel, Histoire de Robes-
pierre d'apres des papiers de famille, les sources originates et des
documents entierement inedits (3 vols., 1865-67). After the appear-
ance of the first volume, the publisher refused to proceed for fear
of prosecution until compelled to dp so by the author. Another
edition with a different title appeared in 1878. See also Ch. d'Heri-
cault, La Revolution de Thermidor (and ed., 1878) ; Karl Brunnemann,
Maximilian Robespierre (Leipzig, 1880); F. A. Aulard, Les Orateurs
de I'Assemblee Constituante (^1882); M. de Lescure, " Le Roman d?
Robespierre," in La Societe franfaise pendant la Terreur (1882);
E. Hamel, La Maison de Robespierre (1895); Hilaire Belloc, Robes-
pierre (1901); and C. F. Warwick, Robespierre and the French
Revolution (1909). Many of the books which have been written
about Robespierre are most untrustworthy, and the picture of him
given by Thomas Carlyle in his French Revolution is unjust.
ROBILANT, CARLO FELICE NICOLIS, CONTE DI (1826-
1888), Italian statesman and diplomat, was a native of Turin.
He entered the army, and lost his left hand at Novara, where
he was aide-de-camp to Charles Albert, king of Piedmont. He
fought in 1859, and reached the grade of general in the Austrian
campaign of 1866, after which he served on the delimitation
commission. He was chief of the Military Academy, and in
1867 was made prefect of Ravenna to suppress political dis-
order. He was defeated at Turin in the elections for the
Chamber in 1870, and was sent in 1871 as minister plenipoten-
tiary to Vienna, where he subsequently became ambassador.
He was connected with the Prussian nobility by his mother,
and he married an Austrian, a daughter of Prince Edmund
Clary-Aldringen. In spite of the active share he had taken
in driving Austria from Italy, he was a persona grata at Vienna,
and his policy was steadily directed to an alliance between the
two powers. This was accomplished by the secret terms of
the Triple Alliance in 1882. He was recalled to Rome in 1885
to become minister for foreign affairs in the Depretis cabinet.
Robilant's independent attitude as foreign minister secured
greater consideration for Italy from her allies, but he did not
adapt himself to the exigencies of domestic politics, and his
excessive unpopularity contributed to' the downfall of the
ministry on the 7th of February 1887, consequent on an adverse
vote on the Massawa question. Before leaving office, he com-
pleted the negotiations for the renewal of the Triple Alliance,
and for its extension to cover Anglo-Italian co-operation in
the Mediterranean. In the new Depretis-Crispi administration
Robilant was not included. He was sent to London as ambas-
sador in the next year, but died two months after his arrival,
on the 1 7th of October 1888.
ROBIN HOOD, English legendary hero. The oldest mention
of Robin Hood at present known occurs in the second edition
what is called the B text of Piers the Plowman, the date of
which is about 1377. In passus v. of that poem the figure of
Sloth is represented as saying
I can noujte perfidy my pater-noster, as the prest it syngeth :
But I can rymes of Robyn Hood and Randolf Erie of Chestre."
He is next mentioned by Andrew of Wyntoun in his Original
Chronicle of Scotland, written about 1420
" Lytel Jhon and Robyne Hude
Waythmen ware commendyd gude;
In Yngilwode and Barnysdale
Thai oysyd all this time [c. 1283] thare trawale ";
next by Walter Bower in his additions of Fordun's Scotichro-
nicon about 1450
" Hoc in tempore [1266] de exheredatis et bannitis surrexit et
caput erexit ille famosissimus sicarius Robertus Hode et Littill
Johanne cum eorum complicibus, de quibus stolidum vulgus hianter
m comoediis et tragoediis prurienter restum faciunt et super ceteras
romancias, mimos, er bardanos cantitare delectantur."
Of his popularity in the latter half of the isth and in the i6th
centuries there are many signs. Just one passage must be quoted
as of special importance because closely followed by R. Grafton,
J. Stow and W. Camden. It is from John Mair's Historia Majoris
Britanniae tarn Angliae quam Scotiae, which appeared in 1521
" Circa haec tempora [Ricardi Primi], ut auguror, Robertus
Hudus Anglus et Parvus Joannes latrones famatissimi in nemoribus
latuerunt, solum opulentorurn virorum bona deripientes. Nullum
nisi eos invadentem vel resistentem pro suarum rerum tuitione
occiderunt. Centum sagittarips ad pugnam aptissimos Robertus
latrociniis aluit, quos 400 viri fortissimi invadere non audebant.
Rebus hujus Roberti gestis tola Britannia in cantibus utitur. Faeminam
nullam opprimi permisit nee pauperum bona surripuit, verum eos
ex abbatum bonis sublatis opipare pavit. Viri rapinam improbo,
sed latronum omnium humanissimus et princeps erat."
In the Elizabethan era and afterwards mentions abound;
see the works of Shakespeare, Sidney, Ben Jonson, Drayton,
Warner, A. Munday, Camden, Stow, Braithwaite, Fuller, &c.
Of the ballads themselves, Robin Hood and the Monk is possibly
as old as the reign of Edward II. (see Thomas Wright's Essays
on England in the Middle Ages, ii. 174); Robin Hood and the
Potter and Robyn and Gandelyn are certainly not later than the
1 5th century. Most important of all is A Lytell Geste of Robyn
Hode, which was first printed about 1510 (see A. W. Pollard's
Fifteenth Century Prose and Verse, Westminster, 1903). This is
evidently founded on older ballads; we read in The Seconds
Fytte, 11. 176 and 177
" He wente hym forthe full mery syngynge,
As men have told in tale."
In fact, it does for the Robin Hood cycle what a few years
before Sir Thomas Malory had done for the Arthurian romances
what in the 6th century B.C. Peisistratus is said to have done
for the Homeric poems.
These are the facts about him and his balladry. Of conjec-
tures there is no end. He has been represented as the last of the
Saxons as a Saxon holding out against the Norman conquerors
so late as the end of the i2th century (see Augustin Thierry's
Norman Conquest, and compare Sir Walter Scott's Iiianhoe).
J. M. Gutch maintains that he was a follower of Simon de
Montfort. The Rev. Joseph Hunter associated him with the
rebel earl of Lancaster of Edward II. 's time. This scholar
in a brochure published in 1852 produced evidence from the
exchequer accounts and the court rolls of the manor of Wake-
field showing that a " Robyn Hod " and a " Robertus Hood "
were living in this reign. The series of coincidences to which
he points is undoubtedly striking, but had failed to convince
most critics. Professor F. J. Child dismisses his inferences as
" ludicrous."
For our part, we are not disinclined to believe that the Robin
Hood story has some historical basis, however fanciful and
romantic the superstructure. We parallel it with the Arthurian
story, and hold that, just as there was probably a real Arthur,
however different from the hero of the trouveres, so there was a
real Hood, however now enlarged and disguised by the accretions
of legend. That Charlemagne and Richard I. of England be-
came the subjects of romances does not prevent our believing
in their existence; nor need Hood's mythical life deprive him of
his natural one. Sloth in Langland's poem couples him, as we
have seen, with Randle, earl of Chester; and no one doubts
this nobleman's existence because he had " rymes " made about
him. We believe him to have been the third Randle (see Bishop
Percy's Folio MS., ed. Hales and Furnivall, i. 260). And pos-
sibly enough Hood was contemporary with that earl, who
" flourished " in the reigns of Richard I., John and Henry III.
Wyntoun and Mair, as we have seen, assign him to that period.
It is impossible to believe with Hunter that he lived so late as
Edward II. 's reign. This would leave no time for the growth
ROBIN HOOD'S BAY ROBINIA
421
of his myth; and his myth was, as is evident from what we have
already said and quoted, full-grown in the first half of the i4th cen-
tury. Whatever may have been the immediate genesis of the myth
and it may well be sought in the heartless forest laws its
vitality was assured by the English love of archery and historical
repetition. In the rolls of parliament of 1437 mention ismade
of Piers Venables, a robber who took to the woods " like as it
had been Robin Hood and his meyne." There are indications
that Robin was identified or confused with Robert Locksley, a
manslayer of Bradfield in Hallamshire. The former is said to
have been born in " Merry sweet Locksley town."
But whether he lived or not, and whenever he lived, it is
certain that many mythical elements are contained in his story.
Both his name and his exploits remind us of the woodland spirit
Robin Goodfellow and his merry pranks. He is fond of dis-
guising himself, and devoted to fun and practical jokes. These
frolics suggest the wind. " The whole story," says Mr H.
Bradley, " is ultimately derived from the great Aryan sun-
myth. Robin Hood is Hod, the god of the wind, a form of
Woden; Maid Marian is Morgen, the dawn-maiden; Friar Tuck
is Toki, the spirit of frost and snow."
The name Robin (a French form from Rob, which is of course
a short form for Robert) would serve both for " the shrewd and
knavish sprite " the German Knecht Ruprecht (see Grimm's
Teut. Myth. p. 504, trans. Stallybrass) and for the bandit (see
" Roberdes Knaues " in the Prologue of Piers the Plowman,
1. 44, and the note in Warton's Hist, of Eng. Poet. ii. 95, ed. 1840).
Hood is a very usual dialectal form of wood; and in his play
Edward the First, George Peele actually alludes to the bandit
as " Robin of the Wood." Mr Gutch thus explains the origin of
the name. It is still a common enough surname, of which the
earlier shape is Odo (see " Houdart," &c., in Larchey's Diet,
des Noms); notice, too, the name Hudson. But it also reminds
one of the German familiar spirit Hudekin, or possibly of the
German Witikind (see Wright's Essays on the Middle Ages, ii.
207). Mr Sidney Lee suggests that Robin was a forest elf so
called because elves wore hoods (see Diet, of National Biography,
sub. " Robin Hood "). How certain it is that the Robin Hood
story attracted to it and appropriated other elements is illus-
trated by its subsequent history its history after the i4th
century. Thus later on we find it connected with the Morris
dance; but the Morris dance was not known in England before
the i6th century or late in the i5th. The Friar Tuck and
Maid Marian elements have been thought to have been intro-
duced for the purpose of these performances, which were held
on May-day and were immensely popular (see Latimer's Frutefull
Sermons (London, 1571), p. 75; also Paston Letters, ed. J. Gaird-
ner, iii. 89). After 1615, the date of the pageant prepared for
the mayoralty of Sir John Jolles, draper, by Anthony Munday
and entitled Metropolis Coronata, a peer was imported into it,
and the yeoman of the older version was metamorphosed into
the earl of Huntingdon, for whom in the following century
William Stukeley discovered a satisfactory pedigree! The
earl of Huntingdon was probably a nickname for a hunter. At
last, with the change of times, the myth ceased growing. Its
rise and development and decay deserve a more thorough study
than they have yet received.
What perhaps is its greatest interest as we first see it is its
expression of the popular mind about the close of the middle
ages. Robin Hood is at that time the people's ideal as Arthur
is that of the upper classes. He is the ideal yeoman as Arthur
is the ideal knight. He readjusts the distribution of property:
he robs the rich and endows the poor. He is an earnest wor-
shipper of the Virgin, but a bold and vigorous hater of monks
and abbots. He is the great sportsman, the incomparable
archer, the lover of the greenwood and of a free life, brave,
adventurous, jocular, open-handed, a protector of women.
Observe his instructions to Little John
" Loke ye do no housbonde harme
That tylleth with his plough;
No more ye shall no good yeman
That walketh by grene wode shawe;
Ne no knyght ne no squyer
That wolde be a good felawe :
These bysshoppes and thyse archebysshoppes
Ye shall them bete and bynde;
The hye sheryfe of Notynghame
Hym holdc in your myndc."
And we are told
" Robin loved our dere lady;
For doute of dedely synne
Wolde he never do company harme
That ony woman was ynne."
See also Drayton's Polyolbion, Song xxvi. The story is localized
in Barnsdale and Sherwood, i.e. between Doncaster and Notting-
ham. In Yorkshire, Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire a host
of place-names testify to the popularity of the Robin Hood
legend Robin Hood's Bay, Robin Hood's Cave, Robin Hood's
Chase, Robin Hood's Cup (a well), Robin Hood's Chair, Robin
Hood's Pricks, and many more.
The best collections of Robin Hood poems are those of Ritson
(8vo, 1795) and Gutch (2nd ed., 1847), and of Professor Child in the
5th volume of his invaluable English and Scotch Popular Ballads
(Boston, 1888). See also Professor F. B. Gummere's Old English
Ballads (Boston, 1894). The versions in the Percy Folio (edited
by Hales and Furnivall, 1867, vol. i.) are unhappily mutilated;
but they should be consulted, for they are all more or less unique,
and that on " Robin Hoode his death " is of singular interest.
The literary and artistic value of many of the Robin Hood ballads
cannot be pronounced considerable, but eight of them attain the
high-water mark of their class. Robin Hood and the Monk and Guy
of Gisborne are perhaps the best. There is, however, real vigour
and force in this fragment on the hero's death. The earliest
" Garland " was printed in 1670, and in 1678 appeared a prose
version which was reprinted by W. J. Thorns in his Early English
Prose Romances (vol. ii., 1858). Mr Lee's memoir in the Diction-
ary of National Biography is extremely erudite, and two valuable
articles, contributed by Sir Edward Brabrook to the Antiquary
for June and July 1906, might be consulted. See also Stukeley,
Paleographia Britannica, No. i. 115; Thierry, Congulte de I' Angle-
terre (1830) ; and J. Hunter's Great Hero of the Ancient Minstrelsy oj
England, Robin Hood (1852). (J. W. H.; F. J. S.)
ROBIN HOOD'S BAY, a seaside resort in the Whitby parlia-
mentary division of the North Riding of Yorkshire, England,
65 m. S.E. of Whitby by a branch of the North-Eastern railway.
The bay itself is a shallow indentation of the coast, and is
fringed with high picturesque cliffs, breached in places by steep-
sided narrow gullies. The old fishing village overhangs the
cliffs, while the more modern watering-place is mostly built a
little inland. A fine stretch of sandy shore is exposed at low tide.
ROBINIA, or LOCUST-TREE, a genus of about six species
native of the United States and Mexico, belonging to the sub-
order Papilionaceae of the great family Leguminosae. It was
named by Linnaeus in honour of Jean Robin (1550-1629),
herbalist to the king of France and his son and successor,
Vespasien Robin (1579-1660) by whom the best-known species,
Robinia Pseudacacia, was introduced into Europe, in the Jardin
du Roi at Paris in 1636. This tree, the bastard acacia, or
false acacia, and often called erroneously acacia, is now widely
cultivated as an ornamental tree in this country and on the
European continent. It grows from 30 to 60 ft. high, and
bears long, graceful, compound leaves with 9 to 17 bright
green oblong leaflets, and white fragrant flowers in loose
pendulous racemes, recalling the laburnum in habit. There
are many varieties in English gardens varying in the method
of growth, the presence or absence of thorns (persistent spinose
stipules) on the branches and the colour of the flower.
In the eastern United States, where it is native, it grows
from 70 to 80 ft. high with a trunk 3 or 4 ft. in diameter. It
is one of the most valuable timber trees of the American forest.
The wood is heavy, very hard, strong, close-grained and durable,
and is extensively used in shipbuilding, also for posts and
other purposes where durability in contact with the ground is
essential.
Like many plants of the same family, the leaves show sleep
movement, folding together at night and in dull or wet weather;
for this reason it is less injurious than many trees to plants
growing in its shade, as the rain is able more quickly to reach
the ground beneath.
422
ROBINS ROBINSON, J.
ROBINS, BENJAMIN (1707-1751), English man of science
and engineer, was born at Bath in 1707. His parents were
Quakers in poor circumstances, and gave him very little educa-
tion. Having come to London by the advice of Dr Henry
Pemberton (1694-1771), who had recognized his talents, he
for a time maintained himself by 'teaching mathematics, but
soon devoted himself to engineering and the study of fortifica-
tion. In particular he carried out an extensive series of ex-
periments in gunnery, embodying his results in his famous
treatise on New Principles in Gunnery (1742), which contains
a description of his ballistic pendulum (see CHRONOGRAPH).
Robins also made a number of important experiments on the
resistance of the air to the motion of projectiles, and on the
force of gunpowder, with computation of the velocities thereby
communicated to projectiles. He compared the results of his
theory with experimental determinations of the ranges of
mortars and cannon, and gave practical maxims for the manage-
ment of artillery. He also made observations on the flight of
rockets, and wrote on the advantages of rifled barrels. His
work on gunnery was translated into German by L. Euler,
who added to it a critical commentary of his own. Of less
interest nowadays are Robins's more purely mathematical
writings, such as his Discourse concerning the Nature and Cer-
tainty of Sir Isaac Newton's Methods of Fluxions and of Prime
and Ultimate Ratios (1735), " A Demonstration of the Eleventh
Proposition of Sir Isaac Newton's Treatise of Quadratures "
(Phil. Trans., 1727), and similar works. Besides his scientific
labours Robins took an active part in politics. He wrote
pamphlets in support of the opposition to Sir Robert Walpole,
and was secretary of a committee appointed by the House of
Commons to inquire into the conduct of that minister. He
also wrote a preface to the Report on the Proceedings of the
Board of General Officers on their Examination into the Conduct
of Lieut enant-General Sir John Cope, in which he gave an apology
for the battle of Prestonpans. In 1749 he was appointed
engineer-general to the East India Company, and went out to
superintend the reconstruction of their forts; but his health
soon failed, and he died at Fort St David on the 2gth of July
His works were published in two volumes in 1761.
ROBINSON, EDWARD (1794-1863), American Biblical
scholar, was born in Southington, Connecticut, on the loth
of April 1794, the son of William Robinson (1754-1825),
minister of the Congregational Church of Southington. He
graduated in 1816 at Hamilton College. In 1821 he came
under the influence and teaching of Moses Stuart, the second
edition of whose Hebrew Grammar he helped to prepare for
the press in 1823, and through whom he was appointed in
the same year instructor in Hebrew in Andover Seminary.
With Stuart he translated in 1825 the first edition of Winer's
Grammar of New Testament Greek; and alone he translated
Wahl's Clavis Philologica No'ai Testamenti (1825). In 1826-30
he studied in .Germany, especially at Halle, under Gesenius,
Tholuck and Rodiger, and at Berlin, under Neander. He
was professor (extraordinary) of sacred literature and librarian
at Andovor in 1830-33, resigning because of dangerous epileptic
attacks; and in 1831-35 he edited the Biblical Repository,
which he founded and carried on very largely by his own con-
tributions, assisted somewhat by his young German wife,
Theresa Albertina Luise (1797-1869), the daughter of Professor
Ludwig Heinrich von Jakob of Halle, a linguist of considerable
ability, and a writer (in her early years under the pseudonym
" Talvi ") of essays and stories. In 1837 he accepted the
professorship of Biblical literature in Union Theological Seminary,
and left America for three years of study in Palestine and
Germany, the fruit of which, his Biblical Researches, published
in 1841, brought him the gold medal of the Royal Geographical
Society in 1842. A second volume of Researches appeared in
1856. His plans to sum up his important topographical studies
in a work on Biblical geography were cut short by cataract in
1861 and by his death in New York City on the 27th of January
1863. A great Biblical scholar and exegete, Robinson must
be considered the pioneer and father of Biblical geography
his Biblical Researches, supplemented by the Physical Geography
of- the Holy Land (1865), were based on careful personal ex-
ploration and tempered by a thoroughly critical spirit, which
was possibly at times too sceptical of local tradition. Of
scarcely less value in their day were his Greek Harmony of the
Gospels (1845 an d often) and his Greek and English Lexicon of
the New Testament (1836; revised 1847 and 1850). He estab-
lished in 1843 and edited for some years the Bibliotheca Sacra
(in which the Biblical Repository was merged in 1852), for which
he wrote until 1855.
See Henry B. Smith and Roswell D. Hitchcock, The Life, Writings
and Character of Edward Robinson (New York, 1863); a biography
of Mrs Robinson was published, with a collection of her stories, in
Leipzig, in 1874.
ROBINSON, HENRY CRABB (1777-1867), English journalist
and diarist, the son of a tanner, was born at Bury St Edmunds
on the i3th of March 1775. In 1796 he entered the office of a
solicitor in London, but two years later, having inherited a sum
of money sufficient to give him a small yearly income, he started
in 1800 upon a tour on the Continent, travelling chiefly in
Germany and Bohemia. In 1802 he became a student at the
university of Jena, where he remained until his return to
England in 1805. After vain endeavours to obtain a post in
the diplomatic service, he was appointed foreign correspondent
for The Times at Altona. His letters, " From the Banks of
the Elbe," were published in this newspaper during 1807, and
on his return he became its foreign editor. In 1808 at the
outbreak of the Peninsular War he was sent out as special war
correspondent an innovation in English journalism for The
Times to Spain. There he witnessed Sir John Moore's retreat
at Corunna. After his return to England he read for the bar
at the Middle Temple, and from 1813 to 1828 he practised as
a barrister, retiring as soon as he had acquired a modest com-
petence. He is remembered chiefly as the friend of Lamb,
Coleridge, Wordsworth and Southey. He was a great con-
versationalist, and his breakfast parties rivalled those of Samuel
Rogers. He died in London on the 5th of February 1867.
His Diary of 35 volumes, his Journals of 30 volumes, and his
Letters and Reminiscences in 36 volumes, contain vivid pictures
drawn by an acute and sympathetic observer who had exceptional
opportunities of studying contemporary celebrities. They are
preserved at Dr Williams's Library in Gordon Square, London.
Crabb Robinson seems to have intended to edit these for publica-
tion, but except for a meagre selection edited by Thomas Sadler and
entitled The Diary, Reminiscences and Correspondence of H. Crabb
Robinson (1869), they have never been reprinted. Crabb Robinson
was one of the founders of the Athenaeum Club and of University
College, London.
ROBINSON, JOHN (1650-1723), English diplomatist and
prelate, a son of John Robinson (d. 1651), was born at Cleasby,
near Darlington, on the 7th of November 1650. Educated at
Brasenose College, Oxford, he became a fellow of Oriel College,
and about 1680 chaplain to the British embassy to Stockholm,
and remained in Sweden for nearly thirty years. During the
absence of the minister, Philip Warwick, Robinson acted as
resident and as envoy extraordinary, and he was thus in Sweden
during a very interesting and important period, and was per-
forming diplomatic duties at a time when the affairs of northern
Europe were attracting an unusual amount of attention.
Among his adventures not the least noteworthy was his journey
to Narva with Charles XII. in 1 700. In 1 709 Robinson returned
to England, and was appointed dean of Windsor and of Wolver-
hampton; in 1710 he was elected bishop of Bristol, and among
other ecclesiastical positions he held that of dean of the Chapel
Royal. In August 1711 he became lord privy seal, this being,
says Lord Stanhope, " the last time that a bishop has been
called upon to fill a political office." In 1712 the bishop re-
presented England at the important congress of Utrecht, and
at first plenipotentiary he signed the treaty of Utrecht in April
1713. Just after his return to England he was chosen bishop
of London in succession to Henry Compton. He died at Hamp-
stead on the nth of April 1723, having been a great benefactor
to Oriel College. Robinson wrote an Account of Sweden:
ROBINSON, J. ROBINSON, MARY
423
together with an Extract of the History of that Kingdom. By a
person of note who resided many years there (London, 1695).
This was translated into French (Amsterdam, 1712), and in
1738 was published with Viscount Molesworth's Account of
Denmark in i6gz. Some of his letters are among the Strafford
papers in the British Museum.
A member of the same family was Sir Frederick Philipse
Robinson (1763-1852), a Virginian soldier, who fought for
England during the American War of Independence. On the
conclusion of peace he went to England, and in 1813 and 1814
he commanded a brigade under Wellington in Spain. After-
wards he was governor of Tobago, and he became a general in
1841. He died at Brighton on the ist of January 1852.
ROBINSON, JOHN (1575-1625), English Nonconformist
divine, was born probably in Lincolnshire or Nottingham-
shire about 1575. He seems to have studied at Cambridge,
and to have been influenced by William Perkins. He took
orders and held a curacy in Norwich, but was attracted by
Puritan doctrines, and finally associated himself with a Con-
gregation meeting at Gainsborough (where the " John Robinson
Memorial Church " bears witness to his work). In 1606 the
members divided into two societies, Robinson becoming
minister of the one which made its headquarters at Scrooby,
a neighbouring village. The increasing hostility of the authori-
ties towards nonconformity soon forced him and his people
to think of flight, and, not without difficulty, they succeeded
in making their escape in detachments to Holland. Robinson
settled in Amsterdam in 1608, but in the following year re-
moved, with a large contingent, to Leiden, where he ministered
to a community whose numbers gradually grew from one
hundred to three hundred. In 1620 a considerable minority
of these sailed for England in the " Speedwell," and ultimately
crossed the Atlantic in the "Mayflower"; it was Robinson's
intention to follow as soon as practicable, along with the rest
of his flock, but he died before the plan could be carried out, on
the ist of March 1625.
In the early stages of the Arminian controversy he took
the Calvinistic side, and even engaged in a public disputation
with the famous Episcopius. He bore a high reputation even
among his ecclesiastical opponents, and one of them (Robert
Baillie) calls him " the most learned, polished and modest
spirit that ever that sect enjoyed." He was large-minded
and eminently reasonable in spirit, recognizing parish as-
semblies where " the pure word and discipline " prevailed
as true churches of God. His sound judgment is seen in the
way in which he adjusted the relations of elders and church
the most delicate practical problem of Congregationalism.
Amongst his publications may be mentioned Justification of
Separation from the Church (1610), Apologia Brownistarum (1619),
A Defence of the Doctrine propounded by the Synod of Dort (1624),
and a volume of Essays, or Observations Divine and Moral, printed
in 1625. His Works (with one exception, A Manumission to a
Manduction, since published by the Massachusetts Historical
Society, ser. iv., vol. i.), including a memoir, were reprinted by
R. Ashton in three vols. in 1851. A summary of their contents
is given in G. Punchard, History of Congregationalism (New York,
1867), iii. 300-344. See further CONGREGATIONALISM, and the
literature there cited; also O. S. Davis, John Robinson (Hartford,
Connecticut, 1897).
ROBINSON, SIR JOHN BEVERLEY, BART. (1791-1863),
Canadian statesman and jurist, was the son of Christopher
Robinson (1764-1798), one of the band known as United
Empire Loyalists, who came to Canada at the conclusion of
the American Revolution. He was born at Berthier, Quebec,
on the 26th of July 1791, and studied under Dr John
Strachan, by whom his religious and political ideas were much
influenced. He served with distinction at the beginning of
the war of 1812, and later in the war was appointed acting
attorney -general of Upper Canada. In 1815 he visited England
and read law at Lincoln's Inn.
From 1818 till 1829 he was the head of the Tory party in
Upper Canada (the so-called " Family Compact "). In 1829
he became chief justice of Upper Canada, which position he
held till shortly before his death on the 3ist of January 1863.
Not one of his decisions was ever reversed on appeal. In
1824 and again in 1839 he strongly advocated a federal union
of British North America, and in 1839 opposed in Canada and
the Canada Bill the legislative union of the two Canadas pro-
posed by Lord Durham. In 1854 he was created a baronet
of the United Kingdom and in 1855 a D.C.L. of Oxford Uni-
versity. His unbending Toryism rendered him a reactionary
in politics, but his bitterest opponents admitted his sincerity
and patriotism.
Several of his sons rose to eminence, John Beverley Robinson
(1820-1896) becoming a member of the Dominion parliament
and lieutenant-governor of Ontario (1880-1887). Christopher
Robinson (1828-1905) was for many years the acknowledged
leader of the Canadian Bar.
His Life, by his son, Major-General C. W. Robinson, C.B. (Toronto
and London, 1904), gives a very favourable picture of the fine old
colonial gentleman and loyalist. For a less favourable view see
J. C. Dent, Canadian Portrait Gallery, vol. iv. (Toronto, 1881).
ROBINSON, JOHN THOMAS ROMNEY (1792-1882), Irish
astronomer and physicist, was born in Dublin on the 23rd of
April 1792. He studied at Trinity College, Dublin, and ob-
tained a fellowship in 1814; for some years he was deputy
professor of natural philosophy, until in 1821 he obtained the
college living of Enniskillcn. In 1823 he was appointed astro-
nomer of the Armagh observatory, with which he (from 1824)
combined the living of Carrickmacross, but he always resided
at the observatory, engaged in researches connected with
astronomy and physics, until his death on the z8lh of February
1882.
Robinson published a number of papers in scientific journals,
and the Armagh catalogue of stars (Places of 5345 Stars observed from
1828 to 1854 at the Armagh Observatory, Dublin, 1859), but he is
best known as the inventor (1846) of the cup-anemometer for
registering the velocity of the wind.
ROBINSON, SIR JOSEPH BENJAMIN (1845- ), South
African mine-owner, was born at Cradock, Cape Colony, in
1845. At the age of sixteen he started business as a general
trader, wool-buyer and stock-breeder, but on the discovery of
diamonds in South Africa in 1867 he hastened to the Vaal
river district, where, by purchasing the stones from the natives
and afterwards by buying diamond-bearing land, notably
at Kimberley, he soon acquired a considerable fortune. He
was mayor of Kimberley in 1880, and for four years was a
representative of Griqualand West in the Cape parliament.
On the discovery of gold in the Witwatersrand district in 1886,
Robinson purchased the Langlaagte and Randfontein estates.
His views as to the westerly trend of the main gold-bearing reef
were entirely contrary to the bulk of South African opinion
at the time, but events proved him to be correct, and the
enormous appreciation in value of his various properties made
him one of the richest men in South Africa. As a Rand capi-
talist he stood aloof from combinations with other gold-mining
interests, and took no part in the Johannesburg reform move-
ment, maintaining friendly relations with President Kruger.
He claimed that it was as the result of his representations after
the Jameson Raid that Kruger appointed the Industrial Com-
mission of 1897, whose recommendations had they been
carried out would have remedied some of the Uitlander
grievances. In 1908 he was created a baronet.
ROBINSON, MARY [" Perdita "] (1758-1800), English
actress and author, was born in Bristol on the 27th of November
1758, the daughter of a captain of a whaler named Darby.
In 1774 she was married to Thomas Robinson, a clerk in London,
where her remarkable beauty brought her many attentions;
and when, after two years of fashionable life, her husband was
arrested for debt, she shared his imprisonment. She had been
a precocious child, encouraged to write verses, and while in
King's Bench prison she completed the collection published
in two volumes in 1775. On her release, thanks to Garrick,
she secured an engagement at Drury Lane, making a successful
first appearance as Juliet in 1776. On the 3rd of December
1779 she was Perdita in Garrick's version of The Winter's Tale,
and her beauty so captivated George, prince of Wales (afterwards
424
ROBINSON, T. ROC
George IV.), then in his eighteenth year, that he began
a correspondence with her, signing himself " Florizel." She
was for about two years his mistress, but he then deserted her,
even dishonouring his bond for 20,000, payable when he came
of age, and left her to obtain a pension of 500 in exchange
for it from Charles James Fox. Owing to the hostility of public
opinion, she feared to return to the stage, but she published some
more volumes of her writings. There are numerous charming
portraits of " Perdita "; two in the Wallace Collection, by
Reynolds and by Gainsborough, reveal " her grave, refined
beauty." Hoppner, Cosway and Romney also painted her.
See Memoirs of Mary Robinson, " Perdita," with introduction
and notes by J. F. Molloy (1894).
ROBINSON, THEODORE (1852-1896), American artist, was
born at Irasburg, Vermont, in 1852. He was a pupil of J. L.
Gerdme and Carolus-Duran in Paris, and worked with Claude
Monet. He received the Webb Prize in 1890 for his " Winter
Landscape," and the Shaw Fund in 1892 for his " In the Sun,"
a study of a peasant girl. He became a member (1881) of
the Society of American Artists. He died in New York City
on the 2nd of April 1896.
ROB ROY (1671-1734), the popular designation of a famous
Highland outlaw whose prowess is the theme of one of Sir
Walter Scott's novels, was by descent a Macgregor, being the
younger son of Donald Macgregor of Glengyle, lieutenant-
colonel in the army of James II., by his wife, a daughter of
William Campbell of Gleneaves. He received the name Roy
from his red hair, and latterly adopted Campbell as his surname
on account of the acts proscribing the name of his clan. Though
in stature not much above the middle height, he was so muscular
and thickly set that few were his equals in feats of strength,
while the unusual length of his arms gave him an extraordinary
advantage in the use of the sword. His eyes were remarkably
keen and piercing, and with his whole expression formed an
appropriate complement to his powerful physical frame. He
inherited a small property on the Braes of Balquhidder, and
at first devoted himself to the rearing of cattle. Having
formed a band of armed clansmen, he obtained, after the
accession of William III., a commission from James II. to levy
war on all who refused to acknowledge him as king, and in the
autumn of 1691 made a descent on Stirlingshire to carry off
the cattle of Lord Livingstone, when, being opposed by the
villagers of Kippen, he also seized the cattle from all the byres
of the village. Shortly afterwards he married Helen Mary,
daughter of Macgregor of Comar. On the death of Gregor
Macgregor, the chief of the clan, in 1693 he managed, though
not the nearest heir, to get himself acknowledged chief, obtaining
control of the lands stretching from the Braes of Balquhidder
to the shores of Loch Lomond, and situated between the posses-
sions of Argyll and those of Montrose. To assist in carrying
on his trade as cattle-dealer he borrowed money from the ist
duke of Montrose, and, being unable to repay it, he was in
1712 evicted from his property and declared an outlaw. Taking
refuge in the more inaccessible Highlands, Rob Roy from this
time forward supported himself chiefly by depredations com-
mitted in the most daring manner on the duke and his tenants,
all attempts to capture him being unsuccessful. During the
rebellion of 1715, though nominally siding with the Pretender,
he did not take an active part in the battle of Sheriflmuir
except in plundering the dead on both sides. He was included
in the Act. of Attainder; but, having for some time enjoyed
the friendship of the duke of Argyll, he obtained, on making
his submission at Inveraray, a promise of protection. He now
established his residence at Craigroyston, near Loch Lomond,
whence for some time he levied blackmail as formerly upon
Montrose, escaping by his wonderful address and activity
every effort of the English garrison stationed at Inversnaid
to bring him to justice. Ultimately, through the mediation of
Argyll, he was reconciled to Montrose, and in 1722 he made
submission to General Wade; he was carried off, and imprisoned
in Newgate, and in 1727 was pardoned just as he was to be
transported to Barbados. He then returned to Scotland.
According to a notice in the Caledonian .Mercury he died at
Balquhidder on the 28th of December 1734. He was buried
in Balquhidder churchyard.
The best lives are K. Macleay, Historical Memoirs of Rob Roy
(1818; new ed., 1881); A. H. Millar, Story of Rob Roy (1883). Sec
also Sir W. Scott's introduction to the novel Rob Roy. An early
account, The Highland Rogue, &c. (1723), is ascribed to Defoe.
ROBSART, the maiden name of LADY AMY DUDLEY (1532-
1560), wife of Lord Robert Dudley, afterwards earl of Leicester.
She was the daughter of Sir John Robsart of Norfolk, and was
married to Lord Robert on the 4th of June 1550. The marriage
was apparently arranged by the family for business reasons,
and there is no ground for supposing that it was a love match,
or that she was beautiful. Her attraction lay in her estate,
which was a provision for a younger son. During the early
years of the marriage her husband was entangled in the rebellion
of his family against Queen Mary, and was imprisoned in the
Tower. She visited him there, and acted for his interests.
After his release she saw little of him. When Elizabeth
became queen in 1559 Lord Robert was soon known to be her
favourite, and it was believed that she would marry him if
he were free. His wife never came to court and was never in
his company. Stories were set about to the effect that she
was suffering from cancer and would soon die. Quadra, the
Spanish ambassador, reported to the king of Spain that the
queen had repeated this rumour to him. In 1560 she went
by her husband's directions to Cumnor Place, a house near
Oxford, rented by his agent Anthony Forster or Forrester,
member of parliament for Abingdon. Here she was found
lying dead on the floor of the hall on the 8th of September
1560 by her servants, whom she had allowed to go to Abingdon
Fair. The circumstances of her death never have been, and
now cannot be cleared up. A coroner's jury, which her husband
did his best to pack and influence, attributed her end to accident.
There is no evidence against Dudley, unless it be evidence that
he was a most unscrupulous man, and that he was generally
believed to have murdered several other persons who stood in
his way.
See G. Adlard, Amy Robsarl and Leycester (London, 1870), and
W. Rye, The Murder of Amy Robsart (London, 1885).
ROBSON, STUART (1836-1903), American actor, whose
real name was Robson Stuart, was born in Annapolis, Maryland,
on the 4th of March 1836. An unintentionally humorous
appearance in a serious part in 1852 showed him that his forte
was comedy; and in partnership with W. H. Crane from
1877 to 1889 he was very successful as a comedian, The
Henrietta being one of their best productions. He died on the
29th of April 1903. His wife, May Robson, also became well
known as an actress.
ROBY, HENRY JOHN (1830- ), English classical scholar
and writer on Roman law, was born at Tamworth on the i2th
of August 1830. He was educated at St John's College, Cam-
bridge (senior classic, 1853; fellow, 1854). From 1866 to 1868
he was professor of jurisprudence at University College, London,
and from 1872 to 1874 commissioner of endowed schools. From
1890 to 1895 he was member of parliament in the Liberal interest
for the Eccles division of Lancashire. The book by which he
is perhaps best known is his Grammar of the Latin Language
from Plautus to Suetonius, a storehouse of illustrative quota-
tions from Latin literature, but his most important works deal
with Roman law Introduction to Justinian's Digest (1884)
and Roman Private Law (1902).
ROC, or more correctly RUKH, a fabulous bird of enormous
size which carries off elephants to feed its young. The legend
of the roc, familiar to every one from the Arabian Nights, was
widely spread in the East; and in later times the home of the
monster was sought in the direction of Madagascar, whence
gigantic fronds of the Raphia palm very like a quill in form
appear to have been brought under the name of roc's feathers
(see Yule's Marco Polo, bk. iii. ch. 33, and Academy, 1884,
No. 620). Such a feather was brought to the Great Khan,
and we read also of a gigantic stump of a roc's quill being
ROCAMADOUR ROCHAMBEAU
425
brought to Spain by a merchant from the China seas (Abu
Hamid of Spain, in Damlrl, s.v.). The roc is hardly different
from the Arabian 'ankd (see PHOENIX); it is also identified
with the Persian simurgh, the bird which figures in Firdausi's
epic as the foster-father of the hero Zal, father of Rustam.
When we go farther back into Persian antiquity we find an
immortal bird, amru, or (in the Minoi-khiradh) slnamrH, which
shakes the ripe fruit from the mythical tree that bears the seed
of all useful things. Sinamru and simurgh seem to be the same
word. In Indian legend the garufa on which Vishnu rides is
the king of birds (Benfey, Panlschatantra, iii. 98). In the
Pahlavi translation of the Indian story as represented by the
Syrian Kalilag and Damnag (ed. Bickell, 1876), the simurgh
takes the place of the garuda, while Ibn al-Mokaffa' (Calila et
Dimna, ed. De Sacy, p. 126) speaks instead of the 'anka. The
later Syriac, curiously enough, has behmoth, apparently the
behemoth of Job transformed into a bird.
For a collection of legends about the roc, see Lane's Arabian
Nights, chap. xx. notes 22, 62, and Yule, ut supra. Also see Bochart,
Hieroz, bk. vi. ch. xiv. ; Damiri, i. 414, ii. 177 seq.; Kazwini, i.
419 seq.; Ibn lialuta, iv. 305 seq.; Spiegel, Eran. Altertumsk.
ii. 1 1 8.
ROCAMADOUR, a village of south-western France, in the
department of Lot, 36 m. N.N.E. of Cahors by road. Pop.
(1906) 296. Rocamadour, a famous place of pilgrimage, is
most strikingly situated. Its buildings rise in stages up the side
of a cliff on the right bank of the Alzou, which here runs between
rocky walls 400 ft. in height. Flights of steps ascend from the
lower town to the churches a group of massive buildings
half-way up the cliff. The chief of them is the church of Notre-
Dame (1479), containing the wooden figure of the Madonna
reputed to have been carved by St Amadour. The church
opens on to a terrace called the Plateau of St Michel, where there
is a broken sword said to be a fragment of " Durandal," once
wielded by the hero Roland. The interior walls of the church
of St Sauveur are covered with paintings and inscriptions
recalling the pilgrimages of celebrated persons. The sub-
terranean church of St Amadour (1166) extends beneath
St Sauveur and contains relics of the saint. On the summit
of the cliff stands the chateau built in the middle ages to
defend the sanctuaries.
Rocamadour owes its origin to St Amadour or Amateur, who,
according to tradition, chose the place as a hermitage for his
devotions to the Virgin Mary. The saint is identified with
Zacchaeus the publican and disciple of Jesus, who is said to
have journeyed to Gaul to preach the gospel. The renown
of Rocamadour as a place of pilgrimage dates from the early
middle ages.
ROCAMBOLE, Allium Scorodoprasum, a hardy bulbous
perennial occurring in a wild state in sandy pastures and waste
places throughout Europe, but not common in the south; in
Britain it is rare, and found in the north of England and the
south of Scotland. Its cultivation does not appear to be of
ancient date; it is not mentioned by Greek and Roman authors,
and there are only a small number of original common names
among ancient peoples (A. de Candolle, Origin of Cultivated
Plants, p. 72). The plant is grown for its bulbs, which are
smaller and milder than those of garlic, and consist of several
cloves chiefly produced at the roots. The cloves are planted
about the end of February or in March, and treated like garlic
or shallot. When mature, the bulbs are taken up, dried and
stored for use.
ROCH, ST (Lat. Rochus; Ital. Rocco; Span. Roque; Fr.
Roch) (d. 1327), a confessor whose death is commemorated
on the i6th of August; he is specially invoked against the
plague. According to his Ada, he was born at Montpellier,
France, about 1295. He early began to manifest strict asceti-
cism and great) devoutness. and on the death of his parents in
his twentieth year he gave all his substance to the poor. Coming
to Italy during an epidemic of plague, he was very diligent in
tending the sick in the public hospitals at Aquapendente,
Cesena and Rome, and effected many miraculous cures by
prayer and simple contact. After similar ministries at Piacenza
he himself fell ill. He was expelled from the town, and with-
drew into the forest, where he would have perished had not
a dog belonging to a nobleman named Gothardus supplied him
with bread. On his return to Montpellier he was arrested as
a spy and thrown into prison, where he died on the i6th of
August 1327, having previously obtained from God this favour
that all plague-stricken persons invoking him should be
healed. His cult spread through Spain, France, Germany,
Belgium and Italy. A magnificent temple was raised to him
at Venice, where his body is believed to lie, and numerous
brotherhoods have been instituted in his honour. He is usually
represented in the garb of a pilgrim, with a wound in his thigh,
and with a dog near him carrying a loaf in its mouth.
See Acta sanctorum, August, iii- 380-415; Charles Cahier Les
Caracteristiques des saints (Paris. 1867) pp. 216-217. (H. DE )
ROCHAMBEAU, JEAN BAPTISTE DONATIEN DE VIMEUR,
COMTE DE (1725-1807), French soldier, was born at Vend6me
(Loir-et-Cher) on the ist of July 1725. He was originally
destined for the church and was brought up at the Jesuit
college at Blois, but after the death of his elder brother he
entered a cavalry regiment, served in Bohemia and Bavaria
and on the Rhine, and in 1747 had attained the rank of colonel
He took part in the siege of Maestricht in 1 748, became governor
of Vendome in 1749, and after distinguishing himself in 1756
in the Minorca expedition was promoted brigadier of infantry.
In 1757 and 1758 he fought in Germany, no'tably at Crefeld,
received several wounds in the battle of Clostercamp (1760),
was appointed marechal de camp in 1761 and inspector of
cavalry and was frequently consulted by the ministers on
technical points. In 1780 he was sent, with the rank of lieu-
tenant-general, in command of 6000 French troops to help
the American colonists under Washington against the English.
He landed at Newport, Rhode Island, on the roth of July,
but was held here inactive for a year, owing to his reluctance
to abandon the French fleet, which was blockaded by the
British in Narragansett Bay. At last, in July 1781, Rocham-
beau's force was able to leave Rhode Island and, marching
across Connecticut, joined Washington on the Hudson. Then
followed the celebrated march of the combined forces to York-
town, where on the 22nd of September they formed a junction
with the troops of Lafayette; as the result Cornwallis was
forced to surrender on the igth of October. Throughout,
Rochambeau had displayed an admirable spirit, placing himself
entirely under Washington's command and handling his troops
as part of the American army. In recognition of his services,
Congress voted him and his troops the thanks of the nation and
presented him with two cannon taken from the English. These
guns, which Rochambeau took back to Vend6me, were re-
quisitioned in 1792. On his return to France he was loaded
with favours by Louis XVI. and was made governor of Picardy.
During the Revolution he commanded the Army of the North
in 1790, but resigned in 1792. He was arrested during the
Terror, and narrowly escaped the guillotine. He was sub-
sequently pensioned by Bonaparte, and died at Thore (Loir-
et-Cher) on the loth of May 1807.
A statue of Rochambeau by Ferdinand Hamar, the gift of
France to the United States, was unveiled in Lafayette Square,
Washington, by President Roosevelt on the 24th of May 1902.
The ceremony was made the occasion of a great demonstration
of friendship between the two nations. France was represented
by her ambassador, M. Cambon, Admiral Fournier and General
Brugere, a detachment of sailors and marines from the warship
" Gaulois " being present. Representatives of the Lafayette
and Rochambeau families also attended. Of the many speeches
perhaps the most striking was that of Senator Henry C. Lodge,
who, curiously enough in the circumstances, prefaced his
eloquent appreciation of the services rendered to the American
cause by France by a brilliant sketch of the way in which
the French had been driven out of North America by England
and her colonists combined. General Brugere, in his speech,
quoted Rochambeau 's words, uttered in 1781: " Entre votts,
xxm. 14 a
426
ROCHDALE ROCHEFORT, H.
entre nous, a la vie, A la mart." A " Rochambeau fete " was
held simultaneously in Paris.
The Mcmoires militaires, hisloriques et politiques, de Rochambeau
were published by Luce de Lancival in 1809. Of the first volume
a part, translated into English by M. W. E. Wright, was published
in 1838 under the title of Memoirs of the Marshal Count de R.
relative to the War of Independence in the United States. Rocham-
beau's correspondence during the American campaign is published
in H. Doniol, Hist, de la participation de la France a I' etablissement
des Atats Unis d'Amcrique, vol. v. (Paris, 1892). See Duchesne,
" Autour de Rochambeau " in the Revue des facultes catholiques de
I'ouest (1898-1900); E. Gachot, "Rochambeau" in the Nouvelle
Revue (1902) ; H. de Ganniers, " La Derniere Campagne du marechal
de Rochambeau " in the Revue des questions historiques (1901).
ROCHDALE, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough
of Lancashire, England, on the river Roch, ioj m. N.N.E. from
Manchester and 196 m. N.W. by N. from London, on the
Lancashire & Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1891) 76,161;
(1901) 83,114. By means of the Rochdale canal and con-
nexions it has water communications in every direction. The
site rises sharply from the Roch, near its confluence with the
Spodden, and from the high-lying public park of Rochdale
fine views of the picturesque neighbourhood are obtained.
Several interesting old houses remain in the vicinity of the
town. The parish church of St Chad is built on the site of a
church erected in the I2th century, but itself retains no portion
earlier than the Perpendicular period. In the churchyard is
buried John Collier (1708-1786), a local author, artist and
caricaturist, who was among the first to recognize and utilize
in writing the humour of the Lancashire dialect, and attained
considerable fame under the pseudonym of Tim Bobbin. The
town hall is an extensive and elaborate structure in the Decorated
style, with a tower. Of educational charities the principal is
the Archbishop Parker free grammar school, founded in 1565.
There are also technical and art schools; and a large Roman
Catholic orphanage. Among other public institutions are
the public library, the infirmary, the literary and scientific
society and the art society. Rochdale was the birthplace of
the co-operative movement. The Equitable Pioneers Society
(1844) numbers over n,ooo members, with a capital of over
350,000. A handsome co-operative store, belonging to the
Rochdale Provident Co-operative Society, was opened in 1900.
A statue of John Bright (1891) recalls the connexion of the
statesman and his family with Rochdale. The staple manu-
factures are those of woollens and cottons. There are, besides,
foundries, iron-works and machine-factories. Coal and stone
are obtained extensively in the neighbourhood. Frequent
cattle and horse fairs are held. Rochdale was incorporated
in 1856, and includes several townships. The corporation
consists of a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30 councillors. The
county borough was created in 1888. The parliamentary
borough, which has returned one member since 1832, falls
between the Middleton and Heywood divisions of the county.
Area of municipal borough, 6446 acres.
Rochdale (Recedham, Rachedam, Rachedal) takes its
name from the river on which it stands. A Roman road
passed the site, and a Saxon castle stood in Castleton, one
of the component parts of the town. In Edward the Con-
fessor's reign most of the land was held by Gamel the Thane,
but after the Conquest the manor probably came into the
hands of Roger de Poictou, from whom it passed to the Lacys
and like their other lands became merged in the duchy of Lan-
caster. From 1462 to 1625 the crown seems to have leased
it to the Byron family. In 1625 Charles I. conveyed the
manor in trust for the earl of Holdernesse, and in 1638 it was
sold to Sir John Byron, afterwards Baron Byron of Rochdale,
whose descendants held it till 1823 when it was sold to the
Deardens. Manor courts are still held periodically. Henry III .
in 1240-41 granted by charter to Edmund de Lacy the right to
hold a weekly market on Wednesday and an annual fair on
the feast of ijS Simon and Jude (28th October). Early in
George III.'s reign the market day was changed to Monday.
Two of the early industries, cutlery and hat-making, date
from about the middle of the i6th century. The woollen
industry is generally, but erroneously, said to have been intro-
duced by Flemish immigrants in Edward III.'s reign; but,
with the cognate trades of dyeing and fulling, its importance
only dates from the early part of the I7th century. It was
not till 1795 that a cotton mill was built here, and in the latter
half of the i8th century the town was famed for its woollen, not
its cotton manufactures.
See H. Fishwick, History of the Parish of Rochdale (1889).
ROCHE, SIR BOYLE, BART. (1743-1807), Irish soldier
and politician, famous for his " bulls," came of a branch of
the family of the Viscounts Fermoy. He served in the
American War, and sat in the Irish parliament from 1777
onwards, being created a baronet in 1782 for his loyalty to
the government. He supported the Union, and one of his
recorded " bulls " many, however, being only fastened on
him was his declaration that he would have " the two sisters "
(England and Ireland) " embrace like one brother." Sir
Boyle Roche was a characteristically witty and genial Irish-
man, and was master of the ceremonies at Dublin Castle.
ROCHEFORT, HENRI, MARQUIS DE ROCHEFORT-LUC;AY
(1830- ), French politician, was born in Paris on the 3oth
of January 1830. His father was a Legitimist noble who as
" Edmond Rochefort " was well known as a writer of vaude-
villes; his mother's views were republican. After experience
as a medical student, a clerk at the Hotel de Ville, a play-
wright and a journalist, he joined the staff of the Figaro
in 1863; but a series of his articles, afterwards published as
Les Frangais de la Decadence (3 vols., 1866-68), brought the
paper into collision with the authorities and caused the ter-
mination of his engagement. In collaboration with different
dramatists he had meanwhile written a long series of successful
vaudevilles, which began with the Monsieur bien mis at the
Folies Dramatiques in 1856. On leaving the Figaro Rochefort
determined to start a paper of his own, La Lanterne. The
paper was seized on its eleventh appearance, and in August
1868 Rochefort was fined 10,000 francs, with a year's imprison-
ment. He then published his paper in Brussels, whence it was
smuggled into France. Printed in French, English, Spanish,
Italian and German, it went the round of Europe. After a
second prosecution he fled to Belgium. A series of duels, of
which the most famous was one fought with Paul de Cassagnac
a propos of an article on Joan of Arc, kept Rochefort in the
public eye. In 1869, after two unsuccessful candidatures, he
was returned to the Chamber of Deputies by the first circon-
scription of Paris. He was arrested on the frontier, only to
be almost immediately released, and forthwith took his seat.
He renewed his onslaught on the empire, starting a new paper,
the Marseillaise, as the organ of political meetings arranged
by himself at La Villette. The staff was appointed on the
votes of the members, and included Victor Noir and Pascal
Grousset. The violent articles in this paper led to the duel
which resulted in Victor Noir's death at the hands of Prince
Pierre Bonaparte. The paper was seized, and Rochefort and
Grousset were sent to prison for six months. The revolution
of September was the signal for his release. He became a
member of the government of National Defence, but this
short association with the forces of law and order was soon
broken on account of his openly expressed sympathy with
the Communards. On the nth of May 1871 he fled in dis-
guise from Paris. A week earlier he had resigned with a
handful of other deputies from the National Assembly rather
than countenance the dismemberment of France. Arrested
at Meaux by the Versailles government, he was detained for
some time in prison with a nervous illness before he was con-
demned under military law to imprisonment for life. In
spite of Victor Hugo's efforts on his behalf he was transported
to New Caledonia. In 1874 he escaped on board an American
vessel to San Francisco. He lived in London and Geneva
until the general amnesty permitted his return to France in
1880. In Geneva he resumed the publication of La Lanterne,
and in the Parisian papers articles constantly appeared
from his pen. When at length in 1880 the general amnesty
ROCHEFORT- -ROCHESTER, 2ND EARL OF
permitted his return to Paris he founded L' Intransigent in the
Radical and Socialist interest. For a short time in 1885-86 he
sat in the Chamber of Deputies, but found a great opportunity
next year for his talent for inflaming public opinion in the
Boulangist agitation. He was condemned to detention in a
fortress in August 1889 at the same time as General Boulanger,
whom he had followed into exile. He continued his polemic
from London, and after the suicide of General Boulanger he
attacked M. Constans, minister of the interior in the Freycinct
cabinet, with the utmost violence, in a series of articles which
led to an interpellation in the chamber in circumstances of
wild excitement and disorder. The Panama scandals fur-
nished him with another occasion, and he created something
of a sensation by a statement in the Figaro that he had met
M. Clemenceau at the table of the financier Cornelius Herz.
In 1895 he returned to Paris, two years before the Dreyfus
affair supplied him with another point d'appui. He became
a leader of the anti-Dreyfusards, and had a principal share
in the organization of the press campaign. Subsequently he
was editor of La Patrie.
Besides his plays and articles in the journals he published several
separate works, among them being: Les Petits Mysteres de I' Hotel
des Ventes (1862), a collection of his art criticisms; Les Depraves
(Geneva, 1882); Les Naufrageurs (1876); L'Evade (1883),
Napoleon dernier (3 vols., 1884) ; and Les Aventures de ma vie
(5 vols., 1896).
ROCHEFORT, a small town of Belgium, situated on the
Lomme, a tributary of the Lesse, in the S.E. of the province
of Namur close to the Ardennes. Resident pop. (1904) 3068,
which in July and August is doubled. It is of ancient origin,
its position at the point where the route to St Hubert crossed
that from Lie'ge to Bouillon having made it at all times a place
of some importance. The ruins of the old castle, which gave
the place its name and a title to a long line of counts who had
the right of coining their own money, still exist. This castle
underwent many sieges and suffered much in the earlier wars,
especially at the hands of Marshal de Chatillon in 1636. Roche-
fort is noted for its healthiness, and is a favourite place of
residence. It also attracts every summer a large number of
visitors and tourists, who visit it on account of the remarkable
grottoes in its neighbourhood. One of these is situated in
the town itself and is known by its name. This grotto contains
six halls or chambers, the largest of which is called the Sabbat,
and is remarkable for its great height. But the most famous
are the grottoes of Han, situated three miles from Rochefort
at Han sur Lesse. Here the river Lesse passes by a subterranean
and undiscovered passage under the hill called Boeme or Boine.
The endeavour to trace the course of the river led to the dis-
covery of the grottoes, which consist of fifteen separate halls,
connected by passages more or less short and emerging on the
river in a dark and extensive cavern forming a sort of side
creek or bay. Except in flood-time, when the exit has to be
used, the entrance is near the -point where the river disappears
at what is called the gap or hole of Belvaux, and the exit is
made by boat from the cavern last described, which leads out
to the open river. A beautiful effect is afforded by the passage
from the complete darkness of this cavern into the light. The
finest stalactites are in the three halls called the Mysterieuses,
the Vigneron and the Draperies. In the last-named is " the
tomb," which looks as if chiselled out of white marble. The
central hall called the Salle d'Armes is immense, and one
of the river channels flows through it. Electric light has been
introduced. Near Rochefort are the famous red marble quarries
of St Remy, and the old Cistercian abbey of that name is now
a Trappist seminary.
ROCHEFORT, a town of western France, capital of an arron-
dissement in the department of Charente-Inferieure, 20 m.
S.S.E. of La Rochelle on the State railway from Nantes to
Bordeaux. Pop. (1906) town, 31,433; commune, 36,694. It
is situated on the right bank of the Charente, 9 m. from the
Atlantic, and is built partly on the side of a rocky hill and
partly on an old marshland. The town is laid out with great
427
regularity, the streets being wide and straight and centring
round the Place Colbert, in the middle of which is a monumental
fountain of the i8th century. The public institutions of
Rochefort comprise the sub-prefecture, tribunals of first instance
and of commerce, a board of trade arbitration, a chamber of
commerce, a lycee for boys, a college for girls and schools of
drawing and architecture. The fortifications are slight. Below
Rochefort the Charente is crossed by a pont transbordeur, the
carrier of which is suspended at a height which admits of the
tallest ships passing underneath at any time. There are both
a naval and a commercial harbour. The former has the ad-
vantage of deep anchorage well protected by batteries at the
mouth of the river, and the roadstead is perfectly safe. The
windings of the channel, however, between Rochefort and the
sea, and the bar at the entrance render navigation dangerous.
Rochefort is capital of the fourth maritime arrondissement, which
stretches from the bay of Bourgneuf to the coast of Spain.
The naval harbour and arsenal, separated from the town by a
line of fortifications with three gates, contain large covered
building yards, repairing docks and extensive timber basins
on both banks of the river. The arsenal has also a ropewalk
dating from 1668, a school of navigation and pilotage, the
offices of the maritime prefecture, the navy commissariat, a
park of artillery and various boards of direction connected
with the navy. Other government establishments at Rochefort
are barracks for infantry, artillery and marines, and the naval
hospital and school of medicine. In the grounds of this last
institution is an artesian well, sunk in 1862-1866 to a depth of
2800 ft., and yielding water with a temperature of 100 F.
The commercial harbour, higher up the river than the naval
harbour, has two small basins, a third basin with an area of
15 acres and a depth at neap-tide of 25 ft., at spring-tide of
29 j ft., and a dry dock 1 10 yds. long. Besides shipbuilding,
which forms the staple industry, flour- and saw-milling, sail-
cloth, &c., are among the local manufactures. At the ports
of Rochefort and Tonnay-Charente (4 m. higher up) there
entered, in 1905, 265 vessels (166 British), with a tonnage of
i92,537-
The lordship of Rochefort, held by powerful nobles as early
as the nth century, was united to the French Crown by Philip
the Fair early in the i4th century; but it was alternately
seized in the course of the Hundred Years' War by the English
and the French, and in the Wars of Religion by the Catholics
and Protestants. Colbert having in 1665 chosen Rochefort as
the seat of a repairing port between Brest and the Gironde,
the town rapidly increased in importance; by 1674 it had
20,000 inhabitants; and when the Dutch admiral Cornelius
Tromp appeared at the mouth of the river with seventy-two
vessels for the purpose of destroying the new arsenal, he found
the approaches so well defended that he gave up his enterprise.
It was at Rochefort that the naval school, afterwards trans-
ferred to Brest, was originally founded. The town continued to
flourish in the later part of the I7th century. In 1600 and in
1703 the English made unsuccessful attempts to destroy it.
Its fleet, under the command of Admiral la Gallissonniere, a
native of the place, defeated Admiral Byng in 1755 and did
good service in the wars of the republic. But the destruction
of the French fleet by the English in 1809 in the roadstead of
lie d'Aix, the preference accorded to the harbours of Brest
and Toulon and the unhealthiness of its climate seriously inter-
fered with the prosperity of the place. The convict establish-
ment, founded at Rochefort in 1777, was suppressed in 1852.
ROCHESTER, JOHN WILMOT, 2ND EARL OF (1647-1680),
English poet and wit, was the son of Henry Wilmot, ist earl.
The family was descended from Edward Wilmot of Witney,
Oxfordshire, whose son Charles (c. i57o-c. 1644), having served
with distinction in Ireland during the rebellion at the beginning
of the 1 7th century, was president of Connaught from 1616
until his death. In 1621 he had been created an Irish peer as
Viscount Wilmot of Athlone, and he was succeeded by his only
surviving son, Henry (c. 1612-1658). Having fought against
the Scots at Newburn and been imprisoned and expelled from
428
ROCHESTER, EARL OF
the House of Commons for plotting in the interests of the
king in 1641, Henry Wilmot served Charles I. well during the
Civil War, being responsible for the defeats of Sir William
Waller at Round way Down in July 1643 and at Cropredy
Bridge in June 1644. In 1643 he was created Baron Wilmot
of Adderbury. Wilmot was on bad terms with some of the
king's friends and advisers, including Prince Rupert, and in
1644 he is reported to have said that Charles was afraid of peace
and to have advised his supercession by his son, the prince of
Wales. Consequently he was deprived of his command, and
after a short imprisonment was allowed to cross over to France.
He was greatly trusted by Charles II., whose defeat at Worcester
and subsequent wanderings he shared, and during this king's
exile he was one of his principal advisers, being created by him
earl of Rochester in 1652. In the interests of Charles he visited
the emperor Ferdinand III., the duke of Lorraine, and the
elector of Brandenburg, and in March 1655 he was in England,
where he led a feeble attempt at a rising on Marston Moor, near
York; on its failure he fled the country.
Born at Ditchley in Oxfordshire on the loth of April 1647,
John Wilmot, who succeeded his father as 2nd earl in 1658,
was educated at Wadham College, Oxford, and in 1661, although
he was only fourteen years of age, received the degree of M.A.
On leaving Oxford he travelled in France and Italy with a tutor
who encouraged his love of literature, and moreover advocated
principles of temperance which, however, bore little fruit. He
returned in 1664, and at once made his way to Charles II. 's
court, where his youth, good looks and wit assured him of a
welcome. In 1665 he joined the fleet serving against the Dutch
as a volunteer, and in the following year distinguished himself
by carrying a message in an open boat under fire. This reputa-
tion for courage was afterwards lost in private quarrels in which
he seems to have shirked danger. He became gentleman of the
bedchamber to Charles II., and was the confidant of his various
exploits. According to Anthony Hamilton, banishment from
court for lampooning the king or his mistresses was with Roch-
ester an almost annual occurrence, but his disgrace was never
of long duration. Charles seems to have found his company
too congenial to be long dispensed with, and Pepys says that all
serious men were disgusted by the complaisance with which
he passed over Rochester's insolence (Diary, tyth Feb. 1669).
In order to restore his rapidly vanishing fortune he became a
suitor to Elizabeth Malet. In spite of the king's support of
Rochester's suit, Miss Malet refused to marry the earl, who
thereupon had her seized (1665) from her uncle's coach. Roch-
ester was pursued, and Charles, who was very angry, sent him
to the Tower. Miss Malet, however, married him in 1667.
Not content with making or unmaking the reputation of the
maids of honour and the courtiers by his squibs and songs,
Rochester aspired to be a patron of poetry and an arbiter of
taste, but he was vain and capricious, tolerating no rivals in his
capacity of patron. Dryden dedicated to him his Marriage-a-
la-Mode (1672) in a preface full of effusive flattery, at the close
of which, however, occurs a passage that may be taken to
indicate that he already had misgivings. " Your lordship has
but another step to make," he says, " and from the patron of
wit, you may become its tyrant; and oppress our little reputa-
tions with more ease than you now protect them." Dryden had
another patron in Lord Mulgrave (afterwards duke of Bucking-
ham and Normanby), to whom he dedicated (1675) Aurengzebe.
Mulgrave had engaged in a duel with Rochester, who had re-
fused to fight at the last minute on the ground of ill-health.
Mulgrave allowed this story to spread, and Rochester, who
apparently thought him too dangerous an opponent, revenged
himself on Dryden as Mulgrave's protege by setting up as his
rivals, first Elkanah Settle, and then John Crowne. By his
influence Settle's Emperor of Morocco was played at Whitehall,
and Crowne was employed, in direct infringement of Dryden's
province as laureate, to write a masque for the court. Both
these poets were discarded in turn for Nathaniel Lee and Thomas
Otway. In 1679 Mulgrave began to circulate his Essay on
Satire in which Rochester was singled out for severe criticism.
Rochester chose to pretend that this was Dryden's work, not
Mulgrave's, and by his orders a band of roughs set on the poet
in Rose Alley, Covent Garden, and beat him. He obviously felt
no shame for this infamous attack, for in his " Imitation of the
First Satire of Juvenal " he says, " Who'd be a wit in Dryden's
cudgelled skin?" His health was already undermined, and in
the spring of 1680 he retired to High Lodge, Woodstock Park.
He began to show signs of a more serious temper, and at his own
request was visited (July 2oth to July 24th) by Bishop Burnet,
who attested the sincerity of his repentance. He died, however,
two days after the bishop left him. When his son Charles, the
3rd earl, died on the I2th of November 1681, his titles became
extinct.
As a poet Rochester was a follower of Abraham Cowley and
of Boileau, to both of whom he was considerably indebted. His
love lyrics are often happy, but his real vigour and ability is
best shown in his critical poems and satires. The political
satires are notable for their fierce exposure of Charles II. 's weak-
ness, his ingratitude, and the slavery in which he was held by
his mistresses. They show that Rochester had it in him to be a
very different man from the criticizing courtier and the " very
profane wit " who figures in contemporary memoirs.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Poems on Several Occasions by the Right Honour-
able the Earl of Rochester . . . (Antwerp, 1680) was really
printed in London. Other issues, slightly varying in title and
contents, appeared in 1685, 1691 and 1696. Valentinian, A Tragedy,
adapted from Beaumont and Fletcher, was printed in 1685; a
scurrilous attack on Charles II. in the shape of a play in heroic
couplets, Sodom, was printed in 1684, and is supposed, in spite of
Rochester's denial, to have been chiefly his work. No copy of this
is known, but there are two MSS. extant. The completest edition
of his works is The Poetical Works of the Earl of Rochester (1731-32).
Expurgated collections are to be found in Johnson's, Anderson's
and Chalmers's editions of the British Poets. His Familiar^ Letters
were printed in 1686, 1697 and 1699. His Political Satires are
available, with those of Sir John Denham and Andrew Marvell, in
the Bibliotheca Curiosa (Some Political Satires of the Seventeenth
Century, vol. i., Edinburgh, 1885). Contemporary accounts of
Rochester are to be found in the memoir by Saint-Evremond pre-
fixed to an edition of 1709, in Hamilton's Memoires du Comte de
Cramont, in the funeral sermon preached by Robert Parsons (1680),
and in Bishop Burnet 's Some Passages in the Life and Death of John,
Earl of Rochester (1680), reprinted in Bishop Wordsworth's Ecclesi-
astical Biography (vol. vi.).
ROCHESTER, LAWRENCE HYDE, EARL OF (1641-1711),
English statesman, second son of Edward Hyde, earl of Claren-
don, was born in March 1641. After the restoration of Charles II.
he sat as member of parliament, first for Newport in Cornwall
and afterwards for the university of Oxford, from 1660 to
1679. In 1661 he was sent on a complimentary embassy to
Louis XIV. of France, while he held the court post of master
of the robes from 1662 to 1675. In 1665 he married Henrietta
(d. 1687), daughter of Richard Boyle, earl of Burlington and
Cork. When his father was impeached in 1667, Lawrence
joined with his elder brother, Henry, in defending him in parlia-
ment, but the fall of Clarendon did not injuriously affect the
fortunes of his sons. They were united with the royal family
through the marriage of their sister, Anne, with the duke of
York, afterwards James II., and were both able and zealous
royalists. In 1676 Lawrence Hyde was sent as ambassador
to Poland; he then travelled to Vienna, whence he proceeded
to Nijmwegen to take part in the peace congress as one of the
English representatives. Having returned to England, he
entered the new parliament, which met early in 1679, as member
for Wootton Bassett; in November 1679 he was appointed first
lord of the treasury, and for a few years he was the principal
adviser of Charles II. In April 1681 he was created Viscount
Hyde of Kenilworth, and in November following earl of
Rochester. He was compelled to join in arranging the treaty of
1681, by which Louis XIV. agreed to pay a subsidy to Charles,
at the very moment when he was imploring William, prince of
Orange, to save Europe from the ambitions of the French
monarch. The conflict between his wishes and his interests
may have tended to sour a temper never very equable; at all
events the earl made himself so unpleasant to his colleagues
that in August 1684 he was removed from the treasury to the
ROCHESTER
429
more dignified, but less influential, post of president of the
council, a process which his enemy Halifax described as being
"kicked upstairs." Although appointed lord lieutenant of
Ireland, Rochester did not take up this position; he was still
president of the council when James II. became king in February
1685, and he was at once appointed to the important office of
lord treasurer. But in spite of their family relationship and
their long friendship, James and his treasurer did not agree.
The king wished to surround himself with Roman Catholic
advisers; the earl, on the other hand, looked with alarm on
his master's leanings to that form of faith. In January 1687
he was removed from his office of treasurer, being solaced
with a pension of 4000 a year and a gift of Irish lands.
After the revolution of 1688 Rochester appeared as a leader
of the Tories, and he opposed the election of William and Mary
as king and queen, raising his voice for the establishment of a
regency on behalf of the exiled James. But he soon reconciled
himself to the new order, perhaps because he could not retain
his pension unless he took the oaths of allegiance. After this
he was quickly in the royal favour and again a member of the
privy council. He advised the queen in ecclesiastical matters,
and returned to his former position as the leader of the High
Church party. From December 1700 until February 1703 he
was lord lieutenant of Ireland, although he did not spend much
time in that country, and the concluding years of his public
life were mainly passed in championing the interests of the
Church. In 1710 he was again made lord president of the
council. He died on the 2nd of May 1711, and was succeeded
by his only son, Henry (1672-1758), who in 1724 inherited the
earldom of Clarendon. When Henry died without issue on the
loth of December 1758 all his titles became extinct.
Lawrence Hyde had some learning and a share of his father's
literary genius. The main employment of his old age was the
preparation for the press of his father's History of the Rebellion,
to which he wrote a preface. Like most of the men of his time,
he drank deeply, and he was of an arrogant disposition and
had a violent temper. In Dryden's satire of Absalom and
Achitophel he is " Hushai," the friend of David in distress.
The correspondence of Rochester with his brother the earl of
Clarendon, together with other letters written by him, was pub-
lished with notes by S. W. Singer (1828). Other authorities are
G. Burnet, History of his Own Time, edited by O. Airy (Oxford, 1897
1900); John Evelyn, Diary, edited by H. B. Wheatley (1879);
and Macaulay, History of England.
ROCHESTER, a city, municipal and parliamentary borough
of Kent, England, on the river Medway, 33 m. E.S.E. of London
by the South-Eastern & Chatham railway, contiguous to
Chatham and Strood. Pop. (1901) 30,590. Chatham lies east of
the city on the same bank of the river, while Strood is opposite,
on the left bank, being connected with Rochester by a railway
bridge and by an iron swing bridge, the latter occupying the
site of a bridge which spanned the Medway before the Conquest.
The cathedral church of St Andrew was originally founded by
Augustine in 604, for whom ^Ethelbert built the church. It
was partially destroyed by the Danes, but was rebuilt, with a
long choir and square east end, by Bishop Gundulph, the second
Norman bishop (1077-1108). Gundulph at the same time
(1089) established an order of Benedictine monks here. Bishop
Ernulf (1115-24), who as prior of Canterbury and abbot of
Peterborough had already distinguished himself as a builder,
completed and also renovated the church, lengthening it by
two bays eastward; the old chapter-house remains. The
beautiful Norman west front was built about 1125-30, and in
1130 the new cathedral was consecrated About 1201 a baker,
William of Perth, while on a pilgrimage was murdered near
Rochester by robbers. He was buried in the cathedral and
was canonized, his shrine becoming a famous resort of pilgrims,
who brought much wealth to the monastery. The edifice
suffered from fire in 1137 and in 1171. During the whole of
the i3th and a part of the I4th century a gradual rebuilding,
or sometimes mere recasing, of the church was effected from
east to west. The work included an extended choir by William
de Hoo (1227), enlargement of the main transepts, the building
of piers for a central tower, and treatment of the nave to the
third bay. About 1352 a low central tower was built, to which
a spire was added in the next century. Towards the end of
the 1 5th century St Mary's chapel was added, the Norman
clerestory was rebuilt, and a great west window inserted.
Though a comparatively small building, being only 306 ft. in
length and 65 ft. in breadth at the nave, the cathedral is of
much architectural interest, and exhibits a variety of styles
from Norman to Perpendicular. The rich and varied decoration
of the Norman nave (especially the triforium) is very note-
worthy, as is also the chapter-house doorway, a fine example
of Decorated work. The Early English portion of the building
is less successful. The ruins of Gundulph's Tower stand de-
tached from and are earlier than the church; this tower was
built by Bishop Gundulph probably as a defensive work for
the eastern boundary of the city. The crypt beneath the
choir is of special interest, showing early Norman work in
the western part. The remainder is Early English, and there
are traces of mural painting. The cathedral contains many
interesting monuments, including a plain slab assigned to
Gundulph, and several tombs of bishops of the I3th century,
among them that of Bishop Walter de Merton, founder of
Merton College, Oxford (d. 1277). The library attached to
the modern chapter-house contains, among various valuable
relics, the Texlus Ro/ensis, being records of the cathedral
compiled in the time of Bishop Ernulf. The old episcopal
palace is partly converted into dwelling-houses. Portions
of the wall of the priory dormitory and the refectory doorway
may also still be seen. Among various restorations of the
cathedral in the igth century the earliest was that of Lewis
Cottingham (1825-27), who erected a Decorated central tower
unsuited to the general character of the building. . Bishop
Hamo de Hythe (1310-52) had erected a tower with short
spire of timber and lead, and of this the general design is re-
produced in the present tower and spire from designs of Mr
C. H. Fowler, begun in 1904 under Dean Hole, who, however,
did not survive to see its dedication on St Andrew's day at
the close of the same year.
The parish church of St Nicholas was built in 1421, and
restored after a fire in 1892. In Saxon times the cathedral
was the parish church, but after the establishment of a monas-
tery here, monks and parishioners quarrelled as to their rights,
and a new parish church was built.
On the eminence overlooking the right bank of the river and
commanding a wide view of the surrounding country are the
extensive remains of the Norman castle, part of which was
built by Bishop Gundulph at the order of William Rufus to-
wards the close of the nth century. The castle was besieged
by King John, by Simon de Montfort in the reign of Henry III.,
and in the reign of Richard II. by a party of rebels during the
insurrection of Wat Tyler. It was repaired by Edward IV.,
but soon afterwards fell into decay, although the massive keep
is still in good preservation. This, one of the finest relics of
its kind in England, is considered to be the work of William de
Corbeil, archbishop of Canterbury, to whom the castle was
granted in 1126. It is a quadrangular four-storeyed structure,
flanked by turrets, with an extreme height of 1 20 ft. Remains
of the 13th-century walls which once surrounded the city also
exist. Gad's Hill, above Strood, to the north-west, is famous
as the residence of Charles Dickens. At Borstal, south-west
of Rochester, is a large convict prison. Among the principal
public buildings of secular character in the city are the town
hall (1687), the corn exchange with free library and a museum,
the county court offices, and the Richard Watt's almshouses
(1579). Besides these almshouses there are a number of other
charities, among which the almshouse of St Catherine originated
in 13 16 as a leper's hospital. A picturesque Elizabethan mansion
was acquired by the corporation for a museum as a memorial
of Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee. The principal schools
are the cathedral grammar-school or King's School, founded in
1544, and the Williamson mathematical school (1704), formerly
430
ROCHESTER
for the sons of freemen, but now open to all. Rochester
has an oyster fishery of some importance, and there is a con-
siderable shipping trade, a quay and landing-place having
been erected by the corporation. There is a large steam-engine
manufactory. In Strood, which is a ward of the borough of
Rochester, there are oil-mills, and brick and cement works.
The dockyards and government works of Chatham employ
many inhabitants of Rochester. The parliamentary borough
returns one member. The city is governed by a mayor, six
aldermen, and eighteen councillors. Area, 2933 acres.
History. Its situation on the Roman way from the Kentish ports
to London, as well as its strategical position on the bend of the river
Medway, gave Rochester (Durobrivae, Hrofescester or Hrobicester,
Roffa) an early importance. It was a walled Romano-British town
(though of no great size), and the original bridge across the Medway
probably dated from that period. The church of St Andrew was
founded by King ^Ethelbert, who also made Rochester a bishop's
see. Rochester was a royal borough in the time of William I.,
who raised a castle here, probably on Boley Hill. Richard I.
granted the citizens quittance of passagium from crusaders in the
town of Rochester. In 1227 Henry III. granted them the city
at a fee farm rent of 25; he also granted them a gild merchant,
the right to be impleaded only within the city walls, and other
liberties. These charters were confirmed by subsequent sovereigns
down to Henry VI., who in 1446 incorporated the city by the title
of the bailiff and citizens, and granted them the power of admiralty
and many privileges. Edward IV. by his charter of 1461 altered
the style of incorporation to the mayor and citizens. Charters
were granted in successive reigns down to Charles I., whose charter
of 1629 remained the governing charter until 1835. A fair on
the 1 8th, I gth and 2Oth of May was granted to the citizens by
Henry VI., and another fair was formerly held in December by
prescription. At the present time fairs are held on the i8th of
May and the 26th, 27th and 28th of August. A " formarket " was
granted in the second charter of Henry III.; the market days were
formerly Tuesday and Friday. Corn and cattle markets are now
held on Tuesday.
ROCHESTER, a city and the county-seat of Olmsted county,
Minnesota, U.S.A., on the Zumbro river, about 70 m. S.E. of
St Paul. Pop. (1890) 5321; (1900) 6843; (1905, state census)
7 2 33 (1905 foreign-bom); (1910 census) 7844. It is served by the
Chicago & North-Western and the Chicago Great Western
railways. The city has a public library (1865), and is the seat
of St John's School and the Academy of Our Lady of Lourdes
(both Roman Catholic), of a state hospital for the insane (1878),
originally planned (1877) as an inebriate asylum, liquor dealers
being taxed for its erection, and of St Mary's Hospital (1889),
a famous institution founded and maintained by the Sisters
of St Francis. There is valuable water-power, and the city
has grain elevators and various manufactures. Rochester
was first settled in 1854, and was chartered as a city in 1858.
ROCHESTER, a city of Strafford county, New Hampshire,
U.S.A., on the Cochecho and Salmon Falls rivers, about 30 m.
E. by N. of Concord. Pop. (1890) 7396; (1900) 8466, of whom
1651 were foreign-born; (1910 U.S. census) 8868. Area, about
34 sq. m. Rochester is served by four lines of the Boston &
Maine railroad. The rivers furnish excellent water-power
for various manufactures. Rochester, named in honour of
Lawrence Hyde, earl of Rochester, was incorporated as a town
by a royal charter in 1722, but no settlement was made here
until 1728. From parts of the original town Farmington and
Milton were erected in 1798 and 1802 respectively, and in 1846
part of Rochester was annexed to Barrington. It was the
birthplace of John Parker Hale. Rochester was chartered as
a city in 1891.
See F. McDuffee, History of the Town of Rochester, New Hamp-
shire (Rochester, 1892).
ROCHESTER, a city and the county-seat of' Monroe county,
New York, U.S.A., about 70 m. E.N.E. of Buffalo and about
230 m. W. of Albany, on the Genesee river, 7 m. above where
it empties into Lake Ontario. Pop. (1880), 89,366; (1890),
133,896; (1900), 162,608, of whom 40,748 were foreign-born
(including 15,685 Germans; 7746 English-Canadians; 5599
Irish; 3909 English; 1777 Russians; and 1278 Italians)
and 601 were negroes; (1910, census) 218,149. Rochester
is served by the Erie, the Pennsylvania (two divisions), the
Lehigh Valley, the West Shore, the Buffalo, Rochester &
Pittsburg (two divisions), and the New York Central &
Hudson River (five divisions) railways. The Genesee river,
which cuts through the centre of the city in a deep gorge
whose banks vary in height from 50 to 200 ft., is navigable
for lake craft only for 2j m. from the mouth, to a point \\ m.
below the city; the Erie Canal runs through the heart of the
city and is carried across the river on a stone viaduct of seven
arches, 850 ft. long, and having a channel 45 ft. wide. Several
lines of freight and passenger steamboats connect with Buffalo,
Oswego and other lake ports, and there are daily passenger
steamboats to Toronto, Canada, 70 m. distant across the lake.
Electric railways connect with neighbouring cities and lake-side
resorts on Lake Ontario (Ontario Beach) and Irondequoit Bay,
an irregular arm of the lake 5 m. long 2 m. E. of the city limits.
Rochester is on high plateaus on either side of the Genesee
river at a general altitude of about 500 ft. above sea-level. It
occupies an area of 20-3 sq. m. Within the city limits are the
famous Falls of the Genesee, 1 three cataracts of 96, 26 and
83 ft. respectively, the banks above the first fall, which is in
the heart of the city, rising to a height of fully 200 ft. above
the river. From the city limits the river falls 263 ft. in its
7 m. course to the lake. Ten bridges, road and railway, connect
the two sides of the river.
Rochester is an attractive city, with many fine avenues.
East Avenue is perhaps the most beautiful street in the city,
and Plymouth, West and Lake Avenues are other prominent
residential streets. The park system of Rochester, planned by
Frederick Law Olmsted, was 1264 acres in extent in 1908.
The largest park is Eastman-Durand (512 acres), on the shore
of Lake Ontario; Genesee Valley Park (443 acres) is on both
sides of the river; Seneca Park (212 acres) includes a
zoological garden; Highland Park (75 acres) and eleven other
smaller parks. In Washington Park there is a soldiers' monu-
ment surmounted by a statue of Lincoln, and a statue (1898)
by S. W. Edwards of Frederick Douglass, the negro orator and
editor, who lived in Rochester in 1847-70, stands at the
approach to the New York Central & Hudson River railway
station. The principal cemeteries are the Mount Hope, the
Holy Sepulchre, and Riverside. The Powers Building, a
7-storey stone and iron structure surmounted by a tower 204 ft.
high, was one of the first office buildings in the United States
to be equipped with elevator service. The Monroe County
Court House (of New Hampshire granite) on West Main Street
is in the Renaissance style, and contains a law library of about
25,000 volumes. The City Hall (of grey sandstone) has a
tower 175 ft. high. Among the other prominent buildings are
the Post Office, the Chamber of Commerce, the Lyceum Theatre,
the Temple Theatre, the Masonic Building, the Buffalo, Ro-
chester & Pittsburg office building, the Sibley building, the
Duffy-Mclnnerney building, and the Young Men's Christian
Association building. The following churches are architectur-
ally noteworthy: the Central, the First and the Third Presby-
terian, the Brick Presbyterian, St Patrick's Cathedral (Roman
Catholic), the Cornhill and the Asbury (Methodist Episcopal),
the First Baptist, St Paul's (Protestant Episcopal), and the
First Unitarian. Rochester is the see of a Roman Catholic
bishop. In Rochester are the Western New York Institution
for Deaf Mutes, the Monroe County Penitentiary, a State
Arsenal, a State Hospital for the Insane, the Protestant Episcopal
Church Home, Rochester City Hospital (1864), and others,
including the Rochester Municipal Hospital (1903) for con-
tagious diseases and consumption.
Rochester is an important educational centre. Its best-
known institution is the University of Rochester (Baptist,
1850; co-educationaj since 1900), having in 1908-9 28 in-
structors, 352 students (231 men and 121 women), and a
library of 49,000 volumes. It occupies a tract of 24 acres
1 From the top of the upper falls (96 ft. high), in the centre of the
city, Sam Patch (1807-1829) jumped and was killed in November
1829; he had formerly made the same leap, had jumped half the
depth of Niagara, and was planning to go to London and jump from
London Bridge he was to go by sailing packet to Liverpool and
jump from the yard-arm every fair day.
ROCHET
on University Avenue in the eastern part of th city. With
it is connected the Ward Museum, containing the valuable
geological and zoological collections of Henry Augustus Ward
( I 834~i9o6), an American naturalist, professor of natural
sciences here in 1860-75, who had in Rochester a laboratory
for the manufacture of plaster-casts of fossils, and who pre-
pared natural history cabinets for many museums. Much
of the success of the university was due to Martin Brewer
Anderson (1815-1890), president from 1853 to 1888, and David
Jayne Hill (b. 1850), who was president from 1888 to 1896,
and subsequently was assistant secretary of state in 1898-1903,
and minister to Switzerland in 1903-5 and to the Netherlands
from 1905 to 1907, when he became ambassador to Germany.
Rochester Theological Seminary (1850) is also under the control
of the Baptist Church, but has no organic connexion with the
university of Rochester. Its library of 36,500 volumes in-
cludes the valuable collection (6500 vols.) of the German church
historian, Johann August Wilhelm Neander. Other educational
institutions include St Bernard's Theological Seminary (Roman
Catholic; 1893); Wagner Memorial Lutheran College (German);
Academy of the Sacred Heart (Roman Catholic), &c. One of
Rochester's most noteworthy institutions is the Athenaeum
and Mechanics' Institute (an outgrowth of the Rochester
Athenaeum, established in 1829); it was founded in 1885
by Henry Lomb, of the Bausch & Lomb Optical Co., and has
a large building, the gift of George Eastman (b. 1854), of the
Eastman Kodak Co. It has an endowment of $650,000, and
more than 60 instructors, and in 1907-8 more than 5000
students were enrolled. Since 1907 public school buildings
have been used as club-houses for community civic clubs with
libraries and gymnasiums; and in 1909 a League of Civic
Clubs was organized. Besides the law library and the libraries
of the educational institutions mentioned above, Rochester
has the Reynolds (Public) Library, containing more than
65,000 volumes in 1910.
The Falls of the Genesee provide a valuable water-power, early
utilized by the flour-milling industry, of which, owing largely to
the nearness of the fertile wheat-fields of the Genesee Valley and the
transportation facilities furnished by the Erie Canal and Lake
Ontario, as well as to the water-power, Rochester was for many
years the most important centre in the country. Flour-milling
is no longer so important an industry here, but Rochester ranks
high among the great manufacturing cities of the country, holding
third rank in this as in population in New York state, and is remark-
able for the great size and output of several of its manufacturing
plants, which are the largest of their sort in the United States or
the world. In 1905 the value of the city's factory products was
$82,747,370, an increase of 38-7% since 1900. In value of
product and in number of wage-earners employed the manu-
facture of men's clothing stood first; the value of the product
was $14,948,703, or more than 18 % of the total value of all the
city's manufactures; and 20 % of the factory wage-earners in the
city were employed in this industry. The second industry in 1905
was the making of boots and shoes, of which the value was $8,620,01 1 ,
an increase of 24-3 % since 1900. In the value of clothing and
in the value of boots and shoes manufactured Rochester ranked
seventh among the cities of the United States in 1905. In the
manufacture of photographic apparatus and materials and optical
goods Rochester easily holds first place in the world, and it has the
largest establishment for the manufacture of cameras (the Eastman
Kodak Co. at Kodak Park) and the largest manufactory of lenses,
telescopes, opera and field glasses (Bausch & Lomb Optical Co.).
The total value of the photographic apparatus in 1905 was $2,886,071 ,
which represented 82-9% of the product value of photographic
apparatus manufactured in the entire United States, and was 176-1 %
more than in 1900. Photographic materials amounted in value
to $4,528,582, 47-4% of the total value of the product of the
country. The value of the output of this industry was 2100%
more in 1905 than in 1900. Another remarkable increase was
shown in the value of electrical machinery and apparatus, which
was only $15,000 in 1900, but in 1905 was $2,078,360. Flour
and grist mill products in 1905 were valued at $3,222,257. In
Rochester is an immense refinery of lubricating oil, and the oil
product more than doubled in value between 1900 and 1905. Other
important manufactures, with the value of their product in 1905,
are as follows: foundry and machine-shop products, $2,874,142;
furniture, $2,364,859; tobacco, cigars, snuff, &c., $2,234,531;
malt liquors, $2,173,707; confectionery, $1,512,611; lumber and
planing mill products, $1,495,229; carriages and wagons, $1,229,570;
and stationery goods, $1,130,873. Rochester is also the nursery-
gardening centre of the United States. The first nursery, that of
Kllwanger & Barry, now one of the largest in the world, was estab-
lished here in 1840. There are now more than a score of large
nurseries, representing an investment of several millions of dollars,
and annually shipping seeds, bulbs and plants having an approxi-
mate value of $2,000,000. Rochester is the port of entry lor the
Genesee customs-district, importing Canadian lumber and wheat
and exporting dairy, garden, farm and orchard products. In 1909
its imports were valued at $1,809,746 and its exports at $1,360,367.
The government of Rochester is that of cities of the first class
(the state census of 1905 showed that it had more than the 175,000
inhabitants necessary for a city of the first class under the New York
state law). The city owns its water supply system, the supply being
obtained largely from Hemlock Lake, 30 m. S. of the city limits.
The value of the plant is approximately $8,000,000. Rochester is
famous for the purity of its milk supply, which is regulated under
a strict system of supervision and inspection.
The region about Rochester, when first visited by Europeans,
was the home of the Seneca Indians. The Jesuits, Peter
Joseph Marie Chaumonot (1611-1693) and Jacques Fremin
(d. 1691), worked among the Indians in the neighbourhood.
In 1687 the marquis de Denonville fought a battle with the
Iroquois near the falls. In 1710 there was a French post on
Irondequoit Bay. The district was included in the Phelps-
Gorham Purchase in 1788. It was not until Ebenezer Allan
(called " Indian Allan ") built a saw and grist mill at the falls
in 1790 that a small settlement began to grow up. In 1802 a
large tract of land, which included the site of the present city,
passed into the hands of three Maryland proprietors, Charles
Carroll, William Fitzhugh, and Nathaniel Rochester (1752-1831).
Rochester, from whom the city took its name, was a native of
Virginia, had been a manufacturer at Hagerstown, Maryland,
and after settling in Rochester in 1818 was a member in 1822
of the New York Assembly. He established a settlement,
largely of New Englanders, at the falls in 1810-12, but its
growth was slow as it was not on the direct road between Albany
and Buffalo, and the region was malarial. It was known
at first as "The Falls" or "Falls Town." In 1817 it was
incorporated as the village of Rochesterville, the name being
shortened to its present form two years later. In 1820 it had
only 1502 inhabitants. In 1821 Monroe county was erected
with Rochester as the county-seat. The real growth of the
place began with the completion of the Rochester and Lock-
port section of the Erie Canal in 1823, and in two years the
population had about doubled. Rochester was first chartered
as a city in 1834, with 12,000 inhabitants. Rochester's first
newspaper, the Gazette, was established in 1816, the Telegraph
following in 1818. The first daily newspaper was the Daily
Advertiser (1826). Between 1828 and 1830 Rochester was the
centre of the anti-Masonic political movement, and here
Thurlow Weed published his Anti-Masonic Enquirer. Sub-
sequently it was a centre of the abolitionist movement in
New York state; Myron Holley (1779-1841) began here the
publication of his Freeman in 1839, and in 1847 Frederick
Douglass established the North Star. For many years before
the Civil War it was a busy station of the " Underground
Railroad," by which fugitive slaves were assisted in escaping
to Canada. In 1846 Miss Susan B. Anthony settled in
Rochester, and the city has been a gathering-place for advo-
cates of women's rights. Here lived the Fox sisters, Margaret
(1836-1893) and Katharine (b. 1839), whose spiritualistic de-
monstrations became notorious about 1850 as the " Rochester
Rappings," and the city has been a gathering-place for American
spiritualists also. The narrowness of the gorge through which
the Genesee river runs has always rendered the city liable to
disastrous floods. Several of these in its early history practi-
cally destroyed the manufacturing industries along the river, but
the loss of property in the more recent ones has been relatively
less; that of 1865 entailed a loss of more than $1,000,000, and in
that of 1902 the damage exceeded $1,500,000.
See William F. Peck, History of Rochester and Monroe County
[2 vols., Chicago, 1908).
ROCHET (Lat. rochettum, from the late Lat. roccus, connected
with the O.H.Ger. rock, roc and the A.S. race; Fr. rochet, Ital.
rocchetto, Sp. roquele, Ger. Rochett, Chorkleid), an ecclesiastical
432
ROCHFORD, EARL OF ROCK, D.
vestment. In the Roman Catholic Church the rochet is a tunic
of white, and usually fine linen or muslin (battiste, mull)
reaching about to the knee, and distinguished from the surplice
by the fact that its arms are narrow and tight-fitting. The
lower edge and the sleeves are usually garnished with lace,
lined with violet or red silk in the case of prelates, or more
rarely with embroidered borders.
The rochet is proper to, and distinctive of, prelates and
bishops: but the right to wear it is sometimes granted by the
pope to others, especially the canons of cathedral churches.
It is not a iiestis sacra, and cannot therefore be used as a sub-
stitute for the surplice, e.g. in the administering of the Sacra-
ments (Decree of the Congregation of Rites of Jan. 10, 1852).
None the less, since it is used at choir services and is ordered
to be worn over the everyday dress at Mass (Missa rom. Ril.
celebr. i. 2), it may be included among liturgical vestments in
the widest sense.
The earliest notice of the use of the rochet is found in an
inventory of the vestments of the Roman clergy, dating from
the gth century. In this it is called camisia, a name which it
retained at Rome until the i4th century, and it seems to have
been already at that time proper to particular members of the
clergy. Other Roman names for the vestment were succa,
sucta; it was not till the i4th century that the name rochcttum
appeared at Rome, but it was not long before it had superseded
all the native designations. Outside Rome, too, the vestment
is early met with, e.g. in the Prankish empire (gth century) as
alba clericalis, in contradistinction to the liturgical alb, and in
England (loth century) under the name of of er slip in the 46th
canon of the ecclesiastical laws of Edgar. At the beginning
of the 1 2th century the rochet is mentioned, under the name of
camisia, by Gilbert of Limerick and by Honorius, and, some-
what later, by Gerloh of Reichersperg as tunica talaris. From
the I3th century onward it is frequently mentioned. The
name rochettum is first traceable in England; in Germany and
northern France the rochet was also called saroht (sarrotus) or
sarcos (sarcotium).
Outside Rome the rochet was, until well into the i4th century,
a vestment common to all the clergy, and especially to those of
the lower orders; and so it remained, in general, until the
i6th century, and even, here and there, so late as the igth.
Moreover, in further contradistinction to the Roman use, it
had especially in the German dioceses a liturgical character,
being used instead of the surplice.
The rochet was originally a robe-like tunic, and was therefore
girdled, like the liturgical alb. So late as 1260 the provincial
synod of Cologne decreed that the vestis camisialis must be
long enough entirely to cover the everyday dress. A good
example of the camisia of the I2th century is the rochet of
Thomas Becket, preserved at Dammartin in the Pas de Calais,
the only surviving medieval example remarkable for the pleating
which, as was the case with albs also, gave greater breadth
and more elaborate folds. In the I5th century the rochet only
reached half-way down the shin; in the i6th and i?th to the
knee; in the iSth and igth often only to the middle of the thigh.
In the middle ages it was always plain. The rochet is unknown
in the Eastern Churches. (J. BRA.)
Church of England. In the English Church the rochet is a
vestment peculiar to bishops, and is worn by them, with the
chimere (q.v.) both " at all times of their ministration " in
church and also on ceremonial occasions outside, e.g. in the
House of Lords or at a royal levee. In general it has retained
the medieval form more closely than the Roman rochet, in so far
as it is of plain, very fine linen (lawn), and reaches almost to
the feet. The main modifications have been in the sleeves.
At the time of the Reformation these were still narrow, though
already showing a tendency to expand. The portrait of Arch-
bishop Warham at Lambeth, for instance, shows a rochet with
fairly wide sleeves narrowing towards the wrists, where they
are confined by fur cuffs. This fashion continued until, in the
i;th century, the sleeves became much fuller; but it was not
till the 1 8th century that they developed into the familiar
exaggerated balloon shape, confined at the wrists by a ribbon,
beyond which a ruffle projected. About the same period, too,
arose the custom of making the rochet sleeveless and attaching
the " lawn sleeves " to the chimere. This fashion survived
throughout most of the igth century, but there has since been
a tendency to revert to the earlier less exaggerated form, and
the sleeves have been reattached to the rochet. The ribbon
by which the wrist is confined is black, except when convo-
cation robes are worn, when it is scarlet. The rochet is worn
without the chimere under the cope by those bishops who
use this vestment. At his consecration the bishop-elect is,
according to the rubric, presented to the consecrating bishops
vested in a rochet only; after the " laying on of hands " he
retires and puts on " the rest of the episcopal habit," i.e. the
chimere. (W. A. P.)
ROCHFORD, EARL OF, an English title borne by the family
of Nassau de Zulestein from 1695 to 1830. William Henry
Nassau de Zulestein (1645-1709) was born at Zuylestein, near
Utrecht, his father being Frederick Nassau de Zulestein (1608-
1672), a natural son of Henry Frederick, prince of Orange, and
his mother an English lady, Mary Killegrew. One of the most
trusted companions of his kinsman, William of Orange, Zule-
stein was sent to England in 1687 and again in 1688 to report
on the condition of affairs, and later in 1688 he sailed with
the prince on his famous expedition. After the Revolution he
was naturalized and served the king in the field, being created
Viscount Tunbridge and earl of Rochford in 1695. He was
succeeded by his son William (1681-1710), who was killed at
the battle of Almenara, and then by another son Frederick
(1682-1738). Frederick's son, William Henry, the 4th earl
(1717-1781), was a diplomatist and a statesman. Having
gained experience as envoy at Turin from 1749 to 1753, he was
ambassador at Madrid from 1763 to 1766 and at Paris from
1766 to 1768. From 1768 to 1775 he was one of the secretaries
of state. This earl left no children when he died on the 28th
of September 1781, and his nephew, William Henry, the 5th
earl (1754-1830), dying in September 1830 the earldom became
extinct. The estates of the earls of Rochford were in Suffolk
and Essex, their principal residence being St Osyth Priory in
the latter county.
ROCHFORD, a town in the south-eastern parliamentary
division of Essex, England, 39 m. E. by N. from London by
the Southend branch of the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901)
1829. It lies on the small river Roach, near the head of a long
estuary. The town has a Perpendicular church (St Andrew),
a corn exchange and some agricultural trade. Rochford Hall,
a picturesque gabled mansion of various dates, belonged once
to the Boleyns, and it has been stated that Anne Boleyn, the
unfortunate queen of Henry VIII., was born here, but this is
in' no way proved. Near Rochford the Lawless or Whispering
Court, a remarkable survival of unknown origin, is held by a
manorial tenure on the Wednesday following Michaelmas Day.
beginning at midnight. No light is permitted, nor may voices
be raised above a whisper. Nearly 3 m. N.W. from Rochford
is Ashingdon. This is generally accepted as the scene of the
fight of Assandun in 1016 between Canute and Edmund Iron-
side, in which the English were defeated through treachery in
their ranks. Earthworks, of this or an earlier date, remain.
ROCK, DANIEL (1790-1871), English Roman Catholic priest
and ecclesiologist, was born at Liverpool on the 313! of August
1799, and educated at St Edmund's College, Ware, Herts, and
at the English College, Rome. He was ordained priest in 1824
and successively appointed chaplain to the i6th earl of Shrews-
bury at Alton Towers, Staffordshire, and priest in charge of the
Roman Catholic congregation at Buckland, near Faringdon in
Berkshire. After trie re-establishment of the Roman Catholic
hierarchy in England, in which he had taken an active part,
Rock was elected a canon of St George's Cathedral, Southwark.
He was greatly interested in medieval art, and, having gone to
live at South Kensington in 1864, in order to be near the museum,
was of great assistance to the authorities there. He died on the
28th of November 1871.
ROCK ROCKET
Rocks principal works are: Hierurgia, or the Holy Sacrifice of
the Mass expounded (London, 1833; revised edition by VV. 11. f
Weale, 1893), an exhaustive account of the Eucharistic rites in the
Latin, Greek and Oriental Churches, and illustrated from early
paintings, sculptures and inscriptions; The Church of Our Fathers
as seen in St Osmund's Rite for the Cathedral of Salisbury, with
Dissertations on the Belief and Ritual in England before the Coming,
of the Normans (3 vols., 1849-54; new edition by G. W. Hart anc
W. H. Frere, London, 1903).
See the Memoir prefixed to Hart & Frere's edition of The Church
of Our Fathers by the Rev. B. VV. Kelly; a full list of his writings
is given in J. Gillow's Btbl. Diet, of the Engl. Catholics, vol. v. p. 436
ROCK (O.Fr. roke, Sp. roca, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat
form rupica, from rupes, rock), in geology a mass of the mineral
matter of which the crust of the earth is composed (see PETROLOGY
and GEOLOGY). In more general usage a " rock " is a large
mass of this mineral matter, as distinguished from smaller
pieces which are termed " stones."
From this word must be distinguished the verb " to rock " to
swing an object to and fro, particularly of a cradle in which a child
is rocked to sleep, the original meaning. The O.Eng. word is
rocctan, and is cognate with many words in Teutonic languages,
e.g. Du. rukkea, Dan. rykke, Ger. rilcken, to pull, tug, push.
ROCK-CRYSTAL, a colourless and transparent variety of
quartz (q.v.), used as an ornamental stone. It usually occurs as
crystals lining cavities in quartz-veins, which often run through
granite, gneiss and crystalline schists. The limpidity of the
crystal, its coldness to the touch and its common occurrence
in rocks among Alpine glaciers, led to the ancient belief that it
was a kind of congealed water, whence the name crystal, from
Gr. KpwrraXXos (ice). In the Swiss Alps the" Strahlcr," or crystal-
gatherer, searches the rocks at much personal risk, and is often
led to a drusy cavity by tracing narrow veins, or strings, of
quartz on the mountain-side. A remarkable druse, or Kry-
stalkcller, discovered at Zinkenstock in the Bernese Oberland,
in 1719, yielded about 20 tons of crystal, a single specimen
weighing 8 cwt. The famous discovery of the Galenstock, in
1867, furnished magnificent crystals, but they were dark brown
or smoky quartz. La Gardette, near Le Bourg d'Oisans, in the
Alps of Dauphine, is a notable locality for fine specimens of
rock-crystal. The Alps and India probably furnished the
ancients with their supplies.
Rock-crystal has been used for ornamental purposes since
the Mycenean period. By the Romans under the Empire it
was highly valued, and carved into vases and goblets, in some
cases elaborately engraved. Lenses or globes were used for
kindling the sacred vestal fire and for cauterizing the flesh,
whilst ladies carried balls of crystal in order to cool their
hands during the heat of summer. The artists of the Early
Renaissance greatly favoured the use of rock-crystal, and
executed beautiful carvings in this material. In modern times
the use of rock-crystal has been largely superseded by that of
glass, and it is notable that flint-glass is known in France as
" cristal," probably from its resemblance to limpid quartz, or
perhaps from the fact that powdered rock-crystal has been used
as a source of silica in the manufacture of the finest glass. Rock-
crystal is still cut as a faceted stone for personal decoration, but
though not without brilliancy it lacks the " fire " of many gem-
stones. It is often known locally by such names as Bristol
diamond, Cornish diamond, Isle of Wight diamond, Briancon
diamond, Marmaros diamond, Lake George diamond, &c.
Rock-crystal is also carved into seals, paper-weights and other
trivial objects, and into spheres for divination by crystal-
gazing, Japanese balls being specially noteworthy. In Japan
the crystal has been obtained for centuries from the granitic
districts around Kimpu-san, in the province of Kai. Probably
the most valuable application of rock-crystal is for spectacle
lenses, which in consequence of their hardness are not readily
abraded by use. They should be cut at right angles to the optic
axis, or axis of the prism.
The " pebble " for lenses is found loose in the soil in many parts
of the provinces of Goyaz, Sao Paulo and Minas Geraes in Brazil.
Much of the material for spectacles comes also from Madagascar,
where large crystals of clear quartz are found in the beds of certain
streams, especially in the N.E. part of the island, having probably
433
been derived from quartz-veins in the gneiss and pegmatite.
In India rock-crystal has been worked at many localities, and the
loot ot the palace of Delhi yielded marvellous ornaments carved in
this material. At the present day it is cut and polished at Vellum
m the lanjore district in Madras, and is known as Vellum stone
Among the numerous localities in the United States which yield
rock-crystal mention may be made of those in Herkimer Co., New
York State, whence the Lake George crystals are obtained; and it
is notable that some of the Herkimer quartz encloses bituminous
matter. Mokclumne Hill, Calaveras Co., California, has furnished
some remarkable rock-crystal. In Europe the localities are very
numerous, the most important being those in the Alps. Very fine
crystals remarkable for pellucidity though not of large size occur
in cavities in the statuary marble of Carrara; ancf remarkably
hollowed crystals are known from Porretta near Bologna in Itals'
1 he hnest rock-crystal in Great Britain occurs at Tintagel and
the Delabole slate quarry in N. Cornwall; and at Snowdon in
N. Wales. (F w R , }
ROCKEFELLER, JOHN DAVISON (1830- ), American
capitalist, was born in Richford, Tioga county, New York, on
the 8th of July 1839. In 1853 his family removed to Ohio,
living after 1857 in Cleveland, where Rockefeller had begun to
work as a bookkeeper in 1855 and where in 1858 he went into the
produce commission business. His firm, Clark & Rockefeller,
in 1862 invested in an oil refinery, planned by Samuel Andrews'
and in 1865 Rockefeller sold out his share to his partner Clark,
bought for $72,500 a larger share in another refinery, and formed
the partnership of Rockefeller & Andrews. At about the same
time another refinery was started by Rockefeller's brother
William (b. 1841), but in 1867 Rockefeller & Andrews absorbed
this business, and Henry M. Flagler was added to the partner-
ship. In 1870 the two Rockefellers, Flagler, Andrews and a
refiner named Stephen V. Harkness formed the Standard Oil
Company, with a capital of $1,000,000 (increased in 1872 to
$2,500,000 and in 1874 to $3,500,000), of which John D. Rocke-
feller was president. This great corporation gradually estab-
lished itself in practical control of the oil production in America,
by means of business methods and financial operations which have
been severely criticized, but which brought immense wealth to
those concerned. Its capital was further increased in 1882,
when separate companies were organized in each state; and in
later years, as the first great American " trust," the Standard
Oil Company was hotly attacked during the anti-trust move-
ment (see INTER-STATE COMMERCE). Into the merits of this
question it is impossible to enter here. Rockefeller himself
retired from active business in 1895; he had for a time large iron
interests (mines and ore-carrying vessels) on Lake Superior,
which he sold to the United States Steel Corporation, and his
personal wealth was probably greater than that of any other man
in the country. In private life he was a devoted member of
the Baptist church, and his benefactions were numerous. To
" the University of Chicago founded by John D. Rockefeller "
Jin 1892) he had given, up to 1910, $24,809,666, while to the
General Education Board he had given $43,000,000; he founded
[1901) and supported the Rockefeller Institute for Medical
Research in New York City; he gave large sums to Rush
Medical College in Chicago, to Johns Hopkins Hospital in
Baltimore, to Barnard College in New York City and to the
Baptist Missionary Society; and in 1909 he gave $1,000,000 to
endow a medical commission to investigate the nature of the
look-worm and to suppress the hook-worm disease.
See Ida M. Tarbell's History of the Standard Oil Company (New
York, 1903), a severe attack on the Trust; also his own Random
Reminiscences (1909).
ROCKET, (i) The name (Fr. roquelte, Lat. eruca, a kind of
cabbage) of two species of plants. The one, Eruca saliva, is a
cruciferous annual with white flowers veined with purple;
:he leaves have a sharp flavour and are used in southern Europe
or salads. The other is a hardy perennial herbaceous plant,
of the genus Hesperis, of which Hesperis matronalis is the
most familiar species (see HORTICULTURE).
(2) A cylinder of paper, pasteboard or metal, filled with
an explosive mixture. This word, which appears in mary
orms in various languages, is from the It. rocchetta, diminutive
of rocca, a distaff, the obsolete English " rock "; the application
434
ROCKFORD ROCKINGHAM, MARQUESS OF
is due to a resemblance in shape. Rockets are used in
pyrotechny for purpose of display, scattering showers of
stars, coloured balls, &c., on bursting (see FIREWORKS). They
are also used in signalling, and especially as a part of life-
saving apparatus for wrecks (see LIFEBOAT and LIFE-SAVING
SERVICE).
Large and heavy rockets, of which the head formed a pro-
jectile, had too a considerable vogue in the early part of the
igth century for war purposes. They were invented by Sir
William Congreve (g.v.) and employed by him both afloat in
coast operations and in field operations. Brought to the
notice of all armies by the fact that a rocket battery of the
Royal Artillery served in the allied army in the Leipzig cam-
paign, war rockets were introduced in many armies, being
sometimes issued as an additional portion of the equipment
of ordinary field batteries, sometimes reserved for special
rocket batteries. The Congreve rocket was in use in the
British army as late as 1860. There were four natures
3-pounder, 6-pounder, i2-pounder and 24-pounder. The case
was of sheet-iron, on to which was screwed a cylindro-conoidal
head forming the projectile. The head was made hollow and
could be filled with a bursting charge if a shell effect was
desired, a base fuze being provided. The iron case contained
the rocket composition, and was closed at the rear end by a
metal plate with five holes or vents, and on the centre a bush
into which the stick was screwed. These rockets were fired
from rocket tubes on tripods, the tubes being provided with a
tangent sight. Against masses of troops within easy range,
the war rocket was considered an efficient engine; it was
used also to set fire to buildings, but was always deficient
in accuracy. Eventually the Congreve rocket was superseded
by the Hale, of which two patterns were in use, the 9-pounder
and the 24-pounder, for field and fortress warfare respectively.
These had no sticks, and were centred by the arrangement
of the vent, the gases, as they emerged from the vent, im-
pinging upon a screw-formed tail, to which they imparted the
necessary rotation. These rockets were fired from a trough.
The maximum effective range of the g-pounder Hale rocket
was about 1200 yards. The use of these engines was dis-
continued in the British service about 1885. On the con-
tinent of Europe they had disappeared more than twenty
years before. Austria, the last power to use them, broke up
her rocket batteries in 1867.
ROCKFORD, a city and the county seat of Winnebago
county, Illinois, U.S.A., on the Rock river, in the northern
part of the state, about 85 m. N.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1890)
23,584; (1900) 31,051, of whom 9337 were foreign-born (6690
Swedes); (1910 census) 45,401. Area, 8-91 sq. m. It is
served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago &
North- Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the
Chicago, Milwaukee & Gary (" Rockford Route ") and the
Illinois Central railways, and is connected by interurban
electric railway wiih Chicago and Freeport, Illinois, and Janes-
ville, Wisconsin. The city has a Memorial Hall, erected in
honour of the soldiers and sailors of Winnebago county, and in
charge of the Grand Army of the Republic; a soldiers' memorial
fountain; a Carnegie library, containing 51,340 volumes in
1909; and the Velie Museum of natural history. Rockford
College (non-sectarian), for the higher education of women,
is ranked by the United States Commissioner of Education
as one of fifteen women's colleges of the highest grade in
the country; it was opened in 1849 as Rockford Seminary,
and was named Rockford College in 1892. In 1908-9 it
had 196 students. Rockford is the see of a Roman Catholic
bishop. In and near the city there are two hospitals and
three sanatoriums. Manufacturing is facilitated by good
water-power, supplied by a dam across the Rock river about
800 ft. long, constructed in 1844. Among the manufactures
are furniture, hosiery and knit goods, agricultural implements,
foundry and machine-shop products, saddlery and harness, &c.
The total value of all factory products in 1905 was $15,276,129
(38-6% more than in 1900). The municipality owns and
operates its waterworks; the water supply is obtained from
artesian wells. Rockford was first settled in 1834, and was
chartered as a city in 1852. More than one-fourth of its
area has been annexed to the city since 1889.
ROCKHAMPTON, a town of Livingstone county, Queensland,
Australia, on the Fitzroy river 43 m. from its mouth, 335 m.
in a direct line N.W. of Brisbane. It has a beautiful situation,
and its climate, in spite of heat, is healthy. It is the port
of a wide agricultural district, which also produces gold, copper
and silver. Much of the trade is carried on through the ports
of Alma and Broadmount, near the mouth of the river, both
available for ocean steamers. Rockhampton has a large
trade in frozen meat, and there are factories for extract and
meat preserving. Rockhampton is the terminus of the Queens-
land Central railway and the seat of an Anglican and a Roman
Catholic bishopric. Population of the municipality (1901),
15,461; within the 5 m. radius, 19,691; of the separate munici-
pality of North Rockhampton, 2865.
ROCK HILL, a city of York county, South Carolina, U.S.A.,
84 m. by rail N. of Columbia. Pop. (1890) 2744; (1900) 5485
(1706 negroes); (1910) 7216. Rock Hill is served by two lines
of the Southern railway. It lies at an elevation of about
670 ft. above the sea. Among its buildings and institutions
are the Federal Government Building, the City Hall, the Carnegie
Library and the Winthrop Normal and Industrial College
(chartered in 1891 and opened in 1894), a state institution
for white girls. Cotton is the most important product of
the surrounding country. The Catawba river, 5 m. distant,
furnishes good water-power, and in a large power-plant
electricity is generated for the city's manufactories. Among
the manufactures are cotton goods, cotton-seed oil, yarn,
wagons and carriages, foundry and machine-shop products; and
there are cotton gins, marble and stone works. The growth
of the city has been almost entirely since the Civil War. Rock
Hill was incorporated as a village in 1870, and was chartered
as a city in 1892.
ROCKINGHAM, CHARLES WATSON WENTWORTH, 2ND
MARQUESS OF (1730-1782), twice prime minister of England,
was the son of Thomas Watson Wentworth (c. 1690-1750),
who was created earl of Melton in 1733 and marquess of Rock-
ingham in 1746. The family of Watson was descended from
Sir Lewis Watson (1584-1653), son and heir of Sir Edward
Watson (d. 1616) of Rockingham Castle in Northamptonshire.
For his services to the king during the Civil War Sir Lewis
was created Baron Rockingham in 1645. His grandson Lewis,
the jrd baron (1655-1724), was created earl of Rockingham
in 1714, and was succeeded by his grandson Lewis (c. 1709-
1745), whose brother Thomas, the 3rd earl, died unmarried
in February 1746, when the earldom became extinct. The
barony of Rockingham, however, descended to a cousin, Thomas,
father of the prime minister, a grandson of Edward, the 2nd
baron (1630-1689), who had married Anne, daughter and
heiress of Thomas Wentworth, ist earl of Strafford. The vast
estates of the Wentworths had passed to Edward's son, Thomas,
who took the additional name of Wentworth, and then to his
son, the ist marquess of Rockingham.
Charles Watson Wentworth was born in 1730 on the igth
of March (according to some, the i3th of May), and was educated
at Westminster school and St John's College, Cambridge.
He showed his spirit as a boy by riding across from Wentworth
to Carlisle in 1746 to join the duke of Cumberland in his pursuit
of the Young Pretender. He was created earl of Malton in
the peerage of Ireland in September 1750, and succeeded his
father as 2nd marquess of Rockingham in December of the
same year. In 1751^ he became lord-lieutenant of the North
and East Ridings of Yorkshire and a lord of the bedchamber,
and in 1760 was made a knight of the Garter. After George III.
had begun his policy of dividing the great Whig families, those
Whig noblemen and gentlemen who did not choose to join
the sections headed by the Grenvilles, the duke of Bedford,
or any other great noblemen, selected as their chief the young
marquess of Rockingham. In May 1762 the king's favourite,
ROCK ISLAND ROCKPORT
435
the earl of Bute, became first lord of the treasury, and the
marquess of Rockingham was amongst those who in the follow-
ing year were dismissed from their lord-lieutenancies. The
opposition now grew so strong that Lord Bute resigned in
April 1763, and the king, true to his policy, appointed George
Grenville to be his successor. But Grenville's section of the
Whig party was not strong enough to maintain him in power
long, and in July 1765 Lord Rockingham formed his first
administration with General Conway and the duke of Grafton
as secretaries of state. The cabinet seemed stronger than it
really was, for it was divided by intestine quarrels, and the
earl of Chatham refused to have anything to do with it. Never-
theless, Rockingham recovered his lord-lieutenancies and won
reputation as a good administrator. In May 1766 the duke
of Grafton, a far abler man than Rockingham, though neither
so conciliatory in his manners nor so generally popular, seceded
from the government, and in August 1766 he succeeded his
former chief as first lord of the treasury and prime minister.
Then followed many years of fruitless opposition to the king's
personal authority as exhibited through his ministers, but at
last, on the 27th of March 1782, Lord Rockingham again
became prime minister with Fox and Shelburne (afterwards
marquess of Lansdowne) as secretaries of state. This time he
enjoyed office for but a few weeks, for he died on the ist of
July 1782. He left no issue, and his property went to his
nephew, the 2nd Earl Fitzwilliam, his titles becoming extinct.
A few words from his epitaph by Burke deserve quotation as
giving the reason of the predominance of such an ordinary
man as Lord Rockingham over a party abounding in men of
great abilities: " A man worthy to be held in esteem, because
he did not live for himself. ... He far exceeded all other
statesmen in the art of drawing together, without the seduction
of self-interest, the concurrence and co-operalion of various
dispositions and abilities of men, whom he assimilated to his
character and associated in his labours."
See Memoirs of the Marquis ^of Rockingham and his Contempor-
aries, by George Thomas, earl o'f Albemarle (2 vols., 1852); Horace
Walpole's Memoirs of the reign of George III., edited by G.F.R.
Barker (1894) ; and the other letters, papers and diaries of the time.
ROCK ISLAND, a city and the county-seat of Rock Island
county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the N.W. part of the state, on the
E. bank of the Mississippi river, adjoining Moline, and opposite
Davenport, Iowa (with which it is connected by two bridges),
about 3 m. above the mouth of the Rock river, and at the
foot of Rock Island rapids, which extend for nearly 16 m.
Pop. (1890) 13,634; (1900) 19,493, of whom 4412 were
foreign-born; (1910) 24,335. It is served by the Chicago,
Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul,
the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, and the Davenport,
Rock Island & North-Western railways. Near the city, at
the mouth of Rock river, the " Hennepin " (or Illinois &
Mississippi) canal joins the Mississippi river. The city occupies
a plain lying between the river and a series of bluffs. The
island of Rock Island, a ridge of limestone rock about 3 m.
long and ii m. wide, is connected with the mainland by bridges
to Rock Island and Moline; on it there are a Federal arsenal,
the most important in the country for the manufacture of
small-arms, gun carriages and artillery equipment, a Federal
armoury and a national cemetery; the island is connected
with the Illinois shore at Moline by a dam, whence good water-
power is derived. In the city are: a public library (1872), the
Augustana College and Theological Seminary (controlled by
the Evangelical Lutheran Augustana Synod of North America;
co-educational), which was founded as Augustana Seminary
in Chicago in 1860 chiefly for the education of Swedish Lutheran
clergymen, was removed to Paxton, Illinois, in 1863 and to
Rock Island in 1875, and received its present name in 1869;
and the principal offices of the Modern Woodmen of the World,
a fraternal society, founded in 1884 and having 219,729 members
in 1909. The city has a large trade by water and rail; com-
mercially it forms a unit with Davenport and Moline. Among
the city's manufactures are lumber, agricultural implements,
flour, glass, stoves, carriages, soap, &c. In 1905 the value
of the factory product was $5,332,967. Some coal is mined
in the county.
On the north bank of the Rock river, 3 m. from its mouth,
there was a large summer village (sometimes called Saukenuk)
of the Sauk Indians, built about 1730 and destroyed in 1831;
and near the mouth of the Rock river is a bluff called " Black
Hawk's watch-tower." A settlement on the island was made
in 1816, when the fort was built; the first settlement on the
mainland was made in 1826. In 1841 the town of Rock Island
was formed by the consolidation of two small settlements
named Stephenson and Farnhamsburg and was incorporated;
it received a city charter in 1849. Upon the west end of the
island the United States government in 1816 built Fort Arm-'
strong, where on the 2ist of September 1832, at the close of
the Black Hawk War, a treaty of peace was signed by General
Winfield Scott and Governor John Reynolds of Illinois and by
the chiefs of the Sauk and Foxes, and where, six days before,
General Scott and Governor Reynolds had made a treaty with
the Winnebagoes. The fort was abandoned in 1836 and was
burned in 1855; a monument now marks its site. The Rock
Island armoury and arsenal, under an act of 1862, were built
in 1863, when a number of captured Confederate soldiers were
confined on the island.
ROCKLAND, a city and the county-seat of Knox county,
Maine, U.S.A., on Rockland Harbor, Penobscot Bay, 86 m. by
rail E.N.E. of Portland. Pop. (1900) 8150; (1910) 8174. It
is the eastern terminus of a branch of the Maine Central railway,
and is served by an interurban electric line and by steamboat
lines to Portland, Boston, Bangor, Bar Harbor and other coast
ports. The harbour is protected by a breakwater nearly 5000 ft.
long. The principal buildings are the United States Govern-
ment Building and the County Court House. Granite and
limestone are quarried in the vicinity. The granite (biotite,
biotite-muscovite and quartz-monzonite) is of fine quality, and
has been used extensively in the United States for building
and monumental purposes; and the burning of lime is by far
the most important industry of the city. The shipbuilding
industry is also important. The total value of the city's
factory products in 1905 was $1,822,591 (46-5% more than in
1900). Lobsters and fish in considerable quantities are shipped
from the city. Rockland was settled in 1769, but its growth
began only with the establishment of the lime industry in 1795.
It was a part of the township of Thomaston (pop. 2688 in 1900),
from 1777 to 1848, when it was incorporated as a separate
township under the name of East Thomaston. Two years
later the present name was adopted, and in 1854 Rockland
was chartered as a city.
ROCKLAND, a township of Plymouth county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., about 20 m. S. of Boston. Pop. (1890) 5213; (1900)
5327; (1910 U.S. census) 6928. Area, about 10 sq. m. It
is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway,
and by interurban electric railway. Among its manufactures
are boots and shoes and tacks. There is a public library (1878).
Rockland was erected into a township in 1874, having been
previously a part of Abington.
ROCKPORT, a township of Essex county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., on the N.E. end of Cape Ann, on the Atlantic Ocean,
north-east of Gloucester, and about 35 m. north-east of Boston.
Pop. (1890) 4087; (1900) 4592; (1910, U.S. census) 4211.
Rockport is the southern terminus of the Gloucester branch
of the Boston & Maine railway, and is served by an electric
railway extending from Gloucester through Rockport and
around the cape. Off Sandy Bay, a rendezvous of the Atlantic
squadron of the U.S. navy, the Federal government began in
1884 a harbour of refuge, with an area of 1664 acres, to be
protected from north and north-east winds by a breakwater,
117 ft. wide at a depth of 12 ft. below mean low water, rising
22 ft. above mean low water, and 9000 ft. long. In the town-
ship are the North Village or Pigeon Cove and the South Village
or Rockport. Rockport is a summer resort, and there are
many summer residences at Andrews Point and at the South
436
ROCKVILLE ROD, E.
End and Headlands. There are large granite quarries along
the coast, especially in Pigeon Cove, and there are two varieties
of granite, called commercially " grey " and " green," both
very hard, the former the more abundant. It has been used
in building the great breakwater off Sandy Bay and various
large bridges. Granite for paving-stones is quarried. Like
many of the Maine quarries those of Rockport owe much of
their development to their nearness to deep water transporta-
tion. Isinglass, glue, tools, parts for automobile engines, and
copper paint are among the -manufactures. Fishing was
formerly of importance, but quarrying has displaced it. Sandy
Bay, the fifth parish of Gloucester, first settled about 1697,
and Pigeon Cove, part of the third parish, were set off from
Gloucester and were incorporated as the township of Rockport
in 1840. The Bennett & Mackay transatlantic commercial
cable was landed in Rockport in May 1884.
ROCKVILLE, a city of Tolland county, Connecticut, U.S.A.,
in the N.E. part of the state, on the Hockanum river, about
15 m. N.E. of Hartford. Pop. (1890) 7772; (1900) 7287, of
whom 2548 were foreign-born, many being Germans and Poles;
(1910) 7977. It is served by the New York, New Haven & Hart-
ford railway and by electric lines. It is in the township of
Vernon (pop. in 1890, 8808; in 1910, 9087; area, 19 sq. m.),
which was separated from Bolton township in 1808, and con-
tains the villages of Vernon, Vernon Centre, Dobsonville and
Talcottville. In the city are the George Maxwell Memorial
Library and the Sykes Manual Training School. The river, by
a series of falls, makes a descent of 280 ft. here, and furnishes
power for large manufacturing establishments. The principal
manufactures are woollen, silk and cotton goods, envelopes, and
silk fish-lines. In 1841 fancy cassimeres, probably the first
manufactured in the United States, were made here. At the
Hockanum Mills (established 1809) worsted for men's clothing
was first made (about 1870) in the United States. The first
settlement here was made about 1726. Rockville was chartered
as a city in 1889.
ROCKY MOUNTAIN GOAT, or WHITE GOAT (Oreamnus
montanus), a North American hollow-horned ruminant of the
family BOVIDAE, distinguished by its white colour. It is, in
fact, the only ruminant, with the exception of the white Alaskan
wild sheep, which is entirely white at all seasons of the year;
and cannot, therefore, be mistaken for any other animal, and its
description may consequently be brief. In the winter coat the
hair is long and pendent, elongated into a short beard on the
sides of the lower jaw behind the chin; and it is also longer
than elsewhere on the neck and the chest; at the base of the
long hair is a thick growth of short and woolly under-fur. In
summer the coat becomes comparatively short. The muzzle
is hairy, the ears are of moderate size, and the tail is short, and
partially buried among the long hair of the rump. There are
no glands on the face; but there is a large globular one at the
base of each horn of the size of half a small orange. The black
horns, which are ringed in their basal portion, are comparatively
short and not unlike those of the Asiatic serows in general
characters, being subcylindrical, and curving slightly back-
wards. They taper, however, much more rapidly than those
of the serows, and diverge much more widely from the middle
line. The lateral hoofs are well developed. Although com-
monly described as white, the hair has a more or less decided
tinge of yellow, which appears to be more marked in the summer
than in the winter coat. The cannon-bones are remarkably
short and wide, and in this respect differ from those of all allied
ruminants, except the Tibetan takin. The general shape of the
animal is ungainly, owing to a huge hump on the withers, at
which point the height is about 3 ft.
The head of a white goat obtained in 1900 from the mountains
at the mouth of Copper river, opposite Kyak Island, has been
described as a species apart. In addition to certain details in
the conformation of the skull, the horns are much more slender
than in the ordinary white goat, and instead of bending re-
gularly backwards till near their tips, curve widely outwards
from their bases. Their length is nearly equal to that of the
longest pair of the ordinary form hitherto recorded, while the
tip-to-tip interval is nearly double that of any other known
specimen. This animal can scarcely be regarded as more than
a local race, and should be styled Oreamnus montanus kennedyi.
The affinities of the white goat (which is really a member of
a group intermediate between goats and antelopes) are probably
with the Asiatic serows and takin, and hence perhaps with the
musk-ox.
See a paper by Madison Grant, entitled " The Rocky Mountain
Goat," published in the ninth annual report of the New York
Zoological Society (1905). (R. L.*)
ROCOCO, or ROCAILLE, literally " rock-work," a style of
architectural and mobiliary decoration popular throughout
the greater part of Europe during the first half of the i8th
century. In France it was especially characteristic of the
regency and the reign of Louis XV. A debased style at the best,
essentially fantastic and bizarre, it ended in extravagance and
decadence. A meaningless mixture of imitation rock-work,
shells, scrolls and foliage, the word came eventually to be
applied to anything extravagant, flamboyant or tasteless in art
or literature. The very exuberance of the rococo forms is,
indeed, the negation of art, which is based upon restraint.
There is something fundamentally Italian in the bravura upon
which the style depends; yet Italy has produced some of the
worst examples of what in that country is called the " Jesuit
style," in allusion to the supposed lack of directness in Jesuit
policy. Everything, indeed, in the rococo manner is involved
and tortured, though before a superb example of Jacques
Cameri, such as the famous commode in the Wallace Collection,
it is impossible not to admire the art with which genius can
treat even the defects and weaknesses of a peculiarly mannered
fashion. The best French work possesses a balance and sym-
metry which are usually entirely absent from its imitations.
Spain and Italy produced many monstrous travesties it is
impossible to imagine anything more grotesque than the flam-
boyant convolutions of the monumental Roman style of the
third quarter of the i8th century. In Germany, weak and life-
less imitations were as popular as might be imagined in a land
which was content to take its art, especially its bad art, from
France. England did not escape the infection, and Chippendale
and his school produced examples of rocaille work and coquillage
which were quite foreign to their own sentiment, and rarely
rose above respectable mediocrity.
ROCROI, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Ardennes, 22 m. N.N.W. of Charle-
ville by rail, and within 2 m. of the Belgian frontier. Pop. (1906)
town, 796; commune, 2116. As a fortified place it commands
the Ardennes plateau between the valley of the Meuse and the
head-waters of the Oise. The present fortifications, constructed
by Vauban, form a pentagon and entirely close in the town,
which has regularly built streets converging on a central square.
Overlooking the latter is the church, a florid building of the
1 8th century. Rocroi is the seat of a sub-prefect and has a
tribunal of first instance.
The place, originally called Croix-de-Rau or Rau Croix, was
fortified in the i6th century and besieged by the imperialists
in 1555. Invested by the Spaniards in 1643, it was relieved
by Louis II., the duke of Enghien (afterwards the Great Conde),
after a brilliant victory. Captured in 1658 by the same duke,
then in the Spanish service, it was not restored to France till
the treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659. In 1815 Rocroi was be-
sieged for a month by the allies.
ROD, EDOUARD (1857-1910), French-Swiss novelist, was
born at Nyon, in Switzerland, on the 3ist of March 1857. He
studied at Lausanne and Berlin, and in 1878 found his way to
Paris. In 1881 he defeated his novel, Palmyre Vetdard, to
Zola, of whom he was at this period of his career a faith-
ful disciple. A series of novels of similar tendency followed.
In 1884 he became editor of the Revue contemporaine, and in
1887 succeeded Marc Monnier as professor of comparative
literature at Geneva, where he remained till 1893. La Course
a la mart (1885) marks a turning-point in his career; in it he
ROD RODENTIA
437
forsook the so-called naturalistic novel for the analysis of moral
motives. He is at his best in presenting cases of conscience,
the struggle between passion and duty, and the virtues of
renunciation. Le Sens de la vie (1889), one of his most
famous books, is in the nature of a complement to La Course
d la mart. It was followed by Les Trois casurs (1890), La
Sacrifice (1892),. La Vie privte de Michel Teissier (1893), trans-
lated as The Private Life of an Eminent Politician (1893); La
Seconds Vie de Michel Teissier (1894), Le Silence (1894), Les
Roches blanches (1895), Le Dernier Refuge (1896), Le Manage du
pasleur Naudie (1898), a study of Protestant France; L'Eau
courante (1902), L'Inulile Effort (1903), Un Vainqueur (1904),
L'Indocile (1905), and L'Incendie (1906). M. Rod's books of
literary criticism include Les Idees morales du temps present
(1897), an admirable Essai sur Goethe (1898), Stendhal (1892),
and some columns of collected essays. He published L' Affaire
J. J. Rousseau in 1906, and in the same year he drew from an
episode in the life of the philosopher a play in three acts, Le
Rfformateur, which was produced at the Nouveau Theatre. He
died in January 1910.
ROD (O.E. rodd, probably related to Norw. rudda, stick,
rodda, stake), a twig or shoot of a tree or bush, especially a
straight slender stick or wand used as an instrument of punish-
ment, as a symbol of office, or as an implement, usually com-
posed of several joints, for angling or fishing. The term is
thus applied to a metal bar, slender in proportion to its length,
used as a tie, brace or connecting shaft between different parts
of a machine. It is familiar in the titles, showing the colour
of their wands of office, of the gentlemen ushers of the three
principal British orders of knighthood, the ushers of the
Garter and St Patrick being " Ushers of the Black Rod," and
of the Thistle " Green Rod." The use of a rod as a measuring
implement has given rise to the use of the word for a measure
of length=s| yds., or i6| ft.; this length is also named a pole
or perch, the origin of the application being the same as in
" rod "; as a measure of area, a rod = a square pole or perch,
301 square yds. = 2725 square ft., 160 rods=i acre.
RODBERTUS, KARL JOHANN (1805-1875), German socialist,
was born at Greifswald on the izth of August 1805, his father
being a professor at the university there. He studied law
at Gottingen and Berlin, thereafter engaging in various legal
occupations; and, after travelling for some time, he bought
the estate of Jagetzow in Pomerania, whence his name of
Rodbertus-Jagetzow. In 1836 he settled on this estate, and
henceforward devoted his life chiefly to economic and other
studies, taking also some interest in local and provincial affairs.
After the revolution of March 1848 Rodbertus was elected
member of the Prussian national assembly, in which body he
belonged to the left centre; and for fourteen days he filled
the post of minister of public worship and education. He
:sat for Berlin in the second chamber of 1849, and moved the
adoption of the Frankfort imperial constitution, which was
carried. When the system of dividing the Prussian electorate
into three classes was adopted, Rodbertus recommended
abstention from voting. His only subsequent appearance in
public life was his candidature for the first North German diet,
in which he was defeated. His correspondence with Lassalle
was an interesting feature of his life. At one time Rodbertus
had some intention of forming a " social party " with the help
of the conservative socialist Rudolf Meyer and of W. Hasen-
clever, a prominent follower of Lassalle; but no progress was
made in this. Rodbertus was neither disposed nor qualified
to be an agitator, being a man of a quiet and critical tempera-
ment, who believed that society could not be improved by
violent changes, but by a long and gradual course of develop-
ment. He warned the working men of Germany against con-
necting themselves with any political party, enjoining them
to be a " social party " pure and simple. He died on the 8th
of December 1875.
The general position of Rodbertus was " social, monarchical and
national." He held the purely economic part of the creed of the
German social-democratic party, but he did not agree with their
methods, and had no liking for the productive associations with
state help of Lassalle. He regarded a socialistic republic as a
possible thing, but he cordially accepted the monarchic institution
in his own country and hoped that a German emperor might under-
take the r61e of a social emperor. The basis of the economic teach-
ing of Rodbertus is the principle laid down by Adam Smith and
Hicardo, and insisted on by all the later socialists, that labour is the
source and measure of value. In connexion with this he developed
the position that rent, profit and wages are all parts of a national
income produced by the united organic labour of the workers of
the community. Consequently there can be no talk of the wages
of labour being paid out of capital; wages is only that part of the
national income which is received by the workmen, of a national
income which they have themselves entirely produced. The wages
fund theory is thus summarily disposed of. But the most important
result of the theory is his position that the possession of land and
capital enables the landholders and capitalists to compel the workmen
to divide the product of their labour with those non-working classes,
and in such a proportion that the workers only obtain as much as
can support them in life. Thus the iron law of wages is established.
Hence also Rodbertus deduces his theory of commercial crises and
of pauperism.
A fundamental part of the teaching of Rodbertus is his theory
of social development. He recognized three stages in the economic
progress of mankind: (i) the ancient heathen period in which
property in human beings was the rule; (2) the period of private
property in land and capital ; (3) the period, still remote, of property
as dependent on service or desert. The goal of the human race is
to be one society organized on a communistic basis; only in that
way can the principle that every man be rewarded according to
his work be realized. In this communistic or socialistic state of
the future land and capital will be national property, and the entire
national production will be under national control ; and means will
be taken so to estimate the labour of each .citizen that he shall
be rewarded according to its precise amount. An immense staff of
state officials will be required for this function. Rodbertus believed
that this stage of social development is yet far distant ; he thought
that five centuries will need to pass away before the ethical force
of the people can be equal to it.
From temperament, culture and social position Rodbertus was
averse to agitation as a means of hastening the new era; and, in
the measures which he recommends for making the transition
towards it, he showed a scrupulous regard for the existing interests
of the capitalists and landholders. He proposed that those two
classes should be left in full possession of their present share of
the national income, but that the workers should reap the benefit
of the increasing production. To secure them this increment of
production, he proposed that the state should fix a " normal working
day " for the various trades, a normal day's work, and a legal wage,
the amount of which should be revised periodically, and raised
according to the increase of production, the better workman receiv-
ing a better wage. By measures such as these, carried out by the
state in order to correct the evils of competition, would Rodbertus
seek to make the transition into the socialistic era.
The economic work of Rodbertus is an attempt made in a
temperate and scientific spirit to elucidate the evil tendencies
inherent in the competitive system, especially as exemplified in
the operation of the iron law of wages. The remedy he proposes
is a state management of production and distribution, which shall
extend more and more, till we arrive at a complete and universal
socialism, and all based on the principle that as labour is the
source of value so to the labourer should all wealth belong. It is
therefore an attempt to place socialism on a scientific basis; and
he is certainly entitled to be regarded as one of the founders of
" scientific socialism."
The following are the most important works of Rodbertus:
Zur Erkenntniss unserer staatsurirtschaftlichen Zustdnde (1842);
Sociale Brief e an von Kirchmann (1850); Creditnot des Crund-
besitzes (2nd ed., 1876); " Der Normal-Arbeitstag," in Tub. Zeit-
schrift (1878); Letters to A. Wagner, &c.. Tub. Zeitschrift (1878-79);
Letters to Rudolf Meyer (1882). Rodbertus has received great atten-
tion in Germany, especially from Adolf Wagner (Tub. Zeitschrift,
1878); see also Kosak's Rodbertus sozialokonomische Ansichlen
(Jena, 1882); an excellent monograph by G. Adler, Rodbertus, der
Begriinder des wissenschaflUchen Sozialismus (Leipzig, 1884) ;
Dietzel, Karl Rodbertus, Darstellung seines Lebens und seiner Lehre
(Jena, 1886); Jentsch, Rodbertus (Stuttgart, 1899); and E. C. K.
Conner, Social Philosophy of Rodbertus (London, 1899).
RODENTIA, or GLIRES, an order of placental mammals
characterized by the peculiar form and structure of their front
or incisor teeth, which arc reduced to a single functional chisel-
like pair in each jaw, specially adapted for gnawing, and growing
throughout the entire life of their owners. Rodents may be
characterized as terrestrial, or in some cases arboreal or aquatic,
placental mammals of small or medium size, with a milk and
a permanent series of teeth, plantigrade or partially planti-
grade, and generally five-toed, clawed (rarely nailed or semi-
RODENTIA
hoofed) feet, clavicles or collar-bones (occasionally imperfect or
rudimentary), no canine teeth, and a single pair of lower incisors,
opposed by only one similar and functional pair in the upper jaw.
In all rodents the upper incisors resemble the lower ones
in growing uninterruptedly from persistent pulps, and (except
in the hare group, Duplicidentata) agree with them in number.
The premolars and molars may be rooted or rootless, with
tuberculated or laminated crowns, and are arranged in an
unbroken series. The orbits are always open behind, never
being surrounded by bone. The condyle of the lower jaw is
antero-posteriorly elongated. The intestine (except in the
dormice or Gliridae) has a large caecum. The testes are in-
guinal or abdominal. The uterus is two-horned, with the
cornua opening separately into the vagina or uniting to form
a corpus uteri. The placenta is discoidal and deciduate. And
the smooth hemispheres of the brain do not extend backwards
so as to cover any part of the cerebellum.
Rodents include by far the greater number of species, and
have the widest distribution, of any of the orders of terrestrial
mammals, being in fact cosmopolitan, although more abundant
in some parts, as in South America, which may be considered
their headquarters, than in others, as in Australasia and Mada-
gascar, where they are represented only by members of the
mouse-group, or Myoidea.
All rodents are vegetable-feeders, and this uniformity in
their food and in the mode of obtaining it, namely by gnawing,
has led to that general uniformity in structure observable
throughout the group; a feature which renders their classifica-
tion difficult. Indeed, despite the fact that they present much
diversity of habit some being arboreal, as the squirrels, many
of which are provided with expansions of skin or parachutes
on which they glide from tree to tree; some cursorial, as the
hares; others jumpers, as the jerboas; others fossorial, as
the mole-rats; and others aquatic, as the beavers and water-
rats no important structural modifications are correlated
with such diversity of habit.
Anatomy. The rodent skull is characterized by the great size of the
premaxillae, which completely separate the nasals from the maxillae ;
by the presence of zygomatic arches; and by the wide unoccupied
space existing between the incisors and the cheek-teeth ; and (except
in the Duplicidentata) by the antero-posteriorly elongated glenoid
cavity for the articulation of the lower jaw. Post-orbital processes
of the frontals exist in squirrels, marmots and hares; but in all
other genera they are rudimentary or altogether absent; and the
zygoma seldom sends upwards a corresponding process, so that
the orbit is more
or less completely
continuous with
the temporal fossa.
The lachrymal for-
k jwamen is always
within the orbital
margin; and in
many species the
infra-orbital fora-
men is very large
(in some as large
as the orbit) and
transmits part of
the masseter
muscle. The zy-
gomatic arch is
variously deve-
Na.
XXO
Flower, Osteal. Mammal.
FIG. I. Skull of Jumping-Hare (Pedetes caffer).
loped, and
position of
the
the
X|. PMx, premaxilla; MX, maxilla; Ma, jugal is a character
malar; Fr, frontal; L, lachrymal; Pa, f o r grouping the
parietal; Na, nasal; 5^, squamosal; Ty, families. The na-
tympanic; ExO, exoccipital; AS, alisphen- sals are, with few
oid; OS, orbito-sphenoid ; Per, mastoid exceptions, large,
bulla. and extend far
forwards, the pari-
etals arc moderate, and there is generally a distinct interparietal. The
palate is narrow from before backwards, this being especially the
case in the hares, where it is reduced to a mere bridge between the
premolars; in others, as in the rodent-moles (Bathyerginae), it is
extremely narrow transversely, its width being less than that of one of
the molar teeth. Tympanic bullae are always present and generally
large; in some genera, as in the gerbils (Gerbillinae) and jerboas
(Jaculidae), there are supplemental mastoid bullae which form great
hemispherical bony swellings at the back of the skull (fig. I, Per),
in these genera and the hares the meatus auditorius being tubular
and directed upwards and backwards. The lower jaw is character-
ized by its abruptly narrowed and rounded front part supporting
the pair of large in-
cisors, as well as
by the small size of
the coronoid process,
and the great de-
velopment of the
lower hind, or
angular, portion.
The dental for-
mula varies from i.
?, c. g, p. I, m. |
(total 28) in the hares
and rabbits to i. \,
c. g, p. 8, m. | (total
12) in the Australian /rr
water-rats; but in FIG. 2. Skull of Porcupine (Hyi/Mxem/ato),.
the great majority with muscle attached, f, temporal muscle ;
of species it presents m \ masseter; m , portion of masseter trans-
striking uniformity, mitted through the infra-orbital foramen,
and may be set down the superior maxillary nerve passing out-
typically as i 1 wards between it and the maxilla.
c. 8, p. \ or g, m. I.
In the Duplicidentata only is there more than a single pair
of incisors, and in these the additional pair is small and placed
behind the middle pair. In this group the enamel extends par-
tially to the back of the incisors, but in all the rest it is restricted
to the front surface, so that, by the more rapid wearing-away of
the softer structures behind, a chisel-shaped edge is maintained.
Both upper and lower incisors are regularly curved, the upper ones
slightly more so than the lower; and, their growth being con-
tinuous, should anything prevent the normal wear by which their
length is regulated as by the loss of one of them, or by displace-
ment owing to a broken jaw or other cause the unopposed incisor
may gradually curve upon itself until a complete circle or more has
been formed, the tooth sometimes passing through some part of
the animal's head. The cheek-teeth may be either rooted or
FIG. 3. Vertical and Longitudinal Section through the Skull of
the Beaver (Castor fiber), showing the brain-cavity, the greatly
developed plates of bone in the nose-cavity, the mode of im-
plantation of the ever-growing chisel-edged incisor, and the
curved rootless cheek-teeth.
rootless, and either cusped or formed of parallel plates, this diversity
of structure often occurring in the same family. When there are
more than three cheek-teeth, those which precede the last three
have succeeded milk-teeth, and are premolars. In some species,
as in the agoutis (Dasyproctidae), the milk-teeth are long retained,
while in the allied cavies (Caviidae) they are shed before birth.
The tongue presents little variability in length, being short and
compressed, with a blunt tip, which is never protruded beyond the
incisors. In most species there are three circumvallate papillae at
the base, and the apical portion is generally covered with small
thread-like papillae, some of which in the porcupines become greatly
enlarged, forming toothed spines. The stomach varies in form
from the simple oval bag of the squirrels to the complex ruminant-
like organ of the lemmings. In the water-rat and agoutis it is
constricted between the oesophagus and pylorus; while in the
dormouse the oesophagus immediately before entering the stomach
is much dilated, forming a large egg-shaped bag with thickened
glandular walls; and in certain other species, as in Lophiomys and
the beaver, glandular masses are attached to and open into the
cardiac or pyloric pouches. All rodents, with the sole exception
of the dormice, have a caecum, often of great length and sacculated,
as in hares, the water-rat and porcupines; and the long colon in
some, as the hamster and water-rat, is spirally twisted upon itself
near the commencement. The liver is divided in the typical manner
in all, but the lobes are variously subdivided in different species
(in Capromys they are divided into minute lobules) ; and the gall-
bladder, though present in most, is absent in a few. In most
species the penis (which is generally provided with a bone) may
be more or less completely retracted within the fold of integument
surrounding the vent, and lie curved backwards upon itself under
cover of the integument, or it may be carried forward some distance
in front of the anal orifice, from which, as in voles and marmots,
RODENTIA
439
in the breeding-season, it is separated by the prominent testicular
mass. The testes in the pairing-season form projections in the
groins, but (except in the Duplicidentata) do not completely leave
the cavity of the abdomen. Prostate glands and, except in the
Duplicidentata, vesiculae seminales are present in all. The uterus
may be double, each division opening by a separate os uteri into
a common vagina, as in Leportdae, Sciurtdae, and Uydrochoerus, or
two-horned, as in most species. The teats vary in number from a
single abdominal pair in the guinea-pig to six thoracico-abdominal
pairs in the rats; while in the Octodontidae and Capromyidae they
are placed high up on the sides of the body.
There are generally nineteen dorso-lumbar vertebrae (thirteen
thoracic and six lumbar), the form of which varies in different genera ;
in the cursorial and leaping species the lumbar transverse processes
are generally very long, and in the hares there are large compressed
inferior spines, or hypapophyses. The caudal vertebrae vary
from a rudimentary condition in the guinea-pig to a great size in
the jumping-hare and prehensile-tailed porcupines. The scapula is
usually narrow, with a long acromion ; the clavicles may be altogether
absent or imperfect, as in porcupines, cavies and hares, but in most
species are well developed. The humerus has no supra-condylar
foramen, and the forearm bones are distinct; and in most species
the fore foot has five digits with the phalanges normally developed,
the first toe being but rarely rudimentary or absent. The pelvis
has large ischia and pubes, with a long and usually bony symphysis.
The femur varies considerably in form, but generally has a well-
defined third trochanter. In the squirrels and porcupines the
tibia and fibula are distinct, but in rats and hares they are united,
often high up. The hind foot is more variable than the front
one, the digits varying in number from five, as in squirrels and rats,
to four, as in hares, or even three, as in the capybara, viscacha and
agouti. In the Jaculidae the metatarsals are greatly elongated,
and in some of the species, as jerboas, they are welded together.
The mouth is divided into two cavities communicating by a
narrow orifice, the anterior one containing the incisors and the
posterior the molars, the hairy skin of the face being continued
inwards behind the incisors. This evidently prevents substances
not intended for food getting into the mouth, as when the animal
is engaged in gnawing through an obstacle. In hares and pacas
the inside of the cheeks is hairy; and in some species, pouched
rats and hamsters, there arc large internal cheek-pouches lined
with hair, which open near the angles of the mouth and extend
backwards behind the ears. In the New World pouched rats
(Geomyidae) the pouches open externally on the cheeks.
The peculiar odour evolved by many rodents is due to the
secretions of special glands, which may open into the prepuce, as
in Mus, Microtus and Cricetus, or into the rectum, as in Arctomys
and Thryonomys, or into the passage common to both, as in the
beaver, or into pouches opening near the vent, as in hares, agoutis
and jerboas.
The skin is generally thin, and the panniculus carnosus muscle
rarely much developed. The fur varies exceedingly in character,
in some, like the chinchillas and hares, being fine and soft, while in
others it is more or less replaced by spines on the upper surface,
as in spiny rats and porcupines; these spines in several genera,
as Xerus, Acomys, Platacanlhomys , Echinolhrix, Loncheres and
Echinomys, being flattened. In muscular structure the chief
peculiarities are noticeable in the comparatively small size of the
temporal muscles, and in the great double masseters (fig. 2), which
are the principal agents in gnawing. The digastric muscles also
are remarkable for their well-defined central tendon, and in many
species their anterior bellies are united between the two halves of
the lower jaw. The cleido-mastoid generally arises from the
basi-occipital, and the pectoralis major is connected with
the latissimus dorsi. In porcupines and hares the tendons of
the flexor digitorum longus and flexor hallucis longus are connected
in the foot, while in the rats and squirrels they are separate, and
the flexor digitorum longus is generally inserted into the metatarsal
of the first toe.
Classification. -Some diversity of view obtains among
naturalists with regard to the classification of the order; the
scheme here followed being the one adopted (with some modifica-
tions of nomenclature) by Professor Max Weber in his Sauge-
thiere. The number of genera is so great that only the more
important can be noticed. All authorities are agreed in dividing
rodents into two great sections or sub-orders, the one, Dupli-
cidentata, comprising only the hares, rabbits and picas, and
the other, Simplicidentata, all the rest. In the latter there
is only one pair of incisor teeth in the upper jaw, in which the
enamel is confined to the front surface. The incisive foramina
of the palate are moderate and distinct; the fibula does not
articulate with the calcaneum; and the testes are abdominal,
and descend periodically only into the inguinal canal.
Sewellels. The first family is represented by certain peculiar
North American rodents known as sewellels, constituting the genus
Haploilan (or Aplodon) and the family Haplodontidae and section
Haplodontoidca. In common with the next three sections these
rodents have the angular process of the lower jaw (fig. 4) arising
from the inferior surface of the socket of the incisor. The masscter
FIG. 4. Skull of the American Marmot (Arclomys monax). The
projection at the right-hand lower corner of the figure is the
angular process of the lower jaw.
muscle does not pass through the narrow infra-orbital canal. An
alisphenoid canal may be present on the palatal aspect of the
skull; but there is always a transverse canal. The malleus and
incus of the inner ear are separate. The humerus often has a
foramen (entepicondylar) on the inner side of its lower end; the
tibia and fibula may be separate or united; but the scaphoid and
lunar of the carpus are also united, while the centrale is free. The
stomach is simple.
Sewellels are medium-sized terrestrial rodents, with no post-
orbital process to the skull, which is depressed in form, and root-
less cheek-teeth, among which the premolars number f, the first
in the upper jaw being very small. The build is stout and heavy,
the limbs and tail are short, the ears moderate, the eyes minute and
the feet five-toed and plantigrade. Haplodon is represented by a
small number of species in America west of the Rocky Mountains,
of which H. rufus is the longest known. They are burrowing, and,
in some cases at any rate, partially aquatic rodents.
Squirrel Group. The Sciuroidea, which include the great
group of squirrels, sousliks, marmots, &c., all comprised in the
single family Sciuridae, differ from the sewellels in having large
post-orbital processes to the skull (figs. 4, 5, 6); and, with one
exception, have rooted cheek-teeth, the premolar-formula being
2^-i. The infra-orbital foramen is also narrower, and the tympanic
bulla is cellular. In both groups the tibia and fibula are separate.
The family is divided into three sub-families, the first of which
is the Sciurinae. In this the crowns of the molars are more or less
shortened, with their cusps either arranged in longitudinal lines, or
forming four upper and three lower more or less distinct oblique
ridges. The post-orbital processes of the frontal and jugal are
widely sundered, and the former may even be small (Xerus). The
expanded anterior root of the zygomatic process has its front
border oblique. According to modern views the sub-family is
broken up into a large number of genera.
The first of these is Rhithrosciurus, represented by one large species
(R. notatus) from Borneo, characterized by its finely grooved in-
cisors (see GROOVE-TOOTHED SQUIRREL). The second genus,
Heliosciurus, includes arboreal African squirrels, typified by H.
stangeri, allied in the characters of their skulls to the under-
mentioned 'Xerus, and with a very large pre-orbital foramen in the
more typical forms. The third, Funisciurus, of which F. pyrrhopus
is a well-known example, is also African and allied to Xerus,
but has a still longer skull and soft fur. In Xerus itself, which
is represented by the terrestrial African spiny squirrels, the eats
are short, there are only two teats, and flat spines are mingled
with the fur; while the skull, and more especially the frontals, is
elongated, with a very short post-orbital process, and the crowns
of the molars are taller than usual (see SPINY SQUIRREL). The
well-known Indian palm-squirrel, Funambulus palmarum, typifies
an Indo-Malay genus allied to Xerus in skull-characters but with
molars more like those of Sciurus. In contrast to these small
slriped species are the giant squirrels of the same region, such as
Ratufa indica and R. bicolor, which are very brightly coloured
rodents, with Sciurus-\\ke skulls (fig. 5) but extremely short-
crowned molars, and only one pair of upper premolars. Next
comes the typical Sciurus, including the great bulk of the entire
group, and ranging over Europe, Asia, North Africa and America.
The skull is short and broad, especially as regards the frontals,
with large post -orbital processes (fig. 5), and very generally two
upper premolars, making a total of five pairs of upper cheek-teeth,
which have crowns of medium height. The teats are either four
or six. Squirrels of this and the other arboreal groups have the
bodily form slender and agile, the tail long and bushy, the ears
well developed, pointed and often tufted; the feet adapted for
440
RODENTIA
climbing, the anterior pair with four toes and a rudimentary thumb,
and the posterior pair with five toes, all the toes having long, curved
and short-pointed claws (see SQUIRREL). The names Glyphotes and
FIG. 5. Under Side of Skull FIG. 6. Under Side of Skull of
of the Malay Giant Squirrel Prairie-Marmot (Cynomys ludo-
(Ratufa bicolor). vicianus).
Sciurotamias have been proposed respectively for one Bornean and
some four Chinese squirrels. With Tamias (sometimes split into
Tamias and Eutamias) we reach the North American striped ground-
squirrels, or chipmunks, well characterized by the large internal
cheek-pouches, with one outlying species in Northern Asia and
Europe (see GROUND-SQUIRREL). These lead on to the sousliks,
Spermophilus (or Citellus), in which the incisors (as in the following
genera) differ from those of all the squirrels in not being compressed.
The genus which is common to the northern parts of both hemi-
spheres is distinguished by the large cheek-pouches and by the
absence or rudimentary condition of the claw of the first hind-toe,
resembles Tamias in the slender form of the body, but displays
great variation in the length of the tail, which may be a mere stump,
or comparatively long. As in the following genera, there are
two pairs of premolars, of which the first in this case is small and
rounded, while the two series of cheek-teeth are nearly parallel
(see SOUSLIK). The prairie-dogs, or prairie-marmots, Cynomys,
are a North American group, in which the five-toed forefeet have
the claw of the first as large as that of the fifth toe. The skull
is heavily built, with the post-orbital processes directed outwards.
Dentition (fig. 6) remarkably heavy, the molar teeth differing
from those of Spermophilus and Arctomys by having three instead
of two transverse grooves on their crowns. First premolar nearly
as large as the second. Molar series strongly convergent behind
(see PRAIRIE-MARMOT). Finally, we have the marmots (Arctomys),
which are larger and more heavily built rodents, with short ears,
more or less short tails and rudimentary or no cheek-pouches.
Fore-feet with the first toe rudimentary and bearing a flat nail.
Skull (fig. 4) large and heavy, with the post-orbital process stouter
and at right angles to the axis. Incisors broad and powerful. First
upper premolar nearly as large as the second. Molar series nearly
parallel, scarcely converging behind at all.
The genus is common to the northern half of both hemispheres,
and its members, like those of the two preceding groups, burrow
and hibernate (see MARMOT).
The Nannosciurinae, or second sub-family of Sciuridae, are repre-
sented only by the pigmy squirrels (Nannosciurus), characterized by
their very short-crowned molars (which approximate to those of
dormice in structure) and small premolars, of which the first upper
pair is often deciduous, while the upper molars have only three
oblique ridges. The front root of the zygomatic arch is nearly
vertical, and placed so far back that it is above the second molar,
while the orbit a unique feature among rodents is almost com-
pletely surrounded by bone. The few representatives of this group
are all very small rodents, confined to tropical Africa, the Philip-
pines and the Malay islands.
The third and last sub-family, the Pteromyinae, is distinguished
from the other two by the presence of a parachute-like fold of skin
along the sides of the body, the supporting cartilage of which
arises from the carpus or wrist. It includes Sciuropterus, repre-
sented by small species from the northern parts of both hemi-
spheres; Pteromys, comprising large flying-squirrels, ranging from
India and the Malay countries to Japan, characterized by the long
cylindrical tail and large inter-femoral membrane; and Eupetaurus,
represented by one very large dark grey, long-tailed and long-
haired species from Astor and Gilgit, which differs from all other
members of the family by its tall-crowned cheek-teeth (see FLYING-
SQUIRREL).
Beavers. The second section, Castoroidea, of the present group
includes only the family Castoridae, represented by the beavers,
which are large aquatic rodents characterized by their massive
skulls, devoid of post-orbital processes, with the angle of the lower
jaw rounded, the molars rootless or semi-rooted, with re-entering
enamel-folds, and one pair of premolars above and below. The
tibia and fibula are united mferiorly, the tympanic bulla is
hollow and the infra-orbital foramen narrow. The single existing
genus comprises the European beaver, Castor fiber, of Europe and
Northern Asia, and the North American C. canadensis. The upper
molars are subequal, each with one internal and two external
enamel-folds; the stomach has a large glandular mass situated to
the right of the oesophageal orifice; the anal and urino-genital
orifices open within a common cloaca; the tail is broad, horizon-
tally flattened and naked; and the hind-feet are webbed (see
BEAVER).
Pouched Rats. The American pouched rats, or pocket-gophers,
constitute the third section, Geomyoidea, with the single family
Geomyidae. The dentition includes one pair of premolars above
and below, and rooted or rootless molars with but few enamel-
folds. In the skull the infra-orbital foramen is narrow, and post-
orbital processes and an alisphenoid canal are absent. The tibia
are fibula are united. The cheeks are provided with large pouches
opening externally. Two sub-families are recognized. The first of
these, or Geomyinae, is characterized as follows: Incisors broad;
mastoid not appearing on the top of the skull; eyes small; ears
rudimentary; limbs short, subequal. Habits fossorial. Geomys
bursarius, the " red pocket-gopher " of North America, with deeply
grooved incisors, inhabits the plains of the Mississippi, living in
burrows like the mole. Several other species from the Southern
States, Mexico and Central America are recognized. Thomomys
talpoides, with plain incisors, extending from Canada to the United
States west of the Rocky Mountains, typifies the second genus,
which has also many species. The following are the characters of
the seeond sub-family, Heteromyinae: Incisors narrow; mastoid
appearing largely on the top of the skull; eyes and ears moderate
or large; hind-limbs and tail elongated. Habits terrestrial.
Dipodomys, which has the molars rootless, is typified by D. phillipi,
the kangaroo-rat of the desert regions east of the Rocky Mountains,
Perodipus and Microdipodops being allied genera. Perognathus
and Heteromys have rooted molars; the latter genus is distinguished
by the presence of flattened spines among the fur, and has species
extending into South America. (See POCKET-GOPHER, POCKET-
MOUSE and KANGAROO-RAT.)
Scaly-tailed Squirrels. The next section, according to Prof.
Max Weber's arrangement, is that of the Anomaluroidea, typified
by the rodents commonly called African flying-squirrels (Anoma-
luridae), but better designated scale-tailed squirrels, or simply
" scaly-tails," since one member of the family has no parachute.
To this group Prof. H. Winge affiliates the African jumping-hares
(Pedetidae), a view which is adopted by Prof. Weber, although Mr
0. Thomas places these rodents in the neighbourhood of the porcu-
pines. In the more extended sense, the Anomaluroidea are diagnosed
as follows: In the skull the infra-orbital foramen (or canal) is
large, the lachrymal foramen placed high up, and no transverse
canal; while the malleus and incus of the internal ear are fused.
In the carpus the scaphoid and lunar bones are united. There is a
single pair of premolars in each jaw.
The Anomaluridae are characterized by having rooted cheek-teeth
with shallow transverse enamel-folds, the two halves of the lower
jaw movably articulated in front, very small post-orbital processes
to the skull, and the presence of two rows of scales on the under
surface of the base of the tail (figs. 7 and 8), which is cylindrical
and thickly haired. The family is confined to the equatorial
forest-tract of Africa, where it is most numerously represented
on the west side. The majority of the species belong to the typical
genus Anomalurus (fig. 7), which is provided with a parachute
supported by a cartilaginous process arising from the olecranon
of the ulna, and has well-developed ears and a moderately long tail.
Several of the species are considerably larger than an ordinary
squirrel. _ Idiurus, as represented by the West African I. zenkeri
(figured in the article FLYING-SQUIRREL), is a mouse-like form,
with very small ears and an extremely long tail. The third genus,
Zenkerella (Aethurus), which is also West African, has no parachute
(fig. 8). _
Jumping-Hares. The grounds for referring the African jumping-
hares (Pedetidae) to the Anomaluroidea rest largely on the evidence
of certain Tertiary rodents from Europe, such as Issiodoromys.
The family is represented by the South African Pedetes coffer,
which is as large as a hare, and the smaller East African P. surdaster.
In general habits and appearance these animals recall large jerboas,
from which group they are, however, distinguished by the four
pairs of rooted cheek-teeth, the premolars being as large as the
molars, and the latter having one outer and one inner enamel-fold.
The hind-limbs are elongated, with four toes, of which the meta-
tarsals are separate; the tibia and fibula are welded in old age;
the calcaneum and astragalus of the tarsus are elongated; and
there is a perforation on the inner side of the lower end of the
humerus (see JUMPING-HARE).
RODENTIA
Dormtce.Thc next three sections of the order, namely, the
Myoxoidea, or dormice, Dipodoidea, or jerboas, and Myoidea, or the
mouse group, have the following characteristics in common. The
441
slit.
From Alston.
FIG. 7. Red Scaly-tailed Squirrel (Anomalurus fulgent).
angular process of the lower jaw has the same relations as in the
sewellels and the allied groups. The lachrymal foramen in the
skull is low down and
forms an elongated
In the carpus the
phoid and lunar are
welded, but the centrale
remains distinct. The tibia
and fibula are fused at
their upper and lower
ends. The malleus and
incus of the inner ear
are separate. Except in
Lophiomys, the clavicles
*; are complete. The infra-
, orbital foramen of the
skull (fig. 9) is more or
less broad; and there is
generally a transverse
canal. The stomach is
generally complex.
In the dormice, form-
ing the section Myoxi-
dea, with the single
family Gliridae (or My-
oxidae), a single pair of
premolars may or may
not be present ; the molars
are short-crowned and
rooted, with transverse
enamel-folds. The angle
FlG. 8. Zenker's Scaly-tailed Squirrel f the lower jaw is twisted
(Zenkerella insignis). and its coronoid process
slender. Dormice are
small arboreal rodents, with long hairy tails, large eyes and ears, and
short fore-limbs, ranging over Europe, Asia and Africa. Of the four
genera in the typical sub-family Glirinae, the first is Glis, represented
by Glis vulgaris (or G. glis) of Europe, with a doubly vaned, bushy
tail, simple stomach, and large molars with well-marked enamel-folds ;
the second, Muscardinus, with M. avellanarius, the common dor-
mouse, distinguished by the cylindrical bushy tail, and thickened
glandular walls of the cardiac extremity of the oesophagus; thirdly,
Eliomys, containing several species, with tufted and doubly vaned
tails, simple stomachs and smaller molar teeth, having concave
crowns and faintly marked enamel-folds; and lastly, the African
Graphiurus, represented by several species, with short cylindrical
tails ending in a pencil of hairs, and very small molars almost
without trace of enamel-folds. None of the members of the typical
sub-family extend into India, where the group is represented by
Platacanthomys, typifying the sub-family Platacanthomyinae,
characterized by the absence of premolars; the other being the
Chinese TypUomys. These are small rodents with somewhat
From de Winton.
the appearance of the pigmy squirrels (Nannosciurus), which
in some degree connect the family with the Muridae. (See
DORMOUSE.)
Jerboa Group. The Dippdoidca, or jerboa-group, which likewise
includes only a single family, Jaculidae (or Dipodidac), is charac-
terized by the presence of not more than one pair of premolars in the
upper jaw, which, however, may be wanting; by the rooted cheek-
teeth, which have transverse enamel-folds, and the absence of a
transverse canal in the skull, and of a horny layer in the stomach.
The family is divisible into two sub-families, of which the first,
or Sminthinae, is represented only by the genus Sminlhus, containing
a few species which range from Denmark into Western Asia,
Kashmir and China. They are small rat-like rodents, with one
pair of upper premolars, which are mere pins, as is the last molar,
and the two pairs of limbs of normal length, with the mctatarsals
separate; the infra-orbital opening in the skull being triangular
and widest below, while the incisive foramina in the palate are
elongated. The European 5. subtilis has a black dorsal stripe
bordered with yellow.
The Dipodinae, on the other hand, are leaping rodents, with
the metatarsals elongated, a small upper premolar present or
absent, and the crowns of the molars tall. Various degrees of
specialization occur in the adaptation for leaping. The least
specialized genus is Zapus, containing the jumping-mice of North
America, with one outlying Siberian species, in which the five
metatarsals are free, as are also the cervical vertebrae, the small
upper premolar being retained. (See JuMPiNG-MouSE.)
I" the other genera, so far as known, the three central metatarsals
of the hind foot are fused into a cannon-bone, of a type unique
among mammals and comparable to that of birds. Some of the
cervical vertebrae are also united in at least the letter-known genera.
The tail and ears are generally very long; while, in correlation with
the size of the latter, the auditory bullae of the skull are also large.
In the typical jerboas, Jaculus (or Dipus\ ranging from North
Africa to Persia, Russia and Central Asia, there are only three
hind toes, the incisors are grooved, and the premolars are generally
wanting. The other genera have five toes, of which only t he-
middle three are functional, and smooth incisors. Euchoreules,
with one Yarkand species, has premolars, enormous ears and a long
nose. Alactaga, ranging over Russia and Western and Central
Asia, inclusive of Persia and Baluchistan, has smaller ears and a
shorter nose; by some naturalists it is taken to include the North
African A. tetradactylus, which is separated by others as Scarturus.
The Turkestan Platycercomys (or Pygeretmus) has a lancet-shaped
tail and no premolars; while Cardiocranus of the Nan-shan district
of Central Asia has a similar type of tail, but short ears and a
peculiarly triangular skull. (See JERBOA.)
Mole-Rats. The mole-rats (Spalacidae) bring us to the mouse-
like section, or Myoidea, in which there are no premolars and the
molars may be
occasionally re-
duced to i; these
teeth being either
rooted or rootless,
with either cusps
or e n a m e 1-folds,
and the first gene- )
rally larger than
the second. In
the skull the
zygomatic arch is
slender and the
jugal bone small
and not extend-
ing far forwards,
being supported
by the long zygo-
matic process of
the maxilla, while
the infra-orbital
foramen is mostly rIG. 9. Skull of the Muskrat (Fiber zibethicus).
large, and there Natural size,
are no post-orbital processes. Although sometimes short, the
tail is generally long, sparsely haired and scaly. The cardiac
portion of the complex stomach has a horny layer, and there is
a caecum.
The Spalacidae are burrowing types, allied apparently to the
ancestral Jaculidae, and characterized by the second and third
molars being equal in size, the presence of enamel-folds in all these
teeth, and the superiority in size of the claws of the second, third
and fourth front toes over the other two. AH these " rodent-
moles " are thoroughly adapted to a subterranean life, the eyes
and ears being small and rudimentary, as is also the tail; while
the bodily form is cylindrical, and the front claws are very large
and powerful. The incisors are very large; and the palate of
the skull is narrow. The typical representative of the group is
:he great mole-rat (Spalax typhius) of Eastern Europe and North-
East Africa, which, together with a few closely allied species, has
the eyes completely buried in the skin, and the head much flattened.
442
RODENTIA
In the bamboo-rats, Rhizomys, from the Indo-Malay countries,
China and Tibet, as well as in the closely allied East African
Tachyoryctes, the eyes are, however, functional, and the head is
rounded. (See MOLE-RAT.)
According to the arrangement here followed, the burrowing
zokors may be placed in this family, although they have teeth like
those of the vole group in the Muridae. The first representative
of this sub-group is the genus Siphneus (or Myotalpa), of which
some five Central and North Asiatic species are known. They
are characterized by the mole-like form and long, powerful, front
claws (fig. 10). In the true zokors (Ellobius), on .the other hand,
From Milne-Edwards.
FIG. 10. The Tibetan Zokor (Siphneus armandi).
the claws are short and the general form more vole-like. Of three
named species, one extends from South Russia to Siberia, while
two others are respectively from Kurdistan and Afghanistan. A
third type, Prometheomys, from the Caucasus, is represented by a
species of the size of a small water-rat, chestnut-brown in colour,
with lighter feet, and the minute eyes covered with skin. The teeth
are nearest to those of the true zokors (Ellobius). The single
example was taken under flowering anemones.
Malagasy Rats. On account of certain structural peculiarities,
the rats of Madagascar, which have a dentition like that of the
cricetine Muridae, are separated as a distinct family, Nesomyidae.
They are the only rodents in that island. Of these, Hypogeomys is
a large, long-tailed, fawn-coloured rat, with large ears and feet;
Nesomys is a red species, with long hair; Brachytarsomys is short-
footed and long-tailed, with velvety fawn fur; Hallomys has
elongated hind feet, as has also M acrotarsom ys ; Gymnuromys is
naked-tailed; and the several species of Eliurus are dormouse-
like.
Mouse Tribe. The characteristics of the Muridae are those of
the Myoidea generally, as given above under the heading of the
Spalacidae. With the exception of Madagascar, the family, which
may be divided into six sub-families, has a cosmopolitan distribution,
and the genera are so numerous that only some of the most im-
portant can be even mentioned.
The first group is that of the hamsters, or cricetines (Cricetinae),
in which the molars are rooted and tuberculated, with the cusps of
the upper ones arranged in two longitudinal rows (fig. 13, B) ;
in the upper teeth the outer cusps and in the lower the inner ones are
the higher, and when worn the crown surfaces show oblique dentine-
areas; in shape the third molar is like the second, but it is smaller.
The infra-orbital foramen is generally narrow, and the tympanic
bulla hollow. The humerus has a foramen at the lower end. The
tail is short. The group is typified by the European hamster (Cricetus
vulgaris or C. cricetus), to which a separate article is devoted (see
HAMSTER); the genus includes a number of species ranged under
several sub-genera, such as Mesocricetus, Cricetulus, and Urocricetus,
widely spread in Western and Central Asia, the last-mentioned,
which is from Tibet, being distinguished by its relatively long tail.
The hamsters all possess cheek-pouches, which are, however, absent
in many of the following genera. Africa claims only a single
representative of the group, Mystromys, with one southern and one
eastern species. Persia is the home of Calomyscus (with one species),
a near relative of the American Peromyscus. In America, where
the more typical kinds are known as white-footed, or deer, mice,
the cricetines absolutely swarm, and include a host of genera, the
majority of which are North American, although others are peculiar
to Central and South America. Among these may .be named
Onychomys, Peromyscus, Rhipidomys, Holochilus (which is South
American and includes the largest species), Sigmodon (typified by the
North American rice-rat, 5. hispidus), Oryzomys, Rhithrodontomys
(with grooved incisors), Ichthyomys and Anotomys (fish-eating,
aquatic forms, from the mountains of South America), Acodon,
and the North American wood-rats, or Neotoma, in which the
molars have a structure simulating that of the under-mentioned
Microtinae. A distinct sub-family, Lophiomyinae, is represented by
the Central African arboreal spiny rats, Lophiomys, of which there,
are two or three species. Although agreeing with the Cricetinae in
From Milne-Edwards.
FIG. II. African Spiny Rat (Lophiomys imhausi).
the hollow tympanic bullae, they have the clavicles imperfect,
the first front toe opposable to the rest, the temporal region of the
skull roofed with bone, and the crowns of the molars with cusps
arranged in rows but eventually covered by a layer of enamel.
The third sub-family is that of the Microtinae, or voles, which art-
distributed all over Europe, Northern Asia and North America, and
are characterized by the tympanic bulla of the skull being filled with
honey-combed bony tissue, the small size of the infra-orbital foramen,
and the deep pterygoid fossa on the palatal aspect. The humerus
lacks a foramen at the lower end; and the molar teeth, as explained
and illustrated in thearticle VOLE (5.1;.), consist of two longitudinal rows
of triangular alternating vertical prisms, and may be either rootless
or rooted. Voles, as typified by the water-rat and the tailed field-
mouse, are stouter built and shorter-nosed rodentsthan the typical rats
and mice, with smaller ears and eyes and shorter tails; all being good
burrowers. In the circumpolar Evotomys (represented in England
by the red-backed field-mouse) and the nearly allied North American
Phenacomys, the molars develop roots in old age; but in Microtus
(which includes the water-rat, and is circumpolar) they are rootless
throughout life, the genus being one of the largest in the mammalian
class (see VOLE) . Fiber the muskrats is a North American aquatic
type (see MUSKRAT), characterized by the compression of the tail.
Synaptomys is also North American, and characterized by the grooved
After Gould.
FlG. 12. The Australian Brown-footed Rat (Mus fuscipes).
upper incisors and the presence of distinct enamel-loops on the outer
side of the lower molars. The circumpolar lemmings of the genera
Lemmus and Dicrostonyx are noticed in the article LEMMING.
Ellobius, which many naturalists place in this group, has been
mentioned among the Spalacidae.
RODENTIA
443
The typical rats and mice, together with their nearest relatives,
constitute the sub-family Murinae, which is represented by more
than three hundred species, distributed over the whole of the Old
World except Madagascar. The molars (fig. 13, A) are rooted
and have a plate-like structure, with the
cusps or tubercles forming three longi-
tudinal rows in those of the upper jaw,
but only two distinct ones in the lower.
By this structure the Murinae are broadly
distinguished both from the Cricetinae
(fig. 13, B) and the Microtinae. In the
skull the tympanic bulla is hollow, the
pterygoid fossa shallow and the zygomatic
arch slender, with a rudimentary jugal
bone. The tail is long and scaly (fig. 12).
The genus Mus, with about a couple of
hundred species, includes the true mice
and rats (see MOUSE and RAT), and has
FIG. 13. Upper Molars the typ i ca i characters of the group, the
of Mus (A) and Lnce- i nc i sors being narrow and smooth, the
tus (B). molars small, the eyes and ears large
and the tip of the muzzle naked. In some cases there may
be spines among the fur. None are much larger than the
brown rat (M. norvegicus) or smaller than the harvest mouse;
and they all have habits generally similar to those of one
or other of the English species, although some live in trees like
squirrels, or in the water; among the latter being the brown-footed
rat (M. fuscipes) of western and southern Australia (fig. 12).
The genus Nesocia is like Mus, but with the incisors and molars
broader, and the transverse laminae of the latter more clearly
defined. This genus contains a few clumsily built rats spread
over Southern Asia from Palestine to Formosa, and from Kashmir
to Ceylon (see BANDICOOT-RAT). Among other important genera
Cricetomys and Eosaccomys (both African) stand apart by the
possession of cheek-pouches: C. gambianus being a very large
species. The Javan Pithechirus has the thumb opposable, while
the Papuan Chiruromys has the tip of the tail naked above and
prehensile. The spiny mice, Acomys (or Acanthomys), of Western
Asia, Cyprus and Africa, take their name from the fur being almost
entirely replaced by flattened spines, and are further distinguished
by the rudimentary coronoid process of the lower jaw. Dasymys
is an allied African genus; while Arvicanthis includes the African
striped mice. Golunda, from India and Africa, is like Afiw, but
with grooved upper incisors. Vandeleuria, ranging from India to
Yunnan, has flat nails on the first and fifth toes of both feet, and
a very long tail; while the Indo-Malay Chiropodomys has a flat
nail on the first toe of both feet and a tufted tail. In the Philip-
pines occur the peculiar genera Batomys, Carpomys and Crateromys,
confined to the mountains of Luzon, the third remarkable for
its huge size and long hair. Mastacomys is like Mus, but with
the molars remarkably broadened, and with only four teats. The
single species is from Tasmania, though it has been found fossil
in New South Wales; it is somewhat similar in size and appearance
to the English water-rat, but has longer and softer fur. Uromys
differs from Mus in having the scales of the tail not overlapping,
but set edge to edge, so as to form a sort of mosaic work. There
are several species, spread over the northern part of the Australian
region from the Aru Islands to Queensland. Echinothrix is a rat
with an extremely elongated muzzle, all the bones of the face
being much produced, and the incisors faintly grooved, the only
species, E. leucura, being about the size of the common rat, with
its fur thickly mixed with spines, a native of Celebes. Australia
is the home of the group of jumping species, known as jerboa-rats,
characterized by the elongation of the hind limbs, arranged under
the genera Notomys, Dipodillus, Ammomys and Conilurus, dis-
tinguished from one another by the structure of the molars and the
number of teats and foot-pads", the second being further character-
ized by its long ears.
The large-eared African Otomys and the allied Oreomys (Orcinomys),
often made the type of a distinct sub-family, may be included in
this section; as well as the small African tree-mice, Dendromys,
allied to which is Deomys, peculiar in the circumstance that only
the first molar has three rows of cusps, the other two having only
a couple of such rows, as in cricetines. Other allied African genera
are Steatomys and Lophuromys, which include several species of
small mouse-like rodents, with the habits of dormice generally,
though some burrow in cornfields. Here also may be noticed
the huge Philippine long-haired rats of the genus Phlaeomys,
characterized by their broad incisors, transversely laminated
molars and large claws. They are often regarded as forming a
sub-family by themselves. The gerbils, which are widely a\**"-
buted over the more or less desert-like regions of the Old World
exclusive of the Malay countries and Australia, form the sub-family
Gerbillinae. They have long hind limbs, large eyes and ears; and
in correlation with the latter an enlarged auditory bulla to the
skull, which is hollow and divided into a tympanic and a mastoid
portion. The tail is generally long and hairy. There are three
pairs of rooted molars, whose crowns carry transverse plates, de-
creasing in number from three in the first to one in the last tooth.
Gerbillus (or Tatera), with a large number of species, has a range
coextensive with that of the sub-family; Pachyuromys, with two
African species, has a short club-shaped tail and enormous audi-
tory bullae; while the remaining members of the group, which
are confined to North Africa, Eastern Europe and Asia, are arranged
in the genera Meriones, Psammomys and Rhombomys, the latter
represented only by R. opimus from Russia and Central Asia (see
GERBIL).
The last representatives of the Muridae are confined to
Australasia and the Philippines, and constitute the sub-family
Hydromyinae, characterized by the very general presence of only
two pairs of molars in each jaw. In the typical Australian and
Papuan Hydromys, locally known as water-rats, the molars origin-
ally have transverse ridges, the enamel folds between which form
cutting edges whose sharpness depends upon the degree to which
the teeth have l>een worn, while the large hind feet are webbed. The
typical //. chrysogaster is a large brown rat with an orange belly,
which feeds on small fishes and insects. Limnomys, from New
Guinea, is a type less specialized for swimming, the hind-feet being
much less twisted than in Hydromys, and not so fully webbed. Still
less specialized are Chrotomys and Xeromys, which include Philip-
pine land-rats, while Crunomys, from the same area, retains the
third molars, and thus connects the group with the Murinae.
Finally, the Philippine Rhynchomys is represented by a rat with
two pairs of molars and a long shrew-like nose, the zygomatic arch
of the skull being also placed unusually far backward.
Strand-Moles. With the so-called strand-moles of South Africa,
forming the section Bathyergoidea, and the family Bathyergidae,
which were formerly placed with the Spalacidae, we come to the first
of two sections in which the lower jaw has a totally different form to
that obtaining in all the preceding groups. In the rodents now
to be considered, the angular process of the lower jaw arises from the
outer side of the sheath of the incisor. The malleus and incus i.f
the internal ear are united, and there is no transverse canal in the
skull. At least one pair of premolars is present in each jaw; and
these teeth and the molars typically have one outer and one inner
enamel fold. There is no foramen at the lower end of the humerus,
and no horny layer in the stomach.
In the Bathyergoidea the scaphoid and lunar of the carpus arc
separate, the tibia and fibula united and the clavicles normal. The
masseter muscle does not pass through the narrow infra-orbital
canal, and the temporal muscle is large. All the Bathyergidae are
African, and adapted to a burrowing life, having minute ears and
eyes, a short tail and the thumb armed with a large claw. The
largest species represents the genus Bathyergus, while several
smaller kinds are included in Ceorychus. The former construe t>
its tunnels in the sandy flats near the shore at the Cape, but the
latter generally frequent higher ground. In both genera there is
only a single pair of premolars in each jaw, but in the smaller
Myoscalops there are usually three pairs of these teeth. The most
remarkable members of the family are the sand-rats of Somaliland
and Shoa, forming the genera Heterocephalus and Fornarina, in
which the premolars may be reduced to two pairs. They ha\c
large heads, projecting incisors, no ears, almost functionless eyes and
moderately long tails; the skin, with the exception of a few hairs
on the body and frinres on the feet, being naked. They spend
their whole time buried in the hot desert sand, in which they
construct burrows, throwing up at intervals small hillocks.
Porcupines. In the second section, or Hystricoidea, including
several families, the skull (fig. 14) is characterized by the heavy
FIG. 14. Skull of the Capybara (Hydrochaerus capybara), reduced.
zygomatic arch, the middle portion of which is formed by the more
or less straight and horizontal jugal, and the large infra-orbital
canal, traversed by a portion of the masseter muscle. The tibia
and fibula are separate, but the scaphoid and lunar are united,
and the clavicles are generally incomplete. There is never more
444
RODENTIA
than one pair of premolars, and the original ridges of all the cheek-
teeth have become obscured and complicated by the development
of secondary enamel-folds. The majority of these rodents, many o!
which are of large size, are terrestriaj, but a few are burrowing
others arboreal and two or three aquatic.
The Old World porcupines, constituting the family Hystricidae,
are terrestrial, stoutly built rodents, with limbs of subequal length
in front and behind, and the skin covered with strong spines. The
upper lip is cleft, the jugal lacks an inferior angle, the fore part of
the skull is short and broad; the cheek-teeth are partially rooted,
with external and internal enamel-folds, the soles of the feet are
smooth, there are six pairs of teats, the clavicles are imperfect and
the tail is not prehensile. In the typical genus Hystrix, which
FIG. 15. The Brazilian Tree-Porcupine (Synetheres (or Coendu)
prehensilis).
is represented in all the three great continents of the Old World,
and extends as far east as Flores and Celebes, the skull is swollen
and convex, the spines are cylindrical, and the tail is short and
covered with spines and slender-stalked open quills. In Atherura
fasciculate, of the Malay Peninsula the spines are flattened, and the
tails long and scaly, with a tuft of compressed bristles. A closely-
allied species, A. africana, inhabits Western Africa. The third
genus is Trichys (see PORCUPINE).
American Porcupines. All the New World porcupines, repre-
senting the family Erethizontidae (or Cpendidae) are arboreal in their
habits, and have the upper lip undivided, the cheek-teeth rooted,
the clavicles complete, the soles of the feet tuberculated and three
pairs of teats. Erethizon dorsatus, the urson, is distributed all over
the forest regions of North America; Synetheres (or Coendu') pre-
hensilis, the prehensile-tailed porcupine of South America (fig. 15),
represents a genus in which the whole upper surface of the body is
protected by long white-tipped spines; Chaetomys subspinosus is
clothed with strong wavy bristles. In the last two genera the feet
have four toes, in place of the five of Erethizon (see PORCUPINE).
Cavy Group. In the family Caviidae, typified by the cavies (or
guinea-pigs), may be included a large number of South and Central
American rodents, among which the agoutis and pacas are often
ranked as a family (Dasyproctidae) by themselves. The Caviidae,
in the present more comprehensive sense, include the giants of the
rodent order. Many of them, like ungulates, are specialized for swift
running, and have unusually long limbs, with ridges developed on
the articular surfaces of the lower bones; the clavicles are more or
less reduced; the thorax is more compressed than usual, with a
narrower breast-bone; and there is a marked tendency to the
reduction or loss of the lateral toes, more especially in the hind
limb. Since these rodents walk more or less entirely on their toes,
in such a manner that the edges of the claws or nails come in contact
with the ground, these tend to assume somewhat of a hoof-like
character; while the foot-pads are more or less horny. The tail
is generally very short, and its basal vertebrae are often fused with
the sacrum. In the skull the lachrymal bone is large, the par-
occipital process is directed vertically downwards and the tympanic
bulla is hollow. In the soft parts the caecum is very large, the penis
is armed with a pair of barbed horny claspers and the scrotum is spiny.
Special interest attaches to the most aberrant member of the
family, the Peruvian Dinomys, known for more than thirty years
only by a single specimen taken in a house in Lima, and only lately
rediscovered. It is a large rodent known to the Tupi Indians as
the paca-rana, or false paca, in allusion to the resemblance of its
coloration to that of the true paca, from which it differs by its well-
developed tail, the absence of cheek-pouches, the full development
of all five toes and the wider thorax. The Tupi name may be
adopted as the popular title of the species. Dr E. Goeldi states that
the paca-rana is a rodent of phlegmatic and gentle disposition,
which may account, perhaps, for its rarity, if, indeed, it be really
scarce in its native home, which is probably the eastern slopes and
tablelands of the Bolivian and Peruvian foot-hills bordering on
Brazil, inclusive of the headwaters of the Purus, Acre and Jurua
rivers. In the true pacas, Coelogenys (or Agouti), the first front toe
is small, and both the first and fifth digits of the hind-foot are much
inferior in size to the olher three. The most remarkable feature
of the genus is, however, the extraordinary development of the
zygomatic arches of the skull, which are enormously expanded
vertically, forming great convex bony capsules on the sides of the
face, enclosing on each side a large cavity lined with mucous membrane
internally, and communicating by a small opening with the mouth.
C. paca is a white-spotted rodent, about 2 ft. long, and lives
generally in the forests or along the banks of rivers (see PACA).
The Agoutis, Dasyprocta, include several species of slender-limbed
rodents, with three hind-toes, inhabiting Central and South America,
one (D. cristata) extending into the West Indian islands. The
members of both Coelogenys and Dasyprocta are terrestrial in their
habits, and have the fore- and hind-limbs subequal, hoof-like claws,
short or obsolete tail and rudimentary clavicles. The masseteric
ridge of the lower jaw is obsolete, the palate broad, the incisors
long and the molars semi-rooted, with external and internal
enamel-folds (see AGOUTI). The remaining and more typical
members of the family, one of which is aquatic, are characterized
by their short incisors, the strong masseteric ridges on the sides of
the lower jaw, the long and curved par-occipitals and the palate
contracted in front. Fore-feet with four digits, hind-feet with
three; clavicles imperfect; molars divided by enamel-folds inta
transverse lobes; milk-teeth shed before birth. In the true cavies,
or couies, Cavia, the fore- and hind-limbs are short and of subequal
length, the ears are short and there is no tail. They include
several species widely distributed throughout South America,
extending even to the straits of Magellan, from one of which (C.
cutleri of Peru) the guinea-pig is derived. The maras (Dolichotis)
have the limbs and ears long and the tail very short. D. pata-
gonica is a large species, nearly 3 ft. long, inhabiting the
gravelly plains of Patagonia, while D. salinicola is a much smaller
rodent from the salt-lagunas of Argentina. The palate is so much
contracted in front that the premolars of opposite sides touch by
their antero-internal edges. Hydrochaerus, in which all the feet
are fully webbed, includes a single species, the capybara, or carpincho,
the largest of living rodents. The skull (fig. 14) is distinguished
not only by its great size, but by the enormous development of the
par-occipital processes and the complex structure and large size
of the last molars (see CAVY and CAPYBARA).
Chinchilla Group. The family, Chinchillidae, typified by the well-
known chinchilla, includes a small number of South American rodents
with large ears and proportionately great auditory bullae in (he
skull, elongated hind-limbs, bushy tails, very soft fur and perfect
clavicles. The jugal is without an inferior angle, and extends
forwards to the lachrymal; the palate is contracted in front and
deeply emarginate behind; the incisors are short, and the molars
divided by continuous folds into transverse plates; and the two
halves of the lower jaw are welded together in front. It includes
three existing genera, represented by some five species. Of these
the true chinchilla, Chinchilla lanigera, C. brevicaudata, Lagidium
peruanum and L. pallipes, are restricted to the alpine zones of the
Andes from the northern boundary of Peru to the southern parts
of Chili; while Lagostomus trichodactylus (or Viscaccia viscaccia),
the viscacha, is confined to the pampas from the Uruguay river to
the Rio Negro. In Chinchilla the fore-feet have five and the hind
Four digits, the tail is long and bushy, and the auditory bullae are
enormous, appearing on the top of the skull ; Lagidium has four digits
:n both fore- and hind-feet, and Lagostomus three only in the hind-
: eet, while the auditory bullae are much smaller (see CHINCHILLA and
VISCACHA);
Hutia Group. The three remaining families of the Hystricoidea,
of which one is African while the other two are chiefly South
American, are very closely allied and often brigaded in a single
family group. In the Capromyidae, which includes only the South
American and West Indian hutias, the South American coypu and
the African cane-rats, the tympanic bulla of the skull is hollow, the
Dar-occipital process straight, the lachrymal small, and the cheek-
:eeth rooted, with deep enamel-folds; the first front toe teing
occasionally absent. Of the few living representatives of the
Croup, the genus Myocastor (or Myopotamus) is represented only
)y the South American coypu, M. coypu, which is aquatic in its
labits, and measures about 2 ft. in length, being the largest
member of the group. It has a long tail, brown fur and red
ncisors, and lives in burrows near water, feeding on aquatic plants.
RODENTIA
445
The hutia (Capromys pilorides) is nearly as large, arboreal in habits,
and a native of Cuba, where it is the largest indigenous mammal.
Other species occur in Cuba, Jamaica and the Bahamas, while a
Venezuelan species, Procapromys geayi, represents a separate genus.
In one kind the tail is prehensile. All these rodents are remarkable
for the manner jn which the liver is divided into minute lobules.
Plagiodontia aedium, another member of the group, is peculiar to
Hayti. The African cane-rats, Thryonomys (or Aulacodus), are
large terrestrial rodents, ranging from the centre of the continent
to the Cape, easily recognized by their deeply fluted incisors (see
COYPU). The Octodontidae, which are exclusively South American,
differ from the preceding family by the tympanic bulla being
filled with cellular bony tissne, and by the par-occipital process
curving beneath it, while the cheek-teeth are almost or com-
pletely rootless and composed of parallel plates. The first front
toe may be absent. The more typical members of the family are
rat-like_ burrowing rodents, living in communities. The typical
genus is represented by the dcgu (Oclodon degus) and several
nearly related species; other genera being Ctenomys, Octodontomys
(Nepctodon), Aconaemys, Spalacopus and Abrocoma; the latter
taking its name from its unusually soft fur. Among these, the
tuco-tucos (Ctenomys) are characterized by their burrowing habits,
almost rudimentary ears, small eyes, short tails and the kidney-
shaped grinding-surfaces of their cheek-teeth. They take their
name of tuco-tuco from their cry, which resembles the blows
of a hammer on an anvil, and may be heard all day as the little
rodents move in their burrows, generally formed m sandy soil.
In some districts the ground is undermined by these burrows, in
which stores of food are accumulated. The species of Octodon
have larger ears, longer, tufted tails and the sides of the cheek-
teeth indented by plates of enamel ; they are chiefly found in
hedgerows and bushes, where they burrow. In Abrocoma the tail has
no tuft, the ears are still larger and the lower cheek-teeth more
complex than the upper ones. Aconaemys is an allied Chilean genus
in which the enamel-folds meet across the molars. Several of
these rodents live in the Andes, where the ground is covered for
months with snow. The second group of the family is formed by
the genera Lonckeres, Dactylomys, Echi[no}mys, Proechimys and
a few others, the members of which are rat-like rodents, with long
scaly or furry tails, and frequently flattened spines mingled with the
fur of the back. Most species are brown above and whitish beneath,
but in some the lighter tints extend on to the sides, shoulders and
head, communicating a coloration somewhat like that of a guinea-pig
(see OCTODON). The North African gundis (Ctenodactylus gundi
and Ct. vali) are the types of an African family, which also includes
the genera Massoutiera, Pectinator and Petromys. In the gundi
the two inner toes of the hind-foot are furnished with a horny comb
and bristles for the purpose of cleaning the fur, and the tail is very
short ; but in Pectinator the tail is longer. Petromys has a still longer
and more bushy tail, and no comb to the hind-feet. The gundi is a
diurnal species, inhabiting rocky districts, and having habits very
similar to those of a jerboa. Of these Ctenodactylus and Pectinator
are characterized by the union of the incus and malleus of the
internal ear, the free fibula and the almost rootless cheek-teeth.
The premolar is very small, thus showing an approximation to
the Myoidea, although in other respects Petromys appears to ap-
proximate to the Hystricidae.
Picas and Hares. The remaining rodents, which include two
families the picas (Ochotonidae) and the hares and rabbits
(Leporidae) constitute a second sub-order, the Duplicidentata,
differing from all the foregoing groups in possessing two pairs of
incisors in the upper jaw (of which the second is small, and placed
directly behind the large first pair), the enamel of which extends
round to their postcricr surfaces. At birth there are three pairs of
incisors, but the outer one is soon lost. The incisive foramina are
large and usually confluent; the bony palate is very narrow from
before backwards; there is no alisphenoid canal; the fibula is
welded to the tibia, and articulates with the calcaneum; and
the testes are permanently external. All are terrestrial, and in
many cases burrowing, in their habits, and some of them are of
extreme fleetness. The Ochotonidae are represented at the present
day only by the single genus Ochotona (Lagomys), which includes
all the picas, or mouse-hares. They are small rodents with com-
plete clavicles, fore- and hind-limbs of nearly equal length, no
external tails and short ears. Skull depressed, frontals contracted
and without post-orbital processes; p. } or f; molars rootless,
with transverse enamel-folds. In some cases the molar-formula
is |. The genus includes about a score of species of guinea-pig-like
animals, inhabiting chiefly the mountainous parts of Northern
Asia (from 11,000 to 14,000 ft.), one species only being known
from South-east Europe and several from the Rocky Mountains
and Alaska.
From the picas the hares and rabbits (Leporidae) are distinguished
by the imperfect clavicles, the more or less elongated hind-limbs,
short recurved tail (absent in one case) and generally long ears.
The skull is compressed, with large wing-shaped post-orbital
processes (fig. 16); p. |. With the exception of Australasia, the
family has a cosmopolitan distribution; and its numerous species
resemble one another more or less closely in general external
characters. In all the fore-limbs have five and the hind four
digits; and the soles of the feet are densely clothed with hairs
similar to those
covering the
legs; the inner
surface of the
cheeks being
hairy. Although
the family has
such a wide dis-
tribution, the
greater number
of the species
are restricted to
Europe, north-
ern and cen-
tral Asia and
North America ;
South America
having very few.
Till within the
last few years
the majority of
naturalists fol- FIG. 16. Skull of the Common Hare
lowed the prac- europaeus).
tice of including
all the members of the family in the genus Lepus. It is
true that Mr E. Blyth long ago proposed the name Caprolagus
for the remarkable spiny rabbit of the western Himalayas,
while the generic name Oryctolagus was suggested later for the
rabbit, and Sylvilagus for the American cotton-tails " ; but
none of these was accorded general acceptation. Of late years,
however, zoologists have come to the conclusion that generic sub-
divisions of the Leporidae are advisable. In 1899 L)r Fcrsyth
Major proposed a classification of the family in which a number
of species were grouped with the spiny rabbit in the genus Capro-
lagus, whilst Oryctolagus was taken to include not only the common
raobit, but likewise the Cape hare. A more recent classification
is that of Mr M. W. Lyon, in which by far the largest number of
species of the family are retained in the original genus Lepus, which
has also the widest geographical distribution of all the genera. It
is typified by the blue hare (Lepus timidus), next to which comes
the common hare (L. europaeus) and certain other allied forms.
The jackass-hares of Mexico, &c., such as L. californicus, fcrm a
second sub-group; while these are in turn followed by the American
hare (L. americanus) and its immediate relatives. The cotton-
tails, or wood-rabbits, of North and South America are regarded as
forming a genus, Sylvilagus, by themselves, which includes the
Brazilian and Paraguay hares, and appears to be chiefly dis-
tinguished by a certain feature in the parietal region of the skull.
Under the name of Oryctolagus cuniculus, the rabbit is considered
to represent a genus by itself, specially characterized by the short-
ness of the ears and hind-feet. The swamp-rabbit (L. palustris)
and water-hare (L. aqualicus) of the southern United States form
the group Limnolragus, characterized by the harsher fur, the shorter
ears, tail and hind-feet, and the complete fusion of the post-orbital
process (which is so distinct in the typical hares) with the adjacent
parts of the skull, so that neither notches nor perforations are
developed in this region. The short-tailed rabbit of the western
United States (Brachylagus idahoensis) is the sole member of a
group allied in general characters to the typical Lepus, but dis-
tinguished by the unusually short tail. Another group is Prono-
lagus, typified by the Cape thick-tailed hare, the so-called Lepus
crassicaudatus , which is externally similar to Lepus proper, but has
the skull and teeth of the general type of the next group. The tail-
less rabbit of Mount Popocatepetl, Mexico, originally described as
a distinct generic type, under the name of Romerolagus nelsoni,
is broadly distinguished by the entire absence of the tail, and the
short ears and hind-feet, its general form being like that of the
Liu-Kiu rabbit, while, as in the latter, the post-orbital process of
the skull is small, and represented only by the hinder half. Next
come three remarkable rabbits from the Indo-Malay countries,
all closely allied, although regarded as representing three generic
groups, Nesolagus, Caprolagus and Pentalagus. In all three the
skull is of the type of Romerolagus. The first is represented by
the Sumatran rabbit, the so-called N. netscheri, which apparently
differs from the spiny rabbit mainly by the pattern of the cheek-
teeth. The spiny rabbit, separated from Lepus by Blyth in 1845
under the name of Caprolagus hispidus, is an inhabitant of Assam
and the adjacent districts, and distinguished by its harsh, bristly
fur and short ears and tail. In the Liu-Kiu rabbit (Pentalagus
furnessi) the coat is equally harsh, but the ears and hind-feet are
shorter, and there are only five (in place of the usual six) pairs of
upper cheek-teeth. In the loss of the last upper molar, the Liu-Kiu
rabbit approximates to the picas, as does the tailless rabbit in the
abortion of its caudal appendage. Mr Lyon's scheme seems to
be the best attempt to explain the affinities of the members of the
group. Whether all his genera be adopted, or all the species be
included in Lepus, must largely be a matter of individual opinion.
44-6
RODERICK RODEZ
If the latter course be followed, Mr Lyons's genera must be reduced
to the rank of sub-genera, and his sub-generic divisions of Lepus
and Sylvilagus ignored. (See HARE and RABBIT.)
EXTINCT RODENTS
Among extinct rodents, only a few of the more important types
may be noticed. As to the origin of the order, we are still to a
great extent in the dark; and even the relations of the Duplicidentata
to the Simplicidentata are not yet fully understood. With regard
to the latter point, it is, however, considered probable that both
are branches of a common stock, which diverged from each other
before all the typical rodent characters were acquired. As to the
ancestral stock of the order, it has been suggested that this is re-
presented by certain Lower Eocene European and North American
mammals, at one time regarded as primitive Primates. In Europe
these include Plesiadapis and Protoadapis, and in North America
Mixodecles, Microsyops and Cynodontomys; the last three consti-
tuting the family Mixodectidae. Possibly the European forms, in
which the dental formula has been given as i. f, c. J, p\, m.\, and
there is a gap between the incisors and the cheek-teeth, are more
nearly related to modern rodents than the American types, and may
indeed belong to the same order. On the other hand, the American
forms, which have one pair of large chisel-like incisors in the lower
jaw, also possess a lower canine, and show no marked gap in front
of the cheek-teeth, nor any indication of the characteristic rodent
backwards movement of the lower jaw. On these grounds, while
admitting that they are allied to the rodents, it has been pointed
out that they can scarcely be included in the Rodentia, and the
order Proglires has in consequence been proposed for their reception.
Whatever may be the true affinity of these problematical mammals,
undoubted rodents are known from the Lower Eocene of both
Europe and North America. In Europe these form the genus
Ischyromys and the family Ischyromyidae, and have premolars f,
and all the cheek-teeth low-crowned, with simple cusps or ridges.
Possibly they are akin to the Sciuridae. In America, Paramys,
with transversely ridged molars, is allied ; and the European Sciuromys
should perhaps find a place in the same neighbourhood. A more
advanced phase is represented in the European Lower Oligocene
by the Pseudosciuridae, with the genera Pseudosciurus, Sciuroid.es,
Trechomys, Theridomys, &c., in which part of the masseter passes
through the broad infra-orbital canal, and the premolars are } ;
the molars being low-crowned, many-rooted and either cusped or
ridged. These rodents are thought to be allied to the Anomaluridae ;
and it is partly on their evidence that the family Pedetidae is placed
next the latter. Here it may be mentioned that Leithia, from the
Pleistocene of Malta, originally regarded as a giant dormouse, seems
near akin to Anomalurus. In the highly specialized mastoid region
of the skull, the North American Oligocene Protoptychus approaches
to Dipopodomys, while the contemporary Gymnoptychus and En-
toplychus likewise appear referable to the Geomyidae. The Upper
Oligocene Cricetodon in Europe and Ewnys in America are the earliest
known forerunners of the cricetine Muridae; while at the same time
primitive beavers appear in the form of Steneofiber, to be succeeded
in the European Pleistocene by the gigantic Trogontherium.
The still larger North American Pleistocene Castoroides, known
by one species of the size of a bear, and the allied West Indian
Amblyrhiza, appear to be specialized beavers, although they have
been referred to a family by themselves. Near akin is the North
American Miocene family Mylagaulidae, typified by Mylagaulus,
but including Mesogaulus and Protogaulus. Although showing
some dental characters approximating to the porcupines, these
rodents are regarded as allied to the Castoridae, although forming
an isolated type. The prominent feature, writes Mr E. S. Riggs,
is the unusual development of the premolar to the exclusion of the
posterior teeth. Associated with this is the strength and sharpness
uf the lower jaw, the prominence and anterior position of the
masseteric ridge, and the depth of the ramus from the alveolar line
to the angle. These indicate unusual capacity for crushing or
grinding; while the last premolar is a crushing implement, which
has reached the highest degree of specialization known in Rodentia.
It is suggested that these teeth may have been employed for cracking
nuts or hard seeds, although also used for grinding. The remarkable
North American Ceratogaulus , with a large bony nasal horn, belongs
to the same family. To discuss the remaining Miocene and later
fossil Simplicidentata would be doing little more than adding to
the generic names referable to the various existing families. It
may be mentioned, however, that the distribution of these later
Tertiary types accords very closely with that of their existing re-
latives; the families of South American hystricoids being repre-
sented by a number of extinct genera in the formations of Argentina
and Brazil. Special mention may be made of Megamys, from the
caves of Brazil, which, while apparently allied to the living viscacha,
attained dimensions approximating to those of a hippopotamus.
As regards the Duplicidentata, it appears that the families Ocho-
tonidae and Leporidae had become differentiated as early as the
Lower Miocene. Titanomys is the earliest form, from the Middle
Miocene, succeeded by Lagopsis, and then by the modern Ochotona.
In this line there is a tendency to lose the last upper molar, but in
Prolagus, which ranges in the Pliocene from Sardinia and Corsica
to Spain, and forms a side-branch, the corresponding lower tooth
has likewise disappeared. In contradistinction to Titanomys, in
which the cheek-teeth are rooted, is the North American Upper
Oligocene Palaeolagus, where they are rootless. In general dental
characters, especially the retention of three pairs of molars, this
genus approximates to the Leporidae, although in the absence of
post-orbital processes and the pattern of the molars it departs less
widely from the modern Ochotonjdae than does Prolagus.
AUTHORITIES. The above article is partly based on that by G. E.
Dobson in the gth edition of this work. See also H. Winge, Jord
Fundene og Nulevende Gnadere (Rodentia), E. Museo Lundi (1888);
C. J. Forsyth-Major, " On some Miocene Squirrels, with Remarks
on the Dentition and Classification of the Sciuridae," Proc. Zool.
Soc. London (1893); " On Fossil and Recent Lagomorpha," Trans.
Linnean Soc. London, vol. vii. (1899); T. S. Palmer, "A List of
the Generic and Family Names of Rodents," Proc. Zool. Soc. Washing-
ton, vol. xi. (1897) ; O. Thomas, " On the Genera of Rodents,"
Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1896); T. Tuhlberg, Uber das System der
Nagethiere (Upsala, 1899); H. F. Osbcrn, "American Eocene
Primates, and the Supposed Rodent Family Mixodectidae," Bull.
Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. vol. xvi. (1902); W. Lyon, " Classification of
the Hares and their Allies," Smithsonian Miscell. Collections, vol. xlv.
(1903). Also numerous papers by O. Thomas, in Proc. Zool. Soc.
London and Annals and Magazine of Nat. Hist., and by several
American naturalists in transatlantic zoological serials. (R. L.*)
RODERICK, or RUADRI (d. 1198), king of Connaught and
high king of Ireland, was the son of Turlough (Tordelbach)
O'Connor, king of Connaught, who had obtained the over-
kingship in 1151, but had lost it again in 1154 through the rise
of Muirchertach O'Lochlainn in Ulster. Roderick succeeded
to Connaught in 1156, and after ten years' fighting won back
the title of high king. His ill-advised persecution of Dermot
(Diarmait MacMurchada), king of Leinster, furnished the
pretext for the Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland. Roderick
endeavoured to expel the invaders, but was driven behind
the Shannon. He delayed his submission to Henry II. until
1175, when a treaty was concluded at Windsor. Roderick,
under this agreement, held Connaught as the vassal of England,
and exercised lordship over all the native kings and chiefs of
Ireland; in return he undertook to pay an annual tribute. The
treaty did not put an end to the wars of the Norman adven-
turers against Connaught and Roderick's dependants. He held
out till 1191; but then, weary of strife, retired to the cloister.
He died in 1198, the last of the high kings of Ireland.
See Giraldus Cambrensis, Opera, vol. v. (Rolls Series) ; G. Orpen's
Song of Dermot and the Earl (1892) ; W. Stubbs's edition of Benediclus
Abbas (Rolls Series); Miss K. Norgate's England under the Angevin
Kings, vol. ii. (1887).
RODEZ, a town of southern France, capital of the department
of Aveyron, 51 m. N.N.E. of Albi by rail. Pop. (1906) town,
11,076; commune, 15,502. Rodez is situated on the southern
border of the Causse of Rodez, on an isolated plateau bordered
on the E. and S. by the river Aveyron. The cathedral was
built between 1277 and 1535. A great Flamboyant rose-
window and a gallery in the same style are the chief features
of the principal facade, which is flanked by two square towers
and has no portal. Each transept has a fine Gothic doorway.
On the north side of the building rises a tower (1510-1526) of
imposing height (253 ft.). The three upper stages are richly
decorated, and the whole is surmounted by a colossal statue
of the Virgin. In the cathedral are a fine rood-loft, some good
wood-carving and the tombs of several bishops. Other interest-
ing buildings are the episcopal palace (i?th and 1 9th centuries),
flanked by a massive tower, relic of an older palace; the church
of St Amans, of Romanesque architecture, restored in the i8th
century; and, among other old houses, the hotel d'Armagnac
built in the Renaissance period on the site of the old palace of
the counts. The ruins of a Roman amphitheatre still exist
in Rodez, which is supplied with water by a Roman aqueduct.
About 6 m. to the north of Rodez is the chasm of Tindoul de la
Vayssiere, leading to a subterranean river issuing in the springs
of the picturesque village of Salles-la-Source.
The town is the seat of a bishop, a prefect and a court of
assizes, and has tribunals of first instance and commerce, a
chamber of commerce, a branch of the Bank of France, a lycee
training college for both sexes and an ecclesiastical seminary.
The industries include wool-spinning and the weaving of woollen
goods.
RODGERS RODNEY
Rodez, called Segodunum under the Gauls, and Ruthena under the
Romans, was the capital of the Rutheni, a tribe allied to the Arverni
and was afterwards the principal town in the district of Rouergue
In the 4th century it adopted the Christian faith, and St Amans
its first bishop, was elected in 401. During the middle ages contests
were rife between the bishops, who held the temporal power in the
cite, and the counts in the " bourg." The Albfgenses were
defeated near Rodez in 1210. The countship of Rodez, detachec
from that of Rouergue at the end of the nth century, belongec
first to the viscounts of Carlat, and from the beginning of the I4th
century to the counts of Armagnac. From 1360 to 1368 the English
held the town. After the confiscation of the estates of the Armagnacs
'" '475 the countship passed to the dukes of Alengon and then to
the D'Albrets. Henry IV. finally annexed it to the crown of France
RODGERS, JOHN (1771-1838), American sailor, was born in
Harford county, Maryland, on the iith of July 1771. He
entered the United States navy when it was organized in 1798.
He was second in command to Commodore James Barren
(1760-1851) in the expedition against the Barbary pirates,
and succeeded him in the command in 1805. In this year he
brought both Tunis and Tripoli to terms, and then returned to
America. In 181 1 he was in command as commodore of the U.S.
frigate " President " (44) off Annapolis when he heard that an
American seaman had been " pressed " by a British frigate
off Sandy Hook. Commodore Rodgers was ordered to sea
" to protect American commerce," but he may have had verbal
instructions to retaliate for the impressment of real or supposed
British subjects out of American vessels, which was causing
much ill-feeling and was a main cause of the War of 1812.
On the i6th of May 1811 he sighted and followed the British
sloop " Little Belt " (22), and after some hailing and counter-
hailing, of which very different versions are given on either
side, a gun was fired, each side accusing the other of the
aggression, and an action ensued in which the " Little Belt "
was cut to pieces. The incident, which was represented as an
accident by the Americans, and believed to be a deliberate
aggression by the British navy, had a share in bringing on
war. When hostilities broke out Rodgers commanded a
squadron on the coast of America, and was wounded by the
bursting of one of his guns while pursuing the British frigate
" Belvedere." He was subsequently President of the Board
of Navy Commissioners in 1815-1824 and in 1827-1837, and
acting secretary of the navy in 1823 for two weeks. He died
in Philadelphia on the ist of August 1838.
His brother, George Washington Rodgers (1787-1832), a
brother-in-law of Commodore Perry, served in the War of 1812
and in the war with Algiers (1815). Rear-Admiral John Rodgers
(1812-1882), a son of Commodore John Rodgers, served in the
Union navy and in 1877-1882 was superintendent of the Naval
Observatory at Washington. G. W. Rodgers had two sons
who were naval officers, Christopher Raymond Perry Rodgers
(1819-1892) and George Washington Rodgers (1822-1863).
RODIN, AUGUSTE (1840- ), French sculptor, was born
in 1840, in Paris, and at an early age displayed a taste for his
art. He began by attending Barye's classes, but did not yield
too completely to his influence. From 1864 to 1870, under
pressure of necessity, he was employed in the studio of Carrier-
Belleuse, where he learnt to deal with the mechanical difficulties
of a sculptor. Even so early as 1864 his individuality was
manifested in his " Man with a Broken Nose." After the war,
finding nothing to do in Paris, Rodin went to Brussels, where
from 1871 to 1877 he worked, as the colleague of the Belgian
artist Van Rasbourg, on the sculpture for the outside and the
caryatides for the interior of the Bourse, besides exhibiting
in 1875 a " Portrait of Gamier." In 1877 he contributed to
the Salon " The Bronze Age," which was seen again, cast in
bronze, at the Salon of 1880, when it took a third-class medal,
was purchased by the State, and is now in the museum of the
Luxembourg. Between 1882 and 1885 he sent to the Salons
busts of " Jean-Paul Laurens " and " Carrier-Belleuse " (1882),
" Victor Hugo " and " Dalou " (1884), and " Antonin Proust "
(1885). From about this time he chiefly devoted himself to
a great decorative composition six metres high, which was not
finished for twenty years. This is the " Portal of Hell," the
447
most elaborate perhaps of all Rodin's works, executed to order
for the Musee des arts decoratifs. It is inspired mainly by
Dante's Inferno, the poet himself being seated at the top,
while at his feet, in under-cut relief, we see the writhing crowd
of the damned, torn by the frenzy of passion and the anguish
of despair. The lower part consists of two bas-reliefs, in their
midst two masks of tormented faces. Round these run figures
of women and centaurs. Above the door three men cling to
each other in an attitude of despair. After beginning this
titanic undertaking, and while continuing to work on it, Rodin
executed for the town of Damvillers a statue of " Bastien-
Lepage "; for Nancy a " Monument to Claude le Lorrain,"
representing the Chariot of the Sun drawn by horses; and for
Calais " The Burgesses of Calais " surrendering the keys of the
town and imploring mercy. In this, Rodin, throwing over
all school tradition, represents the citizens not as grouped on a
square or circular plinth, but walking in file. This work was
exhibited at the Petit Gallery in 1889. At the time of the
secession of the National Society of Fine Arts, or New Salon, in
1890, Rodin withdrew from the old Society of French Artists,
and exhibited in the New Salon the bust of his friend " Puvis
de Chavannes " (1892), " Contemplation " and a " Caryatid,"
both in marble, and the " Monument to Victor Hugo " (1897),
intended for the gardens of the Luxembourg. In this the poet
is represented nude, as a powerful old man extending his right
arm with a sovereign gesture, the Muses standing behind
him. In 1898 Rodin exhibited two very dissimilar works,
" The Kiss," exhibited again in 1900, a marble group represent-
ing Paolo Malatesta and Francesca da Rimini, and the sketch
in plaster for a " Statue of Balzac." This statue, a commission
from the Society of Men of Letters, had long been expected,
and was received with vehement dissensions. Some critics
regarded this work, in which Balzac was represented in his
voluminous dressing-gown, as the first-fruits of a new phase
of sculpture; others, on the contrary, declared that it was
incomprehensible, if not ridiculous. This was the view taken
by the society who had ordered it, and who " refused to recognize
Rodin's rough sketch as a statue of Balzac, " and withdrew the
commission, giving it to the sculptor Falguiere. Falguiere
exhibited his model in 1899. In the same Salon, Rodin, to prove
that the conduct of the society had made no change in his friend-
ship with Falguiere, exhibited a bust in bronze of his rival,
as well as one of " Henri Rochefort." In 1000, the city of Paris,
to do honour to Rodin, erected at its own expense a building
close to one of the entrances to the Great Exhibition, in which
almost all of the works of the artist were to be seen, more
especially the great " Portal of Hell," still quite incomplete,
the " Balzac," and a host of other works, many of them unfinished
or mere rough sketches. Here, too, were to be seen some of
Rodin's designs, studies and water-colour drawings. He has
also executed a great many etchings and sgraffiti on porcelain
for the manufactory at Sevres. His best-known etching is the
portrait of Victor Hugo. Many of Rodin's works are in private
collections, and at the Luxembourg he is represented by a
" Danai'd " (in marble), a " Saint John " (in bronze, 1880),
" She who made the Helmet " (bronze statuette), the busts of
" J. P. Laurens " and of " A Lady " and other works. In the
Musee Galliera is a very fine bust of Victor Hugo. Rodin's
" Hand of God " was exhibited in the New Gallery, London,
in 1905. In 1904 Mr Ernest Beckett (Lord Grimthorpe) pre-
sented the British nation with the sculptor's " Le Penseur."
[n the same year Rodin became president of the International
Society of Sculptors, Painters and Engravers, in succession to
James McNeill Whistler.
See SCULPTURE (Modern French) ; also Geffroy, La Vie arlislique
Taris, 1892, 1893, 1899, 1900); L. Maillard, Rodin (Paris, 1899);
^a, Plume, Rodin el son ceuvre (Paris, 1900); Alexandra, Le Bal-.ac
de Rodin (Paris, 1898); H. Boutet, Dix dessins choisis de Auguste
Rodin (1904); R. Dircks, Auguste Rodin (1904); H. Duhem, August
Rodin (1903); C. Black, Auguste Rodin: the Man, his Ideas and
his Works (1905).
RODNEY, GEORGE BRYDGES RODNEY. BARON (1718-
1792), English admiral, second son of Henry Rodney of
448
RODOMONTADE RODOSTO
Walton-on-Thames, was born in February 1718. His father had
served in Spain under the earl of Peterborough, and on quitting
the army served as captain in a marine corps which was dis-
banded in 1713. George was sent to Harrow, being appointed,
on leaving, by warrant dated the 2ist of June 1732, a volunteer
on board the " Sunderland." While serving on the Mediter-
ranean station he was made lieutenant in the " Dolphin," his
promotion dating the isth of February 1739. In 1742 he
attained the rank of post-captain, having been appointed to
the " Plymouth " on the gth of November. After serving in
home waters, he obtained command of the " Eagle " (60), and
in this ship took part in Hawke's victory off Ushant (i4th
October 1747) over the French fleet. On that day Rodney
gained his first laurels for gallantry, under a chief to whom
he was in a measure indebted for subsequent success. On
the gth of May 1749 he was appointed governor and com-
mander-in-chief of Newfoundland, with the rank of commodore,
it being usual at that time to appoint a naval officer, chiefly
on account of the fishery interests. He was elected M.P. for
Saltash in 1751, and married his first wife, Jane Compton
(1730-1757), sister of the 7th earl of Northampton, in 1753.
During the Seven Years' War Rodney rendered important
services. In 1757 he had a share in the expedition against
Rochefort, commanding the " Dublin " (74). Next year, in
the same ship, he served under Boscawen at the taking
of Louisburg (Cape Breton). On the igth of May 1759 he
became a rear-admiral, and was shortly after given command
"of a small squadron intended to destroy a large number of
flat-bottomed boats and stores which were being collected at
Havre for an invasion of the English coasts. He bombarded
the town for two days and nights, and inflicted great loss of
war-material on the enemy. In July 1760, with another
small squadron, he succeeded in taking many more of the
enemy's flat-bottomed boats and in blockading the coast as
far as Dieppe. Elected M.P. for Penryn in 1761, he was in
October of that year appointed commander-in-chief of the
Leeward Islands station, and within the first three months
of 1762 had reduced the important island of Martinique, while
both St Lucia and Grenada had surrendered to his squadron.
During the siege of Fort Royal (now Fort de France) his sea-
men and marines rendered splendid service on shore. At
the peace of 1763 Admiral Rodney returned home, having been
during his absence made vice-admiral of the Blue and having
received the thanks of both houses of parliament.
In 1764 Rodney was created a baronet, and the same year
he married Henrietta, daughter of John Clies of Lisbon. From
1765 to 1770 he was governor of Greenwich Hospital, and on
the dissolution of parliament in 1768 he successfully contested
Northampton at a ruinous cost. When appointed commander-
in-chief of the Jamaica station in 1771 he lost his Greenwich
post, but a few months later received the office of rear-admiral
of Great Britain. Till 1774 he held the Jamaica command,
and during a period of quiet was active in improving the naval
yards on his station. Sir George struck his flag with a feeling
of disappointment at not obtaining the governorship of Jamaica,
and was shortly after forced to settle in Paris. Election ex-
penses and losses at play in fashionable circles had shattered
his fortune, and he could not secure payment of the salary as
rear-admiral of Great Britain. In February 1778, having
just been promoted admiral of the White, he used every pos-
sible exertion to obtain a command, to free himself from his
money difficulties. By May he had, through the splendid
generosity of his Parisian friend Marshal Biron, effected the
latter task, and accordingly he returned to London with his
children. The debt was repaid out of the arrears due to him
on his return. The story that he was offered a French com-
mand is fiction.
Sir George was appointed once more commander-in-chief
of the Leeward Islands late in 1779. His orders were to relieve
Gibraltar on his way to the West Indies. He captured a
Spanish convoy off Cape Finisterre on the 8th of January 1780,
and eight days later defeated the Spanish admiral Don Juan de
Langara off Cape St Vincent, taking or destroying seven ships.
On the 1 7th of April an action, which, owing to the careless-
ness of some of Rodney's captains, was indecisive, was fought
off Martinique with the French admiral Guichen. Rodney,
acting under orders, captured the valuable Dutch island of
St Eustatius on the 3rd of February 1781. It had been a
great entrepot of neutral trade, and was full of booty, which
Rodney confiscated. As large quantities belonged to English
merchants, he was entangled in a series of costly lawsuits.
After a few months in England, recruiting his health and
defending himself in Parliament, Sir George .returned to his
command in February 1782, and a running engagement with
the French fleet on the gth of April led up to his crowning
victory off Dominica, when on the i2th of April with thirty-
five sail of the line he defeated the comte de Grasse, who had
thirty-three sail. The French inferiority in numbers was
more thag counterbalanced by the greater size and superior
sailing qualities of their ships, yet five were taken and one
sunk, after eleven hours' fighting. This important battle saved
Jamaica and ruined French naval prestige, while it enabled
Rodney to write: " Within two little years I have taken two
Spanish, one French and one Dutch admirals." A long and
wearisome controversy exists as to the originator of the man-
osuvre of " breaking the line " in this battle, but the merits
of the victory have never seriously been affected by any differ-
ence of opinion on the question. A shift of wind broke the
French line of battle, and advantage was taken of this by the
English ships in two places.
Rodney arrived home in August to receive unbounded
honour from his country. He had already been created Baron
Rodney of Rodney Stoke, Somerset, by patent of the iglh of
June 1782, and the House of Commons had voted him a pension
of 2000 a year. From this time he led a quiet country life
till his death, which occurred on the 24th of May 1792, in London.
He was succeeded as 2nd baron by his son, George (1753-1802),
from whom the present baron is descended.
Rodney was unquestionably a most able officer, but he was
also vain, selfish and unscrupulous, both in seeking prize money,
and in using his position to push the fortunes of his family.
He made his son a post-captain at fifteen. He was accused
by his second-in-command, Hood, of sacrificing the interest of
the service to his own profit, and of showing want of energy in,
pursuit- of the French on the i2th of April 1782. It must be
remembered that he was then prematurely old and racked by
disease.
See General Mundy, Life and Correspondence of Admiral Lord
Rodney (2 vols., 1830); David Hannay, Life of Rodney; Rodney
letters in gth Report of Hist. MSS. Com., pt. iii.; " Memoirs,"
in Naval Chronicle, i. 353-93; and Charnock, Biographia Navalis, v.
204-28. Lord Rodney published in his lifetime (probably 1789)
Letters to His Majesty's Ministers, &c., relative to St Eustatius,
&c., of which there is a copy in the British Museum. Most of
these letters are printed in Mundy's Life, vol. ii., though with many
variant readings.
RODOMONTADE, or RHODOMONTADE, a term for boastful,
extravagant language or any inflated bragging speech. The
word refers to the brave but boastful Saracen leader Rodomonte
in Ariosto's Orlando Furioso. The name (in the form Roda-
mante) appears earlier in Boiardo's Orlando Innamoralo. It
is supposed to represent a compound of rodare, to roll, and
monte, mountain.
RODOSTO (Turkish, Tekir Dagh), a town of European Turkey,
in the vilayet of Adrianople, on the coast of the Sea of Marmora,
78 m. W. of Constantinople. Pop. (1905) about 35,000, of
whom half are Greeks. The picturesque Bay of Rodosto is
enclosed by the great promontory of Combos, a spur about
2000 ft. in height from the hilly plateau to the north. The
church of Panagia Rheumatocratissa contains the graves, with
long Latin inscriptions, of the Hungarians who were banished
from their country in 1686 by the imperialist captors of Buda.
Rodosto was long a great depot for the produce of the Adrianople
district, but its trade suffered when Dedeagatch became the
terminus of the railway up the Maritza, and the town is now
RODRIGUEZ ROE, E. P.
dependent on its maritime trade, especially its exports to
Constantinople. It is the administrative centre of a district
(sanjak) producing and exporting barley, oats, spelt and canary
seed, and largely planted with mulberry trees, on which silk-
worms are fed. White cocoons are exported to western Europe
(394 cwt. in 1901), silkworms' eggs to Russia and Persia.
Rodosto is the ancient Rhaedestus or Bisanthe, said to have been
founded by Samians. In Xenophon's Anabasis it is mentioned as
in the kingdom of the Thracian prince Seuthes. Its restoration
by Justinian in the 6th century A.D. is chronicled by Procopius.
In 813 and again in 1206 it was sacked by the Bulgarians, but it
continues to appear as a place of considerable note in later
Byzantine history.
' RODRIGUEZ (officially RODRIGUES), an island in the Indian
Ocean in 19 41' S., 63 23' E.; the most important dependency
of the British colony of Mauritius, from which it is distant 344
nautical miles. It is a station on the " all-British " cable route
between South Africa and Australia, telegraphic communication
with Mauritius being established in 1902. With a length of
13 m. E. and W., and a breadth of 3 to 6 m. N. and S., it has an
area estimated at 42! sq. m. On all sides it is surrounded by a
fringing reef of coral, studded with islets. This reef, only 100
yds. wide at the eastern end of the island, extends westward
3 m., and both N. and S. forms a flat area partly dry
at low water. Two passages through the reef are available
for large vessels these leading respectively to -Port Mathurin
on the N. coast and to Port South-East.
The island was at one period believed to consist of granite over-
laid with limestone and other modern formations, and its supposed
formation caused it to be regarded as a remnant of the hypothetical
continent of Lemuria. The investigations made by an expedition
sent by the British government in 1874 showed, however, that the
island is a mass of volcanic rock, mainly a doleritic lava, rich in
olivine. The land consists largely of a series of hills. The main
ridge, which runs parallel to the longest diameter, rises abruptly
on the east, more gradually on the west, where there is a wide plain
of coralline limestone, studded with caves, some stalactitic. Of
several peaks on the main ridge the highest is Mt. Limon, 1300 ft.
above the sea. The ridge is deeply cut by ravines, the upper parts
of which show successive belts of lava separated by thin beds of
cinders, agglomerate and coloured clays. In places the cliffs rise
300 ft. and exhibit twelve distinct lava flows. The climate is like
that of Mauritius, but Rodriguez is more subject than Mauritius to
hurricanes during the north-west monsoon (November to April).
Flora and Fauna. When discovered, and down into the I7th
century, Rodriguez was clothed with fine timber trees; but goats,
cattle and bush-fires have combined to destroy the great bulk of
the old vegetation, and the indigenous plants have in many cases
been ousted by intrusive foreigners. Parts are, however, still
well wooded, and elsewhere there is excellent pasturage. The
sweet potato, manioc, maize, millet, the sugar-cane, cotton,
coffee and rice grow well. Tobacco is also cultivated. Wheat
is seldom seen, mainly because of the parakeets and the Java
sparrows. Beans (Phaseolus lunatus), lentils, gram (Cicer arietinum),
dholl (Cajanus indicus) and ground-nuts are all grown to a certain
extent in spite of ravages by rats. Mangoes, bananas, guavas, pine-
apples, custard-apples, and especially oranges, citrons and limes
flourish. Of the timber trees the most common are Elaeodendron
orientate, much used in carpentry and for pirouges, and Latania
Verschaffelti (Leguat's plantane). At least two species of screw-pine
(Pandanus heterocarpus, Balf. fil., and P. tenuifolius) occur freely
throughout the island. The total number of known species, accord-
ing to Professor I. B. Balfour, is 470, belonging to 85 families and
293 genera. The families represented by the greatest number of
species are Gramineae, Leguminosae, Convolvulaceae, Malvaceae,
Rubiaceae, Cyperaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Liliaceae, Compositae.
Mathurina penduliflora (Turneraceae) is interesting, as its nearest
congener is in Central America. Of 33 species of mosses 17 are
peculiar. Variability of species and heterophylly are characteristic
of the flora to quite an unusual degree.
At present the only indigenous mammal is a species of fruit-
eating bat (Pteropus rodericensis), and the introduced species are
familiar creatures as deer, pig, rabbit, rat, mouse, &c. ; but down
to a recent period the island was the home of a very large land-
tortoise (Testudo Vosmaeri or rodericensis), and its limestone caves
have yielded a large number of skeletons of the dodo-like solitaire
(Pezophaps solitanus), which still built its mound-like nest in the
island in the close of the I7th century, but is now extinct (see DODO).
Deer, once plentiful, had become very scarce by the beginning of
the 2Oth century, having been indiscriminately hunted by the
inhabitants. Of indigenous birds 13 species have been registered.
The guinea-fowl (introduced) has become exceedingly abundant,
partly owing to a protective game-law; and a francolin (F.
poniicerianus), popularly a
xxni. 15
partridge," is also common.
449
marine fish-fauna docs not differ from that of Mauritius, and the
freshwater species, with the exception of Muf.il rodericensis and
Myxus caecuticus, are common to all the Mascarenes. Thirty-five
species of crustaceans are known. The insects (probably very
imperfectly registered) comprise 60 species of Coleoptera, 15 Hymen-
optera, 21 Lepidoptera, 15 Orthoptera, and 20 Hemiptera. Forty-
nine species of coral have been collected, showing a close affinity
to those of Mauritius, Madagascar and the Seychelles.
History. Rodriguez or Diego Ruy's Island was discovered by
the Portuguese in 1645. In 1690 Duquesne prevailed on the
Dutch Government to send a body of French Huguenots to the
Island of Bourbon, at that time, he believed, abandoned by the
French authorities. As the refugees, however, found the French
in possession, they proceeded to Rodriguez, and there eight of
their number were landed on the joth of April 1691 with a
promise that they should be visited by their compatriots within
two years. The two years were spent without misadventure,
but, instead of waiting for the arrival of their friends, the seven
colonists (for one had meanwhile died) left the isjand on the
8th of May 1693 and made their way to Mauritius, where they
were treated with great cruelty by the governor. The account
of the enterprise by Francis Leguat Voyages et avcntures
(London, 1708), or, as it is called in the English translation, A
New Voyage to the East Indies (London, 1708) is a garrulous
and amusing narrative, and was for a long time almost the only
source of information about Rodriguez. His description of the
solitaire is unique.
From the Dutch the island passed to the French, who colon-
ized it from Mauritius. Large estates were cultivated, and the
islanders enjoyed considerable prosperity. In 1800-10 Rodri-
guez was seized by the British, in whose possession it has since
remained. The abolition of slavery proved disastrous to the
prosperity of the island, and in 1843 the population had sunk to
about 250. Since that time there has been a gradual recovery
in the economic condition and a steady increase in population.
In 1881 the inhabitants numbered 1436; in 1904 the total had
risen to 3681. In 1907 the total population was 4231. The
inhabitants are mainly of African origin, being descendants of
slaves introduced by the French and negro immigrants direct
from Africa. There are a few families of European descent
(besides the comparatively large staff maintained by the Eastern
Telegraph Company) and a small colony of Indians and Chinese.
The bulk of the people are French-speaking and Roman
Catholics. There are two small settlements, Port Mathurin,
the capital, and Gabriel, in the centre of the island. The chief
industries are fisheries and cattle-rearing. Salt fish is the
principal export, next in importance coming goats, pigs and
horned cattle and tobacco. The value of the exports for the
four years 1903-06 was 50,894; of the imports for the same
period, 54,710. The island is administered by a magistrate
appointed by the governor of Mauritius, and the laws are
regulations issued by the governor in executive council. The
revenue, some 1000 a year, is about half the expenditure in-
curred, the balance being furnished from the Mauritian treasury.
The government maintains a hospital and schools, and pays the
salary of a Roman Catholic priest.
Leguat 's Voyage, edited by Capt. P. Oliver, forms vols. 82 and 83
of the Hakluyt Soc. publications (1891). See also C. Grant, Hist, of
Mauritius and the Neighbouring Islands (1801); Higgin, in Jour.
R. G. Soc. (1849) ; the Reports of the Transit of Venus Expedition,
1874-75, published as an extra volume of the Philosophical Trans-
actions (clxviii., London, 1879) (Botany, by I. B. Balfour; Petrology,
by N. S. Maskelyne, &c.); Behm, in Petermann's Mittheilungen
(1880); and the annual reports on Mauritius.
ROE, EDWARD PAYSON (1838-1888), American novelist,
was born in Moodna, Orange county, N.Y., on the 7th of March
1838. He studied at Williams College and at Auburn Theo-
logical Seminary; in 1862 became chaplain of the Second
New York Cavalry, U.S.V., and in 1864 chaplain of Hampton
Hospital, at Hampton, Virginia. In 1866-74 he was pastor of
the Presbyterian Church at Highland Falls, N.Y. In 1874 he
removed to Cornwall-on-the-Hudson, where he devoted himself
to the writing of fiction and to horticulture. He died on the
19th of July 1888. During the Civil War he wrote weekly
45
letters to the New York Evangelist, and subsequently lectured
on the war and wrote for periodicals. Among his novels were
Barriers Burned Away (1872), which first appeared as a serial in
the Evangelist and made him widely known; What Can she
Do? (1873), Opening of a Chestnut Burr (1874), From Jest to
Earnest (1875), Near to Nature's Heart (1876), A Knight of the
Nineteenth Century (1877), A Face Illumined (1878), A Day of
Fate (1880), Without a Home(iSSi), Nature's Serial Story (1884),
A Young Girl's Wooing (1884), An Original Belle (1885), He Fell
in Love with his Wife (1886), The Earth Trembled (1887) and
Miss Lou (left unfinished, 1888). He wrote also Play and
Profit in My Garden (1873), Success with Small Fruits (1881)
and The Home Acre (1887). His novels were very popular in
their day, especially with middle-class readers in England and
America, and were translated into several European languages.
Their strong moral and religious purpose, and their being
written by a clergyman, did much to break down a Puritan
prejudice in America against works of fiction.
See E. P. Roe-: Reminiscences of his Life (New York, 1899), by
his sister, Mary A. Roe.
ROE (or Row), SIR THOMAS (c. 1581-1644), English diplo-
matist, son of Robert Rowe, and of Elinor, daughter of Robert
Jermy of Worstead in Norfolk, was born at Low Leyton near
Wanstead in Essex, and at the age of twelve (1593) matriculated
at Magdalen College, Oxford. Shortly afterwards he joined
one of the inns of court, and was made esquire of the body to
Queen Elizabeth. He was knighted by James I. in 1605, and
became intimate with Henry, prince of Wales, and also with
his sister Elizabeth, afterwards queen of Bohemia, with whom
he maintained a correspondence and whose cause he cham-
pioned. In 1610 he was sent by Prince Henry on a mission
to the West Indies, during which he visited Guiana and the
river Amazon, but failed then, and in two subsequent expedi-
tions, to discover the gold which was the object of his travels.
In 1614 he was elected M.P. for Tamworth, and in 1621 for
Cirencester. His permanent reputation was mainly secured
by the success which attended his embassy in 1615-18 to the
court at Agra of the Great Mogul, Jahangir, the principal
object of the mission being to obtain protection for an English
factory at Surat. Appointed ambassador to the Porte in
1621, which he even then describes as being " irrevocably
sick," he distinguished himself by further successes. He
obtained an extension of the privileges of the English merchants,
concluded a treaty with Algiers in 1624, by which he secured
the liberation of several hundred English captives, and gained
the support, by an English subsidy, of the Transylvanian
Prince Bethlen Gabor for the European Protestant alliance
and the cause of the Palatinate. Through his friendship with
the patriarch of the Greek Church, Cyril Lucaris, the famous
Codex Alexandrinus was presented to James I., and Roe himself
collected several valuable MSS. which he subsequently pre-
sented to the Bodleian library. In 1629 he was again suc-
cessful in another mission undertaken to arrange a peace between
Sweden and Poland. Subsequently Roe negotiated treaties
with Danzig and Denmark, returning home in 1630, when a
gold medal was struck in his honour. In January 1637 he
was appointed chancellor of the Order of the Garter, with a
pension of 1200 a year. Subsequently he took part in the
peace conferences at Hamburg, Regensburg and Vienna, and
used his influence to obtain the restoration of the Palatinate,
the emperor declaring that he had " scarce ever met with an
ambassador till now." In June 1640 he was made a privy
councillor, and in October was returned to parliament as
member for the university of Oxford, where his unrivalled
knowledge of foreign affairs, commerce and finance, together
with his learning and eloquence, gained for him in another
sphere considerable reputation. He died on the 6th of Novem-
ber 1644. He had married Eleanor, daughter of Sir Thomas
Carr of Stamford, Northamptonshire. Roe was a distinguished
and most successful diplomatist, an accomplished scholar
and a patron of learning, while his personal character was
unblemished.
ROE, SIR T. ROEBUCK, J.
His Journal of the mission to the Mogul, several times printed,
has been re-edited, with an introduction by W. Foster, for the
Hakluyt Society (1899). This is a valuable contribution to the
history of India in the early iyth century. Of his correspondence,
Negotiations in his Embassy to the Ottoman Porte, 1621-28, vol. i.
was published in 1740, but the work was not continued. Other
correspondence, consisting of letters relating to his mission to
Gustavus Adolphus, was edited by S. R. Gardiner for the Camden
Society Miscellany (1875), vol. vii., and his correspondence with
Lord Carew in 1615 and 1617 by Sir F. Maclean for the same society
in 1860. Several of his MSS. are in the British Museum collections.
Roe published a True and Faithful Relation . . . concerning the
Death of Sultan Osman . . . , 1622; a translation from Sarpi,
Discourse upon the Resolution taken in the Valteline (1628) ; and in
1613 Dr T. Wright published Quatuor Colloquia, consisting of
theological disputations between himself and Roe; a poem by
Roe is printed in Notes and Queries, iv. Ser. v. 9. The Swedish
Intelligencer (1632-33), including an account of the career of Gustavus
Adolphus and of the Diet of Ratisbon (Regensburg), is attributed to
Roe in the catalogue of the British Museum. Several of his speeches,
chiefly on currency and financial questions, were also published.
Two other works in MS. are mentioned by Wood: Compendious
Relation of the Proceedings . . . of the Imperial Diet at Ratisbon
and Journal of Several Proceedings of the Order of the Garter.
ROEBLING, JOHN AUGUSTUS (1806-1869), American civil
engineer, was born at Miihlhausen, Prussia, on the 6th of June
1806. Soon after his graduation from the polytechnic school
at Berlin he removed to the United States, and in 1831 entered
on the practice of his profession in western Pennsylvania. He
established at Pittsburg a manufactory of wire-rope, and in
May 1845 completed his first important structure, a suspended
aqueduct across the Allegheny river. This was followed by
the Monongahela suspension bridge at Pittsburg and several
suspended aqueducts on the Delaware & Hudson Canal.
Removing his wire manufactory to Trenton, New Jersey, he
began, in 1851, the erection at Niagara Falls of a long span
wire suspension bridge with double roadway, for railway and
carriage use (see BRIDGE), which was completed in 1855. Owing
to the novelty of its design, the most eminent engineers regarded
this bridge as foredoomed to failure; but, with its complete
success, demonstrated by long use, the number of suspension
bridges rapidly multiplied, the use of wire-ropes instead of
chain-cables becoming all but universal. The completion, in
1867, of the still more remarkable suspension bridge over the
Ohio river at Cincinnati, with a clear span of 1057 ft., added
to Roebling's reputation, and his design for the great bridge
spanning the East river between New York and Brooklyn was
accepted. While personally engaged in laying out the towers
for the bridge, Roebling received an accidental injury, which
resulted in his death, at Brooklyn, from tetanus, on the 22nd
of July 1869. The bridge was completed under the direction
of his son, Washington Augustus Roebling (b. 1837), who
introduced several modifications in the original plans.
ROEBOURNE, a settlement of De Witt county, Western
Australia, 8 m. from the N.W. coast, on the Harding river,
920 m. direct N. of Perth. It is the centre of one of the richest
and most varied mineral districts in the colony; gold, silver,
tin, lead, copper, diamonds and other precious stones are
found. There are extensive pearl fisheries off its port at
Cossack Bay.
ROEBUCK, JOHN (1718-1794), English inventor, was born
in 1718 at Sheffield, where his father had a prosperous manu-
facturing business. After attending the grammar school at
Sheffield and Dr Philip Doddridge's academy at Northampton,
he studied medicine at Edinburgh, where he was imbued with
a taste for chemistry by the lectures of William Cullen and
Joseph Black, and he finally graduated M.D. at Leiden in 1742.
He started practice at Birmingham, but devoted much of his
time to chemistry, especially in its practical applications.
Among the most x important of his early achievements in this
field was the introduction, in 1746, of leaden condensing
chambers for use in the manufacture of sulphuric acid. To-
gether with Samuel Garbett he erected a factory at Prestonpans,
near Edinburgh, for the production of the acid in 1749, and for
some years enjoyed a monopoly; but ultimately his methods
became known, and, having omitted to take out patents for
ROEBUCK, J. A. ROEDERER
them at the proper time, he was unable to restrain others from
making use of them. Engaging next in the manufacture of
iron, he in 1760 established the ironworks which still exist at
Carron, in Stirlingshire. There he introduced various improve-
ments in the methods of production, including the conversion
(patented in 1762) of cast iron into malleable iron " by the action
of a hollow pit-coal fire " urged by a powerful artificial blast.
His next enterprise was less successful. He leased a colliery
at Bo'ness to supply coal to the Carron works, but in sinking
for new seams encountered such quantities of water that the
Newcomen engine which he used was unable to keep the pit
clear. In this difficulty he heard of James Watt's engine and
catered into communication with its inventor. This engine,
then at an early stage of its development, also proved in-
adequate, but Roebuck became a strong believer in its future
and in return for a two-thirds share in the invention assisted
Watt in perfecting its details. His troubles at the colliery,
however, aggravated by the failure of an attempt to manu-
facture alkali, brought him into pecuniary straits, and he
parted with his share in Watt's engine to Matthew Boulton
in return for the cancellation of a debt of 1200 which he owed
the latter. Subsequently, though he had to give up his interest
in the Bo'ness works, he continued to manage them and to
reside at the neighbouring Kinneil House, where he occupied
himself with farming on a considerable scale. He died on the
1 7th of July 1794.
ROEBUCK, JOHN ARTHUR (1801-1879), British politician,
was born at Madras on the 28th of December 1801. After the
death of his father, a civil servant, his mother's second marriage
transferred him to Canada, where he was chiefly brought up.
He came to England in 1824, was called to the bar (Q.C. 1843),
became intimate with the leading radical and utilitarian re-
formers, was elected M.P. for Bath in 1832, and took up that
general attitude of hostility to the government of the day, be
it what it might, which he retained throughout his life. At
all times conspicuous for his eloquence, honesty and recal-
citrancy, he twice came with especial prominence before the
public in 1838, when, although at the time without a seat in
parliament, he appeared at the bar of the Commons to protest,
in the name of the Canadian Assembly, against the suspension
of the Canadian constitution; and in 1855, when, having over-
thrown Lord Aberdeen's ministry by carrying a resolution for
the appointment of a committee of inquiry into the mismanage-
ment in the Crimean War, he presided over its proceedings.
In his latter years his political opinions became greatly modified,
but with one interruption he retained his seat for Sheffield,
which he had won in 1849, until his death in London on the
3oth of November 1879.
ROE-BUCK, the smallest of the British deer (a full-grown
buck standing not more than 27 in. high at the shoulder),
the typical representative of a genus (Capreolus) in which the
antlers lack a brow-tine and belong to what is characterized
as the forked type, while the tail is rudimentary (see DEER).
The antlers are short, upright and deeply furrowed, the beam
forking at about two-thirds of its length, and the upper prong
again dividing, thus making.three points. The coat in summer
is foxy red above and white below; in winter this changes
to a greyish fawn, with a white rump-patch. The roe-buck
or roe-deer (Capreolus caprea, or C. capreolus) inhabits southern
and temperate Europe as far east as the Caucasus, where, as
in Syria, it is probably represented by another race or species.
It frequents woods, preferring such as have a large growth of
underwood and are in the neighbourhood of cultivated ground.
The latter it visits in the evening in search of food; and where
roe are numerous the damage done to growing crops is consider-
able. Pairing takes place in August, but the fawns are not
born till the following May. According to one theory, the germ
lies dormant until December, when it begins to develop; but
it is now believed that this bng gestation is due to slow rather
than arrested development. Roe were formerly abundant in
all the wooded parts of Great Britain, but were gradually exter-
minated, till a century and a half ago they were unknown
south of Perthshire. Since then the increase of plantations
has led to the partial restoration of the species in the south
of Scotland and the north of England; and it was reintroduced
into Dorset early in the ipth century. These deer take readily
to the water, and they have been known to swim across lochs
more than half a mile in breadth. The Siberian roe (C. pygar-
gus), which is common in the Altai, is larger and paler than
the type species, with shorter and more hairy ears, a larger
white rump-patch, and small irregular snags on the inner border
of the antlers. The Manchurian roe (Capreolus manchuricus)
is about the size of the European species, with antlers of the
type of those of the Siberian roe, but more slender, and the
coat shorter. Although described in 1889 as a local variety
of the Siberian species, the Manchurian roe really appears,
both as regards stature, hairiness and the black and white
markings on the muzzle, much more nearly related to the
European animal. This is the more remarkable seeing that
the habitats of the two are separated by such an enormous
tract of country. (R. L.*)
ROEDERER, PIERRE LOUIS, COMTE (1754-1835), French
politician and economist, was born at Metz on the isth of
February 1754, the son of a magistrate. At the age of twenty-
five he became councillor at the parlement of Metz, and was
commissioned in 1787 to draw up a list of remonstrances.
His work advocating the suppression of internal customs
houses (Suppression des douanes inttrieures) , published the
same year, is an elaborate treatise on the la.ws of commerce
and on the theory of customs imposts. In 1788 he published
Deputation aux ,tats g&neraux, a pamphlet remarkable for
its bold exposition of liberal principles, and partly on the
strength of this he was elected deputy to the states-general
by the Third Estate of the bailliage of Metz. In the Con-
stituent Assembly he was a member of the committee of taxes
(comite des contributions), prepared a scheme for a new system
of taxation, drew up a law on patents, occupied himself with
the laws relating to stamps and assignats, and was successful
in opposing the introduction of an income tax. After the
close of the Constituent Assembly he was elected, on the
nth of November 1791, procureur general syndic of the depart-
ment of Paris. The directory of the department, of which
the due de la Rochefoucauld was president, was at this
time in pronounced opposition to the advanced views that
dominated the Legislative Assembly and the Jacobin Club,
and Roederer was not altogether in touch with his colleagues.
Thus he took no share in signing their protest against the
law against the non-juring clergy, as a violation of religious
liberty. But the directory did not long survive. With the
growing anarchy of the capital many of its members resigned
and fled, and their places could not be filled up. Roederer
himself has left in his Chronique des cinquante jours (1832) an
account of the pitiable part played by" the directory of the
department in the critical period between the 2oth of June
and the loth of August 1792. Seeing the perilous drift of
things, he had tried to get into touch with the king; and it
was on his advice that Louis, on the fatal loth, took refuge
in the Assembly. His conduct arousing suspicion, he went
into hiding, and did not emerge again until after the fall of
Robespierre. In 1796 he was made a member of the Institute,
was appointed to a professorship of political economy, and
founded the Journal d'tconomie publique, de morale et de
legislation. Having escaped deportation at the time of the
coup d'etat of 18 Fructidor, he took part in the revolution
of 18 Brumaire, and was appointed by Napoleon member of
the council of state and senator. Under the Empire, Roederer,
whose public influence was very considerable, was Joseph
Bonaparte's minister of finance at Naples (1806), administrator
of the grand duchy of Berg (1810), and imperial commissary
in the south of France. During the Hundred Days he was
created a peer of France. The Restoration government
stripped him of his offices and dignities, but he recovered
the title of peer of France in 1832. He died on the i~th
of December 1835. His son, Baron Antoine Marie Roederer
452
ROEMER, F. A. ROGATION DAYS
(1782-1865), was also a politician of some note in his
day.
Among P. L. Roederer's writings may be mentioned Louis XII.
(1820); Francois I. (1825); Comedies historiques (1827-30);
L' Esprit de la revolution de 1789 (1831); La Premiere et la deuxieme
annee du consulat de Bonaparte (1802); Chronique des cinquante
jours, an account of the events of the loth of August 1792; and
Memoire pour servir a Vhistoire de la societe polie en France (1835).
See his (Euyres, edited by his son (Paris, 1853 seq.); Sainte-
Beuve, Causeries du lundi, vol. viii. ; M. Mignet, Notices historiques
(Paris, 1853).
ROEMER, FRIEDRICH ADOLPH (1800-1869), German
geologist, was born at Hildesheim, in Prussia, on the I4th of
April 1809. His father was a lawyer and councillor of the
high court of justice. In 1845 he became professor of
mineralogy and geology at Clausthal, and in 186,2 director
of the School of Mines. He first described the Cretaceous and
Jurassic strata of Germany in elaborate works entitled Die
Versteinerungen des N orddeutschen Oolithen-gebirges (1836-39),
Die Versteinerungen des N orddeutschen Kreidegebirges (1840-
1841) and Die Versteinerungen des Harzgebirges (1843). He
died at Clausthal on the 25th of November 1869.
His brother, CARL FERDINAND VON ROEMER (1818-1891),
who had been educated for the legal profession at Gottingen,
also became interested in geology, and abandoning law in
1840, studied science at the university of Berlin, where he
graduated Ph.D. in 1842. Two years later he published his
first work, Das Rheinische Ubergangsgebirge (1844), in which
he dealt with the older rocks and fossils. In 1845 he paid a
visit to America, and devoted a year and a half to a careful
study of the geology of Texas and other Southern states.
He published at Bonn in 1849 a general work entitled Texas,
while the results of his investigations of the Cretaceous rocks
and fossils were published three years later in a treatise, Die
Kreidebildungen von Texas und ihre organischen Einschliisse
(1852), which included also a general account of the geology,
and gained for him the title " Father of the geology of Texas."
Subsequently he published at Breslau Die Silurische Fauna des
westlichen Tennessee (1860). During the preparation of these
works he was from 1847 to 1855 " privat-docent " at Bonn,
and was then appointed professor of geology, palaeontology
and mineralogy in the university of Breslau, a post which he
held with signal success as a teacher until his death. As a
palaeontologist he made important contributions to our
knowledge especially of the invertebrata of the Devonian
and older rocks. He assisted H. G. Bronn with the third
edition of the Lelhaea geognoslica (1851-56), and subse-
quently he laboured on an enlarged and revised edition, of
which he published one section, Lethaea palaeozoica (1876-
1883). In 1862 he was called on to superintend the prepara-
tion of a geological map of Upper Silesia, and the results of
his researches were embodied in his Geologie von Oberschlesien
(3 vols., 1870). As a mineralogist he was likewise well known,
more particularly by his practical teachings and by the collec-
tion he formed in the Museum at Breslau. He died at Breslau
on the 1 4th of December 1891.
ROEMER, OLE (Latinized OLAUS) (1644-1710), Danish astrono-
mer, was born at Aarhuus in Jutland on the 25th of September
1644. He became in 1662 the pupil and amanuensis of Erasmus
Bartholinus at Copenhagen, and assisted J. Picard in 1671 to
determine the geographical position of Tycho Brahe's observa-
tory (Uraniborg on the island of Hveen). In 1672 he accom-
panied Picard to Paris, where he remained nine years, occupied
with observations at the new royal observatory and hydraulic
works at Versailles and Marly. On the 22nd of November
1675 he read a paper before the Academy on the successive
propagation of light as revealed by a certain inequality in the
motion of the first of Jupiter's satellites. A scientific mission
to England in 1679 made him acquainted with Newton, Halley
and Flamsteed. In i68i,on the summons of Christian V.,
king of Denmark, he returned to Copenhagen as royal mathe-
matician and professor of astronomy in the university ; and
from 1688 he discharged, besides, many important admini-
strative functions, including those of mayor (1705), chief of
police and privy councillor. He died at Copenhagen on the
23rd of September 1710.
Roemer will always be remembered as the discoverer of the
finite velocity of light. He showed besides wonderful in-
genuity in the improvement of astronomical apparatus. The
first transit instrument worthy the name was in 1690 erected
in his house. In the same year he set up in the university
observatory an instrument with altitude and azimuth circles
(for observing equal altitudes on both sides of the meridian)
and an equatorial telescope. In 1704 he built, at his own cost,
the so-called " Tusculan " observatory at Vridlosemagle, a
few miles west of Copenhagen, and equipped it with a meridian
circle (the transit instrument and vertical circle combined) and
a transit moving in the prime vertical. Roemer thus effectively
realized nearly all our modern instruments of precision, and
accumulated with them a large mass of observations, all of
which unfortunately perished in the great conflagration of the
2ist of October 1728, except the three nights' work discussed
by J. G. Galle (0. Roemeri triduum observationum astronomi-
carum a. 1706 institutarum, Berlin, 1845).
See E. Philipsen, Nordisk Universitets Tidskrift,v. n (1860);
P. Horrebow, Basis Astronomiae (Copenhagen, 1735); J. B. J.
Delambre, Hist, de I'astr. moderne, ii. 632; J. F. Montucla, Hist,
des mathematiques, ii. 487, 579; R. Grant, Hist, of Phys. Astronomy,
p. 461; R. Wolf, Gesch. der Astronomic, pp. 452, 489, 576; J. F.
Weidler, Historia Astronomiae, p. 538; W. Doberck, Nature, xvii.
105; C. Huygens, CEuvres completes, t. viii. pp. 30-58; L. Ambronn,
Handbuch der astr. Instrumentenkunde, ii. 552, 966 ;T. J. J. See,
Pop. Astronomy, No. 105, May 1903.
ROERMOND, a town in the province of Lirnburg, Holland,
on the right bank of the Maas at the confluence of the Roer,
and a junction station 28 m. by rail N.N.E. of Maastricht.
Pop. (1900) 12,348. The old fortifications have been dis-
mantled and partly converted into fine promenades. At this
point the Maas is crossed by a bridge erected in 1866-67, and
the Roer by one dating from 1771, replacing an older structure,
and connecting Roermond with the suburb of St Jacob.
Roermond is the seat of a Roman Catholic episcopal see. The
finest building in the town is the Romanesque minster church
of the first quarter of the i3th century. In the middle of the
nave is the tomb of Gerhard III., count of Gelderland, and his
wife Margaret of Brabant. It was formerly the church of a
Cistercian nunnery, and in modern times has been elaborately
restored. The cathedral of St Christopher is also of note; on
the top of the tower (246 ft.) is a copper statue of the saint, and
the interior is adorned with paintings by Rubens, Jacob de
Wit (1695-1754) and others. The Reformed church was once
the chapel of the monastery of the Minorites. There is also
a Redemptorist chapel. The old bishop's palace is now the
courthouse, and the old Jesuits' monastery with its fine gardens
a higher-burgher school. Woollen, cotton, silk and mixed
stuffs, paper, flour and beer are manufactured at Roermond.
Close to Roermond on the west is the village of Horn, once
the seat of a lordship of the same name, which is first mentioned
in a document of 1166. The lordship of Horn was a fief of
the counts of Loon, and after 1361- of the bishop of Liege; but
in 1450 it was raised to a countship by the Emperor Frederick II.
On the extinction of the house of Horn in 1540, the countship
passed to the famous Philip of Montmorency, who, with the
count of Egmont, was executed in Brussels in 1568 by order of
the duke of Alva. In the beginning of the next century the
countship was forcibly retained by the see of Li6ge, and was
incorporated in the French department of the Lower Maas at
the end of the i8th century. The ancient castle is in an ex-
cellent state of preservation and is sometimes used for the
assembly of the states.
ROGATION DAYS (Lat. rogatio, from rogare, to beseech; the
equivalent of Gr. \iTavfia, litany), hi the Calendar of the
Christian Church, the Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday before
Ascension Day, so called because long associated with the
chanting of litanies in procession (rogationes). The week in
which they occur is sometimes called Rogation Week. In 511
ROGER I. ROGER II.
453
the first Council of Orleans ordered that the three days pre-
ceding Ascension Day should be celebrated as rogation days
with fasting and rogationes. All work was to be suspended
that all might join in the processions. Leo III. (pope 795-816)
introduced rogation days, but without the fasting, at Rome.
St Augustine had earlier introduced the custom into the English
Church, learning it on his way through Gaul. The Council of
Clovesho in 747 confirmed Augustine's injunction, and ordered
that the rogation days be kept up " according to the way of our
fathers." The place-name " Gospel Oak," which occurs in
London and elsewhere, is a relic of these rogation processions,
the gospel of the day being read at the foot of the finest oak
the parish boasted. After the Reformation the processions
gradually ceased to be ecclesiastical in England, and are now
practically secularized into the perambulation of the parish
boundaries on or about Ascension Day.
See also PROCESSION and LITANY.
ROGER I. (1031-1101), ruler of Sicily, was the youngest son
of Tancred of Hauteville. He arrived in Southern Italy soon
after 1057. Malaterra, who compares Robert Guiscard (see
GTJISCARD, ROBERT) and his brother to " Joseph and Benjamin
of old," says of Roger: " He was a youth of the greatest beauty,
of lofty stature, of graceful shape, most eloquent in speech and
cool in counsel. He was far-seeing in arranging all his actions,
pleasant and merry all with men; strong and brave, and furious
in battle." He shared with Robert Guiscard the conquest of
Calabria, and in a treaty of 1062 the brothers in dividing the
conquest apparently made a kind of " condominium " by
which either was to have half of every castle and town in
Calabria. 1 Robert now resolved to employ Roger's genius in
reducing Sicily, which contained, besides the Moslems, numerous
Greek Christians subject to Arab princes who had become all
but independent of the sultan of Tunis. In May 1061 the
brothers crossed from Reggio and captured Messina. After
Palermo had been taken in January 1072 Robert Guiscard, as
suzerain, invested Roger as count of Sicily, but retained Palermo,
half of Messina and the north-east portion (the Val Demone).
Not till 1085, however, was Roger able to undertake a syste-
matic crusade. In March 1086 Syracuse surrendered, and
when in February iogi Noto yielded the conquest was complete.
Much of Robert's success had been due to Roger's support.
Similarly the latter supported Duke Roger, his nephew, against
Bohemund, Capua and his rebels, and the real leadership
of the Hautevilles passed to the Sicilian count. In return
for his aid against Bohemund and his rebels the duke sur-
rendered to his uncle in 1085 his share in the castles of Calabria,
and in 1091 the half of Palermo. Roger's rule in Sicily was
more real than Robert Guiscard's in Italy. At the enfeoff-
ments of 1072 and 1092 no great undivided fiefs were created,
and the mixed Norman, French and Italian vassals owed
their benefices to the count. No feudal revolt of importance
therefore troubled Roger. Politically supreme, the count
became master of the insular Church. While he gave full
toleration to the Greek Churches, he created new Latin bishop-
rics at Syracuse and Girgenti and elsewhere, nominating the
bishops personally, while he turned the archbishopric of Palermo
into a Catholic see. The Papacy, favouring a prince who had
recovered Sicily from Greeks and Moslems, granted to him
and his heirs in 1098 the Apostolic Legateship in the island.
Roger practised general toleration to Arabs and Greeks, allowing
to each race the expansion of its own civilization. In the
cities the Moslems, who had generally secured such terms of
surrender, retained their mosques, their kadis, and freedom
of trade; in the country, however, they became serfs. He
drew from the Moslems the mass of his infantry, and St Anselm
visiting him at the siege of Capua, 1098, found " the brown
tents of the Arabs innumerable." Nevertheless the Latin
element began to prevail with the Lombards and other Italians
who flocked into the island in the wake of the conquest, and
the conquest of Sicily was decisive in the steady decline from
this time of Mahommedan power in the western Mediterranean.
1 See Chalandon, La Domination normande, vol. i. p. 200.
Roger, the " Great Count of Sicily," died on the 22nd of June
not in his seventieth year and was buried in S. Trinita of
Mileto. His third wife, Adelaide, niece of Boniface, lord of
Savona, gave him two sons, Simon and Roger, of whom the
latter succeeded him.
See E. Caspar, Rarer II. und die Grundung der normannisch-
sicilischen Monarchic (Innsbruck, 1904). (E. Cu.)
ROGER II. (1093-1154), king of Sicily, son of the preceding,
began personally to rule in 1112, and from the first aimed
at uniting the whole of the Norman conquests in Italy. In
June 1127, William, duke of Apulia, grandson of Robert Guis-
card, died childless, having apparently made some vague
promise of the succession to Roger. In any case Roger claimed
at once, not only all the Hauteville possessions, but also the
overlordship of Capua, for which Richard II. in 1098 had sworn
homage to Duke Roger. The union of Sicily and Apulia,
however, was resisted by Honorius II. and by the subjects of
the duchy itself, averse from any strong ducal power, and the
pope at Capua (Dec. 1127) preached a crusade against the
claimant, setting against him Robert II. of Capua and Ranulf
of Alife, or Avellino, brother-in-law of Roger, who proved
himself the real leader of the revolt. The coalition, however,
failed, and in August 1128 Honorius invested Roger at Bene-
vento as duke of Apulia. The baronial resistance, which was
backed by Naples, Bari, Salerno and other cities, whose aim
was civic freedom, also gave way, and at Melfi (Sept. 1129)
Roger was generally recognized as duke by Naples, Capua and
the rest. He began at once to enforce order in the Hauteville
possessions, where the ducal power had long been falling to
pieces. For the binding together of all his states the royal
name seemed essential, and the death of Honorius in February
1130, followed by a double election, seemed the decisive moment.
While Innocent II. fled to France, Roger, with deep design, sup-
ported Anacletus II. The price was a crown, and on the 27th
of September 1130 a bull of Anacletus made Roger king of
Sicily. He was crowned in Palermo on the 25th of December
1130.
This plunged Roger into a ten years' war. Bernard of
Clairvaux, Innocent's champion, built up against Anacletus
and his " half heathen king " a coalition joined by Louis VI.
of France, Henry I. of England and the emperor Lothar. Mean-
while the forces of revolt in South Italy drew to a head again.
The rebels under Ranulf shamefully defeated the king at Nocera
on the 24th of July 1132. Nevertheless, by July 1134 his
terrific energy and the savagery of his Saracen troops forced
Ranulf, Sergius, duke of Naples, and the rebels to submit,
while Robert was expelled from Capua. Meanwhile Lothar's
contemplated attack upon Roger had gained the backing of
Pisa, Genoa and the Greek emperor, all of whom feared the
growth of a powerful Norman kingdom. In February 1137
Lothar began to move south and was joined by Ranulf and
the rebels; in June he besieged and took Bari. At San Severino,
after a victorious campaign, he and the pope jointly invested
Ranulf as duke of Apulia (Aug. 1137), and the emperor then
retired to Germany. Roger, freed from the utmost danger,
recovered ground, sacked Capua and forced Sergius to acknow-
ledge him as overlord of Naples. At Rignano the indomitable
Ranulf again utterly defeated the king, but in April 1139
Ranulf died, leaving none to oppose Roger, who subdued piti-
lessly the last of the rebels.
The death of Anacletus (25 Jan. 1138) determined Roger
to seek the confirmation of his title from Innocent. The
latter, invading the kingdom with a large army, was skilfully
ambushed at Galuccio on the Garigliano (22 July 1139). This
secured the king's object; on the 25th July the pope invested
him as " Rex Siciliae ducatus Apuliae et principatus Capuae."
The boundaries of the " regno" were finally fixed, by a truce
with the pope in October 1144, at a line south of the Tronto
and east of Terracina and Ceprano.
Roger, now become one of the greatest kings in Europe,
made Sicily the leading maritime power in the Mediterranean.
A powerful fleet was built up under several " admirals," or
454
ROGER ROGER OF HOVEDEN
" emirs," of whom the greatest was George of Antioch, formerly
in the service of the Moslem prince of El Mehdia. Mainly by
him a series of conquests were made on the African coast
(1135-53) which reached from Tripoli to Cape Bona. The
second crusade (1147-48) gave Roger an opportunity to
revive Robert Guiscard's designs on the Greek Empire. George
was sent to Corinth at the end of 1147 and despatched an
army inland which plundered Thebes. In June 1149 the
admiral appeared before Constantinople and defied the Basileus
by firing arrows against the palace windows. The attack on
the empire had, however, no abiding results. The king died
at Palermo on the 26th of February 1154, and was succeeded
by his fourth son William.
Personally Roger was of tall and powerful body, with long
fair hair and full beard. " He had," says Romnald of Salerno,
" a lion face, and spoke with a harsh voice." With little or
none of Robert Guiscard's personal valour, and living at inter-
vals the life of an eastern Sultan, he yet showed to the full
his uncle's audacity, diplomatic skill and determination. It
is Roger II. 's distinction to have united all the Norman con-
quests into one kingdom and to have subjected them to a
government scientific, personal and centralized. The principles
of this are found in the Assizes of the kingdom of Sicily, pro-
mulgated at Ariano in 1140, which enforced an almost absolute
royal power. At Palermo Roger drew round him distinguished
men of various races, such as the famous Arab geographer
Idrisi and the historian Nilus Doxopatrius. The king's active
and curious mind welcomed the learned; he maintained a
complete toleration for the several creeds, races and languages
of his realm ; he was served by men of nationality so dissimilar
as the Englishman Thomas Brun, a kaid of the Curia, and, in
the fleet, by the renegade Moslem Christodoulos, and the
Antiochene George, whom he made in 1132 "amiratus amira-
torum," in effect prime vizier. The Capella Palatina, at
Palermo, the most wonderful of Roger's churches, with Norman
doors, Saracenic arches, Byzantine dome, and roof adorned
with Arabic scripts, is perhaps the most striking product of
the brilliant and mixed civilization over which the grandson
of the Norman Trancred ruled.
Contemporary authors are: Falco of Benevento, Alexander of
Telese, Romuald of Salerno and Hugo Falcandus, all in the Scrittori
e cronisli napoletani, ed. Del Re, vol. i. See also E. Caspar, Roger II.
und die Grundung der normannisch-sicilischen Monarchic (Innsbruck,
1904). (E. Cu.)
ROGER (d. 1139), bishop of Salisbury, was originally priest
of a small chapel near Caen. The future King Henry I., who
happened to hear mass there one day, was impressed by the
speed with which Roger read the service, and enrolled him in
his own service. Roger, though uneducated, showed great
talent for business, and Henry, on coming to the throne, almost
immediately made him chancellor (1101). Soon after Roger
received the bishopric of Salisbury. In the Investitures con-
troversy he skilfully managed to keep the favour of both the
king and Anselm. Roger devoted himself to administrative
business, and remodelled it completely. He created the
exchequer system, which was managed by him and his family
for more than a century, and he used his position to heap up
power and riches. He became the first man in England after
the king, and was in office, if not in title, justiciar. He ruled
England while Henry was in Normandy, and succeeded in
obtaining the see of Canterbury for his nominee, William of
Corbeil. Duke Robert seems to have been put into his custody
after Tinchebrai. Though Roger had sworn allegiance to
Matilda, he disliked the Angevin connexion, and went over to
Stephen, carrying with him the royal treasure and adminis-
trative system (1135). Stephen placed great reliance on him,
on his nephews, the bishops of Ely and Lincoln, and on his son
Roger, who was treasurer. The king declared that if Roger
demanded half of the kingdom he should have it, but chafed
against the overwhelming influence of the official clique whom
Roger represented. Roger himself had built at Devizes the
most splendid castle in Christendom. He and his nephews
seem to have secured a number of castles outside their own
dioceses, and the old bishop behaved as if he were an equal
of the king. At a council held in June 1139, Stephen found
a pretext for demanding a surrender of their castles, and
on their refusal they were arrested. After a short struggle
all Roger's great castles were sequestrated. But Henry of
Winchester demanded the restoration of the bishop. The
king was considered to have committed an almost unpardon-
able crime in offering violence to members of the church, in
defiance of the scriptural command, " Touch not mine anointed."
Stephen took up a defiant attitude, and the question remained
unsettled. This quarrel with the church, which immediately
preceded the landing of the empress, had a serious effect on
Stephen's fortunes. The moment that the fortune of war
declared against him, the clergy acknowledged Matilda. Bishop
Roger, however, did not live to see himself avenged. He died
at Salisbury in December 1139. He was a great bureaucrat,
and a builder whose taste was in advance of his age. But his
contemporaries were probably justified in regarding him as the
type of the bishop immersed in worldly affairs, ambitious,
avaricious, unfettered by any high standard of personal
morality.
Roger's nephew Alexander (d. 1148), who became bishop of
Lincoln in 1123, was a typical secular ecclesiastic of the middle
ages, wealthy, proud, ambitious and ostentatious. He founded
monasteries, built castles at Newark, Sleaford and Banbury,
and restored his cathedral at Lincoln after the fire of 1145.
He followed the policy of Roger, whose imprisonment he
shared, and died after a visit to Pope Eugenius III. at Auxerre,
early in 1 148.
See Sir J. Ramsay's Foundations of England, vol. ii., and J. H.
Round's Geoffrey de Mandeville.
ROGER (d. 1181), archbishop of York, known as Roger of
Pont 1'Eveque, was a member of the household of Theobald,
archbishop of Canterbury, where he quarrelled violently with
another future archbishop, Thomas Becket. In 1148 he was
appointed archdeacon of Canterbury, and soon afterwards
chaplain to King Stephen, who sent him on an errand to Rome
in 1152; then in October 1154 he was consecrated archbishop
of York in Westminster Abbey. When Henry II. entered
upon his great struggle with Becket over the immunity of clerks
from secular jurisdiction, he managed to secure the support of
Roger, and having been appointed papal legate in England,
the archbishop visited Pope Alexander III. and the French king,
Louis VII., in his master's interests. In June 1 1 70 he crowned
the king's son Henry, in spite of prohibitions from the pope
and from Becket, and for this act he was suspended. One
authority declares that Roger, who was then with Henry II.
in Normandy, instigated the murder of the rival archbishop,
but he swore he was innocent of this crime. He quarrelled
with Richard, the new archbishop of Canterbury, about the
respective rights of the two archiepiscopal sees, until 1176,
when the king arranged a truce between them; and he was
constantly endeavouring to assert his supremacy over the
Scottish church. The archbishop died at York on the 2ist
of November 1181. He was always loyal to Henry II., to
whom he was very useful during the great rising of 1174; but
he has been accused of avarice, and he was certainly not lacking
in ambition.
Another English prelate of this name was ROGER, bishop of
Worcester, a younger son of Robert, earl of Gloucester, and thus a
grandson of the English king Henry I. In 1163 his cousin Henry II.
appointed him bishop of Worcester, but almost alone of the English
bishops he supported Thomas Becket and not the king during the
quarrel between them in 1166. In 1167 he left England to share
Becket's exile, but he soon returned to court, although he appears
to have remained oh friendly terms with the archbishop. He died
at Tours in 1179.
ROGER OF HOVEDEN, or HOWDEN (fl. 1174-1201), English
chronicler, was, to judge from his name and the internal evi-
dence of his work, a native of Howden in the East Riding
of Yorkshire. But nothing is known of him before the year
1174. He was then in attendance upon Henry II., by whom
ROGER OF WENDOVER ROGERS, J. E. T.
he was sent from France on a secret mission to the lords of
Galloway. In 1175 he again appears as a negotiator between
the king and a number of English religious houses. The interest
which Hoveden shows in ecclesiastical affairs and miracles may
justify the supposition that he was a clerk in orders. This,
however, did not prevent him from acting, in 1189, as a justice
of the forests in the shires of Yorkshire, Cumberland and
Northumberland. After the death of Henry II., it would seem
that Hoveden retired from the public service, though not so
completely as to prevent him from drawing on the royal archives
for the history of contemporary events. About the year 1192
he began to compile his Chronica, a general history of England
from 732 to his own time. Up to the year 1192 his narrative
adds little to our knowledge. For the period 732-1148 he
chiefly drew upon an extant, but unpublished chronicle, the
Historia Saxonum sive Anglorum post obitum Bedae (British
Museum MS. Reg. 13 A. 6), which was composed about 1150.
From 1148 to 1170 he used the Melrose Chronicle (edited for the
Bannatyne Club in 1835 by Joseph Stevenson) and a collection
of letters bearing upon the Becket controversy. From 1170
to 1192 his authority is the chronicle ascribed to Benedictus
Abbas (?.f.), the author of which must have been in the royal
household at about the same time as Hoveden. Although this
period was one in which Hoveden had many opportunities of
making independent observations, he adds little to the text
which he uses; except that he inserts some additional docu-
ments. Either his predecessor had exhausted the royal archives,
or the supplementary searches of Hoveden were languidly
pursued. From 1192, however, Hoveden is an independent
and copious authority. Like " Benedictus," he is sedulously
impersonal, and makes no pretence to literary style, quotes
documents in full and adheres to the annalistic method. His
chronology is tolerably exact, but there are mistakes enough
to prove that he recorded events at a certain distance of time.
Both on foreign affairs and on questions of domestic policy he
is unusually well informed. His practical experience as an
administrator and his official connexions stood him in good
stead. He is particularly useful on points of constitutional
history. His work breaks off abruptly in 1201, though he
certainly intended to carry it further. Probably his death
should be placed in that year.
See W. Stubbs's edition of the Chronica (Rolls Series) and the
introductions to vols. i. and iv. This edition supersedes that of
Sir H. Savile in his Scriptores post Bedam (1596). (H. W. C. D.)
ROGER OF WENDOVER (d. 1236), English chronicler, was
probably a native of Wendover in Buckinghamshire. At some
uncertain date he became a monk of St Albans; afterwards
he was appointed prior of the cell of Belvoir, but he forfeited
this dignity in the early years of Henry III., having been
found guilty of wasting the endowments. His latter years
were passed at St Albans, where he died on the 6th of May
1236. He is the first of the important chroniclers who worked
in the scriptorium of this house. His great work, the Flares
Historiarum, begins at the creation and extends to 1235. It
is of original value from 1202. Some critics have supposed,
but on inconclusive evidence, that Wendover copied, up to
1189, an earlier compilation, the work of John de Cella, the
twenty-first abbot of St Albans (1195-1214). Wendover's
work is known to us through one 13th-century manuscript
in the Bodleian library (Douce MS. 207), a mutilated 14th-
century copy in the British Museum (Cotton MS. Otho B. v.),
and the edition prepared by Matthew Paris which forms the
first part of that writer's Chronica Majora (ed. H. R. Luard,
Rolls Series, 7 vols.). The best edition of Wendover is that
of H. O. Coxe (4 vols., London, 1841-42); there is another
(from 1154) in the Rolls Series by H. G. Hewlett (3 vols.,
1886-89). Wendover is a copious but inaccurate writer, less
prejudiced but also less graphic than Matthew Paris. Where he
is the sole authority for an event, he is to be used with caution.
See Luard's prefaces to vols. i., ii., iii. and vii. of the Chronica
Majora; and the Monumenta Germaniae Hislorica. Scriplores,
Band xxviii. pp. 3-20. (H. W. C. D.)
455
ROGERS, HENRY (1806-1877), English Nonconformist
divine, was bom at St Albans on the i8th of October 1806,
and was educated privately and by his father, a surgeon of
considerable culture. Rogers was meant to follow his father's
profession, but the reading of John Howe turned him to
theology, and after qualifying at Highbury College he accepted
a call to the Congregational Church at Poole in 1829. In 1832
he was appointed lecturer in logic at Highbury, in 1836
professor of English at University College, London, and in
1839 professor of English, mathematics and mental philosophy
at Spring Hill College, Birmingham. In 1836 appeared his
Life and Character of John Howe, and in 1837 The Christian
Correspondent, a collection of some 400 religious letters
" by eminent persons of both sexes." His contributions to
the Edinburgh Review began in 1839 and were collected in
volume form in 1850, 1855 and 1874. His most famous
book, The Eclipse of Faith, or a Visit to a Religious Sceptic,
was published anonymously in 1852 and went through six
editions in three years. It drew a Reply from F. W. Newman,
which Rogers answered in a Defence (1854). Two volumes
of imaginary letters, Selections from the Correspondence of
R. E. H. Grey son (an anagram for his own name), appeared in
1857 and show his style at its best. In 1858 he became
principal and professor of theology at the Lancashire Inde-
pendent College, where he edited the works of John Howe
(6 vols., 1862-63) and wrote for the British Quarterly. He
retired in 1871, and died at Machynlleth. on the 2ist of
August 1877. Rogers was widely read, and as a Christian
apologist carried on the traditions of the i8th century as
illustrated by Butler.
See Memoir by Dr R. W. Dale, prefixed to the 8th edition of The
Supernatural Origin of the Bible Inferred from Itself (the Congrega-
tional Lecture for 1873, delivered by Rogers).
ROGERS, HENRY DARWIN (1808-1866), American geologist,
was born at Philadelphia on the ist of August 1808. At the
age of twenty-one he was chosen professor of chemistry and
natural philosophy at Dickinson College, Pennsylvania. After
holding this post for three years, he went to Europe and took
up the study of geology. Subsequently he was engaged for
twenty-two years in the State surveys of Pennsylvania and
New Jersey, his Reports on which were published during
the years 1836-41. In 1842 he and his brother WILLIAM BARTON
ROGERS (1805-1882), who had been similarly occupied in
Virginia (his Reports were published in 1838-41, and he
wrote also on the connexion between thermal springs and
anticlinal axes and faults), brought before the Association of
American Geologists and Naturalists their conclusions on the
physical structure of the Appalachian chain, and on the eleva-
tion of great mountain chains. The researches of H. D.
Rogers were elaborated in his final Report on Pennsylvania
(1858), in which he included a general account of the geology
of the United States and of the coal-fields of North America
and Great Britain. In this important work he dealt also
with the structure of the great coal-fields, the method of
formation of the strata, and the changes in the character of
the coal from the bituminous type to anthracite. In 1857
he was appointed professor of natural history and geology
at Glasgow. One of his later essays (1861) was on the parallel
roads of Lochaber (Glen Roy), the origin of which he attributed
to a vast inundation. He died at Glasgow on the 29th of
May 1866.
ROGERS, JAMES EDWIN THOROLD (1823-1800), English
economist, was born at West Meon, Hampshire, in 1823. He
was educated at King's College, London, and Magdalen Hall,
Oxford. After taking a first-class degree in 1846, he was
ordained, and was for a few years a curate in Oxford. Subse-
quently, however, he resigned his orders. For some time the
classics were the chief field of his activity. He devoted
himself a good deal to classical and philosophical tuition in
Oxford with success, and his publications included an edition
of Aristotle's Ethics (in 1865). Simultaneously with these
occupations he had been diligently studying economics, with
456
ROGERS, J.
the result that in 1859 he was appointed professor of statistics
and economic science at King's College, London, a post which
he filled till his death. From 1862 to 1867 he also held the
position of Drummond professor of political economy at
Oxford. During that period he published (in 1866) the first two
volumes of his History of Agriculture and Prices in England,
dealing with the period 1250-1400, a minute and masterly
record of the subject, and the work upon which his reputation
mainly rests. Two more volumes (1401-1582) were published
in 1882, a fifth and sixth (1583-1702) in 1887, and he left
behind him at his death copious materials for a seventh and
eighth. In 1868 he published a Manual of Political Economy,
and in 1869 an edition of Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations.
In 1875 he collected and edited the Protests of the Lords. An
intimate acquaintance with Cobden and John Bright led
Rogers to take an active part in politics: he represented
Southwark in parliament from 1880 to 1885, and Bermondsey
from 1885-86, as an advanced Liberal. In 1888, on the
death of Professor Bonamy Price, who had succeeded him at
Oxford as professor of political economy, he was re-elected to
the post, and held it till his death. Previously (in 1883) he
had been appointed lecturer in political economy at Worcester
College, Oxford. His latter years were mainly spent at Oxford,
where he died on the I2th of October 1890. He was celebrated
as a caustic wit and humqrist. Of his miscellaneous economic
and historical writings, which were numerous, the most note-
worthy is his Six Centuries of Work and Wages, published in
1884. As an economist, Thorold Rogers did much to promote
the historical study of his subject. He was, however, apt to
be guided too frequently by political prejudice, and the value
of his work suffered from his aggressively contentious spirit.
ROGERS, JOHN (1627-*;. 1665), English preacher, second
son of Nehemiah Rogers, a royalist and Anglican clergyman,
was born at Messing in Essex, and became a servitor and student
of medicine at King's College, Cambridge. When still a youth
the violence of his religious despair led him to attempt suicide
and ended in his joining the extreme sect of the Puritans.
Deprived of his home in 1642, he walked to Cambridge, and
found the college establishment broken up; he nearly starved,
but obtained in 1643 a scholastic post in Lord Brudenel's
house in Huntingdonshire, and subsequently at St Neot's free
school. He became known as a preacher, received Presbyterian
ordination in 1647, married a daughter of Sir Robert Payne
of Midloe in Huntingdonshire, and obtained the living of
Purleigh in Essex. Subsequently he came to London, joined
the Independents, became lecturer at St Thomas Apostle's, and
attracted attention by the violence of his political sermons.
He was appointed preacher to Christ Church Cathedral in Dublin
by the parliament in 1651, and while there served in the field,
returning in 1652 to St Thomas Apostle's on account of religious
dissensions. In 1653 his parishioners at Purleigh, where he
had hitherto managed to retain the living, successfully pro-
ceeded against him for non-residence. In the quarrel between
the army and the parliament Rogers had naturally sided with
the former, and he was one of the first to join the Fifth Mon-
archy movement. He approved of the expulsion of the Long
Parliament, and addressed two letters to Cromwell on the
subject of the new government to be inaugurated, but the
establishment of the Protectorate at once threw the Fifth
Monarchy men into antagonism. Rogers addressed a warning
letter to Cromwell, and boldly attacked him from the pulpit
on the 9th of January 1654. Thereupon his house was searched
and his papers seized, and Rogers then issued another denuncia-
tion against Cromwell, Mene, Tekel, Perez: a Letter lamenting
over Oliver Lord Cromwell. On the 28th of March, on which
day he had proclaimed a fast for the sins of the rulers, he
preached a violent sermon against the protector, which occa-
sioned his arrest in July. He confronted Cromwell with great
courage when brought before him on the sth of February 1655,
and was imprisoned successively at Windsor and in the Isle of
Wight, being released in January 1657. He returned to London,
and, being suspected of a conspiracy, was again imprisoned
by Cromwell in the Tower from the 3rd of February 1658 till
the i6th of April. On the protector's death and the downfall
of Richard Cromwell, the ideals of the Fifth Monarchy men
seemed nearer realization, but Rogers was engaged in political
controversy with Prynne and became a source of embarrass-
ment to his own faction, which endeavoured to get rid of him
by appointing him " to preach the gospel " in Ireland. On
the outbreak of Sir George Booth's royalist insurrection, how-
ever, he became chaplain in Charles Fairfax's regiment, and
served throughout the campaign. He obtained a lectureship at
Shrewsbury in October and was in Dublin in January 1660, being
imprisoned there by order of the army faction and released subse-
quently by the parliament. At the Restoration he withdrew to
Holland, studied medicine at Leiden and Utrecht, and obtained
from the latter university the degree ofM.D.ini662. He returned
to England the same year and resided at Bermondsey, was
admitted to the degree of M.D. at Oxford in 1664, and is supposed,
in the absence of further record, to have died soon afterwards.
Besides the pamphlet already cited, Rogers wrote in 1653 Ohel or
Bethshemesh, a Tabernacle for the Sun, in which he attacked the
Presbyterians, and Sagrir, or Doomesday drawing nigh, from his new
standpoint as a Fifth Monarchy man, and was the author of Challah, the
Heavenly Nymph (1653) ; Dod, or Chathan; the Beloved or the Bride-
groom going forth for his Bride . . . (1653) ; Prison-born Morning
Beams (1654) ; Jegar Sahadutha . . . (1657) ; Mr Prynne' s Good
Old Cause slated and stunted 10 Year ago . . . (1609); uairo\iTtla., a
Christian Concertation (1659) ; Mr Harrington's Parallel Unparalleled
(1659); A Vindication of Sir H. Vane (1659); Disputatio Medica
Inauguralis (1662).
AUTHORITIES. Life and Opinions of a Fifth Monarchy Man, by Ed.
Rogers (1867), compiled from Rogers's own works; Wood, Athenae
Oxonienses and Fasti; Calendars of State Papers (Domestic). See
also " English Ancestry of Washington," Harper's Magazine, xxi.
887 (1891); "John Rogers of Purleigh," The Nation, vol. 53, p.
314 (1891).
ROGERS, JOHN (c. 1500-1555), English Protestant martyr,
was born in the parish of Aston, near Birmingham, and was
educated at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, where he graduated
B.A. in 1526. Six years later he was rector of Holy Trinity,
Queenhithe, London, and in 1534 went to Antwerp as chaplain
to the English merchants. Here he met William Tyndale,
under whose influence he abandoned the Roman Catholic faith,
and married an Antwerp lady. After Tyndale's death Rogers
pushed on with his predecessor's English version of the Old
Testament, which he used as far as 2 Chronicles, employing
Coverdale's translation (1535) for the remainder and for the
Apocrypha. Tyndale's New Testament had been published
in 1526. The complete Bible was put out under the pseudonym
of Thomas Matthew in 1537; it was printed in Antwerp, and
Richard Grafton published the sheets and got leave to sell the
edition (1500 copies) in England. Rogers had little to do with
the translation, but he contributed some valuable prefaces and
marginal notes. His work was largely used by those who
prepared the Great Bible (1539-40), out of which in turn came
the Bishop's Bible (1568) and the Authorized Version of 1611.
After taking charge of a Protestant congregation in Wittenberg
for some years, Rogers returned to England in 1548, where
he published a translation of Melanchthon's Considerations of
the Augsburg Interim. In 1550 he was presented to the crown
livings of St Margaret Moyses and St Sepulchre in London,
and in 1551 was made a prebendary of St Paul's, where the dean
and chapter soon appointed him divinity lecturer. He courage-
ously denounced the greed shown by certain courtiers with
reference to the property of the suppressed monasteries, and
defended himself before the privy council. He also declined
to wear the prescribed vestments, donning instead a simple
round cap. On the accession of Mary he preached at Paul's
Cross commending the " true doctrine taught in King Edward's
days," and warning his hearers against " pestilent Popery,
idolatry and superstition." Ten days after (i6th August 1553),
he was summoned before the council and bidden to keep within
his own house. His emoluments were taken away and his
prebend was filled in October. In January 1554 Bonner, the
new bishop of London, sent him to Newgate, where he lay with
ROGERS, J. ROGERS, S.
John Hooper, Laurence Saunders, John Bradford and others
for a year, their petitions, whether for less rigorous treatment
or for opportunity of stating their case, being alike disregarded.
In December 1554 parliament re-enacted the penal statutes
against Lollards, and on January 22nd, 1555, two days after
they took effect, Rogers with ten others came before the council
at Gardiner's house in Southwark, and held his own in the
examination that took place. On the 28th and 29th he came
before the commission appointed by Cardinal Pole, and was
sentenced to death by Gardiner for heretically denying the
Christian character of the Church of Rome and the real presence
in the sacrament. He awaited and met death (on the 4th of
February 1555 at Smithfield) cheerfully, though denied even
an interview with his wife. Noailles, the French ambassador,
speaks of the support given to Rogers by the greatest part of
the people: "even his children assisted at it, comforting him
in such a manner that it seemed as if he had been led to a
wedding." He was the first Protestant martyr of Mary's reign,
and his friend Bradford wrote that " he broke the ice valiantly."
The following divines of the same name may be distinguished:
JOHN ROGERS (i572?-i6o3), Puritan vicar of Dedham, Essex,
" one of the most awakening preachers of the age." JOHN ROGERS
(1610-1680), ejected vicar of Croglin, Cumberland, and the founder
of Congregational churches in Teesdale and Weardale, where he
evangelized the lead miners. JOHN ROGERS (1679-1729), one of
George II. "s chaplains, famous for his share in the Bangorian con-
troversy (1719), his Vindication of the Civil Establishment of Religion
(1728), and his Persuasives to Conformity, addressed to Dissenters
(1736) and to Quakers (1747). JOHN ROGERS (i74O?-i8i4), leader
of the Irish seceding divines, minister of Cahans, Co. Monaghan.
JOHN ROGERS (1778-1856), rector of Mawnan, Cornwall, and the
owner of the Penrose and Helston estates; a good botanist and
mineralogist, and a distinguished Hebrew and Syriac scholar.
ROGERS, JOHN (1820-1904), American sculptor, was born
at Salem, Massachusetts, on the 3oth of October 1829. In
1848 he became an apprentice in a machine shop at Manchester,
New Hampshire, and remained there for about ten years.
During the latter part of this time he had done some modelling
in clay in his leisure hours, and, having decided to become a
sculptor, he spent eight months in Rome and Paris in 1858-59.
Becoming discouraged, he returned to America and obtained
employment as a draughtsman in the office of the city surveyor
of Chicago; but soon afterwards, owing to the favourable
reception of his group of small figures, " The Checker Players,"
he resumed sculptural work, confining himself to these small
figures, known as " Rogers Groups," which had an enormous
popular success and were extensively reproduced. The Civil
War in America gave him patriotic themes that increased
his vogue and prosperity, and in 1863 he became a National
Academician. His subjects were familiar scenes and incidents
of home life known to the masses, and the reproductions of his
groups were sold in the most remote districts as well as in the
larger cities. He executed several life-sized statues, including
" General John F. Reynolds " and a seated figure of Lincoln,
both in Philadelphia; but it is by his statuettes that he is best
remembered, and these were characterized by sentiment and
human interest rather than any genuine artistic feeling. He
died at New Haven, Connecticut, on the 27th of July 1904.
ROGERS, ROBERT. (1727-1784?), American frontier soldier,
was born of Irish parentage in 1727, probably at Methuen,
Massachusetts, whence his father, James Rogers (often con-
fused with James Rogers, an early settler of Londonderry, N.H.),
removed in 1739 to Starktown (now Dunbarton), New Hamp-
shire. During the Seven Years' War he raised and commanded
a force of militia, known as Rogers' Rangers, which won a wide
reputation for its courage and endurance in the campaigns
about Lake George. He took part in Wolfe's expedition
against Quebec, and on the 4th of October 1759 he destroyed
an Abnaki Indian village on the St Francis river near its
mouth and killed about 200 of its inhabitants. After the
Montreal campaign of 1760, in which he served, he was sent by
General Amherst to take possession of the north-western posts,
occupied Detroit on the 29th of November, and later returned
to the east. In 1763, during the Pontiac uprising, he accom-
457
panied the relief expedition under James Dalyell to Detroit
and took part in the battle of Bloody Bridge on the 3ist of July
(see PONTIAC). Soon after this he went to England, and in
1765 published in London a Concise Account of North America,
containing a Description of the Several British Colonies . . .
also an Account of the Several Nations and Tribes of Indians
(new edition, Albany, 1883). In 1766-68 he was commandant
of Michilimackinac. He spent the next few years in England,
and after 1772 was in the service of the dey of Algiers. At
the beginning of the War of Independence he returned to
America, and in spite of his protestations of patriotism was
considered by Washington and others a Loyalist spy. He was
arrested by agents of Congress, but was paroled. His re-
arrest he considered a release from his parole. He then openly
joined the British, and under a commission from General Howe
organized a regiment of Loyalists which was known as the
Queen's Rangers, and which after his return to England in
1776 was commanded by Capt. John G. Simcoe. In 1779 he
was commissioned to raise a regiment to be called the King's
Rangers, and he returned for a short time to America; but the
command of the Rangers, which soon became a part of the
garrison of St John's, Quebec, was taken by his brother James
(d. 1792), who had formerly served under Robert. Rogers
died in London probably in 1784.
In addition to the Concise Account of North America, he published
his Journals (London, 1765), and is supposed to have written, at
least in part, Ponteach, or the Savages of America, a Tragedy (London,
1766). See also his " Journal " in the Diary of 'the Siege of Detroit
in the War with Pontiac (Albany, 1860; new edition, 1883), edited
by F. B. Hough; and Francis Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe (2 vols.,
Boston, 1884).
ROGERS, SAMUEL (1763-1855), English poet, was born at
Newington Green, London, on the 3Oth of July 1763. His
father, Thomas Rogers, was the son of a Stourbridge glass
manufacturer, who was also a merchant in Cheapside. Thomas
Rogers had a place in the London business, and married Mary,
the only daughter of his father's partner, Daniel Radford,
becoming himself a partner shortly afterwards. On his mother's
side Samuel Rogers was connected with the two well-known
Nonconformist divines Philip and .Matthew Henry, and it was
in Nonconformist circles at Stoke Newington that he was
brought up. He was educated at private schools at Hackney
and Stoke Newington. He wished to enter the Presbyterian
ministry, but at his father's desire he joined the banking business
in Cornhill. ' In long holidays, necessitated by delicate health,
Rogers became a diligent student of English literature, par-
ticularly in Johnson, Gray and Goldsmith. Gray's poems, he
said, he had by heart. He had already made some contri-
butions to the Gentleman's Magazine, when in 1786 he published
a volume containing some imitations of Goldsmith and an
" Ode to Superstition " in the manner of Gray. In 1788 his
elder brother Thomas died, and Samuel's business responsi-
bilities were increased. In the next year he paid a visit to
Scotland, where he met Adam Smith, Henry Mackenzie, the
Piozzis and others. In 1791 he was in Paris, and enjoyed a
hurried inspection of the art collection of Philippe Egalite at
the Palais Royal, many of the treasures of which were later on
to pass into his possession. With Gray as his model, Rogers
took great pains in polishing his verses, and six years elapsed
after the publication of his first volume before he printed his
elaborate poem on The Pleasures of Memory (1792). This poem
may be regarded as the last embodiment of the poetic diction
of the i8th century. Here is carried to the extremest pitch
the theory of elevating and refining familiar themes by abstract
treatment and lofty imagery. In this art of " raising a sub-
ject," as the 18th-century phrase was, the Pleasures of Memory
is much more perfect than Thomas Campbell's Pleasures of
Hope, published a few years later in imitation. The acme of
positive praise for the fashionable serious poetry of the time
was given by Byron when he said, " There is not a vulgar line
in the poem."
In 1793 his father's death gave Rogers the principal share
in the banking house in Cornhill, and a considerable income.
458
ROGERS, W. ROGIER
He left Newington Green in the same year and established
himself in chambers in the Temple. In his circle of friends at
this time were " Conversation " Sharp and the artists Flaxman,
Opie, Martin Shee and Fuseli. He also made the acquaintance
of Charles James Fox, with whom he visited the galleries in
Paris in 1802, and whose friendship introduced him to Holland
House. In 1803 he moved to 22 St James's Place, where for
fifty years he entertained all the celebrities of London. Flax-
man and Stothard had a share in the decorations of the house,
which Rogers had almost rebuilt, and now proceeded to fill
with pictures and other works of art. His collections at his
death realized 50,000. An invitation to one of Rogers's
breakfasts was a formal entry into literary society, and his
dinners were even more select. His social success was due
less to his literary position than to his powers as a conver-
sationalist, his educated taste in all matters of art, and no
doubt to his sarcastic and bitter wit, for which he excused
himself by saying that he had such a small voice that no one
listened if he said pleasant things. Above all, he seems to
have had a genius for benevolence. " He certainly had the
kindest heart and unkindest tongue of any one I ever knew,"
said Fanny Kemble. He helped the poet Robert Bloomfield,
he reconciled Moore with Jeffrey and with Byron, and he
relieved Sheridan's difficulties in the last days of his life.
Moore, who refused help from all his friends, and would only be
under obligations to his publishers, found it possible to accept
assistance from Rogers. He procured a pension for H. F.
Gary, the translator of Dante, and obtained for Wordsworth
his sinecure as distributor of stamps.
It is difficult to realize the length of time that Rogers played
the part of literary dictator in England. He made his repu-
tation by The Pleasures of Memory when Cowper's fame was
still in the making. He became the friend of Wordsworth,
Scott and Byron, and lived long enough to give an opinion as
to the fitness of Alfred Tennyson for the post of poet laureate.
Alexander Dyce, from the time of his first introduction to
Rogers, was in the habit of writing down the anecdotes with
which his conversation abounded. From the mass of material
thus accumulated he made a selection which he arranged under
various headings and published in 1856 as Recollections of the
Table- Talk of Samuel Rogers, to which is added Porsoniana.
Rogers himself kept a notebook, in which he entered impressions
of the conversation of many of his distinguished friends Charles
James Fox, Edmund Burke, Henry Grattan, Richard Person,
John Home Tooke, Talleyrand, Lord Erskine, Sir Walter
Scott, Lord Grenville and the duke of Wellington. They were
published by his nephew William Sharpe in 1859 as Recollec-
tions by Samuel Rogers; and Reminiscences and Table-Talk of
Samuel Rogers, Banker, Poet, and Patron of the Arts, 1763-
1855 (1903), by G. H. Powell, is an amalgamation of these two
authorities. Rogers held various honorary positions: he
was one of the trustees of the National Gallery; and he served
on a commission to inquire into the management of the British
Museum, and on another for the rebuilding of the Houses of
Parliament.
Meanwhile his literary production was slow. A poem of some
autobiographical interest, An Epistle to a Friend (Richard
Sharp), published in 1798, describes Rogers's ideal of a happy
life. This was followed twelve years later by The Voyage of
Columbus (1810), and by Jacqueline (1814), a narrative poem,
written in the four-accent measure of the newer writers, and
published in the same volume with Byron's Lara. His reflective
poem on Human Life (1819), on which he had been engaged for
twelve years, is written in his earlier manner.
In 1814 Rogers made a tour on the Continent with his sister
Sarah. He travelled through Switzerland to Italy, keeping a
full diary of events and impressions, and had rnade his way to
Naples when the news of Napoleon's escape from Elba obliged
him to hurry home. Seven years later he returned to Italy,
paying a visit to Byron and Shelley at Pisa. Out of the earlier
of these tours arose his last and longest work, Italy. The first
part was published anonymously in 1822; the second, with his
name attached, in 1828. The production was at first a failure,
but Rogers was determined to make it a success. He enlarged
and revised the poem, and commissioned illustrations from
J. M. Turner, Thomas Stothard and Samuel Prout. These were
engraved on steel in the sumptuous edition of 1830. The book'
then proved a great success, and Rogers followed it up with an
equally sumptuous edition of his Poems (1838). In 1850, on
Wordsworth's death, Rogers was asked to succeed him as poet
laureate, but declined the honour on account of his great age.
For the last five years of his life he was confined to his chair in
consequence of a fall in the street. He died in London on the
i8th of December 1855.
A full account of Rogers is given in two works by P. W. Clayden,
The Early Life of Sarr.uel Rogers (1887) and Rogers and his Contem-
poraries (2 vols., 1889). One of the best accounts of Rogers, con-
taining many examples of his caustic wit, is by Abraham Hayward
in the Edinburgh Review for July 1856. See also the Aldine edition
(1857) of his Poetical Works, and the Journals of Byron and of
Moore.
ROGERS, WILLIAM (1819-1896), English clergyman and
educational reformer, was born in London on the 24th of
November 1819, the son of a barrister. Educated at Eton and
at Balliol College, Oxford, he entered Durham University in
1842, to study theology, and was ordained in 1843. In 1845
he was appointed to St Thomas Charterhouse, where he remained
for eighteen years, throwing himself passionately into the
work of education of his poor, degraded and often criminal
parishioners. He began by establishing a school for ragamuffins
in a blacksmith's abandoned shed, and with the generous help
of friends he gradually extended its scope until the whole parish
was a network of schools. In 1858 he was appointed a member
of the Royal Commission to inquire into popular education, and
he was returned a representative of the London School Board
after the passing of Forster's Act in 1870. In 1863 the bishop
of London gave him the living of St Botolph Bishopsgate.
Rogers was also made a prebendary of St Paul's, and in 1857 he
had been appointed Chaplain in Ordinary to the Queen. Having
largely solved at St Thomas's the problem of elementary educa-
tion, at Bishopsgate Rogers tackled the no- less difficult one of
middle-class schools. He believed in secular education, leaving
doctrinal training to parents and clergy. To the cry against
" godless education," Rogers impulsively replied, " Hang
theology; let us begin "; and his nickname of " Hang-theology
Rogers " stuck to him for the rest of his life. The Cowper Street
Schools, costing 20,000, were the practical result of his energy.
His next great work was the reconstruction of Edward Alleyn's
charity at Dulwich. The new college was opened in 1870; new
buildings were erected for the lower school, and the lion's share
of the work fell upon Rogers. The culmination of his labours
was the opening, on his seventy-fifth birthday, of the Bishops-
gate Institute, including a hall, with accommodation for 500
people and a reference and lending library. On the same day a
portrait and gift of plate was made him at the Mansion House,
before a distinguished gathering. Lord Rosebery, then Prime
Minister, observed in his speech that though bishoprics and
deaneries had not been the rector's lot, there was not a poor
Jew in Houndsditch or Petticoat Lane whose face would not
brighten when he saw him coming. When he died, on the igth
of January 1896, this might have served as an appropriate
epitaph.
ROGIER, CHARLES LATOUR (1800-1885), Belgian states-
man, descended from a Belgian family settled in the department
of the Nord in France, was born at St Quentin on i7th August
1800. His father, an officer in the French army, perished in
the Russian campaign of 1812; and the family moved to Liege,
where the eldest son, Firmin, held a professorship. Charles,
after being called "to the Bar, founded, in collaboration with
his lifelong friends, Paul Devaux and Joseph Lebeau, the
journal Mathieu Laensberg (afterwards Le Politique), which by
its ardent patriotism and its attacks on the Dutch administra-
tion soon acquired a widespread influence. When the insurrec-
tion of 1830 broke out at Brussels, Rogier put himself at the
head of 150 Liegeois, and inscribing on his banner the motto,
ROGUE ROHAN (FAMILY)
" Vaincre ou mourir pour Bruxelles," he obtained arms from a
local factory, and marched upon the capital. Here he took his
place at once among the leaders of the revolutionary party. His
influence saved the town-hall from pillage on igth September.
On the 24th a commission administrative was formed, of which
Rogier became president. The energetic measures of this body
and of its successor, the gouvernement provisoire,soon freed the
greater part of the country from the Dutch troops. Rogier was
sent in October to suppress an outbreak among the colliers of
Hainaut, and then as delegate of the provisional government to
Antwerp, where the citadel still held out for Holland. He suc-
ceeded in arranging an armistice, and then, in the exercise of
the absolute power with which he was invested, reorganized
the entire administration of the city. He sat for Liege in the
National Congress, voted for the establishment of a hereditary
monarchy, and induced the congress to adopt the principle of an
elective second chamber. In the long-drawn debates on the be-
stowal of the crown he ranged himself on the side of Louis Philippe :
he first supported the candidature of Otto of Bavaria, and on
his rejection declared for the due de Nemours. Finally, when
Louis Philippe declined the crown on behalf of his son, Rogier
voted with the majority for Leopold of Saxe-Coburg. In June
1831 he was appointed governor of the province of Antwerp,
a post rendered exceptionally difficult by the continued presence
of Dutch troops in the citadel. In October 1832 he was made
minister of the interior in the Goblet-Devaux cabinet. In the
following June he intervened in a quarrel in the chamber of
deputies between Devaux and the Opposition leader, Alexandre
Gendebien, claimed a prior right to give satisfaction, and fought
a duel, in which he was severely wounded. During his term
of office he carried, in the teeth of violent opposition, a law that
established in Belgium the first railways on the continent of
Europe, and thus laid the foundation of her industrial develop-
ment. Owing to dissensions in the cabinet, he retired in 1834,
together with Lebeau, and resumed the governorship of Antwerp.
On Lebeau's return to power in 1840, Rogier became minister
of public works and education. The proposals that he made
in the latter capacity were defeated by the determined opposi-
tion of the Clerical party, and on the resignation of the ministry
in 1841, Rogier gave his support to a compromise on the subject
of education, which passed into law in 1842. He led the Liberal
party in Opposition till 1847, when he formed a cabinet in which
he held the ministry of the interior. He at once embarked on a
programme of political and economic reform. He took effective
steps to remedy the industrial distress caused by the decay of
the Flemish linen trade. The limits of the franchise were
extended ; and as the result of the liberal policy of the govern-
ment Belgium alone escaped the revolutionary wave that
spread over the Continent in 1848. He passed a law in 1850
organizing secondary education under the control of the State,
and giving the clergy only the right of religious instruction.
The Clerical party, though unable to defeat this measure, suc-
ceeded in shaking the position of the cabinet; and it was finally
undermined, after Prince Louis Napoleon's coup d'etat of 1851,
by the hostility of the French government, which found its
political exiles welcomed by the liberal cabinet at Brussels.
Rogier retired in October 1852, but was brought back into office
by the liberal reaction of 1857. He again became president of
the council and minister of the interior in a cabinet of which
Frere-Orban was the most conspicuous member. The first
important measure passed by the ministry was one for the
fortification of Antwerp. In 1860 the fear of French designs on
the independence of Belgium led to a movement of reconciliation
with Holland, and inspired Rogier to write the only one of his
numerous poems that is likely to survive, his national anthem,
" La Nouvelle Brabanconne." Some of the ministers resigning
in 1861, on the question of recognizing the kingdom of Italy,
the cabinet was reconstructed, and Rogier exchanged the
ministry of the interior for that of foreign affairs. In this
capacity he achieved a diplomatic triumph in freeing the
navigation of the Scheldt, and thus enabling Antwerp to become
the second port on the mainland of Europe. Defeated at
459
Dinant, he sat for Tournai from 1863 till his death. His younger
and more energetic colleague, Frere-Orban, gradually over-
shadowed his chief, and in 1868 Rogier finally retired from
power. He continued, however, to take part in public life, and
was elected president of the extraordinary session of the chamber
of representatives in 1878. From this limit his age, his devoted
patriotism and the unassuming simplicity of his life made him
the idol of all classes. The fiftieth anniversary of the kingdom
of Belgium in 1880, and two years later that of his entry into
parliament, were the occasion of demonstrations in his honour.
He died at Brussels on the 27th of May 1885, and his remains
were accorded a public funeral.
See T. Juste, Charles Rogier, 1800-1885, d'apres des documents
inedits (Verviers, 1885).
ROGUE, a word which came into use about the middle of
the i6th century as a slang or " cant " term for a vagrant
vagabond, answering to the modern " tramp," and was adopted
into English legal phraseology together with " vagabond " in
the Statute of Elizabeth 1572, "rogue and vagabond" and
" incorrigible rogue " remaining as legal terms for certain classes
of persons amenable to the law under the Vagrancy Acts (see
VAGRANCY). The act of Elizabeth defined " rogues, vagabonds
and sturdy beggars " as including " idle persons going about
and using subtle craft and unlawful games and all persons whole
and mighty in body, but having neither land nor master, nor
able to give an account how they get their living and all common
labourers using loitering and refusing to work for the wages
commonly given " (Sir G. Nicholls' History of the English Poor
Law, ed. 1898 by H. G. Willink, vol, i. 159). The word has now
the general meaning of a knave or rascal, though also used (by
meiosis) as a term of playful or tender banter and in various
special applications (e.g. a " rogue " elephant, one who has been
driven out by the herd and lives a solitary life, becoming very
savage and destructive. Gardeners also apply the word to a
plant which does not come true from seed, showing some
variation from the type).
The derivation of the word has been much disputed. It has
usually been referred to Fr. rogue, meaning proud, arrogant, which
is variously derived from the Icelandic hroke, rook, long-winded
talker, or Breton rok, proud, haughty; cf. Irish and Gaelic rucas,
pride. The New English Dictionary, however, rejects this de-
rivation, and considers possible a connexion with another early
" cant " word " roger," a begging vagabond pretending to be a
poor university scholar.
ROHAN, the name of one of the most illustrious of the feudal
families of France, derived from that of a small town in Morbi-
han, Brittany. The family appears to have sprung from
the viscounts of Porhoet, and claims connexion with the ancient
sovereigns of Brittany. Since the i2th century it held an
important place in the history of Brittany, and strengthened
its position by alliances with the greatest houses in France.
It was divided into several branches, the eldest of which, that
of the viscounts of Rohan, became extinct in 1527. Of the
younger branches the most famous is that of Guemenee, from
which sprang the branches of Montbazon, Soubise and Gii.
The seigneurs of Frontenay, an offshoot of this last branch,
inherited by marriage the property of the eldest branch of the
house. Hercule de Rohan, due de Montbazon (1568-1654)
served Henry III. and Henry IV. against the League, and was
made by Henry IV. governor of Paris and the Isle of France,
and master of the hounds. His grandson, Louis de Rohan-
Guemenee, the chevalier de Rohan, who was notorious for his
dissolute life, conspired with the Dutch against Louis XIV.
and was beheaded in Paris in 1674. In the i8th century the
Soubise branch furnished several prelates, cardinals and
bishops of Strassburg, among others the famous cardinal de
Rohan, the hero of the affair of the diamond necklace. The
seigneurs of Gie, a branch founded by Pierre de Rohan (1453-
1513), a cadet of the branch of Gue'me'ne'e and marshal of
France, were conspicuous on the Protestant side during the
wars of religion. Ren de Rohan, seigneur of Pontivy and
Frontenay, commanded the Calvinist army in 1570, and
460
ROHAN, DUG DE ROHAN, CARDINAL DE
defended Lusignan with great valour when it was besieged
by the Catholics (1574-75)- His son Henry, the first duke of
Rohan, also distinguished himself in the Protestant army.
His only child, Marguerite de Rohan, married in 1645 Henri
Chabot, a cadet of a great family of Poitou. This marriage
was opposed by her mother, Marguerite de Bethune, who put
forward a rival heir called Tancred, whom she claimed to be
her son by the duke of Rohan. This Tancred perished in the
Fronde in 1649. The property and titles of Henry de Rohan
thus passed to the Chabot family, which under the name of
Rohan-Chabot produced some distinguished soldiers and a
cardinal archbishop of Besancon. The male line of the Rohans
is now represented by an offshoot of the Rohan- Guemenee
branch.
ROHAN, HENRI, Due DE (1570-1638), French soldier, writer
and leader of the Huguenots, was born at the chateau of Blain,
in Brittany, in 1579. His father was Rene II., count of Rohan
(1550-86), and head of one of the oldest and most distinguished
families in France, which was connected with many of the
reigning houses of Europe. He was educated by his mother,
who was a woman of exceptional learning and force of character.
Rohan was by birth the second son, but his elder brother Rene
dying young he became the heir of the name. He appeared at
court and in the army at the age of sixteen, and was a special
favourite with Henry IV., after whom, failing the house of
Conde, he might be said to be the natural chief of the French
Protestants. Having served till the peace of Vervins, he
travelled for a considerable time over Europe, including England
and Scotland, in the first of which countries he received the
not unique honour of being called by Elizabeth her knight,
while in the second he was godfather at Charles I.'s christening.
On his return to France he was made duke and peer at the age
of twenty-four, and two years later (1603) married Marguerite
de Bethune, the due de Sully's daughter. He served in high
command at the celebrated siege of Jiilich in 1610, but soon
afterwards he fell into active or passive opposition to the govern-
ment over the religious disputes. For a time, however, he
abstained from actual insurrection, and he endeavoured to
keep on terms with Marie de' Medici; he even, despite his
dislike of De Luynes, the favourite of Louis XIII., reappeared
in the army and fought in Lorraine and Piedmont. It was not
till the decree for the restitution of church property in the
south threw the Bearnese and Gascons into open revolt that
Rohan appeared as a rebel. His authority and military skill
were very formidable to the royalists; his constancy and firm-
ness greatly contributed to the happy issue of the war for the
Huguenots, and brought about the treaty of Montpellier (1623).
But Rohan did not escape the results of the incurable factious-
ness which showed itself more strongly perhaps among the
French Huguenots than among any other of the numerous
armed oppositions of the I7th century. He was accused of
lukewarmness and treachery, though he did not hesitate to
renew the war when the compact of Montpellier was broken.
Again a hollow peace was patched up, but it lasted but a short
time, and Rohan undertook a third war (1627-20), the first
events of which are recounted in his celebrated Memoirs. This
last war (famous for the defence of La Rochelle by Soubise,
Rohan's younger brother) was one of considerable danger for
Rohan. In spite of all efforts he had in the end to sign a
peace, and after this he made his way quickly to Venice. Here
he is said to have received from the Porte the offer of the
sovereignty of Cyprus. It is more certain that his hosts of
Venice wished to make him their general-in-chief, a design
not executed owing to the. peace of Cherasco (1631). At Venice
he wrote his Memoirs; at Padua, Le Parfait Capitaine. But
when France began to play a more conspicuous part in the
Thirty Years' War Rohan was again called to serve his lawful
sovereign, and entrusted with the war in the Valtelline. The
campaign of 1633 was completely successful, but Rohan was
still considered dangerous to France, and was soon again in
retirement. At this time he wrote his Traite du gouvernement
des treize cantons. Rohan fought another Valtelline campaign,
but without the success of the first, for the motives of France
were now held in suspicion. The unfortunate commander
retired to Geneva and thence went to the army of Bernhard
of Saxe- Weimar. He received a mortal wound at the battle
of Rheinfelden on the z8th of February 1638, and died at the
abbey of Konigsfeld, canton Berne, on the i3th of April. His
body was buried at Geneva, and his arms were solemnly
handed over to the Venetian government. With his daughter
Marguerite the honours of the family of Rohan-Gie passed to
the house of Chabot.
Rohan's Memoires sur les chases qui se sent passees en France, &c.,
rank amongst the best products of the singular talent for memoir
writing which the French noblesse of the 1 6th and I7th centuries
possessed. Alike in style, in clearness of matter and in shrewd-
ness, they deserve very high praise. The first three books, dealing
with the civil wars, appeared in 1644; the fourth, containing the
narrative of the Valtelline campaigns, not till 1758. Some
suspicions were thrown on the genuineness of the latter, but,
it would seem, groundlessly. His famous book on the history
and art of war, Le Parfait Capitaine, appeared in 1631 and sub-
sequently in 1637 and 1693 (see also Quincy, Art de la guerre,
Paris, 1741). It treats of the history and lessons of Caesar's cam-
paigns and their application to modern warfare, and contains
appendices dealing with phalangite and legionary methods of
fighting and the art of war in general. He also wrote an account
of his travels, the book on Switzerland mentioned above, De
I'inleret des princes et etats de la chretiente, etc. The Memoirs may
be conveniently found in the collection of Michaud and Poujoulat,
vol. 19.
See Fauvelet de Foix, Histoire du Due Henri de Rohan (Paris,
1667) ; Schybergson, Le Due de Rohan et la charte du parti protestant
en France (Paris, 1880); Biihring, Venedig, Gustaf Adolf, und Rohan
(Halle, 1885); Laugel, Henri de Rohan, son role politique et militaire
(Paris, 1889); Veraguth, Herzog Rohan und seine Mission in Grau-
bunden (Berne, 1894); and Shadwell, Mountain Warfare.
ROHAN, LOUIS RENfc fiDOUARD, CARDINAL DE (1734-
1803), prince de Rohan-Guemenee, archbishop of Strassburg,
a cadet of the great family of Rohan (which traced its origin
to the kings of Brittany, and was granted the precedence and
rank of a foreign princely family by Louis XIV.), was born at
Paris on the 2$th of September 1734. Members of the Rohan
family had filled the office of archbishop of Strassburg from
1704 an office which made them princes of the empire and the
compeers rather of the German prince-bishops than of the French
ecclesiastics. For this high office Louis de Rohan was destined
from his birth, and soon after taking orders, in 1760, he was
nominated coadjutor to his uncle, Constantine de Rohan-
Rochefort, who then held the archbishopric, and he was also
consecrated bishop of Canopus. But he preferred the elegant
life and the gaiety of Paris to his clerical duties, and had also an
ambition to make a figure in politics. He joined the party
opposed to the Austrian alliance, which had been cemented
by the marriage of the archduchess Marie Antoinette to the
dauphin. This party was headed by the due d'Aiguillon, who
in 1771 sent Prince Louis on a special embassy to Vienna to
find out what was being done there with regard to the partition
of Poland. Rohan arrived at Vienna in January 1772, and
made a great noise with his lavish fetes. But the empress Maria
Theresa was implacably hostile to him; not only did he attempt
to thwart her policy, but he spread scandals about her daughter
Marie Antoinette, laughed at herself, and shocked her ideas of
propriety by his dissipation and luxury. On the death of
Louis XV. in 1774, Rohan was recalled from Vienna, and
coldly, received at Paris; but the influence of his family was
too great for him to be neglected, and in 1777 he was made
grand almoner, and in 1778 abbot of St Vaast. In 1778 he
was made a cardinal on the nomination of Stanislaus Ponia-
towski, king of Poland, and in the following year succeeded
his uncle as archbishop of Strassburg and became abbot of
Noirmoutiers and^ Chaise-Dieu. His various preferments
brought him in an income of two and a half millions of livres;
yet the cardinal was restless and unhappy until he should be
reinstated in favour at court and had appeased the animosity
which Marie Antoinette felt against him. In pursuit of this
object he fell into the hands of a gang of intriguers, the comtesse
de Lamotte, the notorious Cagliostro and others, whose actions
ROHILKHAND ROHTAK
461
form part of the " affair of the diamond necklace." This story
is disentangled elsewhere (see DIAMOND NECKLACE), and
diverging views are still taken of it. Rohan certainly was led
to believe that his attentions to the queen were welcomed, and
that his arrangement by which she received the famous necklace
was approved. He was the dupe of others, and at the trial
in 1786 before the parlement his acquittal was received with
universal enthusiasm, and regarded as a victory over the court
and the unpopular queen. He was deprived, however, of his
office as grand almoner and exiled to his abbey of Chaise-Dieu.
He was soon allowed to return to Strassburg, and his popularity
was shown by his election in 1789 to the states-general by the
clergy of the bailliages of Haguenau and Weissenburg. He at
first declined to sit, but the states-general, when it became the
national assembly, insisted on validating his election. But as
a prince of the church in January 1791 he refused to take the
oath to the constitution, and went to Ettenheim, in the German
part of his diocese. In exile his character improved, and he
spent what wealth remained to him in providing for the poor
clergy of his diocese who had been obliged to leave France;
and in 1801 he resigned his nominal rank as archbishop of
Strassburg. On the 1 7th of February 1803 he died at Ettenheim.
See the Mimoires of his secretary, the abb6 Georgel, of the
baroness d'Oberkirch, of Beugnot, and of Madame Campan; and
works cited under DIAMOND NECKLACE.
ROHILKHAND, a tract in the United Provinces of India.
The name is associated with the Rohilla tribe (?..), but in its
historical significance it covers an area almost coincident with
the modern division of Bareilly, for which it is a common
alternative title. This division has an area of 10,720 sq. m.,
and comprises the districts of Bareilly, Bijnor, Budaun, Mora-
dabad, Shahjahanpur and Pilibhit. Pop. (1901) 5,479,688.
Political control over the state of Rampur is exercised by the
commissioner for the division.
ROHILLA (a Pushtu word for " mountaineer "), a tribe of
Afghan marauders, who, towards the beginning of the i8th
century, conquered a district of Hindostan, giving it the name
of Rohilkhand, which still survives as an alternative title of
the Bareilly division of the United Provinces. The Rohillas
are chiefly notable for their association with Warren Hastings,
which formed one of the main counts in his impeachment.
Having been driven into the mountains by the Mahrattas, they
had appealed for aid to Shuja-ud-Dowlah, wazir of Oudh, and
ally of the British. The wazir promised to assist them in
return for a sum of money; but when the Mahrattas were
driven off the Rohilla chiefs refused to pay. The wazir then
decided to annex their country, and appealed to Hastings for
assistance, which was given in return for a sum of forty lakhs
of rupees. Hastings justified his action on the ground that the
Rohillas were a danger to the British as uncovering the flank
of Oudh; and while he would never involve the company
in an unjust war, neither did he desire an unprofitable
one. The Rohillas were defeated by Colonel Champion in
April 1774, and the majority of them fled across the Ganges;
but the charges of destroying a nation, brought against Hastings
by Burke and Macaulay, were greatly exaggerated. The
Rohillas were never a nation, but consisted of a small body of
Mahommedans, who had imposed an alien rule upon a million
Hindus; and one of their chiefs was left in possession of a tract
which now forms the state of Rampur (q.v.).
See Charles Hamilton, History of the Rohilla Afghans (1787) ; and
Sir J. Strachey, Hastings and the Rohilla War (Oxford, 1892).
ROHLFS, FRIEDRICH GERHARD (1831-1896), German
explorer of the Sahara, son of a physician, was born at Vege-
sack, near Bremen, on the I4th of April 1831. After the
ordinary course at the gymnasium of Osnabruck he entered
the Bremen corps in 1848, and took part as a volunteer in
the Schleswig-Holstcin campaign, being made an officer after
the battle of Idstedt (July 1850). He became a medical student
at the universities of Heidelberg, Wurzburg and then Got-
tingen; but his natural inclination was for travelling, and in
1855 he went to Algeria and enlisted in the Foreign Legion.
He took part in the conquest of Kabylia, and was decorated for
bravery as Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Having made
himself master of Arabic and gained a thorough knowledge of
native customs, Rohlfs went to Morocco in 1861; presenting
himself as a Mussulman, he gained the favour of the enlightened
sherif of Wazzan, and was thus enabled to travel over the
length and breadth of the country. He then entered the
Sahara and traversed the entire extent of the Wad Draa,
being the second European (the first being Ren6 Caillie) to
visit Tafilet. On leaving Tafilet he was robbed by his guides
and left for dead; but two marabouts charitably succoured
him and he was able to reach Algeria. When scarcely re-
covered from his wounds he started once more for the Sahara
(August 1862) by way of Algeria. Compelled by tribal dis-
turbances to turn back, he went to Tangier and thence in
March 1864 made a fresh start. Crossing the Atlas by an
eastern route he again visited Tafilet, and thence made his
way across the desert to the oasis of Tuat, which he was the
first European to describe. Returning by Ghadames and Tripoli
he spent three months in Germany, and then (March 1865)
went back to Tripoli, intending to explore the highlands of
the Ahaggar; being prevented, however, by a war among the
Tuareg, he went from Ghadames to Mur/.uk, where he spent
five months, and thence across the Sahara to Bornu, mapping
en route the oasis of Kawar. Rohlfs passed through Mandara
and its ancient capital Mora, and struck out for the coast of
the Gulf of Guinea. He reached the Benue by way of the
Bauchi highlands, and descended that river -to its confluence
with the Niger, which he ascended to Rabba. Thence he made
his way on horseback to Lagos, reaching Liverpool on the
2nd of July 1867. In the following year he accompanied
the British expedition against Theodore of Abyssinia, and on
his return went once more to Tripoli, whence he traversed
the Cyrenaica, reaching Egypt by way of the oasis of Siwa
( 1 869) . Returning home, he married and settled down in Weimar.
He did not rest long, however, for in 1873-74 he took command
of an expedition sent by the Khedive Ismail into the Libyan
Desert, which made investigations of great value to science.
In 1878 Rohlfs and Dr Sleeker were commissioned by the
German African Society to go to Wadai. They succeeded
in reaching the oasis of Kufra, one of the chief centres of the
Senussites, but being attacked by the Arabs, they were obliged
to retreat, making their way to the coast at Benghazi, reached
in October 1879. In 1880 Rohlfs accompanied Dr Sleeker
in an exploring expedition to Abyssinia; but after delivering
a letter from the German emperor lo the Negus, he relurned
to Europe. In 1885, when the rivalry belween Ihe British
and Germans in Easl Africa was very keen, Prince Bismarck
appointed Rohlfs consul al Zanzibar, which island Bismarck
desired lo secure for Germany. Rohlfs, unlrained in diplomacy,
was no match for Sir John Kirk, the British Agenl, and he was
soon recalled, and did not again visit Africa. He died at
Riingsdorf, near Bonn, on the 2nd of June 1896. Rohlfs
visited many regions not before traversed by Europeans, and
the value of his work was recognized in 1868 by the Royal
Geographical Society, which bestowed on him the Patron's
Medal.
Accounts of each of his expeditions, and other works on Africa
were published by Rohlfs, including Mein Erster Aufenthalt in
Marokko (Bremen, 1873; English edition, Travels in Morocco,
London, 1874); Reise durch Marokko (Bremen, 1868); Over
durch Afrika (Leipzig, 1874-75); Von Tripolis nach Alexandrien
(Bremen, 1871); Expedition zur Erforschung der Libyschen Waste
(Cassel, 1875-76); Kufra: Reise von Tripolis nach der Oase
Kufra (Leipzig, 1881); Land und Volk in Afrika (Bremen, 1870);
Quid novi ex Africa? (Cassel, 1886). See also a biographical notice
by Dr W. Wolkenhauer in the Deutsche geo. Blatter for 1896.
ROHTAK, a town and district of British India, in the Delhi
division of Ihe Punjab. The lown, which is of great antiquity,
became Ihe headquarters of a British district in 1824. Viewed
from the sandhills to the south, Rohtak, with ils white mosque
in the centre, a fort standing out boldly to the east, is striking
and picturesque. It has a station on the Southern Punjab
462
ROJAS ZORRILLA ROLAND, J. M.
railway, 44 m. N.W. of Delhi. Pop. (1901) 20,323. It is an
important trade centre, with factories for ginning and pressing
cotton, and a speciality in muslin turbans.
The district of Rohtak has an area of 1797 sq. m. It is
situated in the midst of the level tableland between the Jumna
and the Sutlej, forming one unbroken plain of hard clay copi-
ously interspersed with light yellow sand, and covered in its
wild state by a jungle of scrubby brushwood. The only natural
reservoir for its drainage is the Najafgarh jhil, a marshy lake
lying within the boundaries of Delhi. The Sahibi, a small
stream from the Ajmere hills, traverses a corner of the district,
and the northern portions are watered by the Rohtak and
Butana branches of the Western Jumna canal; but the greater
portion of the central plain, comprising about two-thirds of
the district area, is entirely dependent upon the uncertain
rainfall. The climate, though severe in point of heat, is gener-
ally healthy; the rainfall averages annually about 20 in.
The population in 1901 was 630,672, showing an increase of
6-8% in the decade. The principal crops are millets, wheat,
barley, pulses, cotton and sugar-cane. The district is traversed
by the line of the Southern Punjab railway from Delhi to Jind,
and also touched by the Rewari-Ferozepore branch of the
Rajputana railway. It is peculiarly exposed to drought,
suffering in the famine of 1896-97, and yet more severely in
1899-1900, when the highest number of persons relieved was
33,632 in March 1900.
Rohtak was formerly included within the region known as
Hariana. The district, with the other possessions of Sindhia
west of the Jumna, passed to the British in 1803. Until 1832
Rohtak was under the administration of a political agent,
resident at Delhi, but in that year it was brought under the
general regulations and annexed to the North-Western Pro-
vinces. The outbreak of the Mutiny in 1857 led to its abandon-
ment, when the mutineers attacked and plundered Rohtak,
destroying every record of administration. It was not until
after the fall of Delhi that the authority of the British govern-
ment was permanently restored. Rohtak was then transferred
to the Punjab.
ROJAS ZORRILLA, FRANCISCO DE (i6o7~e. 1660), Spanish
dramatist, was born at Toledo; the only circumstance recorded
of his life is that he became a knight of Santiago in 1644. The
exact date of his death is unknown. His plays were published
in 1640-45; the best of his dramatic compositions, Del Rey
abajo Ninguno, is not included in the collection and was printed
separately under the title of Garcia del Castanar. Of his other
pieces, apart from their intrinsic merit, an international interest
attaches to No hay padre siendo rey, which was borrowed by
Rotrou for his Venceslas; to Donde hay agravios no hay zelos and
the A mo criado, which were imitated by Scarron in his Jodelet
Soufflete and Mailre Valet; to Entre Bobos anda el juego, the
source of Thomas Corneille's Don Bertrand de Cigarral, as well as
of Scarron's Don Japhel d'Armenie; to Obligados y ofcndidos,
from which are derived Les Genereux Ennemis by Boisrobert, Les
Illustres Ennemis by Thomas Corneille, and Scarron's Ecolier de
Salamanque; and to La traicidn busca el casligo, upon which are
based Vanbrugh's False Friend and Le Sage's Trattre puni.
Rojas Zorrilla's power of conveying a tragic impression is
manifest in Garcia del Castanar; his chief defect is his persistent
preciosity of diction.
ROKITANSKY, CARL, FREIHERRVON (1804-1878), thefounder
of the Vienna school of pathological anatomy, was born on
the 1 9th of February 1804 at Koniggratz in Bohemia. He
studied medicine at Prague and at Vienna, graduating at the
latter place in 1828. Soon afterwards he became assistant to
Johann Wagner, the professor of pathological anatomy, and suc-
ceeded him in 1834 as prosector, being at the same time made
extraordinary professor. It was not until ten years later (1844)
that he reached the rank of full professor. To his duties as
a teacher he added in 1847 the onerous office of medico-legal
anatomist to the city, and from 1863 he filled an influential
office in the ministry of education and public worship, wherein
he had to advise on all routine matters of medical teaching,
including patronage. A seat in the upper house of the Reichs-
rath rewarded his public labours in 1867, and on his retirement
from all his offices in 1874 he was made a commander of the
Order of Leopold. He joined the Imperial Academy of Sciences
as a member in 1848, and became its president in 1869. He was
president also of the medical society of the Austrian capital and
an honorary member of many foreign societies. On his retire-
ment at the age of seventy his colleagues celebrated the occasion
by a function in the aula of the university, where his bust was
unveiled. In his leave-taking speech he said that work had
always been a pleasure to him and pleasures mostly a toil. His
death in Vienna on the 23rd of July 1878 elicited many genuine
expressions of affection and of esteem for his upright character.
Two of his sons became professors at Vienna, one of astronomy
and another of medicine, while a third gained distinction on the
lyric stage.
With Rokitansky's name is associated the second great period
of the medical school of Vienna, its first success having been identi-
fied with the liberal patronage of it by Maria Theresa and with
the fame of Van Swieten, whom the empress had attracted thither
from Leiden. The basis of its second reputation was morbid
anatomy, together with the precision of clinical diagnosis de-
pendent thereon, and associated with the labours of Rokitansky's
lifelong friend, Joseph Skoda (1805-1881). The anatomical vogue
had begun under Wagner while Rokitansky was still a student ; but
it reached its highest point while the latter was assistant in the
dead-house and afterwards prosector and professor. The enthusiasm
for the post-mortem study of disease brought one very serious con-
sequence at the outset, in the enormous increase of the death-
rate from puerperal fever in the lying-in wards of the general hospital.
A comparison between the slight mortality in the wards that were
afterwards reserved for the training of midwives and the excessive
mortality in those set apart for the training of students proved
that the cause was the conveyance of infection from the dead-house
by the hands of the latter. The precautions introduced by I. P.
Semmelweiss in 1847 proved adequate in removing that grave
reproach from the study of morbid anatomy. Another and more
lasting consequence of the assiduous pursuit of post-mortem study,
counterbalancing somewhat the advantage of a more precise and
localized diagnosis, was the loss of faith in the power of drugs to
remedy the textural changes the so-called " nihilism " of the
Vienna school. The immediate outcome of Rokitansky's close
application to the work of the dead-house was his Handbuch der
paihologisclien Anatomic (184246), in 3 vols., of which the first was
published last. The value of the work lies in the second and third
volumes, containing succinct descriptions of the visible changes
and abnormalities in the several organs 'and parts of the body.
Whenever Rokitansky touched the vital problems of general path-
ology, as he did in the postponed first volume, he revealed a meta-
physical bent, which was strong in him behind all his undoubted
powers of outward observation and accurate description. Being a
few years too soon to profit by the microscopic movement which led
to the cellular pathology, he endeavoured to reconcile the old
humoral doctrine with his anatomical observations, and to read a
new meaning into the doctrine of the various dyscrasias. In 1862
he entered into possession of a new pathological institute, in which
he found means, for the first time, to display his extensive collection
of specimens in a museum. Although he had no direct share in
the newer developments of pathology, he was far from indifferent
or reactionary towards them; indeed, the laboratories and chairs
for microscopic and experimental pathology and for pathological
chemistry were warmly encouraged and aided by him.
Next to his Handbuch, of which the Sydenham Society published
an English translation in 4 vols. (1849-52), his most important
writings were four memoirs in the Denkschriften of the Vienna
Academy of Sciences (on the anatomy of goitre, cysts, diseases of
arteries, and defects in the septa of the heart), the last as late as
1875. Other papers of less importance brought up the total of his
writings to thirty-eight, including three addresses of a philosophical
turn, on " Freedom of Inquiry " (1862), " The Independent Value
of Knowledge " (1867) and " The Solidarity of Animal Life " (1869).
ROLAND [ROLAND DE LA PLATIERE], JEAN MARIE (1734-
1793), French statesman, was born at Thizy on the i8th of
February 1734. He received a good education, and early
formed the studious habits which remained with him through
life. Proposing to -seek his fortune abroad, he went on foot to
Nantes, but was there prostrated by an illness so severe that all
thoughts of emigration were perforce abandoned. For some
years he was employed as a clerk; thereafter he joined a
relative who was inspector of manufactures at Amiens, and he
himself speedily rose to the position of inspector. To these two
employments may be ascribed those qualities of assiduity and
ROLAND, J. M.
463
accuracy, and that familiarity with the commerce of the country,
which distinguished his public career. In 1781 he married
Manon Jeanne Phlipon (1754-1793), and the name of MADAME
ROLAND is famous in history. She was the daughter of Gratien
Phlipon, a Paris engraver, who was ambitious, speculative and
nearly always poor. From her early years she showed great
aptitude for study, an ardent and enthusiastic spirit, and un-
questionable talent. She was to a considerable extent self-
taught; and her love of reading made her acquainted first with
Plutarch a passion for which author she continued to cherish
throughout her life thereafter with Bossuet, Massillon, and
authors of a like stamp, and finally with Montesquieu, Voltaire
and Rousseau. These studies marked stages of her development,
and as her mind matured she abandoned the idea of a convent
which for a year or two she had entertained, and added to the
enthusiasm for a republic which she had imbibed from her
earlier studies not a little of the cynicism and the daring which
the later authors inspired. She almost equalled her husband in
knowledge, and infinitely excelled him in talent and in tact.
Through and with him she exercised a singularly powerful in-
fluence over the destinies of France from the outbreak of the
Revolution till her death.
For four years after their marriage Roland lived at Amiens,
he being still an inspector of manufactures; but his knowledge
of commercial affairs enabled him to contribute articles to the
Encyclopedic Nouvelle, in which, as in all his literary work, he
was assisted by his wife. On their removal to Lyons the in-
fluence of both became wider and more powerful. Their fervent
political aspirations could not be concealed, and from the be-
ginning of the Revolution they threw in their lot with the party
of advance. The Courrier de Lyon contained articles the
success of which reached even to the capital and attracted the
attention of the Parisian press. They were from the pen of
Madame Roland and were signed by her husband. A corre-
spondence sprang up with Brissot and other friends of the
Revolution at headquarters. In Lyons their views were publicly
known; Roland was elected a member of the municipality, and
when the depression of trade in the south demanded representa-
tion in Paris he was deputed by the council of Lyons to ask the
Constituent Assembly that the municipal debt of Lyons, which
had been contracted for the benefit of the state, should be re-
garded as national debt. Accompanied by his wife, he appeared
in the capital in February 1791. He remained there until
September, frequenting the Society of the Friends of the Con-
stitution, and entertaining deputies of the most advanced
opinions, especially those who later became the leading Giron-
dists. Madame Roland took an active part in the political
discussions in these reunions.
In September 1791, Roland's mission being executed, they
returned to Lyons. Meanwhile the inspectorships of manu-
factures had been abolished; he was thus free; and they
could no longer remain absent from the centre of affairs. In
December they again reached Paris. Roland became a
member of the Jacobin Club. They had made many and
influential friends in advance, and Madame Roland's salon
soon became the rendezvous of Brissot, Petion, Robespierre
and other leaders of the popular movement, above all of Buzot,
whom she loved with platonic enthusiasm. In person Madame
Roland was attractive though not beautiful; her ideas were
clear and far-reaching, her manner calm, and her power of
observation extremely acute. It was almost inevitable that
she should find herself in the centre of political aspirations
and presiding over a company of the most talented men of
progress. The rupture had not yet been made evident between
the Girondist party and that section still more extreme, that
of the Mountain. For a time the whole left united in forcing
the resignation of the ministers. When the crisis came the
Girondists were ready, and on the 23rd of March 1792 Roland
found himself appointed minister of the interior. As a
minister of the crown Roland exhibited a bourgeois brusqueness
of manner and a remarkable combination of political pre-
judice with administrative ability. While his wife's influence
could not increase the latter, it was successfully exerted to
foment and embitter the former. He was ex officio excluded
from the Legislative Assembly, and his declarations of policy
were thus in writing that is, in the form in which she could
most readily exert her power. A great occasion was invented.
The decrees against the emigrants and the non-juring clergy
still remained under the veto of the king. A letter was penned
by Madame Roland and addressed by her husband to Louis.
It remained unanswered. Thereupon, in full council and in
the king's presence, Roland read his letter aloud. It contained
many and terrible truths as to the royal refusal to sanction
the decrees and as to the king's position in the state; but it
was inconsistent with a minister's position, disrespectful if
not insolent in tone. Roland's dismissal followed. Then he
completed the plan: he read the letter to the Assembly; it
was ordered to be printed, became the manifesto of disaffection,
and was circulated everywhere. In the demand for the rein-
statement of the dismissed ministers were found the means
of humiliation, and the prelude to the dethronement, of the
king.
After the insurrection of the loth of August, Roland was
recalled to power, one of his colleagues being Danton. But
now he was dismayed by the progress of the Revolution.
He was above all a provincial, and was soon in opposition
to the party of the Mountain, which aimed at supremacy not
only in Paris but in the government as well. His hostility
to the insurrectional commune of Paris, which led him to
propose transferring the government to Blois, 'and his attacks
upon Robespierre and his friends rendered him very unpopular.
His neglect to seal the iron chest discovered in the Tuileries,
which contained the proofs of Louis XVI.'s relations with the
enemies of France, led to the accusation that he had destroyed
a part of these documents. Finally, in the trial of the king
he demanded, with the Girondists, that the sentence should
be pronounced by a vote of the whole people, and not simply
by the Convention. He resigned office on the 23rd of January
1793, two days after the king's execution.
Although now extremely unpopular, the Rolands remained
in Paris, suffering abuse and calumny, especially from Marat.
Once Madame Roland appeared personally in the Assembly
to repel the falsehoods of an accuser, and her ease and dignity
evoked enthusiasm and compelled acquittal. But violence
succeeded violence, and early on the morning of the ist of
June she was arrested and thrown into the prison of the
Abbaye. Roland himself escaped secretly to shelter in Rouen.
Released for an hour from the Abbaye, she was again arrested
and thrown among the horrors of Sainte-Pelagie. Finally,
she was transferred to the Conciergerie. In prison she won
the affections of the guards, and was allowed the privilege of
writing materials and the occasional visits of devoted friends.
She there wrote her A ppel & I'impartiale posliritS, those memoirs
which display a strange alternation between self-laudation and
patriotism, between the trivial and the sublime. On the 8th
of November 1793 she was conveyed to the guillotine. Before
yielding her head to the block, she bowed before the clay
statue of Liberty erected in the Place de la Revolution,
uttering her famous apostrophe "O Liberty! what crimes
are committed in thy name! " When Roland heard of his
wife's condemnation, he wandered some miles from his refuge
in Rouen; maddened by despair and grief, he wrote a few
words expressive of his horror at those massacres which could
only be inspired by the enemies of France, protesting that
" from the moment when I learned that they had murdered
my wife I would no longer remain in a world stained with
enemies." He affixed the paper to his breast, and unsheathing
a sword-stick fell upon the weapon, which pierced his heart,
on the loth of November 1793.
Madame Roland's Mtmoires, first printed in 1820, have been
edited among others by P. Faug^re (Paris, 1864), by C. A. Dauban
(Paris, 1864), by T. Claretie (Paris, 1884), and by C. Perroud (Paris,
1905). Some of her Lettres intdites have been published by C. A.
Dauban (Paris, 1867), and a critical edition of her Lettres by
ROLAND, LEGEND OF
C. Perroud (Paris, 1900-2). See also C. A. Dauban, tude sur
Madame Roland et son temps (Paris, 1864); V. Lamy, Deux
femmes celebres, Madame Roland et Charlotte Corday (Paris, 1884);
C. Bader, Madame Roland, d'apres des letlres et des manuscrits inedits
(Paris, 1892); A. J. Lambert, Le mariage de Madame Roland, trots
annees de correspondance amoureuse (Paris, 1896); Austin Dobson,
Four Frenchwomen (London, 1890); and articles by C. Perroud in
the review La Revolution fran faise (1896-99). t
ROLAND, LEGEND OF. The legend of the French epic hero
Roland (transferred to Italian romance as Orlando) is based on
authentic history. Charlemagne invaded Spain in 778, and
had captured Pampeluna, but failed before Saragossa, when the
news of a Saxon revolt recalled him to the banks of the Rhine.
On his retreat to France through the denies of the Pyrenees,
part of his army was cut off from the main body by the Basques,
who had ambushed in a narrow defile, and now drove the rear-
guard into a valley where it was surrounded and entirely
destroyed. The Basques, after plundering the baggage, made
good their escape, favoured by the darkness and by their
knowledge of the ground. The incident is related in the Annales
(Pertz i. 159) commonly ascribed to Einhard, and with more
detail in Einhard's Vita Karoli (cap. ix.; Pertz ii. 448), where
the names of the leaders are given. " In this battle were slain
Eggihard, praepositus of the royal table; Anselm, count of the
palace; and Hruodland, praefect of the Breton march. . . ."
The scene of the disaster is fixed by tradition at Roncevaux, on
the road from Pampeluna to Saint Jean Pied de Port. There
is no foundation in this story for the fiction of the twelve peers,
which may possibly arise from a still earlier tradition. In
636-37, according to the Chronicles of Fredegarius (ed. Krusch
p. 159), twelve chiefs, whose names are given, were sent by
Dagobert against the Basques. The expedition was successful,
but in an engagement fought in the valley of Subola, or Robola,
identified with Mauleon, which is not far from Roncevaux, the
Duke Harembert, with other Prankish chiefs, was slain. Later
fights in the same neighbourhood and under similar circum-
stances are related in 813 (Vita Hludowici; Pertz ii. 616), and
especially in 824 (Einhard's Annales; Pertz i. 213). These
incidents no doubt served to strengthen the tradition of the
disaster to Charlemagne's rear-guard in 778, the importance
of which was perhaps underrated by the Frankish historians
and was certainly magnified in popular story. The author of
the Vita Hludowici, writing sixty years after the battle of
Roncevaux, thought it superfluous to give the names of the
fallen chiefs, as being matter of common report.
Growth of the Legend. The choice of Roland or Hruodland
as the hero of the story probably points to the borders of French
Brittany as the home of the legend. The exaggeration of a
rear-guard action into a national defeat; the substitution of a
vast army of Saracens, the enemies of the Frankish nation
and the Christian faith, for the border tribe mentioned by
Einhard; 1 and the vengeance inflicted by Charlemagne, where
in fact the enemy escaped with complete impunity all are in
keeping with the general laws of romance. Charlemagne
himself appears as the ancient epic monarch, not as the young
man he really was in 778. The earliest version of the legend
which we possess dates no earlier than the nth century, but
there is abundant evidence of the existence of a continuous
tradition dating from the original event, although its methods
of transmission remain a vexed question. Roncevaux lay on
the route to Compostella, and the many pilgrims who must
have passed the site from the middle of the gth century onwards
may have helped to spread the story. Whether the actual
cantilena Rottandi chanted by Taillefer at the battle of Hastings
(William of Malmesbury, De gestis regum angl. iii. 242, and
Wace, Brut. ii. 1 1, 8035 seq.) was any part of the existing Chanson
de Roland cannot be stated, but the choice of the legend on this
occasion by the trouvere is proof of its popularity.
The oldest extant forms of the legend are: (a) chapters
xix.-xxx. of the Latin chronicle, known as the Pseudo-Turpin,
1 It is noteworthy, however, that an Arab historian, Ibn-al-Athir,
states that Charles's assailants were the Arabs of Saragossa, by
whom he had been originally invited to interfere in Spain.
which purports to be the work of Turpin, archbishop of Reims,
who died about 800, but probably dates from the I2th century;
(b) Carmen de proditione Guenonis, a poem in Latin distichs;
and (c) the Chanson de Roland, a French chanson de geste of
about 4000 lines, the oldest recension of which is in the Bodleian
Library, Oxford (MS. Digby 23). It is in assonanced tirades,
of unequal length, many of them terminated with the refrain
Aoi. This MS. was written by an Anglo-Norman scribe about
the end of the I2th century, and is a corrupt copy of a text by
a French trouvere of the middle of the nth century. It con-
cludes with the words: " Ci fait la geste, que Turoldus declinet."
There was a Turold (d. 1098) who was abbot of Peterborough;
another was tutor to William the Conqueror and died in 1035.
Even if we could identify this personage, we cannot tell whether
he was the poet, the minstrel or the scribe of the MS., but it
seems likely that he was merely the scribe. The poem, which
was first printed by Francisque Michel (Oxford, 1837), is the
finest monument of the heroic age of French epic. In its
fundamental features it evidently dates back to the reign of
Charlemagne, who is not represented as the capricious despot
of the later chansons de geste, but as governing in accordance
with Frankish custom, accepting the counsel of his barons,
and carrying out the curious procedure of Frankish law. Roland
represents the monarchical idea, and was evidently, in its
primitive form, written before the feudal revolts which weak-
ened the power of Charlemagne's successors. Its unity of
conception, the severity and conciseness of the language, the
directness, vividness and sobriety of the narrative, place it far
above the chansons of later trouveres, with their wordiness
and their loose, episodic construction. With the exception
of the small place allotted to Aide, women have practically no
place in the story, and the romantic element is thus absent.
Roland's master-passions are daring and an exaggerated con-
ception of honour, the extravagance of which is the cause of
the disaster. His address to Oliver before the battle is typical
of the warlike spirit of the poem:
" Notre empereur qui ses Francs nous laissa,
Tels vingt mille hommes a pour nous mis a part,
Qu'il sait tres bien que pas un n'est couard.
Pour son seigneur grands maux on souffrira,
Terribles froids, grands chauds endurera,
Et de son sang, de sa chair on perdra!
Brandis ta lance; et moi, ma Durendal,
Ma bonne epee, que le Roi me donna.
Et si je meurs, peut dire qui 1'aura
C'etait 1'epee d'un tres noble vassal."
(tr. Petit de Julleville xi. 1114 seq.)
The Story as related in the Chanson de Roland. Charlemagne,
after fighting for seven years in Spain, had conquered the whole
country with the exception of Saragossa, the seat of the Saracen
king Marsile. He was encamped before Cordova when he
received envoys from the Saracen king, sent to procure the
evacuation of Spain by the Franks through false offers of sub-
mission. Charlemagne held a council of his barons, Naimes of
Bavaria, Roland, Oliver, Turpin, Ogier, Ganelon and the rest.
Roland, the emperor's nephew, was eager for war; the peace
party was headed by Ganelon of Mayence. 2 The Franks were
weary of campaigning, and Ganelon's counsels won the day.
At the suggestion of Roland, Ganelon, who was his stepfather,
was entrusted with the embassy to Marsile a sufficiently
perilous errand, since two former envoys had been beheaded
by the Saracens. Ganelon, inspired by hatred of Roland and
Oliver, agreed with Marsile to betray Roland and his com-
rades for ten mule-loads of gold. He then returned to Charle-
magne bearing Marsile's supposed assent to the Frankish terms.
The retreat began. Roland, at Ganelon's instigation, was
placed in commartd of the rear-guard. With him were the
rest of the famous twelve peers, 3 his companions-in-arms,
Oliver, Gerin, Gerier, Oton, Berengier, Samson, Anseis, Girard
2 Ganelon may perhaps be identified with Wenilo, archbishop
of Sens, whose treason against Charles the Bald is related in the
Annales Bertiniani (anno 859).
3 The lists vary in different texts.
ROLANDSECK ROLL, A. P.
465
de Roussillon, Engelier the Gascon, Ivon and Ivoire, and the
flower of the Prankish army. They had nearly reached the
summit of the pass when Oliver, who had mounted a high rock,
saw the advancing army of the Saracens, 400,000 strong. In
vain Oliver begged Roland to sound his horn and summon
Charlemagne to his aid. A description of the battle, a series
of single combats, follows. Oliver, with his sword Hautecldre,
rivalled Roland with Durendal. After the first fight, a second
division of the pagan army appears, then a third. Roland's
army was reduced to sixty men before he consented to sound
his horn. Presently all were slain but Roland and Oliver,
Turpin and another. Finally, when the Saracens, warned of
the return of Charlemagne, had retreated, Roland alone sur-
vived on the field of battle. With a last effort he blew his
horn once more, and heard before he died the sound of Charle-
magne's battlecry of " Montjoie." Charlemagne pursued the
enemy, and destroyed their army. The raising of a second
army by Baligant, the emir of Babylon, and its defeat by the
emperor, who slays Baligant in single combat, is obviously an
interpolation in the original narrative. The trouvere then
relates the return of the Franks, the burial of the heroes of
Roncevaux, and, at great length, the trial of Ganelon at Aix,
his execution, and that of his thirty kinsmen, and the death of
Aide, Roland's betrothed and Oliver's sister, when she heard
the news of Roland's death. The trial of Ganelon is one of
the most curious parts of the story, providing, as it does, a full
account of the Prankish criminal procedure.
Relations between the Earlier Forms of the Legend. The Pseudo-
Turpin represents a different recension of the story, and is
throughout clerical in tone. It was the trouvere of the Chanson
de Roland who developed the characters into epic types; he
invented the heroic friendship of Roland and Oliver, the motives
of Ganelon's treachery, and many other details. The famous
fight between Roland and the giant Ferragus appears in the
Pseudo-Turpin (chapter xviii.), but not in the poem. The
Chanson de Roland presupposes the existence of a whole cycle
of epic poetry, probably in episodic form; it contains allusions
to many events outside the narrative, some of which can be
explained from other existing chansons, while others refer to
narratives which are lost. In lines 590-603 of the poem Roland
gives a list of the countries he has conquered for Charles, from
Constantinople and Hungary on the east to Scotland on the
west. Of most of these exploits no trace remains in extant
poems, but his capture of Bordeaux, of Nobles, of Carcassonne,
occur in various compilations. Roland was variously repre-
sented by the romancers as the son of Charlemagne's sister
Gilles or Berte and the knight Milon d'Anglers. The romantic
episode of the reconciliation of the pair with Charlemagne
through Roland's childish prattle (Berte et Milon) is probably
foreign to the original legend. In the Scandinavian versions
Roland is the son of Charlemagne and his sister, a recital prob-
ably borrowed from mythology. His enfances, or youthful
exploits, were, according to Aspremonl, performed in Italy
against the giant Eaumont, but in Girais de Viane his first taste
of battle is under the walls of Vienne, where Oliver, at first his
adversary, becomes his brother-in-arms.
Other Versions. Most closely allied to the Oxford Roland are
(a) a version in Italianized French preserved in a I3th or I4th century
MS. in the library of St Mark, Venice (MS. Fr. iv.) ; (6) the Ruolantes
Liet (ed. W. Grimm, Gottingen, 1838) of the Swabian priest Konrad
(fl. 1130), who gave, however, a pious tone to the whole; 1 (c) the
8th branch of the Karlamagnus-saga (ed. C. Unger, Christiania,
1860), and the Danish version of that compilation.
In the 1 2th century the Chanson de Roland was modernized by
replacing the assonance by rhyme, and by amplifications and
1 A proof of the popularity of the legend in Germany is supplied
by the so-called Roland statues, of which perhaps the most famous
example is that of Bremen. Mention of a statua Rolandi is made in
a privilegium granted by Henry V. to the town of Bremen in I in.
The Rolands-saule were probably symbolic of the judicial rights
possessed by the towns where they are found, and it has been suggested
that the word arises from false etymology with Rothland-sdule,
red-land-pillar, the symbol of the possession of the power of life
and death.
additions. Several MSS. of this rhymed recension, sometimes
known as Roncevaux, are preserved. In the prose compilations of
Calien and in David Aubert's Conqutles de Charlemagne (1458) the
story kept its popularity for many centuries. In England the story
was understood in the original French, and the English romances
of Charlemagne (q.v.) are mostly derived from late and inferior
sources. In Spain the legend underwent a curious transformation.
Spanish patriotism created a Spanish ally of Marsile, Bernard del
Carpio, to be the rival and victor of Roland. It was in Italy that
the Roland legend had its greatest fortune : Charlemagne and Roland
appear in the Paradise (canto xviii.) of Dante; the statues of Roland
and Oliver appear on the doorway of the cathedral of Verona;
and the French chansons de geste regularly appeared in a corrupt
Italianized French. The Roland legend passed through a succession
of revisions, and, as the Spagna, forming the 8th book of the great
compilation of Carolingian romance, the Reali di Francia, kept its
popularity down to the Renaissance. The story of Roland (Orlando)
in a greatly modified form is the subject of the poems of Luigi Pulci
(Morgante Maggiore, 1481), of Matteo Boiardo (Orlando innamorato,
1486), of Ariosto (Orlando furioso, 1516), and of Francesco Berni
(Orlando, 1541).
AUTHORITIES. For a complete bibliography of the editions of the
various MSS. of the Chanson de Roland, of the foreign versions,
and of the enormous literature of the subject, see Leon Gauticr,
Les Epopees franfaises (2nd ed., vol. iii., 1880), and the same author's
Bibliographic des chansons de geste (1897). Among critical editions
of the Chanson are those by Wendelin Foerster in the Altfrans.
Bibliotek, vols. yi. and vii. (Heilbronn, 1883-86), and by E. Stengel,
Das altfranzosische Rolandslied (Leipzig, 1900, &c.). The most
popular edition is La Chanson de Roland (Tours, 1872. and numerous
subsequent editions), by Lon Gautier, with text, translation, intro-
duction, notes, variants and glossary. L. Petit de Julleville published
in 1878 an edition with the old French text, and a ittodern French
translation in assonanced verse. There are various other transla-
tions in French ; in English prose by I. Butler (Boston, Mass., 1904) ;
and a partial English verse translation by A. Way and F. Spencer
(London, 1895). Consult further G. Paris, Hist. poet, de Charle-
magne (reprint, 1905), and De Pseudo Turpino (Paris, 1865); P.
Rajna, Le Origini dell' epopea francese (Florence, 1884) and Le Fonti
dell' Orlando Furioso (2nd ed., Florence, 1900); F. Picco, Rolando
nella storia e nella poesia (Turin, 1901); G. Paris, " Roncevaux,"
in Legendes du moyen age (1903), on the topography of the battle-
field.
ROLANDSECK, a village of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine
province, delightfully situated on the left bank of the Rhine,
8 m. above Bonn, with a station on the railway Cologne-Coblenz.
The place consists almost entirely of villas and is a favourite
summer resort. Crowning the vine-clad hills behind it lie the
ruins of the castle, a picturesque ivy-covered arch, whence a
fine view is obtained of the Siebengebirge and the Rhine valley
as far as Bonn. Immediately below Rolandseck in mid-river
is the island of Nonnenwerth, on which is a nursing school
under the conduct of Franciscan nuns, established in 1850. The
convent which formerly stood here was founded in 1122 and
secularized in 1802. Tradition assigns the foundation of the
castle of Rolandseck to Charlemagne's paladin, Roland. It
was certainly built at a very early date, as it was restored by
Frederick, archbishop of Cologne, in 1 1 20, and it was a fortress
until the end of the isth century.
ROLL, ALFRED PHILIPPE (1846- ), French painter,
was born in Paris on the ist of March 1846. Pupil of Ger&me
and Bonnat at the ficole des Beaux Arts, he made his
debut at the Salon in 1870 with " Environs of Baccarat " and
" Evening," and attracted the widest attention in 1875 by
his colossal painting of " The Flood at Toulouse " (now at
the Havre Museum). All his early work is imbued with the
spirit of romanticism under the influence of Geiicault, whilst
his colour tended to Bolognese heaviness with a strong leaning
towards dark shadows in the flesh painting, in which he closely
followed Courbet. In 1877 he showed at the Salon the " Fete
of Silenus " (now at the Ghent Museum), a painting of such
vivid colour -and exuberant life that it recalls the work of
Jordaens. About this time he began to devote himself to the
realistic rendering of modern life, especially among the working
classes, and together with romantic subjects he abandoned
his earlier heavy colouring, and devoted himself to the study
of free light. His " Miners' Strike " of 1880 (now at the Valen-
ciennes Museum) placed him in the front rank of modern French
painters, and from that date his career was one of continuous
and brilliant success. He became " official painter " to the
4 66
ROLL ROLLE DE HAMPOLE
French government, and was entrusted with numerous com-
missions for the decoration of public buildings and for com-
memorative pictures, like the " President Carnot at Versailles
at the Centenary of the Etats Generaux " (now at Versailles
Palace), and " The Tzar and President Faure laying the Founda-
tion Stone of the Alexandre III. Bridge." For the H6tel de
Ville he executed " The Pleasures of Life " and " The Rosetime
of Youth." Besides the pictures already mentioned, a vast
number of his works are to be found in the public galleries of
France. The museum of the Hotel de Ville in Paris owns his
" National Fete at Paris in 1880 "; the Cognac Museum,
" Labour, Works at Suresnes "; the Luxembourg, his " War "
and " Manda Lametrie, farm-hand." At Avignon Museum is
the "Don Juan and Haidee"; at Laval Museum, "Halt!";
at Fontainebleau Palace, "In Normandy "; at Pau Museum,
" Roubey, cementer" ; and at the Museum of Geneva, " Marianne
Offrey, crieuse de vert." In portraiture he is known by his
" Yves Guyot," " Coquelin cadet," " Jules Simon," &c., but
his greatest success was the group of " Fritz Thaulow and his
Wife." In 1905 he replaced Carolus-Duran as president of
the Societe Nationale des Beaux-Arts, of which he was one of
the founders.
ROLL (O. Fr. rolle, roulle, mod. rdle, Lat. rotulus, dim. of rota,
wheel) , something rolled or wound up in a cylindrical form on an
axis, or something which " rolls," that is, moves or is moved
along a service by a turning motion. Primarily the word is
used of a piece of writing material, such as parchment or paper,
rolled up for the purpose of convenient storage, handling, &c.
This is the meaning of the Med. Lat. rotulus, denned by Du
Cangeas " Scheda, charta in speciem rotulaeseurotaeconvoluta."
It was thus the convenient name for any document kept in
this form as an official record, and hence for any register, record,
catalogue or official list. " The Rolls " was the name of the
building where the records of the Chancery Court were kept,
the keeper of which was the Master (q.v.) of the Rolls, now the
title of the third member of the English Supreme Court of
Judicature. Other familiar examples of the use of the word
in this sense are the list of those admitted as qualified solicitors,
whence the phrase " to strike off the rolls, " of removal by the
court of a solicitor for offences or delinquencies. There are
numerous applications of the word to other objects packed in
a cylindrical form, such as tobacco, cloth, &c., and particularly
to a small loaf of bread rolled over before baking, the crust
being thin and crisp and the crumb spongy.
In architecture a " roll " or " scroll " moulding is a moulding
resembling a section of a roll or scroll of parchment with the
end overlapping; a " roll and fillet " moulding is a section of
a cylindrical moulding with a square fillet running along the
centre of the face (see LABEL). For the sense of an object that
rolls, the word " roller " is more general, but " roll " is frequent
in technical usage for revolving cylinders, especially when
working in fixed bearings. For the rolling of steel see ROLLING
MILL.
HOLLAND, JOHN (fl. 1560), Scottish poet, appears to have
been a priest of the diocese of Glasgow, and to have been known
in Dalkeith in 1555. He is the author of two poems, the Court
of Venus and a translation of the Seven Sages. The former,
which was printed by John Ros in 1575, may have been written
before 1560. The latter was translated from a Scots prose
version at the suggestion of an aunt (" ane proper wenche "),
who had found his treatment of the courtly allegory involved
and uninteresting.
The Court of Venus was edited by Walter Gregor for the S.T.S. in
1884. See W. A. Craigie's long list of corrections of that edition
in the Modern Language Quarterly (March 1898). The Seven Sages
was printed in 1578, and frequently during the earlier decades of
the 1 7th century. It was reprinted by David Laing for the Banna-
tyneClub (1837). Sibbald, in his Chronicle of Scottish Poetry (iii. 287),
hinted that Holland may be the author of the Thrie Priestis of
Peblis. There is not a scrap of evidence in support of this; and
there are many strong reasons against the ascription.
ROLLE DE HAMPOLE, RICHARD (d. 1349), English hermit
and author, was born near the end of t.he i3th century, at
Thornton (now Thornton Dale), near Pickering, Yorkshire.
His father, William Rolle, was perhaps a dependant of the
Neville family. Richard was sent to Oxford at the expense of
Thomas de Neville, afterwards archdeacon of Durham. At
Oxford he gave himself to the study of religion rather than to
the subtleties of scholastic philosophy, for which he professed
a strong distaste. At the age of nineteen he returned to his
father's house, and, making a rough attempt at a hermit's dress
out of two kirtles of his sister's and a hood belonging to his
father, he ran away to follow the religious vocation. At Dalton,
near Rotherham, he was recognized by John de Dalton, who
had been at Oxford with him. After satisfying himself of
Rolle's sanity, Dalton's father provided him with food and
shelter and a hermit's dress. Rolle then entered on the con-
templative life, passing through the preliminary stages of puri-
fication and illumination, which lasted for nearly three years,
and then entering the stage of sight, the full revelation of the
divine vision. He is very exact in his dates, and attained, he
says, the highest stage of his ecstasy four years and three months
after the beginning of his conversion. Richard belonged to no
order and acknowledged no rule. He left the Daltons, and
wandered from place to place, resting when he found friends
to provide for his wants. He seems to have desired to form
a rule of hermits, but met with much opposition. The pious
compilers of his " office " evidently thought it necessary to
defend him against the charge of mere vagrancy. He nowhere
says himself that his preaching made many converts, but his
example was followed by many recluses in the north of England.
After some years of wandering he gave up his more energetic
propaganda, contenting himself with advising those who sought
him out. He began also to write the songs and treatises by
which he was to exert his widest influence. He settled in
Richmondshire, twelve miles from the recluse Margaret Kirkby,
whom he had cured of a violent seizure. To her some of his
works are dedicated. Finally he removed to Hampole, near
Doncaster, invited by an inmate of the Cistercian nunnery of
St Mary. There he died on the 29th of September 1349. Many
miracles were wrought at his shrine, and, in view of an expected
canonization, an office was drawn up giving an account of his
life and the legends connected with it.
Richard Rolle had a great influence on his own and the
next generation. In his exaltation of the spiritual side of
religion over its forms, his enthusiastic celebration of the love
of Christ, and his assertion of the individualist principle, he
represented the best side of the influences that led to the Lollard
movement. He was himself a faithful son of the church, and
the political activity of the Lollards was quite foreign to his
teaching. The popularity of his devotional writings is attested
by the numerous existing editions and by the many close
imitations of them.
A very full list of his Latin and English works is given (pp. 36-43)
in Dr Carl Horstmann's edition (1895-96) of his works in the Library
of Early English Writers. Some of his works exist in both English
and Latin, and it is often not easy to say which is the original version.
The most considerable of them are The Pricke of Conscience and his
Commentary on the Psalter.
The Pricke of Conscience is a long religious poem, in rhyming
couplets, dealing with the beginning of man's life, the instability
of the world, why death is to be dreaded, of doomsday, of the pains
of hell, and the joys of heaven, the two latter subjects being treated
with uncompromising realism. Rolle wrote in the northern dialect,
but southern transcripts are also found, and the poem exists in a
Latin version (Stimulus conscientiae). The sources of this work in-
cluded the De Contemplu Mundi sive de miseria humanae condilionis
of Pope Innocent III., and Rolle also showed a knowledge of
Bartholomew Glanyille, Thomas Aquinas and Honorius of Awtun.
His English devotional commentary on the Psalms follows very
closely his Latin Expositio Psalterii, which he based partly on Peter
Lombard's Catena. It often agrees with the English metrical
Psalter preserved in three MSS. in the British Museum (Cotton
Vesp. D. yii., Egerton 614, and Harl. 1770). Dr R. F. Littledale
in his edition (1873) of J. M. Neale's Commentary on the Psalms
called it a " terse mystical paraphrase, which often comes very little
short in beauty and depth of Dionysius the Carthusian himself."
There is no complete and accessible edition of his works. The
best collection is by C. Horstmann, Yorkshire Writers: Richard
Rolle of Hampole; An English Father of the Church and his Followers
ROLLER ROLLIN
(2 yols., 1895-96), in the " Library of Early English Writers." This
includes many English prose treatises by Rolle, some beautiful
examples ot his lyric poems, and other treatises in prose and verse
from northern MSS., some of which are attributed to Rolle and
others to his followers. Wynkyn de Worde printed in one volume,
m 1506, Rycharde Rolle Hermyte of Hampull in his contemplac yons
of the drede and love of God . . . and the Remedy ayenst the troubles
of temptacyons. Neither of these are accepted by Dr Horstmann
as Kolle s work. His Latin treatises, De emendatione vilae and De
tncendw amons, the latter one of the most interesting of his works
because it is obviously largely autobiographical, were translated
(1434-35) by Richard Misyn (ed. R. Harvey, Early English Text
Soc., 1896). The Pncke of Conscience was edited (1863) by Richard
Morns for the Philological Society. His Commentary on the Psalms
was edited by the Rev. H. R. Bramley (Oxford, 1884). Ten prose
treatises by Richard Rolle from the Thornton MS.( c. 1440, Lincoln
Cathedral Library) were edited by Canon George Perry for the Early
English Text Society in 1866. Partial editions of his Latin works
are dated Pans (1510), Antwerp (1533), Cologne (1535-36), Paris
(I6I8); and in vol. xxvi. of the Bibliotheca Patrum Maxima "
(Lyons, 1677). The office, which forms the chief authority for
Kolle s life, was printed in the York Breviary, vol. ii. (Surtees Soc.,
1882), and in Canon Perry's edition referred to above.
See also Percy Andreae, who collated eighteen MSS. in the British
Museum in his Handschriften des Pricke of Conscience (Berlin
1888); Sludwn iiber Richard Rolle von Hampole unter besonderer
Berucksichttgung seiner Psalmencommentare, by H. Middendorff
(Magdeburg, 1888), with a list of MSS., sources, &c.; j. Zupitza
in Englische Studien (Heilbronn, vols. vii. and xii.); A. Hahn
Quellenuntersuchungen zu Richard Rolle's Englischen Schriften (Halle'
1900) ; and for his prosody, G. Saintsbury, Hist, of English Prosody
vol. i.
ROLLER, a very beautiful bird, so called from its way of
occasionally rolling or turning over in its flight, 1 somewhat
after the fashion of a tumbler-pigeon. It is the Coracias
garrulus of ornithology, and is widely though not very numer-
ously spread over Europe and Western Asia in summer, breeding
so far to the northward as the middle of Sweden, but retiring
to winter in Africa. It occurs almost every year -in some part
or other of the British Islands, from Cornwall to the Shetlands,
while it has visited Ireland several times, and is even recorded
from St Kilda. But it is only as a wanderer that it comes,
since there is no evidence of its having ever attempted to
breed in- Great Britain; and indeed its conspicuous appear-
ance for it is nearly as big as a daw and very brightly coloured
^-would forbid its being ever allowed to escape a gun. Except
the back, scapulars and tertials, which are bright reddish-
brown, the plumage of both sexes is almost entirely blue
of various shades, from pale turquoise to dark ultramarine
tinted in parts with green. The bird seems to be purely in-
sectivorous. The genus Coracias, for a long while placed by
systematists among the crows, has really no affinity whatever
. to them, and is now properly considered to belong to the hetero-
geneous group of birds now associated as Coracnformes, in
which it forms the type of the family Coraciidae; and its
alliance to the bee-eaters (Meropidae) and king-fishers (Alce-
dinidae) (q.v. ) is very evident. Some eight other species of
the genus have been recognized, one of which, C. leucocephalus
or C. abyssinicus, is said to have occurred in Scotland. India
has two species, C. indicus and C. qffinis, of which thousands
upon thousands used to be annually destroyed to supply the
demand for gaudy feathers to bedizen ladies' dresses. One
species, C. temmincki, seems to be peculiar to Celebes and the
neighbouring islands, but otherwise the rest are natives of
the Ethiopian or Indian regions. Allied to Coracias is the
genus Eurystomus with some half-dozen species, of similar
distribution, but one of them, E. pacificus, has a wider range,
for it inhabits Australia and reaches Tasmania.
Madagascar has four or five very remarkable forms which have
often been considered to belong to the family Coraciidae; and,
according to A. Milne-Edwards, no doubt should exist on that
point. Yet if any may be entertained it is in regard to one of them,
467
1 Gesner in 1555 said that the bird was thus called, and for this
reason, near Strassburg, but the name seems not to be generally
used in Germany, where the bird is commonly called Rake, apparently
from its harsh note. The French have kept the name Rollier. It
is a curious fact that the roller, notwithstanding its occurrence in
the Levant, cannot be identified with any species mentioned by
Aristotle.
Leptosomus discolor, which, on account of its zygodactylous feet
some authorities place among the Cuculidac, while others have
considered it the type of a distinct family Lcptosomatidae. The
genera Brachypteractas and Atelornis present fewer structural
differences from the rollers, and perhaps may be rightly placed
with them; but the species of the latter have long tarsi, and are
believed to be of terrestrial habit, which rollers generally certainly
are not. These very curious and in some respect* very interesting
iorms, which are peculiar to Madagascar, arc admirably described
and illustrated by a series of twenty plates in the great work of A
orandidier and A. Milne-Edwards on that island (Oiseaux, pp. 223-
250) while the whole family Coraciidae is the subject of a mono-
graph hry H. E. Dresser, as a companion volume to his monograph
on the Meropidae. (A. N.)
ROLLER. For agricultural purposes the roller formerly
consisted of a solid cylinder of timber or stone attached to a
frame and shafts, but to facilitate turning two or more iron
cylinders revolving on an axle are now generally used. The
simplest form has a smooth surface. The diameter of the
drum should be as great as possible 30 in. being a good size
because the larger this is the more easily it is pulled (within
certain limits), while rollers of small diameter are heavier of
draught and do their work less efficiently. The implement
is used in spring and summer as an aid in pulverizing and
cleaning the soil, by bruising clods and lumps of tangled roots
and earth which the cultivator or other implement has brought
.to the surface; in smoothing the surface for the reception of
small seeds or the better operation of the mower or reaper;
in consolidating soil that is too loose in texture and pressing
it down about the roots of young plants. In the case of young
plants the roots are close to the surface, which must therefore
be kept moist. This end is attained by the compression by the
roller of the top-soil of which the capillarity, i.e. the power of
drawing water from the sub-soil is thereby increased. On the
other hand, when it is desired to conserve the soil-moisture, the
roller may be followed by the harrow, which, by pulverizing
the surface-soil, breaks the capillarity. Of the variations on
the common smooth roller, the clod-crusher and the Cambridge
roller are the most important. The clod-crusher combines
weight with breaking power. The best-known form was
patented about 1841 by Crosskill, and consists of a number of
disks with serrated edges threaded loosely on an axle round
which they revolve. The Cambridge roller carries on its axle
a number of closely packed wheels, the rims of which narrow
down to a wedge shape. The tubular roller, instead of drums,
has tubes arranged longitudinally, producing a corrugated
surface which is reproduced in the condition of the soil after
it has been rolled.
ROLLER-SKATING, a pastime which, by the use of small
wheels instead of a blade on the skate, has provided some of the
pleasures of skating on ice without having ice as the surface
(see SKATING). Wheeled skates were used on the roads of Hol-
land as far back as the i8th century, but it was the invention of
the four-wheeled skate, working on rubber springs, by J. L. Plimp-
ton of New York, in 1863, that made the amusement popular.
Still greater advance was made by the Raymond skate with
ball and cone bearings. The wheels or rollers were first of
turned boxwood, but the wearing of the edges was a fault
which has been surmounted by making them of a hard com-
position or of steel. The floor of the rink on which the skating
takes place is either of asphalt or of wood. The latter is that
always used in newly made rinks. The best floors are of long
narrow strips of maple. Figure-skating on roller-skates is in
some respects easier to learn than on ice-skates, the four points
of contact given by the wheels rendering easier the holding of
an edge; but some figures, such as loops, are more difficult.
ROLLIN, CHARLES (1661-1741), French historian and
educationist, was born at Paris on the 3Oth of January 1661.
He was the son of a cutler, and at the age of twenty-two was
made a master in the College du Plessis. In 1694 he was
rector of the university of Paris, rendering great service among
other things by reviving the study of Greek. He held that
post for two years instead of one, and in 1699 was appointed
principal of the College de Bcauvais. Kollin held Jansenist
4 68
ROLLINAT ROLLING-MILL
principles, and even went so far as to defend the miracles
supposed to be worked at the tomb of Francois de Paris,
commonly known as Deacon Paris. Unfortunately his religious
opinions deprived him of his appointments and disqualified
him for the rectorship, to which in 1719 he had been re-elected.
It is said that the same reason prevented his election to the
French Academy, though he was a member of the Academy
of Inscriptions. Shortly before his death (i4th December
1741) he protested publicly against the acceptance of the bull
Unigenitus.
Rollin's literary work dates chiefly from the later years of his
life, when he had been forbidden to teach. His once famous
Ancient History (Paris, 1730-38), and the less generally read Roman
History, which followed it, were avowed compilations, uncritical and
somewhat inaccurate. But they instructed and interested generation
after generation almost to the present day. A more original and
really important work was his Traite des 6tudes (Paris, 1726-31).
It contains a summary of what was even then a reformed and
innovating system of education, including a more frequent and
extensive use of the vulgar tongue, and discarded the medieval
traditions that had lingered in France.
See Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi, vol. vi.
ROLLINAT, MAURICE (1853-1903), French poet, was born
at Chateauroux in 1853. His father represented Indre in the
National Assembly of 1848, and was a friend of George Sand,
whose influence is very marked in young Rollinat's first
volume, Dans les brandes (1877). The volume, however"
attracted little attention, and it was with his second publica-
tion, very different in manner, that he made his reputation.
In Les Neuroses, with the sub-title Les Ames, Les Luxures,
Les Refuges, Les Spectres, Les Tenebres, he showed himself
as a disciple of Charles Baudelaire. He constantly returns
in these poems to the physical horrors of death, and is obsessed
by unpleasant images. Less outre in sentiment are L'Abime
(1886), La Nature, and a book of children's verse, Le Livre de la
Nature (1893). He was musician as well as poet, and set
many of his songs to music. He lost his reason in consequence
of his wife's death from hydrophobia, and died on the 26th of
October 1903.
ROLLING-MILL, a term which includes several types of
machines used for producing the sectional forms (fig. i) in
which wrought iron and steel are required for the use of
boiler-makers, platers and bridge-builders, and for construc-
tional work generally. The production of wrought iron has
been a diminishing industry for many years, while that of
steel increases. Though the plant employed for both is alike
in essential principles of design, the growth in the use of steel
has revolutionized the practice, chiefly on account of the more
massive dimensions in which steel sections are rolled. Iron
sections are relatively small, and many are produced by piling,
i.e. by building up with small portions of malleable puddled
metal. There is no limit in reason to the dimensions in which
steel sections can be rolled, and they are never piled, however
large, but always rolled from soh'd cast ingots.
When steel ingots are rolled into sectional forms the reduction
in transverse dimensions is very great. The work begins at
nearly a white heat, and continues until a low red is reached.
Obviously the stresses to which the material is subjected are
very severe. For this reason the process of reduction has
to be effected very gradually, and especially so in those cases
where reduction is being done in two directions at right angles
with each other, as in channel sections (fig. 6) and joist or
beam sections (figs. 7 and 8).
It might be thought, since steel is always cast previously
to rolling, that it might be cast at once into the sectional forms
required. But sound results could not be obtained in this
way, because the gases occluded in the metal form blow-holes
which are sources of weakness. The material itself, even in
the solid portions, is not homogeneous. By removing the head
of the ingot where the blow-holes chiefly congregate and rolling
the remainder at a white or red heat, the metal is improved
by consolidation, and by the work done upon it. To this
practice there is no exception.
Rolling-mills are known as " two-high," or " three-high,"
according as two or three rolls are mounted one over the othel
JLZII
FIG. I. Forms of the Principal Rolled Sections,
i, 2, Flats. 3, Flat with bevelled edges. 4, 5, Flats with rounded
edges. 6, Bulb bar. 7, Wedge bar. 8, Scree or -grate
bar. 9, Square. 10, Triangular. II, Hexagonal. 12, Round.
13, Oval. 14, Hollow half-round. 15, Half-round. 16, Convex.
17, Square-edged convex. 18, Vee. 19, O.G. 20, Angle iron.
21, Square root, or square throat angle. 22, Round-backed angle.
23, Unequal-sided angle. 24, Acute angle. 25, Obtuse angle.
26, Bulb angle. 27, Tee. 28, Bulb tee. 29, 30, Beams or joists,
or girders, or H-irons. 31, Channel. 32, Zed. 33, Cruciform
section. 34, Pillar section. 35, Troughing. 36, 37, 38, Rail-
way rail. 39, Tramway rail. 40, Heavy crane rail.
(figs. 2 and 3). In the two-high type the two rolls revolve
in opposite directions, so that an ingot, slab or bloom pre-
sented to the entering side is drawn in and between the rolls,
which reduce its thickness. In the case of rolls which are
two perfectly plain cylinders (plate-rolls) the shape produced
is that of broad, long and flat plates or sheets. Several
passages (passes) are required to effect the reduction required,
because this must be gradual. To regulate the amount the
top roll is set down bodily by means of screws pressing on its
bearings which slide in the end supports (housings). In the
case of plate-rolls, which are plain cylinders, this setting down
must be equal at each end. The mass of the top roll is balanced,
to avoid shock when a plate is entering. The rolls are made
of cast iron, and are either grain rolls or chilled rolls. The
first are formed from a tough strong grade of iron, the quality
which is used for all the roughing down and general work.
The second are made of a highly mottled iron, cast against
a cold mould (chill) of cast iron, by which a steely surface is
obtained. These are used for fine finishing, or for imparting
a polished surface to a section already nearly reduced to size
in grain rolls. In later heavier practice, rolls of cast steel
and forged steel are becoming common. They are more
costly than iron, but more durable and much lighter for equal
strength. They are essential in armour plate rolls. The
length of rolls should not exceed about four times their diameter,
for otherwise they are liable to spring and produce plates
thicker at the centre than towards the edges.
From this elementary design several types are derived.
In the two-high mill it is clear that if the direction of the
rotation of the rolls is always the same, then the plate being
rolled must be taken back after each " pass " to the front
of the rolls. Hence there is one " lost pass " for every reduction
in thickness. This is the case in the " pull-over " mill, nearly
obsolete. In the two-high reversing mill, introduced to avoid
this " lost pass," as soon as a plate has gone through, the
direction of rotation of the rolls is reversed, and the plate is
rolled again on the backward journey, so avoiding the lost
ROLLING-MILL
469
aotLe*
COOLING SUNK
ri
tor uw
FIG. 2. General Arrangement of 12-in. Merchant and Guide-Mill
Plant. (Thomas Perry & Son Ltd., Bilston.)
A, First roughing rolls. B, Second ditto. C, Guide rolls for
ovals or diamonds. D, Ditto for rounds or squares.
E, Driving pinions. ' Engine, 30 in. X 22 in. cylinder, direct-
coupled to rolls. Runs from loo to 180 revolutions per minute
to suit work. The shears are used for cutting the smaller
sections, the hot saw for cutting the merchant iron.
FIG. 3. 12-in. Merchant Guide-Mill and Engine. Four-set mill.
A, B, Three-high sets. C, Works either three-higher two-high; a, being a dummy roll. D, Two-
high set (guide rolls). E, Coupling pieces. F, Housings. G, Pinions. The mill is capable
of rolling rounds, squares, flats, angles, tees or similar sections by changing the rolls. The guide
rolls D are used for small sections, and the second set B for merchant iron (larger sections).
pass. An alternative is the three-
high mill, in which three rolls are
used. Here the plate is run through
the lower rolls and back through the
upper ones, so that there is no reversal
of direction of the mill as a whole,
but the lower and upper 'rolls draw
the plates in opposite directions (see
also IRON AND STEEL, 129).
Plate-Mills. In Great Britain plate-
mills are generally two-high reversing
mills, in America three-high mills. Another difference is that
in British practice two stands of rolls are used, in America one
only. In the two-stand design there are two sets of rolls coupled
endwise, one set being grain-rolls for roughing, and the other chilled
rolls for finishing. Sets of live rollers conduct the plates to and from
the separate rolls. The plate-mills proper are those which roll
from } in. to about 2 in. thick. Armour plate-mills are a special
design for massive plates and sheet-mills are for thin plates or sheets
having a less thickness than } in. Armour plate-mills are of two-
high reversing type usually, with forged steel rolls. They are of
immense proportions, the rollers ranging from 10 to 14 ft. in length,
by from 3 to 4 ft. in diameter. In sheet-mills, on the other hand,
the rolls seldom exceed 30 in. in diameter, and they are chilled.
The size of sheet-mills has within the last few years been consider-
ably increased (since the introduction of steel sheets), and all new
mills are made from 28 to 30 in. diameter. The mills are of the two-
high type and are almost the only instance of the retention in
present practice of the non-reversing mill. It is found more con-
venient in this case than the reversing or the three-high mills,
because two men roll two pieces at once, one handing over a sheet
just rolled to his fellow just as the latter has entered a sheet between
the rolls on his side. Strip-mills are a smaller but similar type,
used for rolling the thin narrow strips required for the hoops of
barrels, ties for cotton bales, &c. The details of these mills cannot
be discussed here, nor the numerous arguments in favour of the
two systems. English practice retains the two-high reversing mill
for all heavy work, the exceptions being those just noted. American
practice retains the three-high mill.
Grooved Rolls. In the mills designed for rolling various sectional
forms the same distinction between two-high and three-high re-
mains, but new problems arise. By " sectional forms " is meant
all those which are i*>t plates and sheets, such as bars of round
and square section, angles, channels, rails and allied sections (fig. l),
for the production of which grooved rolls are required. _ The
shapes and proportions of these grooves are such that reduction is
effected very gradually. When metal is squeezed or hammered, one
effect is to spread it laterally, since the metal cannot be appreciably
squeezed in on itself. But the lateral extension is very much less than
470
ROLLOCK
the longitudinal. The most marked effect of reduction in thickness
is extension in length. But as there is some lateral extension, three
courses are open: one is to gauge the exact amount of width re-
quired for extension ; another is to turn a bar over at intervals in
order to exercise pressure on the portions extended laterally and
obliterate them (open passes) ; and a third is to allow the extensions
to take the form of fin to be cut off subsequently (closed passes).
The first is generally impracticable. The second can be illustrated
by diagrams representing roll sections.
The work of reduction is generally divided between three sets of
rolls. The first are the cogging-, or blooming-rolls, as they are
termed in America, in which ingots are reduced to blooms with
dimensions suitable for rolling the various sections. In these an
ingot of say 14 in. square may be reduced to a bloom of 6 in. square.
The grooves form rectangular sections (box passes). The top
roll being raised, the ingot is passed through the largest groove;
then the roll is lowered and it is passed through a second time.
Then it is turned round through 90 and re-rolled. Afterwards
the same processes are gone through till the last groove is reached.
There is a great difference between, say, a plate and a rail, but the
cogging-rolls have to be so designed as to produce blooms for varied
forms. There are three principal forms: the box just noticed,
the gothic and the diamond (fig. 4), all open passes. For plates,
A, Box Pass.
B
FIG. 4.
B, Gothic Pass.
C, Diamond Pass.
provision is made in " slabbing " rolls for roughing out, first
in a box pass, and then in a broad flat groove, alternating with
the square groove for correction of the edges. Gothic passes and
diamond passes produce blooms which are subsequently used for
various shapes having little resemblance to each other. These
shapes are simple, and little difficulty arises in the work of
drawing down. The rolls make 40 to 50 revolutions per minute;
the difference in the area of the cross section (draught) between
adjacent grooves is from 20 to 25 %.
The formative rolls for finished sections are of two classes:
roughing and finishing. The roughing-rolls approximate much
more closely to the finished sections than the cogging-rolls, but
the aim is to make them do duty for a wide range of sections, in
order to change them as seldom as possible. Thus the gothic pass
(fig. 4) will serve alike for rolling square or round bars. Finishing
rolls must be changed for every different section, except when slight
differences in thicknesses only are made in the webbed portion
of a rolled section. With the exception of rounds, sections are
usually roughed and finished in closed passes that is, the bar is
wholly enclosed by the rolls. The groove in the lower roll is flanked
by collars slightly deeper than the enclosed bar. These enter into
grooves turned on the upper roll, and between them the bar Is
confined (fig. 5). It passes through a succession of these grooves,
\/
FIG. 5. Pair of Rolls for producing Angle Sections. (Thomas
Perry & Son Ltd., Bilston.)
being diminished in area and extended at each pass. A certain
amount of fin is squeezed out, and this is obliterated in the succeed-
ing pass, and more formed, until in the finishing pass the amount
of reduction is very slight, a surface finish being the principal
result.
Since but a slight amount of lateral extension occurs, it follows
that the reduction wholly or mainly in the vertical plane is the
most favourable condition. Rounds, squares and flats are wholly
reduced in this way and offer no difficulty. The most unfavourable
section is the joist or girder, the channels, tees and rails fojlow,
and after these the various angles. In rolling a channel or a girder
section (figs. 6, 7, 8), a square bloom is taken, and passed in succes-
sion through closed passes. The first produce shallow grooves in
FIG. 6. Reduction of Channel Section.
FIG. 7. Reduction of Girder Section in Roughing Rolls.
FIG. 8. Reduction of Girder Section in Finishing Rolls.
the opposite faces, gradually deepening until the insides of the
flanges assume a definite slope. The angle of slope becomes gradu-
ally lessened, and the thicknesses of web and flanges, and also the
radius in the corners, are reduced. At the same time the width
over the flanges is being gradually increased. While this is going on,
the fibres of the flanges, are being strained, because the rolls run
at a higher speed at their peripheries than next the body. The
metal is being violently thrust and drawn in different ways, so that
while economy has to be studied by reducing the number of passes,
as much as possible, undue stress must be avoided by making the
reductions as easy as is practicable. These things cannot be put
into a formula, but the roll-turners work by experience and em-
pirical rules gathered by long practice. In order to avoid these deep
groovings, and also severe lateral thrusts on the rolls, angle sections
are always rolled with the slope of the flanges approximately
equalized; so too are zeds (fig. I, No. 32). The reduction is then
effected with the minimum of stress to the metal. Variations are
readily made in the thicknesses of rolled sections without changing
the rolls, by simply varying the distance between their centres.
This is effected by the adjustment of the top roll (fig. 5). Differ-
ences in thickness are made in j^ths of an inch, up to a maximum of
about J in. Another detail of design in closed passes is so to shape
the rolls as to make any pass obliterate the fin produced in the
previous groove. Sometimes sections are turned over to effect this,
but often the bodies of the rolls are turned of suitable diameters
to produce the result. Guards are required to prevent the bars
from becoming wrapped round the rolls (" collaring "). With
the same object the upper roll is always made larger in diameter
than the lower. Its speed is therefore slightly greater than that
of the lower one. This stretches the plate or bar very slightly
on the upper side, and so imparts a downward movement to it
towards the floor, which is what is required. The difference in
diameter varies with circumstances, ranging from th to about I in.
Besides the standard types of mills noticed, the two-high and
three-high, there are special mills. The merchant mill simply
denotes either one of the above types used for the production of
flat bars. The continuous mills are special designs for rolling
small rods to be drawn into wire. In these there are several pairs
of rolls placed in series, so that the billet is rolled from one stand to
others in succession without re-heating. There are a number of
different designs, _one of which is the Belgian looping mill, so called
because the rod is bent backward and forward in the form of the
letter S in its passage through adjacent sets of rolls. In another
design a flying shear is employed, which automatically cuts off
billets from the bar while the latter is travelling at the rate of
6 or 8 ft. per second.^ (J. G. H.)
ROLLOCK, ROBERT (c. 1555-1599), the first principal of
the university of Edinburgh, son of David Rollock of Powis,
near Stirling, was born about 1555. He received his early
education at the school of Stirling from Thomas Buchanan,,
a nephew of George Buchanan, and, after graduating at
St Andrews, became a regent there in 1580. In 1583 he was
ROMA ROMAN ARMY
appointed by the Edinburgh town council sole regent of the
"town's college" (" Academia Jacobi Sexti," afterwards the
university of Edinburgh), and three years later he received
from the same source the title of " principal, or first master,
and was engaged in lecturing on philosophy. When the staff
of the young college was increased by the appointment of
additional regents, he assumed with consent of the presbytery
the office of professor of theology. From 1587 he also preached
regularly in the East Kirk every Sunday at 7 a.m., and in 1596
he accepted one of the eight ministerial charges of the city.
He took a prominent part in the somewhat troubled church
politics of the day, and distinguished himself by gentleness
and tact, as well as ability. He was appointed on several
occasions to committees of presbytery and assembly on pressing
ecclesiastical business. He was elected moderator of the
General Assembly held at Dundee in May 1597. In 1598 he
was translated to the parish church of the Upper Tolbooth,
Edinburgh, and immediately thereafter to that of the Grey
Friars (then known as the Magdalen Church). He died at
Edinburgh on the 8th of February 1599.
Rollock wrote Commentaries on the Epistles tc the Ephesians
(1590) and Thessalonians (1598) and Hebrews (1605), the book
of Daniel (1591), the Gospel of St John (1599) and some of the
Psalms (1598); an analysis of the Epistle to the Romans (1594),
arid Galatians (1602); also Questions and Answers on the Covenant
of Cod (1596), and a Treatise on Effectual Calling (1597). Soon after
his death eleven Sermons (Certaine Sermons upon Several Places of
the Epistles of Paul, 1599) were published from notes taken by his
students. His Select Works were edited by W. Gunn for the Wodrow
Society (1844-1849).
A Life by George Robertson and Henry Charteris was reprinted
by the Bannatyne Club in 1826. See also the introduction to the
Select Works, and Sir Alexander Grant's History of the University
of Edinburgh.
ROMA, a town of Waldegrave county, Queensland, Australia,
318 m. by rail W.N.W. of Brisbane. It is the centre of a rich
pastoral and wheat-growing district, in which oranges and
vines are largely grown and much wine is produced. The town
was incorporated in 1867. Flour-milling is its chief industry.
Pop. (1901) of town, 2371; of the district, 7110.
ROMAN, capital of the department of Roman, Rumania,
on the main line from Czernowitz in Bukovina to Galatz, and on
the left bank of the river Moldova, i\ m. W. of its junction
with the Sereth. Pop. (1900) 14,019, including 6099 Jews.
The river is here spanned by a fine bridge of iron. Roman has
been the seat of a bishop since 401. Its seminary dates from
1402. There are several ancient churches, including a cathedral,
built in 1541. Roman has a transit trade in the products of
northern Moldavia. A large annual fair is held in August.
ROMAN ARMY. In the long life of the ancient Roman army,
the most effective and long-lived military institution known to
history, we may distinguish four principal stages, (i) In the
earliest age of Rome the army was a national or citizen levy such
as we find in the beginnings of all states. (2) This grew into the
Republican army of conquest, which gradually subdued Italy
and the Mediterranean world. A citizen army of infantry,
varying in size with the needs of each year, it eventually
developed into a mercenary force with long service and pro-
fessicnal organization. This became (3) the Imperial army of
defence, which developed from a strictly citizen army into one
which represented the provinces as well as Italy, and was
a garrison rather than a field army. Lastly, (4) the assaults
of the Barbarian horsemen compelled both the creation of a
field force distinct from the frontier garrisons and the inclusion
of a large mounted element, which soon counted for much more
than the infantry. The Roman army had been one of foot
soldiers; in its latest phase it was marked by that predominance
of the horseman which characterized the earlier centuries of
the middle ages.
So far as we can follow this long development in its details,
it was throughout continuous. So unbroken, indeed, is the
growth that many of the military technical terms survived in
use from epoch to epoch, unchanged in form though deeply
modified in meaning, and ordinary readers often miss the
diversity which underlies this unchanged-seeming system.
The term legio, for example, occurs in all the four stages above
outlined. But in each its significance varies. Throughout, it
denoted citizen-soldiers: throughout, it denoted also a force
which was chiefly, if not wholly, heavy infantry. But the
setting of these two constant features varies from age to age.
In the first period legio was the " levy," the whole host sum-
moned to take the field. In the second period it was not the
whole levy, but one of the principal units into which developing
organization had divided that levy; the " legion " was now
a body of some 3000 men the number of " legions " varied
with the circumstances, and the army included other troops
besides citizens, though they were for the most part unim-
portant. In the third or Imperial age there were many legions
(indeed, a fixed number) quartered in fixed fortresses; there
were also other troops, numerous and important, if not yet
so formidable as the legionaries. Finally, the legions became
smaller units, and the other troops of the army, notably the
cavalry, became the real fighting-line of Rome (see LEGION).
First Stage. The history of the earliest Roman army is, as
one might expect, both ill-recorded and contaminated with
much legend and legal fiction. We read of a primitive force
of 300 riders and 3000 foot soldiers, in which the horseman
counted for almost everything. But the numbers are clearly
artificial and invented, while the pre-eminence accorded to the
cavalry has no sequel in later Roman history. We reach
firmer ground with the organization ascribed to Servius Tullius.
In this system the host included all citizens from 1 7 to 60 years
of age, those under 47 for service in the field, those over 46 for
garrison duty in Rome. The soldiers were grouped at first by
their wealth that is, their ability to provide their own horses,
armour, &c. into cavalry (i 8 " centuries "), heavy infantry,
a remainder which it would be polite to call light infantry,
and some artificers. The heavy infantry counted for most.
Armed with long spears and divided into the three orders of
haslati, principes and triarii (the origins and real senses of
these names are lost), they formed a phalanx, and charged
in a mass, while the cavalry protected the wings. The men
were enrolled for a year that is, for the summer cam-
paign; in the autumn, like all primitive armies, they went
home. It has been conjectured that about the time of the
fall of the kings the normal Roman army comprised some
8500 infantry under 47 years of age, 5000 seniors, 1000 riders
and sco fabri, &c. The evidence for the calculation is un-
fortunately inadequate, but the result is not altogether im-
probable, and it may help the reader to realize what " may
have been." It must be added that this Servian system is
closely connected with the political organization (see ROME,
History).
Second Stage. From this Servian army a series of changes
which we cannot trace in detail produced the Republican
army of conquest. Our ancient authorities ascribe the chief
reforms to the half-legendary Camillus (?..), who introduced
the beginnings of pay and long service, improved the armour
and weapons, abolished the phalanx and substituted for it an
open order based on small subdivisions (maniples), each con-
taining two centuries.
Whatever the truth about Camillus, some such reforms
must at some time have been carried through, to convert the
Servian system into the army which was engaged for nearly
three centuries (from 350 B.C.) in conquering Italy and the
world. This army broke in succession the stout native soldiers
of Italy and the mountaineers of Spain and overthrew the
trained Macedonian phalanx. Once only did it fail against
Hannibal (see PUNIC WARS). But not even Hannibal could
oust it from entrenchments, and not even his victories could
permanently break its moral. Much of its strength lay in the
same qualities which made the Puritan soldiers of Cromwell
terrible the excellent character of the common soldiers, the
rigid discipline, the high training. Credit, too, must be given
to the genius of the Scipios and to the more commonplace
capacities of many fairly able generals. But the organism
472
ROMAN ARMY
itself deserves attention, and, as it chances, we know much
about it, mainly from Polybius. Its elements were three:
(A) The principal unit was the legion, generally a division of
4500 men 3000 heavy infantry, 1200 Tighter-armed (velites),
300 horse though sometimes including as many as 6000 men.
The heavy infantry were the backbone of the legion. They were
levied from the whole body of Roman citizens who had some private
means and who had not already served 16 campaigns, and in effect
formed a yeoman force, For battle they were divided into 1200
haslati, 1200 principes and 600 iriarii: all had a large shield, metal
helmet, leather cuirass, short Spanish thrusting and cutting sword,
and in addition the hastati and principes each carried two short
heavy throwing spears (pila), while the triarii had ordinary long
spears (see ARMS AND ARMOUR). They were drawn up in three
lines: (l) hastati, (2) principes, (3) triarii; the first two were
divided into 10 maniples each (of 120 men, when the legicn only
counted 4500), the third into 10 maniples of half the strength.
According to the ordinary interpretation of our ancient authorities,
the maniples were arranged in a chess-board fashion (quincunx'),
the idea being that the front row of maniples could retire through
the intervals in the second row without disordering it, and the second
row could similarly advance. Recent military writers, however,
Hastati
doubt whether this arrangement can be considered workable, and
it is possible that our authorities did not really mean what has
been supposed. In any case the procedure in fighting seems to
have been simple: the front line discharged a volley of pila and
rushed in with the short sword a sequence much like the volley
and bayonet charge of the l8th century and if this failed, the
second line went in turn through the same process: the third line
of triarii, armed with spear instead of pilum, was a reserve. The
velites, armed with javelins, were either broken up among the heavy-
armed centuries or used as skirmishers or as aids to the cavalry.
The 300 cavalry, however, were (it seems) of little account a
natural result if, as we have reason to think, the horses were small
and stirrups were not used. The officers of the legion consisted of :
(a) Six tribunes, in part elected by the comitia, in part appointed by
the consuls, and holding .command in rotation. They were either
veteran officers, sometimes even ex-magistrates, or young noblemen
beginning their career, (b) Sixty centurions, each commanding
one century, or, rather, a pair commanding each maniple. They were
chosen by the tribunes from among the veteran soldiers serving at
the time and were arranged in a complicated hierarchy, by means
of which a centurion might move upwards till he became primus
pilus, senior centurion of the first maniple of triarii, the chief officer
in the legion, (c) There were also standard-bearers and other
under-officers, for whom reference must be made to specialist
publications.
(B) Besides the legions, composed of citizens, the Roman army
included contingents from the Italian " allies " (socii), subjects of
Rome. These contingents appear to have been large: in many
armies we find as many socii as legionaries, but we are ignorant of
details. The men were armed and drilled like the legionaries, but
they served not in legions but in cohorts, smaller units of 400-500 men,
and their conventional positions seem to have been on the wings of
the legions. They were principally infantry, but included also a
fairly large proportion of cavalry. Despite their numbers, they
do not appear to have ranked with the heavy legionary infantry,
and they were probably used more as detachments from the main
army than as infantry of the line.
(C) Besides legionaries and socii, the Roman army included
non-Italian troops of special kinds, Balearic slingers, Numidian
horsemen, Rhodians, Celtiberians and others: at Trasimene, for
example (217 B.C.), the Roman army included 600 Cretan archers.
The numbers of these auxilia varied; probably they were not
numerous till the latest days of the Republic.
Composition and Size of Armies in the Second Stage. According
to the general practice, each of the two consuls, if he took the
field alone, commanded an army of two legions with appropriate
socii. If the two consuls combined their forces, commanding the
joint force in rotation (as often occurred), the total would be accord-
ing to our authorities four legions, each of 4200 infantry, the same
number of " allied " infantry (in all 33,600 infantry), 1200 legionary
cavalry and about 3600 " allied " cavalry = 38,400 men. Such, for
example, was the Roman army at Trebia (218 B.C.), where (says
Polybius) there fought 16,000 legionaries and 20,000 allied infantry.
The total number of men in the field could be increased; we even
hear of 23 legions serving at one time in the Second Punic War.
Just before this war, in 225 B.C., the total strength of Rome was
reckoned at three-quarters of a million, of which about 65,000 were
in the field and 55,000 were in a reserve at Rome; of the total,
325,000 were Roman citizens and 443,000 (apparently a rough
estimate) were allies. The battle order in normal circumstances
was simple. In the centre stood the legionary infantry: on each
side of that was the allied infantry: on the wings the cavalry.
But sometimes the legions were held in reserve and the brunt (and
honour) of the fight was left to the allies. Sometimes, when the
army was a double force, one commander's troops fought and the
others lay in reserve. Frequently the attack was begun by one
wing, as by Caesar at Pharsalus. At Ilipa in Spain Scipio put his
Spanish auxiliaries in the centre, his Roman troops on the wings,
and attacked with both wings. The chief command of the army
fell (as stated above) to the consul, if present, or, if two consuls
acted together, to them in turn. In default of consuls, a pro-
consul, praetor, or propraetor, in charge of a province, would
command.
Development from the Second Stage to the Third. Towards
the end of the Republic many changes began to work them-
selves out in the Roman army. If Camillus began the system
of pay and long service, it was effectually developed by long
foreign wars in Spain and in the East. Moreover, the growth
of Rome as a wealthy state tended to wreck the old theory
that every citizen was a soldier, and favoured a division of
labour between (e.g.) the merchant and the military, while
the increasing complexity of war required a longer training and
a more professional soldier. In consequence, the old restriction
of legionary service to men with some sort of private property
was abolished by Marius about 104 B.C. and the legionaries
now became wholly proletariate and professionals. By a
second change, also connected with the name of. Marius, the
legion was reorganized as a body of 6000 men in 60 centuries,
divided into 10 cohorts instead of (as hitherto) into 30
maniples; the unit of tactical action thus became a body of
600 instead of 120. This was probably an adaptation within
the legion of the system of cohorts already in use for the con-
tingents of the socii. Soon after, the extension of the Roman
franchise to all Italians converted allies and subjects into
citizens, and the socii into legionaries. A fourth change
abolished the legionary cavalry and greatly increased the
auxilia (C above). And, finally, the appearance of great
military leaders in place of civilian statesmen, and of pretenders
to a throne in place of patriots, familiarized the world with the
notion of large standing armies commanded by permanent
chiefs, and at the same time destroyed discipline and military
loyalty.
Third Stage. The Imperial Army of Defence. The evils of
the Civil Wars (49-31 B.C.) furnished the first emperor, Augustus^
with both the opportunity and the necessity for reforming the
army. Disorganization had reigned for twenty years. It was
needful to restore loyalty and system alike. Augustus did
this, as he did all his work, by adapting the past: yet there is
some truth in the view of his latest historian, von Domaszewski,
that his army reforms were his greatest and most original work.
The main lines of his work are simple. The Imperial army
consisted henceforward of two classes or grades of troops,
about equal in numbers if unequal in importance. The first
grade were the legions, recruited from Roman citizens, whether
resident in Italy or in the provinces. The second grade was
formed by the auxilia, recruited from the subjects (not the
citizens) of the Empire in the provinces, organized in cohorts
and aloe and corresponding somewhat to both the socii and
the auxiliaries (B, C above) of the Republican army. There
were also in Rome special " household" troops (see PRAE-
TORIANS), and a large body of vigiles who were both fire brigade
and police.
(A) The legion of the Empire was what Marius had left it
6000 heavy infantry divided into 10 cohorts: Augustus added
only 1 20 horsemen to serve as despatch-riders and the like. The
supreme command was no longer in the hands of the six tribunes.
According to a practice which had sprung up in the latest Republic
it was in the hands of a legatus legionis, deputy of the general (now
of the emperor, commander-in-chief of the whole army) and a
man usually of senatorial rank and position. The six tribunes
assisted him, in theory: in practice they were now little more than
young men of good birth learning their business or wasting their
ROMAN ARMY
473
time. The real officers of the legion were the 60 centurions, men
who (at least in the early Empire) generally served up from the
ranks, and who knew their work. The senior centurion, primus pilus,
was an especially important officer, and on retirement frequently
became praefectus castrorum, " camp adjutant," or obtained other
promotion. Below the centurions were under-officers, standard-
bearers, optiones, clerks and the like. The men themselves were
recruited from the body of Roman citizens (though we may believe
that birth-certificates were not always demanded). During the
1st century Italy, and particularly north Italy, provided the bulk
of the recruits. After A.D. 70, recruiting in Italy for the legions
practically ceased and men were drawn from the Romanized towns
of the provinces. After Hadrian, each province seems to have
supplied most of the men for the legion (if any) stationed in it, and
so many sons of soldiers born during service (castrenses) flocked to the
army that a military caste almost grew up. The term of service was,
in full, twenty years, at least in theory, but recruiting was voluntary
and when men were short discharges were often withheld. On
discharge the ex-legionary received a bounty or land: many
coloniae (municipalities) were established in the provinces by certain
emperors for the special purpose of taking discharged veterans
according to a custom of which the first instances occur in the latest
Republican age. On the whole, the legionary was still the typical
" Roman " soldier. If he was no longer Italian, he was generally
of citizen birth and always of citizen rank, and his connexion with
the Empire and the government was real. Each legion bore a
title and a number (e.g. II. Augusta, III. Gallica). The custom of
using such titles and numbers can be detected sporadically in the
latest Republic, and many titles and numbers then borne by legions
passed on into the Empire with the legions themselves. As Augustus
gradually became master of the world, he found himself with three
armies, his own and those of Lepidus and Antony; from the three
he chose certain legions to form his new standing army, and he left
these with the titles and numbers which they had previously borne,
although that concession resulted in three legions numbered III.
and two numbered IV., V., VI. and X. respectively. Sirnilar titles
and numbers were given to legions raised afterwards either to
fill up gaps caused by disaster or to increase the army. Here, as
elsewhere in the Roman and above all in the Augustan system,
precedent defied logic.
(B) Besides the legions Augustus developed a new order of
auxilia. Auxiliaries (as is said above) had served occasionally in
the Republican armies since about 250 B.C., and in the latest Re-
public large bodies of them had been enlisted in the armies of con-
tending generals. Thus Caesar in Gaul enrolled a division of native
Gauls, free men but not citizens of Rome, which ranked from the
first in all but legal status as a legion, the " Alaudae," and in due
course was formally admitted to the legionary list (legio V.). But this
use of non-citizens had been limited in extent and confined in normal
circumstances to special troops such as slingers or bowmen. This
casual practice Augustus reduced, or rather extended, to system,
following in many details the scheme of the Republican socii and
veiling the novelty under old titles. Henceforward, regiments of
infantry (cohortes) or cavalry (alae), 500 or 1000 strong, were regularly
raised (apparently, by voluntary recruiting) from the non-citizen
populations of the provinces and formed a force almost equal in
numbers (and perhaps ultimately much more than equal) to the
legions. The men who served in these units were less well paid and
served longer than the legionaries; on their discharge they received
a bounty and the Roman franchise for themselves and wife and
children. They were commanded by Roman praefecti or tribuni,
and were no doubt required to understand Roman orders; they
must have generally become Romanized and fit for the citizenship,
but they were occasionally (at least in the 1st century A.D.) permitted
to retain tribal weapons and methods of fighting and to serve under
the command of tribal leaders, who were at once their chiefs and
Roman officers. These auxiliaries provided both the whole of the
archers, &c., and nearly the whole of the cavalry of the army;
they also included many foot regiments. A peculiar arrangement
(to which no exact parallel seems to occur in any other army) was
that a cohort of 500 men might include 380 foot and 120 horse and
a cohort of 1000 men or 760 foot and 240 horse (cohors equitata),
and an ala might similarly include a proportion of foot (ala peditata).
Each regiment bore a number and a title, the latter often derived
from the officer who had raised the corps (ala Indiana, raised by one
Julius Indus) or, still more often, from the tribe which supplied
the first recruits (cohors VII. Gallorum, cohors II. Hispanorum and
the like). To what extent recruiting remained territorial is uncertain
after the 1st century, probably, the territorial names meant in most
cases very little. The total number of the auxiliary regiments
probably varied from time to time and can at present hardly be
guessed.
Composition of Armies and Distribution of Troops in the Thira
Stage. If the system of legions and auxilia in the early Empire
was novel, the use made of them was no less so. The latest
Republic offers to the student the spectacle of large field armies
and though it also reveals a counter tendency to assign specia
legions to special provinces, that tendency is very feeble
Augustus ended the era of large field armies: he could, indeed,
eave no such weapons for future pretenders to the throne. By
seeping the Empire within set frontiers, he developed the counter
tendency. That policy exactly suited the military position in his
:ime. The early Roman Empire had not to face as Britain or
France or Germany might have to face to-day the danger of a war
with an equal enemy, needing the mobilization of all its national
forces. From Augustus till A.D. 2 50 Rome had no conterminous
ioe from whom to fear invasion. Parthia, her one and dangerous
equal, was far away in the East and little able to strike home.
Elsewhere, her frontiers bordered more or less wild barbarians,
who might often harass, but could not do serious harm. To
meet this there was need, not of a strong army concentrated in
one or two cantonments, but of many small garrisons scattered
along each frontier, with a few stronger fortresses to act as
military centres adjacent to these garrisons.
Accordingly, a system grew up under Augustus and his im-
mediate successors whereby the whole army was distributed
along the frontiers or in specially disorderly districts (such as
N.W. Spain) in permanent garrisons. On the actual frontiers
and on the chief roads leading to them were numerous cohorts
and alae of auxiliaries, garrisoning each its own caslellum of 3-7
acres in extent. Close behind the frontiers, or even on them,
were the twenty-five legions, each (with a few exceptions of early
date) holding its own fortress (castra stativa or hiberna) of 50-60
acres. Details varied at different times. Sometimes, where no
Rhine or Danube helped, and where outside enemies were many,
the frontier was further fortified by a continuous wall of wooden
palisades (as in part of Germany, see LIMES) or of earth or stone
(as in Britain, see article BRITAIN, ROMAN), or the boundary
might be guarded by a road patrolled from forts planted along it
(as in part of Roman Africa). The result was a long frontier
guard covering Britain, and Europe from the German Ocean
to the Black Sea, and the upper Euphrates valley, and the edge
of the Sahara south of Tunis and Algeria and Morocco, while
the wide Empire behind it was little troubled by the presence
of soldiers.
The following table shows the disposition of the legions about
A.D. 120 and for many decades subsequently. It would be im-
possible, even if space allowed, to add the auxiliaries, since the
details of their distribution are too little known. But it may
be in general assumed that the total number of auxiliaries in
any province was little less, and probably rather greater, than
the number of legionaries, and the sizes of the various provincial
armies can thus be calculated roughly. Thus Britain was held
probably by 35,000-40,000 men. Each provincial army was
commanded either by the governor of the province or (in a
few exceptional cases) by the senior legatus of the legions
stationed there:
Britain
Lower Germany
( = lower Rhine)
Upper Germany
Pannonia (Danube to
Semlin)
Upper Moesia (Middle
Danube)
,t ii
Dacia (now
Transylvania)
Lower Moesia (Lower
Danube)
II. Augusta (Isca Silurum, now Caer-
leon).
VI. Victrix (Eburacum, York).
XX. Valeria Victrix (Deva, Chester).
I. Minervia (Bonna, Bonn).
XXX. Ulpia Victrix (Vetera, Xanten).
XXII. Pnmigenia (Moguntiacum, Mainz).
VIII. Augusta (Argentorate, Strassburg).
X. Gemina (Vindobona, Vienna).
XIV. Gemina (Carnuntum, Petronell).
I. Adiutrix (Brigetio, near Komorn).
II. Adiutrix (Aquincum, near Buda-
pest).
IV. Flavia (Singidunvm, Belgrade).
VII. Claudia (Vtminacium, Kostolac).
XIII. Gemina (Apulum, Karlsburg).
I.
XI.
V.
Asia Minor (Cappadocia) XV.
XII.
Italira (Novae, Sistov).
Claudia (Durostorum, Silistria).
Macedonica (Troesmis, Iglitza).
Apollinaris (Satala, Armenian fron-
tier).
Fulminata (Melitene, on upper
Euphrates).
474
Syria .
Judaea
Arabia
Egypt
Africa
Spain
ROMAN ART
XVI. Flavia (Samosata, on upper
Euphrates).
IV Scythica-i
VI. Ferrata > near Antioch (?).
III. Gallica )
X. Fretensis (Jerusalem).
III. Cyrenaica (Bostra).
II. Trajana (near Alexandria a dis-
orderly city).
III. Augusta (Lambaesis) .
VII. Gemina (Legio, Leon, in N.W.
Spain).
The total of legionaries may be put at about 180,000 men,
the auxiliaries at about 200,000. If we exclude the " house-
hold " troops at Rome, the police fleets on the Mediterranean,
and the local militia in some districts, we may put the regular
army of the Empire at about 400,000 men. This army, as will
be plain, was framed on much the same ideas as the British
army of the ipth century. It was meant not to fight against
a first-class foreign power, but to keep the peace and guard the
frontiers of dominions threatened by scattered barbarian raids
and risings. Field army there was none, nor any need. If
special danger threatened or some special area was to be con-
quered such as southern Britain (A.D. 43) or a little land across
the upper Rhine (A.D. 74) detachments (vexillationes) were
sent by legions and sometimes also by auxiliaries in adjacent
provinces, and a field force was formed sufficient for the moment
and the work.
Change from the Third Period to the Fourth. Two principal
causes brought gradual change to the Augustan army. In the
first place, the pax Romana brought such prosperity to many
districts that they ceased to provide sufficient recruits. The
Romans, like the British in India, had more and more to look
to uncivilized regions and even beyond their borders. Hence
comes, in the 2nd century and after, a new class of numeri or
cunei or vexillationes who used (like the earlier auxiliaries) their
national arms and tactics and imported into the army a more
and more non-Roman element. This tendency became very
marked in the 3rd century and bore serious fruit at its close.
And, secondly, the old days of mere frontier defence were over.
The barbarians began to beat on the walls of the Empire as
early as A.D. 160: about A.D. 250 they here and there got
through, and they came henceforward in ever-growing numbers.
Moreover, they came on horseback, bringing new tactics for the
Roman infantry to face, and they came in huge masses. We
may doubt if any military system could have permanently
stayed this astonishing torrent. But the Empire did what it
could. It enlisted barbarians to fight barbarians, and added
freely too freely, perhaps, if there was any choice to the non-
Roman elements of the army. It increased its cavalry and
began to form a distinct field force.
Fourth Period. The results are seen in the reforms of Dio-
cletian and Constantine the Great (A.D. 284-circa 320). New
frontier guards, styled limitanei or riparienses, were established,
and the old army was reorganized in field forces which accom-
panied or might accompany the emperors in war (comitatenses,
palalini). The importance of the legions dwindled; the chief
soldiers were the mercenaries, mostly Germans, enlisted from
among the barbarians. New titles now appear, and it becomes
plain even to the casual reader that in many points the new
order is not the old. The details of the system are as compli-
cated as all the administrative machinery of that age. Here it
is enought to point out that the significance of such officers and
titles as the dux and the comes (duke, count) lies ahead in the
history of the middle ages, and not in the past, the history of
the Roman army itself.
War Office, General Staff. Under the Republic we do not
find, and indeed should not expect to find, any central body
which was especially entrusted with the development of the
army system or military finance or military policy in wars.
Even under the Empire, however, there was no such organiza-
tion. The emperor, as commander-in-chief, and his more or
less unofficial advisers doubtless decided questions of policy.
But the army was so much a group of provincial armies that
much was left to the chief officers in each province. Here,
as elsewhere in the Empire, we trace a love if not for Home
Rule, at least for Devolution. There was, however, a central
finance office in Rome for the special purpose of meeting the
bounties (or equivalent) due to discharged soldiers. This was
established by Augustus in A.D. 6 with the title aerarium
militare, and had, for receipts, the yield of two taxes, a 5%
legacy duty and a i% on sales (or perhaps only on auction-
sales). The legacy duty did not touch legacies to near relations
or legacies of small amount.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Liebenam, " Exercitus," in Pauly-\Vissowa,
Realencydopadie; Von Domaszewski, in Mommsen-Marquardt's
Handbuch der romischen Altertumer (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1884), vol. v,
pp. 319-612; H. Delbruck, Geschichte der Kriegskunst, vol. i., 2nd
ed. (Berlin, 1907) ; E. Lammert, " Die Entwicklung der romischen
Taktik," in Neue Jahrbucher fur das klassische Altertum, ix. 100-28,
169-87; Cagnat's article "Legio" in Daremberg and Saglio, Diction-
naire des antiquites grecques et romaines; E. G. Hardy, Studies in
Roman History (London, 1906^-9); Th. Mommsen, " Das romische
Militarwesen seit Diocletian," in Hermes, xxiv. 195-279.
(F. J. H.)
ROMAN ART. (i) Introductory: History of Recent Research.
The scientific study of ancient Roman art dates from a com-
paratively recent period. The great artists of the Renaissance,
headed by Raphael and Michelangelo, showed no lack of apprecia-
tion for such models as the bas-reliefs of Trajan's Column;
and it is sufficient to name Mantegna's " Triumph of Caesar "
in order to recall the influence exerted by Roman historical
sculpture upon their choice and treatment of monumental
subjects; but their eyes were fixed on the Greek ideal, however
imperfectly represented by monuments then accessible, and
the supremacy of this standard became established beyond
challenge. In the i8th century Winckelmann, the founder
of the science of classical archaeology, directed the gaze of
students and critics towards the glories of classical Greek art,
which he divined behind the copies which filled the palaces
and museums of modern Rome; 1 and the rediscovery of the
extant remains of that art, which began early in the igtb
century and still continues, has naturally absorbed the attention
of the great majority of classical archaeologists. Neverthe-
less, towards the close of the igth century, when the main
lines of Greek artistic development had been firmly traced
and interest was aroused in its later offshoots, critics were led
to examine more closely the products of the Roman period.
As early as 1874 Philippi had published a study of Roman
triumphal reliefs; 2 but his intention was to show that they
were derived from the paintings exhibited on the occasion of
a triumph a theory which can no longer be maintained
and not to determine their place in the history of art. In
1893, however, Alois Riegl published a series of essays on the
history of ornament under the title of Stilfragen, in one of
which he expressed the opinion that " there was in the antique
art of the Roman Empire a development along the ascending
line and not merely a decadence, as is universally believed."
This thesis was taken up two years later by Franz Wickhoff
in a preface contributed to the reproduction in facsimile of
the illustrated MS. of Genesis in the imperial library at Vienna.
Wickhoff contended that, whilst the art of the Augustan period
was the culmination of that which had flourished under the
Hellenistic monarchies, it was succeeded by an outburst of
genuinely Roman artistic effort, which reached the height of
its achievement in the reliefs and portrait-sculpture of the
Flavian period, and gave birth in the 2nd century A.D. to the
monuments of the " continuous " style of representation ex-
emplified by the imperial columns. Wickhoff's work has
become familiar to English readers through Mrs Strong's
1 The eleventh book of Winckelmann's Geschichte der Kunst,
which deals with art under the Romans, contains notable proofs
of the author's sureness of vision; for example, he divined the
true date and affinities of the reliefs in the Villa Borghese, after-
wards .wrongly attributed to the time of Claudius (see below).
" t)ber die romischen Triumphalreliefs und ihre Stellung in
der Kunstgeschichte " (Abhandlungen der sacks. Gesellsch. der
Wissenschaften, vi., 1874).
ROMAN ART
475
excellent translation, with copious illustrations, which ap-
peared in 1900; in the following year Riegl published the
first (which, by reason of his untimely death, remains the only)
volume of his Late Roman Industrial Art in Austria and Hungary,
in the opening chapters of which he endeavours to show that
the later transformations of Roman art in the 2nd and suc-
ceeding centuries after Christ continue to mark a definite
advance. On the other hand, the originality of Roman art
under the Empire was called in quesion by Josef Strzygowski,
whose first important work on the subject, Orient oder Rom,
appeared in 1901. Strzygowski holds that even in the imperial
period, Rome was receptive rather than creative; that what
is termed " Roman imperial art " is in reality the latest phase
of Hellenistic art, whose chief centres are to be sought in Asia
Minor, Syria and Egypt; and that this late Hellenistic art
was itself gradually transformed by the invading spirit of the
East into that Byzantine art which is half Greek and half
Oriental, but wholly un-Roman. The problem thus stated
will presently be discussed; in the meantime it is to be noted
that the principal monuments which fall within our province
have been at length rendered accessible to students by a series
of adequate reproductions. In sculpture, the reliefs of Trajan's
Column have been published by Cichorius, and those of the
column of Marcus Aurelius by Petersen and others; in metal-
work, the treasure of Bosco Reale has been reproduced in the
Monuments Plot, and that of Hildesheim has been published
by the authorities of the Berlin Museum; a series of repro-
ductions, including all the important examples of Roman
painting, is issued by the firm of Bruckmann under the super-
vision of Paul Herrmann; and the ancient paintings preserved
in the Vatican library, which include some of the most famous
examples of the art, were published and described by Dr Nogara
in 1907. The discussion of the date to be assigned to the
Trophy of Trajan at Adam-Klissi in the Dobruja, initiated by
Adolf Furtwangler, has led to a closer study of the remains
of Roman provincial art; and the discovery of the founda-
tions of the Ara Pacis Augustae at Rome, together with addi-
tional remains of its sculptured decoration, has given an impulse
to the study of Roman historical monuments. In this field
important contributions to knowledge have been made by
members of the British school at Rome, which will be noticed
below. Finally, the history of Roman sculpture has for the
first time been systematically and comprehensively treated
by Mrs Strong in a handbook whose copious and well-chosen
illustrations add greatly to its value. Thus the necessary
equipment has been furnished for students of the problem
presented by Roman art.
(2) National Roman Art; Landmarks of its History. It is
impossible to speak of a specifically Roman national art until we
approach the latest period of Republican history. The germs
of artistic endowment which existed in the Roman character
were not developed until her political institutions were matured
and her supremacy in the Mediterranean established. Up to
that time such works of art as were produced in, or imported
into, Rome were without exception Greek or Etruscan. Both
in Etruria and in Latium Greek artists were commissioned to
decorate the temples in which wood and terra-cotta took the
place of the marble which Greece alone could afford to use. In
496 B.C., according to tradition, two Greek artists, Damophilos
and Gorgasos, decorated the temple of Ceres, Liber and Libera
with paintings and sculpture; when the temple was restored
by Augustus their terra-cotta reliefs were carefully removed
and framed. 1 But most of the early sculpture preserved in
Rome doubtless belonged to the " Tuscan " school, whose
works Pliny 2 quotes as evidence that there was an art of
statuary native to Italy. It is true that Etruscan art was
dependent for its motives and technique on Greek models;
but in its portraiture notably in the reclining figures which
adorn Etruscan sarcophagi we can trace the uncompromising
realism and close attention to detail which are native to Italian
1 H.N. xxxv. 154.
*H.N. xxxiv. 34; cf. 43; and see Quint.^xli. 10, I.
soil; the fragments of temple-sculptures which have been
preserved are of less value, since, if not the work of Greeks,
they are entirely Greek in conception. Roman portraiture
undoubtedly continues the Etruscan tradition. It was a
common custom in Etruria to decorate the urn containing the
ashes of the dead with a lid in the form of the human head
(such urns are called canopi), and the same desire to record the
features of the departed produced the waxen masks, or imagines,
which were preserved in the houses of the Roman aristocracy.
In architecture, too, Roman builders learnt much from their
Etruscan neighbours, from whom they borrowed the character-
istic form of their temples, and perhaps also the prominent use
of the arch and vault. But the stream of Etruscan influence
was met by a counter-current from the south, where the Greek
colonies in Campania provided a natural channel by which
Hellenic ideas reached the Latin race; and Roman architects
soon abandoned the purely Etruscan type of temple for one
which closely followed western Greek models. The conquests
of the later Republic, however, brought them into more direct
contact with the art of Greece proper. Beginning from 212 B.C.,
when Marcellus despoiled Syracuse of its principal statues, every
victorious general adorned his triumph with masterpieces of
Greek art, whether of sculpture or of painting, and, when
Philhellenism became the ruling fashion at Rome, wealthy
connoisseurs formed private collections drawn from the Greek
provinces Greek craftsmen, moreover, were employed in the
decoration of the palaces of the Roman nobles and capitalists,
which scarcely differed from those of the great Hellenistic
cities. Except in portraiture, there was nothing character-
istically Roman in the art which flourished in Rome in the time
of Caesar and Cicero. But the remains of an altar, preserved
partly at Munich and partly in the Louvre (Plate II. fig. 10),
which is believed with good reason to have been set up by
Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus shortly before 30 B.C., furnish an
early example of the historical, or, to speak more exactly,
commemorative art, to whose development the Empire gave so
powerful an impulse. On the one face of the altar we find a
Greek subject the marriage of Poseidon and Amphitrite,
on the other a Roman sacrifice, the suovelaurilia, with other
scenes from the life of the army. Augustus enlisted art, as he
did literature, in the service of the new order. The remarkable
technical dexterity which characterizes all forms of art in this
period silver plate and stucco decoration, as well as sculpture
in the round or in relief is purely Greek; but the form is
filled with a new content. For Augustus determined to enlist
art as well as literature in the service of the new regime, and
this purpose was served not only by public monuments, such
as the Ara Pacis Augustae (Plate II. figs. 11-13), but by the
masterpieces of the silversmith's and gem-engraver's art (Plate
VII. figs. 32-37). In the art, as in the literature of the Augustan
age, classicism was the dominant note, and the naturalism so
congenial to the Italian temperament was repressed, though
never extinguished. The result of this was that under the
Julio-Claudian dynasty academic tradition filled the place of
inspiration, and Roman art failed to discover its vocation. A
change came under the Flavian emperors. The painters who
decorated with fairy landscapes the walls of Roman palaces,
untrammelled by the conventions of official art, introduced
into Rome a summary method of working, which has much in
common with that of the modern impressionist school; and
the sculptors of the Flavian period laid to heart the lesson taught
by their successful " illusionism " (to borrow Wickhoff's term).
We shall see that this is true of all forms of sculpture historical
sculpture, portraiture and decorative ornament; and we are
entitled to rank this Flavian art as the specific creation of
imperial Rome, whatever may have been the precise nationality
of the individual workers who adorned the new capital of the
world. But this phase was of short duration; and the Roman
spirit, which in harmony with that of Greece had produced
such brilliant results, triumphed under Trajan and found its
characteristic expression in the " epic in stone " with which
his column is adorned. Wickhoff claims the " continuous "
47 6
ROMAN ART
style in which the artist recounts the Dacian campaigns of
Trajan as a creation of the Roman genius. W shall see that
the term is not altogether a happy one; but there is good
reason (as will be shown below) for the belief that the designer
of the column, however profoundly influenced in his selection
of motives and in his composition of individual scenes by
Greek tradition, nevertheless worked out his main principles
for himself. The realism of the Roman is shown in the minute
rendering of details, which makes the reliefs a priceless source
of information as to military antiquities. Historical art
achieved no less a triumph in the great frieze from Trajan's
Forum (Plate II. fig. 16), and in the panels of the arch at
Benevento. Imposing as these works are, they suffer from
the defects incidental to an art which endeavours to express
too much. Overcharged with detail, and packed with meanings
which reveal themselves only to patient study, they lack the
spacious and reposeful character of Greek art; while, if we
regard only their decorative function, we must admit that the
excess of ornamental surface mars the effect of the buildings
which they adorn. Along the path thus marked out, Roman
art continued to progress; it is true that under the influence
of Hadrian there was a brief renaissance of classicism which
gave birth to the idealized type of Antinous, and to certain
eclectic works which belong to Greek rather than to Roman
art; but the historical reliefs which survive from the Antonine
period, and more especially the sarcophagi, which reproduce
scenes of Greek mythology with a close adherence to the letter
but a fresh artistic spirit, show that the new leaven was at work.
The main fact underlying the changes of the time was the loss
of the true principles of plastic art, which even in Hellenistic
times had become obscured by the introduction of pictorial
methods into relief-sculpture. Colour, rather than form, now
took the highest place in the gamut of artistic values. Painting,
indeed, so far as our scanty knowledge goes, was not practised
with conspicuous success; but the art of mosaic was carried
to an extraordinary degree of technical perfection; and in
strictly plastic art the choice of material was often determined
by qualities of colour and transparency. For example, por-
phyry, basalt and alabaster of various hues were used by the
sculptor in preference to white marble; and new conventions,
such as the plastic rendering of the iris and pupil of the eye,
were dictated by the ever-growing need for contrasts of light
and shadow. This great revolution in taste has been traced,
and doubtless with justice, to the permeation of the Graeco-
Roman world of the 2nd century by oriental ideas. The East
has always preferred colour to form, and richness of ornament
to significance of subject; and in art, as in religion, the West
was now content to borrow. Roman official art, however,
continued to produce the historical monuments which the
achievements of the time demanded; but the principles of
figure-composition were less fully grasped. The reliefs of the
Aurelian Column form a less intelligible series than those of the
Column of Trajan; and the panels of the Arch of Septimius
Severus, with their bird's-eye perspective, have not inaptly
been compared to Flemish tapestries. The extravagance and
pomp of the dynasty founded by Septimius Severus filled Rome
with such works as the art of the time could produce; and
the busts of Caracalla show that in portraiture Roman crafts-
men retained their cunning. Even during the anarchy which
followed masterpieces such as the portrait of Philip the Arabian
were produced; and during the reign of Gallienus (A D. 253-268),
which saw the dismemberment of the Empire, there was a note-
worthy outburst of artistic activity, whose products are seen
in the naturalistic portraits of the emperor and the court. 1
But by the close of the 3rd century a further transformation
had taken place, which coincided with the political revolution
by which the absolute monarchy of Diocletian succeeded to
the principate of Augustus. The portraits of Constantine
and his house can no longer be termed naturalistic; they are
*It is very remarkable that the coin-portraits of the Gallic
usurper Postumus (A.D. 258-68) are executed in precisely the
same style ; the coins were struck either at Trier or at Cologne.
monumental, both in scale and in conception, and, above all,
their rigid " frontality " carries us back at a bound to the
primitive art of the East. The classical standard set by the
Greek genius had ceased to govern art, although the fund of
types which Hellenism had created still furnished subjects to
the artist, or was made the vehicle by which the new ideas
derived from Christianity were expressed. The Roman spirit
was still strong enough to maintain that interest in the human
form and the representation of dramatic events which was
lacking in the Oriental; but in the monuments of the Constan-
tinian period, such as the narrow friezes of the Arch of Con-
stantine, we can see nothing but the work of artists who had
lost touch with true plastic principles, in spite of the ingenious
arguments adduced by Riegl. If we are to seek for signs of
progress, it must be rather in the domain of architecture, which
had never ceased to make advances in dealing with the spatial
and constructive problems presented by the great building
works of the Empire; it was now called upon to face a fresh
task in providing Christians with a fit place for public worship.
In the solution of this problem the architects of the 4th century
showed a wonderful fertility of resource; but to describe their
achievements would be to pass the confines of Roman art in the
proper sense of the word.
(3) Individual Arts, (a) Architecture. This branch of the
subject may be studied in the article ARCHITECTURE, and illus-
trations will be found in other articles (CAPITAL; COLUMN;
ORDER; TRIUMPHAL ARCH; &c.). Architecture, regarded
as a fine art, had been brought by the Greeks to the highest
perfection of which it was capable under the limitations which
they imposed upon themselves. The Greek temple appeals
to the aesthetic sense by the simplicity and harmony of its
proportions as well as by the rational correspondence between
function and decoration in its several members. On these lines
there was no room for progress. It is true that the Etruscans
modified the type of the Greek temple and profoundly influenced
Roman construction in this respect. The Etruscan temple
was not approached on all sides by a low flight of steps, but
raised on a high platform (podium) with a staircase in the front;
it was broad in proportion to its depth, indeed, in many cases,
square; and the temple itself (cello) was faced by a deep portico,
which often occupied half the platform. Moreover, as the use
of marble for building was unknown in early Italy, wood was
employed in construction and terra-cotta in decoration, and
this change of material led to a wider spacing of the columns
than was possible in Greece. But these alterations in the
system of proportions were disadvantageous to aesthetic effect;
and the Romans though they soon ceased (under the influence
of the western Greeks) to build temples of purely " Tuscan "
type preserved certain of their features, such as the high
platform and deep portico (see ARCHITECTURE, fig. 26). Nor
can we regard as felicitous the design of certain Roman temples,
such as that of Concord overlooking the Forum, and the sup-
posed temple of Augustus (see ROME), which have a broad front
(approached in the temple of Concord by a central portico)
and narrow sides. The great temples of the Empire were (in
general) inspired by Greek models, and need not therefore
concern us; but we may notice Hadrian's peculiar design for
the double temple of Venus and Rome, with twin cellae placed
back to back. To the orders (see ORDER) of Greek architecture
the Etruscans added the " Tuscan," a simplified Doric, of which
an early example has been found at Pompeii, enclosed within
the wall of the Casa del Fauno. 2 This column, which can
scarcely be later than the 6th century B.C., has a smooth shaft
with pronounced entasis, a heavy capital with a scotia between
abacus and echinus, and a plain circular base. To the Romans
we owe the " Composite " crder, so called because it contains
features distinctive of the Corinthian and Ionic orders (see
ORDER, fig. 14). It is really a variety of the Corinthian, with
Ionic volutes inserted in the capital; the earliest known
example of its use is seen in the Arch of Titus. The Romans,
moreover, made frequent use of the figured capital, which, as
2 Romische Mitteilungen (1902), pi. vii.
ROMAN ART
PLATE L
Photo, Alinari.
FIG. i. DOMITIUS AHENOBARBUS
(SO CALLED).
Photo, Anderson.
FIG. 2. SCIPIO AFRICANUS
(SO CALLED).
Photo, Alinari.
FIG. 3. UNKNOWN WOMAN.
Photo, Alinari.
FIG. 4. VESPASIAN.
Photo, F. Bruckmann, Munich.
FIG. 5. UNKNOWN PHYSICIAN.
Photo, Ciraudon.
FIG. 6. ANTINOCS.
Photo F. Bruckmann, Munich.
FIG 7. UNKNOWN ROMAN.
XXIII. 476.
Photo, Giraudon.
FIG. 8. GALLIENUS.
Photo, F. Bruckmann, Munich.
FIG. 9. UNKNOWN MAN
CENTURY).
Photo, Giraudnn,
FIG. io. ALTAR OF D
AUGUSTUS AND THE ROYAL FAMILY.
CLAUDIA
FIGS. 11-13. PORTIONS OF THE DECO
By permission of the Italu
By permission of the Italian Ministry of Public Instruction.
FIG. 14. RELIEF FROM THE ARCH OF TITUS: TRIUMPH OF TITUS AND THE SPOILS OF JERUSALEM.
ART
PLATE H.
TIUS AHENOBARBUS.
IILY.
DN OF THE ARA PACIS AUGUSTAE.
stry of Public Instruction.
THE EARTH GODDESS AND THE SPIRITS OF AIR AND WATER.
/ atom.
i.. PILASTER.
By permission of the Italian Ministry of PtMic In slruction.
FIG. 16. RELIEF FROM THE ARCH OF CONSTANTINE: ROMAN CAVALRY CHARGE.
PLATE III.
ROMAN ART
Photo, Anderson.
FIG. 17. CAESAR AUGUSTUS.
Photo, Anderson.
FIG. 18 MEDALLION, ARCH OF CONSTANTINE.
Photo, A nderson.
CONSTANTINE DISTRIBUTING A DOLE.
Photo, Anderson.
CONSTANTINE ON THE ROSTRUM.
FIG. 19. BAS-RELIEFS ON THE ARCH OF CONSTANTINE.
ROMAN ART
477
the remains of Pompeii show, was an invention of the later
Hellenistic age. Reduced copies of statues are found in the
decoration of such capitals in the baths of Caracalla ; the
capitals with Victories and trophies in S. Lorenzo Fuori also
belonged to a building of pagan times.
But the specific achievement of the Roman architect was
the artistic application of a new set of principles those which
are expressed 'in the arch, the vault and the dome. The recti-
linear buildings of the Greeks, with their direct vertical supports,
gave place to vaulted structures in which lateral thrust was
called into play. The aesthetic effect of the curves thus brought
into prominence was well understood by the Romans; and
they were the inventors of the decorative combination of the
Greek orders with the arcade. More than this, the erection of
vaults and domes of wide span, rendered possible by the use
of concrete, gave to the Roman architect the opportunity of
dealing artistically with internal spaces. A simple yet grandiose
example of this may be found in the Pantheon of Hadrian.
Circular buildings were a common feature in Italian archi-
tecture; 1 the temple of Vesta, which doubtless represented
the primitive hut or dwelling of the king, always had this form,
and the theme was repeated with many variations, from the
well-known circular temple in the Forum Boarium to the
fantastic structure with broken outlines at Baalbek. But in
the Pantheon the artist lays stress, not on the exterior, which
possesses no special effect, but on the interior, whose proportions
are carefully determined and give a most impressive result.
The same may be said of the great halls of the Imperial Thermae,
and as time went on more elaborate architectural schemes were
devised to meet the requirements of the Christian Church.
(b) Sculpture. It was pointed out above that in the late
Republican period specifically Roman art was practically con-
fined to portraiture. Of this we have many fine examples,
such as the so-called Domitius Ahenobarbus of the Braccio
Nuovo (Plate I. fig. i); and there is a series of busts which
possess a special interest in that some of them have been
claimed as portraits of Scipio Africanus. The example in the
Museo Capitolino (Plate I. fig. 2), with a modern inscription,
though executed in the 2nd century A.D., is clearly copied
from a famous Republican original. The baldness of the
head has been thought to be derived from the technique of
the waxen imagines, in which the hair was painted; the
presence of a scar above the temple, which has given rise to
various theories, merely betokens the unsparing realism of the
Republican artist. In monumental sculpture our earliest
datable example is the altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus, already
referred to (Plate II. fig. 10). The ceremonial scene of the
suovetaurilia fills the centre of the composition; to the left
we see the dismissal of veterans for whom diplomata are being
prepared; to the right the troops on active service, both horse
and foot, are represented. The artist was clearly inspired
by statuary and other types of earlier date, which are grouped
in a somewhat loose composition. Augustan art is adequately
represented by the Prima Porta statue of the emperor, dis-
covered in 1863 in the Villa of Livia and now in the Braccio
Nuovo (Plate III. fig. 17). The attitude of the figure is that
of an imperator addressing his army; but there is a character-
istic blending of the real with the ideal, for the emperor is not
only bareheaded but barefoot, and beside him is a tiny cupid
riding on a dolphin, which indicates the descent of the Julian
house from Venus. We note, too, how the Roman artist
or the Greek artist interpreting the wishes of the Roman is
scarcely more concerned for the total effect of his work than
for the significant details of the decoration. The chasings of
the corselet display, as a central subject, the restoration by the
Parthian in 20 B.C. of the standards taken from Crassus at
Carrhae (53 B.C.). Not content with this, the artist has added
a group of personifications indicating sunrise Sol, Caelus,
Aurora and the goddess of the morning dew as well as Apollo,
Diana, Mars and the earth goddess, and two figures symbolical
of the western provinces, Gaul and Spain. It is also to be
1 See Altmann, Die italischen Rundbauten (1906).
noted that the statue shows abundant traces of its original
polychrome tints brown, yellow, blue, red and pink. It
must have been executed later probably not much later
than 13 B.C., when Augustus returned from the West, and
therefore belongs to the same period as the Ara Pacis Augustae,
dedicated January 30, 9 B.C. This altar stood in a walled
enclosure with two entrances, measuring nj by ioj metres.
The walls, with their plinth, were about 6 metres in height,
and were decorated internally with a frieze of garlands and
bucrania, and externally with two bands of relief, the lower
consisting of conventional scrolls of acanthus varied with other
floral motives, and teeming with bird and insect life, the upper
showing processions (Plate II. fig. n) passing from east to
west. The most interesting of these is that on the south wall,
which included Augustus himself, the flamines and the imperial
family. 2 On the western face, towards which the processions
are directed, we find a scene of sacrifice, with a landscape
background, in which the ideal figures of senate and people
appear. To the east front (apparently) belongs the beautiful
group of the earth goddess (Tellus) and the spirits of air
and water (Plate II. fig. 13). It is impossible to deny the
incongruity of this composition with the realistic procession
which adjoins it, and we can only suppose that the artist bor-
rowed the group from some Hellenistic precursor and used it
in that blend of the real and ideal which, as we saw, was the
keynote of the new imperial art.
The lack of public monuments which can be assigned to
the Julio-Claudian period is only in part supplied by those
of private significance; the most important of these are the
sepulchral cippi and other altars, decorated sometimes with
figure-subjects, but largely with plant and animal forms
rendered with the utmost naturalism. The altar with plane-
leaves in the Museo delle Terme (fig. 38), though perhaps not
Redrawn from a photo by Anderson.
FIG. 38. Altar with Plane-leaves.
later than Augustus, is typical of the spirit in which vegetable
forms were treated under the first dynasty. We may take a
female portrait discovered in a ist-century house on the right
bank of the Tiber (Plate I. fig. 3) as an example of the por-
traiture of this period, which shows great technical merit but
a touch of conventionality.
The sculpture of the Flavian period finds its best-known
example in the reliefs of the Arch of Titus. This has but a
single archway; the piers had no sculptured decoration, and
the narrow frieze which surmounts the architrave is perfunc-
torily executed. But the long panels on either side of the
passage, which represent the triumph of Titus and the spoils
of Jerusalem, have been deemed (by Wickhoff) worthy of a
place in the history of art beside the masterpieces of Velazquez
the " Hilanderas " and the " Surrender of Breda "; and
* Some doubt has recently been cast on the identification of the
emperor and his family.
ROMAN ART
though we cannot subscribe to his view that the artist calculated
the effect of natural illumination upon the relief, it remains
true that they are eminently pictorial compositions in respect
of their depth of focus, yet without sacrifice of plastic effect
(Plate II. fig. 14). So far as bas-relief is concerned, the
problem of representing form in open space is here solved.
Equally admirable in technique, though of less historical
importance, are the circular medallions (tondi) which now
adorn the Arch of Constantine, but originally belonged
(as the present writer has shown) 1 to a monument of the
Flavian period, perhaps the " temple of the Flavian house "
erected by Domitian. The one shown (Plate III. fig. 18)
is remarkable in that the head of the emperor has been replaced
by a portrait, not of Constantine, but (in all probability) of
Claudius Gothicus (A.D. 268-70), who was the first to divert
these sculptures from their original destination.
Flavian portraits, 2 of which two are here figured, a bust
of Vespasian in the Museo delle Terme (Plate I. fig. 4) and a
bust, now in the Lateran, found in the tomb of the Haterii,
which, as is shown by the snake, represents a physician
(Plate I. fig. 5), must rank as the masterpieces of Roman
art. Their extraordinarily lifelike character is due to the fact
that the artist, without accumulating unnecessary detail, has
contrived to catch the characteristic expression of his subject,
and to render it with the utmost technical virtuosity. These
portraits differ from the works of the Greek masters, who always
subordinated the individual to the type, and therefore gave
a less complete impression of reality than the Roman artists.
The same tendency has been noted in ornamental work
which may be dated to the Flavian period. Wickhoff selected
a pilaster from the monument of the. Haterii (Plate II. fig. 15)
upon which a column entwined with roses is carved. The
flowers are not in fact represented with precise fidelity to
nature, but the illusion of reality is no less great than in more
accurately worked examples.
Roman sculpture soon passed the zenith of its achievement.
We are not able to assign any historical monuments to the
earlier years of Trajan's reign, but the portraits of the emperor
betray a certain hardness of touch which makes them less
interesting than those of the Flavian period. To the latter
part of the reign belong a number of monuments which
represent Trajanic art at its best. First and foremost come
the reliefs, colossal in scale, which appear to have decorated
the walls of Trajan's Forum. Four slabs were removed by
Constantine's order and used to adorn the central passage
and the shorter sides of the attic of his arch. The first of
these (Plate II. fig. 16) shows the victorious charge of the
Roman cavalry, with the emperor at its head, against their
Dacian enemies. Other fragments of this frieze are extant
in the Louvre, 3 and a much-restored relief, walled up in the
garden of the Villa Medici, shows a Dacian on horseback
swimming the Danube with Trajan's Bridge in the background.
The composition of the battle-scene is very fine, and the heads
of the Dacians are full of character; but, although details
of armour, &c., are carefully and accurately reproduced, we
see clear signs of technical decadence, both in the fact that
the human eye is in many cases represented as though in full
face on heads which are shown in profile, and also in the naive
attempt to render several files of troops in perspective by
means of superposed rows of heads. 4 The reliefs of the spiral
1 Papers of the British School at Rome, vol. iii. pp. 229 ff. Sieve-
king (Rom. Mitth. (1907) pp. 345 ff.) believes that four of the
medallions only belong to the Flavian period and the rest to
Hadrian's reign.
2 On this subject see Mr Crowfoot's paper in Journal of Hellenic
Studies, xx. (1900) pp. 31 ff. A list of examples is given by Mr
Wace in Papers of the British School at Rome, vol. iii. pp. 290 ff.
3 Mr Wace has recently identified the reliefs which show an
emperor sacrificing before the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus as a
part of the frieze (Papers of the British School at Rome, iv. pp.
229 ff.).
4 These features make it clear that the reliefs in the Villa Borghese,
formerly supposed to belong to an arch of Claudius, are Trajanic;
see Papers of the British School at Rome, iii. pp. 215 ff. (Stuart Jones).
column in the Basilica Ulpia tell the same tale. The designer
borrowed certain motives from Hellenistic art; e.g. we find
the suicide of the Dacian king Decebalus represented in
precisely the same way as that of a Gallic chief on the well-
known sarcophagus in the Capitoline Museum representing
a battle between Greeks and Gauls; again, the symmetry of
the scene in which the fall of Sarmizegetusa (the Dacian
capital) is depicted recalls that of Greek monuments
particularly the painting of the fall of Troy by Polygnotus,
described by Pausanias at Delphi. But the loving care with
which the arms and accoutrements of the Roman troops
both regular and irregular are rendered 6 betrays the
nationality of the artist; and his technical deficiencies,
especially in the matter of perspective, point in the same
direction. It seems probable, moreover, that the artistic
conception of a column ornamented with a band of relief was
new, and that the designer had to find his own solution for
the problem. We find, in fact, that he tells his story in more
than one way: (a) Considerable portions of the narrative,
e.g. Trajan's march in the opening campaign, consist in a
series of isolated and successive scenes; the divisions are
usually marked by some conventional means, such as the
insertion of a tree, or a change of direction in the action.
(b) At other times the scenes unfold themselves against a
continuous background, and merge almost insensibly into
those which succeed them; to this form of narrative the
term " continuous style," brought into use by Wickhoff, more
properly applies, (c) The direct progress of the narrative
is sometimes broken by passages which can only be called
" panoramic "; the great composition showing the siege and
fall of Sarmizegetusa falls under this head, and the " con-
tinuous " narration of Trajan's journey at the outset of the
second war is followed by an extensive panorama illustrating
the operations in Moesia in A.D. 105.
The reliefs (as already indicated) tell the story of both of
Trajan's wars with the Dacians, a formal division between the
two narratives being made by a figure of Victory setting up a
trophy; and the design of the second series shows a decided
advance in artistic and dramatic effect on that of the first.
Clearly the artist learnt the laws of composition applicable to
his problem in the course of his work.
Before leaving the Trajanic period a word must be said as to
the arch erected at Benevento (see TRIUMPHAL ARCH, fig. 2),
from which point a new road the Via Trajana ran to Brun-
disium. The inscription on this arch bears the date A.D. 114,
but the prominence given to Hadrian has led to the supposition
that the reliefs were executed after his accession. We have
already noted that the use of relief as ornament is here carried
to excess in the artist's desire to present a summary of Trajan's
achievements at home and abroad. 6 The arrangement of the
panels is calculated and significant. On the side which faces
the town of Benevento the subjects have reference to Trajan's
work in Rome. On the attic we see, to the left, a group of
gods with the Capitoline triad Jupiter, Juno and Minerva
in the foreground; to the right, Trajan welcomed at the entrance
to the Capitol by the goddess Roma, the penates and the con-
suls. He is accompanied by Hadrian, who is designated by
the gesture of Roma as the emperor's successor. The two
lowest panels likewise form a single picture. To the right
Trajan appears at the entrance of the Forum, where he is
welcomed by the praefectus urbi; to the left, with the Curia as
background, we see the representatives of senate, knights and
people. The central panels symbolize the military and civil
aspects of Trajan's government veterans to left, merchants
to right, are the recipients of imperial favour. On the other
6 Thus Cichorius, in his publication of the reliefs, has been able
to identify several of the corps which took part in the war; e.g.
the " cohorts of Roman citizens " are distinguished from the bar-
barian auxiliaries by the national emblems on their shields.
6 The significance of these reliefs was first demonstrated by
Domaszewski (Jahreshefte des osterreichischen archdologischen
Instituts, ii. 1899, pp. 173 ff.); a full account will be found in Mrs
Strong's Roman Sculpture, ch. 9.
ROMAN ART
479
face of the arch we have a series of panels relating to Trajan's
work in the provinces. On the attic the gods of the Danube
provinces appear to the left, the submission of Mesopotamia on
the right; the lowest panels represent negotiations with Ger-
mans (left) and Parthians (right); in the centre (as on the
other face) we have a military scene (recruiting in the provinces)
to left, balancing the foundation of colonies and growth of the
proles Romana on the right. As the above description will
show, this arch is, in respect of its significance, the most im-
portant monument of Roman historical art. Technically,
the reliefs fall somewhat short of the best work of the Flavian
period the long panels of the archway, which represent a
sacrifice offered by Trajan and his benefactions to the municipia
of Italy, have not the verse of those from the Arch of Titus,
but are at least as fine as the works executed for Trajan's
Forum.
With the accession of Hadrian the " Greekling," as he
was called by his contemporaries a short-lived renaissance of
classicism set in. The eclectic modifications of Greek statuary
types which it called forth do not fall within our province; but
it should be noticed that in portraiture the most important
work of this period was the idealized type of Antinous, here
represented by a famous example (Plate I. fig. 6) in the
Louvre, which invests the favourite of Hadrian with a divinity
expressed in the terms of Hellenic art as well as a pathos which
belongs to his own time. 1 The historical monuments of this
and the following reign are few in number, and lack the preg-
nancy of meaning and vigour of execution which distinguish
those of the Trajanic period; mention may be made of three
reliefs in the Palazzo dei Conservatori, one of which represents
the apotheosis of an empress, and of the panels in the Palazzo
Rondinini shown by the analogy of a medallion of Antoninus
Pius to belong to his time. .This is also the place to take note
of the ideal figures symbolical of the subject peoples of the
Empire. Under Trajan Roman sculptors had produced the fine
statues of Dacian captives which now adorn the Arch of Con-
stantine; to the Hadrianic period belong the idealized figures
of provinces, classical in pose and motive, several of which arc
in the Palazzo de Conservatori. 2
We pass on to the period of Marcus Aurelius and Commodus,
in which Roman art underwent a further transformation. The
earliest monument of the time which calls for our attention
is the base of the column (now destroyed) erected in honour of
Antoninus Pius. Two of its faces are here shown (Plate IV.
figs. 21 and 22), and the contrast is remarkable between the
classicistic representation of the apotheosis of Antoninus and
Faustina, witnessed by the ideal figures of Rome and the Campus
Martius (holding an obelisk), and the realistic treatment of the
decursio, a ceremony performed by detachments of the prae-
torian guard on horse and foot. We note the endeavour of the
Roman sculptor to express more than his medium will allow,
and his inadequate grasp of the laws of proportion and per-
spective. Discarding the classical standard and its conven-
tions, the artist disposes his figures like a child's toys, and,
when confronted with the problem of the background, waves
it aside and reduces the indication of the place of action to a
few projecting ledges on which his puppets are supported. The
reliefs of the Column of Marcus Aurelius suffer by comparison
with those of Trajan's Column. The story which the designer
had to tell was doubtless less definite in outline; we cannot
trace, as in the former instance, the march of events towards a
dramatic climax, and there is some reason to think that, although
the two bands of relief, separated (as on Trajan's Column) by
a figure of Victory, correspond generally with the " Germanic "
and " Sarmatic " wars of Marcus down to A.D. 175, the narrative
is not strictly chronological; thus the fall of rain ascribed by
Christian tradition to the prayers of the " Thundering " Legion
1 It is in the portraits of the Hadrianic period that we first meet
with the plastic rendering (in marble) of the iris and pupil of the
eye ; on the significance of this convention see above.
2 On these see Lucas's article in Jahrb. des k. deutschen arch.
Instituts (1900), pp. I ff., and Mrs Strong, Roman Sculpture, pp.
243 ff.
(Plate IV. fig. 24) is represented at a very early stage, whereas
our historians place it towards the close of the war. The
figures are smaller and at the same time more crowded than
those upon Trajan's Column, and the landscape is less intelli-
gently rendered. The type of the rain-god, which is without
doubt the creation of the Roman sculptor, is boldly conceived
but scarcely artistic. Still the reliefs show that the designers
of the time were making vigorous efforts to think for them-
selves, and for this reason possess a higher value than the more
conventional panels now distributed between the attic of the
Arch of Constantine and the Palazzo dei Conservatori, which
seem to have decorated a triumphal arch set up in or after
A.D. i y6. 3 The portraiture of the time also shows the invasion of
new principles. Even before the reign of Marcus we find a
tendency to emphasize the contrast between hair and flesh,
the face often showing signs of high polish. In the latter half
of the 2nd century the contrast is heightened by a new method
of treating the hair, which is rendered as a mass of curls deeply
undercut and honeycombed with drill-holes; a fine example is
the Commodus of the Palazzo dei Conservatori. The aim of
the sculptor is to obtain an ornamental effect by the violent
contrast of light and dark an adaptation for the purposes of
plastic art of the chiaroscuro which more properly belongs to
painting. This tendency may be seen at work in all branches
of sculpture. The sarcophagi of the Antonine and later periods,
with their crowded compositions and deep shadows, have the
same pictorial effect; and in pure ornament the vivid illusion ism
of Flavian art disappears, and, though plant-forms are lavishly
used from the time of Trajan onwards we note a growing
distaste for pure outlines, which are hidden beneath all-per-
vading acanthus foliage
the interest of the sculptor
comes to lie more and more
in intricacy of pattern, pro-
duced by the complemen-
tary effect of lights and
shadows. An instance of this
may be found in a pilaster
now in the Lateran Museum
(fig. 39), which Wickhoff
justly contrasts with the
rose-pillar from the monu-
ment of the Haterii. It is
all-important to remember
that (as Strzygowski has
pointed out) 4 it is not true
shadow which is contrasted
with the high lights in later
Roman ornament; if so, the
plastic effect of the free
members would be height-
ened, whereas the reverse
is actually the case, for
even the figures on sarco-
phagi, worked in the round
though they be, do not
stand out from the back-
ground which indeed is
practically abolished but
seem rather to form ele-
ments in a pattern. The
reason is that pure darkness is set off against
lights, and the whole surface being thus broken
remains no impression of depth.
Under Septimius Severus and his successors, Roman art
drifts steadily in its new direction. The reliefs of his arch at
the entrance to the Forum represent the emperor's campaigns
in the East in a compromise between bird's-eye perspective
and the " continuous " style which cannot be called successful;
1 This series of panels is discussed in Papers of the British School
at Rome, vol. iii. p. 251 ff.
4 Jahrbuch der preussischen Kunstsammlungen (1904), p. 271.
(Drawn from photo, Mosckmi )
FIG. 39. Pilaster with Oak Leaf
Ornament.
the high
up, there
480
ROMAN ART
a better example of the art of this period is to be seen in the
relief (Plate IV. fig. 20) now in the Palazzo Sacchetti, recently
published by Mr A. J. B. Wace, 1 which probably represents the
presentation of Caracalla to the senate as the destined successor
of his father. The squat figures of the senators, their grouping,
which, though not lacking in naturalism and a certain effective-
ness, is not in its main lines aesthetic, and the lavish use of
deeply drilled ornament, are features which leave no doubt as
to the period to which this work should be assigned. Rome,
however, could still boast a school of portrait-sculptors, whose
work was of no ordinary merit. The bronze statue of Sep-
timius Severus, which passed into the Somzee collection, has
been pronounced by Furtwangler to be of much earlier date,
except for the head of the emperor, and we cannot therefore
feel confidence in using it as a measure of the artistic achieve-
ments of Severus's reign; but the busts of Caracalla, which
represent the tyrant in his later years, are masterly both in
conception and in execution.
In the second quarter of the 3rd century A.D., when the
Empire was torn by internal strife, threatened in its very
existence by the inroads of barbarism, and hastening towards
economic ruin, art could no longer flourish, and monuments
of sculpture become scarce, if we except portraits and sar-
cophagi. The busts of this period are easily distinguished by
the treatment of the hair and beard, which seem to have been
closely clipped, and are indicated by a multitude of fine chisel
strokes on a roughened surface. But, rough as these technical
methods may seem, the artists of the time used them with
wonderful effect, and the portraits of the emperor Philip (A. D.
244-49) m the Braccio Nuovo, and an unknown Roman in
the Capitoline Museum (Plate I. fig. 7), are hardly to be
surpassed in their delineation of craft and cruelty. Amongst
the sarcophagi of the 3rd century we select, in preference to
those adorned with scenes of Greek mythology, the fine example
in the Museo delle Terme (formerly in the Ludovisi collection)
decorated with a melee of Romans and Orientals (Plate IV.
fig. 23); the principal figure whose portrait is also to be
seen in the Capitoline Museum has been identified by Mr
A. H. S. Yeames as C. Furius Sabinius Aquila Timesitheus,
the minister and father-in-law of Gordian III. (d. A.D. 244).
Even after the middle of the century, when the Empire was for
a time dismembered, portrait-sculpture put forth fresh evidences
of life and vigour. Gallienus, who was himself a dilettante
and doubtless largely endowed with personal vanity, seems to
have called into being a naturalistic school of sculptors, who
harked back to the models of the later Antonine period, so
that it is not always easy to distinguish the busts of his time
from those of a much earlier date. The Louvre bust of the
emperor (Plate I. fig. 8) will serve as a type of these works.
But this singular renaissance was as short-lived as the eclectic
revival of classicism under Hadrian. It is remarkable that
the portrait of Gallienus is the last which can be identified by
truly individual traits. The period of storm and stress which
followed his death has left little or no monumental material
for the historian of sculpture; and when the curtain again
rises on the art of the new monarchy founded by Diocletian
and perfected by Constantine, we seem to move in a new world.
The East has triumphed over the West. Just as in Egyptian
and, speaking generally, in all oriental art, before the revela-
tion of true plastic principles, which we owe to the Greek genius,
the law of " frontality " was universally operative, i.e. the
pose of sculptured figures was rigidly symmetrical and without
lateral curvature, so the portraits of Constantine and his
successors are discerned at a glance by their stiff pose and
fixed and stony stare. The fact is that the secret of organic
structure has been lost; the bust (or statue) is no longer a
true portrait, a block of marble made to pulsate with the life
of the subject represented, but a monument. It was thus
that the absolute monarchs of the Empire, before whom their
subjects prostrated themselves in mute adoration, preferred to
1 Papers of the British School at Rome, iv. pi. xxxiv., from which
fig. 15 is taken.
be portrayed; and we cannot help recalling Ammianus's
description 2 of the entry of Constantius II. into Rome (A.D.
356). The emperor rode in a golden chariot, turning his head
neither to the right nor to the left, but gazing impassively
before him " tanquam figmentum hominis." The description
fits such a portrait as that of an unknown personage of the
4th century in the Capitoline Museum (Plate I. fig. 9), which
has found a panegyrist in Riegl. It remains to note that the
narrow bands of relief on the Arch of Constantine, some of
which probably date from the reign of Diocletian, 3 partake of
the same monumental character as the single statues of the
time. Where the nature of the subject permits, as in the case
of the reliefs here represented (Plate III. fig. 19), the frontality
of the central figure, and the strict symmetry of the grouping,
which imparts an almost geometrical regularity to the main
lines of the composition, are calculated for architectonic rather
than for plastic effect. The breath of organic life has ceased
to inspire the marble.
We have confined ourselves in the above section to tracing
the course of development in what we may call official Roman
sculpture, represented in the main, as is natural, by the
monuments of the capital. The products of local schools
cannot here be treated in detail. The difficult problems which
they raise are best illustrated by the case of " Trajan's trophy "
at Adam-Klissi in the Dobruja. Although the very name of
the monument might seem to furnish sufficient evidence of
its date, the late Professor Furtwangler stoutly maintained
that Trajan did but restore a monument dating from 29 B.C.*
He called attention to the uniformity in style of the grave-
monuments of soldiers from north Italy, serving in the legions
of the Rhine and Danube; these date from the early imperial
period, and represent (according to Furtwangler) a traditional
" legionary style." It may be admitted that they are
eminently Italian in their hard realistic character; but the
tradition was not extinct in the Trajanic period, so that the
analogy between these monuments and its rudely carved
figures is inconclusive, and the ornament of the trophy, which
is far from being homogeneous, contains, as Studniczka 5 has
observed, oriental elements which could not possibly be found
in sculpture of the ist century B.C. Local tradition may
also be traced, e.g. in southern France, where the Hellenic
influence which penetrated by way of Massilia was still strongly
felt under the Julio-Claudian dynasty, as the sculptures of
the tomb of the Julii at St Remy and the triumphal arches of
Orange and Carpentras suffice to prove. Gallo-Roman art,
on the other hand, has a physiognomy of its own, whose outlines
have been traced by M. Salomon Reinach (Antiquites nationales;
bronzes figures de la Gaule romaine, Introduction). In the
Rhineland we find, at a later period, a singular school of
realistic sculptors at work; the museum at Trier contains a
number of their grave-monuments decorated with scenes of
daily life. 6 Nor must we omit to mention the Palmyrene
sculptors of the 3rd century A.D., whose portrait-statues
give us the clue to the origin of the " frontal " style of the
Constantinian period. 7
(c) Painting and Mosaic. The arts whose proper medium
is colour enjoyed a popularity with the ancients and with
the Romans, no less than with the Greeks, at least as great
as that of sculpture; we need go no further for evidence of
this than the statement of Pliny 8 that Julius Caesar paid
eighty talents (20,000) for the " Ajax and Medea " of
Timomachus of Byzantium, which he placed in his newly
built forum. But we are in a difficult position when we try
2 Amm. Marc. xvi. 10. 10.
3 See Mr Wace's article in Papers of the British School at Rome,
iv. pp. 270 ff.
4 His view is accepted by Mrs Strong (Roman Sculpture, p. 99).
6 " Tropaeum Trajani " (Abhandlungen der sacks. Gesellsch. der
Wissenschaften, xxii., pp. 88 ff.).
6 Hettner, Illustrierter Fiihrer durch das National Museum zu
Trier (1903), pp. 2 ff.
' Some fine examples are in the Jacobsen collection ; see Arndt-
Bruckmann, Griechische und romiscne Portraits, pis. 59, 60.
8 H.N. xxxv. 136.
ROMAN ART
PLATE IV.
By permission oftlte British School of Rome.
FIG. 20. PRESENTATION OF CARACALLA TO THE SENATE.
Photo, Afoscioni.
FIG. 21. BASE OF COLUMN OF ANTONINUS.
Photo, Mosciani.
FIG. 22. BASE OF COLUMN OF ANTONINUS.
By permission of the Italian Ministry of Public Instruction.
FIG. 23. MELEE OF ROMANS AND ORIENTALS, FROM A
SARCOPHAGUS.
Photo, Anderson.
FIG. 24. DETAIL OF THE COLUMN OF
ANTONINUS.
PLATE V.
ROMAN ART
From Richter & Taylor's Golden Ay of Classic Christian A rl, by permission of the authors and Duckworth & Co.
FIG. 25. MOSAIC, SHOWING CLOUD AND SKY EFFECTS.
Photo , Sansaini.
FIG. 26. FRESCO: ODYSSEUS AMONG
THE SHADES.
Pholo, Brogl.
FIG. 27. FRESCO FROM POMPEII: EVENING BENEDICTION
IN FRONT OF THE TEMPLE OF ISIS.
Photo, Anderson.
FIG. 28. FRESCO: THE MARRIAGE OF ALDOBRANDINI
ROMAN ART
481
to estimate the artistic value of the masterpieces of ancient
painting, since time has destroyed the originals, and it is but
rarely that . we can even recover the outlines of a famous
composition from decorative reproductions. For the history
of Greek painting we have in Pliny's Natural History a fairly
full literary record; but this fails us when we come to Roman
times, nor do original works, worthy to be ranked with the
monuments of Roman historical sculpture, supply the want.
Painting in Italy was throughout its early history dependent
on Greek models, and reflected the phases through which the
art passed in Greece. Thus the frescoes which adorn the
walls of Etruscan chamber-tombs show an unmistakable
analogy with Attic vase-paintings. The neutral background,
the use of conventional flesh-tones, and the predominant
interest shown by the artists in line as opposed to colour,
clearly point to the source of their inspiration; and the fine
sarcophagus at Florence 1 depicting a combat between Greeks
and Amazons, in which we first trace the use of naturalistic
flesh-tints, though it bears an Etruscan inscription, can hardly
have been the handiwork of native artists.
Roman tradition tells of early wall-paintings at Ardea
and Lanuvium, which existed " before the foundation of
Rome"; 2 of these the Etruscan frescoes mentioned above
may serve to give some impression. We also hear of Fabius
Pictor, who earned his cognomen by decorating the temple
of Salus on the Quirinal (302 B.C.); and a few more names
are preserved by Pliny on account of the trivial anecdotes
which attached to them. The chief works of specifically
Roman painting in Republican times (other than the frescoes
which adorned the walls of temples) were those exhibited by
successful generals on the occasion of a triumph; thus we
hear that in 263 B.C. M. Valerius Messalla was the first to
display in the Curia Hostilia such a battle-piece, representing
his victory over Hiero II. of Syracuse and the Carthaginians. 3
We may perhaps form some idea of these paintings from the
fragment of a fresco discovered in a sepulchral vault on the
Esquiline in i88g, 4 which appears to date from the 3rd century
B.C 4 . This painting represents scenes from a war between
the Romans and an enemy who may almost certainly (from
their equipment) be identified as Samnites; the names of
the commanders are indicated, and amongst them is a
Q. Fabius, probably Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus, who
played a part in the third Samnite War. The scenes are
superposed in tiers; the background is neutral, the colour-
scale simple, and there is but little attempt at perspective;
but we note the files of superposed heads in the representation
of an army, which are found at a later date in Trajanic
sculpture.
We pass from this isolated example of early Roman painting
to the decorative frescoes of Rome, Herculaneum and Pompeii,
which introduce us to the new world conquered by Hellenistic
artists. The scheme of colour is no longer conventional, but
natural flesh- tints and local colour are employed; the " artist
understands," as Wickhoff puts it, how to " concentrate the
picture in space " instead of isolating the figures on a neutral
background; he struggles (not always successfully) with the
difficult problems of linear and aerial perspective, and contrives
in many instances to give " atmosphere " to his scene; the
modelling of his figures is often excellent; finally, he can, when
need requires, produce an effective sketch by compendious
methods. It must be premised that this style of wall-decora-
tion was a new thing in the Augustan period. In the Hellenistic
age the walls of palaces were veneered with slabs of many-
coloured marble (crustae); and in humbler dwellings these were
imitated in fresco. This " incrustation " style is found in a few
houses at Pompeii, such as the Casa di Sallustio, built in the
2nd century B.C.; but before the fall of the Republic it had
given place to what is known as the " architectural " style. In
this the painter is no longer content to reproduce in stucco
1 Journal of Hell. Stud. iv. (1883), pis. xxxvi.-xxxviii.
2 Pliny, H.N. xxxv. 18. ' Ibid. xxxv. 22.
* Bullettino Comunale (1889), pis. xi. xii.
xxin. 16
the marble decoration of more sumptuous rooms; by intro-
ducing columns and other architectural elements he endeavours
to give the illusion of outer space, and this is heightened by the
landscapes, peopled, it may be, with figures, which form the
background. We shall take as an example of such decoration
one of the " Odyssey landscapes " discovered on the Esquiline
in 1849; these may be amongst the more recent works of this
school, but can scarcely, from the character of their surroundings,
be later than the reign of Claudius. Amongst the remains of a
large private house was a room whose walls were decorated in
their upper portion with painted pilasters treated in perspective,
through which the spectator appears to look out on a continuous
background of land and sea, which is diversified by scenes from
the voyage of Odysseus. It is clearly to such works as these
that Vitruvius refers in a well-known passage (vii. 5) where, in
describing the wall-paintings of his time, he speaks of a class of
" paintings on a large scale which represent images of the gods
or unfold mythical tales in due order, as well as the battles of
Troy or the wanderings of Odysseus through landscapes (topia)."
And it is* worthy of note that in a chamber discovered in the
1 8th century below the Flavian state-rooms on the Palatine (see
ROME) the tale of Troy seems to have been represented in a very
similar manner; drawings of the panel on which the landing of
Helen is depicted have been preserved. Of the eight scenes
from the Odyssey found on the Esquiline three represent the
ad venture- in the country of the Laestrygones; the third forms a
transition from this subject to the visit of Odysseus to Circe,
which occupies the fourth and fifth panels;' the' two last depict
Odysseus among the shades. The second of these, which is
here reproduced (Plate V. fig. 26), is only half as wide as the
others, and was probably next to a door or window. It is,
however, typical in style and treatment. The artist is mainly
interested in the landscape, which is sketched with great freedom
and br.eadth of treatment. He has clearly no scientific know-
ledge of perspective, and commits the natural error of placing
the horizon too high. His figures are identified by Greek
inscriptions, and we see that artistic considerations weigh more
highly with him than close adherence to his poetical text; for
the group of the Danaids in the foreground has no counterpart
in the Homeric description. The conventional distinction of
flesh-tints between the sexes is to be observed.
The use of landscape in decoration is expressly stated by
Pliny (H.N. xxxv. 1 16) to have become fashionable in Rome in
the time of Augustus. He attributes this to a painter named
Studius, who decorated walls with " villas, harbours, landscape
gardens, groves, woods, hills, fish-ponds, canals, rivers, shores,"
and so forth, diversified with figures of " persons on foot or in
boats, approaching the villas by land on donkeys or in carriages,
as well as fishers and fowlers, hunters and even vintagers."
Vitruvius, too, in the passage above quoted, speaks of " harbours,
capes, shores, springs, straits, temples, groves, mountains, cattle
and herdsmen "; and existing paintings fully confirm the
statements of ancient writers. In the Villa of Livia at Prima
Porta the walls of a room are painted in imitation of a park;
from the Villa of Fannius Synistor at Bosco Reale we have a
variety of landscapes and perspectives; and in the house dis-
covered in the grounds of the Villa Farnesina by the Tiber we
find a room decorated with black panels, upon which landscapes
exactly conforming to Pliny's description are sketched in with
brush-strokes of white. While we have no reason to dispute the
accuracy of Pliny's statement, or to refuse credit to the Roman
artist for the development of landscape decoration, it is to be
noted that the summary methods of impressionist technique
which are here employed are probably traceable to Alexandrian
influence. Petronius, who puts into the mouth of one of his
characters a lament over the decline of art, attributes the de-
cadence of painting to the " audacity of the Egyptians " and
their discovery of " a short cut to high art " (tarn magnae artis
compendiaria). This has been thought to mean no more than
the process of fresco-painting, which led to the substitution of
1 The latter of these is so badly preserved that the subject cannot
be precisely identified.
482
ROMAN ART
mere wall-decoration for elaborate easel-paintings; but this was
no new invention. It has been pointed out by Mrs Strong 1
that amongst the wall-paintings of Pompeii we can distinguish
a group executed in bold dashes of colour especially white
according to the principles of modern impressionism. The most
striking example of this betrays its source of inspiration by its
subject the ceremony of the evening benediction in front of
the temple of Isis (Plate V. fig. 27).
So far the paintings which we have considered can only be
regarded as an extremely ingenious and, in the main, tasteful
form of wall-decoration; they tell us little of that which we
most wish to know the style and treatment of substantive
works of painting. The gap is in some measure filled by the
central panels of Pompeian walls, which are usually adorned
with subject-paintings, often mythological in subject, clearly
marked off from the rest of the wall and intended to take the
place of pictures. In the Architectural style these are usually
framed in a species of pavilion or aedicula, painted in per-
spective; 2 but this motive gradually loses its importance.
In the Third style ("ornate") distinguished by -Mau the
architectural design ceases to be intelligible as the counterfeit
of real construction, and becomes a purely conventional scheme
of decoration; and in the Fourth or Intricate style, which
again reverts to true architectural forms, however fantastic
and bewildering in their complexity, the figure-subjects are
plainly conceived as pictures and framed with a simple band
of colour. The subjects of these frescoes are for the most
part taken from Greek mythology, and it has been argued that
in the main we have to deal with reproductions of Hellenistic
paintings rather than of contemporary works of art. It is
not to be denied that the motives of famous compositions of
earlier date may have found their way into the repertory of
the Pompeian artists; it is not unnatural, for example, to
conjecture that the figure of Medea here reproduced (Plate VI.
fig. 30) may have been inspired by the celebrated painting
of Timomachus above-mentioned. But there are reasons for
thinking that the debt owed by the Pompeian artists to the
Greek schools of the Hellenistic age is not so direct as was
believed by Helbig, whose Untersuchungen ilber die kampan-
ische W andmalerei won a general acceptance for the theory.
It seems clear that in the central subjects of walls decorated
in the Architectural style we are intended to see, not a picture
in the strict sense, but a view of the outside landscape, gener-
ally with a small shrine or cult-statue as the centre of the
piece; and the importance of the figure-subject was therefore
at first subordinate. These subjects are, it is true, taken from
Greek mythology, but this only proves that that source of
inspiration was as freely drawn upon in the art as in the litera-
ture of imperial Rome. In the later styles figure-subjects
without landscape are extremely common, but it has been
shown that, e.g. in the triclinium of the Casa dei Vettii, which
is decorated with a cycle of mythological paintings, the lighting
is carefully calculated with a view to illusionistic effect under
the local conditions, so that the conception of an outlook into
external space is not given up. We sometimes, as in one of
the rooms in the " Farnesina " house, find framed pictures
directly imitated, and here the models were clearly of a re-
latively early period; but this is exceptional. The Pompeian
paintings, therefore, may fairly be used as evidence for the
methods and aims of art in imperial Rome; and when allowance
is made for their decorative character and hasty execution,
we must admit that they give token of considerable technical
skill the modelling of figures is often excellent, the colour-
scale rich, the " values " nicely calculated. The composition
of subject-pictures is somewhat theatrical.. Amongst the wall-
paintings which have been preserved are some which from
their classicistic style have been thought to represent Greek
originals; the most famous is the " Aldobrandini Marriage "
(Plate V. fig. 28), now in the Vatican library. As a matter
1 The Elder Pliny's Chapters on the History of Art, p. 238.
2 The most striking example is that from the " House of Livia "
on the Palatine.
of fact, the composition is formed by the juxtaposition of
sculpturesque types, after a fashion familiar to Roman wall-
painters. Mention may here be made of the combination of
ornamental work in plaster with painting which is found at
Pompeii, in the work of the Flavian period at Rome, and in
tombs of the 2nd century A.D. In the Augustan period we find
exquisitely modelled relief-work in plaster, used to ornament
vaulted surfaces in the " Farnesina " house; it might seem
natural to treat of these under the heading of Sculpture, but
in point of fact they are translations from painting into stucco.
At a later time both painter and modeller worked in conjunction,
with admirable effect; the results are best seen in the tombs
on the Latin Way.
Little can be said as to Roman portrait-painting. We know
that in this branch of art the technique generally used was
that called " encaustic." The colours were mixed with liquefied
wax and fixed by heat; whether they were applied in a molten
state or not has been disputed, but it seems more likely that
the pigments were laid on cold, and a hot instrument used
afterwards. Several examples of such wax-paintings have
been found in Egypt, where it was the custom during the 2nd
and 3rd centuries A.D. to substitute panel portraits for the
plastic masks with which mummy-cases were adorned; but
these cannot be described as works of high art, though they
sometimes have realistic merit. A good example in the Berlin
Museum (Antike Denkmaler, ii. pi. 13) is executed in tempera
on primed canvas. The medium used in ancient as in medieval
tempera painting appears from the statements of ancient
writers to have been yolk of egg mixed with fig-sap or natural
gums.
To the little we know of purely Roman painting something
is added by that which we learn from the remains of the sister
art of mosaic, which, being less easily destroyed, have survived
in large numbers to the present day. It has been estimated
by Gauckler that considerably more than 2000 mosaics with
figure-subjects have been discovered; and the number is
steadily increasing. For the origin of the art reference may
be made to the article MOSAIC, where the reader will also find
an explanation of the essential differences of principle between
the arts of painting and mosaic. It is to the credit of the
Roman artists that they were, generally speaking, alive to this
distinction of method, and did not seek to produce the impres-
sion of painting executed with a liquid medium by the use of
solid materials. Indeed, it seems not improbable that in this
respect they had a truer conception of the function of mosaic
decoration than their Greek forerunners. Amongst the mosaics
of Roman date which employ a large number of exceedingly
minute cubes in order to produce an illusion akin to that of
painting, the most conspicuous examples are the pavement
in the Lateran Museum signed by the Greek Heraclitus, which
appears to reproduce the " unswept hall " of Sosos of Per-
gamum (see MOSAIC), and the Mosaic of the Doves from
Hadrian's Villa, preserved in the Capitoline Museum, which
may be supposed to have been inspired by the "drinking
dove" of the same artist. The former of these contains about
1 20, the latter as many as 160 cubes to the square inch.
As shown in the article MOSAIC, a distinction must be drawn
between opus tessellatum, consisting of cubes regularly disposed
in geometrical patterns, and opus vermiculalum, in which a
picture is produced by means of cubes irregularly placed. The
two methods were commonly used in conjunction by the Romans,
who recognized that a pavement should emphasize the form of
the room to which it belonged by means of a geometrical border,
while figure-subjects should be reserved for the central space.
A good example is furnished by a mosaic pavement discovered
on the Aventine^in 1858, and preserved in the Museo delle
Terme (Plate VI. fig. 29). Enclosed within a geometrical
framework of guilloches and scroll-work, diversified with still-
life subjects and scenic masks which break its monotony, we
find a landscape evidently taken from the banks of the Nile,
as the hippopotamus and crocodile, as well as the papyrus and
lotus, clearly show. These Egyptian scenes are likewise found
ROMAN ART
483
at Pompeii, and the celebrated pavement at Palestrina, with a
bird's-eye view of the Nile and its surroundings, is the finest,
as well as the latest, example of the class. The conclusion to
be drawn is that the Roman mosaic-workers of the early Empire
owed much to Alexandrian models. Their finer works, how-
ever, were restricted in size, and formed small pictures isolated
in geometrical pavements. Such mosaic-pictures were called
emblemala, and were often transported from the great centres
of production to distant provinces, where pavements were
prepared for their reception. The subjects of these emblemata,
like those of the wall-paintings of Pompeii, were, for the most
part, taken from Greek mythology, and it is not easy to deter-
mine what degree of originality is to be assigned to Roman
artists. We note a certain interest in the great figures of
literature and philosophy. A subject of which two somewhat
different versions have been preserved, commonly known as
" The Academy of Plato," shows us a group of Greek philosophers
engaged in discussion. In provincial pavements it is not un-
common to find portraits of poets or philosophers used to fill
ornamental schemes of decoration, as in the famous mosaic at
Trier signed by Monnus. And it is possible to trace the growth
of interest in Roman literature at the expense of that of Greece.
Fig. 31 (Plate VI.) shows a mosaic discovered in the tablinum
of a villa at Sousse (Susa) in Tunis (the ancient Hadrumetum).
It represents the poet Virgil seated, with a scroll on his knee,
upon which is written Aen. i. 8; beside him stand the muses of
tragedy and history. In one of the side-wings (alae) of the
atrium was a mosaic representing the parting of Aeneas from
Dido, and this was no doubt balanced by another scene from
the Aeneid. It has also been shown that the mythological
scenes depicted by the mosaic-workers of the later imperial
period are frequently inspired, not by Greek poetry or even
Greek artistic tradition, but by the works of Ovid; and the
popularity of the legend of Cupid and Psyche is doubtless to be
traced to its literary treatment by Apuleius.
The mosaic shown in fig. 31 is notable for the simplicity of
its composition; and it may be laid down as a general rule that
the later workers in this field preferred such subjects, consisting
of few figures on a neutral background, which lend themselves
to broad treatment, and are best suited to the genius of mosaic.
The finer pavements discovered in the villas of the landed
proprietors of the African provinces, Gaul, and even Britain,
are distinguished by the excellent taste with which ornament
and subject are adapted to the space at the disposal of the artist.
Beside a well-chosen repertory of geometrical patterns, the
mosaic-workers make use of vegetable motives taken from the
vine, the olive, the acanthus or the ivy, as well as conventional
figures, such as the seasons, 1 the winds, the months and alle-
gorical figures of all kinds, forming elements in a scheme of
decoration which, though often of great richness, is never lack-
ing in symmetry and sobriety.
It is much to be regretted that the destruction, partial or
complete, of the great thermae and palaces of the early Empire
has deprived us of the means of passing judgment on the opus
musivum proper (see MOSAIC), i.e. the decoration of vaults
and wall-surfaces with mosaics in glass, enamel or precious
materials. Effective as are the pavements constructed with
tesserae of marble or coloured stone, they must have been
eclipsed by the brilliant hues of the wall-mosaics. We can
form but little idea of these from the decoration of fountains
at Pompeii and elsewhere, and must depend chiefly on the
compositions which adorn the walls and apses of early Christian
basilicas. An attempt has, indeed, been made to prove that
one of these the church of S. Maria Maggiore is nothing else
than a private basilica once belonging to a Roman palace, and
that its mosaics date from the period of Septimius Severus; 2
but it is impossible to accept this theory. The earliest monu-
ment of the class which we are now considering is the baptistery
of S. Costanza at Rome, built by Constantine in the early years
1 At least fifty examples of these have been found.
2 See Richter and Taylor, The Golden Age of Classic Christian Art
(1904).
of the 4th century A.D. Unfortunately the mosaics of the
cupola were destroyed in the i6th century, and we derive our
knowledge of them from drawings made by Francesco d'Olanda.
The tambour was decorated with a maritime landscape diversi-
fied with islands and filled with a crowd of pulti fishing; and
the cupola itself was divided into twelve compartments, con-
taining figure-subjects, by acanthus motives and caryatids.
The mosaics of the annular vault which surrounds the baptistery
are extant, though much restored, and purely pagan in design,
showing that the decorative schemes (Eros and Psyche, vine-
patterns, medallions, &c.), commonly found in pavements were
also used by the musivarii. The mosaic-panels of the nave of
S. Maria Maggiore already mentioned are (in the absence of
earlier examples) very instructive as to the artistic quality
of Roman opus musivum. Richter and Taylor's publication
of some of the unrestored portions, which unfortunately form
but a small fraction of the whole, serve to show that the musi-
varii had an accurate conception of the true function of mosaic
destined to be seen at a distance. Their effects are produced
by a bold use of simple means; a few large cubes of irregular
shape serve to give just the broad impression of a human face
or figure which suits the monumental surroundings and subdued
light. Very remarkable is the success with which the atmo-
spheric backgrounds are treated. To seek delicate gradations
of tint by elaborate means would be waste of labour for the
mosaic-worker, but the artists of S. Maria Maggiore are able to
produce sky and cloud effects (cf. Plate V. fig. 25) of great
beauty, when seen from the floor of the church, with the aid
of broad masses of colour. Their gamut of tones is of the
richest; and it is to be remarked that no gold is used except in
the restored parts. Doubtless gold was employed in decorative
wall-mosaics before the Consfantinian period; but the Roman
musivarius knew the secret of making a true mosaic picture
with natural tints alone.
(4) Work in Precious Metals. In the article PLATE the history
of this branch of art in ancient times is treated, and it is there
shown that it continued to be a living art, capable of producing
works of the highest merit, in Roman times. The sections of
Pliny's Natural History (xxxiii. 154 sqq.) which treat of caelatura
deal Only with the works of Greek artists, and Pliny ends with
the statement that, as silver-chasing was in his time a lost art,
specimens of embossed plate were valued according to their
antiquity; but the extant remains of Roman plate suffice to
disprove his statement, and hi a previous passage (xxxiii. 139)
he names the principal ateliers where such works were produced.
The famous treasure of Bosco Reale (see PLATE) comprises
specimens of silver-work belonging to various dates, ^many of
which bear the inscription " Maximae "; this doubtless gives
the name of the owner of the objects, whose skeleton was found
near the treasure. But some of them had passed through
other hands; for example, four " salt-cellars," probably of
pre-Roman date, are also inscribed with the name of " Pam-
philus, the freedman of Caesar." Certain pieces, too, seem
older and more worn than others; two ewers, decorated with
Victories sacrificing to Athena, are probably of Alexandrian
origin the lotus-flower on their handles most probably points
to their Egyptian provenance. On the other hand, the various
decorative styles characteristic of Augustan art are well repre-
sented, not merely the elaborate and conventional plant -
systems of the Ara Pacis Augustae, teeming with animal life,
which adorn two splendid canthari, but also the naturalistic
treatment of vegetable forms, of which a cup decorated with
sprays of olive furnishes a good example (Plate VII. fig. 32).
But the most important pieces in the collection are those which
show the silversmith at work on specifically Roman subjects.
Amongst the cups with emblemata (for the meaning of the term
see PLATE) were two which originally contained small portrait-
busts of the master and mistress of the house to which the
collection belonged. One of these became detached, and is
now in the British Museum; the other is in the Louvre in its
original setting. The lady's coiffure resembles that of the
empresses of the later Julio-Claudian period; but this is not
4 8 4
ROMAN ART
conclusive as to date, and the style of the male portrait (which
recalls the realistic bronze busts found at Pompeii) points rather
to an early Flavian date. Amongst the finest pieces of this
collection is a large bowl with an emblema in high relief (Plate
VII. fig. 35), which was at first taken to represent the city of
Alexandria, on account of the sistrum which appears amongst
the attributes of the figure. It seems, however, to be a per-
sonification of the province of Africa, which was conventionally
represented with a headdress formed by an elephant's scalp
with trunk and tusks. We have in this emblema the earliest
example of the ideal types which the Roman artists of the
Empire called into being to symbolize the subject-countries;
the inexhaustible fertility of the African soil is indicated by
the cornucopiae and the fruits carried in the bosom of the
figure. But there is some trace of that overcharging of sym-
bolism to which we drew attention in discussing the Prima
Porta statue of Augustus; and, though the bowl was in a very
fine state of preservation, there is little doubt that this was due
to the care with which it had been kept it was of course an
ornament reserved for the table or sideboard and that we
should date it to the Augustan period. The same is clearly
true of the most important pieces comprised in the treasure
the pair of cups reserved by Baron Edmond de Rothschild and
forming part of his collection (Plate VII. figs. 33 and 34).
In these we have examples of the crustae, or plaques decorated
in repousse, which were mounted on smooth silver cups. The
manufacture of these or at least the designing thereof was
a special branch of caelatura, and Pliny mentions an artist
named Teucer who achieved distinction therein; we may
possibly identify him with the gem-engraver whose signature
is read on an amethyst at Florence. Upon one of these (Plate
VII. fig. 34), we see a seated figure of Augustus, approached
by a processional group on both sides. To the left are three
divinities, the foremost of whom presents a statuette of Victory
to the emperor; to the right is Mars in full panoply, in whose
train follow the conquered provinces, symbolized by female
figures, amongst whom we recognize Africa with her elephant
headgear (see above). On the other face of the cup we see
Augustus again seated, receiving the homage of a group of
barbarians ushered into his presence by a Roman commander.
The schemes which are here found for the first time, became
typical in Roman historical art, and thence passed into the
service of Christianity to portray the homage of the Magi. The
second cup celebrates the glories of Tiberius, whose triumphal
procession appears on the one face, and a finely conceived
scene of sacrifice on the other. For the occasion various dates
have been suggested (13-12 or 8-7 B.C.); but it seems most
likely that the return of Tiberius from Dalmatia in A.D. 9 is
here commemorated.
The fortunate preservation of the Bosco Reale treasure has
enabled us to appraise Roman silverwork at its true value.
It also affords some confirmation of the rapid decadence of the
art, which Pliny laments. Amongst the cups are two decorated
with still-life subjects and signed by an artist who writes a
Roman name (Sabinus) in Greek characters, which clearly
belong to the last years of Pompeii, and are coarser in execution
than the earlier pieces. And the simple emblemata of the
classical period, which stand out against the background of
the bowl in which they are framed, give place to such a
crowded group as we find on a gold patera 1 found at
Rennes and preserved in the Cabinet des Medailles, where
the artist has surrounded the central emblema with a
frieze which detracts from its effect. This and still later
specimens of Roman silversmiths' work are described in the
article PLATE.
(5) Gem-Engraving and Minor Arts. The art of the gem-
engraver, like that of the silversmith, was naturally held in
high esteem by the wealthy Romans both of the Republic and
1 Works of pure gold have but rarely survived to modern times ;
but -traces of gilding remain upon many of the specimens of plate
described above. In the law-books we have mention of cups adorned
with golden crustae.
Empire; 2 and the period of its highest excellence coincides
almost precisely with that which gave birth to the masterpieces
of Roman silver-chasing. By far the greater part of the
ancient gems which exist in modern collections belong to the
Roman period; and the great popularity of gem-engraving
amongst the Romans is shown by the enormous number of
imitative works cast in coloured glass paste, which reproduce
the subjects represented in more precious materials. Not only
were intagli thus produced to suit the popular demand, but
fine cameos were at times cut (not cast) in coloured glass; the
most notable example of these is a portrait of Tiberius in
turquoise-coloured glass bearing the signature of Herophilus
(see below).
In the style of Roman intagli we can trace each of the
phases through which Roman plastic art has been shown to
pass. 3 A black agate in the Hague Museum (Furtwangler,
pi. xlvii. 13) supplies a characteristic portrait of the Cicer-
onian age; the splendid cornelian of the Tyszkiewicz collection
(Furtwangler, pi. 1. 19) with the signature HOIIIA AABAN
which portrays Augustus in the guise of Poseidon in a chariot
drawn by four hippocamps, is doubtless (as Furtwangler showed)
to be referred to the victory of Actium; the classicism of the
early Empire is exemplified by a sardonyx in Florence (Furt-
wangler, pi. lix. n), which probably displays an empress
of the Julio-Claudian line with the attributes of Hera; a
sardonyx in the hermitage at St Petersburg (Furtwangler,
pi. Iviii. i) is noteworthy because the subject is borrowed
from painting and occurs on a Pompeian fresco discovered in
1897; the portraiture of the Flavian epoch is seen at its best
in the aquamarine of the Cabinet des Medailles signed by
Euhodos, which represents Julia, the daughter of Titus (Furt-
wangler, pi. xlviii. 8). Amongst later gems one of the finest
is the "Hunt of Commodus " in the Cabinet des Medailles (Furt-
wangler, pi. 1. 41), which is engraved in one of the stones
most popular with the Roman artists the " Nicolo," a sardonyx
with a bluish-grey upper layer used as background and a dark
brown under layer in which the design is cut.
But the masterpieces of Roman gem-cutting are to be found
in the great cameos, the finest of which no doubt belonged to
the treasures of the imperial house. These were engraved in
various materials, including single coloured stones such as
amethyst or chalcedony; but the stone most fitted by nature
for this branch of art was the sardonyx in its two chief varieties
the Indian, distinguished by the warmth and lustre of its
tones, and the Arabian, with a more subdued scale of colour.
As examples of these we shall take the two master-works of
the art the " Grand camee de France " (Plate VII. fig. 37),
and the " Gemma Augustea " (Plate VII. fig. 36), preserved
in the imperial collection at Vienna. The latter is attributed
by Furtwangler to Dioscorides, the artist who, as Pliny tells us,
enjoyed the exclusive privilege of portraying the features of
Augustus. We possess several gems inscribed with his name,
as well as with those of his sons and pupils Eutyches, Hero-
philus (see above) and Hyllos; and, though several of these
are Renaissance forgeries, enough genuine material exists
for an appreciation of his style. The Arabian sardonyx was
amongst his favourite stones, and the Vienna cameo at least
represents the work of his school. Blending the real with the
ideal, the artist has represented in the upper zone Augustus
and Rome enthroned. Behind them is a group of divine
figures the inhabited Earth, Time and Tellus, according to
the most probable interpretation; to the left we see Tiberius
descending from a chariot driven by Victory, before which
stands a youth, probably Germanicus. We seem to have
here, as in the Bosco Reale cup, a scene from the triumphal
2 We first hear of" collections of gems in the last century of the
Republic. Pompey dedicated that which had belonged to Mith-
ridates the Great on the Capitol; Julius Caesar placed six collec-
tions in the temple of Venus Genitrix; and Marcellus dedicated
another in the temple of Apollo on the Palatine.
3 The references given in the text are to Furtwangler' s great
work, Die antiken Gemmen, in which all ancient gems of any con-
siderable importance are reproduced.
ROMAN ART
PLATE VL
AlOOOOOOOO
By permission of the Italian Ministry of Public Instruction.
FIG. 29 MOSAIC PAVEMENT (MUSEO DELLE TERME).
Photo, Brogi.
FIG. 30. MEDEA.
XXIII. 484.
From Plot's Monuments, by permission of Ernest Leroux.
FIG. 31. THE VIRGIL MOSAIC.
PLATE VII.
ROMAN ART
FIG. 32. CUP DECORATED
WITH SPRAYS OF OLIVE.
FIG. 33- CUP IN THE BARON
ROTHSCHILD COLLECTION.
FIG. 34. CUP IN THE BARON
ROTHSCHILD COLLECTION.
EMBLEM A, IN HIGH
RELIEF, PERSONIFICATION
OF THE PROVINCE OF AFRICA.
FIG. 35 SILVER
BOWL (LOUVRE)
FIG. 36 THE "GEMMA AUGUSTEA
FIG. 37. THE "GRAND CAMEE DE FRANCE."
From Furtwangler, Die Antiten Cemmen, by permission of Gieselte and Devrient.
ROMAN ART
485
procession of A.D. 12, in the course of which, as Suetonius tells
us, Tiberius stepped down from his car and did homage to his
stepfather. In the lower zone we find loosely composed groups
of captives and Roman soldiers, some of whom are setting up
a trophy.
But the supreme triumph of imperial jewelry is attained in
the Great Cameo of the Bibliotheque Nationale. This is an
Indian sardonyx cut in five layers, the largest extant example
of its class. There is a marked advance on the Vienna cameo
in composition; the lower zone is reduced to the proportions of
an exergue, whilst heaven and earth are kept clearly apart in
the main subject, yet at the same time united in a single picture.
In the centre are the living members of the Julio-Claudian
house Tiberius and Livia enthroned, together with Germanicus,
his mother, and the rising generation while above them hovers
the deified Augustus, together with other deceased members
of the family and an ideal figure in Phrygian garb bearing
a globe, probably lulus (Ascanius), or even Aeneas himself.
The moment depicted is the departure of Germanicus for
the East in A.D. 17, and amongst the figures of the central
group we note the muse of history, bearing a scroll upon which
to record the hero's deeds, and a personification of Armenia.
Engraved gems are not the only examples of Roman work
in precious materials. Amongst the portraits of the first
dynasty none is finer than a small head of Agrippina the younger
(recently acquired by the British Museum) in plasma (root-of-
emerald), a material much used by Roman gem-cutters. Vases,
again, were carved in precious stones, such as the famous onyx
vase at Brunswick (Furtwangler, Die antiken Gemmen, figs.
185-88), adorned with reliefs relating to the mysteries of
Eleusis. A smaller, but finer, onyx vase in the Berlin Museum
(Furtwangler, op. cit., figs. 183, 184) represents the infancy of
a prince of the Julian line a rock surmounted by a small
temple recalls the sculptures of the Ara Pacis, and the work
seems to be of Augustan date.
It was mentioned above that coloured glass was used as a
substitute for gems, and it is to the school which produced the
cameos of the early Empire that we owe the exquisite vases in
white and blue glass j of which the Portland vase is the
most famous example. 1 Pompeii furnishes a second in the
amphora, decorated with vintage scenes, in the Naples
Museum.
We must also class amongst the fine arts that of the die-
sinker. Not only are the imperial portraits found on coins
worthy of a place beside the works of the sculptor, but in
the " medallions " of the 2nd century A.D. we find figure-
subjects, often recalling those of contemporary reliefs, treated
with the utmost delicacy and finish.
Of the purely industrial arts it is unnecessary to speak at
length. The finds made in Gaul, Germany and Britain have
enabled archaeologists to trace their history particularly
that of pottery in some detail; but the chief importance
of these discoveries lies in the fact that they prove the gradual
diffusion of artistic talent throughout the provinces. In the
last century of the republic a flourishing manufacture of red-
glazed pottery was established with its chief centre at Arretium
(Arezzo); the signatures of the vases enable us to distinguish
a number of workshops owned by Romans who employed
Greek or Oriental workmen. The repertory of decorative
types used by these humble artists reflects the cross-currents
of classicism and naturalism which were contending in the
decadence of Hellenistic art; but, if we .cannot set a high
substantive value on their works, it is important to note that
in the ist century A.D. the Italian fabrics were gradually
driven out of the market by those of Gaul, where the industry
took root in the Cevennes and the valleys of the Rhone and
the Allier; and before long north-eastern Gaul and the
Rhineland became centres of production in the various minor
1 The tradition that this was found in the well-known sarcophagus
of the early 3rd century now in the Capitoline Museum, formerly
supposed to contain the ashes of Severus Alexander, is without
foundation.
arts, 2 which continued to flourish until the .breakdown of the
imperial system in the 3rd and 4th centuries A.D.
(6) Summary: the Place of Roman Art in History. Just as
the establishment of the Roman Empire gave a political unity
to the ancient world, and the acceptance of Christianity by
its rulers assured the triumph of a universal religion, so the
growth of a Graeco-Roman nationality, due to the freedom
of intercourse between the subjects of the emperors, led to a
unity of culture which found expression in the art of the time.
Yet no sooner was the fusion of the elements which contributed
to the new culture complete than the process of disruption
began, which issued in the final separation of the Eastern
from the Western Empire. In the first, the oriental factors,
which produced a gradual transformation in Graeco-Roman
art, definitely triumphed; and the result is seen in Byzantine
art. But in the West it was otherwise. The realism native
to Italy remained alive in spite of the conventions imposed
upon it; the human interest asserted itself against the decora-
tive. The Christian art of the West, therefore, is the true
heir of the Roman, and, through the Roman, of the classical
tradition. The mosaics of S. Maria Maggiore, already referred
to, show how strongly this tradition was at work in the ist
century of the Christian Empire; and monuments of the
5th century A.D., such as the consular diptychs of ivory and
the carved doors of S. Sabina at Rome, tell the same tale.
As we have seen, Roman art in its specific quality was an
historical art; and it was for this reason eminently fitted for
the service of an historical religion. The earliest Christian
art whose remains are preserved is that of the catacombs;
and this is not only devoid of technical merit, but is also
dominated by a single idea, which governs the selection of
subjects that of deliverance from the grave and its terrors,
whether this be conveyed by scriptural types or by representa-
tions of Paradise and its dwellers.* Not until the church's
triumph was complete could she command the services of the
highest art and unfold her sacred story on the walls of her
basilicas; but, when the time came, the monumental art
created by the demands of imperial pride was ready to minister
ad majorem gloriam Dei.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. F. Wickhoff's Roman Art (1900), translated by
Mrs Strong from the author's Wiener Genesis, is well illustrated
and indispensable to the student. A. Riegl's Spdtromische Kunst-
industrie in Osterreich-Ungarn (1901) also repays close study. The
views of Strzygowski are expressed in a large number of monographs
and essays; the most important are Orient oder Rom (1901),
Kleinasien, ein Neuland der Kunstgeschichte (1903), " Mschatta "
(Jahrbuch der preussischen Kunstsammlungen, 1904), Der Dom
zu Aachen und seine Entstellung (1904), and articles in Byzantinischc
Zeitschrift, Byzantinische Denkmdler, and other periodicals. A
summary of the debate raised by these writers will be found in the
Quarterly Review, January 1906 (Stuart Jones). The controversy
carried on by Furtwangler and Studniczka as to the date of
the Trophy of Adam-Khssi is instructive. Furtwangler's articles
appeared in the Transactions of the Munich Academy for 1903-4,
Studniczka's (" Tropaeum Trajani ") in Abhandlungen der sacks.
Gesellschaft der Wissenschajten, xxii. (1904).
Of Roman sculpture Mrs Strong's handbook (Roman Sculpture,
1907), which has a great number of excellent illustrations, gives
a general survey. Special branches are treated by E. Courbaud
(Le Bas-relief remain a representations historiques, 1899), W. Altmann
(Die rSmischen Graba.Ua.re der Kaiserzeit, 1905), A. J. Wace (" The
Evolution of Art in Roman Portraiture," Transactions of the British
and American Archaeological Society of Rome, 1906). _ There has
been much recent discussion of historical monuments in Rome in
the Papers of the British School at Rome, the Romische Milteilungen
of the German Archaeological Institute, the Jahreshefte of the
Austrian Archaeological Institute, and the Neue Jahrbucher fur
Philologie. Important publications of single monuments are:
O. Benndorf (and others), Das Tropaion von Adamklissi (\&)*>);
E. Petersen, Ara Pacis Aueustae (1903; further discoveries since
this date are discussed by the author in Jahreshefte des osterretch-
ischen arch. Instituts (1906), 298 ff., and Sieveking in the same
journal (1907), 175 ff.); C. Cichorius, Die Reliefs der Trajanssdule
(1896-1900), criticized by E. Petersen, Trojans dakische Krtege
'For bronze- work see Willers in Rheinischti Museum (1907).
This principle is consistently applied by von Sybel, Christliche
Antike (Marburg, 1907).
486
ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH
(1899-1903); E. Ferrero, L'Arc d'Aueuste d Suse (1901); E.
Petersen (and others), Die Marcussdule (1896).
For Roman portraits J. Bernoulli's Romische Ikonographie
(4 vols., 1882-94) gives abundant material but little aesthetic
criticism. Many of the finest portraits are included in Arndt-
Bruckmann's series of Griechische und romische Portrdts, and
Brunn-Bruckmann's Denkmaler griechisch-romischer Skulptur con-
tain reproductions of several Roman reliefs. The monuments col-
lected by T. Schreiber under the title of Hellenistische Reliefbilder
(1894) are largely of Roman date.
For Roman painting we have as yet no handbook; W. Helbig's
Untersuchungen uber die campanische Wandmalerei (1873) are still
of great value, though the theory advanced is overstated. His
Campaniens Wandgemdlde (1868) gives a catalogue raisonnk of
Pompeian paintings, and has been supplemented by A. Sogliano,
Le pitlure murali Campane (1879). Those since discovered are de-
scribed in the Notizie degli Scavi. A. Mau's Geschichte der Wand-
malerei is also indispensable. Hermann-Bruckmann, Denkmaler
der Malerei des Alterthums (1907- ), will give reproductions,
partly in colour, of all important specimens of ancient painting.
Le Nozze Aldobrandine, &c., by B. Nogara (1907), contains both
coloured and photographic reproductions of the paintings preserved
in the Vatican library. For the Fayum portraits see G. Ebers,
Anlike Portrdts (Leipzig, 1893); F. Petrie, Hawara, ch. vii.; and
C. Edgar, Catalogue des antiquites du musee du Caire, " Graeco-
Egyptian Coffins, ' p. xi. ff. On the technique of ancient painting
Otto Donner von Richter's introduction to Helbig's Campaniens
Wandgemdlde should be consulted. P. Girard's sketch of ancient
painting (La Peinture antique, n.d.) is slight. For the bibliography
of mosaics see that article (especially Gauckler in Daremberg and
Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiques, s.v. " Musivum Opus"); for
work in gold and silver see the article PLATE. For gem-engraving,
A. Furtwangler's Die antiken Gemmen (3 vols., 1900) is the standard
work. The history of Roman pottery is summarized by H. B.
Walters, History of Ancient Pottery, vol. ii. 430 ff. ; the most im-
portant works are J . Dechelette, Les Vases ornes de la Gaule romaine
(1904), and H. Dragendorff's articles on " Terra sigillata " in the
Banner Jahrbiicher.
Sections on Roman art will be found in general handbooks, such
as Springer- Michaelis, Handbuch der Kunsteeschichte (6th ed., 1904) ;
L. von Sybel, Weltgeschichte der Kunst (2nd ed., 1902); and C.
Gurlitt, Geschichte der Kunst, vol. i. (1902). (H. S. J.)
ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH, the name generally given
to that great branch of the Christian Church which acknow-
ledges the pope, or bishop of Rome, as its head, and holds as
an article of faith that communion with and submission to
the authority of the see of Rome is essential to effective
membership of the Catholic Church as founded by Christ.
This belief is based upon the commission given by Christ to
Peter as " prince of the apostles," " Feed my sheep "
(John xxi. 15-17); the saying, " Thou art Peter, and upon this
rock I will build my church; and the gates of hell shall not
prevail against it. And I will give unto thee the keys of the
kingdom of heaven: and whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth
shall be bound in heaven; and whatsoever thou shalt loose on
earth shall be loosed in heaven " (Matt. xvi. 18, 19). The
authority thus conferred upon St Peter is., held by Roman
Catholics to be permanently vested in the bishop of Rome,
as successor to Peter, first bishop of the imperial see. As
such, the pope is regarded as " vicar of Christ, head of the
bishops, and supreme governor of the whole Catholic Church,
of whom the whole world is the territory or diocese." His
peculiar powers as pope he exercises immediately on election.
Thus he may grant indulgences, issue censures, give dispensa-
tions, canonize saints, institute bishops, create cardinals in
short, perform all the acts of his jurisdiction, even though he
be no more than a layman; but by custom certain of his
more solemn acts are postponed till after the ceremony of his
coronation, from which his pontificate is officially dated.
To exercise the actus ordinis of a priest or bishop, however,
he must, if not already in orders, be specially ordained and
consecrated. Hence his office is a dignity, not of order, but
of jurisdiction (see PAPACY and POPE).
The most distinctive characteristic of the Roman Catholic
Church, at least as contrasted with the various Protestant
communions, is its vigorous insistence on the principle of
ecclesiastical authority. Of this authority the pope is regarded
as the centre and source, so far as the interpretation of the
Divine Will to the world is concerned in matters of faith and
morals. His pronouncements are held to be infallible when
he defines a doctrine concerning faith or morals ex cathedra
to be held by the universal church (see INFALLIBILITY and
VATICAN COUNCIL).
The government of the Roman Catholic Church being
centred at Rome, an elaborate organization has been developed
there for the administration of its affairs. At the head of this
is the college of cardinals, who are the princes and senators
of the Church, the counsellors of the pope, and his vicars in
the functions of the pontificate. By those of them who are
members of the various Congregations and other offices of the
Curia the greater part of the government of the Church is
directed. (For accounts of the organization of the ^oman
Curia the reader is referred to the articles CARDINAL and CURIA
ROMANA.) The characteristic note of the Roman Curia is its
intense conservatism and its slowness to move, whether in
approving or condemning new developments of opinion or
action. This is explained by the nature of its organization
and by the tradition on which it is based. For, just as the
Roman Church as a whole preserves in the spiritual sphere
the spirit and much of the organization of the Roman Empire,
so the administration of the Curia carries on the tradition of
Roman government, with its reverence for precedent and
its practice of deciding questions, not on their supposed
abstract merits, but in accordance with the rules of law as
defined in the codes or by previous decisions. Thus the genius
of Rome remains, as it always has been, administrative rather
than speculative. The great dogmas of the Christian Church
were shaped by the interplay of the subtle wits of the theologians
of the Oriental Churches. The new dogmas promulgated by
the Holy See from time to time have been the outcome of
the slow growth of ages, built up from precedent to precedent,
and only defined at last when the accumulated weight of
evidence in their favour, or the necessity for precise definition
to meet the contradictions of heretics, seemed to demand a
decision. This temper and the process in which it finds
expression are well illustrated in the case of the dogma of the
Immaculate Conception (q.ii.) and in the authorization given
to the cult of the Sacred Heart (q.v.).
This conservative spirit and extreme reverence for authority
pervades the whole Roman Catholic Church in exact proportion
to the degree of effective control which the see of Rome has
succeeded in obtaining over its branches in various countries.
To pretend to an independent judgment in questions of faith or
morals is for a Roman Catholic to commit treason against his
Church; and even in the wide sphere of questions lying beyond
the dogmas defined as de fide a too curious discussion is dis-
couraged, if not condemned. As opposed to the critical and
analytical tendencies of the modern world, then, the Roman
Catholic Church assumes the function of the champion of moral
and intellectual discipline, an attitude defined, in its extremest
expression, by Pius IX. 's Syllabus of 1864 (see SYLLABUS), and
the famous encyclical Pascendi of Pius X. in 1907. The de-
velopment of this attitude, known in so far as it depends on
the full pretensions of the Papacy- as Ultramontanism, since
the definition of the Roman Catholic Church by the council of
Trent in 1564, will be found sketched in the historical section
attached to this article. The earlier history, which is that of
the Latin Church of the West, will be found in the articles
PAPACY, CHURCH HISTORY and REFORMATION.
Under the supreme authority of the pope the Roman Catholic
Church is governed and served by an elaborate hierarchy. This,
so far as its polestales ordinis are concerned, is divided into seven
orders: the three " major orders " of bishops and priests,
deacons, and subdeacons (bishops and priests forming two
degrees of the ordj) sacerdotium), and the four "minor orders "
of acolytes, exorcists, readers, and door-keepers. These various
orders do not derive their potestas ordinis from the pope, but
from God, in virtue of their direct ministerial succession from the
apostles. 1 So far as jurisdiction is concerned, however, those
1 Thus sacraments administered by validly ordained or conse-
crated priests and bishops are regarded as valid, even when those
who administer them are heretics or schismatics.
ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH
487
members of the hierarchy known as prelates (praelati), who
possess this power (potcstasjurisdictionis inforo externo), whether
bishops or priests, derive it from the pope.
These jurisdictions are of very varied character, and in most
cases are not peculiar to the Roman Catholic Church. They
include those of patriarchs, archbishops, metropolitans and
bishops in the first rank of the hierarchy, with their subordinate
officials, such as archdeacons, archpriests, deans and canons, &c.,
in the lower ranks. All of these will be found described under
their proper headings (see also ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION).
The basis of the organization of the Church is territorial, the
world being mapped out into dioceses or, in countries where
the Roman Church is not well developed e.g. missions in non-
Christian lands into Apostolic Vicariates. The dioceses are
grouped in various ways; some are immediately dependent
upon the Holy See; some are grouped in ecclesiastical provinces
or metropolitanates, which in their turn are sometimes grouped
together to form a patriarchate.
According to the official Gerarchia Cattolica, published at Rome,
there were in 1909 ten patriarchates, with fourteen patriarchal
sees (including those of the Oriental rite, i.e. those Eastern com-
munities which, though in communion with Rome, have been al-
lowed to retain their peculiar ritual discipline). Of these the four
greater patriarchates are those of Alexandria (with two p?triarchs,
Latin and Coptic); Anticch (with four, Latin, Graeco-Melchite,
Maronite and Syriac) ; Constantinople (Latin) and Jerusalem
(Latin). The lesser patriarchates are those of Babylon (Chaldaic),
Cilicia (Armenian), the East Indies (Latin), Lisbon (Latin), Venice
(Latin) and the West Indies (Latin). (See PATRIARCH.)
The archiepiscopal sees number 204. Of these 21 are immedi-
ately subject to the Holy See, while those of the Latin rite having
ecclesiastical provinces number 164. There are 19 of the Oriental
rite : 3 with ecclesiastical provinces, viz. Armenian, Graeco- Rumanian
and Graeco-Ruthenian respectively; the rest are subject to the
patriarchates, viz. 2 Armenian, 3 Graeco-Melchite, 3 Syriac, 2 Syro-
Chaldaic, 6 Syro-Maronite.
Of episcopal sees of the Latin rite 6 are suburbican sees of the
cardinal bishops, 85 are immediately subject to the Holy See, and
662 are suffragan sees in ecclesiastical provinces. Of those of the
Oriental rite one (Graeco-Ruthenian) is immediately subject to the
Holy See; 9 are suffragan sees in ecclesiastical provinces, viz. 3
Graeco- Rumanian and 6 Graeco-Ruthenian; the rest are subject
to the patriarchates, viz. 15 Armenian, 2 Coptic, 9 Graeco-Melchite,
5 Syriac, 9 Syro-Chaldaic, 2 Syro-Melchite.
The whole number of these residential sees, including the patri-
archates, is 1023. Besides these there are 610 titular sees, formerly
called sees in partibus infidelium, the archbishops and bishops of
which are not bound to residence. These titles are generally
assigned to bishops appointed to Apostolic Delegations, Vicariates
and Prefectures, or to the office of coadjutor, auxiliary or adminis-
trator of a diocese. (See ARCHBISHOP and BISHOP.)
The dioceses are divided into parishes, variously grouped, the
most usual organization being that of deaneries. In the parish
the authority of the Church is brought into intimate touch
with the daily life of the people. The main duties of the parish
priest are to offer the sacrifice of the mass (q.v.), to hear con-
fessions, to preach, to baptize and to administer extreme
unction to the dying. It is true to say that in the " cure of
souls " the confessional plays a larger part in the Church than
the pulpit (see CONFESSION and ABSOLUTION). For the official
costume of the various orders of clergy see the article VESTMENTS.
The clergy of the Roman Catholic Church are furthermore
divided into regular and secular. The regular clergy are those
attached to religious orders and to certain congregations (see
MONASTICISM). Of these the former are outside the normal
organization of the Church, being exempt from the ordinary
jurisdiction of the diocesan bishops, while the more recently
formed congregations are either wholly or largely subject to
episcopal authority. By far the most powerful of the religious
orders are the Jesuits (q.v.). The secular clergy, on the other
hand, are bound by no vows beyond those proper to their
orders. Both regular and secular clergy (those at least in major
orders) are under the obligation of celibacy, which, by cutting
them off from the most intimate common interests of the
people, has proved a most powerful disciplinary force in the
hands of the popes (see CELIBACY). The more complete
isolation of the regular clergy, however, together with their
direct relation to the Holy See, has made them, not only the
more effective instruments of papal authority, but more ob-
noxious to the peoples and governments of countries where they
have gained any considerable power. Their privileged position,
moreover, leads everywhere to a certain amount of friction
between them and the secular clergy.
In doctrine the Roman Catholic Church is divided from the
orthodox communions of the East mainly by the claims of
the papacy, which the Orientals reject, and the question of
the " Procession of the Holy Ghost " (see CHURCH HISTORY).
From the Protestant communities which were the outcome
of the Reformation the divergence is more profound, though
the central dogmas of the faith are common to Roman Catholics
and orthodox Protestants. The difference lies essentially in
the belief held as to the means by which the truths denned
in these dogmas are to be made effective for the salvation of
the world. It was defined in the canons of the council of
Trent, as promulgated by Pope Pius IV. in 1564, in which the
main theses of the Reformers as to the character of the Church,
the sufficiency of Holy Scriptures, the nature of the sacra-
ments, and the like were finally condemned (see TRENT, COUNCIL
OF).
The Roman Catholic Church is by far the most widespread,
numerous and powerful of all the Christian communions. It
is the dominant Church in the majority of European states,
in South and Central America and in Mexico; it is the largest
single religious body in the United States of America, while
in certain Protestant countries, e.g. Prussia and the United
Kingdom, it has great religious and political influence. Any
statistics of its membership, however, must necessarily be
misleading. Those published are generally based on the
principle of deducting the Protestant from the general popula-
tion of " Catholic " countries and ascribing the rest to the
Roman Church. This may be possible in Germany and other
countries where there is a religious census; but it is, at best, a
rough-and-ready method where, as in Italy or France, besides
the class of " political " or " non-practising " Catholics, large
numbers of the people are more or less actively hostile to
Christianity itself. (For Roman Catholic missionary work see
MISSIONS.)
The Unial or United Oriental Churches. The overwhelming
majority of the adherents of the Roman Catholic Church
throughout the world belong to the Latin rite, i.e. follow the
usages and traditions of the Western Church. 1 Ever since the
schism of East and West, however, it has been an ambition of
the papacy to submit the Oriental Churches to its jurisdiction,
and successive popes have from time to time succeeded in
detaching portions of those Churches and bringing them into
the obedience of the Holy See. This has only been possible
owing to the temper of the Oriental mind which, while clinging
tenaciously to its rites, values dogma only in so far as it is
expressed in rites. The popes, then, or at least the more politic
of them, have been content to lay down as the condition of
reunion no more than the acceptance of the distinctive dogmas
of the Roman Catholic Church, especially the supremacy and
infallibility of the pope; the ritus of the Uniat Oriental Churches
liturgies and liturgical languages, ecclesiastical law and
discipline, marriage of priests, beards and costume, the monastic
system of St Basil they have been content for the most part
to leave untouched. The attempts of Pius IX., who in 1862
established the Congregatio de propaganda fide pro ncgoliis
ritus orientalis, to interfere in a Romanizing sense with the
rites of the Armenians and Chaldaeans (by the bulls Reverstirvs
of 1867 and Cum Ecclesiastica of i86g) led to a schism; and
Leo XIII., who more than all his predecessors interested himself
in the question of reunion, reverted to and developed the wiser
1 The Latin word ritus covers not only the ordinary meaning
of the modern English word " rite," i.e. " a formal procedure or
act in a religious or other solemn function," or any " custom or
practice of a formal kind," but the sense in which it is now ob-
solete in England except in the religious connotation here used
of " the general or usual custom, habit or practice of a country,
people, class of persons, &c." (New English Diet. s.v.). For the
liturgies of the Latin and Oriental Churches see LITURGY.
4 88
ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH
principle of not aiming at any assimilation of rites, but only at
" the full and perfect union of faith " (Encyclical Praeclara
gratulationis of June 1804). This principle has even been
carried to the extent of recognizing several bishops having
jurisdiction over the adherents of various rites in the same see;
thus there are three uniat patriarchs of Antioch (Graeco-
Melchite, Maronite and Syrian).
Exact statistics of the membership of the Churches of the
Oriental rite are almost impossible to obtain; the numbers
of their adherents, moreover, are apt to vary suddenly with
the shifting currents of political forces in the East, for political
factors have always played a considerable part in these move-
ments towards reunion or the reverse. In 1908 their numbers
were estimated at approximately 5,500,000. The Churches
of the Oriental rite fall under four main divisions: Greek,
Armenian, Syrian, Coptic; and with the exception of the
Armenian these are again subdivided according to nationality
or to peculiarities of cult or language. The Churches may be
further grouped according to the character of their constitu-
tion, i.e. (i) those having their own rite only in a restricted
sense, since they have no hierarchy of their own but are sub-
ordinate to Latin bishops, i.e. the Greeks in Italy (Italograeci) ,
the scattered Bulgarian Uniats, the Abyssinians, some of the
Armenians and the "Christians of St Thomas"; (2) those
having their own bishops and sometimes their own metro-
politans, as in Austria- Hungary; (3) the Eastern patriarchates.
Geographically, the Uniat Churches may be grouped as follows:
(A) EUROPE, where their association with the Roman Church is
at once the oldest and the most intimate.
(1) The Italograeci. These are distributed in scattered groups
throughout Italy, but are most compact in Apulia and Sicily, and
number in all some 50,000. They are under the jurisdiction of the
Latin diocesan bishops, but their priests are ordained by bishops
of their own rite specially appointed by the pope.
(2) The Uniat Churches of Austria-Hungary. With the excep-
tion of the Armenian, these are all of the Greek rite, but are divided
according to nationality and ritual language intothefollowinggroups:
-(a) Ruthenian Church. This, though still the most important
numerically of all the Uniat Churches, is but a fragment of the
Church which proclaimed its union with Rome at the synod of
Brest in Lithuania in 1596, a union which, after long and bitter
resistance, was completed by the submission of the dioceses of
Lemberg and Luzk in 1700 and 1702. The Church was broken
up by the successive partitions of Poland, and those parts of it
which fell to Russia were, notably under Catherine II. and Nicholas
I., forcibly absorbed into the Orthodox Church. The Church,
however, still numbers some 3,000,000 adherents in Galicia, and
500,000 in Hungary. In Galicia it has an independent organization
under the Greek-Catholic archbishop of Lemberg, with two suffragan
sees: Przemysl, for West Galicia, and Stanislawov for East Galicia.
In Hungary there are two bishoprics, Munkacz and Eperies, under
the Latin primate of Hungary, the archbishop of Gran. The Serb
bishopric of Kreutz in Croatia, under the Latin archbishop of
Agram, may be also grouped with the Ruthenian Church, since
the rite is identical. Its adherents number from 15,000 to 20,000.
The liturgical language of the Uniat Slav Churches is Old Slavonic,
and, so far as their rite is concerned, they differ from the Orthodox
Slav Churches only in using the Glagohtic instead of the Cyrillic
alphabet. (b) Rumanian Church. This numbers about 1,000,000
adherents and has its own organization under the metropolitan of
Fogairasch or Alba Julia, with 'three suffragan sees: Lugos, Gross-
Wardein and Szamos-Uvj ar. It has had its own ritual" language
since the I7th century, (c) Armenian Church. This numbers in
Austria-Hungary only some 4000 to 5000 members. It has an
archbishopric at Lemberg, which has jurisdiction also over the
Uniat Armenians at Venice.
(3) Uniat Churches in Russia and Turkey in Europe, (a) In
Russia the Uniat Ruthenian Church (see above) ceased to exist
with the incorporation of the little Polish diocese of Chlem in the
Orthodox Russian Church under Alexander II. in 1875. The Holy
See, however, has never withdrawn its claim to jurisdiction over
it, nor have the Ruthenians ever been wholly reconciled to their
absorption in the Russian Church. The ukaz of Nicholas II.
(Easter, 1905), granting liberty of worship, produced a movement
in the direction of Rome; but this appears to have been checked
by the refusal of the government, even now, to recognize in Russia
a Roman Catholic Church of the Greek rite. Converts to Rome
have, therefore, to accept the Latin rite (see Prince Max of
Saxony, Vorlesungen uber die orientalischen Kirchenfragen, 1907). The
scattered communities of the Uniat Armenian Church in Russia are
subordinate to Latin vicars apostolic. The Uniat Armenian Church
in the Caucasus, however, is under the jurisdiction of the patri-
archate of Cilicia. (6) In European Turkey the Uniat Churches are
represented by tiny groups, scattered about the Balkan Peninsula,
attached to Latin " missions." The movement in favour of the
union of the Bulgarian Church with Rome, which grew up in 1860,
was the outcome of the national opposition to the Greeks, and
with the establishment of the Bulgarian exarchate in 1872 it
died away. There are not more than 10,000 to 15,000 Uniat
Bulgarians, who have been ruled since 1 88;} by three vicars apos-
tolic. The Uniat Armenians and Melchites in Constantinople
belong to the Eastern patriarchates.
(B) ASIA AND AFRICA. The Uniat Churches in Asia and Africa
occupy a peculiar position in so far as Rome has recognized the
traditional rights of the patriarchates (see, e.g., Leo XIII. 's en-
cyclical Praeclara gratulationis of June 1894), and they therefore
enjoy almost complete autonomy; thus the patriarchs nominate
their own suffragans and have the right to summon synods for
specific purposes (see PATRIARCH).
There are six Uniat Patriarchates :
(1) The Patriarchatus Ciliciae Armenorum. The Armenian
patriarch, whose jurisdiction embraces the Catholic Armenians
in the Balkan Peninsula, in Russian Armenia and in Asiatic Turkey,
formerly resided in Lebanon, but has had his seat since 1867 at
Constantinople. Under him are 19 dioceses, including a small
one in Persia. The number of Catholic Armenians under his juris-
diction is, roughly, 100,000 (see ARMENIAN CHURCH).
(2) The three patriarchates of Antioch. (a) The Melchite (Patri-
archatus Antiochenus Graeco-Melchitarum). The patriarch resides
in the monastery of Ain-Traz in the Lebanon and has jurisdiction
over all the Uniats of Greek nationality in the Turkish Empire, who
number about 120,000. Under him are 3 archbishops and 9 bishops
(see MELCHITES). (b) The Marpnites (Patriarchatus Antiochenus
Syro-Maronitarum), whose seat is in the Lebanon. The patri-
arch has jurisdiction over about 500,000 people (see MARONITES).
(c) The Syrian (Patriarchatus Antiochenus Syrorum). The patriarch,
who resides at Mardin near Diarbekr on the upper Tigris, is obeyed
by from 15,000 to 20,000 people, who represent a secession from the
Jacobite Church (see JACOBITE CHURCH). He has 3 archbishoprics
and 5 bishoprics under his jurisdiction.
(3) The Chaldaeans (Patriarchatus Chaldaeorum Babylonensis) .
The patriarch has jurisdiction over the Uniat Nestorian Church,
which numbers, roughly, about 50,000 adherents, and is divided,
under the patriarch, into 1 1 dioceses (see NESTORIANS).
(4) The Coptic (Patriarchatus Alexandrinus Coptorum). This
was founded on the 26th of November 1895 by Pope Leo XIII.
The patriarch, who was given two suffragan bishops, has his seat
at Cairo. The number of Uniat Copts is nominal.
(5) The Uniat Abyssinian Church. This has scaracely any ad-
herents. Such as there are are under the authority of a vicar
apostolic residing at Keren.
(6) The Christians of St Thomas (Malabar coast). For these
Leo XIII. established in 1887 three special vicariates apostolic
( Vicariatus apostolici Syro-Malabarorum) ; the vicars apostolic
are Latins, but have the right to pontificate and to confirm accord-
ing to the Syrian rite. The number of Christians of St Thomas in
the obedience of Rome is said to be about 100,000.'- (W. A. P.)
The Church in Europe since the Reformation.
The term " Romish Catholique " is as old as the days of
Queen Elizabeth. 2 It is not happily chosen, for catholic
means universal, and what is universal cannot be peculiar to
Rome. But the term is inoffensive to Roman Catholics, since
it advertises their claim that communion with the see of Rome
is of the essence of Catholicity, and to Protestants, since it
serves to emphasize the fact that the religion of modern Rome
differs widely in many important respects from that of the
undivided medieval Church. The change has brought both
good and evil. Protestant controversialists have some show
of reason on their side when they argue that Luther saved the
Roman Church by forcing it to put an end to many intolerable
abuses. On the other hand, under stress of his revolt the
papacy could not but develop in a strongly anti-Protestant
direction, laying exaggerated emphasis on every point he
challenged. The more fiercely he denounced infallibility, the
confessional, the sacramental system, the larger these things
bulked in the eyes of Rome.
Not that this cqnsequence showed itself at once. The Refor-
mation was well established before it attracted any serious
1 This account of the Uniat Churches is largely condensed from
the excellent article " Unierte Orientalen," by F. Kattenbusch in
Herzog-Hauck Realencyklopadie (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1908), where
numerous authorities are given.
2 It was officially adopted in the Relief Act of 1791 in place of the
designation " Protesting Catholic Dissenters," to which the vicars
apostolic objected.
ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH
489
notice at Rome. The popes of the Renaissance were profoundly
uninterested in theology; they were far more at home in an
art gallery, or in fighting to recover their influence as temporal
Italian princes, gravely shattered during the long residence of
the papal court at Avignon in the I4th century. But these
secular interests came to an end with the so-called sack of
Rome in 1527, when Charles V. turned his arms against Clement
VII., and made the pope a prisoner in his own capital. Thence-
forward there was no more thought of territorial aggrandise-
ment. The popes, as the phrase went, became Spanish chap-
lains, with a fixed territory guaranteed to them by Spanish
arms; apart from the addition of Ferrara and one or two other
petty principalities on the extinction of the reigning house, its
boundaries remained unchanged till Napoleonic times. Under
Clement's successor, Paul III., a new state of things began to
dawn. Hitherto the way had been blocked by a horde of
protonotaries, dataries and other officials purveyors of in-
dulgences, dispensations and such-like spiritual favours to
whom reform spelt ruin. Even the Reformation did not move
them; if less money came in from Germany, that was all the
more reason for leaving things unchanged in France and Spain.
But among Paul's cardinals were three remarkable men, the
Italians Contarini and Sadolet, and the Englishman Reginald
Pole, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury under Mary. All
three were disciples of Erasmus, the great apostle of a new,
tolerant, scholarly religion very different from the grimy pedantry
of the medieval doctors. It was better, he said, to be weak in
Duns Scotus, but strong in St Paul than to be crammed with
all the learning of Durandus, and ignorant of the law of Christ.
Men trained in this school were not likely to be tender towards
vested interests in darkness, least of all when they stood in the
way of a reconciliation with the Protestants: for the cardinals
thought that the strength of the Reformation lay much less in
the attractiveness of Luther's doctrines than in his vigorous
denunciations of the vices of the clergy. Once root out abuses
with a firm hand, and they believed that a few timely con-
cessions on points of doctrine would tempt most Protestants
back within the Roman pale. This belief was shared by
The Charles V. Together they persuaded the unwilling
Council pope to call a general council. It met in December
of Trent, j^ at t j, e Tirolese city of Trent, with Pole as one of
the three presidents (see TRENT, COUNCIL OF).
As a means of reconciliation the council was a signal failure.
The Protestants refused to attend an assembly where even
the most conciliatory prelate could hardly condescend to
meet them on equal terms. Nor was Pole allowed to use the
only possible means of overcoming their reluctance. He had
wished to begin by reforming abuses before proceeding to
sit in judgment on doctrinal errors. But this arrangement
was cried down as a revolutionary departure from all established
precedent; and he had much ado to secure the compromise
that doctrines and practical reforms should be simultaneously
discussed. But in the midst of its labours the council was
prorogued (March 1547) in consequence of a quarrel between
the pope and emperor. In 1551 it met again, only to be again
prorogued in 1552. Ten years later it met again for a third
and final session, lasting throughout 1562 and 1563. During
those ten years great changes had taken place. Charles V. had
followed Pole and his peace-loving colleagues to the grave;
in his place stood his son, Philip II. of Spain, while the intel-
lectual leadership of the council fell to Jaime Laynez, general
of the newly founded Society of Jesus. There was no longer
any question of ' reconciliation with the Protestants. North
Germany, England, Scandinavia were irretrievably lost to
Rome; wars of religion had broken out in France. Clearly
the one hope was to enter into a desperate struggle for the
possession of such countries as still hung in the balance; and
that could best be done by striking at the heart of the Reforma-
tion. Protestantism centred or was by Catholics supposed
to centre in a mysterious "right of private judgment";
the council accordingly retorted by hymning the praises of
obedience, of submitting to authority and never thinking for
oneself. To waverers it held up an absolutely sure and uniform
Rule of Faith, contrasting impressively with the already mul-
titudinous variations of the Protestant Churches. Moreover,
thanks to Laynez, it accomplished this task without running
the obvious danger of tying itself hand and foot to the past.
When old-fashioned theologians talked about the canons and
.councils of antiquity, Laynez answered that the Church was
not more infallible at one time than another; the Holy Ghost
spoke through the decrees of Trent quite as plainly and directly
as through the primitive Fathers.. Thus the council's authority
became at once peremptory and elastic. But the real gainer
was the pope. Hitherto infallibility had been thought of as the
supreme weapon of the Church's armoury, destined only for
use at some extraordinary crisis; hence it was naturally con-
ceived of as residing only in the extraordinary authority
of a general council presided over by the pope. Since the
outbreak of the Reformation, however, extraordinary crises,
calling for immediate decision, might arise at any moment.
It was no longer possible to wait for the assembling of a
general council; stronger and stronger grew the tendency
to ascribe infallibility to the pope alone, as being always on
the spot.
Doctrine and discipline once settled at Trent, the work
of counter-reformation could begin. Rebels were won back
by force wherever force could be applied. In Spain fbe
the Inquisition soon snuffed out the few Reformers. Counter-
In Italy, though declared Protestants were few, there Kttormm-
was widespread sympathy with some of Luther's a "'
ideas; a committee of cardinals at Rome was accordingly
organized into an Inquisition, with branches at the chief Italian
towns. For half a century trials were many at Venice and
elsewhere, but actual executions were only common at Rome;
the most illustrious victim was the philosopher Giordano Biuno,
burnt in 1600. In the imperial dominions, however, there could
be no recourse to the stake. The peace of Augsburg (1555)
forbade the German princes to persecute, though it recognized
their right to determine to what religion their subjects should
belong, and to banish nonconformists. At first this compro-
mise had worked in favour of the Reformation, but presently
the Catholic princes began to turn it against their Protestant
subjects. " Governments learned to oppress them wisely,
depriving them of church and school, of pastor and school-
master; and by those nameless arts with which the rich used
to coerce the poor in the good old days. Fervent preachers
came amongst them, widely differing in morality, education,
earnestness and eloquence from the parish clergy, whose de-
ficiencies gave such succour to Luther. Most of those who,
having no taste for controversy, were repelled by scandals
were easily reconciled. Others, who were conscious of dis-
agreement with the theology of the last thousand years, had
now to meet disputants of a more serious type than the
adversaries of Luther, and to meet them unsupported by
experts of their own. Therefore it was by honest conviction,
as well as by calculated but not illegal coercion, that the
Reformation was driven back " (Acton, Lectures on Modern
History, p. 123).
This system was not an unmixed success; for its extension
to Bohemia early in the I7th century brought about the Thirty
Years' War. But it obliged the authorities to pay anew atten-
tion to the training of the clergy. The " seminary system "
came into being that is, the custom of obliging candidates
for ordination to spend several years in a theological college,
whence lay influences were carefully excluded. But ecclesi-
astical learning of a wider type was also promoted. Gregory
XIII. (1572-85) and Sixtus V. (1585-90) dreamed of making
Rome once more the capital of European culture. Gregory re-
formed the Calendar, and founded the university that bears his
name. Five years of power were enough for Sixtus to reform
the central government of the Church and the administration
of the Papal States, to set on foot the Vatican press and issue
an official edition of the Vulgate. Their efforts bore fruit in
many quarters. In Rome arose Cardinal Baronius, first of
49
ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH
modern Church historians; Spain produced Suarez, most
philosophical of divines. A generation later the French Oratory
became the home of Malebranche and of Richard Simon, father
of Biblical criticism. Mabillon and his Benedictines of Saint-
Maur paved the way for the systematic investigation of his-
torical records. The Flemish Jesuit Bolland brought the
light of criticism to bear on the legends of the saints (see BOL-
LANDISTS). His French colleague, Petau, better known under
his latinized surname of Petavius, opened still wider floodgates
when he taught that theological dogmas, like everything else,
have a history. Lastly, the Jansenkt " hermitage " at Port
Royal contributed the historian Tillemont, whose bigotry
Edward Gibbon declares to be overbalanced by his erudition,
veracity and scrupulous minuteness. Other such communi-
ties and " congregations " semi-monastic bodies standing in
closer touch with the world than did the medieval orders
undertook the diffusion of knowledge. Wherever they went
the Jesuits opened grammar-schools, which had the double
advantage of being excellent and cheap. An Italian sisterhood,
the Ursulines, was founded for the higher instruction of girls;
late in the lyth century a French priest started the Christian
Brothers, pioneers of elementary education. Other com-
munities again devoted themselves to parochial work. Such
were the Oratorians of St Philip Neri, founded to evangelize
the middle classes of Rome. Such, again, were the Lazarists of
St Vincent de Paul, whose duty was to preach in neglected
country districts. But the most interesting of all these new
foundations was the Sisters of Charity, also founded by St
Vincent de Paul. This admirable body represents a signifi-
cant departure from medieval ideals. The old-fashioned nun
had spent her time behind high walls in prayerful contempla-
tion; the one object of the Sister of Charity was the service of
her neighbour.
Not that medieval ideals were by any means dead; they
never burned more brightly than in the Spain of St Teresa
(1515-82). Her first idea had been to combat alike the heresies
and the worldliness of her time by a return to the austerities
of a more heroic age. With this object she founded her order
of " Discalced " or barefooted Carmelites; it presently became
the refuge of Louise de la Valliere and many another penitent
of rank. But mere bodily rigours were not enough for Teresa;
she felt the need of rising to a state of complete detachment
from all earthly interests and ties. Her whole theology centres
in the lines
" The love of God flows just as much
As that of ebbing self subsides;
Our hearts, their scantiness is such,
Bear not the conflict of these rival tides."
How, then, subdue the rivalry? Teresa turned to the mystical
writers, and learnt from them how to root out the last relics
of self-love from the mind by a long discipline of mystical
trance and " contemplation." These ideas, in a very modified
form, were introduced into France by the great devotional
writer, St Francis of Sales; in the latter half of the i7th century
they were pushed to the extravagant length known as Quietism
by Fenelon, and especially by -Madame Guyon and Michel
de Molinos. Meanwhile, the leading conception from which
St Teresa started had developed along characteristically
different lines in the mind of her compatriot and contemporary,
Ignatius Loyola. He quite agreed that self-will was the enemy;
but was there no quicker way of checkmating it than
an interminable course of ecstasies and austerities?
The thoughts of the converted soldier flew back to
the military virtue of obedience. In the long-run no self-
imposed hardships could prove quite as disagreeable as always
being under the orders of some one else. Obedience accordingly
became the typical virtue of Ignatius's society (see JESUITS).
The individual Jesuit obeyed his superior, who obeyed the
rector, who obeyed the provincial, who obeyed the general, who
obeyed the pope, who took his orders straight from God Al-
mighty. Such a theory was of untold practical value to the
Church of Rome, more especially during the era of the Reforma-
The
Jesuits.
tion. Laynez at the council of Trent has given one signal instance
of its working, but its operations were by no means confined to
the abstract field of dogma. If men were really to be made
obedient, it could only be by stopping them from thinking for
themselves about the everyday problems of conduct; and the
best way to do this was to furnish them beforehand with a
ready-made code of answers to such problems, warranted to
meet all needs. Hence casuistry and the confessional Casulst
loomed large on the Jesuit horizon. The casuist's
duty was to apply the general precepts of the Church to par-
ticular cases. He explained, for instance, when a man was
strictly bound to tell the truth; when he might avail himself
of the mild licence of an equivocation; and when the Church
placed at his service the greater indulgence of a mental reserva-
tion. The confessor brought the casuist's principles to bear
on the conscience of his penitents, and thus saved them from
the danger of acting on their own responsibility (see CASUISTRY).
In its origin this system was a perfectly honest attempt
to widen the sphere of obedience by making morality wholly
objective and independent of the vagaries of the individual
conscience. But what was begun in the interest of obedience
was carried on in those of laxity. Experts proverbially differ,
and the casuists were no exceptions to the rule. But when
great authorities were at variance, it ill became an average
priest or penitent to decide. Whatever a grave doctor said
must have some solid reasons behind it aliqua niti pro-
babilitate and humble lay-folk could act upon it without a
twinge of conscience. Thus arose lax casuists of the type of
Antonio Escobar (1589-1669), the central figure of Pascal's
Provincial Letters. Their whole business was to hunt through
the older authorities in search of " benign " decisions. Their
temptation is easy to understand. Half Europe was full of
waverers between Protestantism and Catholicism tolerably
certain to decide for the Church that offered them the cheapest
terms of salvation; and even in wholly Catholic countries
many, especially of the upper class, might easily be scared
away from the confessional by severity. Thereby their money
and influence would be lost to the Church, and their souls
robbed of the priceless benefit of priestly absolution. On the
other hand, these " Escobarine morals " by no means passed
unchallenged; ever since the foundation of the society the
aims and methods of the Jesuits had called forth lively opposi-
tion in many parts of Catholic Europe, and not least in Loyola's
native land of Spain. But the most effective protest against
them was a movement which began when Michel de Bay, a
professor at the Flemish university of Louvain, put forward
certain theories on grace and free-will in the latter part of
the i6th century. In 1640 a much more elaborate statement
of the same ideas appeared in a posthumous treatise
on the theology of St Augustine from the pen of Cor-
nelius Jansen, also a Louvain professor (see JAN-
SENISM). Into the technical detail of the controversy there is no
need to enter. It is enough to say that two rival doctrines of
grace and free-will were struggling for mastery in the Roman
Church. One theory emphasized the necessity of grace; having
been put together by St Thomas Aquinas, it was known as
Thomism, and was especially championed by the Dominicans.
The other laid the chief stress on free-will; it was known as
Molinism from its inventor, the Jesuit Louis de Molina, and
was in great favour with the society. The two orders came
into violent collision at Rome between 1588 and 1606. But
the quarrel, known as the controversy de auxiliis gratiae, was
brought to an end by Pope Paul V., who closed the debates
and adjourned his decision sine die.
At first sight this abstract question seemed endlessly remote
from the practical policy of Escobar; really there is a close
connexion between the two. The whole system of the Jesuits
rested on a basis of free-will. Their quarry was the average
man; and the best way of impressing the average man is to
set before him duties that he feels himself fully capable of
performing. Then he will really feel morally responsible if
he leaves them undone, hence the necessity of free-will. .On
ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH
49
the other hand, as Jansen pointed out, free-will tends to make
the average man's estimate of his own powers into the supreme
criterion of all that is good and right. God must perforce be
satisfied with whatever common sense thinks it fair and
reasonable that He should expect. Jansen accordingly de-
nounced free-will as dishonouring to God, and destructive of
the higher interests of morality. But, if men threw over
common sense, what was to be their guide in life? Jansen
answered with his doctrine of Irresistible Grace. This was
simply a cumbrous way of saying that God awakens in the
righteous heart an intuitive faculty of discerning right from
wrong. " This holy taste or relish, " says a follower of Jansen,
" distinguishes between good and evil without being at the
trouble of a train of reasoning; just as the nature and tendency
of a heavy body, let fall from a height, shows the way to the
centre of the earth more exactly in a moment than the ablest
mathematician could determine by his most accurate observa-
tions in a whole day." That being so, the Jansenist obeyed
his Inner Light, and paid little heed to the earth-bound
standards of unregenerate common sense. Nor was he much
more respectful towards the official standards of the Church.
Why should he consult a casuist rather than his Inner Light?
Thus the Jesuits saw themselves menaced by a grave revolt.
What would become of the confessional if penitents were
allowed to act on what they fondly took to be a heaven-sent
inspiration? In a twinkling they would be off to some
spiritual Wonderland, where no confessor could bring them to
book. On the other hand, only preach to them a strong
doctrine of free-will, and all these dangers vanished. They
would feel bound to disregard their sporadic intuitions, and
act only for reasons that would be clearly set out in black
and white. Their past performances could then be checked,
and their future actions forecast by the priest; and there
was small danger of their straying beyond the limits marked
out by authority.
Thus within the spiritual sphere free-will led up to Jesuit
obedience. But in the secular world this paradox failed to
obtain; there free-will was only too ready to come into
conflict with the Church. The isth and i6th centuries had
seen the final break-up of the medieval system of reverence
for authority and tradition. In art and learning, morals and
government, the old wails came crashing down; in the general
bankruptcy of authority men were forced to depend on them-
selves. And the contemporaries of Machiavelli soon learned
to take the fullest advantage of this liberty to pursue their
own best interests in the way that pleased them best. But
if individuals might be guided by self-interest, why should
that privilege be denied to associations of men? On the
The ruins of a medieval Christendom, hierarchically
Papacy organized under the pope, grew up the " new mon-
andthe archy, " or modern state, owning no law but its
NewMon- Qwn w jjj Y et the popes laid aside none of their
medieval claims, or even their traditional weapons.
In 1606 Paul V. laid Venice under an interdict, on the
ground that the republic had infringed the immunities of the
clergy; the doge replied by threatening with death any one
who took any notice of the papal thunders. Thenceforward
the thunders continued chiefly on paper. In 1625 Catholic
Europe was scandalized by the De Schismate of the Jesuit
Santarelli, in which he claimed for the pope an absolute
right to interfere in the concerns of secular princes, whenever
he chose to declare that the interests of religion were in any
way concerned. He could dictate their policy at home and
abroad, revise their statute-book, upset the decisions of their
law-courts. If they refused to listen he could punish them
in any manner he thought fit; in the last resort he could
release their subjects from allegiance and head a crusade of
Catholic powers against them. These pretensions roused a
special burst of indignation in France. There, on the divisions
of the wars of religion, had followed an irresistible reaction
towards patriotism and national unity. France had suddenly
grown to her full stature; like the contemporary England
of John Milton, she was become a " noble and puissant nation,
rousing herself like a strong man after sleep." Even the
clergy were swept away by the current, and meant to be
patriots like every one else. " Before my ordination, " said
the eminent theologian Edmond Richer, " I was a subject of
the king of France: why should that ceremony make me a
subject of the pope? " Subjection to the pope implied an
Italianization of French religion; and most Frenchmen looked
on the Italians as an inferior race. Why, then, should the
right to decide ecclesiastical disputes be taken away from
their own highly competent fellow-countrymen, and reserved
for a set of incapable judges in a foreign land? Germany and
Spain might let themselves be bitted and bridled if they
chose, but for centuries France had prided herself that, thanks
to her Gallican liberties, she stood on a different footing towards
Rome.
The Liberties in question were certain ancient rights, whose
origin was lost in the mists of time. One forbade papal bulls
to be published in France without the consent of
the crown. Another exempted French subjects from
the jurisdiction of the Inquisition and other Roman
tribunals such as the Index of Prohibited Books. In the
1 7th century such immunities were all the more valuable since
French statesmen found themselves in an awkward position.
The great aim of Henry IV. and Richelieu was to exalt France
at the expense of Vienna and Madrid. But Madrid and Vienna
were the official champions of the papacy; hence to make war
on them was indirectly to make war on the- pope. This was
enough to trouble the consciences of many excellent men;
and it became necessary to devise a compromise that should
set their minds at rest, by showing them that they could be
at once good citizens and good Catholics. This compromise
is known as Gallicanism. In the hands of Bossuet and other
eminent divines it was developed along both theological and
political lines. Theological Gallicanism refused to recognize
papal decisions on questions of doctrine, until they had been
ratified by the bishops of France. Political Gallicanism main-
tained that lawful sovereigns held their power directly of God,
and not mediately through the pope. Hence no amount of
misgovernment, or neglect of Catholic interests, could justify
Rome in interfering with them. In other words, Bossuet only
answered Santarelli by setting up the divine right of kings.
However, this dogma by no means scandalized the subjects of
Louis XIV., for the worship of the sovereign was one of their
most cherished instincts. And Louis's ecclesiastical policy
flattered their national pride. He introduced no theological
novelties; all he did was to insist that, in matters of administra-
tion, he would be master in his own house. He supported
pope and bishops so long as they took their marching orders
from him. If they refused he was perfectly ready to make war
on the one and send the others to the Bastille. It is eminently
characteristic of his methods that, just at the same time as
he was turning loose dragoons on his Protestant subjects after
the revocation of the edict of Nantes (1685), he was employing
other dragoons to invade the papal territory at Avignon, to
punish Innocent XI. for' having refused institution to some of
his nominees to bishoprics.
The revocation of the edict of Nantes owes quite as much
to the dream of political absolutism, inherited from Richelieu,
as to religious bigotry. In the words of Saint-Simon, the
Huguenots were " a sect that had become a state within the
state, dependent on the king no more than it chose, and ready
on the slightest pretext to embroil the whole country by an
appeal to arms." So long as they were powerful, the crown
had treated with them; but when once their power began to
dwindle, it was certain that the crown would crush them. But
during Louis's latter years, when the War of the Spanish
Succession had brought a rain of disasters thickly upon him,
bigotry got the upper hand. The broken old man became
feverishly anxious to propitiate offended Heaven, and save
himself another Blenheim or Malplaquet, by exterminating the
enemies of the Church. And his Jesuit confessors had no doubt
492
ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH
that the first and foremost of those enemies were the Jansenists.
Not only did their doctrine of grace defy the favourite Jesuit
principle of obedience to authority, but it bade fair to set aside
the whole Catholic machinery of infallibility and sacraments.
If God spoke directly to the individual conscience, what was
the use of intermediaries? Led by his Jesuits, Louis wrung
The Bull from the unwilling Clement XI. the Bull Unigenitus
Uaigeal- (1713), which was intended to deprive believers in in-
*" dividual inspiration of all possible foothold within the
Roman Church. The bull caused a violent uproar. Fenelon,
although personally an admirer, admits that public opinion
credited it with " condemning St Augustine, St Paul, and even
Jesus Christ "; and the few Jansenist bishops appealed and
" re-appealed " against it. But the government was inexor-
able; in 1730 the Unigenitus became part and parcel of the
law of the land. Still, to make a law is one thing; to get it
administered is quite another. The parlement of Paris was a
strongly Galilean body, and had many grievances to avenge
on Louis XV. and his ministers. To annoy them, it put every
possible difficulty in the way of an execution of the bull. Under
the fostering care of the judges, a belief sprang up that to call
oneself a " Jansenist, " and oppose the Unigenitus, was to show
oneself a lover of civil and religious liberty. This feeling was
intensified by the conviction that every blow struck against
the bull was a blow against the Jesuits, its authors. For the
Society, as befitted the great exponent of authority and the
keeper of the consciences of many kings, had always been on
the side of political autocracy; and therefore it became in-
creasingly unpopular, when once the tide of French intelligence
began to set in the direction of revolutionary reform. Nor
were the Jesuits in much better odour among other nations.
Their perpetual meddling in politics, and even in speculation
and finance, stank in the nostrils of every government in
Europe; while their high-handedness and corporate greed in
the matter of ecclesiastical privileges and patronage alienated
the clergy. Their reform was more than once discussed; and
death alone prevented Benedict XIV. (1740-58) the most
remarkable of the iSth-century popes, from taking some
very stringent measures. A year after Benedict's death the
Suppres- fi fst kl w feN- P m bal, the great reforming minister
sloa of in Portugal, expelled them from that country on a
* Ae charge of having conspired against the life of the
Jesuits. king. Two years later the Paris parlement had its
chance. La Valette, superior of the Jesuit missions in Marti-
nique, had set up as a West-India merchant on a large scale.
His enterprises were unsuccessful; in 1761 he became insolvent,
and the Society refused to be responsible for his debts. The
French courts made the consequent bankruptcy proceedings
the excuse for a general inquiry into the Society's constitution,
and ended by declaring its existence illegal in France, on the
ground that its members were pledged to absolute obedience
to a foreigner in Rome. Louis XV. now proposed that the
French Jesuits should be placed under some special organiza-
tion, less obnoxious to his parlement. The general only made
the famous reply: " Sint ut sunt, aut non sint." Thereupon
Louis let the judges have their way. In 1762 the Society was
suppressed in France; in 1767 it was also declared illegal by
Spain, Naples and other Italian powers. Pressure was now
put on Clement XIII. to dissolve the Society altogether. He
refused; but his successor, Clement XIV., was more pliable,
and in 1773 the Jesuits ceased to be.
In France the philosophes and the quarrels over the Unigenitus
had effectually killed the spirit of religion; nor was the Christi-
anity of other countries at a much higher ebb. Spain was
utterly dumb; Italian fervour could only boast the foundation
of two small orders of popular preachers the Passionists
(i737), and the Redemptorists, instituted in 1732 by St Alfonso
Liguori (q.v.), who also won for himself a dubious reputation
on the unsavoury field of casuistry. German Catholicism
was still in a very raw, unsophisticated state. It is character-
istic that, while Paris had its Bossuets and Bourdaloues, Vienna
was listening to Abraham a Sancta Clara, the punning Capuchin
whom Schiller, regardless of dates, introduces into the opening
scene of his Wallenslein. However, from Germany was to
come a serious attempt at reform. There the vision of a reunion
with the Protestants had haunted many Catholic brains ever
since Bossuet and Leibniz had corresponded on the subject.
Faithful to the ancient tradition of Contarini and Pole at Trent,
these good men persisted in supposing that the Reformation
was nothing more than a protest against practical abuses:
remove the abuses, and the rest would follow of itself. And,
inasmuch as they held that most abuses were due to the slippery
and procrastinating greed of Roman officials, the
first step should be ruthlessly to curtail the power
of Rome and extend that of local Churches. Such
was the theme of a book, De statu Ecclesiae, ad reuniendos dis-
sidentes in religione Christianas composilus, published by one
Justinus Febronius in 1763. The author was Johann Nikolaus
von Hontheim (q.v.), suffragan in partibus to the elector-
archbishop of Treves. Hontheim's theories could not but prove
attractive to the local Churches, more especially when they
were governed by bishops who were also temporal great lords.
The three ecclesiastical electors and the prince-archbishop of
Salzburg met in congress at Ems in 1786, and embodied Hon-
theim's proposals, though in a very modified form, in a docu-
ment known as the " punctuation of Ems " (see FF.BRONIANISM).
Meanwhile, their overlord, the emperor Joseph II. (1780-90),
was dealing with the question of a much more radical spirit, and
actually abolishing abuses wholesale. The reign of " Brother
Sacristan, " the nickname given to Joseph by Frederick the
Great, was one continual suppression of superfluous abbeys,
feast-days, pilgrimages. More dignified were his attempts to
broaden the minds of the clergy. Instead of being brought
up in diocesan seminaries, centres of provincial narrowness,
candidates for ordination were to be collected into a few large
colleges set up in university towns. Still, Joseph only touched
the surface; his brother, the grand-duke Leopold of Tuscany,
aspired to cut deeper, and provoke a religious revival on the
lines of Jansenism. His plans, which made a great stir at the
time, were outlined at a synod held at Pistoia in 1786 (see
PISTOIA, SYNOD OF).
Three years later, however, the world had more important
things to think of than Leopold's ecclesiastical reforms. At
first the French Revolution was by mo means anti- Ttle
Catholic though the Constituent Assembly remem- Preach
bered too much of the quarrels about the Unigenitus Revoiu-
not to be bitterly hostile to Rome and its great aim
was to turn the French Church into a purely national body.
Hence it decreed the " civil constitution of the clergy. " Bishops
and rectors were made elective, with salaries paid by the state;
and all priests were required to take an oath of fidelity to the
government: those who refused the oath rendered themselves
liable to banishment. Three years later the triumph of the
Jacobins brought with it the " abolition of Christianity,"
and a spell of violent persecution, which gradually slackened
under the Directory (1795-99). I n J 799 Napoleon became
First Consul, and at once set himself to deal with the ecclesi-
astical problem. There must clearly be a Church, and the
small success of the Civil Constitution made clear that public
opinion would not put up with a Church practically detached
from Rome. On the other hand, Napoleon quite agreed with
Louis XIV. in wishing to be master in his own house, and to
turn the clergy into a supplementary police. Accordingly, in 1801
he negotiated with Pius VII. a Concordat, which remained in
force till 1905 (see CONCORDAT). The state undertook to pay
the bishops and parochial clergy; it was directly to Prance
appoint the one, and to have a veto on the appoint- and the
ment of the other. " But for the religious orders no P*P*<y-
provision was made; and Napoleon refused to tolerate the
presence of unsalaried clerics on whom the government had
no hold. When his fall brought about the restoration of
Louis XVIII. (1815), this restriction was relaxed, and the
" congregations " returned in large numbers to France. But
the Bourbon government had no intention of encouraging them
ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH
493
too much; it clung as closely as Napoleon himself to the idea
of a State Church, taking its orders from the government. In
this way Gallicanism, which had once stood for all that was
national and progressive, now came to mean subservience to a
feeble autocracy already tottering to its fall. " A free Church
in a free State " became the motto of the group of brilliant men,
led by Lamennais, Montalembert and Lacordaire, who started
up as soon as the July Revolution of 1830 replaced Charles X.
by Louis Philippe. They felt that Catholicism was strong
enough to stand alone, without artificial support. For the
Revolution had not " abolished Christianity," even among
the educated classes, quite so thoroughly as it imagined. Many
were only kept back from going to church by the fear that their
neighbours would think them superstitious or narrow-minded.
But in 1802 Chateaubriand had published his epoch-making
Gtnie du Christianisme, in which he declared that of all religions
Christianity was " the most poetical, the most human, the
most favourable to freedom, art and letters." If that were so,
no one need be ashamed to profess it; and the younger genera-
tion of Frenchmen began to gravitate back to the Church.
Meanwhile, Germany was being profoundly influenced by the
great aesthetic revival known as the Romantic Movement,
which began with the worship of medieval art and literature,
and ended with the worship of medieval religion. And even
Italy and Spain presently began to play their part in the
Christian reaction. Rosmini in one country, and Balmes in
the other, " brought piety to the learned, and learning to
the pious."
These writers, however, only touched the few; and the
great aim of Lamennais and his friends was to reach the mass
of the people. Immediately after the accession of Louis
Philippe they started their famous newspaper, L'Avenir, hoping
thereby to reconcile the Church with democracy, and make
the pope the leader of the party of progress. The enterprise
was hazardous, since democracy had hitherto brought nothing
but ill to Rome. In 1798 French troops had entered the papal
states, proclaimed a republic in Rome, and kept Pius VI. a
prisoner till his death (1799). In 1808 Napoleon arrested his
successor, Pius VII., threw the papal states into his new Italian
kingdom, and dragged Pius about from prison to prison till
the eve of his own fall in 1814. When the congress of Vienna
gave the pope back his dominions, the one thought of the
broken old man was to restore, as far as possible, the ancient
order of things. But the traditional methods of Roman ad-
ministration were deplorably ineffective; on the accession of
Gregory XVI. (1831-46), the powers presented a memorandum
strongly urging reform. Some reforms of detail were intro-
duced; but Gregory declared that to grant a constitution to
the States of the Church would be incompatible with the prin-
ciple of the papacy. Such a man was hardly likely to listen
to the plans of Lamennais. In 1832 the Avenir was con-
demned, and the disgusted Lamennais left the Roman Church.
Lacordaire and Montalembert, however, continued their demo-
cratic campaign, by no means without success; for the
revolution of 1848, which drove Louis Philippe from the throne,
was far less hostile to Catholicism than that of 1830. Under
the short-lived Second Republic (1848-52) the position of the
Church grew even stronger, for the introduction of universal
suffrage brought to the polls great masses of new voters
strongly clerical in sympathies. In 1850 was passed the
Loi Falloux, which broke down the Napoleonic idea of a
state-monopoly of teaching, and allowed the opening of
voluntary schools. Of this concession the religious orders
took full advantage.
Meanwhile in Rome things had gone from bad to worse.
Gregory XVI.'s refusal to grant a constitution called forth a
series of sporadic outbursts, inspired by Mazzini and the
" Young Italian " party, between 1832 and 1838. These were
put down by French and Austrian arms, with the result of
focusing the hatred of Young Italy on the pope. One last
attempt was made to save him. In 1843 the Piedmontese
priest Gioberti brought out a remarkable book, in which he
urged his countrymen to combine into an Italian confederation
with the pope at its head. For a moment it seemed as though
Gioberti's dream were about to translate itself into reality. In
1846 Gregory died, and was succeeded by Pius IX., one of the
youngest of the cardinals, and well known for his popular
sympathies. He at once granted an amnesty to political
prisoners, of whom the Roman gaols were full; two years later
(March 1848) he issued a constitution to the papal states, and
seemed about to throw in his lot with the forces making for
Italian independence. But the first step thereto was deliver-
ance from the Austrian yoke; and Pius, the Italian prince, was
grievously hampered by his position as head of the Church.
How could a pope make war on Austria* the one power that had
never faltered in its allegiance to the Church? Accordingly
Pius soon drew back, and his popularity waned. In the
autumn the revolutionary fever, which had swept through all
Europe earlier in the year, spread to Rome. The pope's prime
minister, Count Rossi, was murdered, and Pius himself, escaping
to Gaeta, threw himself under Neapolitan protection. In Rome
Mazzini proclaimed a republic. Once more France and Austria
intervened; in 1850 Pius went back to Rome, and ruled there
under the shadow of foreign bayonets. Meanwhile the Second
Republic had come to an end in France; in 1852 the prince-
president, Louis Napoleon, was elected emperor. At first he
greatly needed the support of the clergy to secure him on his
precarious throne. But, as he grew stronger, his desire for their
good opinion paled before an overmastering propensity to
meddle in the affairs of foreign nations. He allied himself with
Victor Emmanuel, and marched into Italy in 1859, with the
object of expelling the Austrians from the peninsula. This
expedition led directly up to the unification of Italy. Two
years later Victor Emmanuel was master of the whole country,
except Venice and the " Patrimony of St Peter." This last
about one-third of the papal states was all that was left to
Pius; and even this was only held for him by French troops.
When Napoleon withdrew his garrison in 1866, Garibaldi im-
mediately raised a body of volunteers to march on Rome; and
Napoleon was obliged to send back his troops. Three Eai
years later, the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War of the
(July 1870) led to their recall. In the following Tcmpont
September, ten days after the final collapse of Louis '
Napoleon at Sedan, the troops of Victor Emmanuel entered
Rome; and the temporal power of Pius came to an
end.
Pius might no longer rule over the papal states; but there
was consolation in the thought that, within the realm of con-
science, his power had increased by leaps and bounds. ultra-
The whole history of the igth century is one vast moat*n-
conspiracy to exalt the importance of the papacy. At l * la -"
its opening both the intellectual and administrative guidance
of the Church was entirely in French and Italian hands; and
the first instincts of those countries is to lean on an all-sufficing
government. The French Revolution had supposed itself to be
fighting for the " rights of man "; really it was trying to replace
an autocratic kingship by an equally autocratic " general will"
of the multitude. And it failed because no general will could
make its voice rise above the conflict of particular inclinations.
Thankfully did men bow before Napoleon, who undertook to
relieve them of the responsibility of having to make up their
minds. Nor did the emperor's fall by any means entail the fall
of his ideas; Count Joseph de Maistre, the great orator of
ultramontanism, did little more than transplant them on to
the ecclesiastical domain. Bossuet and the old-fashioned
divines had believed in an elaborate system of checks and
balances popes, councils, bishops, temporal sovereigns each
limiting and controlling the other just as Montesquieu and
Alexander Hamilton had believed in a careful separation of
the executive from the legislative power. Napoleon swept
away the checks and balances, and made the will of a single
man the one and only sanction of government. Ic like manner
de Maistre proposed to sweep away the ecclesiastical checks
and balances, and vest the whole of the Church's authority in
494
ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH
the pope. That would bar out for ever all risk of a conflict of
clerical wills. Fortune favoured his enterprise. The French
bishops of the age of Bossuet had been a powerful estate of the
realm, able in some degree to make their own terms with the
king himself; their successors in the igth century were a mere
group of salaried public officials. Still more significant
changes took place across the Rhine. An appreciable part
of the Holy Roman Empire had been in the hands of
clerical rulers. At their head stood the electors of Cologne,
Mainz and Treves, temporal princes of no mean rank,
usually chosen from the cadets of royal houses. But in
1803 electors and prince bishops came to an end. Their
domains were secularized, and divided up among their lay
neighbours, Prussia securing the lion's share. Thenceforward
the German bishops became mere officials, as in France,
and Rome had no cause to fear the opposition of another
Febronius.
Still remoter was the danger of another Louis XIV. or Joseph
II. The time had gone by when sovereigns could decide what
particular shade of Catholicism their subjects should assume.
Everywhere there was a growing belief that a man's religious
tenets were his private affair, with which the state had
nothing to do; and that a government only made itself ridiculous
if it attempted to lay down which creeds were true and which
were false. Hence the clergy were left to do as they pleased,
so long as they respected the law of the land; and most of the
modern collisions between Church and State have occurred on
the debateable ground where their respective spheres overlap,
over questions concerning education or the marriage-laws.
Noticeable among these quarrels were the so-called Kolnische
Wirren of 1837-40, when the archbishop of Cologne defied the
Prussian government over the question of " mixed marriages, "
and paid for his rashness by a long imprisonment. Such
conflicts did much to increase the power of the pope, by encourag-
ing local Churches to turn to him as their protector. To ride
rough-shod over individual bishops was nothing to Prussia;
but to quarrel mortally with Rome was a serious matter for a
sovereign reigning over millions of Catholic subjects. Even
more successful were the papal incursions on to a more ethereal
domain. Ever since the time of Kant and Goethe, the intel-
lectual leadership of Europe had been slowly passing into the
hands of the Germans, and Catholic theology shared the lot of
other branches of learning. But the German divines were
much more in touch with the world at large than were their
brethren in Italy or France; and more than one interesting
attempt was made to bring theology into line with modern
schools of thought. Joseph von Gorres read the medieval
mystics in the light of the newer mysticism of Schelling. Hermes
of Bonn defended Catholicism from the standpoint of Kant
Catholic an< ^ Fichte. Continuing his work on a bolder scale,
develop- the Viennese priest GUnther undertook to show that
meats in the articles of the Christian creed are only a rough -
Qermaay. anf j-ready popular statement of the conclusions of
philosophy. Of more enduring value have been the researches
of the historical school, founded by John Adam Mohler (1796-
1838), whose famous Symbolik (1832) was perhaps the heaviest
literary blow ever dealt at the Reformation. On his early
death his mantle fell on to the shoulders of Ignatius Db'llinger
(1799-1890). This school claimed that its methods, unlike
those of Hermes and Giinther, avoided all danger of speculative
caprice. Catholicism was considered as an organic growth,
developing from certain seminal principles in accordance with
certain definite laws. The bus ; ness of a sound theology was
to discover and apply those laws, not to patch up fleeting com-
promises with the intellectual fashions of an age. On the other
hand, the Historical School found but little favour at Rome.
" Truth, " as Malebranche quaintly says, " always has a few
Rome and hairs on her chin "; and the conclusions of sound
the " nis- learning must needs be slow, fragmentary and tentative.
toricai ^ But Italian taste was all for bold, highly-coloured,
00 ' slashing statements, that any one could understand;
what it wanted was a method that should be at once intel-
lectually impressive, and free from the usual clouds that beset
the scholar's path. It found what it asked for, when the Jesuits,
whom Pius VII. had recalled to life (1814), revived the methods
of Aquinas and the medieval Schoolmen. Under the fostering
care of Pius IX., this " neo-Scholasticism " spread from Italy
to the German Catholic universities, and especially the semi-
naries of France. The secret of its power was that it gave scope
for an immense amount of intellectual subtlety, and at the
same time saved men from all danger of independent thought.
Although a metaphysic, it was not, and did not pretend to be,
an unbiased search for truth. It admittedly started by taking
the truth of Catholicism for granted; and its only object was
to make intelligible to reason the dogmas that faith already
accepted. Thus the whole neo-Scholastic movement played
straight into the hands of authority. So comprehensive were
its methods, so self-confident its bearing, that those who had
once fallen under its spell would never need to doubt or hesitate
again. They knew exactly what to think on every conceivable
subject; and there was small danger of their suspecting that
there might be things in heaven and earth undreamed of in its
philosophy.
To the learned Rome might serve up authority with a
garnish of neo-Scholastic metaphysics; for average mankind
authority pure and simple was enough. Terrified out of their
lives at the way in which science and criticism were taking
one theological citadel after another, the more militant section
of the clergy declared war on thought itself. Not only
was faith made independent of reason, but it was considered
all the purer, the less it owed to any kind of mental process.
If it was a merit to believe without evidence, it was a shining
virtue to believe in the teeth of evidence. Credo, quid
absurdum was applied, notably by the popular writers of
the French Second Empire, in a fashion grotesquely literal
enough to scandalize Tertulhan himself. " There had always
existed in France, as elsewhere, those who loved traditional
stories of a marvellous nature, and tended to multiply the
number which were presented as facts rather than legends.
The existence of this school has always been inseparable
from the element of pious belief which enters so much into
popular devotion. But in pre-Revolution days there had also-
been the critical school of the Maurists, which offered an
alternative to minds averse from implicit reliance on tradition.
This had passed away, and was not yet replaced. The A eta
sincera Martyrum by Ruinart was replaced by the thoroughly
uncritical and inexact Acles des martyrs of Gueranger. Church
history was allowed to be represented by such men as the Abbe
Darras; and many French Catholics were ready to accept
without question what the Bollandist Pere de Smedt has not
hesitated to call the historical errors and lies of Charles Barte-
lemy. Incredible and unsupported stories in history, and
extravagances in dogma were the order of the day. Those
traditions or doctrines which were most uncongenial to the
modern world were placed in strong relief; and the disparage-
ment of the individual intellect was extended to the disparage-
ment of scientific research itself " (Wilfrid Ward, Life of W. G.
Ward, vol. ii.' p. 119). The faithful were encouraged to drown
all tendency to thought in an ever-increasing flood of sensuous
emotionalism. In thirty years Pius IX. canonized more saints
than all his predecessors together for a century and a half.
In 1854 he gave a great impulse to the cultus of the ptog 1X _
Virgin by proclaiming her Immaculate Conception and the
a dogma of the Church (see IMMACULATE CONCEPTION). New
In the following year he imposed on Catholicism at D s mas -
large a special " devotion " to the Heart of Mary Immaculate.
Next year he added a similar devotion to the Sacred Heart of
Jesus (see SACRED I!EART).
That these things only widened the breach between the
Church and the outside world was of no account to Pius. Ever
since his return from Gaeta, he had made up his mind to a policy
of no surrender; and the curtailment of his own dominions in
1860 only made him the keener to denounce the iniquities of
other rulers. In 1864 appeared the encyclical Quanta Cura,,
ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH
495
together with a Syllabus of eighty of the most important "errors
of our time " (see SYLLABUS). These two documents caused
T i, e an excitement nowadays hard to understand. Apart
Syllabus from some fulminations against such modern pests
of 1864. as " socialism, communism, secret societies, Bible
societies, clerico-liberal societies," the Syllabus says nothing
that the papacy had not been saying for hundreds of years.
Its real object is to attack such professedly Catholic govern-
ments as have fallen in with modern ideas as for instance, by
allowing freedom of worship to their Protestant subjects, or by
refusing to punish brawling in Catholic churches more severely
than other breaches of the peace. In other words, Pius utterly
rejected the whole principle of toleration, and declared that the
Church would still impose itself by force, whenever it got the
chance to do so. However, any hopes he may have had of
finding another Philip II. were soon dashed to the ground.
Eighteen months after the publication of the Syllabus broke
out the Austro-Prussian War (June 1866), when the one faith-
ful ally of Rome was trampled under the feet of the arch-
Protestant Hohenzollerns. But the pope's spirit was not
broken. If he could not lord it over one sphere, at least he
could be master in another. In 1869 he summoned a general
council at the Vatican, avowedly for the purpose of getting it
Definition to declare his personal infallibility. For although
the old rivalry between pope and council had long ago
oTp'apal t> een Practically settled in favour of the pope, no
lafaiii- council had yet formally acknowledged its defeat.
binty. Indeed, many prominent French and German divines
still denied papal infallibility altogether; and Louis Napoleon
had regularly fallen back on Richelieu's old device of stirring
up the embers of Gallicanism, whenever the French clergy
grew restive about his alliance with Victor Emmanuel. And
even the more moderate believers in the pope's infallibility
maintained that it was merely negative, a heaven-sent im-
munity against falling into error. But Pius and his immediate
circle argued that this was not enough. The great need of the
age was authority; and authority was most likely to strike the
imagination of the faithful if it found a vivid concrete embodi-
ment in the person of the pope. He must not simply be immune
from error; truth must stream down on his head from heaven,
and on his head alone. " We all know only one thing for
certain," wrote the great Catholic pamphleteer, Louis Veuillot,
" and that is that no one knows anything, except the man with
whom God is for ever, the man who carries the thoughts of
God." But this view was too extreme for the council; the
most Pius could hope for was to be declared immune from
error, instead of positively inspired. Even this negative in-
fallibility was stoutly contested by the French and German
bishops during the eight months that the council lasted (De-
cember 1869 to July 1870). But they were richer in talents
than numbers: out of six hundred prelates they only com-
manded eighty votes. Most left Rome before the final session ;
only two one from Naples, one from the United States con-
tinued their protest up to the end. On the i8th of July the
pope's decrees were declared " irreformable of themselves,
irrespectively of the consent of the Church," always provided
that they dealt with doctrines of faith and morals, and were
delivered ex cathedra that is, with the intention of binding
the consciences of all Catholics. These limitations were the
work of the moderate infallibilists, but the real hero of the
day was Pius. Theologians might draw their fine-spun dis-
tinctions between realms where the pope was actually infallible
and realms where he was not; but Pius knew well that loyal
Catholic common sense would brush their technicalities aside
and hold that on any conceivable question the pope was fifty
times more likely to be right than any one else (see VATICAN
COUNCIL and INFALLIBILITY).
So absolute became the papal sovereignty over conscience
that more than one government took alarm. While the council
was still sitting the Bavarian minister, Prince Chlodwig zu
Hohenlohe-Schillingsfurst, suggested to Bismarck that the
Powers would do well to bring its deliberations to an end; and
immediately after the publication of its decrees Austria notified
the pope that so vast an extension of the Church's claims would
necessitate a revision of the concordat. And when the ex-
communication of Dollinger and other anti-infallibilist divines
(1871) led to the formation of an independent Old ou
Catholic Church (see OLD CATHOLICS) Bavaria, c*ttioU-
Switzerland and other countries gave it a warm wel- **"*
come. So also did Berlin. The new German empire, con-
solidated through wars with Catholic Germany and Catholic
France, was of all countries least likely to tolerate Roman
attempts to dictate to its subjects. Tension was increased by
the fact that the Centre, or Catholic, party in the Reichstag
was led by Windhorst, formerly prime minister to the dis-
possessed king of Hanover, and thus naturally became identi-
fied with the opposition of the smaller German states to the
supremacy of Prussia. The quarrel began in 1871 when the
Prussian government supported some teachers in state-aided
Catholic schools whom the bishops wished to dismiss on account
of their anti-infallibilist opinions. A year later, under the
ministry of Falk, it developed into what the great scientist,
Rudolf Virchow, called a Kidturkampf,oi conflict of civilizations.
The famous May laws (1873) were a determined at tempt The
to bring the literary education, appointment and dis- KuHur-
cipline of the clergy under state control, and to regulate t"apt.
the use of such spiritual penalties as deprivation and excom-
munication. When the bishops refused to obey, Falk fell back
on force. The Jesuits were banished from the German Empire,
and most of the other orders from Prussia. The archbishops of
Gnesen and Cologne and many minor dignitaries were im-
prisoned (1874); and the so-called "Bread-basket Law" was
passed to coerce the parish clergy by suspending the salaries
of the disobedient. The result of these severities was exactly
the opposite of what Falk intended. He had meant only to
lop off a few ultramontane extremists; he succeeded in send-
ing Catholics of every shade and colour pell-mell into the arms
of Rome. And the effect remained long after the cause had
died away. On the death of Pius IX. (February 1878) his
successor, Leo XIII., at once showed himself willing to come to
terms. Negotiations were long and difficult; for Bismarck
would not abolish the May laws outright, and Leo had much
ado to hold in check the zelanti of the Vatican. But Falk
retired in 1879; various mutual concessions were made which
led to a gradual abrogation of the May laws. Yet thanks
to its organization, its press, and the elaborate network of
alliances spun by Windhorst the Ultramontane Centre still
remains a powerful force in German politics.
This conciliatory policy towards Berlin was the first-fruits of
a new regime; Leo XIII. was in every way a complete contrast
to Pius IX. Pius had fed on inspirations; Leo was
a man of calm, deliberate judgment, little likely to '^xill
yield to the promptings of his mvnsignori. He was
a polished scholar of the old-fashioned type; early in his reign
he threw open the Vatican Archives to the students of the
world. Having spent his youth in the papal diplomatic service
he was nuncio at Brussels from 1843-46 he had a certain
knowledge of the workings of parliamentary institutions, while
the years immediately before his accession had been spent as
archbishop of Perugia, so that he was not closely identified
with any of the Vatican parties. The results of a change of
master were soon seen. Pius IX. had died at war with almost
every country in Europe. He had quarrelled with Austria;
Russia was persecuting its Catholic subjects; France was
under the spell of Gambetta and his doctrine that clericalism
was the enemy; Spain and Belgium followed France; even
Switzerland was waging a Kulturkampf on a small scale. In a
few years Leo had made peace with Austria, pacified Switzer-
land and Belgium, opened up negotiations with Russia; while
his elevation of Newman to the cardinalate (1879) made a great
impression in Great Britain. About 1886 hopes even ran
high that he was on the eve of a reconciliation with King Hum-
bert at the Quirinal. These hopes were vain. Leo was abso-
lutely convinced that a territorial sovereignty was required to
49 6
ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH
ensure the moral independence of the papacy; and he believed
that the new Italian kingdom was a mushroom growth, that
might fall in pieces at any moment. Hence he followed in the
steps of Pius IX. and refused to recognize the existence of the
de facto government in any way whatsoever; he would not
accept the subsidies it offered him, or allow Catholics to take
any part in political life. During the earlier years of his reign
he undoubtedly had hopes of recovering his lost dominions
with the help of Germany, and Bismarck was not the man to
discourage such expectations. They were suddenly blasted
when Germany, Italy and Austria entered into a Triple Alliance
at the end of 1887. Thereafter Leo turned to France. Already
in 1884 he had warned the French clergy against meddling in
royalist intrigues; in 1892 he issued a much more stringent
exhortation to French Catholics to rally to the Republic.
An idea got abroad that he was looking to the time when the
old dream of Lamennais and Gioberti might become a reality,
and Italy would split up into a number of republics, amongst
which the temporal power of the pope might find a place.
Certainly his public pronouncements took on an increasingly
democratic tone. From the first he had shown great interest
in social questions; and his encyclicals deal much
Socialism ^ ess w ith theology than with citizenship, socialism,
labour, the marriage-laws. Under his influence a
Christian Socialist movement sprang up in France and Belgium,
and soon spread to Italy, Germany and Austria. It had un-
doubtedly done much to awaken interest in social problems,
and to call forth philanthropic zeal; but the movement soon
travelled far beyond the limits that Leo would have set to it.
In Germany, in particular, it has grown into a political party
connected with the Social Democrats; nor have the democratic
socialists been slow to exploit their Christian allies for their
own ends. And in other countries the attempt to bring re-
ligion into politics has sometimes had the effect of lowering
religion, rather than ennobling politics. In an age of universal
suffrage public men cannot afford to appeal to pure reason,
or even to pure sentiment. Christian socialism becomes a
real force when it translates itself into anti-Semitism; and
anti-Semitism is at its strongest when it is pursuing one par-
ticular Jewish captain in the French artillery. Much on the
same lines stands the Italian Catholic attempt to show that
the Freemasons are the real founders of Italian independence,
and to take the field against them with the help of Leon
Taxil and " Diana Vaughan." And, quite apart from their
political colouring, such attempts to meet the devotional tastes
of the masses as the miracles of Lourdes, or the modern French
religious press, lie well within the range of criticism. Nor
have they even had the dubious merit of success. Dying in
1903, Leo XIII. was spared from seeing the failure of his policy
of reconciliation with the French Republic; for the " de-
nunciation of the concordat " (December 1903) and consequent
p, x separation of Church and State took place under his
successor, Pius X. What results this measure may
have on France it must be left to the future to decide. Nor is
it yet possible to forecast the result of the only other sensational
event that the reign of Pius X. has yet produced his con-
demnation in 1907 of the complex movement known as
Modernism. This began as an attempt to break loose
from the neo-Scholasticism so ardently patronized
both by Pius IX. and Leo XIII., and to supplant the
critical methods of the medieval doctors by those of modern
scholarship; and its leaders have won special distinction in
the fields of Biblical criticism and ecclesiastical history. But
Modernism soon broadened into a thoroughgoing revolt against
the modes of thought and methods characteristic of the latter-
day Vatican; its motto is that Catholicism is the strength of
popery, but popery the weakness of Catholicism. By "popery "
must here be understood the belief that spiritual doctrines
always lend themselves to a precise embodiment in black and
white, and can thereafter be dealt with like so many clauses
of an act of parliament. Modernists deny that the spirit of
religion can be thus imprisoned in an unchangeable formula;
Modern-
ism.
they hold that it is always growing, and therefore in continual
need of readjustment and restatement. On the other hand,
they maintain that the present always has its roots in the past,
and therefore they are opposed to any violent change; they
consider, for instance, that northern Europe would have done
better to listen to Erasmus than to Luther. But progress can
leave little room to individual initiative, if it must always
be orderly and systematic; and the Modernists accordingly
show little sympathy with Protestantism. The core of their
creed is a fervid belief in the infallibility of Catholic instinct,
if only Catholic theology can be induced to leave it to develop
in peace. Hitherto the theologians have shown small dis-
position to hold their hand; and several of the leading Modern-
ists have been excommunicated (see especially the article
LOISY, A. F.), while the whole movement was condemned in
bitter and scathing language by Pius X.'s encyclical (Pascendi
gregis) against the Modernists. But ideas are difficult to kill,
and it is possible that the Modernist movement may yet prove
to be the opening chapter of a mighty revolution within the
Church of Rome. 1
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The literature on the Roman Catholic Church is,
of course, vast. Many works will be found in the lists of authorities
appended to the articles to which cross-reference is made above,
notably PAPACY. Here it is only possible to give a few outstanding
books of reference. The most compendious of all works of reference
on the subject, though partly antiquated, is the Encyclopedic
theologique of the Abb6 Migne (1844-^66), Ser. I. 50 vols., Ser. II. 52
vols., Ser. III. 66 vols. This is a series of dictionaries, and contains
Fr. P6rinne's Dictionnaire de bibliographie catholique, 5 vols. (Paris,
1858-60). A useful systematized bibliography is also given in the
Subject Index of the London Library (1909), pp. 945-51. Other
encyclopaedias are Watzer and Welter's Kirchenlexikpn, 13 B.
(2nd ed., Hergenrother, &c., 1882-1903), Roman Catholic (there is
a French translation of the ist edition, ed. T. Goschler, 1870);
Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie fur Protestantische Theologie und
Kirche (3rd d., Leipzig, i896_-i9O9), Protestant, but containing
articles of universally recognized scientific authority on many
aspects of the Roman Catholic Church; the Catholic Encyclopaedia
(London and New York, 1907 ff.), invaluable as an authoritative
account of Roman Catholicism in all its phases, by eminent Catholics
of all nations. All these encyclopaedias are also bibliographies.
(ST C.)
The Church in England.
The origin of the English Roman Catholics as a community
separated from the National Church is generally held to date
from the accession of Queen Elizabeth in 1558. In the
following year was passed an Act of Supremacy, whereby all
public officials, clerical and lay, were required to acknow-
ledge the supremacy of the queen " as well in spiritual things
or causes as temporal." This declaration all the existing
bishops, with two exceptions, refused to make; some fled
the country, some were imprisoned, others simply deprived
and placed under surveillance. 8 To the parish clergy the
declaration was not systematically tendered; of those deprived
of their livings a large number were allowed to remain on as
chaplains in private families. From laymen, unless they
happened to hold some public office, no declaration was
expected; and during the earlier years of Elizabeth's reign
most of them continued to attend at their parish church.
The line of division became much more acute when Pius V.
deposed Elizabeth from her throne (1570); thenceforward
her government looked on every Catholic as a potential rebel.
Already it had passed a severe act against the Catholics in
1562; this was followed by other measures in 1571, 1580,
1584, 1585, 1593. During the forty-five % years of Elizabeth's
reign, however, only about 180 persons suffered death'
less than half the number of those whom the Catholic zeal
1 For a criticism of the modern tendencies of the Roman Catholic
Church from an outside point of view see ULTRAMONTANISM.
2 From the Roman- Catholic point of view the ancient English
hierarchy came to an end with the death of Thomas Goldwell,
some time bishop of St Asaph, at Rome on the 3rd of April 1585.
Some six months previously Thomas Watson, formerly bishop of
Lincoln, had died in prison in England.
1 Not as heretics, by burning, but as traitors, by hanging, drawing
and quartering. But, since to say or hear mass was constructive
treason, the distinction was, in many cases, without a difference.
ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH
497
of her sister, Queen Mary, had burnt in one-ninth of the time.
Under James I. an attempt was made to distinguish between
the loyal and disloyal Catholics, the latter comprising all
those who maintained the pope's right to depose sovereigns
from their throne. This led to a violent division among the
Catholics themselves. Many forswore the deposing power;
the majority, acting under imperative orders from Rome,
refused to deny it. The government retorted by adding
several new penal laws to the statute-book, though less than
thirty Catholics were brought to the scaffold during James's reign.
Under Charles I. the position of the Catholics was greatly im-
proved, largely owing to the king's marriage with a French princess.
Although not actually repealed, the penal laws were seldom
put in force, and mass was openly celebrated in London and
elsewhere. On the outbreak of the Civil War the Catholics
naturally sided with the king, and a great many fell fighting
for the royalist cause; towards the survivors Cromwell was
unexpectedly merciful. Very few were put to death, though a
number of estates were confiscated. Under Charles II. came
a new period of prosperity; two Catholics, Lords Arlington
and Clifford, were admitted to the inner circles of the govern-
ment. Protestant suspicion was excited; in 1673 was passed
the Test Act, obliging all office-holders to receive the sacrament
in the Established Church, and to declare their disbelief in
transubstantiation. 1 Five years later (1678) popular exaspera-
tion found a more savage outlet, and greedily swallowed the
tales of Titus Gates about a mythical " popish plot." A
number of victims were brought to the scaffold, and Catholics
were declared incapable of sitting in either house of parliament.
James II., however, was utterly indifferent to the feelings of
his subjects. He packed the privy council, the army and the
universities with Catholics, and tried to legalize the exercise
of their religion by an utterly unconstitutional Declaration of
Indulgence. Three years were enough to convince the nation
that he was " endeavouring to subvert and extirpate the
Protestant religion, and the laws and liberties of this kingdom";
and on his deposition in 1688 Roman Catholics, or persons
married to Roman Catholics, were declared incapable of
succeeding to the throne. A new oath of allegiance was
imposed on all holders of civil or military office; they were
required to swear that no foreign prelate had, or ought to
have, any jurisdiction, whether civil or ecclesiastical, within
the realm. Further, a number of statutes were passed with
the object of putting every possible obstacle in the way of
Catholics educating their children in their own creed, or of
inheriting or buying land. That they remained so long
" utterly disabled from bearing any public office or charge "
was due to the participation of many of their number in the
Jacobite revolts of 1715 and 1745. After Culloden, however,
it was seen that all serious danger of a Stuart restoration was
passed; and in 1778 Catholics who abjured the Pretender
and denied the civil authority of the pope were relieved from
their most pressing disabilities. A proposal to extend this
measure to Scotland led to violent agitation in that country.
Feeling soon spread to England, and culminated in the Gordon
riots of 1780. Meanwhile, however, strenuous efforts were
being made by the Roman Catholics to obtain relief by
establishing a reasonable modus vivendi with the government.
Within the Catholic body itself there was even at this time a
more or less pronounced anti-Roman movement, a reflection
of the Gallican and Febronian tendencies on the continent
of Europe, and the " Catholic Committee," consisting for the
most part of influential laymen, which had been formed to
negotiate with the government, was prepared to go a long
1 This declaration, which denounced the mass as " idolatrous
and superstitious," was taken by all office-bearers, including bishops
on taking their seats in the House of Lords, until the Relief Act of
1829. It was imposed by the Act of Settlement on the sovereign
also, in ofder to make impossible any repetition of the policy of
James II. This " Declaration of the Sovereign " formed the subject
of heated debate on the accession of kings Edward VII. and
George V., and in August 1910 parliament substituted for it a
simple declaration of adhesion to the Protestant religion.
way in repudiating the extreme claims of the Holy See, some
even demanding the creation of a national hierarchy in merely
nominal dependence on Rome, and advocating the substitution
of English for Latin in the services. This attitude led to a
somewhat prolonged conflict between the Committee and
the vicars apostolic, who for the most part represented the
high ultramontane view. The outcome of the Committee's
work was the great Protest, signed by 1500 bishops, priests
and leading laymen, in which the loyalty of Catholics to the
crown and constitution was strenuously affirmed and the
ultramontane point of view repudiated in the startling declara-
tion, " We acknowledge no infallibility in the pope." As the
result of the negotiations preceding and following this action,
the government in 1791 passed a bill relieving from all their
more vexatious disabilities those Roman Catholics* who
rejected the temporal authority of the pope; and during the
first quarter of the ipth century a series of attempts was made
to abolish Catholic disabilities altogether. To this, however,
George III. and his successors were bitterly opposed; only
in 1829 did George IV. give way, and allow the passage of
the Catholic Relief Act. This virtually removed all restric-
tions on Catholics, except that it left them incapable of filling
the offices of Regent, Lord Chancellor, or Lord Lieutenant of
Ireland; and it expressly debarred their priests from sitting
in the House of Commons.
Ecclesiastical Administration. During the reign of Elizabeth
this was necessarily in a chaotic state. As the Marian clergy
died out, their place was taken by priests trained at theological
colleges established for this purpose at Douai, Rome, Valladolid
and other places. These were the " seminary priests," objects
of great suspicion to the government. About 1580 Jesuit
missionaries began to come, and soon became involved in bitter
quarrels with the secular missionaries already at work. Mutual
jealousies were only increased when the seculars were grouped
together under an arch-priest in 1599. Nor were matters much
bettered when* the papacy took advantage of the presence of a
Catholic queen in England, and sent over in 1625 a vicar-
apostolic 3 that is, a prelate in episcopal orders, but without
the full authority of a diocesan bishop. He was soon compelled
to withdraw, and the direction of affairs fell to an intermittent
series of papal envoys accredited to Henrietta Maria or Catherine
of Braganza. On the accession of James II. a new vicar-
apostolic John Leyburne, bishop of Adrumetum in partibus
was at once appointed (1685); three years later England was
divided into four districts the London, Midland, Northern and
Western each under a vicar-apostolic. This arrangement
lasted till 1840, when the number of vicariates was doubled by
the addition of the Welsh, Eastern, Lancashire and Yorkshire
districts. In 1850 came the " restoration of the hierarchy "
by Pope Pius IX., when England was mapped out into an arch-
bishopric of Westminster 4 and twelve suffragan sees, since in-
creased to fifteen (sixteen including the Welsh see of Menevia).
This " papal aggression " caused great excitement at the time,
and an Ecclesiastical Titles Act was passed in 1851, though
never put in force, forbidding Roman Catholic prelates to
assume territorial designations.*
* They were described in the first draft of the bill as " Protesting
Catholic Dissenters," but this was changed, in deference to the
strenuous remonstrances of the vicars-apostolic, into " Roman
Catholics."
3 Richard Smith, bishop of Chalcedon in partibus (d. 1655).
4 Cardinal Wiseman (q.v.) was the first archbishop of Westminster.
It was on his advice that Pope Gregory XVI. increased the number
of English vicariates-apostolic in 1839, and from 1840 onward, as
vicar-apostolic first of the Midland and afterwards of the London
district, he was mainly instrumental in bringing the English Roman
Catholic Church into closer touch with " the spirit of Rome." .The
outward sign of this was the substitution of the Roman ritual
for the English ore-Reformation use hitherto followed in the ser-
vices, while English Roman Catholicism became increasingly ultra-
montane in temper, a tendency much strengthened under Cardinal
Manning.
6 The titles of the sees could not by law be the same as those of
the Established Church. In several cases, however (e.g. Birmingham,
Liverpool, Southwark, Newcastle), sees have since been created by
ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH
Population. No trustworthy figures are forthcoming as to the
numbers of the English Roman Catholics at the different stages of
their history. At the accession of Elizabeth they undoubtedly
formed a large proportion of the population. During her reign
they greatly decreased, and the decrease continued during the I7th
century. A return, made with some apparent care soon after the
accession of William III., estimates their total number at barely
30,000. During the i8th century they began to increase; a return
presented to the House of Lords in 1780 estimates their number
at nearly 70,000. Joseph Berington, himself a distinguished
Catholic priest, considers that this number was above the mark;
he reports that his co-religionists were most numerous in Lancashire
and London; next came Yorkshire, Northumberland and Stafford-
shire. In many of the southern counties there were scarcely any
Catholics at all. Even in Berington's time, however, there was a
certain tendency to increase; and the great number of conversions
that followed the Relief Act of 1791 was a stock argument of
opponents of the act of 1829. Of late years, notably since the
Oxford Movement within the Established Church, the number of
converts has been much increased ; for some time past it has aver-
aged about 8000 souls a year. But a far more potent factor in
swelling the numbers of the Catholics has been the immigration of
the Irish, which began early in the igth century, but was enormously
stimulated by the famine of 1846. In 1870 Mr Ravenstein reckoned
the total number of Roman Catholics in England as slightly under
a million, of whom about 750,000 were Irish, and 50,000 foreigners.
By 1910 the general total is considered to have risen to about a
million and a half. (Sx C.)
AUTHORITIES. Alphons Bellesheim, Cardinal Allen und die Eng-
lischen Seminare (Mainz, 1885); Katholische Kirche in Schottland
(Mainz, 1886; translated and enlarged by D. O. Hunter-Blair,
O.S.B., Edinburgh, 1887); Katholische Kirche in Irland (1890);
Charles Dodd (a pseudonym of Hugh Tootell), Church History of
England (1737); edited by M. A. Tierney, London, 1839); Joseph
Berington, State and Behaviour of the English Catholics (1780);
Charles Butler, Historical Memoirs respecting the English, Irish
and Scottish Catholics (London, 1819) ; T. F. Knox, The Douay Diaries
(1878) and Letters of Cardinal Allen (1882); j. Morris, Catholic
England in Modern Times (1892); T. Murphy, Catholic Church in
England during the Last Two Centuries (1892); W. J. Amherst,
History of Catholic Emancipation (2 vols., London, 1886); F. C.
Husenbeth, Life of John [Bishop\Milner (Dublin,l862) ; Wilfrid Ward,
Life and Times of -Cardinal Wiseman (2 vols., London, 1897); E. S.
Purcell, Life of Cardinal Manning (2 vols., London, 1895); Bernard
Ward, Dawn of the Catholic Revival in England, 1781-1803 (2 vols.,
1909). For the sufferings under the penal laws see, for general
reference, R. Stanton, A Menology of England and Wales (with
supplement, London, 1892), and Bishop Challoner's Missionary
Priests (1741 ff.), which still remains the standard work on the
subject.
English Law relating to Roman Catholics. The history of
the old penal laws against Roman Catholics in the United
Kingdom has been sketched above and in the article IRELAND,
History. 1 The principal English acts directed against " popish
recusants" 2 will be found in the list given in the acts repealing
them (7 & 8 Viet. c. 102, 1844; 9 & 10 Viet. c. 59, 1846). The
principal Scottish act was 1700, c. 3; the principal Irish act,
2 Anne c. 3. Numerous decisions illustrating the practical
operation of the old law in Ireland are collected in G. E. Howard's
Cases on the Popery Laws (1775). The Roman Catholic Eman-
cipation Act 1829 (10 Geo. IV. c. 7), although it gave Roman
Catholic citizens in the main complete civil and religious liberty,
at the same time left them under certain disabilities, trifling
in comparison with those under which they laboured before
1829. Nor did the act affect in any way the long series of old
statutes directed against the assumption of authority by the
Roman see in England. The earliest of these which is still
law is the Statute of Provisors of 1351 (25 Edw. III. st. 4). The
effect of the Roman Catholic Charities Act 1832 is to place
Roman Catholic schools, places of worship and education, and
charities, and the property held therewith, under the laws
applying to Protestant nonconformists. The Toleration Act
act of parliament bearing the same titles, so that there are now
often two bishops bearing the same style. From the point of view
of the State, that of the Roman Cathclic bishop is, of course,
only a title of courtesy, the Anglican bishop alone having the legal
right to bear it.
1 See also Stephen's History of the Criminal Law, vol. ii. p. 483 ;
Anstey, The Law affecting Roman Catholics (1842); Lilly and Wallis,
Manual of the Law specially affecting Catholics (1893).
1 A recusant signified a person who refused duly to attend his
parish church.
does not apply to Roman Catholics, but legislation of a similar
kind, especially the Relief Act of 1791 (31 Geo. III. c. 32),
exempts the priest from parochial offices, such as those of church-
warden and constable, and from serving in the militia or on a
jury, and enables all Roman Catholics scrupling the oaths of
office to exercise the office of churchwarden and some other
offices by deputy. The priest is, unlike the nonconformist
minister, regarded as being in holy orders. He cannot, there-
fore, sit in the House of Commons, but there is nothing to
prevent a peer who is a priest from sitting and voting in the
House of Lords. If a priest becomes a convert to the Church
of England he need not be re-ordained. The remaining law
affecting Roman Catholics may be classed under the following
five heads:
(1) Office. There are certain offices still closed to Roman
Catholics. By the Act of Settlement a papist or the husband or
wife of a papist cannot be king or queen. The act of 1829 provides
that nothing therein contained is to enable a Roman Catholic to
hold the office of guardian and justice of the United Kingdom, or
of regent of the United Kingdom; of lord chancellor, lord keeper,
or lord commissioner of the great seal of Great Britain or Ireland
or lord lieutenant of Ireland; of high commissioner to the General
Assembly of the Church of Scotland, or of any office in the Church
of England or Scotland, the ecclesiastical courts, cathedral founda-
tions and certain colleges. The disability in the case of the lord
chancellor of Ireland was removed by statute in 1867, with necessary
limitations as to ecclesiastical patronage. The act of 1829 pre-
served the liability of Roman Catholics to take certain oaths of
office, but these have been modified by later legislation (see 29 &
30 Viet. c. 19; 30 & 31 Viet. c. 75; 31 & 32 Viet. c. 72; 34 &
35 Viet. c. 48). Legislation has been in the direction of omitting
words which might be supposed to give offence to Roman Catholics.
The only offices which Roman Catholics are not legally capable
of holding now are the lord chancellorship of England and the lord
lieutenancy of Ireland (see, however, Lilly and Wallis, pp. 36-43).
(2) Title. The act of 1829 forbids the assumption by any person,
other than the person authorized by law, of the name, style or title
of an archbishop, bishop or dean of the Church of England. The
Ecclesiastical Titles Act 1851 went further, and forbade the assump-
tion by an unauthorized person of a title from any place in the
United Kingdom, whether or not such place were the seat of an
archbishopric, bishopric or deanery. This act was, however,
repealed in 1867, but the provisions of the act of 1829 are still in
force.
(3) Religious Orders. It was enacted by the act of 1829 that
" every Jesuit and every member of any other religious order,
community or society of the Church of Rome bound by monastic
or religious vows " was, within six months after the commencement
of the act, to deliver to the clerk of the peace of the county in
which he should reside a notice or statement in the form given
to the schedule to the act, and that every Jesuit or member of
such religious order coming into the realm after the commence-
ment of the act should be guilty of a misdemeanour and should be
banished from the United Kingdom for life (with an exception in
favour of natural-born subjects duly registered). A secretary of
state, being a Protestant, was empowered to grant licences to
Jesuits, &c., to come into the United Kingdom and remain there for
a period not exceeding six months. An account of these licences
was to be laid annually before parliament. The admission of any
person as a regular ecclesiastic by any such Jesuit, &c., was made a
misdemeanour, and the person so admitted was to be banished for life.
Nothing in the act was to extend to religious orders of females.
These provisions exist in posse only, and have, it is believed, never been
put into force.
(4) Superstitious Uses. Gifts to superstitious uses are void both
at common law and by statute. It is not easy to determine what
gifts are to be regarded as gifts to superstitious uses. Like con-
tracts contrary to public policy, they depend to a great extent for
their illegality upon the discretion of the court in the particular case.
The act of 23 Hen. VIII. c. 10 makes void any assurance of lands to
the use (to have obits perpetual) or the continual service of a priest
for ever or for threescore or fourscore years. The act of I Edw. VI.
c. 14 (specially directed to the suppression of chantries) vests in the
crown all money paid by corporations and all lands appointed
to the finding or maintenance of any priest, or any anniversary or
obit or other like thing, or of any light or lamp in any church or
chapel maintained within five years before 1547. The act may still
be of value in the construction of old grants, and in affording ex-
amples of what the legislature regarded as superstitious uses. Gifts
which the courts have held void on the analogy of those mentioned
in the acts of Henry VIII. and Edward VI. are a devise for the good
of the soul of the testator, a bequest to certain Roman Catholic priests
that the testator may have the benefit of their prayers and masses,
a bequest in trust to apply a fund to circulate a book teaching the
supremacy of the pope in matters of faith, a bequest to maintain
a taper for evermore before the image of Our Lady. The court may
ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH
499
compel discovery of a secret trust for superstitious uses. Since
2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 115 gifts for the propagation of the Roman
Catholic faith are not void as made to superstitious uses. It should
be noticed that the doctrine of superstitious uses is not confined to the
Roman Catholic religion, though the question has generally arisen
in the case of gifts made by persons of that religion. The Roman
Catholic Charities Act 1860 enables the court to separate a lawful
charitable trust from any part of the estate subject to any trust or
provision deemed to be superstitious. It also provides that in the
absence of any written document the usage of twenty years is to be
conclusive evidence of the application of charitable trusts.
(5) Patronage. A Roman Catholic cannot present to a benefice,
prebend, or other ecclesiastical living, or collate or nominate to any
free school, hospital or donative (3 lac. I. c. 5). Such patronage is by
the act vested m the universities, Oxford taking the City of London
and twenty-five counties in England and Wales, mostly south of
the Trent, Cambridge the remaining twenty-seven. The principle
is affirmed in subsequent acts (l Will, and Mary, sess. I, c. 26;
12 Anne, st. 2, c. 14; n Geo. II. c. 17). If the right of presentation
to an ecclesiastical benefice belongs to any office under the crown,
and that office is held by a Roman Catholic, the archbishop of Canter-
bury exercises the right for the time being (10 Geo. IV. c. 7, s. 17).
No Roman Catholic may advise the crown as to the exercise of its
ecclesiastical patronage (Ibid. s. 18). A Roman Catholic, if a number
of a lay corporation, cannot vote in any ecclesiastical appointment
(Ibid. s. 15). Grants and devises of advowsons, &c., by Roman
Catholics are void, unless for valuable consideration to a Protestant
purchaser (n Geo. II. c. 17, s. 5). Where a quare impedit is pending
before any court, the court may compel the patron to take an oath
that there is no secret trust for the benefit of a Roman Catholic.
(J.W.)
The Church in the United Stales.
The history of Roman Catholicism in the New World begins
with the Norse discoveries of Greenland and Vinland the Good.
In the former the bishopric of Gardar was established in 1112,
and extinguished only in 1492. To the latter (the coast of
New England), the Northmen during the same period made
" temporary visits for timber and peltries, on missionary voyages
to evangelize for a season the natives." Beyond these facts,
the Norse sagas and chronicles contribute little that is certain
(cf. " The Norse Hierarchy in the United States," Amer. Cath.
Quart. Review, April 1890). Although a bishop was appointed
by the pope for the vaguely defined territory of Florida so early
as 1528, the oldest Catholic community in what is now the
United States dates from 1565, when the Spanish colony of
St Augustine was founded. Hence the aboriginal tribes of
the South were evangelized. In 1582 the missions of New
Mexico were undertaken, and from 1601 Catholic missionaries
were at work along the Pacific coast, especially in California.
Early in the iyth century trading posts and mission centres
were established on the coast of Maine, and during the same
century French priests laboured zealously in northern New
York, along the entire coast of the Mississippi from Wisconsin
to Louisiana, and around the Great Lakes. Their principal
concern was for the savages, over whom they acquired an
extraordinary influence. Political jealousies, human avarice
and treachery arrested the progress of most of their
missions.
The English colony of Maryland, planned by the Catholic
George Calvert (ist Lord Baltimore), and founded (1634) by
his son the Catholic Cecilius Calvert (2nd Lord Baltimore),
and Pennsylvania, founded (1681) by the tolerant Quaker
William Penn, first permitted the legal existence of Catholicism
in English-speaking communities of the New World. It is from
these centres that it spread during the i8th century. In 1784
the Rev. John Carroll was appointed prefect-apostolic for the
Catholics of the English colonies hitherto dependent on the
vicar-apostolic of London. In 1790 Father Carroll was made
bishop of the see of Baltimore, and given charge of all the
Catholic interests in the United States. There were then about
24,500 Catholics in the land, of which number 15,800 were in
Maryland, and 7000 in Pennsylvania, 200 in Virginia and 1 500
in New York. In 1807 they had grown to 150,000 with
80 churches. In the following year Baltimore found itself the
first metropolitan see of the United States, with New York,
Philadelphia, Boston and Bardstown as suffragans.
The growth of the Catholic population by decades since 1820
was calculated by a competent historian, the late John Gilmary
Shea, as follows:
1820 . . 244,500
1870
1880
1830
1840
1850
361,000
1,000,000
1,726,470
1890
3,000,000
4,685,000
7,067,000
10,627,000
The number in 1906 was 12,079,142 (U.S. Census, Special
Report, 1910). The main source of this growth has been
immigration. Originally the Irish and the Germans furnished
the greater quota. Later the French-Canadians, Italians,
Poles and Bohemians added notably to the number; an
appreciable percentage of Oriental Catholics is also found,
Greeks, Syrians, Armenians, &c. Natural increase, especially
among the first Catholic immigrants, and a certain per-
centage of conversions from Protestantism, are contributory
sources. Being under the protection of the constitution, and
enjoying the advantages of the common law, Catholicism could
not meet with any official opposition; such few outbursts of
fanaticism as there have been were but temporary or local,
and did not represent the true feelings of the country. As
to the future of the Church in the United States, all Catholics
feel, with their latest historian, that " the Catholic Church is
in accord with Christ's revelation, with American liberty, and
is the strongest power for the preservation of the Republic
from the new social dangers that threaten the United States
as well as the whole civilized world. She has not grown, she
cannot grow so weak and old that she may not maintain what
she has produced Christian civilization."
Internally, Catholicism in the United States has been free
from any noteworthy schisms or heresies that might impede
its development its doctrinal history offers nothing of im-
portance. The discipline differs little from that of the other
churches of Catholicism. The unity of doctrine, liturgy and
moral ideals is preserved by an intimate union with the see
of Rome. The general canonical legislation of the Church,
the legislation by papal rescript and the Congregation of the
Propaganda, the decisions of the Apostolic Delegation at
Washington, and a certain amount of immemorial custom and
practice, form the code that governs its domestic relations.
Decennially each bishop of the United States is expected to pay
a visit to Rome (Ad Limina Apostolorum), and to make a report
of the spiritual condition of religion within his diocese. In
addition a system of synods provides for local unity among
bishops, priests and laity. Thus each province or body of
bishops under a metropolitan holds provincial councils, while
at greater intervals a plenary or national council is held. Of
these last three have taken place their decrees, when approved
at Rome, are binding on all Catholics in the United States.
In education the Catholic Church endeavours to keep abreast
with the best. There are, according to Hoffmann's Directory
(Milwaukee, 1907), 4364 parochial schools, in which 1,006,842
children of both sexes receive instruction. The total number of
children in Catholic institutions is given as 1,266,175. There
are 198 colleges for boys and 678 academies for girls. This system
of education is crowned by the Catholic University of America at
Washington, established by Leo XIII. and the American hierarchy,
and endowed with all the privileges of the old pontifical universities
of Europe. In addition there are several other schools that
rank as universities. The education of the clergy is provided
for by 86 seminaries, in which there are 5697 students. The chari-
table institutions in the Church are very numerous. There are
255 orphan asylums, with 40,588 inmates. The other charitable
institutions are 992 in number, and include every form of public
and private charity; no diocese is without one or more such estab-
lishments. The actual government of the Church in the United
States is represented by one cardinal, 14 archbishops, 89 bishops,
11,135 diocesan clergymen, under the sole and immediate direction
of their bishops, 3958 members of religious orders subject to epis-
copal supervision in all 15,093 clergymen. There are .8072
churches with resident priests, and 4076 mission churches in all
12,148. to which must be added 3358 chapels. Several hundred
weekly publications are printed in English and foreign tongues,
to minister to the needs of the Catholic population. There exist
also several literary and academical magazines and reviews of a
high order of merit.
The principal religious events in the recent history of the C
were the holding of the Third Plenary Council of Baltimore (1884),
500
ROMANCE
the Catholic Congress (1889), the opening of the Catholic University
(1889), the Columbian Educational Exhibit at Chicago (1893),
the establishment of the Apostolic Delegation at Washington
(1893).
The Catholic Church in the United States conducts no foreign
missions, but takes care of its own percentage of Jndians and
Negroes. Of the Indian population of the United States about
48,194 are Catholics, and they are attended by 65 priests, who look
after 96 churches or chapels; there are 50 schools conducted by
members of 16 sisterhoods, in which 4430 children are educated.
The Catholic negroes are about 138,573 in number. They have
47 churches conducted by 43 white clergymen; 114 schools, in
which 6294 children are educated by 31 sisterhoods, who also
conduct ii charitable institutions. The expenses of these missions
are borne by private charity, and by a general annual collection.
AUTHORITIES. General History: John Gilmary Shea, Life and
Times of Archbishop Carroll (New York, 1888) ; The Catholic Church in
Colonial Days (New York, 1886) ; The Hierarchy of the Catholic Church
in the United States (New York, 1886). Bishop O'Gorman, A History
of the Catholic Church in the United States (1895). This work contains
a useful bibliography. Clarke, Lives of the Deceased Bishops
(1872). Statistics: The Annual Directory of the Catholic Clergy.
Of these, two are published; one by D. & _f. Sadlier, New York,
the other (Hoffmanns') by M. Wiltzius & Co. of Milwaukee. The
Catholic general statistics of the eleventh (1890) census may be
found in The Religious Forces of the United States, by H. K. Carroll
(New York, 1893). See also U.S. Census, Special Report on Religious
Bodies in 1900 (1910). Legislation: Acta et Decreta Concilii
Plenarii Baltimorensis, iii. (Baltimore, 1886). This is illustrated
and brought into relation with the general laws of the Church in
Smith's Elements of Ecclesiastical Law (New York). In connexion
with this may be read Humphrey's Urbs et Orbis (London, 1899),
an account of the general government of Roman Catholicism.
<* J- G.)
ROMANCE, originally a composition written in " Romance"
language: that is to say, in one of the phases on which the
Latin tongue entered after or during the dark ages. For some
centuries by far the larger number of these compositions were
narrative fictions in prose or verse; and since the special
" Romance " language of France the earliest so-called was
the original vehicle of nearly all such fictions, the use of the
term for them became more and more accepted in a limited
sense. Yet for a long time there was no definite connotation
of fiction attached to it, but only of narrative story: and the
French version of William of Tyre's History of the Crusades, a
very serious chronicle written towards the close of the I2th
century, bears the name of Roman d'Erade simply because the
name of the emperor Heraclius occurs in the first line. But
if the explanation of the name " Romance " is quite simple,
certain and authentic, the same is by no means the case with
its definition, or even with the origin of the thing to which
that name came mostly to be applied. For some centuries
an abstraction has been formed from the concrete examples.
" Romance," " romanticism," " the romantic character,"
" the romantic spirits," have been used to express sometimes
a quality regarded in itself, but much more frequently a differ-
ence from the supposed " classical " character and spirit. The
following article will deal chiefly with the matter of Romance,
excluding or merely referring to accounts of such individual
romances as are noticed elsewhere. But it will not be possible
to conclude without some reference to the vaguer and more con-
tentious signification.
Speculations on the origin of the peculiar kind of
story which we recognize rather than define under the name
of romance have been numerous and sometimes confident;
but a wary and well-informed criticism will be slow to accept
most of them. It is certain that many of its characteristics
are present in the Odyssey; and it is a most remarkable fact
that these characteristics are singled out for reprehension or
at least for comparative disapproval by the author of the
Treatise on the Sublime. The absence of central plot, and the
Romance prolongation rather than evolution of the story;
/nan- the intermixture of the supernatural; the presence
tiquity. an( j m deed prominence of love-affairs; the juxta-
position of tragic and almost farcical incident; the variety
of adventure arranged rather in the fashion of a panorama
than otherwise: all these things are in the Odyssey, and
they are all, in varying degrees and measures, characteristic
of romance. Nor are they absent from the few specimens of
ancient prose fiction which we possess. If the Satyricon was
ever more than a mass of fragments, it was certainly a romance,
though one much mixed with satire, criticism and other things;
and the various Greek survivals from Longus to Eustathius
always and rightly receive the name. But two things were
still wanting which were to be all-powerful in the romances
proper Chivalry and Religion. They could not yet be in-
cluded, for chivalry did not exist; and such religion as did
exist lent itself but ill to the purpose except by providing myths
for ornament and perhaps pattern.
A possible origin of the new romance into which these elements
entered (though it was some time before that of chivalry de-
finitely emerged) has been seen by one of the least hazardous
of the speculations above referred to in the hagiology or " Saint's
Life," which arose at an early though uncertain period, developed
itself pretty rapidly, and spreading over all Christendom (which
by degrees meant all Europe and parts of Asia) provided
centuries with their chief supply of what may be The
called interesting literature. If the author of On "Saiat't
the Sublime was actually Longinus, the minister of Lite."
Zenobia, there is no doubt that examples both sacred and profane
ofthekindof "fiction " ("imitation "or "representation") which
he deprecated were mustering and multiplying close to, perhaps
in, his own time. The Alexander legend of the pseudo-Callis-
thenes is supposed to have seen the light in Egypt as early as
A.D. 200, and the first Greek version of that " Vision of Saint
Paul," which is the ancestor of all the large family of legends
of the life after death, is pretty certainly as old as the 4th century
and may be as old as the $rd. The development of the Alexan-
dreid was to some extent checked or confined to narrow channeb
as long as something like traditional and continuous study of
the classics was kept up. But hagiology was entirely free from
criticism; its subjects were immensely numerous; and in the
very nature of the case it allowed the tendencies and the folk-
lore of three continents and of most of their countries to mingle
with it. Especially the comparative sobriety of classical
literature became affected with the Eastern appetite for marvel
and unhesitating acceptation of it; and the extraordinary
beauty of many of the central stories invited and necessitated
embroidery, continuation, episode. Later, no doubt, the
adult romance directly reacted on the original saint's life, as
in the legends of St Mary Magdalene most of all, of St Eustace,
and of many others. But there can be very little doubt that
if the romance itself did not spring from the saint's life it was
fostered thereby.
Proceeding a little further in the cautious quest not for
the definite origins which are usually delusive, but for the
tendencies which avail themselves of opportunities and the
opportunities which lend themselves to tendencies we may
notice two things very important to the subject. The one is
that as Graeco-Roman civilization began to spread North and
East it met, to appearance which approaches certainty, matter
which lent itself gladly to " romantic " treatment. The
That such matter was abundant in the literature gathering
and folk-lore of the East we know: that it was even '
more abundant in the literatures and folk-lore of the North,
if we cannot strictly be said to know, we may be reason-
ably sure. On the other hand, as the various barbarian nations
(using the word in the wide Greek sense), at least those of
the North, became educated to literature, to " grammar," by
classical examples, they found not a few passages in these
examples which were either almost romances already or which
lent themselves, with readiness that was almost insistence,
to romantic treatment. Apollonius Rhodius had made almost
a complete romance of the story of Jason and Medea. Virgil
had imitated him by making almost a complete romance of the
story of Aeneas and Dido: and Ovid, who for that very reason
was to become the most popular author of the middle ages
early and late, had gone some way towards romancing a
great body of mythology. We do not know exactly who first
applied to the legendary tale of Troy the methods which the
ROMANCE
pseudo-Callisthenes and " Julius Valerius " applied to the histori-
cal wars of Alexander, but there is every reason to believe that
it was done fairly early. In short, during the late classical
or semi-classical times and the whole of the dark ages, things
were making for romance in almost every direction.
It would and did follow from this that the thing evolved
itself in so many different places and in so many different
forms that only a person of extraordinary temerity would put
his finger on any given work and say, " This is the first romance,"
even putting aside the extreme chronological uncertainty of
most of the documents that could be selected for such a position.
Except by the most meteoric flights of " higher " criticism we
cannot attain to any opinion as to the age and first developed
form of such a story as that of Weland and Beadohild (referred
to in the Complaint of Dear), which has strong romantic pos-
Uncer- sibilities and must be almost of the oldest. The
taiaty of much more complicated Volsung and Nibelung story,
its order, though we may explore to some extent the existence
backwards of its Norse and German forms, baffles us beyond
certain points in each case; yet this, with the exception of the
religious element, is romance almost achieved. And the origin
of the great type of the romance that is achieved that has
all elements present and brings them to absolute perfection
the Arthurian legend, despite the immense labours that have
been spent upon it and the valuable additions to particular
knowledge which have resulted from some of them, is, still
more than its own Grail, a quest unachieved, probably a thing
unachievable. The longest and the widest inquiries, provided
only that they be conducted in any spirit save that which deter-
mines to attain certainty and therefore concludes that certainty
has been attained, will probably acquiesce most resignedly in
the dictum that romance " grew " that its birthplace is as
unknown as the grave of its greatest representative figure.
But when it has " grown " to a certain stage we can find
it, and in a way localize it, and more definitely still analyse
and comprehend its characteristics from their concrete ex-
pressions.
Approaching these concrete expressions, then, without at
first too hard and fast requirements in regard to the validation
of the claims, we find in Europe about the nth cen-
fooreef turv ( tne time k designedly left loose) divers classes
of what we should now call imaginative or fictitious
literature, nearly all (the exceptions are Scandinavian and
Old English) in verse. These are: (i) The saints' lives;
(ii) the Norse sagas, roughly so-called; (iii) the French
chansons de geste; (iv) the Old English and Old German stories
of various kinds; (v) perhaps the beginning of the Arthurian
cycle; (vi) various stories more or less based on classical
legend or history from the tales of Alexander and of Troy down
to things like Apollonius of Tyre, which have no classical auth-
ority of either kind, but strongly resemble the Greek romances,
and which were, as in the case named, pretty certainly derived
from members of the class; (vii) certain fragments of Eastern
story making their way first, it may be, through Spain by pil-
grimages, latterly by the crusades.
Now, without attempting to fence off too rigidly the classical
from the romantic, it may be laid down that these various
classes possess that romantic character, to which we are, by
a process of netting and tracking, slowly making our way, in
rather different degrees, and a short examination of the differ-
ence will forward us not a little in the hunt.
With i. (the saints' lives) we have least to do: because by
the time that romance in the full sense comes largely and
clearly into view, it has for the most part separated itself off
the legend of St Eustace has become the romance of Sir
Isumbras, and so forth. But the influence which it may, as
has been said, have originally given must have been continually
re-exerted; the romantic-dynamic suggestion of such stories
as those of St Mary of Egypt, of St Margaret and the Dragon,
of St Dorothea, and of scores of others, is quite unmistakable.
Still, in actual result, it works rather more on drama than on
narrative romance, and produces the miracle plays.
In ii. (the sagas), while a large part of their matter and even
not a little of their form are strongly romantic, differences of
handling and still more of temper have made some demur to
their inclusion under romance, while their final ousting in their
own literatures by versions of the all-conquering French romance
itself is an argument on the same side. But the Volsung story,
for instance, is full of what may be called " undistUled " romance
the wine is there, but it has to be passed through the still
and even in the most domestic sagas proper this characteristic
is largely present.
It is somewhat less so in iii. (the chansons de geste), at least
in the apparently older ones, though here again the com-
parative absence of romantic characteristics has been rather
exaggerated, in consequence of the habit of paying dispro-
portionate and even exclusive attention to the Chanson de
Roland. There is more, that is, of romance in Aliscans and
others of the older class, while Amis and A miles, which must
be of this class in time, is almost a complete romance, blending
war, love and religion salus, venus, virtus in full degree.
The other four classes, the miscellaneous stories from classical,
Eastern and European sources, having less corporate or national
character, lend themselves with greater ease to the conditions of
romantic development; but even so in different degrees. The
classical stories have to drop most of their original character
and allow something very different to be superinduced before they
become' thoroughly romantic. The greatest success of all in this
way is the story of Troilus andCressida. For before its develop-
ment through the successive hands of Benolt' de Sainte-More,
Boccaccio (for we may drop Guido of the Columns as a mere
middleman between Benoit and Boccaccio) and Chaucer, it has
next to no classical authority of any kind except the mere names.
In the various Alexandreids the element of the marvellous
the Eastern element, that is to say similarly overpowers the
classical. As for the Eastern stories themselves, they are
particularly difficult of certain unravelment. The large moral
division such as Barlaam and Josaphat, the Seven Wise
Masters in its various forms, &c., comes short of the strictly
romantic. We do not know how much of East and how much
of West there is in such things as Flare et Blanchefleur or even
in Huon of Bordeaux itself. Contrariwise we ought to know,
more certainly than apparently is known yet, what is the
date and history of such a thing as that story of Zumurrud and
Ali Shahr, which may be found partly in Lane and fully in the
complete translations of the Arabian Nights, though not in the
commoner editions, and which is evidently either copied from,
or capable of serving as model to, a Western roman d'avenlures
itself.
We come, however, much closer to the actual norm itself
closer, in fact, than in any other place save one in the various
stories, English, French, and to a less extent German, 1 which
gradually received in a loose kind of way the technical French
term just used, a term not to be translated without danger.
Nearly all these stories were drawn, by the astonishing centri-
petal tendency which made France the home of all romance
between the nth and the I3th centuries, into French forms;
and in most cases no older ones survive. But it is hardly
possible to doubt that in such a case, for instance, as Havelok,
an original story of English or Scandinavian origin got itself
into existence before, and perhaps long before, the French
version was retransferred to English, and so in other cases.
If, once more, we take our existing English Havelok and its
sister King Horn, we see that the latter is a more romanced form
than the former. Havelok is more like a chanson de geste the
love interest in it is very slight ; while in King Horn it is much
stronger, and the increased strength is shown by the heroine
being in some forms promoted into the title. If these two
be studied side by side the process of transforming the mere
story into the full romance is to no small extent seen in actual
1 Italian romance seems to have modelled itself earjy on French,
and it is doubtful, rich as is the late crop of Spanish romances,
whether we have any that deserve the name strictly and are really
early.
502
ROMANCE
operation. But neither exhibits in any considerable degree the
element of the marvellous, or the religious element, and the love
interest itself is, even in Horn, simple and not very dramatically
or passionately worked out. In the later roman d'aventures, of
which the I3th century was so prolific (such as, to give one
example out of many, Amadas and Idoine), these elements
appear fully, and so they do in the great Auchinleck collection
in English, which, though dating well within the I4th, evidently
represents the meditation and adaptation of French examples
for many years earlier.
The last of our divisions, however, exhibits the whole body
of romantic elements as nothing else does. It is not our business
in this place to deal with the Arthurian legend generally as
regards origin, contents, &c., nor, in the present division of this
actual article, to look at it except for a special purpose and in
connexion with and contradistinction to the other groups just
surveyed. Here, however, we at last find all the elements of
romance, thoroughly mixed and thoroughly at home, with the
result not merely that the actual story becomes immensely
popular and widely spread; not only that it receives the
greatest actual development of any romantic theme; but that,
in a curious fashion, it attracts to itself great numbers of prac-
tically independent stories in not a few cases probably quite
independent at first which seem afraid to present themselves
without some tacking on (it may be of the loosest and most
accidental description) to the great polycentric cycle, the stages
of which gather round Merlin, the Round Table, the Grail and
the Guinevere-Lancelot-Mordred catastrophe. All the elements,
let it be repeated, are here present: war, love and religion;
the characteristic extension of subject in desultory adventure-
chronicles; the typical rather than individual character (though
the strong individuality of some of the unknown or half-known
contributors sometimes surmounts this); the admixture of the
marvellous, not merely though mainly as part of the religious
element; the presence of the chivalrous ideal. The strong
dramatic interest of the central story is rather superadded to
than definitely evolved from these elements; but they are
still present, just as, though more powerfully than, in the
weakest of miscellaneous romans d'aventures.
A further step in the logical and historical exploration of
romance may be taken by regarding the character-and-story
classes round which it instinctively groups itself,
sto/yf an d which from the intense community of medieval
literature the habit of medieval writers not so much
to plagiarize from one another as to take up each after each the
materials and the instruments which were not the property of
any is here especially observable. Prominent above every-
thing is the world-old motive of the quest; which, world-old
as it is, here acquires a predominance that it has never held
before or since. The object takes pretty various, though not
quite infinitely various, forms, from the rights of the dis-
inherited heir and the hand or the favour of the heroine, to
individual things which may themselves vary from the Holy
Grail to so many hairs of a sultan's beard. It may be a
friendly knight who is lost in adventure, or a felon knight who
has to be punished for his trespasses; a spell of some kind to
be laid; a monster to be exterminated; an injured virgin, .or
lady, or an infirm potentate, to be succoured or avenged;
an evil custom to be put an end to; or simply some definite
adventure or exploit to be achieved. But quest of some sort
there must almost certainly be if (as in Sir Launfal, for instance)
it is but the recovery of a love forfeited by misbehaviour or
mishap. It is almost a sine qua non the present writer,
thinking over scores, nay hundreds, of romances, cannot at the
moment remember one where it is wanting in some form or
another.
It will be observed that this at once provides the amplest
opportunity for the desultory concatenation or congregation
of incident and episode which is of the very essence
of romance. Often, nay generally, the conditions,
localities and other circumstances of the quest are half
known, or all but unknown, to the knight, and he is sometimes
Of loci'
deat.
intentionally led astray, always liable to be incidentally called off
by interim adventures. In many (perhaps most) cases the love
interest is directly connected with the quest, though it rnay be
in the way of hindrance as well as of furtherance or reward.
The war interest always is so connected; and the religious
interest commonly almost universally in fact is an in-
separable accident. But everything leads up to, involves,
eventuates in the fighting. The quest, if not always a directly
warlike one, always involves war; and the endless battles
have at all times, since they ceased to be the great attraction,
continued to be the great obloquy of romance. It is possible
no doubt that reports of tournaments and single combats
with lance and sword, mace and battle-axe, may be as tedious
to some people as reports of football matches certainly are to
others. It is certain that the former were as satisfactory
in former times to their own admirers as the latter are now.
In fact the variety of incident is almost as remarkable as the
sameness. And the same may be said, with even greater
confidence, of the adventures between the fights in castle
and church and monastery, in homestead or hermitage. The
actual stories are not much more alike than those who have
read large numbers of modern novels critically know to be
the case with them. But the absence, save in rare cases, of
the element of character, and the very small presence of that
of conversation, show up the sameness that exists hi the earlier
case.
This same deficiency in individual character-drawing, and
in the conversation which is one of its principal instruments,
brings out in somewhat unfair relief some other
F ii_ t Of per-
cases of apparent sameness the common forms soaages.
of story and of character itself. The disinherited heir,
the unfaithful or wronged wife, the wicked stepmother, the
jealous or wrongly suspected lover, are just as universal in
modern fiction as they are in medieval for the simple
reason that they are common if not universal in nature.
But the skeleton is more obvious because it is less clothed
with flesh and garments over the flesh; the texture of the
canvas shows more because it is less worked upon. Some of
these common forms, however, are more peculiar to medieval
times; and some, though not many, allow excursions into
abnormalities which, until recently, were tabooed to the
modern novelist. Among the former the wickedness of the
steward is remarkable, and of course not difficult to account
for. The steward or seneschal of romance, with some honour-
able exceptions, is as wicked as the baronet of a novel, but
here the explanation is not metaphysical. He was constantly
left in charge in the absence of his lord and so was exposed
to temptation. The extreme and almost Ephesian consolable-
ness of the romance widow can be equally rationalized and
in fact is so in the stories themselves by the danger of the
fief being resumed or usurped in the absence of a male tenant
who can maintain authority and discharge duties. While
such themes as the usually ignorant incest of son with mother
or the more deliberate passion of father for daughter come
mostly from very popular early examples the legend of
St Gregory of the Rock or the story of Apollonius of Tyre.
The last point brings us naturally to another of considerable
importance the singular purity of the romances as a whole,
if not entirely in atmosphere and situation, yet in charac-
language and in external treatment. It suited the ters of
purposes of the Protestant controversialists of the
Renaissance, such as our own Ascham, to throw
discredit upon work so intimately connected with Catholic
ceremony and belief as the Morte d' Arthur; and it is certain
that the knights of romance did not even take the benefit of
that liberal doctrine of the Cursor Mundi which regards even
illicit love as not mortal unless it be " with spouse or sib."
But if in the romances such love is portrayed freely, and with
a certain sympathy, it is never spoken of lightly and is always
punished; nor are the pictures of it ever coarsely drawn. In
a very wide reading of romance the present writer does not
remember more than two or three passages of romance proper
romance
proper.
ROMANCE
503
(that is to say before the later part of the isth century) which
could be called obscene by any fair judge. And the term
would have to be somewhat strained in reference even to
these. The contrast with the companion divisions of fabliaux
and farces is quite extraordinary; and nearly as sharp as
that between Greek tragedy on the one hand and Greek comedy
or satiric play on the other. It is brought out for the merely
English reader in Chaucer of course, but in him it might have
been studied. In the immense corpus of known or unknown
French and English writers (the Germans are not quite so
particular) it comes out with no possibility of deliberation
and with unmistakable force.
The history of the forms in which romance presents itself
follows a sufficiently normal and probable course. The oldest
Develo &K always save in the single case of part of the
meoL P " Arthurian division, in which we probably possess none
of the actually oldest, and in some of the division of
Antiquity which had a long line of predecessors in the learned
languages the shortest. They become lengthened in a way
continued and exemplified to the present moment by the tend-
ency of writers to add sequels and episodes to their own stories,
and made still more natural by the fact that these poems were
in all or almost all cases recited. " Go on " is the most natural
and not the least common as well as the most complimentary
form of " Bravo !" and the reciter never seems to have said
" no " to the compliment. In not a few cases Huon of
Bordeaux, Ogier the Dane, Guy of Warwick, are conspicuous
examples we possess the same story in various stages; and can
see how poems, perhaps originally like King Horn of not more
than a couple of thousand lines or even shorter in the i3th
century, grew to thirty, forty, fifty thousand in the I5th. The
transference of the story itself from verse to prose is also save
in some particular and still controverted instances regularly
traceable and part of a larger and natural literary movement.
While, also naturally enough, the pieces become in time fuller
of conversation (though not as yet often of conversation that
advances the story or heightens its interest), of descriptive
detail, &c. And in some groups (notably that of the remark-
able Amadis division) a very great enlargement of the pro-
portion and degradation of the character of the marvellous
element appears the wonders being no longer mystical, and
magical only in the lower sense.
And so we come to the particular characteristics of the kind
or kinds in individual examples. Of these the English reader
charac- has a matchless though late instance in the Morte
teristic d' Arthur of Malory, a book which is at once a corpus
examples. anc j a pattern of romance in gross and in detail.
The fact that it is not, as has been too often hastily or
ignorantly asserted, a mere compilation, but the last of a singular
series of rehandlings and redactions conducted with extra-
ordinary though for the most part indistinctly traceable instinct
of genius makes it to some extent transcend any single example
of older date and more isolated composition. But it displays
all the best as well as some of the less good characteristics of
most if not all. Of the commonest kind the almost pure
roman d'aventures itself the Gareth-Beaumains episode (for
which we have no direct original, French or English, though
Lybius Disconus and Ipomedon come near to it in different
ways) will give a fair example; while its presentation of the
later chapters of the Grail story, and the intertwisted plot
and continuing catastrophe of the love of Lancelot and Guine-
vere, altogether transcend the usual scope of romance pure and
simple, and introduce almost the highest possibilities of the
romantic novel. The way in which Malory or his immediate
authorities have extruded the tedious wars round the " Rock
of the Saxons," have dropped the awkward episode of the false
Guinevere, and have restrained the uninteresting exuberance
of the continental wars and the preliminary struggles with the
minor kings, keeps the reader from contact with the duller sides
of romance only. Of the real variety which rewards a persistent
reader of the class at large it would be impossible to present
even a miniature hand-index here; but something may be done
by sample, which will not be mere sample, but an integral part of
the exposition. No arbitrary separation need be made between
French and English; because of the intimate connexion between
the two. As specially and symptomatically noteworthy the
famous pair perhaps the most famous of all Guy of Warwick
and Bevis of Hampton, should not be taken. For, with the ex-
ception of the separation of Guy and Felise in the first, and some
things in the character of Josiane in the second, both are some-
what spiritless concoctions of stock matter. Far more striking
than anything in either, though not consummately supported by
their context, are the bold opening of Blancandin et I'orgueilleuse
d'amour, where the hero begins by kissing a specially proud and
prudish lady; and the fine scenes of fight with a supernatural
foe at a grave to be found in Amadas et Idoine. Reputation
and value coincide more nearly in the charming fairy story of
Parthenopex de Blois and the Christian-Saracen love romance
of Flare (Florice and other forms) et Blanchcfleur. Few romances
in either language, or in German, exhibit the pure adventure
story better than Chrestien de Troyes's Chevalier au Lyon,
especially in its English form of Ywain and Gawain; while the
above-mentioned Lybius Disconus (Le Beau Dtconnu) makes a
good pair with this. For originality of form and phrase as well
as of spirit, if not exactly of incident, Gawain and the Green
Knight stands alone; but another Gawain story (in French
this time), Le Chevalieur aux deux fpies, though of much less
force and fire, exceeds it in length without sameness of adven-
ture. Only the poorest romances those ridiculed by Chaucer
in Sir Thopas which form a small minority, lack striking
individual touches, such as the picture of the tree covered with
torches and carrying on its summit a heavenly child, which
illuminates the huge expanse of Durmart le Gallois. The
various forms of the Seven Wise Masters in different European
languages show the attitude of the Western to the Eastern
fiction interestingly. The beautiful romance of Emare is about
the best of several treatments of one of the exceptional subjects
classed above the unnatural love of father for daughter,
while if we turn to German stories we find not merely in the
German variants of Arthurian themes, but in others a double
portion of the mystical element. French themes are constantly
worked up afresh as indeed they are all over Europe but the
Germans have the advantage of drawing upon not merely
Scandinavian traditions like those which they wrought into
the Nibelungen Lied and Gudrun, but others of their own.
And both in these and in their dealings with French they some-
times show an amount of story-telling power which is rare in
French and English. No handling of the Tristan and Iseult
story can compare with Gottfried's; while the famous Der arme
Heinrich of Hartmann von Aue (the original of Longfellow's
Golden Legend) is one of the greatest triumphs and most charm-
ing examples of romance, displaying in almost the highest
degree possible for a story of little complexity all the best
characteristics of the thing.
What, then, are these characteristics? The account has now
been brought to a point where a reasoned resume of it will give
as definite an answer as can be given.
Even yet we may with advantage interpose a consideration
of the answer that was given to this question universally (with
a few dissidents) from the Renaissance to nearly the Sum -nary
end of the i8th century and not infrequently since; of opinion
while it is not impossible that, in the well-attested re- " a luct ~
volutions of critical thought and taste, it may be given again.
This is that romance on the whole, and with some flashes of
better things at times, is a jumble of incoherent and mostly
ill-told stories, combining sameness with extravagance, out-
raging probability and the laws of imitative form, childish as
a rule in its appeal to adventure and to the supernatural, immoral
in its ethics, barbarous in its aesthetics, destitute of any philo-
sophy, representing at its very best (though the ages of its
lowest appreciation were hardly able even to consider this)
a necessary stage in the education of half-civilized peoples,
and embodying some interesting legends, much curious folk-
lore and a certain amount of distorted historical evidence. On
504
ROMANCE LANGUAGES
the other hand, for the last hundred years .and more, there
have been some who have seen in romance almost the highest
and certainly the most charming form of fictitious creation,
the link between poetry and religion, the literary embodiment
of men's dreams and desires, the appointed nepenthe of more
sophisticated ages as it was the appointed pastime of the less
sophisticated. Between these opposites there is of course room
for many middle positions, but few of these will be occupied
safely and inexpugnably by those who do not take heed of
the following conclusions.
Romance, beyond all question, enmeshes and retains for us
a vast amount of story-material to which we find little corre-
sponding in ancient literature. It lays the foundation of modern
prose fiction in such a fashion that the mere working out and
building up of certain features leads to, and in fact involves,
the whole structure of the modern novel (q.v.). It antiquates
(by a sort of gradual " taking for granted ") the classical assump-
tion that love is an inferior motive, and that women, though
they " may be good sometimes " are scarcely fit for the position
of principal personages. It helps to institute and ensure a new
unity the unity of interest. It admits of the most extensive
variety. It gives a scope to the imagination which exceeds
that of any known older literary form. At its best it embodies
the new or Christian morality, if not in a Pharisaic yet in a
Christian fashion, and it establishes a concordat between
religion and art in more ways than this. Incapable of exacter
definition, inclining (a danger doubtless as well as an advantage)
towards the vague, it is nevertheless comprehensible for all its
vagueness, and, informal as it is, possesses its own form of
beauty and that a precious one. These characteristics were,
if perceived at all by its enemies in the period above referred
to, taken at their worst; they were perceived by its champions
at the turn of the tide and perhaps exaggerated. From both
attitudes emerged that distinction between the " classic " and
the " romantic " which was referred to at the beginning of this
article as requiring notice before we conclude. The crudest,
but it must be remembered the most intentionally crude (for
Goethe knew the limitations of his saying), is that "Classicism
is health; Romanticism is disease." In a less question-begging
proposition of single terms, classicism might be said to be
method and romanticism energy. But in fact sharp distinctions
of the kind do much more harm than good. It is true that the
one tends to order, lucidity, proportion; the other to freedom,
to fancy, to caprice. But the attempt to reimpose these
qualities as absolutely distinguishing marks and labels on
particular works is almost certain to lead to mistake and dis-
aster, and there is more than mere irony in the person who
defines romance as " Something which was written between
an unknown period of the Dark Ages and the Renaissance, and
which has been imitated since the later part of the i8th century."
What that something really is is not well to be known except
by reading more or less considerable sections of it by exploring
it like one of its own forbidden countries. But something of
a sketch-map of that country has been attempted here.
To illustrate and reinforce the above, see in the first place articles
on the different national literatures, especially French and Ice-
landic; as also the following:
Classical or Pseudo-Classical Subjects. APOLLONIUS OF TYRE;
LONGUS; HELIODORUS; APULEIUS; TROY; THEBES; CAESAR,
JULIUS; ALEXANDER THE GREAT; HERCULES; JASON; OEDIPUS;
VIRGIL.
Arthurian Romance. ARTHUR; GAWAIN; PERCEVAL; LANCE-
LOT; MERLIN; TRISTAN; ROUND TABLE; GRAIL; and the
articles on romance writers such as Malory, Wolfram von Eschen-
bach, Chretien de Troyes, Gottfried of Strassburg, &c.
French Romance. CHARLEMAGNE; GUILLAUMED'ORANGE; DOON
DE MAYENCE; OGIER THE DANE; ROLAND; RENAUD DE MONT-
AUBAN (Quatre fils Aymon); HUON OF BORDEAUX; GIRART DE
ROUSSILLON; AMISETAMILES; MACAIRE; PARTONOPEUSDEBLOIS;
ROBERT THE DEVIL; FLORE AND BLANCHEFLEUR; GARIN LE
LOHERAIN; RAOUL DE CAMBRAI; GUILLAUME DE PALERME;
ADENES LE Roi ; BENotT DE SAINTE-MORE, &c. -
Anglo-Norman, Anglo-Danish, English Romance. BEVIS OF HAMP-
TON; HORN; HAVELOK; GUY OF WARWICK; ROBIN HOOD;
MAID MARIAN.
German. NIBELUNGENLIED ; ORTNIT ; DIETRICH OF BERN ; WOLF-
DIETRICH; HELDENBUCH; WALTHARIUS; GUDRUN; HILDEBRAND,
LAY OF; RUODLIEB.
Northern. SIGURD; WAYLAND; HAMLET; EDDA.
Spanish. AMADIS DE GAULA.
Various. REYNARD; ROMAN DE LA ROSE; GRISELDA and
kindred stories; GENEVIEVE OF BRABANT; GESTA ROMANORUM;
BARLAAM AND JOSAPHAT; SEVEN WISE MASTERS; MAELDUNE,
VOYAGE OF.
AUTHORITIES. The first modern composition of importance on
romance (putting aside the dealings of Italian critics in the
1 6th century with the question of romantic . classical unity) is
the very remarkable dialogue De la Lecture des vieux remans written
by Chapelain in mid-i7th century (ed. Feillet, Paris, 1870),
which is a surprising and thoroughgoing defence of its subjects.
But for long afterwards there was little save unintelligent and
mostly quite ignorant depreciation. The sequence of really
important serious works almost begins with Kurd's Letters on
Chivalry and Romance (1762). In succession to this may be con-
sulted on the general subject (which alone can be here regarded)
the dissertations of Percy, Warton and Ritson; Sir Walter Scott,
" Essay on Romance " in the supplement to the Encyclopaedia
Britannica (1816-24); Dunlop, History of Fiction (1816, to be
usefully supplemented and completed by its latest edition, 1888,
with very large additions by H. Wilson); Wolff, Allgemeine
Geschichte des Romans (Jena, 1841-50); Ward, Catalogue of
Romances in the British Museum (vol. i. 1883, vol. ii. 1893) (the
most valuable single contribution to the knowledge of the subject) ;
G. Saintsbury, The Flourishing of Romance and the Rise of Allegory
(Edinburgh, 1897), and its companion volumes in Periods of European
Literature [W. P. Ker, The Dark Ages (1904); Snell, The Fourteenth
Century (1899); Gregory Smith, The Transition Period (1900);
Hannay, The Later Renaissance (1898)]; W. P. Ker, Epic and
Romance (1897). (G. SA.)
ROMANCE LANGUAGES, the name generally adopted for
the modern languages descended from the old Roman or Latin
tongue, acted upon by inner decay or growth, by dialectic
variety, and by outward influence, more or less marked, of all
the foreign nations with which it came into contact.
During the middle ages the old Roman Empire or the Latin-
speaking world was called Romania, its inhabitants Romani
(adj. Romanicus), and its speech Romsncium, Vulgar Romancio,
Italian Romanzo, from Romanics loqui to speak Romance;
in Old French nominative romanz, objective roman(t), Modern
French roman, " a novel." originally a composition in the
vulgar tongue. In English some moderns use Romanic (like
Germanic, Teutonic) instead of Romance; some say Neo-Latin,
which is frequently used by Romance-speaking scholars. By
successive changes Latin, a synthetical language, rich in in-
flexions, was transformed into several cognate analytical tongues
of few inflexions, most of the old forms being replaced by
separate foim-words. As the literary language of the ancient
Roman civilization died out, seemingly extinguished by the
barbarism ot the middle ages, all the forms of the old classical
language being confounded in the most hopeless chaos, suddenly
new, vigorous and beautiful tongues sprang forth, ruled by
the most regular laws, related to', yet different from, Latin.
How was this wonderful change brought about? How can
chaos produce regularity? The explanation of this mystery
has been given by Diez,' the great founder of Romance philology.
The Romance languages did not spring from literary classical
Latin, but from popular Latin, which, like every living speech,
had its own laws, not subject to the changing literary fashions,
but only to the slow process of phonetic change and dialectic
variety. It is interesting to observe that much that is handed
down to us in the oldest Latin literature (notably in the voca-
bulary) reappears in the most recent phase of Latin the
Romance languages. Thus, a verb nivire, " to snow," is known
to Pacuvius, but does not again appear until the time of
Venantius Fortunatus, and then with a change of conjugation
nivere, while it has now a new term of life in French and
Rhaeto-Romanic dialects. It is obvious that there was no
break of continuity^ in the vulgar language, for if in the later
imperial ages a verb had been formed from nix, nivis, it must
have been nivare, or niviare (Fr. neiger). Here especially the
words of Horace come true:
" Multa renascentur, quae jam cecidere, cadentque
Buae nunc sunt in honore vocabula, si volet usus,
uem penes arbitrium est et jus et norma loquendi."
ROMANCE LANGUAGES
The present article, embracing all the Romance languages,
aims at tracing on the one hand their common origin and their
common development, on the other hand at pointing out the
peculiarities of the individual languages and the possible
explanations of the growth of these peculiarities. Their
common development is mainly dealt with under LATIN LAN-
GUAGE. The relation of the early vulgar Latin to the literary
language, the spread of Latin following the spread of Roman
rule, the prevalence of Latin over Oscan, Umbrian, Etruscan,
and late Iberian and Gallic all these matters concern rather the
history of Latin than of the Romance languages. But we may
say broadly that the language spoken throughout the Roman
Empire at the time of Augustus was fairly uniform, and that
naturally differentiations took place (varying according to
regions) which were not, however, strongly marked, and which
even tended to be obliterated in later times.
The main causes of these variations were twofold, (i) The
process of Romanizing the various districts took place at epochs
far remote one from the other, and between the earliest and
the latest of these epochs Latin itself was modified. 1 (2) We
have the reaction on Latin of the languages of the pre-Roman
populations.
Applying this first point of view, we should find that the oldest
form of Latin (oldest, that is, for our present purposes) was intro-
duced into Sardinia (238 B.C.) ; next comes Spain (197 B.C.), Illyria
(167 B.C.), South Gaul (120 B.C.), North Gaul (50 B.C.), Raetia
(15 B.C.), Dacia (A.D. 107). And we can actually trace some of the
results of these differences in date, chiefly perhaps in the vocabulary
and morphology of the Romance languages. When, for example,
we find the dative illui (Ital., Fr., Rum. lui) missing in the Iberian
peninsula, we may infer that it was unknown to the Latin intro-
duced there, and conversely that Latin still used the ancient cova
(Sp. cueva, " caya ") and not the more recent coxa (Ital. cava), also
demagis or gumia, which we only know from Lucilius, Sp. demas,
gomia.
We may be justified in assigning to these historic causes the
beginnings of the divergence from the original uniformity. Neither
active intercourse, nor the dislocations of tribes and populations
brought about by the exigencies of military or colonizing enterprise,
ever effected a complete fusion of these divergences. To this we
must add, as a second element, ethnic considerations.
To begin with, we seem to find in Italy itself, among the Italic
population in country districts, the survival of isolated forms which
had been discarded by the literary language with its levelling
tendencies, and in consequence also by what may be called " Average
Latin " (Durchschnittslatein). In early Latin d becomes r before
labials, e.g. ar me advenias occurs in Plautus; arvorsus, arger from
*arfger are the ancient forms. Only arbiter has survived as a word
of the official language and because in general feeling the noun was
consciously connected with the verb baetere, though it was soon dis-
carded. Arger, under the influence of aggerere, aggestus, became agger,
and arvorsus was displaced by advorsus. I n Abruz. we have arbendd,
" to repose," beside Sicil. abbintari which suppose *arventare beside
adventari; Abruz. armuri, " to put out the fire," represents Lat.
*armoriri instead of admoriri; arbukkd is found beside Ital.
abboccare.
All these forms are only attested in Italy, and they might
by reason of their prefix be classed as Umbrian, since in Umbrian
ar for ad is even commoner, cf. the place-name Arestajfele in Molise,
which in Latin would be ad Stabula, save that the limitation to the
cases that are in line with the Latin rule prove precisely that this is
not a case of Umbrian influence, but of a preservation of ancient
and popular forms. Beyond the limits of Italy arger has been
preserved, e.g. Sp. arcen, and not only Ital. argine; further
armissarius, " stallion," in the Lex Salica and in Rum. armesariu;
perhaps Sp. almuerzo, " breakfast," for *armuerzo beside Lat.
admorsus.
In the second place we have, especially in Italy, clearly Umbro-
Oscan forms. Contrary to Latin use, these two dialects, the most
important in ancient Italy, have / between vowels from an early
bh, dh, as against Latin b, d; and Umbrian, Paelignan, &c., e, d,
from an early ei, ou, as against Latin I, u. Thus crefrat (in the
glosses), as against Latin cribrat, is both by right of its vowel and
consonant, an Umbrian form. And with this we must compare
Ital. bifolco beside Lat. bubulcus; Ital. taffiari, "to feast," beside
tabulari; tafano, "horsefly," beside Lat. tabanus; bufalo, beside
Lat. bubalus. Further, Neap. Ottufro, " October," morfende, " eye-
teeth," Lat. mordente, &c. There is a special interest in cases like the
French mandrin beside Ital. manfano. What has come down to us
is manphur, which is not Greek, its ph notwithstanding, but which
owing to its_f we must take to be Osco-Umbrian ; while the corre-
sponding Latin form would be "mandar. The Latin supplies the
French, the Osco-Umbrian the Italian form. As to the other
1 Cf. G. Grober,.Archiv fur lot. Lexicographie, i. 35 ff.
505
instance, Varro points to veUa beside villa as rustic, and to this we
must add Ital. stegola, Sardin. isteva, Sp. and Port, esleva ('sleva for
sttva), " plough tail "; Ital. dee, Sardin. elige, Fr. yeuse. " holly "
( ilex for Vex), or Ital. pommice, FT. ponce, Sp. pomet, " pumice-
stone ('pomice for pumice).
It must not be overlooked that the last word denotes an object
found chiefly in Sicily and near Naples, that is, in the ancient seat
of the Oscans. It will be clear that we are dealing chiefly with
words connected with agriculture, and it is remarkable that those
of our second category spread all over the empire, while those of
the first were entirely, or almost entirely, limited to Italy.
As a parallel we may cite the vocabulary of North and South
Gaul, which yields a number of Gallic elements, and one may
safely infer that in the first few centuries after the Roman conquest
these elements were more numerous than at a later stage, and
there is in fact a definite justification for this inference. The so-
called Km Midicrs glossary of the 5th century is a compilation, by
a native of South Gaul, of Gallic words which were clearly at that
time still current in the south of France. 1 And in this we have
not only dunum, " monlem," cambiare, " pro re dare " (Fr. changer);
caio, " breialo sive bigardio " (Fr. quai); nanto " voile," Savoy. na,
" stream," but also avallo, " poma," which was lost in later times
but is preserved in its derivative amtlanche, " medlar."
Another Gallic word recorded by ancient tradition tegia, " hut "
still exists to-day with this meaning in the Venetian and Raetic
Alps, and moreover plays an important part in toponomy Fr.
Arthies from Gall, are Tegias, " at the huts," N. Ital. Tetze; but in
the oldest Gallo-Romance it may have been in use as an appel-
lative, and thence have passed into Basque e.g. Basq. tegi, " hut."
The permeation of the Latin vocabulary by Gallic elements dates
from the time of the contact of Gauls and Roman forces. Many of
these elements e.g. bracae, camisia were widely used at so early
a stage as to have penetrated into Rumania (Rum. tmbrdcd, " put
on," cdmeafd, "chemise"); others again have scarcely, if at all,
passed beyond their ancient limits, even those that Roman litera-
ture has preserved for us. It is true that Martial says
" Barbara de pictis veni bascauda Britannia
Sed me jam mavult dicere Roma sibi,"
but only in France has bachoue been preserved up to the present,
while so far no traces of bascauda have been established for
Italy.
Glancing over the Gallic contributions to the Gallo-Romance
vocabulary, we see at once that they belong to a considerable
extent to the sphere of agriculture, and that among the implements
mentioned it is chiefly vehicles of all kinds which have Gallic
names. The record of Roman times supplies us with henna,
carpentum, carrum, caruca, agredum, petorritum, rheda, but carrum
alone gained a firm footing; caruca in the form of charrue, " plough,"
survives in France, and benna (Fr. banne, Ital. henna) in its ancient
home. Under this heading we may perhaps add taratrum, " gimlet,"
in Isidore, Fr. tariere, Engad. tareder, Sp. taladro. Port, trado;
Fr. janle, " felloe of a wheel " (Bret. Kammed), Fr. taranche,
Gall, tarinca. With caruca we may class soc, " plough-share,"
and O. Fr. raie, Mod. Fr. rayon, " furrow," Gallic *rica (cf. Cyrnr.
rhych).
A further group is formed by cervoise, " beer," from Gall, ctre-
visia, O. Fr. braiz. Mod. Fr. brai, " malt," brasser, " to brew,"
Gall, brace; lie, "yeast." Among the names of plants Gallic
betulla has survived wherever the tree is common. Within narrower
bounds we find Fr. /, " yew," Gall, "ivum (cf. Ir. ee); probably also
*cas'sanus, "oak," Fr. chine, Prov. easier; Fr. verne, Balder (cf.
Ir. fern and the Gall, place-name Vernodubrum, " alderwater ") ;
belpce, " sloe," bulluca, and S. Fr. aranhon, " sloe " (Ir. airne).
Pliny mentions marga, " marl," as being in use among the Gauls
as manure for soil, from the diminutive 'margtia, Fr. marne. An
agricultural measure was called arepennis, Fr. arpent. Fields were
separated by a hedge Prov. gorce (cf. O. Fr. gort, "fence"); a
tiedged-round piece of land is called in French lande, Ir. land.
Another method of demarcation was by means of hurdles, Fr.
claie, Piedm. cia (cf. Ir. cliath) ; or of barricades, Fr. combre (whence
the verbs encombrer, -decombrer), which corresponds to a Gallic
*comboros. Inside the hurdles the sheep and cows were kept whose
milk yielded meeues, " whey " (Ir. medg). The wood needed for
the erection of fences was cut with the "wood-knife," Gall, ridu-
WttfH, Fr. vouge. We may notice further the group broga, " en-
closure," " preserve," Prov. brogo and the diminutive brogilo,
Fr. breuil.
In north Italy we find fruda, " torrent " (cf. Cymr. fruith), which
i a parallel to no mentioned above; also Comasc. dren, " black-
jerry," Ir. dren, " thorn," and (over a large part of north Italy)
lar, "bunch," " tuft," O. Ir. barr. To single out a few words,
there is Prov. ban, "horn," Cymr. ban; Piedm. vinverra, from a
word that has come down to us as Latin, but is really Gallic: vt-
lerra, Cymr. gwywer, Gaelic feoragh, " weasel," and in the Rhaeto-
Rom. dialect in Switzerland carmun, from a Gallic cannon, which
is cognate with O.H.G. harmo. Mod. H.G. hermelin, " ermine."
* Cf. H. Zimmer Kuhn'sZeitsch.furvergl. Sprachforschunf, 32, 230.
506
ROMANCE LANGUAGES
In this way we might amplify examples, and it should not escape
notice that we have to deal chiefly with substantives, with few
adjectives and hardly any verbs. 1
In precisely the same way the Spanish vocabulary must have
been seamed with traces of Iberian elements. But the process
of elimination took place more rapidly and thoroughly in this case,
so that the number of Iberian or Celtic-Iberian words that have
resisted time and change is small. On a Latin inscription from
Spain we find paramus, " plain," and paramo occurs to this day in
this sense. As the Iberian does not know the sound p, the word
cannot be Iberian, and must be Celtic.
In Isidore we find baia, " bay," which should be read baia,
as Sp. and Port, bahia prove doubtless an Iberian word, since
Fr. baie and Ital. baia are forms quite recently borrowed from Spanish.
This baia is perhaps somehow connected with the place-name
Bayona. Again, the lapides lausiae of the Lex Metalli Vipascensis
are Celtic rather than Iberian (cf. Sp. losa, Port, lousa, as well as
Prov. lausa, Piedm. losa). Considering our ignorance of Iberian,
and the pronounced colouring of Basque by Spanish words, it is
not often easy to decide on which side the indebtedness lies when
we meet with a word in Spanish and Basque whose etymology is
still uncertain.
Much discussion centres round the question as to how far the
pre-Romanic nations influenced the phonology of the Romans in
the process of their assimilation. Opinions are strongly diver-
gent. While G. I. Ascoli has repeatedly assumed influences of
this kind on a large scale, the present writer is very sceptical. 2
It may be well to give the essential points.
Plautus uses distennite and dispennite instead of distendite and
dispendite forms he imported from his native Umbria. And
like the Umbrians, the Oscans too pronounced nn instead of nd.
Later we find this same change throughout the whole of south and
central Italy, and even in Rome, whereas it is not observed in
Tuscany, north Italy and other Romanic countries. We may
therefore confidently assume that this is due to a reaction of the
Oscan-Umbrian dialects. Similarly it is in accordance with
Umbrian pronunciation to convert breathed plosives into voiced
after nasals, e.g. iuenga = L,a.t. iuvenca; and similarly we have
cingue in central and south Italy beside Tusc. cinque (quinque).
But even in this particular the change affects not only the regions
of ancient Umbria, but also those of the Oscans and Messapians,
though again it must be admitted that we do not know what the
pronunciation of the ancient Messapians was. And finally, we
find the Latin d represented in Umbrian between vowels by a
sound which has a separate sign in the national alphabets and
which in Latin is reproduced as -rs. And since the Paelignan alpha-
bet too has a sign for a modified d, one may perhaps assume that
in these districts d had a specialized sound as Ih, or r; and this
view agrees with the fact that in the dialects of central and southern
Italy d was pronounced sometimes like r, sometimes like th. And
probably this sums up all we can say with certainty.
It has always been maintained that French u (pronounced as
German ), derived from , is due to the influence of Gallic. The
u (with modern sound) is identified with the whole area of the
French language except part of the Walloon, part of French
Switzerland, and Piedmont, Genoa, Lombardy, the Grisons, Tirol
and the northern part of the Emilia, but not Friuli, Venetia and
I stria. On the other hand, the ancient ii became i in Cymric, to
which u must be regarded as an intermediary step, that may there-
fore have existed in Gallic. But in the first place we must observe
that Greek writers always render the Gallic u by ov, never by v; that
the Romans too write u, never y; and further, that over a large part of
the area u came in comparatively recently. Secondly, in Gallic in-
scriptions the combination CT is frequently replaced by XT, so that
the Irish pronunciation cht (Ir. nocht, " night ") is as old as Ancient
Gallic. And since the preliminary stage of the Fr. fait from faclum,
nuit from node, is likewise cht, it is natural to suppose a relation
between these facts, and all the more because the Iberian Peninsula
on the one hand, and a large part of the western and central area of
upper Italy on the other, show an identical process; but in Venetian,
central and southern Italy ct became U. Thirdly, nasalized vowels
are in evidence chiefly in the ancient seats of the Celts in northern
and southern France, in Piedmont, Genoa, Lombardy and partly
in Raetia, also in Portugal, but not as far as southern Emilia. At
this point again evidence from the Gallic fails completely. Finally,
an attempt has been made to trace back the general characteristics of
the French and the Gallo-Romanic dialects of Italy to the peculi-
arities of the Gallic accent. It is assumed that there was a decided
stress-accent, which brought about an over-emphasis of the stressed
syllable at the expense of the unaccented ones, with the result of
a marked weakening of the unaccented vowels, and particularly
of those following the stressed syllable. Here again we can only
'Cf. R. Thurneysen, Keltoromanisches (Halle, 1885); W. Meyer-
Liibke, Einfuhrung in die romanische Sprachwissenschaft, p. 38 ff.
2 G. I. Ascoli, Una Lettera glottologica (1880); Archivio glottologico
ilaliano, x. 260; Sprachwissenschaftliche Brief e (1887; cf. H.
Schuchardt, Zeitschrift fiir rom. Phil. iv. 140 and elsewhere); and
Meyer-Lubke, loc. cit. 205 ff.
say that Gallic itself affords no evidence for this assumption, and
that, on the contrary, this peculiar accentuation maybe due to other
reasons, unknown to us. To turn to morphology, the method of
enumerating as we find it, for example, in Fr. qualre-vingts, &c.
would seem to be Gallic, since it is common to all the Celts.
But even if we admit certain regional variations, all these were
overlaid by an " Average Latin " which presents a number of essen-
tial features uniformly over the whole area, and which differed
from the literary language. These characteristics (in historical
sequence) are as follows: (l) Loss of final m in polysyllabic words
(which we find exemplified in the very oldest inscriptions) ; (2) loss
of the h- sound, a loss which outside the towns was of great
antiquity (cf. anser), and at the beginning of imperial times was
fairly common ; (3) loss of n before i coupled with the lengthening
of the vowel, for which Varro is evidence in his alternations of
mensa and mesa; (4) the assimilation of rs to ss e.g. sussum
from sursum (Ital. suso, O. Fr. sus, Mod. Fr. dessus). Toward
the end of the Republic v is lost before u e.g. iiius instead of
vivus, rius instead of rivus (Ital. Sp. no), anticus instead of antiquus
(Ital. anlico). In the first century A.D. b became t> between vowels,
thus merging itself into the latter sound, so that in examining
the Romance languages it is impossible to decide whether the
original was v or 6. And this change spreads in sentences to the
initial b (as in the inscription manduca vibe lude e beni at me), which
leads in some cases to some uncertainty in the use of v and ft.
And lastly, we have the case of cl and // e.g. veclus (Ital. vecchio,
Fr. vieil, Sp. viejo, Port, velho, Rum. viechiu) instead of vetulus-, the
reduction of di before vowels, of j, g before e, i, and of z to a single
sound j, or rather dj, in consequence of which we have diurnum
(Ital. giorno, Fr. jour) ; juvenis (Ital. giovane, Fr.jeune); gener (Ital.
genera, Fr. gendre) zelosus '(Ital. geloso, Fr. jaloux), all represented
by the same initial.
To turn to vowels, we must first notice that, according to Varro,
ae was pronounced e in the country, but that in the cities the
diphthong was maintained at first, while the simple sound was
only admitted during the course of the 1st century A. p. If this is
an instance of an early spreading of a rustic pronunciation, we have
in another case a victory for that of the bourgeoisie and aristocracy.
O for au belongs to Umbrian, Volscian and vulgar Latin, which
explains why Appius Claudius Pulcher changed his name to Clodius
when he deserted the patricians and went over to the plebeians.
And there is other evidence of this change of sound. But in the
inscriptions of the Empire o for au is very rare, save in proper names,
and the Romance languages have partly preserved the au to this
day with little or no change (cf. Rum. auzi, Prov. auzir, Port.
ouvir from audire), or only changed it to o at a later stage (cf. Fr.
chose, where ch could only have arisen before a, not o), so that one
may assume that the " Average Latin " always preserved the au.
Then, without entering into detail, we must mention the pro-
thesis of i before st, sp, sc, a phenomenon which arose, judging from
the inscriptions, in the 2nd century A.D. We find it at the beginning
of the sentence, and also within it after consonants, but not after
vowels; e.g. ilia spata, but ittas ispatas; istdre, istd, but tu istds, &c.
Most important of all are the modifications that affect the accented
vowels, which give a new look to the language as a whole. In Old
Latin and even towards the end of the Republican age, vowels
varied solely according to their quantity, e.g. a was longer than a, e
longer than e, but the vowel sound was the same, or at any rate the
difference in quality between long and short must have been quite
insignificant, seeing that Cicero and Quintilian wished the word
divisio to be avoided in speech from motives of decorum, because
of the likeness in sound to vissio. Quantity was not influenced
by the number of the consonants following: actus was pronounced
with a, factus with d, &c. In the course of the 1st century
approximately quality was differentiated in addition to quantity
in all vowels except a short vowels being pronounced with an open,
long ones with a close, sound. The written language expresses this
change by writing ae for e, i for e,e for i, u for 5,0 for. In addition
there are statements of the grammarians, though they mention
only the double pronunciation of e and o, not that of i and u. It
was probably in the course of the 4th century that the further
change took place, by which all vowels were lengthened before a
single consonant, and shortened before two or more, e.g. silis
became sltis, while tectum became tectum. But the older qualitative
variations were maintained so that even now sltis and vitis, or
tectum and l^ctum did not contain the same vowel-sound, the former
Having a close, the latter an open, vowel. (Cf. Ital. sete, vite, Fr.
soif, vis, Sp sed, vid; or Ital. t$tto and letto, Fr. toil and lit.) It is
at the end of the 4th century that Augustine says: " Afrae aures
de corruptione vocalium vel productione non judicant," and the
uncertain practice of the poets in the matter of quantity points to
the breaking down oPthe old conditions. This was not the end of
the process of development; but the most important stages were
already accomplished. In this, too, we are concerned with changes
affecting the whole Romance region. The final step was taken
when open i and close e, open and close o, were reduced to one sound
which may be called close e (or o). This step was not taken by the
eastern regions, excepting as to e, and Sardinia remained completely
unaffected (u. infra).
ROMANCE LANGUAGES
507
The vowel-system that developed in course of time is thus as
follows :
6 e I i u u6 6
-i V -i V J,
. r ?
"before I const.
"before l const.
"before 2 consts. "before 2 consts.
I I
In the department of flexion we find less radical changes. The
genitive was the first case to disappear. In general its functions
were usurped by the preposition de. But for the possessive sense
the dative was adopted, cf. Hie REQUIESCUNT MEMBRA AD Duos
FRATRES, in an inscription from Gaul. The accusative serves for
the case after prepositions under all circumstances, and therefore
even in places where the older language used the ablative, e.g.
magister cum suos discentes in a Pompeian inscription. Nouns of
the third declension with monosyllabic nominative, e. g. lens,
slirps, ars, &c., form a dissyllabic nominative, e.g. lentis, stirpis,
&c. The dividing line between masculine and neuter, at all times
doubtful, is frequently broken down, especially in the singular, e.g.
cubiium instead of cubitus, and there are converse cases. The
absorption of the fourth declension by the second is almost complete.
In the declension of the pronouns the genitives ipsuius, illuius, dat.
ipsui, illui, fem. illaeius, illaei, are found in several inscriptions,
but do not belong to the common language, since, as we have already
said, they are not at home in the Iberian peninsula. On the other
hand, all the Romance languages show that *eo took the place of ego.
The use of ille as personal pronoun, and also of ipse, and of both
these forms as articles, dates from ancient times. We find a par-
allel to the weakening of these demonstratives in the amalgama-
tion of the pronominal combinations to be found as early as Plautus
with ecce, eccum, which results in new forms, e.g. eceeille (O. Fr. cil,
Mod. Fr. celui) or eccuille (Ital. quegli, Sp. aquel) ; ecceiste (Fr. ce- (I) ) ;
eccuiste (Ital. questo, Sp. aqueste). In the verb-system, a character-
istic change is the disappearance of the future and passive forms,
the explanation of the phenomenon in both cases being psychological
rather than formal. Popular language is not familiar with the future,
and replaces it by the present or, more strictly speaking, the
vulgar person deals only with the present or the past. The case of
the passive is similar. The transposition of active into passive is
too complicated a process for the simple mind. The object of the
action remains the object; when the subject of the action is not
known, they resorted to the indefinite third person plural, e.g.
vendunt casam is the popular mode of expressing domus venditur.
And further, the perfect amatus sum was replaced by amatus fui,
since fui was a perfect and could now take over the function of a
present. For the moment, all other tenses and moods of the verb
were preserved, only of the infinite forms, the gerundive, perfect
infinitive and the two supines disappeared. Of the gerund nothing
remained but the ablative. In compensation, however, we soon
find a form habeo cantalum springing up beside canton in use_as
perfect, e.g. litteras scriptas habeo meant in the first instance,
possess written letters," with nothing implied as to who wrote the
letters; 'but later this usage is limited to cases where the owner
is also the originator of the state of things expressed in the parti-
ciple, and thus it attains to the force of a perfect.
There is little change in the formation of individual verb-lorms.
It is natural that the infinitives esse, velle, posse, being exceptional,
should have been brought into line with all the rest. This was done
by simply adding -re on to esse (Ital. essere, Fr. etre), while the other
two were constructed from the forms of the verb whose ending was
accented, or from the perfect, e.g. volebam, potebam, volut,potui, gave
rise to *volere, *potere, on the analogy of docebam, docui, monebam,
monui, nocebam, nocui, &c. ; with infinitives, docere, monere, nocere,
&c. (cf. Ital. volere, potere, Fr. vouloir, pouvoir, Sp. and Port, poder,
Rum. vrea, putea). In other infinitives there is much confusion,
especially as between -ere, and -ere verbs, noticed by the Latin
grammarians themselves; we have evidence, too, that at an early
stage the present forms in -io, -iam led to a confusion of the -ire
and -ere conjugation, e.g. Plautus has morire (Ital. monre, Fr. mourir,
Sp. morir, Rum. muri); Lucretius has cupire; Cato has fodire, &c.
For the rest we may note as important that perfect-forms without
-, such as -asti, -astis, -arunt, infected the first person singular, e.g.
-ai instead of -aw. A new type in -idi arose on the model of vendidi,
and then affected other verbs in -ndere, e.g, descendidt (in Gelhus),
prendidi (in the grammarian Probus) and in general verbs ot t
third conjugation. But its spread was slow, so that it can scarcely
be said to have been common to all the languages.
In the formation of words the popular language probably had lar
greater freedom than the written language. We find not only a
marked preference for diminutives in -ulus and -ellus, but many other
types are established, or new ones created. And as the chiet ones
we must mention the post-verbalia (nouns constructed out of verb*).
Thus pugnare, being itself derived from pugnum, then produces
pugna (on the pattern of planta, plantare), and these formations
soon became extremely common, and not only in a- verbs, but also
in Ore-verbs, cf. in particular dolus, " grief " (not to be confused with
the ancient dolus, " craft "), C.I.L. x. 4510 (Rum. dor, Ital. dvolo.
Fr. deuil, Sp. duelo). As examples of other types we have -ttra
beside -or, which we can trace back to ardura, a contamination
of ardor and arsura, which extended to fereura ; also to strictura
beside strictus; direclura beside directus, when the old participles
had separated both in form and in meaning from the verbal-system
and had become adjectives, whose / was felt to be part of the stem.
Another feature of the verb is the gradual retreat of old simple
formations in favour of derivatives from the participle, e.g. cantare,
adjutare, ausare, &c., in place of canere, adjuvare, audere; then for
denominatives -icare and the Gr. -izare (Ital. -eggiare, Fr. -oyer, Sp.
-ear) which, coming in with Christianity, was soon added on to Latin
stems, e.g. (in Fulgentius) citherizantium aul tibizantium.
Among points of syntax we may single out the replacing of in-
finitival sentences (following verbs oT feeling, seeing, hearing,
wishing) by clauseswith ut, quod or quia, whence' Ital. che, Fr. que.
The latter particle spread most rapidly, and soon took precedence
over the other conjunctions, not only in the cases just mentioned,
but in introducing object-, subject-and final-clauses.
It is in the vocabulary that it is most difficult to define the
relations of the common and the literary language. So much of
the Latin vocabulary as appears over the whole Romance area
comes of course from the everyday language which was used from
the mouth of the Ebro to that of the Danube, but it is by no means
all. It is more interesting to inquire whether anything can be
reconstructed from Romance, and, if so, how much? The exist-
ence of a form aiutare, for example, mentioned above (Ital. ajvtare,
Fr. aider, Sp. ayudar, Rum, aiuta) and appearing in all the Romance
languages, is indisputable. Between Fr. grotte (" crow "), Lyon.
grata, Gascon, agraulo, Tirol, grolo, and (with ehange of gender)
Apul. raulu, Rum. graur, the connexion, both in form and meaning,
is so close that one is led to assume a common basis for all these
words. This basis is *graulus, -a, and it is safe to assume that
such a word goes back to Latin, though remembering that it was
not found in the western regions. Rum. afld. Sic. asciari, Sp. hollar,
Port, achar, Gris. afldr, Dalm. afludr, " to find," all point to afflare,
and in this case, too, the change in meaning may be safely ascribed
to Latin, only in this case Gaul is not included. Rum. arip&,
Fr. aube, Prov. aubo, Sp. alabe, " paddle-board," in Rum. meaning
also " wing," and in Sp. also " the wickerwork on both sides of
a vehicle," in Port. " the wing of a parapet," point to a form *alapa,
which meant " wing " and which must have belonged to the vulgar
language, even though no trace of it survives in Italy. Many
other points could be enumerated, but problems are involved which
have as yet hardly been taken up. 1
In dealing with the division of this common language jnto a
number of individual languages there are still further points of
view to be considered. Before we can touch upon these, we must
first take a general survey of these languages. There are altogether
nine Rumanian, Dalmatian, Sardinian, Italian, Raeto-Rpmanic,
French, Provencal, Spanish and Portuguese. Of these nine lan-
guages, Dalmatian is now extinct, and even what we learn of it from
the ancients is very meagre. On the one hand, Ragusa and the
plains of Dalmatia never attained the degree of independence in
literature which would have brought about a floruit in the language
such as Provencal has to show. Neither, on the other han a, was
its political independence stable enough, nor was it sufficiently
remote to escape intercourse with the rest of the world, like the
Raeto-Romanic dialects. The hordes of Slavs pressing forward
from the inner regions of the hinterland soon put an end to the
Romanic civilization, first in the country and then ir the towns.
And when the Venetians, who were, both in point of culture and of
commerce and of politics, on a higher level, regained their power
over the Dalmatians by occasional conquests, chiefly over the
cities, the result was of course all in favour of the Venetian dialect.
On the island of Veglia alone there were still living about the middle
of the igth century a few people who still spoke Old Dalmatian.
The last 'of these is now dead. Our approximate notions of this
language are gleaned from the speech of these natives of Veglia,
from a few more ancient notes, place-names, proper names and
from the Romance elements in the Servo-Croatian dialect of
Ragusa. 2 We may begin by reducing these nine languages to
seven groups Dacian, Dalmatian, Sardinian, Italic, Ractic,
Gallic and Iberian. The most striking peculiarity of the first three
of these groups is the absence o_f Germanic words in_the vocabulary.
In other words, they were withdrawn from the influence of the
general " Average-Latin " before the beginning of the more decided
permeation of Latin by Germanic elements. There are other
signs of their antiquity. In Central Sardinian c before e, , and
Cf. G. Gr6ber, Archiv.J. lot. Lexirograpkie, \. 204 ff.
Cf. M. G. Bartoli, "Das Dalmatische " (1906), (Schriften der
Balkan-Kommission der K. A kademie der Wissenschaften, linguistische
Abteilung, Bd. iv. and v.).
5 o8
ROMANCE LANGUAGES
in Dalmatian c before e are always preserved as velars, and in
south Sardinian and in Rumanian the palatalization is more recent,
and secondary. The preservation of the tenues between vowels
as breathed fortes is peculiar to Rumano-Dalmatian, but as north
Sardinian used breathed lenes in their place, while the dialect of
Nuoro, in Sardinia, preserved the fortes, we have every ground for
assuming that central and south Sardinia also possessed either
fortes or lenes in earlier times. Moreover, south Italy, Sicily and
a large part of central Italy as far as the Apennines replace the
old Latin tenues either with breathed fortes or breathed lenes,
in marked contrast to the regions of the Po, to Gallic and the Iberian
group. All these phenomena may perhaps be explained in con-
junction with two historical events. By the abandonment of the
province of Dacia (in A.D. 270), Rumanian lost its close touch with
the languages of nearest affinity; and the division of the empire
under Diocletian and Constantino necessarily entailed a linguistic
division. At that epoch the linguistic conditions were roughly as
, follows :
The principal changes in the vowel-system, especially the develop-
ment of qualitative beside quantitative variations, had been accom-
plished, but there was still a difference between I and f, u and p.
The old future had disappeared, and no tendency to produce a
substitute had as yet appeared. The Latin pluperfect subjunctive
still maintained its old usage, probably also the imperfect sub-
junctive and the future perfect. In declensions the tyrje membrum,
-a, had begun to spread; but corpus, -ora, was still in existence.
Sardinia seems to have been, perhaps owing to its isolation, the
first to have detached itself from this group. For it was not con-
tent with differentiating e and 1, but it also retains -s, whereas
the East-Rumanian and an Italian group suppressed -s, and in
consequence also the difference between the nominative and the
accusative singular. This and the levelling of neuters in -us and
masculines in -u made it possible for the types membra and corpora
to spread at the expense of the type loci, a. possibility of which
South Italian and Rumanian made the fullest use.
On the given basis the various languages carried on their various
developments, influenced partly by contiguity of other idioms,
partly by causes unknown to us. Among neighbouring idioms,
Greek had by right of its degree of civilization and its political
power great influence in giving Rumanian and South Italian a
similar direction, and that at a time when every trace of a geo-
graphical connexion between these two language-groups had
long vanished. Thus, the replacing of the construction " I will
come " by " I will that I come " took its rise in Greece and was
passed on to Rumania and Apulia. The rise of the new future
voiu cantd, " I will sing," in Rumanian is probably due to Greek
influence. In Latin itself both itte caballus and caballus ille are
found, the position depending on the accentual conditions of the
sentence. Then the loss of s made room for the form caball[u\ ille
with a victory for the inverted order. In Rumania alone this was
the actual process, under the influence of the surrounding speech
Illyrian or Bulgarian, or perhaps independently of them, in this
latter case serving as prototype to these languages. Dalmatian
and South Italian, on the other hand, were so closely connected
with the languages that preserved s and therefore prefixed the
article that in this particular they separated from Rumanian.
This is not the place to show how the Rumanian vocabulary and
the structure of words was permeated markedly by elements from
Slav, less markedly by elements from Turkish, Mod. Greek and
Hungarian, which gave the language an alien appearance in point
of vocabulary.
In its consonants, and, as far as one can judge, in its morphology,
Dalmatian has preserved the stamp of antiquity. But in its vowel-
system there are marked changes, especially in the substitution of
diphthongs for close vowels, e.g. changing a to e, u through the u
stage to oi, i to ei, o to au, e to ai. Diphthongs such as they appear
also in Istrian and Abruzzian, so that we must presuppose some
sort of connexion.
It may be that Sardinian took another course of development
because (A.D. 458) the island was rent from Rome and incorporated
in the African empire of Genseric, king of the Vandals. Therefore
the sympathies of Sardinia were alienated from Italy, and turned
on the one hand towards Africa (and unfortunately we have no
information as to the " latinity " of this region), on the other to-
wards the Iberian peninsula. These conditions lasted for a while,
but later we find Genoa and Pisa fighting at intervals for supremacy
in Sardinia, their organization being in many points identical
with that of the island. On the whole, this new combination has
not materially affected the language, especially in Logodoro. The
vowel system (of great antiquity), as well as the velar pronunciation
of c before e, i, remained unchanged, neither did they get as far as
to adopt the future-forms current on the mainland ; on the contrary,
the Sardinians arrived independently and later at their usage of
depo cantare or haia a cantar. But the use of ipse as an article in
Sardinia, Mallorca, and in the earliest times also in the Catalanian-
Gascon area, clearly proves the linguistic connexion which for a time
covered this area, and we may also see some connexion in the fact
that the lenes became voiced between vowels. On the whole,
and in spite of everything, Sardinian is the most archaic of the
Romance languages. Owing to its retaining s, it has failed to extend
the membra-tempora types of formation, indeed it has almost re-
jected them entirely. It has retained the imperfect subjunctive
to this day, and as a corollary it has lost the pluperfect of that mood.
And though every Romance language has a number of Latin words
that are not common to the rest, yet in this language the number of
these Siro \tj6iifva. is greater than in others, and it is noteworthy
that these have here survived such common expressions as domo,
" house," mannu, " great," with other examples.
The East-Rumanian group (coupled with Sardinia) finds its
counterpart in the great group based upon the Latinity of Gaul,
the Iberian peninsula, and north Italy. This group contains a
considerable number of fundamental peculiarities in phonology,
morphology and vocabulary which prima facie lead us to assume a
fairly long period of contact.
The chief of these peculiarities is the final change of the vowel-
system, i.e. the loss of the distinction between e and i, between 6
and u', then the change of breathed plosives and fricatives between
vowels into voiced plosives and fricatives respectively; the use of
the pluperfect subjunctive instead of the lost imperfect subjunctive
(Hal. cantasse, Fr. que je chantasse, Sp. cantase, Port, cantasse),
the formation of a new future from the infinitive of the verb and the
present, or (as the case may be) the imperfect or perfect of habere,
e.g. Ital. canterd, canterei, Fr. je chanterai, cha.nlera.is, Sp. cantare,
cantaria. It it is safe to assume that this latter formation had its
origin in places where we find it most firmly rooted, we are led to
assign it to the north of France. For it is only there that both
elements in the formation are inseparably connected from the
beginning of our record. In the old Provencal the two constituent
parts are still separable; in the oldest Spanish and Portuguese
their position is not fixed (i.e. the auxiliary may follow or precede
the verb). In north Italy we frequently find the form avrb cantare
instead of canta.ro, obviously because this formation is not properly
acclimatized. But at any rate it is clear that the change of function
from cantare habeo to cantabo belongs to the time when the three
great groups were still in close contact, and the evidence of the
Latin texts falls into line with this view, showing this construction
well established from the second half of the 4th century. 1 In the
vocabulary we must note, among other things, the introduction of
Germanic words, e.g. elmo, Fr. heaume, Sp. yelmo, "helmet";
harpa, " harp," Ital. arpa, Fr. harpe, Sp. and Port, arpa; medus,
" meed," which is found in Antimus and Isidore, but disappears
later (cf. O. Fr. mies, "meed"); waidanian, Ital. guadagnare,
Fr. gagner, Sp. guadanar, and many more.
The further steps in the process of differentiation were con-
ditioned by the breaking up of the Roman empire by the great
migrations. The establishment of the rule of the Franks in north
Gaul, of the Visigoths in south Gaul and the Iberian peninsula,
loosened old ties, created new nations and in consequence new and
independent groups of languages.
The Iberian group was marked primarily by a striking simplicity
in its flexions. The three-case system was given up at an early
stage, even in prehistoric times, and has left no traces whatever.
Owing to the preservation of -i the type membra was doomed to
perish, and thus we find, from the beginning of our record and
therefore presumably soon after the great cleavage took place,
the prevalence in nouns of the following simple rule: sing, -e,
-o, -a; plur. -es, -os, -as. The loss of the dative may have some
connexion with the fact that the form illui for the 3rd personal
pronoun had not yet established itself; and the desire for uni-
formity may have ousted the nominative of o- stems. There are
analogies in the conjugation. The pluperfect indicative was pre-
served, and even (largely) with a Latin significance, but in the
region of flexion much simplification took place, e.g. uniformity of
accentuation in the three conjugations, marked reduction of the
i- perfect and u- perfect forms and a great reduction in the number
of u- participles.
The vocabulary is characterized by certain archaisms, and still
more by the fact that a series of common ideas are rendered by
new words limited in use to the Iberian peninsula. Thus we have
querer (quaerere) instead of vette; quedar (quietare) instead of
manere; callar (deriv. uncertain) for tacere; hablar (fabulare),
"to speak"; llegar (plicare), "to arrive"; dejar (?) instead of
laware, &c. Further, we may mention the preference of tenere to
habere even for the formation of perfect-forms, of which examples
are to be found in Orosius, and of magis to plus for expressing
comparisons, for which also we may find examples in Latin authors
or the Iberian peninsula. The influence of the Goths or Suevi and
Vandals on the vocabulary is inconsiderable, and when we trace it
it is not easy to explain; e.g. Galician laverca, " lark," is clearly
from a western Gothic *lawerka, but it is difficult to see why the name
for this bird should have been supplied by the Germanic. To sum
up, one may say that the Latin of Iberia was a self-contained
language, at first showing little modification by influences from
Iberian, or later by those from Germanic; further, that its develop-
ment was slow, and that it aimed at simplicity.
At the present day there are three great groups, running almost
1 See Thielmann, in Archiv f. lat. Lexikogr. ii. 48 seq.
ROMANCE LANGUAGES
509
parallel from N.E. to S.W., e.g. Catalanian on the coast of the
Mediterranean, akin to Provengal, Spanish in the centre, Galician-
Portuguese on the Atlantic. From the historical point of view one
part might be called Gothic- Romance, the other Sue vo- Romance.
But the national and linguistic history of the times and countries
we are dealing with is still very obscure. The difference between
the two idioms is chiefly one of phonetics, while in their morpho-
logy and vocabulary they dp not greatly differ. Spanish may be
described as a language which favours vowels at the expense of
consonants, and which therefore shows, more than other Romance
languages, a weakening even of initial consonants. It changes
voiced stops first to fricatives, then to mere noises or " burrs "
which finally disappear altogether, and s before a consonant or
finally, becomes h (through a middle stage ?) and is finally lost.
The preferential treatment of vowels, however, entailed not a single
change except that e was changed to the diphthong ie, o to ue;
all else were preserved, e.g. diez (decent), tiempo (tempus), bueno
(bonus), fuerte (fortis); but haver (habere), lid (lite), corona (corona),
humo (fumus). The weakness of the initial sound is shown in
enero (januaruis), hazer (facere), llamar (clamare with a transitional
*clyamar), llaga (plaga), &c. The written language has no sign for
voiced plosives between vowels, but -atho or -ao is spread over nearly
the whole region.
In contrast to Spanish, Portuguese has a strong pronunciation
of initial sounds, and so does not go beyond Janeiro, fazer, and changes
cl (with transitional form cly, ky), and also pi (via ply, py) to ch,
e.g. chamar, chaga. On the other hand, it has a careless articulation
of vowels and consonants, and consequently no diphthongs. The
unaccented vowels are weakened, as finals almost to vanishing
point. It shows further a fusion of nasals with the preceding vowel,
so as to form a nasal vowel, and this new nasality takes the colour
of the preceding vowel, e.g. vina becomes vinho, but una becomes
uma, otherwise before a vowel the nasal finally disappears; cheio
and cheia, from plenus, plena. Similarly / was lost between vowels,
e.g. ceo (caelum) ; before consonants it became I, or u, e.g. out.ro
(alteru), caldo (calidu). Voiced plosives have a weak pronunciation
between vowels, and these are sometimes made fricatives. In
relation to the somewhat careless articulation we note a marked
reaction on accented vowels by the final vowel (e.g. nova has a
close vowel, nova an open one), and also by the following consonants :
I velarizes, s palatalizes preceding sounds, hence estas pronounced
istas, " thou art," with reduced ', but devedor (debitor), " debtor,"
with reduced e. Lastly, the division between words is not sharp the
interaction of initial sounds and finals being very striking. Devedor
has a plosive d, a devedor has a fricative; istas has a breathed -s,
but istas nos ceus, " thou art in heaven," has a voiced -s; seja,
" be," has a reduced a; o name is pronounced u name, but seja o
name is pronounced sej o name, with an open o from a+o, &c.
The separation of Gaul took place likewise in the second half of
the 5th century, when the Visigoths had settled down in the south,
the Burgundians in the east, and the Franks in the north. The
type of language that was evolved here is distinct from Spanish
primarily and principally in the loss of final vowels except a, or, when
the formation of the word was incompatible with this loss, in a
weakening to e. On the other hand, the declension is strongly
conservative. Nowhere are the old case-endings so clearly preserved
as in this region, e.g. reis, " king," but la rei file (regi filia), " the
king's daughter"; veil le rei, " videt regem"; dunet le rei, " donat
(dat) regi ; these are the modes of expression, and they last till
far into the literary period. But at an early stage there was a
breach between the Franks of the north and the Burgundians of
the east on the one hand, and the Visigoths of the south on the other.
For while the latter (the Visigoths) retained the old system of
accented vowels, the former changed e to a diphthong ie, o became
uo, ue, and moreover e and became ei, o and u became ou; a was
changed to a, assuming that these vowels were long in accordance
with the later Latin pronunciation, e.g.
Lat. debere nepote pede mola pratu
North Fr. deveir nevout piet muele pret
South Fr. dever nebot pe mola prat
The northern group, moreover, weakened the consonants stiU
further. D and g, secondary consonants from t and c, disappear
like the primary ones, and thus pratellus becomes preau, S. Fr.
pradel; advocatus becomes avoue, S. Fr. avogat; a secondary p
(from b) becomes v, as we see by the form which replaces nepos
above. If we are right in ascribing this to the effort to stress the
accented vowel at the expense of the other constituents of the word,
we may take this to be connected with the weakening of a where
final, and between two accented syllables, e.g. N. Fr. aime from
amat, as against S. Fr. ania; or in one case armeure (Mod. Fr. armure),
in the other armadura, from armatura.
Parallel to the preservation of -s on the one hand, and the close
following of the old flexions on the other, we find the type membra
preserved at first, though not spreading, whereas the tempora-type
is abandoned. In the verb the variety in Latin perfect forms
is still fairly well preserved, though there is a distinct extension
of the w-perfect and the dedt-perfect. As we might expect, the
vocabulary seems to be strongly coloured by Germanic elements of
Prankish, Burgundian and Gothic origin.
The Raetic dialects, in their prehistoric phase, are less clear than
others. Their contact, at an age nearing the Carolingian, with
the French of the south-east in Valais seems to have caused a
similar process of growth, especially as they change e and o into
the diphthongs ei and on, leaving at the same time the consonants
more intact. At an early stage the inroads of the migrating
nations cut off Raetia from the Po valley, and the pressure of the
German tribes severed its union with the Romance-speaking nations
of the west. Thus isolated it was free to follow its own course.
This language also preserved at first the three cases and the type
membra, the latter being developed later freely in use as a collective
plural. But its further development was checked by the Lombards
and Venetians.
But the most difficult problems are those that arise in Italy.
Though one may say generally that the dialects of the region of the
Po, and those of Liguria, belong to the types of north and western
Romance, that is to say that the breathed plosives between vowels
became voiced, yet they approach the typically Italian groups by
their loss of -s. This means that when the whole Italian peninsula
was separated from Gaul as well as from Iberia (after the close of
the 5th century) and became again one homogeneous whole, the
forms without s found their way into the north of Italy only slowly,
so that 5 has remained in the west, i.e. in Piedmont, in mono-
syllabic words to this day, e.g. as, " thou hast," ses, " thou art ";
the same rule prevailed in older times in the east, in Venice, and there
the s was also preserved (in questions) in polysyllabic words, e.g.
venis-tu, " comest thou?"; and the old form maintained itself in
Milanese in the single form sistu, " art thou ? " To the loss of t
we trace the extinction of declensions, but as its action began
to take effect later, the membra-type gained little footing, the
tempora-type none at all. In the vocabulary the Lombard elements
are numerous, extending, like the supremacy of the Lombards,
over the whole peninsula. It may be that 5 was lost under the
influence of central Italy acting on the north. If so, we may surmise
that a similar influence has changed cl, pi, and- fl to chi, pi, ji
(chiamare, pianta, fiamma). For it is precisely this point that
differentiates both the Raetic dialects and Provencal from the
contiguous Italian dialects, and the change certainly took place
only after the latter were completely detached. On the other hand
the Italian vocabulary has been strongly influenced by the north,
especially in Tuscany.
The rise and development of the Romance languages, in its
large outline, appeals to the imagination as a vast historical
phenomenon closely bound up with the fate of nations. One
other element must not be overlooked on which we have touched
more than once in the above sketch, for it bears so directly on the
Romance vocabulary as to deserve the tribute of a general survey:
this is the Germanic.
When mercenaries of Germanic origin pervaded the Roman
armies, Germanic words found their way first into the language
of the camp, and thence into the vulgar language generally. And
at that stage perhaps many words may actually have been im-
ported which were, partly at any rate, lost again later.. Roman
and Greek authors admit a considerable number of Germanic
words, including terms belonging to warfare, e.g. bandum, " stan-
dard," used by Procopius, which still continues in the form of
O. Fr. ban, Ital. bandiera, Sp. bandera, &c. Brutis, " bride,"
" daughter-in-law," which occurs frequently in inscriptions, may
date from the period of camp life, but for the rest it is retained
only in Fr. bru, and in Friuh and Dalmatia. On the other hand,
companio is clearly a Latinization of Gothic ga-hlaifa, the meaning
of which carries us back to the same sphere. Other old words
express ideas of culture, or names of animals which the Romans
learned to know in the German-speaking north, e.g. ganta, " wild
?oose " (in Pliny), O. Fr. gante, Prov. ganta; or taxo, "badger,"
tal. tassone, Fr. taisson, Sp. tejon. But the impression made was
not pronounced until the age of the Germanic invasions, and then
we find a great variety in the various Romance countries. In
Italy we have two invasions to consider by the Goths, and by the
Lombards. But the destruction of the rule of the Lombards by
Charlemagne, and the introduction of Prankish elements con-
sequent upon it, should not be considered under the same head,
since these Franks may themselves have been a Romance-speaking
tribe. Goths as well as Lombards have left a trail as noticeable
in the language as elsewhere. Thus we find in several instances
some uncertainty as between 6 and p as an initial sound in Italian
words borrowed from Germanic, e.g. franco and panca, holla and
palla, the forms with 6 being Gothic, those with p Lombardic.
Or again recare, " to bring up, goes back to Gothic rikan, " heap
up," "collect"; ricco, "rich," to Lomb. rihhi, &c. _ Whereas
the vocabulary shows impartially an impress of both nationalities,
tile Lombards have left their stamp unmistakably on the proper
names. Speaking generally, Italy as well as the other Romance
countries follows the rule that medieval names of persons are
either " Christian " (in the strict sense) and therefore of Hebrew or
Graeco-Roman origin, or on the other hand Germanic. Roman
names that are not also Christian seem to have survived only in
south Italy in any great number, while on the contrary the Germanic
are not represented at all in Dalmatia. One of the characteristics
5 io ROMAN DE LA ROSE ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER
of Gothic is the change of e to i, so that it has names ending in
-mir. Of these we find no trace whatever in Italy, on the contrary
we find Gundimar, Ildimar, &c. Then we have abbreviated forms
in izzo, e.g. Gaudizzo, Albizzo, &c., which are distinctly Lombardic;
but not Gothic ones in -ila. There is no parallel to all this in the
Iberian peninsula. As we have already said, the Gothic con-
tribution to the vocabulary is very slight. But on the other hand
in the nth century the great majority of proper names is Gothic,
e.g. Alfonsus (Hadufonsus), Gundomirus, Recimirus, &c. ; or
Recila, Fafila, or Elvira, O. Port. Gelvira, Goth. *Gailamra, and
scores of others, all proving the great influence of Gothic.
And lastly, France possesses the largest number of Germanic
elements in its vocabulary, Gothic in the south, Prankish in the
north (though it is often impossible to ascertain to which class
they belong). But beside these there are many Old High German
words, and again Anglo-Saxon and northern ones, more particu-
larly those connected with shipping and the sea. These Germanic
elements cover nearly all branches of human activity. Thus bdt,
Fr. bdtir, " to build," from "bastyan, " to bind together with bast,"
" to plait " ; hourder, " to cover with boards," from hurdi, " hurdle " ;
macon, " the mason," in Isidore makjo (Prankish rather than Gothic)
refer to house-building; gu&cher from waskyan, broder from
*brusdan, point to the occupations of women, and danser from
dinsan and O. Fr. treschier, " to dance," from treskan, " to thresh," to
their amusements. Women's work is probably denoted further
in rouir, rotjan, and E. Frank, naisier, natjan, "to net";
the same remark applies to the dyeing of cloths (Fr. touaille, Engl.
" towel," from thwahila), and ribbons (bande from binda) with
guede, " woad," and other colouring matters, whence we have,
e.g., brun, bleu, blond, blanc.
But while the vocabulary has had its accessions drawn from
various races, the proper names show the same rules as in Italian,
i.e. Frankish gains the sole supremacy. We find, it must be
admitted, some Gothic names in -mir in the south early in the middle
ages, but they were not maintained as late as the Romance period,
such was the influence of the victorious northern race.
Even after political and literary independence had enabled
the individual Romance languages to grow as separate units on
their own basis, they retained their interconnexion and were open
to mutual influence. But this influence is only partial, i.e. it
affects nothing but the vocabulary, and has a certain relation to
various tendencies in the developments of civilization. And
under this head the most important point is the really enormous in-
fluence which France (both south and north) has exercised on all the
Romance countries, just as she has on the Germanic an influence
which has hitherto not been duly recognized. The first traces
go back to the invasions of Charlemagne already mentioned. To
instance only one, we have schiavino, " justice, alderman," which
cannot be derived directly from the Germanic, as is shown by
the v. The second important period is the age of chivalry and the
literary tendencies centring round it. A word like budriere,
" baldric," is derived from Fr. baudrier, not directly from Germanic
Balderich; Ital. banda goes back to O. Fr. bande, and this again to
binda; Ital. giallo is not from galbinus but from O. Fr. jalne (Mod.
Fr. jaune), derived from that word, &c. But it seems that in one
of the prehistoric periods the Tuscan vocabulary was strongly
affected by that of the Gallo-Romanic. Whereas in the Iberian
peninsula, in Sardinia, in south Italy, Rumania and Rhaetia dies
survives, in O. Fr. di has been almost completely ousted by jour,
but in Tuscan and the Italian literary language we find giorno
and di side by side. Thus trouver, Prov. trobar, spreading from
France into Italy, drove the old afflare more and more back towards
the south. The most recent layer was introduced during the reign
of the house of Anjou chiefly in south Italy and Sicily, and kept
its hold to the present day in spite of the Sicilian Vespers, e.g. Sic.
vuccieri, " butcher," from Fr. boucher.
The Iberian peninsula can likewise bear witness as to French
influence, e.g. O. Sp. /onto, " shame," is not from Goth, *haunitha,
but from Fr. honte; O. Port, saluar not from Lat. salutare, but
O. Fr. saluer. On the whole, Portuguese seems to possess more
of these Gallicisms than Spanish, history supplying a simple
explanation.
Italy too yielded its contributions, especially in the I5th and l6th
centuries, many military terms (noble and ignoble), e.g. French
carogne and canaille; poignard, " dagger," from Ital. pugnale, instead
of O. Fr. poigniel; but also panache, "plume," from pennacchio,
and many others that have become common property. But the
influence of the Iberian peninsula on the contrary was not so strong
as to be more than sporadic; the Sicilian and Neapolitan vocabu-
laries alone are more closely akin to Spanish, and this is easily
explained on the ground of their political and commercial relations...
As to the Romance languages beyond Europe we have but
little to say. There is a distinction to be made between Creole
and genuine Romance. Belonging to the latter we have the French
of Canada, the Spanish of Central and South America, the Portu-
guese of the Brazils. Speaking generally we may say that the
particular languages retained the form of the language in the i6th
and 1 7th centuries, that is to say that of the time of the immigra-
tion, and that they developed along the lines already established.
Thus in Mexican Spanish the loss of d, g, between vowels, of s before
consonants and as a final, has been carried further than in the
mother-country. There are no proved traces of any noticeable
influence from the languages of the natives.
LITERATURE. The real founder of scientific Romance philology
and linguistics is Friedrich Diez, in his Grammatik der romanischen
Sprachen (3 vols., Bonn, 1836-42), and Etymologist hes Worterbuch
der romanischen Sprachen (2 vols., 1852). All questions concerning
Romance philology and the historic grammar of the different
Romance languages are treated in G. Grober's Grundriss der roma-
nischenPhilologie(2nded.,Stra.ssbuTg, lQo6),andinW. Meyer-Lubke's
Grammatik der romanischen Sprachen (4 vols., Leipzig, 1890-1900);
Einfuhrung in die romanische Sprachwissenschaft (2nd ed., Heidel-
berg, 1909). The principal magazines devoted to the subject are Zeit-
schriftfur romanische Philologie (ed. Grober; since 1877) ; Zeilschrift
fur neufranzo'sische Sprache und Literalur (ed. Behrens; since
1879); Romanische Forschungen (ed. Vollmoller; since 1885);
Archill fur das Studium der neueren Sprachen (since 1846); Romania
(ed. G. Paris and P. Meyer; since 1812); Archivio glotlologico
italiano (ed. G. I. Ascoli; since 1873). The great development
of Romanic philology after Diez is due principally to A. Tobler,
G. Grober, W. Forster and H. Suchier in Germany; A. Mussafia
(d. 1905), H. Schuchardt in Austria; G. Paris (d. 1905), P. Meyer
in France; G. I. Ascoli (d. 1907), and F. d'Ovidio in Italy.
(W. M.-L.)
ROMAN DE LA ROSE, a French poem dating from the i3th
century. The first part was written about 1230 by Guillaume
de Lorris (q.v.), whose work formed the starting-point, about
forty years later, for the more extensive section written by
Jean de Meun (q.v.). Guillaume de Lorris wrote an allegory,
possibly of an adventure of his own, which is an artistic and
beautiful presentment of the love philosophy of the trouba-
dours. In a dream the Lover visits a park to which he is
admitted by Idleness. In the park he finds Pleasure, Delight,
Cupid and other personages, and at length the Rose. Welcome
grants him permission to kiss the Rose, but he is driven away
by Danger, Shame, Scandal, and especially by Jealousy, who
entrenches the Rose and imprisons Welcome, leaving the Lover
disconsolate. The story, thus left incomplete by its inventor,
was finished in 19,000 lines by Jean de Meun, who allows the
Lover to win the Rose, but only after a long siege and much
discourse from Reason, the Friend, Nature and Genius. In
the second part, however, the story is entirely subsidiary to
the display of the author's encyclopaedic knowledge, to pic-
turesque and poetic digressions, and to violent satire in the
manner of the fabliaux against the abuse of power, against
women, against popular superstition, and against the celibacy
of the clergy. The length of the work and its heterogeneous
character proved no bar to its enormous popularity in the
middle ages, attested by the 200 MSS. of it which have survived.
The Romaunt of the Rose was translated into English by Chaucer
(see the prologue to the Legende of Good Women), but the English
version of that, extending to about one-third of the whole work,
which has come down to us (see an edition by Dr Max Kaluza,
Chaucer Society, 1891), is generally admitted to be by another hand.
For a list of books on the vexed question of the authorship of
the English translation see G. Korting, Grundriss der engl. Lit.
(Miinster, 1905, 4th ed. p. 184). A Flemish version by Hein van
Aken appeared during Jean de Meun's lifetime, and at the beginning
of the I4th century a free imitation, in the form of a series of sonnets,
// Fiore, was written in Italian by the Tuscan poet Durante. Three
editions of the Roman de la Rose were printed at Lyons between
1473 and 1490; two by Antoine Verard (Paris, 1490 ? and 1496 ?),
by Jean du Pr6 (Paris, 1493 ?), by Nicholas Desprez for Jean Petit
(Paris), by Michel le Noir (Paris, 1509 and 1519). In 1503 Jean
Molinet produced a prose version. Marot altered and modernized
the text (1526), and his corrections were followed in subsequent
editions. Modern editions are by Meon (4 vols., 1813), by Francisque
Michel (2 vols., 1864), by Croissandeau (pseudonym for Pierre
Marteau), with a translation into modern French (Orleans, 5 vols.,
1878-80), and a critical edition by E. Langlois, author of Origines
et sources du Roman de la Rose (Paris, 1890). There is a modern
English version by F. S. Ellis (Temple Classics, 3 vols., 1900).
ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER. The reign of Constantine the
Great forms the most deep-reaching division in the history
of Europe. The external continuity is not broken, but the
principles which guided society in the Greek and Roman world
are replaced by a new order of ideas. The emperor-worship,
which expressed a belief in the ideal of the earthly empire of
Rome, gives way to Christianity; this is the outward sign that
ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER
a mental transformation, which we can trace for 300 years
before in visible processes of decay and growth, had reached a
crisis.
Besides the adoption of Christianity, Constantine's reign is
marked by an event only second in importance, the shifting
of the centre of gravity of the Empire from the west to the
east by making Byzantium a second capital, a second Rome.
The foundation of Constantinople (q.v.) determined the sub-
sequent history of the state; it established permanently the
division between the eastern and western parts of the Empire
a principle already introduced and soon exhibited, though
not immediately, the preponderance of the eastern half. The
eastern provinces were the richest and most resourceful, and
only needed a Rome in their midst to proclaim this fact; and
further, it was eastward that the Empire fronted, for here was
the one great civilized state with which it was in constant
antagonism. Byzantium was refounded on the model of Rome,
had its own senate, and presently a pracfcclus urbi. But its
character was different in two ways: it was Christian and it
was Greek. From its foundation New Rome had a Christian
stamp; it had no history as the capital of a pagan empire.
There was, however, no intention of depressing Rome to a
secondary rank in political importance; this was brought about
by the force of circumstances.
The Christian Roman Empire, from the first to the last
Constantine, endured for 1130 years, and during that long period,
which witnessed the births of all the great modern nations of i
Europe, experienced many vicissitudes of decline and revival.
In the sth century it lost all its western provinces through the
expansion of the Teutons; but in the 6th asserted something
of its ancient power and won back some of its losses. In the
7th it was brought very low through the expansion of the
Saracens and of the Slavs, but in consequence of internal
reforms and prudent government in the Sth century was able
before the end of the pth to initiate a new brilliant period of
power and conquest. From the middle of the nth century
a decline began; besides the perpetual dangers on the eastern
and northern frontiers, the Empire was menaced by the political
aggression of the Normans and the commercial aggression of
Venice; then its capital was taken and its dominions dis-
membered by Franks and Venetians in 1204. It survived the
blow for 250 years, as a shadow of its former self.
During this long life its chief political role was that of acting
as a defender of Europe against the great powers of western
Asia. While it had to resist a continuous succession of dangerous
enemies on its northern frontier in Europe German, Slavonic,
Finnic and Tatar peoples it always considered that its front
was towards the east, and that its gravest task was to face
the powers which successively inherited the dominion of Cyrus
and Darius. From this point of view we might divide the
external history of the Empire into four great periods, each
marked by a struggle with a different Asiatic power: (i) with
Persia, ending c. 630 with the triumph of Rome; (2) with
the Saracens, who ceased to be formidable in the nth century;
(3) with the Seljuk Turks, in the nth and i2th centuries;
(4) with the Ottoman Turks, in which the Roman power went
down.
Medieval historians, concentrating their interest on the
rising states of western Europe, often fail to recognize the
position held by the later Empire and its European prestige.
Up to the middle of the nth century it was in actual strength
the first power in Europe, except in the lifetime of Charles the
Great, and under the Comneni it was still a power of the first
rank. But its political strength does not express the fulness
of its importance. As the heir of antiquity it was confessedly
superior in civilization, and it was supreme in commerce.
Throughout the whole period (to 1204) Constantinople was the
first city in the world. The influence which the Empire exerted
upon its neighbours, especially the Slavonic peoples, is the second
great r&le which it fulfilled for Europe a role on which perhaps
the most speaking commentary is the doctrine that the Russian
Tsar is the heir of the Roman Caesar.
The Empire has been called by many names- -Greek, Byzantine,
Lower (Uas-empire), Eastern (or East-Roman). All these have
a certain justification as descriptions, but the only strictly correct
name is Roman (as recognized in the title of Gibbon's work). The
continuity from Augustus to Constantine XI. is unbroken; the
emperor was always the Roman emperor; his subjects were always
Romans ('Pu/ieuoi: hence Romaic Modern Greek). "Greek
Empire" expresses the fact that the state became predominantly
Greek in character, owing to the loss, first of the Latin provinces,
afterwards of Syria and Egypt; and from the middle of the 6th
century Greek became the official language. " Lower Empire "
(Later is preferable) marks the great actual distinction in character
between the development before Constantine (llaut-empirc) and
after his adoption of Christianity. " Byzantine sums up in a
word the unique Graeco-Roman civilization which was centred in
New Rome. Eastern is a term of convenience, but it has been used
in two senses, not to be confused. It has been used, loosely, to
designate the eastern half of the Empire during the 80 years or so
(from 395) when there were two lines of emperors, ruling formally
as colleagues but practically independent, at Rome and Constanti-
nople; but though there were two emperors, as often before, there
was only one Empire. It has also been used, justifiably, to dis-
tinguish the true Roman Empire from the new state founded by
Charles the Great (800), which also claimed to be the Roman
Empire; Eastern and Western Empire are from this date forward
legitimate terms of distinction. But between the periods to which the
legitimate and illegitimate uses of the term Eastern Empire "
apply lies a period of more than 300 years, in which there was only
one Empire in any sense of the word.
A chronological table of the dynasties will assist the reader
of the historical sketch which follows.
Succession of Emperors arranged in Dynasties.
1. CONST ANTINIAN DYNASTY. A.D. 324-363.
Emperors (founder of dynasty, Constantius I., 305-306):
Constantine I. (306, sole emperor since), 324-337.
In west Constantine II., 337-340; Constans, 337-350.
In east Constantius II., 337- .
Sole emperors: Constantius II., 350-361; Julian, 361-363.
INTER-DYNASTY. Jovian, 363-364.
2. VALENTINIANEAN DYNASTY. A.D. 364-392.
Emperors :
In west Valcntinian I., 364-375; Gratian, 367-383;
Valentinian II., 375-392.
In east Valens, 365-378 (Theodosius I., 379-392).
3. THEODOSIAN DYNASTY. A.D. 392-457.
Emperors: Theodosius I. (379), 392-395.
In east Arcadius, 395-408; Theodosius II., 408-450;
Marcian, 450-^57.
In west Hononus, 395-423; Constantius III., 422;
Valentinian III., 425-455; (non-dynastic) Maximus,
455 ;Avitus, 455-456.
4. LEONINE DYNASTY. A.D. 457-518.
Emperors :
In east Leo I., 457-474; Leo II., 474; Zeno, 474-491;
Anastasius I., 491-518.
In west non-dynastic, Majorian, 457-461 ; Severus,
461-465; (Leo I. sole emperor, 465-467); Anthcmius,
467-472; Olybrius, 472; Glycerius, 473-474; Julius
Nepos, 474-480; (usurper, Romulus August ulus, 475-
476).
5. JUSTINIANEAN DYNASTY. A.D. 518-602.
Emperors: Justin I., 518-527; Justinian I., 527-565;
Justin II., 565-578; Tiberius II., 578-582; Maurice,
582-602.
INTER-DYNASTY. Phocas, 602-610
6. HERACLIAN DYNASTY. A.D. 610-711.
Emperors: Heraclius, 610-641; Constantine III., 641;
Heracleonas, 641-642; Constans II., 642-668; Con-
stantine IV. (Pogonatus) 668-685; Justinian II.
(Rhinotmetus), 685-695 ; (non-dynastic) Leontius.695-
698 and Tiberius III. (Apsimar), 698-705; Justinian II.
(restored), 705-711. II.
INTER-DYNASTY. Philip Bardanes, 711-713; Anastasius II.,
713-716; Theodosius III., 716-717.
7. ISAURIAN (SYRIAN) DYNASTY. A.D. 717-802.
Emperors: Leo III., 717-740 (alias, 41); Constantine V.
(Copronymus), 740-775; Leo IV. (Khazar), 775-780;
Constantine VI., 780-797; Irene, 797-802.
INTER-DYNASTY. Nicephorus I., 802-81 1 ; Stauracius (son of
Nicephorus), 811 ; Michael I. (Rhangabe, father-in-law
of Stauracius), 811-813; Leo V. (Armenian), 813-820.
8. PHRYGIAN OR AMORIAN DYNASTY A.D. 820-867.
Emperors: Michael II. (Stammerer), 820-829; Theophilus,
829-842; Michael III. (Drunkard), 842-867.
9. MACEDONIAN DYNASTY. A.D. 867-1057.
Emperors: Basil I. (Macedonian), 867-886; Leo VI. (philo-
sopher) and Alexander, 886-912; Constantino VII.
512
ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER
(Porphyrogennetos), 912-959; Romanus I. (Lecapenus),
920-944; Romanus II., 959-963 ; Basil II.(Bulgaroctonus)
and Constantine VIII., 963-1025; (non-dynastic) Nice-
phorus II. (Phocas) , 963-969, and John Zimisces, 969-976 ;
Constantine VIII., alone, 1025-1028; Romanus III.
(Argyros), 1028-1034; Michael IV. (Paphlagonian), 1034-
1041; Michael V. (Calaphates) : 1041-1042; Constantine
IX. (Monomachus), 1042-1054; Theodora, 1054-1056;
Michael VI. (Stratioticus), 1056-1057.
INTER-DYNASTY. Isaac I. (Comnenus), 1057-1059 ; Constan-
tine X. (Ducas), 1059-1067; Michael VII. (Parapinaces),
Andronicus and Constantine XI., 1067; Romanus IV.
(Diogenes), 1067-1071; Michael VII., alone, 1071-1078;
Nicephorus III. (Botaneiates) , 1078-1081.
10. COMNENIAN DYNASTY. A.D. IO8l-I2O4.
Emperors: Alexius I. (nephew of Isaac I.), 1081-1118;
John II., 1118-1143; Manuel I., 1143-1180; Alexius II.,
1180-1183; Andronicus I., 1183-1185; Isaac 1 1. (Angelus),
1185-1195; Alexius III. (Angelus), 1195-1203; Isaac II.
and Alexius IV., 1203-1204.
INTER-DYNASTY. Alexius V. (Murtzuphlus), 1204.
Capture of Constantinople and dismemberment of the
Empire by the Venetians and Franks, A.D. 12041205.
11. LASCARID DYNASTY. A.D. 1206-1259.
Emperors: Theodore I. (Lascaris), 1206-1222; John III.
(Vatatzes or Batatzes), 1222-1254; Theodore" II.
(Lascaris), 1254-1259.
12. PALAEOLOGIAN DYNASTY. A.D. 1259-1453.
Emperors: Michael VIII. (Palaeologus), 1259-1282; And-
ronicus II. (Elder), 1282-1328 ;Andronicus III. (Younger),
1328-1341 ; John V., 1341-1391 ; (non-dynastic), John
(Cantacuzenus), 1347-1355; Manuel II., 1391-1425; John
VI., 1425-1448; Constantine XI., or XII. (Dragases),
1448-1453.
Historical Sketch. Diocletian's artificial experiment of two
Augusti and two Caesars had been proved a failure, leading to
twenty years of disastrous civil wars; and when Constantine
the Great (q.v.) destroyed his last rival and restored domestic
peace, he ruled for the rest of his life with undivided sway.
But he had three sons, and this led to a Hew partition of the
Empire after his death, and to more domestic wars, Constans
first annexing the share of Constantine II. (340) and becoming
sole ruler of the west, to be in turn destroyed by Constantius II.,
who in 350 remained sole sovereign of the Empire. Having
no children, he was succeeded by his cousin, Julian the Apostate
(9.11.). This period was marked by wars against the Germans,
who were pressing on the Rhine and Danish frontiers, and
against Persia. Julian lost his life in the eastern struggle,
which was then terminated by a disadvantageous peace. But
the German danger grew graver, and the battle of Adrianople,
in which the Visigoths, who had crossed the Danube in conse-
quence of the coming of the Huns (see GOTHS and HUNS), won
a great victory, and the emperor Valens perished (378), an-
nounced that the question between Roman and Teuton had
entered on a new stage. Theodosius the Great saved the situa-
tion for the time by his Gothic pacification. The efforts of a
series of exceptionally able and hard-working rulers preserved
the Empire intact throughout the 4th century, but the dangers
which they weathered were fatal to their weaker successors.
On the death of Theodosius the decisive moment came for the
expansion of the Germans, and they took the tide at the flood.
There were three elements in the situation. Besides the
Teutonic peoples beyond the frontier there were dependent
people who had settled within the Empire (as Visigoths in
Moesia, Vandals in Pannonia), and further there were the
semi-Romanized Germans in the service of the Empire, some
of whom had risen to leading positions (like Merobaudes and
Stilicho). A Germanization of the Empire, or part of it, in
some shape was inevitable, but, if the rulers of the 5th century
had been men of the same stamp as the rulers of the 4th, the
process might have assumed a different form. The sons of
Theodosius were both incapable; and in their reigns the future
of the state which was divided between them was decided. The
dualism between the east (under Arcadius) and the west (under
Honorious) developed under the rule of these brothers into
antagonism verging on hostility. The German danger was
averted in the east, but it led in a few years to the loss of many
of the western provinces, and at the end of ninety years the
immediate authority of the Roman Emperor did not extend
west of the Adriatic. The reign of Honorius saw the abandon-
ment of Britain, the establishment of the Visigothic kingdom
in Aquitaine, the occupation of a great part of Spain by Vandals
and Sueves (Suebi). Under Valentinian III. the Vandals
founded their kingdom in North Africa, the Visigoths shared
Spain with the Sueves, the Burgundian kingdom was founded
in S.E. Gaul. The last Roman possession in Gaul passed to
the Franks in 486 (see GOTHS; VANDALS; FRANKS). It is
significant that the chief defender of the Empire against the
Germans who were dismembering it were men of German race.
Stilicho, who defended Italy against Alaric, Aetius, whose great
work was to protect the imperial possessions in Gaul, and
Ricimer. It was also a German, Fravitta, who played a decisive
part in suppressing a formidable Gothic movement which
menaced the throne of Arcadius in 399-400. It was charac-
teristic of this transformation of Europe that the Germans,
who were imbued with a profound reverence for the Empire
and its prestige, founded their kingdoms on Roman soil in the
first instance as " federates " of the Emperor, on the basis of
formal contracts, defining their relations to the native pro-
vincials; they seized their dominions not as conquerors, but
as subjects. The double position of Alaric himself, as both
king of the Visigoths and a magister militum of the Empire
is significant of the situation.
The development of events was complicated by the sudden
growth of the transient empire of the Huns (<?.fl.) in central
Europe, forming a third great power, which, reaching from the
Rhine to the Caucasus, from the Danube to the Baltic, might
be compared in the extent of its nominal supremacy, but in
nothing else, to the empires of Rome and Persia. The Huns,
whose first appearance had precipitated the Germans on the
Empire, now retarded for some years the process of German
expansion, while they failed in their own attacks upon the
Empire. On Attila's death (453) his realm collapsed, and his
German vassals (Ostrogoths, &c.) founded important kingdoms
on its ruins.
After the death of Valentinian III., the worst of his house,
the Theodosian dynasty expired in the west, and the authority
of the western emperors who succeeded him in rapid succession
reached little beyond Italy. For most of this period of twenty
years the general Ricimer, of German birth, held the scales of
power in that peninsula, setting up and pulling down emperors.
After his death the western throne was no longer tenable.
First there was a usurpation; the general Orestes set up his
child-son Romulus Augustulus against the legitimate Augustus,
Julius Nepos, who was acknowledged by the eastern emperor;
but this temporary government was overthrown (476) by a
Germanic military revolution headed by Odoacer, who appro-
priated part of the soil to his German soldiers and founded an
Italian kingdom under the nominal supremacy of the emperor
at Constantinople, who, however unwilling, recognized his
position (after the death of Julius Nepos).
The escape of the eastern provinces from the fate of the
western illustrates the fact that the strength of the Empire
lay in the east. These provinces were more populous and
presented greater obstacles to the invaders, who followed the
line of least resistance. But it was of immense importance
that throughout this period the Empire was able to preserve a
practically unbroken peace with its great eastern rival. The
struggle with Persia, terminated in 364 by the peace of Jovian,
was not renewed till the beginning of the 6th century. It was
of greater importance that the rulers pursued a discreet and
moderate policy, both in financial administration and in foreign
affairs; and the result was that at the end of a hundred years
the diminished Empire was strong and consolidated. Theo-
dosius II. was a weak prince, but his government was ably
conducted by Anthemius, by his sister Pulcheria and by the
eunuch Chrysaphius. His reign was important for the Armenian
question. Theodosius I. had committed the error of consent-
ing to a division of this buffer state in the Roman and Persian
spheres of influence, Persia having much the larger. The
ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER
Sassanid government tried to suppress the use of the Greek
language. But the government of Theodosius II. officially
supported the enterprise of translating the Bible into Armenian
(Mesrob had just invented the Armenian alphabet), and this
initiated the production of an abundant literature of trans-
lations from the Greek, which secured the perpetual connexion
of Armenia with European culture, and not with Oriental. This
reign is also distinguished by the building of the great landwalls
of Constantinople, by the foundation of a university there and
by the collection of the imperial laws in the Codex Theodosianus,
which is a mine of material for the social condition of the
Empire. It reveals to us the decline of municipal liberty,
the decay of the middle classes in the West, the evils of the
oppressive fiscal system and an appalling paralysis of Roman
administration which had once been so efficient; it shows how
the best-intentioned emperors were unable to control the
governors and check their corruption; and discloses a disorgan-
ization which facilitated the dismemberment of the Empire by
the barbarians.
In the reign of Zeno it seemed probable that an Ostrogothic
kingdom would be established in the Balkan peninsula, but the
danger was diverted to Italy (see GOTHS). The kingdom which
Theodoric founded there was, in its constitutional aspect, a
continuation of Odoacer's regime. He, like Odoacer and
Alaric, held the double position of a German king and a Roman
official- He was magisler militum as well as rex. His powers
were defined by capitulations which were arranged with the
emperor Anastasius and loyally observed. The right of
legislation was reserved to the emperor, and Theodoric never
claimed it; but for all practical purposes he was independent.
In the 6th century the emperor Justinian, whose talents
were equal to his ambitions, found himself, through the financial
prudence of his predecessors, in a position to undertake the
reconquest of some of the lost western provinces. The Vandal
power had declined, and Africa was won back in one campaign
by Belisarius in 533. The conquest of Italy was far more
difficult. Begun by Belisarius in 535, it was not completed
till 554, by Narses. A portion of southern Spain was also
won from the Visigoths, so that the Romans again commanded
the western straits. Justinian, possessed by large ideas and
intoxicated with the majesty of Rome, aspired to be a great
conqueror, a great lawgiver, a great pontiff, a great diplomatist,
a great builder, and in each of these spheres his reign holds a
conspicuous place in the annals of the Empire. His legal work
alone, or the building of Santa Sophia was enough to ensure
him immortal fame. But deep shadows balance the splendour.
The reconquest of Africa was thoroughly justified and advantage-
ous, but Italy was bought at a ruinous cost. In the first place,
the Persian empire was at this time ruled by one of its greatest
kings, Chosroes I. (q.v.), who was far from peacefully inclined.
Justinian was engaged in a long Persian and a long Gothic war
at the same time, and the state was unequal to the strain. In
the second place, it was all-important for his western policy
to secure the goodwill of the Italian provincials and the Roman
bishop, and for this purpose he involved himself in an ecclesias-
tical policy (see below) which caused the final alienation of the
Syrian and Egyptian provinces. The reconquest of the West
was purchased by the disunion of the East. Thirdly, the
enormous expenses of the Italian and Persian wars, augmented
by architectural undertakings, caused a policy of financial
oppression which hung as a cloud over all the brilliance of his
reign, and led to the decline which ensued upon his death. Nor
is it to be forgotten that he had at the same time to fulfil the
task of protecting the Danube against the Germans, Slavs
and Bulgarians who constantly threatened the Illyrian pro-
vinces. He spared no expense in building forts and walls.
Justinian's name will always be associated with that pf the
gifted Theodora, an actress of doubtful fame in her early life,
who shared his throne. Their mosaic portraits are preserved
in the contemporary church of San Vitale at Ravenna. She
possessed great political influence, and the fact that she was a
heretic (monophysite), while Justinian was devoted to orthodoxy,
xxin. 17
did not mar their harmony, but only facilitated the policy of
extending secret favour to the heretics who were publicly
condemned, and enabled the left hand to act without the know-
ledge of the right. The events of the half-century after Justin-
ian's death exhibited the weakness to which his grandiose
policy had reduced the Empire. It was attacked on the west, on
the north and on the east, and at all points was unequal to coping
with its enemies, (i) Italy fell a victim to the Lombards (q.v.),
and in a few years more than half of the peninsula had passed
under their sway. (2) The Avars, a Hunnic people who had
advanced from the Caspian, took possession of Pannonia and
Dacia, and formed an empire, consisting of Slavonic and
Bulgarian subjects, which endured for about sixty years. Their
chief occupation was to invade the Illyrian peninsula and extort
tribute and ransoms from the emperors. So far as the Avars
themselves were concerned, these incursions had no permanent
significance, but the Slavs who overran the provinces did more
than devastate. These years saw the beginning of the Slavonic
settlements which changed the ethnical character of the pen-
insula, and thus mark the commencement of a new period.
Slavs occupied Moesia and a large part of Macedonia, even close
to Thessalonica, which they besieged; they penetrated south-
ward into Greece and made large settlements in the Pelopon-
nesus (see GREECE, History, " Roman period," ad fin.). They
occupied the north-western provinces, which became Croatia
and Servia, as well as Dalmatia (except some of the coast
towns). In the northern part of the peninsula the Slavonic
element remained dominant, but in Greece it. was assimilated
to the. Greek (after the gth century) and has left little record
of itself except in place names. (3) The Empire was simul-
taneously engaged in the perennial strife with Persia. A short
interval of peace was secured when the emperor Maurice assisted
Chosroes II. to dethrone a usurper, but after Maurice's death
(602) the final and mortal struggle began (see PERSIA, History,
section viii. " The Sassanian Empire "). Throughout the in-
competent reign of Phocas the eastern provinces were overrun
by the Persians, as the Illyrian were overrun by the Slavs.
The unpopular rule of this cruel usurper was terminated in 610
by the intervention of the governor of Africa, whose son Heraclius
sailed to Constantinople and, welcomed by an influential party,
met with little resistance. Phocas, murderer of Maurice, was
murdered by the people, and the victor was crowned emperor
to find himself in presence of a desperate situation. Antioch,
Damascus and many other great cities were captured by the
Persians; and in 614 Jerusalem was destroyed and the Holy
Cross, along with the patriarch, carried off to Ctesiphon. This
event produced a profound sensation in Christendom. In 616
Egypt was conquered. The army had fallen into utter disorder
under Phocas, and Heraclius so deeply despaired of saving
Constantinople that he thought of transferring the imperial
capital to Carthage. But the extreme gravity of the situation
seems to have wrought a moral change among his subjects;
the patriarch Sergius was the mouthpiece of a widespread
patriotic feeling, and it was not least through his influence that
Heraclius performed the task of creating a capable army. His
efforts were rewarded in a series of brilliant campaigns (622-28),
which, in the emphasis laid on the contrast between Christianity
and fire-worship and on the object of recovering the Cross, had
the character of crusades. Heraclius recovered his provinces and
held Persia at his mercy (decisive battle at Nineveh, end of 627).
This war is remarkable for the attempt of the Persians to take
Constantinople (626) in conjunction with the Avars and Slavs.
Soon afterwards the Avar power began to decay, and the Slavs
and Bulgarians shook off their yoke. It seemed as if the Roman
government would now be able to regain the control in the
Illyrian lands which it had almost entirely lost. It seems
probable that Heraclius came to terms with the Slavs Croatians
and Servians in the north-west; their position was regularized,
as vassals of the Empire. But fate allowed no breathing-time
to do more; the darkest hour had hardly passed when a new
storm-cloud, from an unexpected quarter, overspread the
heavens.
ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER
At this point we have to note that the Hellenic element in
the state had definitely gained the upper hand before the end
of the 6th century, so that henceforward the Empire might
be described as Greek. Justinian's mother-tongue was Latin,
and he was devoted to the Latin traditions of Rome, but even
he found it necessary to publish his later laws in Greek, and
from his reign Greek was the official language.
Many of the Latin official terms were already represented by
Greek equivalents (Biraros = consul, Inapxos = praefectus, &c.) , but they
were preserved in great numbers, transliterated and often corrupted
(e.g. KOAI!)S, nayiarpos, imj/cp^Tris = a secretis, nayKe\\apios, wpaurbairos,
rex, was always used of barbarian potentates, /3a<ri\e6$ being reserved
as = the emperor (but also applied to the Persian king). In military
drill many Latin words of command continued to be used.
It is to be noted that the year 630 marks the beginning of a
period of literary (and artistic) sterility in the Greek world (see
GREEK LITERATURE, section Byzantine).
With the rise of Islam (see CALIPHATE; MAHOMET) two
universal religions, for the first time, stood face to face, each
aspiring to win the universe. The struggle therefore which
then began was not only a new phase of the " Eternal Question,"
the strife between Europe and Asia, but was one in which the
religious element was fundamental. Fire-worship was only a
national religion and did not present the danger of Islam.
The creation of the political power of the Mahommedans was
so sudden that it took the world by surprise. Bostra, the
fortress of Roman Arabia, fell into their hands in 634, and
before the death of Heraclius in 641 they had conquered
Syria and all Egypt, except Alexandria, which opened its gates
to them in 643. The religious alienation of the Syrian and
Egyptian peoples from Constantinople, expressing as it did a
national sentiment antagonistic to the Greeks, was an important
political factor in the Mahommedan (as in the previous Persian)
conquest. Thus the Mahommedans definitely cut the Empire
short in the East, as the Germans had cut it short in the West ;
Egypt was never recovered, Syria only for short periods and
partially, while the integrity of Asia Minor was constantly
menaced and Cilicia occupied for many generations. By their
conquest of Persia the Caliphs succeeded to the position of
the Sassanids; this led to the conquest of Armenia (c. 654);
while, in the West, Africa was occupied in 647 (though the con-
quest was not completed till the capture of Carthage and other
strong places in 608). Thus within twenty years from the
first attack the Empire was girt about by the new aggressive
power from the precincts of the Caucasus to the western
Mediterranean.
Fortunately Constans II., grandson of Heraclius, was a
man of eminent ability and firmness. The state owed to him
the preservation of Asia Minor, and the creation of a powerful
fleet (see below) which protected the Aegean coasts and islands
against the naval power which the Mahommedans created.
He was responsible for completing a new, efficient military
organization, which determined the lines of the administrative
reforms of Leo III. (see below). In his last years he turned
his eyes to Italy and Africa. He dreamed of restoring Old
Rome as the centre of the Empire. But he did not succeed
in recovering south Italy from the Lombards (Duchy of
Beneventum), and having visited Rome he took up his residence
in Syracuse, where he was assassinated, having lost two fleets
which he sent against the Arabs of Africa. The strain lasted
for another fifty years. Constantinople sustained two great
sieges, which stand out as crises, for, if in either case the enemy
had been successful, the Empire was doomed.
The first siege was in 673-77, under the caliph Moawiya; his
fleet blockaded the capital for five years, but all its efforts were
frustrated by the able precautions of Constantine IV.; "Greek
fire" (see below) played an important part in the defence; and
the armada was annihilated on the voyage back to Syria by storms
and the Roman fleet. The second crisis was at the accession of
Leo III., when the city was besieged by land and sea by Suleiman
for a year (717-18), and Leo's brilliant defence, again aided by
Greek fire, saved Europe. This crisis marks the highest point of
Mahommedan aggression, which never again caused the Empire to
tremble for its existence.
The Heraclian dynasty, which had fallen on evil times and
rendered inestimable services to the Empire, came to an end
in anarchy, which was terminated by the elevation of the
Syrian (commonly called Isaurian) Leo III., whose reign
opens a new period. His reforming hand was active in every
sphere of government, but the ill-fame which he won by his
iconoclastic policy obscured in the memory of posterity the
capital importance of his work. His provincial organization
was revolutionary, and his legislation departed from the
Roman tradition (see below). From his reign to the middle
of the loth century the continuous warfare by land with the
Caliphs consisted of marauding expeditions of each power
into the other's territory, captures of fortresses, guerilla fight-
ing, but no great conquests or decisive battles. The efficiency
of the army was carefully maintained, but the neglect of
the navy led to the losses of Crete (conquered by Moslem
adventurers from Spain 826) and Sicily (conquered by the
Saracens of Africa), Panormus taken 832, Syracuse 878 (see
SICILY). ^The Africans also made temporary conquests,
including Bari, in south Italy. This period saw the loss oi
the exarchate of Ravenna to the Lombards (750), the
expansion of the Prankish power under Pippin and Charle-
magne in Italy, and in close connexion therewith the loss of
Old Rome.
The inconoclast emperors pursued a moderate foreign policy,
consolidating the Empire within its contracted limits; but
under the " Macedonian " dynasty, which was of Armenian
descent, it again expanded and became the strongest power
in Europe. The pth century also witnessed a revival of
learning and culture which had been in eclipse for 200 years.
The reign of Basil I. was marked by an energetic policy in
south Italy, where his forces co-operated with the western
emperor Louis II. The Saracens were expelled from their
strongholds, Bari recovered, Calabria saved, and the new
province (Theme) of Longibardia formed. This secured the
entrance to the Adriatic, and the increase of dominion here
at the expense of the Lombards was a compensation for the
loss of Sicily. Leo VI. did much for reorganizing the navy,
but his reign was not fortunate; Saracen pirates plundered
freely in the Aegean and, under the able renegade Leo of
Tripolis, captured Thessalonica and carried off countless
captives (904). But a great tide of success began fifty years
later. Nicephorus Phocas won back Crete (961) as general
of Romanus II., and then as emperor recovered Cilicia and
North Syria (with Antioch) 968. Cyprus was also recovered.
The tide flowed on under his equally able successor, John
Zimisces (of Armenian race) and under Basil II.; these reigns
mark the decisive victory of the Empire in the long struggle
with the Saracens, whose empire had been broken up into
separate states. The eastern frontier was strengthened by
the active policy of Basil II. in Armenia, which was more
fully incorporated in the Empire under Constantine IX.
The reign of Basil II. marks the culmination of the power
of the Eastern Empire, for it also witnessed the triumphant
conclusion of another conflict which had lasted almost as
long. In the reign of Constantine IV. the Bulgarians (see
BULGARIA) had founded a kingdom in Lower Moesia, reducing
the Slavonic tribes who had occupied the country, but less
than two centuries sufficed to assimilate the conquerors to
the conquered, and to give Bulgaria the character of a Slavonic
state. The reign of Constantine V. was marked by continuous
war with this enemy, and Nicephorus I. lost his life in a
Bulgarian campaign. This disaster was followed up by Prince
Krum, who besieged Constantinople in 815. His death was
followed by a long peace. Prince Boris was converted to
Christianity (reign- of Michael III.); a metropolitan see of
Bulgaria was founded, dependent on the patriarch of Con-
stantinople; and the "civilization of the Bulgarians, and
beginnings of their literature, were entirely under Byzantine
influence. The conversion was contemporary with the work
of the two missionaries Cyril and Methodius, who (while the
field of their personal activity was in Great Moravia and
ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER
Pannonia) laid the south-eastern Slavs under a deep debt by
inventing the Glagolitic (q.v.), not the so-called " Cyrillic "
alphabet (based on Greek cursive) and translating parts of the
Scriptures into Slavonic (the dialect of the Slavs of Macedonia).
The most brilliant period of the old Bulgarian kingdom was
the reign of Simeon (893-927), who extended the realm west-
ward to the shores of the Adriatic and took the title " Tsar
{i.e. Caesar] of Bulgaria and autocrator of the Romans."
The aggression against the Empire which marked his ambitious
reign ceased under his successor Peter, who married a daughter
of Romanus I., and the Bulgarian Patriarchate founded by
Simeon was recognized at Byzantium. But the Byzantine
rulers only waited for a favourable time to reduce this formid-
able Slavonic state. At length Zimisces subjugated eastern
Bulgaria and recovered the Danube frontier. But while
Basil II. was engaged in contending with rivals, the heroic
Samuel (of the Shishmanid family) restored the Bulgarian
power and reduced the Servians. After a long and arduous
war of fourteen years Basil (called the " Bulgar-slayer ")
subdued all Bulgaria western and eastern (1018). He treated
the conquered people with moderation, leaving them their
political institutions and their autocephalous church, and to
the nobility their privileges. Some Bulgarian noble families
and members of the royal house were incorporated in the
Greek nobility; there was Shishmanid blood in the families
of Comnenus and Ducas. Greek domination was now
established in the peninsula for more than 150 years. The
Slavs of Greece had in the middle of the gth century been
brought under the control of the government.
In the reign of Basil II. the Russian question also was settled.
The Russian state (see RUSSIA) had been founded before the
middle of the 9th century by Norsemen from Sweden, who were
known in eastern Europe as Russians (Tcos), with its centres at
Novgorod and Kiev. They did for the eastern Slavs what the
Bulgarians had done for the Slavs of Moesia. The Dnieper
and Dniester gave them access to the Euxine, and the Empire
was exposed to their maritime attacks (Constantinople was in
extreme danger in 860 and 941), which recall the Gothic expedi-
tions of the 3rd century. In 945 a commercial treaty was
concluded, and the visit of the princess Olga to Byzantium
(towards the end of the reign of the learned emperor Constan-
tine VII., Porphyrogennetos) and her baptism seemed a pledge
of peace. But Olga's conversion had no results. Sviatoslav
occupied Bulgaria and threatened the Empire, but was decisively
defeated by Zimisces (971), and this was virtually the end of
the struggle. In 988 Prince Vladimir captured Cherson, but
-restored it to the emperor Basil, who gave him his sister Anna
in marriage, and he accepted Christianity for himself and his
people. After this conversion and alliance, Byzantium had
little to fear from Kiev, which came under its influence. One
hostile expedition (1043) indeed is recorded, but it was a failure.
Much about the same time that the Russians had founded
their state, the Magyars (see HUNGARY; the Greeks called them
Turks) migrated westward and occupied the regions between
the Dnieper and the Danube, while beyond them, pressing on
their heels, were another new people, the Petchenegs (Patzinaks).
The policy of Byzantium was to make use of the Magyars as a
check on the Bulgarians, and so we find the Romans (under
Leo VI.) and the Magyars co-operating against the tsar Simeon.
But Simeon played the same game more effectively by using
the Petchenegs against the Magyars, and the result was that
the Magyars before the end of the gth century were forced to
move westward into their present country, and their place was
taken by the Petchenegs. From their new seats the Magyars
could invade the Empire and threatened the coast towns of
Dalmatia. The conquest of Bulgaria made the Petchenegs
immediate neighbours of the Empire, and during the nth
century the depredations of these irreclaimable savages, who
filtered into the Balkan peninsula, constantly preoccupied the
government. In 1064 they were driven from the Dniester
regions into Little Walachia by the Kumans (or Polovtsi), a
people of the same ethnical group as themselves. They were
crushingly defeated by Alexius Comnenus in 1091, and exter-
minated by John Comnenus in 1123.
In the Macedonian period a grave domestic question troubled
the government. This was the growth of the large estates of
the rich nobles of Asia Minor, at the expense of small properties,
to an excess which was politically and economically dangerous.
The legislation against the evil began under Romanus I. and
was directed to the defence of the poor against the rich, and
to protecting the military organization which was based on
holdings of land to which the obligation of military service was
attached. There was also danger in the excessive influence of
rich and powerful families, from which the great military
officers were drawn, and which were extensively related by
alliances among themselves. The danger was realized in the
struggle which Basil II. had to sustain with the families of
Sclerus and Phocas. Various kinds of legislation were at-
tempted. Under Romanus I. alienation of property to the
large landowners was forbidden. Nicephorus Phocas, whose
sympathies were with the aristocracy to which he belonged,
holding that there had been enough legislation in favour of the
poor, sought to meet the difficulty of maintaining a supply of
military lands in the future by forbidding further acquisitions
of estates by the Church. Basil II. returned to the policy of
Romanus, but, with much greater severity, resorting to con-
fiscation of some of the immense private estates; and he en-
deavoured to keep down the aristocrats of Asia Minor by very
heavy taxation. Through the recovery of the Balkan provinces
he gained in Europe a certain political counterpoise to the
influence of Asia Minor, which had been preponderant since the
seventh century. Asia Minor meant the army, and opposition
to its influence expressed itself in the nth century in a fatal
anti-military policy, which is largely responsible for the conquests
of a new enemy, the Seljuk Turks, who now entered into the
inheritance of the Caliphs (see CALIPHATE ad fin. and SELJUKS).
Constantinople was haunted by the dread of a military usurpa-
tion. An attempt of the military hero George Maniaces (who
had made a remarkable effort to recover Sicily) to wrest the
crown from Constantine IX. had failed; and when Isaac
Comnenus, who represented the military aristocrats of Asia
Minor, ascended the throne, he found himself soon compelled to
abdicate, in face of the opposition. The reign of Constantine X.,
of the rival family of Ducas, marked the culmination of this
antagonism. The senate was filled with men of the lower
classes, and the military budget was ruthlessly cut down. This
policy reduced the army and stopped the supply of officers,
since there was no longer hope of a profitable career. The
emperor thought to meet dangers from external enemies by
diplomacy. The successes of the Seljuks (after the fall of the
great Armenian fortress of Ani in 1064) at length awoke the
government from its dream of security. The general Romanus
Diogenes was proclaimed emperor. He had to create an army
and to train it; he did not spare himself, but it was too late.
He was defeated and captured by Alp Arslan on the decisive
field of Manzikert (1071). Released by the sultan, who honoured
his bravery, he was deposed in favour of Michael Ducas, and
falling into the hands of his enemies, was blinded. The east and
centre of Asia Minor were thus lost; the Seljuk kingdom of
Rum was founded; Nicaea was captured by the Turks in 1080.
The provinces which escaped the Seljuk occupation were
thoroughly disorganized, a prey to foreign and native adven-
turers and usurpers (see SELJUKS).
Thus in the 'seventies of the nth century the Empire seemed
through incompetence and frivolity to have been brought tc
the verge of dissolution. The disorder was terminated by the
accession of the extraordinarily able statesman Alexius Com-
nenus (1081), who effected a reconciliation with the rival family
of Ducas, established a strong government and founded a
dynasty. He had to deal with three great dangers the Seljuks,
the Petchenegs (see above), and in the west the Normans. The
Normans had wrested from East Rome its possessions in South
Italy (1041-71; see NORMANS) succeeding where German
emperors had failed and throughout the Comnenian period
5 i6
ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER
the Empire was threatened by their projects of conquest beyond
the Adriatic, projects which aimed at Constantinople itself.
Four great attempts against the Empire were made by the
Normans; they were unsuccessful, but they heralded the Western
conquest of 1204. (l) Expedition of Robert Guiscard, 1081-85,
repelled by Alexius with help of Venice (2) Bohemond's ex-
pedition, 1105-7, foiled by the able strategy of Alexius; (3) the
invasion of Greece by Roger of Sicily, 1147; Venice supported
Manuel Comnenus, and the Normans were driven from Corfu, 1149;
(4) the expedition of William II. of Sicily, 1185, who succeeded in
capturing Thessalonica; the invaders were defeated at Demetritsa,
but they gained the islands of Cephallenia and Zacynthus.
The two most important events in the reign of Alexius were
the prices which he paid for help against his enemies, (i) He
was obliged (1084) to grant to Venice (which had become
independent of the Empire in the pth century; see VENICE),
in return for her naval aid against the Normans, commercial
privileges which practically made the Empire commercially
dependent on the Republic. (2) He sought auxiliary forces in
western Europe to help him against the Seljuks; the answer
of the pope and Latin Christendom was the First Crusade
a succour very different from that which he desired. Through
his tact and discretion, the state was safely steered through
the dangers with which the disorderly hosts of barbarous allies
menaced it, and the immediate results were salutary; large
parts of Asia Minor, including Nicaea, were restored to the
Empire, which was thus greatly strengthened in the East while
the Turks were weakened (see CRUSADES). But for this help
Byzantium might not have recovered the transient strength
and brilliance which it displayed under Manuel. In Asia Minor
the crusaders kept the terms of their agreement to restore to
the emperor what had belonged to him; but on capturing
Antioch (1098) they permitted the Norman Bohemond to retain
it, in flagrant violation of their oaths; for to Antioch if to any
place the emperor had a right, as it had been his a few years
before. This was in itself sufficient to cause a breach between
Byzantium and the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem (founded 1099).
But otherwise the new political situation created by the Crusade
was dangerous, ultimately fatal, to the Empire. For its lands
and seas became a highway from western Europe to the Latin
colonies in Syria; the Byzantine government was forced to
take precautions to protect itself against the crusading expedi-
tions which travelled to the Holy Land; and these precautions
were regarded by the western powers as a hindrance to the
sacred objects of the crusades. The bitter religious antagonism
between the Greek and Latin Christians increased the mutual
distrust and the danger.
The history of the new relations between East and West
dating from the First Crusade is closely connected with the
history of the futile attempts at bringing about a reunion
between the Greek and Latin Churches, which had severed
communion in 1054 (see below). To heal the schism and bring
the Greek Church under the domination of Rome was a principal
object of papal policy from Gregory VII. forward. The popes
alternated between two methods for attaining this, as circum-
stances dictated: namely, a peaceful agreement the policy of
union; or an armed occupation of the Empire by some western
power (the Normans) the policy of conquest. Their views
varied according to the vicissitudes of their political situation
and their struggles with the western emperors. The eastern
emperors were also constantly preoccupied with the idea of
reconciliation, constantly negotiating with a view to union;
but they did not care about it for its own sake, but only for
political advantages which it might bring, and their subjects
were bitterly opposed to it. Manuel Comnenus during the first
part of his reign was the close friend and ally of the western
emperor Conrad III., but after Conrad's death, he formed the
ambitious plan of realizing in Europe a sovereignty like that
of Justinian, and hoped to compass it in conjunction with Rome,
the enemy of the Hohenstaufen. His forward policy carried
war into Italy; he seized Ancona. But his strength was
unequal to such designs. His Latin sympathies, no less than
his financial extravagance, made him highly unpopular at
home; and the national lack of sympathy with his Western
policy was exhibited after the revolution which overthrew
his son Alexius and raised his cousin Andronicus I. to the throne
by the awful massacre of the Latin residents at Constanti-
nople in 1182, for which the expedition of William of Sicily (see
above) and the massacre of the people of Thessalonica was the
revenge. The short reign of the wicked and brilliant Andronicus
was in all respects a reaction, prudent, economical and popular.
His fall was due to the aristocracy against whom his policy
'was directed, and the reign of Isaac Angelus undid his efforts
and completed the ruin of the state. Oppressive taxation
caused a revolt of the Bulgarian and Walachian population in
the European provinces; the work of Zimisces and Basil was
undone, and a new Bulgarian kingdom was founded by John
Asen a decisive blow to the Greek predominance which the
Macedonian emperors seemed to have established.
In the fatal year 1204 the perils with which the eastward
expansion of western Christendom (the Crusades, and the
commercial predominance and ambitions of Venice) had long
menaced the Empire, culminated in its conquest and partition.
It was due to a series of accidents that the cloud burst at this
moment, but the conditions of such a catastrophe had long
been present. Isaac Angelus was dethroned by his brother
Alexius III., and his son escaped (1201) to the west, where
arrangements were being made for a new crusade, which Venice
undertook to transport to the Holy Land. The prince persuaded
Philip of Swabia (who had married his sister) and Boniface of
Montferrat to divert the expedition to Byzantium, in order to
restore his father and himself to the throne, promising to furnish
help to the Crusade and to reconcile the Greek Church with
Rome; Venice agreed to the plan; but Pope Innocent III., the
enemy of Philip, forbade it. Isaac and his son, Alexius IV.,
were restored without difficulty in 1203, and the crusading
forces were prepared to proceed to Palestine, if Alexius had
performed his promises. But the manner of this restoration,
under Latin auspices, was intensely unpopular; he was not
unwilling, but he was unable, to fulfil his pledges; and a few
months later he was overthrown in favour of one who, if an
upstart, was a patriot, Alexius V. Then the Crusaders, who
were waiting encamped outside the city, resolved to carry out
the design which the Normans had repeatedly attempted, and
put an end to the Greek Empire. The leaders of the Fourth
Crusade must be acquitted of having formed this plan de-
liberately before they started; it was not conceived before
1204. They first arranged how they would divide the Empire
amongst themselves (March); then they captured the city,
which had to endure the worst barbarities of war. In par-
titioning the Empire, which was now to become the spoil of
the conquerors, the guiding mind was the Venetian leader,
the blind doge, Henry Dandolo. He looked to the interests of
Venice from the narrowest point of view, and in founding the
new Latin Empire, which was to replace the Greek, it was his
aim that it should be feeble, so as to present no obstacles to
Venetian policy. The Latin Empire of Romania was a feudal
state like the kingdom of Jerusalem; the emperor was suzerain
of all the princes who established themselves on Greek territory;
under his own immediate rule were Constantinople, southern
Thrace, the Bithynian coast, and some islands in the Aegean.
But he was hampered from the beginning by dependence on
Venice, want of financial resources, and want of a fleet; the
feudal princes, occupied with their separate interests, gave him
little support in his conflict with Greeks and Bulgarians; at
the end of ten years the worthless fabric began rapidly to
decline, and the efforts of the popes, for whom it was the means
of realizing Roman supremacy in the East, were unavailing to
save it from the extinction to which it was doomed in its cradle.
The original Act of Partition (which gave J of the Byzantine
territory to the future emperor, f to Venice, the remaining f to
the Crusaders) could hardly be carried out strictly, as the territory
was still to be won. The most important vassal state was the
kingdom of Thessalonica, including Thessaly, which was assigned
to Boniface of Montferrat. But it was conquered by the Greeks
of Epirus in 1222. The chief of the territories taken by Venice
ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER
was Crete. For the Latin states in Greece and the Aegean sec
GREECE. The first Latin emperor, Baldwin of Flanders, was cap-
tured and put to death by the Bulgarians in 1205. He was suc-
ceeded by his brother Henry, an able statesman, after whose death
(1216) the decline began.
Three Greek states emerged from the ruin of the Roman
Empire. A member of the Comnenian house had founded an
independent state at Trebizond, and this empire survived till
1461, when it was conquered by the Ottomans. A relation of
the Angeli maintained in Europe an independent Greek state
known as the Despotate of Epirus. But the true representative
of the imperial line was Theodore Lascaris, who collected the
Byzantine aristocracy at Nicaea and was elected emperor in
1 206. He and his successors advanced surely and rapidly against
the Latin Empire, both in Europe and 'Asia. It was a question
whether Constantinople would fall to the Walacho-Bulgarians
or to the Greeks. But an astute diplomat and general, the
emperor Michael Palaeologus, captured it in 1261. His object
was to recover all the lost territory from the Latins, but he
was menaced by a great danger through Charles of Anjou, who
had overthrown the rule of the Hohenstaufens in the two
Sicilies, and determined to restore the Latin kingdom of
Romania. To avert this peril, Michael negotiated with Pope
Gregory X.; he was ready to make every concession, and a
formal union of the Churches was actually brought about at the
council of Lyons in 1274. The emperor had the utmost difficulty
in carrying through this policy in face of clerical opposition;
it aroused disgust and bitterness among his subjects; and it
was undone by his successor. Meanwhile the pope had with
difficulty bridled Charles of Anjou; but in Martin IV. he found
a more pliable instrument, and in 1282 he made vast preparations
for an expedition against the Greek Empire. It was saved by
the Sicilian Vespers (see SICILY), to be the prey of other powers.
The end of the i3th century saw the rise of the Ottoman
power in Asia and the Servian in Europe. The Empire was
assisted by a band of Spanish mercenaries (the Catalan Grand
Company; see GREECE, History, "Byzantine Period")
against the advance of the Ottoman Turks in Asia Minor; they
distinguished themselves by saving Philadelphia (1304). In
1326 Brusa (Prusa) became the Ottoman capital, while on the
other side the Servians (crushing the Bulgarians in 1330) were
gradually closing in on Byzantium. Under Stephen Dusan (1331-
1355) Servia attained the height of her power. .The enemies
were strengthened by the domestic struggles within the Empire,
first between Andronicus II. and his son, then between John VI.
and the usurper Cantacuzenus. But before the fate of Byzantium
was settled the two enemies on its flanks came face to face. In
1387 the Servian power was crushed on the field of Kossovo by the
Ottomans (who had crossed the Hellespont in 1360 and taken
Philippopolis in 1363). Sultan Bayezid I. won Philadelphia,
the last Asiatic possession of the Empire, and conquered Trnovo,
the Bulgarian capital, in 1393. Constantinople was now sur-
rounded. The Ottoman power was momentarily eclipsed, and
the career of conquest checked, by the Mongol invasion of Timur
and the great defeat which it sustained in the battle of Angora
(1402). Mahommed I. found it necessary to ally himself with
the emperor Manuel. But the pause was brief. Murad II.
took Adrianople, and tried (1422) to take Constantinople.
It was small compensation that during this time the Palaeologi
had been successful against the Franks in Greece. The situation
was desperate. The Turks were in possession of the Balkan
peninsula, threatening Hungary; there was no chance of rescue,
except from western Europe. John VI. and Manuel had both
visited the West in search of help. The jeopardy of the Empire
was the opportunity of Rome, and the union of the Churches
became the pressing question. It was taken up earnestly by
Pope Eugenius IV., and the result was the Decree of Union at the
council of Florence in 1439. The emperor and the higher clergy
were really in earnest, but the people and the monks did not
accept it, and the last agony of Byzantium was marked by
ecclesiastical quarrels. Eugenius IV. preached a crusade for the
rescue of the Empire, and in 1443 an army of Hungarians and
Poles, led by the Hungarian king, won a victory over Murad,
which was more than avenged in the next year on the memorable
field of Varna. The end came nine years later under Murad's
successor, Mahommed II. An army of about 150,000 blockaded
the city by land and sea, and Mahommed began the siege on the
ythof April. Thecmperor ConstantineXI.,Palacologus,on whom
the task of the forlorn defence devolved (and whose position was
all the more difficult because he was alienated from his subjects,
having embraced the Latin rite), can have had little more than
8000 men at his disposal; he received no help from the Western
powers; but an experienced Genoese soldier of fortune, John
Justiniani, arrived with two vessels and 400 cuirassiers and
aided the emperor with his courage and advice. The resident
foreigners, both Venetians and Genoese, loyally shared in the
labours of the defence. The final storm of the land waUs took
place on the night of the zgth of May. All looked to Justiniani
for salvation, and when he, severely wounded, retired from the
wall to have his wound looked to, a panic ensued. The enemy
seized the moment, and the Janissaries in a final charge rushed
the stockade which had been constructed to replace a portion
of the wall destroyed by the Turkish cannon. This decided the
fate of the city. Constantino fell fighting heroically. Soon
after sunrise (May 30) the Mahommedan army entered Con-
stantinople (Stambul ='s T^V iritXiv, " the city "), which was in
their eyes the capital of Christendom.
The ultimate responsibility for this disaster is generally im-
puted to the political adventurers who dismembered the Empire
in 1204. It may indeed be said that at that time the Byzantine
state seemed already stricken with paralysis and verging to
dissolution, and it was menaced by the re-arisen power of
Bulgaria. But more than once before (in the 7th century and
in the nth) it had recovered its strength when it was weak and
in dire peril; and, considering what the emperors of Nicaea
and Michael VIII. accomplished, it seems probable that, if
there had been no Fourth Crusade, it might have so revived and
consolidated its forces in the course of the i3th century, as to
be able to cope successfully with the first advances of the
Ottomans. The true statement is that the Fourth Crusade was
only an incident (not in itself decisive) in a world-movement
which doomed the Eastern Empire to extinction namely, the
eastward movement of western Europe which began in the
nth century with the rise of the Normans and the First Cnisade.
Henceforward the Empire was a middle state, pressed between
expanding forces on the east and on the west, and its ultimate
disappearance was inevitable.
Church aiid State. In making the state Christian, Constantine
made the Church a state institution, and therefore under imperial
control. Caesaro-papism was the logical consequence. The
sacerdotium was united with the imperium in the person of the
monarch as in the pagan state. The Church acquiesced, and
yet did not acquiesce, in this theory. When a heretical emperor
sought to impose his views, champions of ecclesiastical freedom
never failed to come forward. At the very beginning Athanasius
fought for the independence of the Church against the emperor
Constantius. But the political principle which Constantine had
taken for granted, and which was an indispensable condition
of his adoption of Christianity, was fully recognized under
Theodosius I., and, notwithstanding protests from time to time,
was permanent. It is significant that Constantinople, which
had become a second Rome politically, with its senate and
capitol, became then a second Rome ecclesiastically, and that
the elevation of the see of Constantinople to patriarchal rank next
to the Roman see was due to Theodosius (381), who gave a
permanent form to the dualism of the Empire. The patriarch
became a state minister for religion. The character of the
Church as a state institution is expressed above all in the
synods. The general councils are not only summoned by the
emperor, but arc presided over by him or by his lay deputies.
The order of the proceedings is modelled on that of the senate.
The emperor or his representative not only keeps order but
conducts the deliberations and intervenes in the theological
debates. It has been erroneously thought that at the council
of Chalcedon (451) the legate of Pope Leo presided; but the
S i8
ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER
acts of that assembly teach us otherwise; the privilege which
the Roman legates possessed was that of voting first (the right
of the princeps senatus). The first general council at which
a churchman presided was the seventh (at Nicaea, 787), at which
the emperor (or empress) deputed, not a layman, but the patriarch
Tarasius to preside. The resolutions of these ecclesiastical
state-councils did not become the law of the Empire till
they were confirmed by imperial edicts.
The emperors, in their capacity as heads of the Church, did
not confine themselves to controlling it by controlling the
councils. They soon began to issue edicts dealing with theology,
by virtue of their own authority. It has been said that the
council of Chalcedon closed an epoch of " parliamentary con-
stitutionalism "; a general council was not summoned again
for more than one hundred years, though the Empire during
that period was seething with religious disunion and unrest.
The usurper Basiliscus in his short reign set an example which
his successors were not slow to follow. He issued an edict
quashing the decision of Chalcedon. Zeno's Henotikon (see
below) a few years later was the second and more famous
example of a method which Justinian largely used, and of which
the Ecthesis of Heraclius, the Type of Constans II. and the
iconoclastic edicts of Leo III. are well-known instances. It
was a question of political expediency (determined by the
circumstances, the intensity and nature of the opposition, &c.)
whether an emperor supported his policy or not by an ecclesi-
astical council.
The emperor was always able to control the election of the
patriarch, and through him he directed the Church. Some-
times emperor and patriarch collided; but in general the
patriarchs were docile instruments, and when they were re-
fractory they could be deposed. There were several means of
resistance open to a patriarch, though he rarely availed himself
of them. His participation in the ceremony of coronation was
indispensable, and he could refuse to crown a new emperor
except on certain conditions, and thus dictate a policy (instances
in 812, Michael I.; 969, John Zimisces). There was the power
of excommunication (Leo VI. was excommunicated on account
of his fourth marriage). Another means of resistance for the
Church was to invoke the support of the bishop of Rome, who
embodied the principle of ecclesiastical independence and
whose see admittedly enjoyed precedence and primacy over all
the sees in Christendom. Up to the end of the 8th century he
was a subject of the emperor, and some emperors exerted their
ecclesiastical control over Rome by drastic measures (Justinian
and Constans II.). But after the conquest of Italy by Charles
the Great, the pope was outside the Byzantine domination;
after the coronation of Charles in 800 he was associated with a
rival empire; and when ecclesiastical controversies arose in the
East, the party in opposition was always ready to appeal to
him as the highest authority in Christendom. Under the
iconoclastic emperors the image-worshippers looked to him as
the guardian of orthodoxy.
As to the ecclesiastical controversies which form a leading
feature of Byzantine history, their political significance alone
concerns us. After the determination of the Arian controversy
in 381 new questions (as to the union of the divine and human
elements in the person of Christ: one or two natures?) arose,
and it may seem surprising that such points of abstruse theology
should have awakened universal interest and led to serious
consequences. The secret was that they masked national
feelings; hence their political importance and the attention
which the government was forced to bestow on them. The
reviving sense of nationality (anti-Greek) in Syria and in Egypt
found expression in the 5th century in passionate monophysitism
(the doctrine of one nature) : theology was the only sphere in
which such feelings could be uttered. The alienation and
dissension which thus began had fatal consequences, smoothing
the way for the Saracen conquests of those lands; the inhabi-
tants were not unwilling to be severed politically from the
Empire. This ultimate danger was at first hardly visible.
What immediately troubled the emperors in the first half of the
5th century was the preponderant position which the see of
Alexandria occupied, threatening the higher authority of Con-
stantinople. The council of Chalcedon, called by Marcian, an
able statesman, was as much for the purpose of ending the
domination of Alexandria as of settling the theological question.
The former object was effected, but the theological decision of
the council was fatal; it only sealed and promoted the disunion.
The recalcitrant spirit of Syria and Egypt forced Zeno, thirty
years later, to issue his Henotikon, affirming the decisions of
previous councils but pointedly ignoring Chalcedon. This
statesman-like document secured peace in the East for
a generation. Rome refused to accept the Henotikon,
and when Justinian resolved to restore imperial supremacy
in the Western kingdoms, conciliation with Rome became a
matter of political importance. For the sake of this project,
the unity of the East was sacrificed. The doctrine of Chalcedon
was reasserted, the Henotikon set aside; New Rome and Old
Rome were again hand in hand. This meant the final alienation
of Egypt and Syria. The national instinct which had been
alive in the 5th century grew into strong national sentiment in
the 6th. One of the chief anxieties of Justinian's long and busy
reign was to repair the mischief. Deeply interested himself in
matters of dogma, and prepared to assert to its fullest extent
his authority as head of the Church, he has been called " the
passionate theologian on the throne "; but in his chief ecclesi-
astical measures political considerations were predominant.
His wife Theodora was a monophysite, and he permitted her
to extend her protection to the heretics. He sought new
formulae for the purpose of reconciliation, but nothing short of
repudiation of the Chalcedon acts would have been enough.
The last great efforts for union were made when the Saracens
invaded and conquered the dissident provinces. A new formula
of union was discovered (One Will and One Energy). This
doctrine of monothelism would never have been heard of but
for political exigencies. The Egyptians and Syrians would
perhaps have accepted this compromise; but it was repudiated
by the fanatical adherents of Chalcedon. Heraclius sought to
impose the doctrine by an edict (Ecthesis, 638), but the storm,
especially in Italy and Africa, was so great that ten years later
an edict known as the Type was issued by Constans forbidding
all disputation about the number of wills and energies. Constans
was a strong ruler, and maintained the Type in spite of orthodox
opposition throughout his reign. But the expediency of this
policy passed when the Saracens were inexpugnably settled
in their conquests, and in his successor's reign it was more
worth while to effect a reconciliation with Rome and the West.
This was the cause of the 6th Ecumenical Council which
condemned monothelism (680-681).
In the Hellenic parts of the Empire devotion to orthodoxy
served as a chrysalis for the national sentiment which was to
burst its shell in the roth century. For the Greeks Christianity
had been in a certain way continuous with paganism. It might
be said that the old deities and heroes who had protected their
cities were still their guardians, under the new form of saints
(sometimes imaginary) and archangels, and performed for them
the same kind of miracles. Pagan idolatry was replaced by
Christian image-worship, which by the Christians of many
parts of Asia Minor, as well as by the Mahommedans, was
regarded as simply polytheism. Thus in the great iconoclastic
controversy, which distracted the Empire for nearly 120 years,
was involved, as in the monophysitic, the antagonism between
different racial elements and geographical sections. Leo III.,
whose services as a great deliverer and reformer were obscured
in the memory of posterity by the ill-fame which he won as an
iconoclast, was a native of Commagene. His first edict against
the veneration of -pictures evoked riots in the capital and a
revolt in Greece. The opposition was everywhere voiced by
the monks, and it is not to be overlooked that for many monks
the painting of sacred pictures was their means of existence.
Leo's son Constantine V. pursued the same policy with greater
rigour, meeting the monastic resistance by systematic persecu-
tion, and in his reign a general council condemned image-worship
ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER
(7S3)- Iconoclasm was supported by the army (i.e. Asia Minor),
and a considerable portion of the episcopate, but it was not
destined to triumph. When the Athenian Irene, wife of Leo IV.,
came to power after her husband's death, as regent for her son
Constantine VI., she secured the restoration of the worship
of icons. The Iconoclastic Council was reversed by the 7th Ecu-
menical Council of 787. The iconoclastic party, however, was
not yet defeated, and (after the neutral reign of Nicephorus I.)
came again to the helm in the reigns of the Armenian Leo V.
and the first two Phrygian emperors, Michael II. and Theophilus.
But the Empire was weary of the struggle, and on the death of
Theophilus, who had been rigorous in enforcing his policy, icon-
worship was finally restored by his widow Theodora (843), and
the question was never reopened. This was a triumph for the
Greek element in the Empire; the " Sunday of orthodoxy " on
which iconoclasm was formally condemned is still a great day
in the Greek Church.
The ablest champions who wielded their pens for the cause
of icons, defending by theological arguments practices which
really had their roots in polytheism, were in the early stage John
of Damascus and in the later Theodore (abbot of the monastery
of Studium at Constantinople). The writings of the iconoclasts
were destroyed by the triumphant party, so that we know their
case only from the works of their antagonists.
In this struggle the Greeks and Latins were of one mind;
the image-worshippers had the support of the Roman see.
When the pope resisted him, Leo III. confiscated the papal
estates in Sicily and Calabria; and the diocese of Illyricum
was withdrawn from the control of Rome and submitted to
the patriarch of Constantinople. But when iconoclasm was
defeated, there was 'no question of restoring Illyricum, nor
could there be, for political reasons; since the iconoclastic
schism had, with other causes, led to the detachment of the
papacy from the Empire and its association with the Prankish
power. By the foundation of the rival Roman Empire in
800 the pope had definitely become a subject of another state.
No sooner had the iconoclastic struggle terminated than
differences and disputes arose between the Greek and Latin
Churches which finally led to an abiding schism, and helped
to foster the national self-consciousness of the Greeks. A
strife over the patriarchal chair between Ignatius (deposed by
Michael III. and supported by Rome) and Photius the learned
statesman who succeeded him, strained the relations with
Rome; but a graver cause of discord was the papal attempt
to win Bulgaria, whose sovereign Boris had been baptized
under the auspices of Michael III. (c. 865), and was inclined to
play Old Rome against New Rome. Photius stood out as the
champion of the Greeks against the claim of the Roman see,
and his patriarchate, though it did not lead to a final breach,
marks the definite emancipation of the Greeks from the spiritual
headship of Rome. This is the significance of his encyclic
letter (867), which formulated a number of differences in rite
and doctrine between the Greek and Latin Churches, differences
so small that they need never have proved a barrier to union,
if on one side there had been no question of papal supremacy,
and if the Greek attitude had not been the expression of a
tenacious nationality. There was a reconciliation about 900,
but the Churches were really estranged, and the open and
ultimate breach which came in 1054, when the influence of
the Cluny movement was dominant at Rome (Leo IX. was
pope and Michael Cerularius patriarch), sealed a disunion
which had long existed. Subsequent plans of reunion were
entertained by the emperors merely for political reasons, to
obtain Western support against their foes, or to avert (through
papal influence) the aggressive designs of Western princes.
They were doomed to futility because they were not seriously
meant, and the Greek population was entirely out of sym-
pathy with these political machinations of their emperors.
The Union of Lyons (1274) was soon repudiated, and the
last attempt, the Union of Florence in 1439, was equally
hollow (though it permanently secured the union of the
Rumanians and of the Ruthenians). Part of the historical
significance of the relations between the Greek and Latin
Churches lies in the fact that they illustrate, and promoted
by way of challenge, the persistence of Greek national self-
consciousness.
The emperors legislated against paganism and against
heresy, not merely under ecclesiastical pressure, but because
they thought religious uniformity politically desirable.
Theodosius the Great, a Spaniard, with no sympathy for
Hellenic culture, set himself the task of systematically eradi-
cating pagan institutions and customs. Though his
persecution accomplished much, paganism was far from being
extinct either in the East or in the West in the sth century.
Not only did heathen cults survive in many remote districts,
but the old gods had many worshippers among the higher
classes at Rome, Constantinople, Antioch, Alexandria and
Athens. The most distinguished Greek literati of that period
were non-Christian. Justinian, who united theological en-
thusiasm with belief in the ideal of uniformity and, like
Theodosius, was cut of sympathy with Hellenism (" Hellen "
now came to mean " pagan "), persecuted polytheism more
earnestly and severely than his predecessors. His measures
created a panic among the higher classes at Byzantium, of
whom many, as he suspected, were addicted to the ancient
religion. He instituted a regular inquisition, exacted oaths
of orthodoxy from all officials and teachers, and closed the
philosophical schools of Athens. Missionaries (and it is
remarkable that he employed monophysite heretics) were
sent to abolish the old heathen worship which survived in
many parts of Asia Minor where Christianity had hardly
penetrated. By the end of the 6th century formal paganism
had practically disappeared.
In Asia Minor, especially in the east, there were many
dissident communities which asserted independence of the
Church of Constantinople and of all ecclesiastical traditions,
founding their doctrines directly on the Bible. Most important
of these heretics were the Paulicians (<?..), a dualistic sect whom
the Church regarded as Manichacans.
The Autocracy and its Constitutional Forms. With Diocletian
the Principate of Augustus had become undisguisedly an
absolute monarchy, and this constitution prevailed to the
end. There is virtually no constitutional history in the
proper sense of the term in the later Roman Empire, for there
was neither evolution nor revolution. The monarchical
system remained in all its essential points unchanged, and
presents a remarkable example of an autocracy of immense
duration which perfectly satisfied the ideas of its subjects.
No attempt was made to alter it, to introduce, for instance,
a limited monarchy or a republican government; all revolts
and conspiracies were aimed at the policies of particular
autocrats, not at autocracy itself; generally they only repre-
sented sectional antagonisms and personal ambitions. The
emperors inherited a deeply rooted instinct of legality as a
tradition from Old Rome; and this respect for law which
marked their acts, along with the generally good administration
of justice, was a palladium of the monarchy. They were
supreme in legislation, as well as in the administrative and
judicial spheres; but they were on the whole moderate in
wielding legislation as an instrument of policy.
There were, however, recognized constitutional principles
which it would have been impossible for the emperor to over-
ride.
(i) The elective principle, inherited from the Republic, was
never changed. A new emperor had to be elected by the
senate and acclaimed by the people. The succession never
became automatic. But even Augustus had indirectly intro-
duced the dynastic principle. Theodosius the Great, by
causing his two sons, Arcadius and Honorius, to be elected
August! in their infancy, practically elevated the dynastic
idea into a constitutional principle; henceforward it was
regarded as in the regular course that the son born to a reigning
sovereign should in his infancy be elected Augustus. Thus
the election, though always an indispensable form, was only a
reality when a dynasty came to an end.
520
ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER
(2) When the position of Christianity was assured by the
failure of Julian's reaction, it was evident that profession of
that religion would henceforward be a necessary qualification
for election to the throne. This was formally and constitution-
ally recognized when the coronation of the emperor by the
patriarch was introduced in 457, or perhaps in 450.
(3) The sovereignty of the emperor was personal and not
territorial. In this respect it always retained the character
which it had inherited as the offspring of a Roman magistracy.
Hence no Roman territory could be granted by the emperor to
another power. For instance, the Western emperor Conrad III.
could promise to hand over Italy to Manuel Comnenus as the
dowry of his wife, but it would have been constitutionally
illegal for Manuel to have made such a promise to any foreign
prince; an Eastern emperor had no right to dispose of the
territory of the state. Tendencies towards a territorial concep-
tion begin indeed to appear (partly under Western influence) in
the time of the Palaeologi, especially in the custom of bestowing
appanages on imperial princes.
(4) While the senate of Rome generally lost its importance
and at last became a mere municipal body, the new senate of
Constantine preserved its position as an organ of the state till
the fall of Constantinople. For the imperial elections it was
constitutionally indispensable, and it was able sometimes to
play a decisive part when the throne was vacant its only
opportunity for independent action. The abolition, under
Diocletian's system, of the senatorial provinces deprived the
senate of the chief administrative function which it exercised
under the Principate; it had no legislative powers; and it lost
most of its judicial functions. It was, however, still a judicial
court; it tried, for instance, political crimes. In composition
it differed from the senate of the Principate. The senators in
the 4th century were chiefly functionaries in the public service,
divided into the three ascending ranks of clarissimi, spectabiles.
illustres. The majority of the members of the senatorial order
lived in the provinces, forming a provincial aristocracy, and
did not sit in the senate. Then the two lower ranks ceased to
have a right to sit in the senate, which was confined to the
illustres and men of higher rank (Patricians). The senatorial
order must therefore be distinguished from the senate in a
narrower sense; the latter finally consisted mainly of high
ministers of state and the chief officials of the palace. It would
be a grave mistake to underrate the importance of this body,
through an irrelevant contrast with the senate of the Republic
or even of the Principate. Its composition ensured to it great
influence as a consultative assembly; and its political weight
was increased by the fact that the inner council of imperial
advisers was practically a committee of the senate. The im-
portance of the senate is illustrated by the fact that in the nth
century Constantine X., in order to carry out a revolutionary,
anti-military policy, found it necessary to alter the composition
of the senate by introducing a number of new men from the
lower classes.
(5) The memory of the power which had once belonged to
the populus Romanus lingered in the part which the inhabi-
tants of New Rome, and their representatives, played in ac-
claiming newly elected emperors, and in such ceremonies
as coronations. In the 6th century the factions (" demes ")
of the circus, Blues and Greens, appear as political parties,
distract the city by their quarrels, and break out in serious
riots. On one occasion they shook the throne (" Nika " revolt,
532). The emperors finally quelled this element of disturb-
ance by giving the factions a new organization, under " de-
marchs " and " democrats," and assigning them a definite
quasi-political locus standi in the public ceremonies in the
palace and the capital. The duty of providing panem et cir-
censes was inherited from Old Rome; but the free distribution
of bread cannot be traced beyond the 6th century (had the
loss of the Egyptian granary to do with its cessation?), while
the spectacles of the hippodrome lasted till the end. Outside
the capital the people took little interest in politics, except
when theology was concerned; and it may be said generally
that it was mainly in the ecclesiastical sphere that public
opinion among the masses, voiced by the clergy and monks,
was an influence which made itself felt.
The court ceremonial of Constantinople, which forms such
a market contrast to the ostentatiously simple establishments
of Augustus and the Antonines, had in its origin a certain con-
stitutional significance. It was introduced by Aurelian and Dio-
cletian, not, we must suppose, from any personal love of display,
but rather to dissociate the emperor from the army, at a time
when the state had been shaken to its foundations by the pre-
dominance of the military element and the dependence of the
emperor on the soldiers. It was the object of Diocletian to make
him independent of all, with no more particular relation to the
army than to any other element in the state; the royal court
and the inaccessibility of the ruler were calculated to promote
this object. The etiquette and ceremonies were greatly elaborated
by Justinian, and were diligently maintained and developed.
The public functions, which included processions through the
streets to various sanctuaries of the city on the great feast-days
of the Church, supplied entertainment of which the populace
never wearied; and it did not escape the wit of the rulers that
the splendid functions and solemn etiquette of the court were an
effective means of impressing the imagination of foreigners, who
constantly resorted to Constantinople from neighbouring kingdoms
and dependencies, with the majesty and power of the Basileus.
The imperial dignity was collegia!. There could be two or more
emperors (imperatores, /3a<riXeis) at the same time; edicts were
issued, public acts performed, in their joint names. Through
the period of dualism, in the 4th and 5th centuries, when tne
administration of the Eastern provinces was generally separate
from that of the Western, the imperial authority was also collegia!.
But after this period the system of divided authority came to an
end and was never renewed. There was frequently more than
one emperor, not only in the case of a father and his sons, or of
two brothers, but also in the case of a minority, when a regent
is elected emperor (Romanus I.; cf. Nicfephorus II. and John
Zimisces). But one colleague always exercised the sole authority,
was the real monarch, the " great " or the " first " Basileus; the
other or others were only sleeping partners. Under the Comneni
a new nomenclature was introduced; a brother, e.g., who before
could have become the formal colleague of the ruler, received the title
of Sebastocrator (Sebastos was the Greek equivalent of Augustus).
Legislation. The history of the legislation of the Eastern
Empire is distinguished by three epochs associated with the
names of (i) Justinian, (2) Leo III., (3) Basil I. and Leo VI.
(1) The Justinianean legislation (see JUSTINIAN) is thoroughly
Roman in spirit, and inspired by pious adhesion to the traditions
of the past; but it admitted modifications of the older law in
accordance with tendencies which had been long since making
themselves felt: consideration is accorded to principles of humanity
in the laws affecting persons, and to the principle of public interest
in the laws relating to things. Justinian not only sanctioned
changes which time had brought about, like the mitigation of the
strict patria polestas and the greater independence of wives, but
introduced a revolutionary change in the law of succession to
property, abolishing inheritance by agnatio or relationship through
males, and substituting inheritance by blood relationship whether
through males or females.
(2) Justinian's reign was followed by a period in which juristic
studies decayed. The seventh century, in which social order was
profoundly disturbed, is a blank in legal history, and it would seem
that the law of Justinian, though it had been rendered into Greek,
almost ceased to be studied or understood. Practice at least was
modified by principles in accord with the public opinion of Christian
society and influenced by ecclesiastical canons. In a synod held
at Constantinople in the reign of Justinian II. numerous rules
were enacted, differing from the existing laws and based on ecclesias-
tical doctrine and Mosaic principles, and these were sanctioned
as laws of the realm by the emperor. Thus Church influence
and the decline of Roman tradition, in a state which had become
predominantly Greek, determined the character of the ensuing
legislative epoch under the auspices of Leo III., whose law book
(A.D. 740), written in Greek, marks a new era and reflects the changed
ideas of the community. Entitled a " Brief Selection of Laws "
and generally known as the Ecloga, it may be described as a
Christian law book. In regard to the patria potestas increased
facilities are given for emancipation from paternal control when
the son comes to years of discretion, and the paternal is to a certain
extent replaced by a parental control over minors. The law of
guardianship is considerably modified. The laws of marriage are
transformed under the influence of the Christian conception of
matrimony; the institution of concubinatus is abolished. Impedi-
ments to marriage on account of consanguinity and of spiritual
relationship are multiplied. While Justinian regarded marriage
as a contract, and therefore, like any other contract, dissoluble
at the pleasure of the parties, Leo III. accepted the Church view
that it was an indissoluble bond. Ecclesiastical influence is written
ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER
large in the criminal law, of which a prominent feature is the
substitution of mutilation of various kinds for the capital penalty.
Death is retained for some crimes, such as murder and high treason ;
other offences were punished by amputation (of hand, nose, &c.).
This system (justified by the passage in the New Testament, " If
thine eye offend thee," &c.), though to modern notions barbaric,
seemed a step in the direction of leniency ; and it may be observed
that the tendency to avoid capital punishment increased, and
we are told that in the reign of John Comnenus it was never in-
flicted. (The same spirit, it may be noted, is apparent in the
usual, though by no means invariable, practice of Byzantine
emperors to render dethroned rivals or members of a deposed
dynasty innocuous by depriving them of eyesight or forcing them
to take monastic orders, instead of putting them to death.) The
Church, which had its own system of penalties, exercised a great
influence on the actual operation of criminal law, especially through
the privilege of asylum (recognized by Justinian, but with many
reserves and restrictions), which was granted to Christian churches
and is admitted without exceptions in the Ecloga.
(3) The last period of legislative activity under Basil I. and
Leo VI. represents a reaction, in a certain measure, against the
Ecloga and a return to Justinian. The Ecloga had met practical
needs, but the Isaurian and Phrygian emperors had done nothing
to revive legal study. To do so was the aim of Basil, and the
revival could only be based on Justinianean law books or their
Greek representatives. These books were now treated somewhat
as Justinian and his lawyers had treated their own predecessors.
A handbook of extracts from the Institutes, Digest and Code
was issued in 879 (6 irpoxpos M^JOS, " the law as it is "), to
fulfil somewhat the same function as the Institutes. Then a
collection of all the laws of the Empire was prepared by means
of two commissions, and completed under Leo VI. It was entitled
the Basilika. In many points (in civil, but not in criminal, law)
the principles of the Ecloga are set aside in favour of the older
jurisprudence. Thus the Justinianean ordinances on the subject
of divorce were revived, and there remained henceforward a contra-
diction between the civil and the canon law.
After this there was no legislation on a grand scale; but there
was a great revival of legal study under Constantine IX., who
founded a new law-school, and there were many learned specialists
who wrote important commentaries, such as John Xiphifin (nth
century), Theodore Balsamon (i2th century), Harmenopulos (l4th
century). The civil code of Moldavia (published 1816-17) > s a
codification of Byzantine law; and modern Greece, although in
framing its code it took the Napoleonic for its model, professes
theoretically to base its civil law on the edicts of the emperors as
contained in the Hexabiblos of Harmenopulos.
Administration. Three principles underlay the adminis-
trative reform of Diocletian: the separation of civil from
military functions; the formation of small provincial units;
and the scalar structure which deepened on the interposition
of the vicar of a diocese and the praetorian prefect between
the provincial governor and the emperor. This system lasted
unchanged for three and a half centuries. The few unim-
portant alterations that were made were in harmony with
its spirit, until the reign of Justinian, who introduced certain
reforms that pointed in a new direction. We find him com-
bining some of the small provinces into large units, under-
mining the scalar system by doing away with some of the
dioceses and vicars, and placing in some cases military and
civil authority in the same hands. The chief aim of Diocletian
in his general reform had been to secure central control over
the provincial governments; the object of Justinian in these
particular reforms was to remedy corruption and oppression.
These changes, some of which were soon cancelled, would
hardly in themselves have led to a radical change; but they
prepared the way for an administrative revolution, brought
about by stress of external necessities. In the 7th century
all the energies of the Empire, girt about by active enemies,
were centred on war and defence; everything had to give way
to military exigencies; and a new system was gradually intro-
duced which led ultimately to the abolition of the old. The
change began in Italy and Africa, at the end of the 6th century,
where operations against the Lombards and the Berbers were
impeded by the friction between the two co-ordinate military and
civil authorities (masters of soldiers, and praetorian prefects).
The military governors were made supreme with the title of
exarchs, " viceroys "; the civil authority was subordinated to
them in case of collision, otherwise remaining unaltered. The
change is an index of the dangerous crisis through which these
provinces were passing. In the East similar circumstances
521
led to similar results. The Saracen danger hanging imminent
over Asia Minor imposed a policy of the same kind. And so
before the end of the 7lh century we find the Empire divided
into six great military provinces, three in Europe and three
in Asia: (i) Exarchate of Africa, (2) Exarchate of Italy,
(3) Strategia of Thrace, (4) County of Opsikion ( = obsequium) ,
including Bithynia, Honorias, Paphlagonia, parts of Helles-
pontus and Phrygia, (5) Strategia of the Analolikoi, most of
west and central Asia Minor, (6) Strategia of the Armeniakoi,
eastern Asia Minor. In addition to these there was a naval
circumscription, (7) the Strategia of the Karabisianoi (from
/cdpa/3os, a vessel), including the southern coastland of Asia Minor,
and the Aegean (see below under Navy).
The lands of the old prefecture of Illyricum were not included in
the system, because this part of the Empire was then regarded as a
lost position. On the contrary, here military powers were committed
to the Prefect of Illyricum, whose actual sphere extended little
beyond Thessalonica, which was surrounded by Slavonic tribes.
The Eastern changes, perhaps initiated by Heraclius, but
probably due mainly to Constans II., did not interfere with
the civil administration, except in so far as its heads were
subordinated to the military commanders. But Leo III., who
as a great administrative reformer ranks with Augustus and
Diocletian, did away with the old system altogether, ft) Re-
versing Diocletian's principle, he combined military and civil
powers in the same hands. The strategos or military com-
mander became also a civil governor; his higher officers (tur-
marchs) were likewise civil functionaries. '(2) The scalar
principle disappeared, including both the vicars and the
praetorian prefect of the East (some of whose functions were
merged in those of the prefect of the city); no authority inter-
posed between the strategoi and the emperor. (3) The new
provinces, which were called themes (the name marks their
military origin: tli$ma = corps), resembled in size the provinces
of Augustus, each including several of the Diocletian divisions.
This third and last provincial reform has, like its predecessors,
its own history. The list of themes in the nth century is
very different from that of the 8th. The changes were in one
direction the reduction of large provinces by cutting off parts
to form smaller themes, a repetition of the process which
reduced the provinces of Augustus. Hence the themes came
to vary greatly in size and importance. Leo himself began the
process by breaking up the Anatolic command into two themes
(Anatolic and Thracesian). The principle of splitting up was
carried out systematically by Leo VI. (who was also responsible
for a new ecclesiastical division of the Empire).
The development will be exhibited by a list of the themes in the
middle of the ipth century. A. Asia: |(i) Opsikion, (2) Optimaton,
(3) Paphlagonia, (4) Bukellarian|=old Opsikion; |(s) Anatolic,
(6) Thracesian, (7) Samos (naval), (8) Cappadocia, (q) Scleucia)
= old Anatolic; i(io) Armeniac, (ll) Colonea, (12) Sebastca,
(13) Charsianon, (14) Chaldia, (15) Mesopotamial =old Armeniac;
(16) Cibyrrhaeot, (17) Aegean ( = Dodekanesos). B. Europe:
(i) Thrace, (2) Macedonia, (3) Strymon, (4) Thessalonica, (5) Hellas,
(6) Peloponnesus, (7) Nicopolis, (8) Dyrrhachium, (9) Longibardia,
(10) Cephallenia, (n) Cherson.
It is interesting to note that up to Leo VI. the district between
Constantinople and the wall of Anastasius formed a separate theme
or government, entitled the Wall (ri> rtixlov) or the Ditch (1} ratttpoi) ;
Leo VI. united it with the themq of Thrace.
In the central administration, the general principles seem to
have remained unchanged; the heads of the great administrative
bureaux in Constantinople retain the palatine character which
belonged to most of them from the beginning. But there were
many changes in these offices, in their nomenclature and the
delimitation of their functions. There are great differences
between the administrative corps in the 5th, in the loth and
in the isth centuries. We can hardly be wrong in conjecturing
that, along with his provincial reform, Leo III. made a re-
arrangement of the central bureaux; the abolition of the
Praetorian Prefecture of the East entailed, in itself, modifica-
tions. But minor changes were continually being made, and
we may note the following tendencies: (i) Increase in the
number of ministers directly responsible to the emperor,
(a) subordinate offices in the bureaux being raised to the rank
522
ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER
of independent ministries; (6) new offices being created and old
ones becoming merely titular. (2) Changes in nomenclature;
substitution of Greek for Latin titles. (3) Changes in the
relative importance and rank of the high officials, both civil and
military.
The Prefect of the City (&rapx<w) controlled the police organiza-
tion and administration of justice in the capital; he was vice-
president of the imperial court of justice, and, when the office of
Prefect of the East was abolished, he inherited the functions of
that dignitary as judge of appeals from the provinces. But the
praefectus vigUum, commander of the city guards, who was
subordinate to him, became an independent officer, entitled Drun-
gary of the Watch, and in the nth century superseded him as vice-
president of the imperial court. We are told that in the last
years of the Empire the Prefect of the City had no functions at all ;
but his office survives in the Shehr-imaneli, " city prefecture,
of the Ottomans, in whose organization there are many traces of
Byzantine influence.
Instead of the Quaestor of the Sacred Palace, whose duty was
to draft the imperial laws and rescripts, we find in the oth
century a quaestor who possesses certain judicial and police
functions and is far lower in the hierarchy of rank. It has
been supposed that the later quaestor really inherited the duties
of another officer, the quaesitor, who was instituted by Justinian.
In the latest period the quaestor, if he still existed as a name,
had no functions.
The Master of Offices, who supervised the bureaux in the
palace and was master of court ceremonies, also performed
many functions of a minister of foreign affairs, was head of
the imperial post (cursus), and of the corps of agentes in rebus
or Imperial Messengers. This ministry disappeared, probably
in the 8th century, but the title was retained as a dignity at all
events till the end of the pth. The most important functions, per-
taining to foreign affairs, were henceforward performed by the
Logothete of the Post (\oyodkri\3 TOV Spbpov) . In the i2th cen-
tury this minister was virtually the chancellor of the Empire; his
title was changed to that of Great Logothete by Andronicus II.
The two financial ministers, comes sacrarum largitionum and
comes rei privatae, continued to the end under the titles Xiryo-
0en?s TOV yeviKov (General Logothete) and 6 liri TOV idiKov
(Anastasius added a third, the Count of the Sacred Patrimony,
but he was afterwards suppressed). But in the pth century we
find both these ministers inferior in rank to the Sacellarius,
or private pursekeeper of the emperor. Besides these there was
a fourth important financial department, that of the military
treasury, under a Logothete.
The employment of eunuchs as high ministers of state was
a feature of the Byzantine Empire from the end of the 4th
century. It- is laid down as a principle (A.D. 900) that all offices
are open to them, except the Prefecture of the City, the quaestor-
ship, and the military posts which were held by " Domestics."
There were then eight high posts which could only be held
by eunuchs, of which the chief were the parakoimomenos and
the protovestiarios (master of the wardrobe).
An emperor who had not the brains or energy to direct the
affairs of the state himself, necessarily committed the task of
guiding the helm to some particular minister or court dignitary
who had gained his confidence. Such a position of power was
outside the constitution, and was not associated with any par-
ticular office; it might be held by an ecclesiastic or a eunuch;
it had been held by the eunuchs Eutropius and Chrysaphius in
the reigns of Arcadius and Theodosius II. respectively. In
later times, such a first minister came to be denoted by a
technical term, b irapaSwaaTtvuv. This was the position, for
instance, of Stylianus, the father-in-law of Leo VI. Most of
the emperors between Basil II. and Alexius Comnenus were
under the influence of such ministers.
nomenclature different. Instead of epithets like Mustres, the names
titles which had designated offices; patrician alone sur-
vived ^highest rank i! now (i) the mag stroi; then come the
paTricians in two classes: (2) proconsular patr.c.ans, (3) respectable
; below these (4) protospathano, ; ( 5 ) dishypatoi ( = bu
consules)- (6) spatharokandidatoi ; (7) spathanoi; and other
fower ranks. Particular ranks do not seem now to have been
n riicnably attached to particular offices. The strategos of the
Anatolic Theme, e.g., might be a patrician or only a protospathar.
Whoever was promoted to one of these ranks received its insignia
from tte empemr's hand, and had to pay fixed fees to various
officials, especially to the palace eunuchs _ _
In the provinces ordinary justice was administered by
judges (/cptToi) who were distinct from the governors of the
themes, and inherited their functions from the old provincial
governors of Diocletian's system. In Constantinople higher
and lower courts of justice sat regularly and frequently. The
higher tribunals were those of the Prefect and the Quaestor,
before whom different kinds of cases came. Appeals reached
the emperor through the bureau of Petitions (ruv &tr)crfav); he
might deal with the case immediately; or might refer it to
the imperial court of appeal, of which he was president; or
else to the special court of the Twelve Divine Judges (0uH
Si/coaxal), which was instituted by Justinian.
While the administration of justice was one of the best
features of the Eastern Empire, its fiscal system, likewise in-
herited from the early Empire, was one of its worst. If the
government had been acquainted with the principles of public
economy, which have not been studied till comparatively recent
times, a larger revenue might have been raised without injuring
the prosperity of the inhabitants. Taxes were injudiciously
imposed and oppressively collected. The commerce of the
Empire was one of its great sources of strength, but the govern-
ment looked on the merchants as a class from which the utmost
should be extorted. The chief source of revenue was the land.
The main burdens which fell upon the landed proprietors
throughout the whole period were the land tax proper and the
annona. The land tax (capitalio terrena = the old tributum of
the imperial, slipendium of the senatorial, provinces) was
based, not on the yearly produce, but on the capital of the
proprietor, the character and value of the land being taken
into account. In later times this seems to have become the
Ka.Trvi.Kbv, or hearth tax. The annona was an additional im-
post for supporting the army and imperial officials; it was
originally paid in produce. In later times, we meet it under
the name of o-irapKio. or (rvvuvij. The province was divided
into fiscal districts, and the total revenue to be derived from
each was entered in a book of assessment. The assessment
was in early times revised every fifteen years (the " indiction "
period), but subsequently such revisions seem to have been
very irregular. The collection of the taxes was managed
through the curial system, while it lasted (till yth century?).
The decurions, or municipal councillors, of the chief town in
each district were responsible for collecting and delivering the
whole amount, and had to make good the sums owed by
defaulters. This system of collective responsibility pressed
very heavily on the decurions, and helped to cause their decay
in the Western provinces. After the abolition of the curial
organization, the principle of collective responsibility remained
in the form of the n/3o\i7 or additional charge; that is, if a
property was left without an owner, the taxes for which it was
liable became an extra charge on the other members of the
district (olb^K^vaoC). The taxes were collected by praktores,
who were under the General Logothete. The peasant pro-
prietors were also liable to burdens of other kinds (corvees),
of which the most important was the furnishing of horses,
vehicles, postboys, &c., for the state post (see ANGARIA).
The history of landed property and agrarian conditions in the
Eastern Empire still awaits a thorough examination. It may be
n*nrJ 4-Vi <-i 4- ," .1 , K 1 ,',-} I 1 -T 1 Vl O rdA I t" O f\ T I-ktV*f"*1 t ("IfC Vl 1 F* WHS A! W3VS tllG
The orders of rank (which must be distinguished from titles of
office) were considerably increased in later times. In the 4th and
7th centuries there were the three great classes of the illuslres,
spectabiles and clarissimi; and above the illustres a small, higher
class of patricians. In the 9th century we find an entirely different
system; the number of classes being largely augmented, and the
II, tib It J ii OillLJli c aLiu <tv* ai i_a a UAWI vugit ^_^t*ii j
noted that individual hereditary proprietorship was always the
rule (on crown and monastic lands as well as in other cases), _ and that
the commonly supposed extensive existence of communities pos-
sessing land in common is based on erroneous interpretation of
documents. When imperial lands were granted to monasteries
or as fiefs (irjxWeu) to individuals, the position and rights of the
peasant proprietors on the estates were not changed, but in many
ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER
523
cases the imposts were paid to the new master instead of to the
fisc. In the 4th, 5th and 6th centuries the cultivators were attached
to the soil (coloni, ascripticii; sec SERFDOM), in the interests of the
fiscus; it has been supposed, on insufficient grounds, that this
serfdom was abolished for a time by Leo III., though it is probable
that the condition of the peasants was largely changed by the
invasions of the 7th century. In any case the system of compulsory
attachment of peasants to their lands remained in force, and the
class of adscripticii (ivairdypcujmi) existed till the latest times. The
chief sources for agrarian conditions are, besides the imperial laws,
monastic records, among which may be mentioned as specially
valuable those of the Monastery of Lemboi near Smyrna.
Army and Navy. The general principle of the military
defence of the Empire in the 4th century consisted in large
forces stationary on the frontiers, and reserve forces, stationed
in the interior provinces, which could be moved to any point
that was in danger. Thus the army was composed of (i) the
limitanei, frontier-troops (under duces), and (2) reserve forces
(under magistri militum) of two denominations, (a) palatini
and (b) comitatenses. The limitanei were the more numerous;
it has been estimated that if they numbered about 350,000,
the comitatenses and palatini together amounted to less than
200,000. It is to be noted that for the old legion of 6000 men
a smaller legion of 1000 had been substituted, and that the pro-
portion of cavalry to infantry was small. In the 6th century
the fundamental principles of the system were the same; but
the cavalry had become a much more important branch of the
service, and in the wars of Belisarius the foederati, barbarian
mercenaries of various races, commanded by their own chiefs,
played a great role. The peasants of Illyria and Thrace, the
mountaineers of southern Asia Minor still supply an important
part of the army, but the number of barbarians (Heruli, Van-
dals, Goths, Slavs, Arabs, &c.) is much larger. Solidity and
a corresponding want of mobility characterized at this time
both cavalry and infantry; their great merit was straight and
rapid shooting: Belisarius ascribed his. success in Italy to the
excellence of the archery. It is remarkable with what small
forces (not more than 25,000) the first conquest of Italy was
achieved, though Belisarius was far from being a military genius
and the discipline in his army was flagrantly defective.
Frontier Defence. Justinian carried out on the frontiers and in
the exposed provinces a carefully devised and expensive system of
defensive works. Fortified towns along the limes were connected
by intervening forts, and at some distance behind was a second
line of more important fortresses more strongly garrisoned, which
furnished both a second barrier and places of refuge for the inhabit-
ants of the open country. There was an elaborate system of
signals by which the garrisons of the front stations could announce
not only the imminence of a hostile invasion, but the number
and character of the enemy. In North Africa there are abundant
remains of the forts of the 6th and 7th centuries, displaying the
military architecture of the period and the general frontier system.
The typical fortress had three defences: the wall flanked by square
towers of three storeys; at a few yards' distance a second wall of
stone; and outside a deep foss about 20 yds. wide, with vertical
sides, filled with water, and along its edge a rampart of earth.
We have already seen how the disasters and losses of the 7th
century led to a radical change in the military organization, and
how the Empire was divided into themes. The preponderant
influence which Asia Minor won and retained till the nth century
is reflected in the military establishment, which mainly depended
on the Asiatic provinces. The strategos of a large theme commanded
a corps of 10,000 and the scheme of the divisions and subordinate
commands has a remarkable resemblance to the organization of
some of the armies of modern Europe.
The recorded scheme was probably not uniform in all the themes,
and varied at different periods. The Thcma (corps) consisted of
2 turmai (brigades) under turmarchai; the turma of 5 banda (regi-
ments), each under a drungarios (colonel) ; the bandon of 5 pent-
arkhiai (companies) under a kometes (captain). The pentarkhia,
containing 200 men, had 5 subdivisions under pentekonlarkhai
(lieutenants) ; and there was a smaller unit of ten men under the
dekarkhes (corporal). The total strength in the gth century was
120,000; in Justinian's time it was reckoned at 150,000.
Distinct from the military forces (O^ara) of the provinces were
the forces (-rii.jna.Ta.} stationed in or near the capital. The most
important of these were the Scholae and the Excubitores. The
Scholarian troops were in early times under the Master of Offices,
but subsequently their chief officer, the Domestic of the Schools,
became the highest military commander in the Empire next to the
Strategos of the Anatolic Theme. In war, when the emperor did
not assume the chief command himself, he might entrust it to any
commander, and he often entrusted it to the Domestic. In the
nth century, after the conquest of Bulgaria, there were two
Domestics, one for the east and one for the west, and under
Alexius Comnenus the Domestic of the west received the title Great
Domestic. Under the Palaeologi the Great Domestic was superior
in rank to all other ministers.
Besides the Scholarians, and the Excubitores (who had been
organized in the th century), there were the regiments of the
Hikanatoi, the Anthmos and the Numeroi. The Numeroi were
foot-soldiers. The Optimatoi, also infantry, properly belonged -to
the same category, though they were constituted as a theme. It
is to be observed that the demes or corporations of Constantinople
were partly organized as militia, and were available for purposes of
defence.
The great difference between this Byzantine army and that of
the earlier Empire is that its strength (like that of the feudal armies
of the West) lay entirely in cavalry, which the successors of Hera-
clius and the Isaurian emperors developed to great perfection.
The few contingents of foot were quite subsidiary. The army
was free from the want of discipline which was so notable in the
6th century ; it was maintained in Asia Minor, which was the great
recruiting ground, by a system of military holdings of land (an ex-
tension of the old Roman system of assigning lands in the frontier
districts to federate barbarians and to veterans). The conditions
of the marauding expeditions and guerilla warfare, continuously
carried on against and by the Saracens in the 8th, 9th and loth
centuries, were carefully studied by generals and tacticians, and
we possess the theory of the Byzantine methods in a treatise com-
posed by the emperor Nicephorus. Phocas, and edited by one of his
pupils. Every detail of an inroad into Saracen territory is regulated.
In the 8th and gth centuries there was a system of signals by which
an approaching Saracen incursion was announced to Constantinople
from the Cilician frontier. The news was flashed across Asia Minor
by eight beacon fires. The first beacon was at Lulon (which com-
manded the pass between Tyana and the Cilician gates), the last
on Mt. Auxentius in Bithynia. When this fire appeared, a light
was kindled in the pharos of the imperial palace at Constantinople.
The system was discontinued in the reign of Michael III., probably
after the capture of Lulon by the enemy in 860, and was not re-
newed, though Lulon was recovered in 877. It should be noted
that this famous telegraphic system was only an application on a
large scale of the frontier signalling referred to above.
The loss of a great part of Asia Minor to the Seljuks, and the
disorganization ofthe provinces which they did not acquire, seriously
weakened the army, and the emperors had recourse more and more
to foreign mercenaries and barbarian auxiliaries. The employment
of Scandinavians had begun in the loth century, and in 988 was
formed the Varangian guard, consisting chiefly of English adventurers.
In the arsenal of Venice are two lions, which were transported from
the Peiraeus, inscribed with obscure Runic characters, carved per-
haps by Scandinavians in the army of Basil II. Under Michael IV.
the famous Norwegian prince Harald Hardrada (described by
a Greek writer as " Araltes, son of the king of Varangia ") fought
for the Empire in Sicily and in Bulgaria. But in the latter part
of the nth century foreign mercenaries greatly increased in numbers
and importance.
The note of the Byzantine army was efficiency, and nowhere is
the immeasurable superiority of the civilization of the Eastern
Empire to the contemporary states of Europe more apparent.
The theory of military science was always studied and taught;
constant practice, interpreting and correcting theories, safeguarded
it against pedantry; and a class of magnificent staff officers were
trained, who in the loth century were the terror of the enemy.
The particular tactics of the various foes whom they had to face
were critically studied. We have a series of military text-books,
from the time of Anastasius I. to that of Basil II., in which we can
learn their principles and methods. In this army there was plenty
of courage, and distinct professional pride, but no love of fighting
for fighting's sake, nor the spirit which in western Europe developed
into chivalry. The Byzantines despised such ideas as character-
istic of barbarians who had physical strength and no brains. The
object of a good general, as Leo VI. shows in his important treatise
on Tactics, was in their opinion not to win a great battle, but to
attain success without the risks and losses of a great battle. The
same author criticizes the military character of the Franks. Paying
a tribute to their fearlessness, he points out their want of discipline,
the haphazard nature of their array and order of battle, their
eagerness to attack before the word was given, their want of faculty
for strategy or tactical combinations, their incapacity for operations
on difficult ground, the ease with which they could be deceived
by simple artifices, their carelessness in pitching camps, and their
lack of a proper intelligence department. These criticisms, borne
out by all we know of feudal warfare, illustrate the contrast between
a western host, with its three great " battles," rushing headlong
at the foe, and the Byzantine army, with its large number of
small units, co-operating in perfect harmony, under a commander
who had been trained in military science, had a definite plan in his
head, and could rely on all his subordinates for strict and intelligent
obedience.
ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER
524
Under the early Empire, as Rome had no rival in the Mediter-
ranean, it was natural that the navy and naval theory should be
neglected. When Constantino the Great decided to besiege
Byzantium by sea, both he and his opponent Licinius had to create
fleets for the struggle. Even when the Vandals in Africa made
transmarine conquests and became a naval power, the Romans did
not seriously address themselves to building an efficient navy and
securing their own thalassocracy; the Vandals harried their coasts;
their expeditions against Africa failed. And even when the Vanda
power was in its decline and Belisarius set forth on his successful
expedition of conquest, his fears for the safety of his squadron in
case he should be attacked at sea allow us to suspect that the fleet
of the enemy was superior to the Roman. The conquest of Africa
secured for Justinian the undisputed command of the Mediterranean,
but he did nothing for the naval establishment. It was not till
the Saracens, aspiring to conquer all the Mediterranean coastlands,
became a naval power that the Roman Empire was forced, in a
struggle for its being, to organize an efficient fleet. This, as we saw,
was the work of Constans II., and we saw what it achieved. In
this first period (c. 650-720) the naval forces, designated as the
Karabifianoi, were placed under the command of an admiral, with
title of strategos. They consisted of two geographical divisions,
each under a drurtgarios: the province of the Cibyrrhaeots (prob-
ably named from the smaller Cibyra in Pamphylia) which included
the southern coast districts of Asia Minor, and the Aegean province,
which embraced the islands and part of the west coast of Asia Minor.
The former was the more important; the marines of this province
were the hardy descendants of the pirates, whose subjugation
had taxed the resources of the Roman government in the last years
of the Republic. It was a new principle to impose the burden of
naval defence on the coast and island districts. Distinct from these
fleets, and probably organized on a different principle, was the naval
contingent stationed at Constantinople. Leo III. changed the naval
administration, abolishing the supreme command, and making the
Cibyrrhaeot and Aegean provinces separate independent themes
under strategoi. The change was due to two motives. There was
a danger lest a commander of the whole navy should become over
powerful (indicated in the political r61e played by the navy before
Leo's accession); but apart from this, the general reform of Leo,
which united civil and military powers in the same hands, naturally
placed the commanders of the two branches of the navy on a new
footing, by making them provincial governors. In this and the
following reigns, the tendency was to neglect the fleet; the interest
of the government was concentrated on the army. For a time
this policy was prosecuted with impunity, since the Omayyad
dynasty was growing weak, and then under the Abbasids, who
transferred the capital from Damascus to Bagdad, the sea-power of
the caliphate declined. But the neglect of the fleet was avenged in
the 9th century, when Crete and Sicily were wrested from the
Empire, the loss of south Italy was imminent, and Moslem squad-
rons sailed in the Adriatic, losses and dangers which led to a
reorganization of the navy under Basil I. and Leo VI. After this
reform we find the navy consisting of two main contingents: the
imperial fleet (stationed at Constantinople), and the provincial
fleets, three in number, of (a) Cibyrrhaeot theme, (b) Aegean theme,
(c) theme of Samos. A small distinct contingent was supplied by
the Mardaites who. natives of Mt. Lebanon, had been transplanted
(partly to Pamphylia, partly to Epirus, the Ionian Islands, and
Peloponnesus).- The imperial fleet seems to have consisted of
about 100 warships manned by 23,000 marines (the same men fought
and-rowed); the provincial fleets of 77 warships manned by 17,000.
When the fleets acted together, the admiral in supreme command
for the time was called the " drungarios of the naval forces." The
warships (Spopuves, "dromonds") were mainly biremes, but there
were also uniremes, built for speed, called "galleys" (-yaXaicu).
Pyrotechnic was an important department in the naval establish-
ment ; the manufacture of the terrible explosive known as liquid
or marine fire (see GREEK FIRE) was carefully guarded as a state
secret.
The navy, active and efficient in the loth century, is described by
a military and therefore unprejudiced officer of the nth as the
glory of Romania. But towards the end of the nth century it
declined, the main cause being the disorganization of the naval
provinces of Asia Minor, which, as we saw, was a result of the
Seljuk conquest of the interior. This decline had important in-
direct consequences ; it led to the dependence of the Empire on the
Venetian navy in the struggle with the Norman power, and foi
this help Venice exacted commercial privileges which injurec
Byzantine commerce and opened the door to the preponderant
influences of the Venetians in eastern trade. In the period o
the Palaeologi the imperial navy, though small, was active; and the
importance which it possessed for the state is illustrated by the
high rank at court which the admiral (who in the nth century hac
received the title of Great Duke, nkyas 5o>) then occupied; the
only minister who was superior to him was the Great Domestic.
Diplomacy. In protecting the state against the barbarians
who surrounded it, diplomacy was a weapon as important in
the eyes of the Byzantine government as soldiers or fortifications
The peace on the frontiers was maintained not only by strong
military defences, but by more or less skilful management of
he frontier peoples. In the later Empire this kind of diplomacy,
which we may define as the science of managing the barbarians,
was practised as a fine art; its full development was due
,o Justinian. Its methods fall under three general heads,
i) One people was kept in check by means of another. The
mperial government fomented rivalry and hatred among
them. Thus Justinian kept the Gepidae in check by the
Bombards, the Kuturgurs by the Utigurs, the Huns by the
Avars. (2) Subsidies were given to the peoples on the frontiers,
n return for which they undertook to defend the frontier
adjacent to them, and to supply fighting men when called upon
,o do so. The chiefs received honours and decorations. Thus
he Berber chiefs on the African border received a staff of
silver, encrusted with gold, a silver diadem, white cloak, em-
jroidered tunic, &c. More important potentates were invested
with a costlier dress. In these investitures precedence was
carefully observed. The chiefs thus received a definite position
n the Empire, and the rich robes, with the ceremony, appealed
to their vanity. In some cases they were admitted to posts
n the official hierarchy, being created Patricians, Masters of
soldiers, &c. They were extremely fond of such honours, and
considered themselves half-Romans. Another mode of winning
influence was to marry barbarian princes to Roman wives, and
rear their sons in the luxury of the palace. Dissatisfied pre-
tenders, defeated candidates for kingship, were welcomed at
Constantinople. Thus there were generally some princes,
thoroughly under Byzantine influence, who at a favourable
opportunity could be imposed on their compatriots. Through-
out Justinian's reign there was a constant influx of foreign
potentates to Constantinople, and he overwhelmed them with
attentions, pompous ceremonies and valuable presents. (3) Both
these methods were already familiar to the Roman govern-
ment, although Justinian employed them far more extensively
and systematically than any of his predecessors. The third
method was new and characteristic. The close connexion of
religion and politics at Constantinople prepares us to find that
Christian propaganda should go hand-in-hand with conquest,
and that the missionary should co-operate with the soldier. The
missionary proved an excellent agent. The typical procedure
is as follows. In the land which he undertakes to convert, the
missionary endeavours to gain the confidence of the king and
influential persons, and makes it a special object to enlist the
sympathies of the women. If the king hesitates, it is suggested
that he should visit New Rome. The attraction of this idea
is irresistible, and when he comes to the capital, the pomp of
his reception, the honours shown him by the emperor, and
the splendour of the religious ceremonies overcome his last
scruples. Thenceforward imperial influence is predominant in his
dominion; priests become his advisers; a bishop is consecrated,
dependent on the patriarch of Constantinople; and the bar-
barians are transformed by the penetration of Byzantine ideas.
By the application of these various means, Justinian established
Roman influence in Nubia, Ethiopia and South Arabia, in the
Caucasian regions, and on the coast of the Euxine. The con-
version of the Lazi (of Colchis) was specially notable, and that
of the Sabiri, who were politically important because they
commanded the eastern pass of the Caucasus known as the
Caspian Gates. It 'will be observed that the great prestige of
the Empire was one of the conditions of the success of this
policy.
The policy had, of course, its dangers, and was severely criticized
by one of Justinian's contemporaries, the historian Procopius.
Concessions encouraged greater demands; the riches of the Empire
were revealed. It -was a system, of course, which could not be per-
manently successful without military power behind it, and of course
it was not infallible; but in principle it was well-founded, and
proved of immeasurable value. Less prejudiced writers than
Procopius fully admit the far-sightedness and dexterity of the
emperor in his diplomatic activity. A full account of it will be
found in Diehl's Justinien.
In the loth century we have again the means of observing
how the government conducted its foreign policy on carefully
ROMANES ROMANIN
thought out principles. The Empire was then exposed t
constant danger from Bulgaria, to inroads of the Magyars
and to attacks of the Russians. The key to the diplomati
system, designed to meet these dangers, was the cultivation o
friendly relations with the Petchenegs, who did not menac
the provinces either by land or sea and could be incited t
act against Russians, Bulgarians or Magyars. The system i
explained in the treatise (known as De administrando imperio
composed by the emperor Constantine Porphyrogennetos (c. 950)
The series of these northern states was completed by th
kingdom of the Khazars (between the Caucasus and the Don)
with which the Empire had been in relation since the time o
Heraclius, who, to win its co-operation against Persia, promisee
his daughter in marriage to the king. Afterwards the Khazar
gave two empresses to New Rome (the wives of Justinian II
and Constantine V.). Their almost civilized state steerec
skilfully between the contending influences of Islam and Chris
tianity, and its kings adopted the curious means of avoiding
suspicion of partiality for either creed by embracing the neutra
religion of the Jews. Commercial and political relations with
the Khazars were maintained through the important outpost
of the Empire at Cherson in the Crimea, which had been allowec
to retain its republican constitution under a president
(TTfxjrevuv) and municipal board (apxavres) , though this free-
dom was limited by the appointment of a strategos in 833, a
moment at which the Khazars were seriously threatened by
the Petchenegs. The danger to be feared from the Khazars
was an attack upon Cherson, and it seems probable that this
was a leading consideration with Leo III. when he wedded his
son Constantine V. to a Khazar princess. In the gth century
it was an object of the government to maintain the Khazars
(whose army consisted mainly of mercenaries) against the
Pelchenegs; and hence, if it should become necessary to hold
the Khazars in check, the principle was to incite against them
not the Petchenegs, but other less powerful neighbours, the
Alans of the Caucasus, and the people of "Black Bulgaria"
on the middle Volga (a state which survived till the Mongol
conquest).
For this systematic diplomacy it was necessary to collect
information about the peoples whom it concerned. The ambas-
sadors sent to the homes of barbarous peoples reported every-
thing of interest they could discover. We owe to Priscus a
famous graphic account of the embassy which he accompanied
to the court of Attila. We possess an account of an embassy
sent to the Turks in Central Asia in the second half of the 6th
century, derived from an official report. Peter the Patrician
.in Justinian's reign drew up careful reports of his embassies
to the Persian court. When foreign envoys came to Con-
stantinople, information was elicited from them as to the
history and domestic politics of their own countries. It can
be shown that some of the accounts of the history and customs
of neighbouring peoples, stored in the treatise of Constantine
Porphyrogennetos referred to above (furnishing numerous facts
not to be found anywhere else), were derived from barbarian
ambassadors who visited Constantinople, and taken down by
the imperial secretaries. We may conjecture with some pro-
bability that the famous system of the Relazioni, which the
Venetian government required from its ambassadors, goes back
originally to Byzantine influence.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. i. General works: GibBon's Decline and Fall
of the Roman Empire; Finlay's History of Greece (ed., Tozer; vols.
i.-iv., 1877); Hopf, Geschichte Griechenlands (in Ersch and Gruber
Enzyklopddie (i Sekt., vols. Ixxxv., Ixxxvi., 1876-78)); Hertzberg
Geschichte der Byzantiner und des osmanischen Retches bis gegen Ende
desi6Jahrhunderts(i883);Paparrhezopulos,'laTopla.ToS EXXiji/woC Kvovs
(5 vols., 2nd ed., 1887-88); Oman, The Byzantine Empire (1892) (a
popular sketch); Gelzer, Abriss der byzantinischen Kaisergeschichte,
in Krumbacher's Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (ed. ii.,
1897) (a summary but original outline). 2. Works dealing with
special periods, or branches of the subject: Schiller, Geschichte
der romischen Kaiserzeit (vol. ii., 1887) (Diocletian to Theodosius
the Great); Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders (8 vols., 1879-99) (to
A.D. 800) ; Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire, A.D. -5915-800
(2 vols., 1889); Diehl, Justinien (1901); Diehl, L'Afrique byzanline
(1896); Permce, L'Imperatore Eraclio (1905); Rambaud, L'Empire
grec au d^x^eme siecle (1870); Schlumberger, Nicephore Phocas
(I vol.) and L'Epopee byzantine (3 vols.. 1890-1905; 4 vols., finely
illustrated, covering the period 960-1057); Gay, L'ltalie meridian-
ale et I empire byzantin, 867-1071 (1004); Neumann, Die Welt-
aeuung des byzantinischen Reiches vor den Kreuzziigen (1894);
Meharakes, 'laropla TOV Baoi\tlov rrjt Noco/aj aal rov Staror&Tov rrjt
Hireipou (1898) ; Gerland, Geschichte des lateinischen Kaiserreiches von
K.onstantinopel (part i., 1905) ; Fallmerayer, Geschichte des Kaiser-
turns Trapezunt (1827); Norden, Das Papsttum und Byzanz (1903)-
Pears, The Fall of Constantinople, being the story of the Fourth
Crusade (1885), and The Destruction of the Greek Empire (1903).
/ f V
_[. B.)
ROMANES, GEORGE JOHN (1848-1894), British" biologist,
was born at Kingston, Canada, on the zoth of May 1848, being
the third son of the Rev. George Romanes, D.D., professor of
Greek at the university of that town. He was educated in
England, going in 1867 to Gonville and Caius College, Cam-
bridge. He early formed an intimate friendship with Charles
Darwin, whose theories he did much during his life to popularize
and support. When studying under Sir J. Burdon Sanderson
at University College, London, in 1874-76, he began a series
of researches on the nervous and locomotor systems of the
Medusae and Echinodermata, which provided him with material
for his Croonian lecture in 1876. Subsequently he continued
the inquiry, partly in conjunction with Professor J. Cossar
Ewart, and the results were published in Jelly-fish, Star-fish,
and Sea-urchins (1885). Meantime he had been also devoting
his attention to broader problems of biology. In 1881 he
published Animal Intelligence, and in 1883, Mental Evolution
in Animals, in which he traced the parallel development of
intelligence in the animal world and in man. He followed up
this line of argument in 1888 with Mental Evolution in Man,
in which he maintained the essential similarity of the reasoning
processes in the higher animals and in man, the highest of all.
In 1892 he brought out an Examination of Weismannism, in
which he upheld the theory of the hereditability of acquired
characters. In 1890 he left London and settled at Oxford,
where he 'founded a lecture similar to the " Rede " of Cam-
bridge, 10 Tje delivered annually on a scientific or literary topic.
In 1893 he published the first part of Darwin and after Danvin,
a work dealing with the development of the theory of organic
evolution, and based on lectures, which he delivered as Fullerian
professor of physiology at the Royal Institution in 1888-91;
a second part appeared in 1895 after his death, which occurred
at Oxford on the 23rd of May 1894.
Romanes was awarded the Burney prize at Cambridge in
1873 for an essay on " Christian Prayer and General Laws."
Five years later, under the pseudonym " Physicus," he issued
A Candid Examination of Theism, in which he showed himself
out of accord with orthodox religious beliefs. In 1882 he
published an article on the " Fallacy of Materialism," and in
his Rede lecture of 1885 he appeared as a monist. Subse-
quently his views again changed in the direction of orthodoxy,
as is shown by his Thoughts on Religion, written shortly before
his death and published in 1895.
His Life and Letters, by his widow, appeared in 1896.
ROMANIN, SAMUELE (1808-1861), Venetian historian, was
born of a poor Jewish family at Trieste. Being left an orphan
at an early age, he provided for his younger brothers and sister
>y giving French anfl German lessons. In 1821 he settled in
/enice, where he afterwards translated Hammer-Purgstall's
leschichte des osmanischen Reiches into Italian. He next pub-
ished his own Storia dei Popoli Europei (Venice, 1843-44).
le taught in a private school and was sworn interpreter in
German to the courts of justice; on the expulsion of the
Austrians in 1848 he was appointed professor of history by
he provisional government, and he lectured on Venetian
listory at the Ateneo Veneto. In 1852 he began to publish
lis monumental Storia documenlata di Venezia, but although he
inished the work, carrying it down to the fall of the republic
n 1798, he did not live to see the publication completed, as
ie died of apoplexy on the gth of September 1861; among his
sapers were found all the documents which were to be added,
526
ROMAN LAW
[REGAL PERIOD
and the index. The tenth and last volume was issued in
1861.
After Romania's death his lectures on Venetian history were
published in two volumes (Florence, 1875). Among his minor
works we may mention: Gli Inqmsiton dt Statp dt Venezta
(Venice, 1858), Bajamonte Tiepolo e le sue ultime vtcende (Venice,
1851), and Venezia nel 1789 (Venice, 1860).
ROMAN LAW. 1 The term " Roman law " is indefinite and
ambiguous, being used in more than one sense. First, in a
wide sense, it comprehends the totality of the laws of the Roman
state, which were observed by its subjects during about thirteen
centuries, from Romulus to Justinian. In a second and stricter
meaning it indicates the law as consolidated by Justinian or,
in other words, the law contained in the Corpus Juris Ciiiilis,
which is the name that has been given since the i6th century
to Justinian's legislative works as a whole, and distinguishes
them from the Corpus Juris Canonici. In this acceptation it
is equivalent to, and is often called, " civil law " as contrasted
with canon law. In a third and loose sense Roman law em-
braces, in addition to the Corpus Juris, the interpretations of it
after Justinian by medieval and modern courts, jurists and
commentators adapting it to the customs and laws of their
own countries and times. The German expression, for example,
modernes (or heuliges) romisches ReM, indicates the Roman
law as it was applied in Germany in modern times. Such
medieval and modern interpretation, however, is also some-
times expressed, in English usage at least, by the term "civil
law " as contrasted with native or common law; writers in
this field being usually styled civilians rather than Romanists.
It is to the Roman law in the first of the above-mentioned three
significations that the present article is devoted.
To give a proper sketch of Roman law it must be treated
historically. Nearly all systems of positive law are the product
more or less of an historic development, but the Roman
has this great advantage over other systems, that it
was at all times a homogeneous body complete in itself.
For the Romans were comparatively little indebted to
other peoples for their jurisprudence, and, when they
did borrow legal ideas and institutions from others, they
generally transformed or modified these in adapting them to
their own native system, so that they became substantially
Roman. Moreover, the various stages of progress of the law
from its genesis to its maturity and ultimate consolidation can
be traced in unbroken continuity. Beginning in 753 B.C., the
traditionally accepted date of the foundation of Rome, it con-
tinued its course till the death of Justinian in A.D. 565. Allow-
ing for the first three centuries being without historic evidence,
we have at least an authenticated evolution of about 1000 years.
Of no other system of law, ancient or modern, can anything
like the same thing be said.
As to the proper method of historic treatment there have
been different opinions. Without going into these, it is enough
to say that the subject may be treated from two sides, viz.
on the one side in relation to the external sources of the law,
including therein the political and social conditions and the
various constitutional changes at different periods affecting
the development of the law, as well as the modes in which the
law manifested itself and the legal literature from which our
knowledge of it is derived; on the other side it may be treated
in relation to the several departments or institutions of the law
in view of their development or changes through time or circum-
stance, such as marriage, slavery, property, and so forth. This
corresponds to what Leibnitz described as external and internal
history respectively, terms which are now rather out of vogue.
Of course it is possible to treat the historic sources of the law,
constitutional and literary, independently of the doctrines, and
this is now often done; but unless both are discussed the field
of Roman law is not covered. Both the external and the
* 'This article represents a recast of the article contributed to
the 9th edition of the Encyclopaedia by the late Professor Muir-
head. A large part of that article has been retained by the present
writer, and the plan of arrangement, though altered in some respects,
has been adhered to in the main.
Necessity
tor
historic
treat-
meat.
historic
epochs.
internal history, however, may be treated together or in a
measure interwoven, and it is in this way that the subject
is treated in the following pages. But constitutional events
affecting the law are only noticed very summarily, details
about these being given in separate articles.
Modern writers on the history of the Roman law have as
a rule, for the purpose of systematic treatment, divided the
subject into definite historic periods. Gibbon, in the Dlvlsloo
44th chapter of his Decline and Fall oj the Roman into
Empire, seems to have been the first to suggest this
mode of treatment, though the particular periods of
division he selected (being based on an artificial symmetry of
about three hundred years each) are not satisfactory. 2 In the
present article, the division made by Muirhead in his article in the
oth edition of this Encyclopaedia into five historic epochs has
been left unaltered. These are: (i) the regal period; (2) ike jus
civile, representing the period from the establishment of the
Republic until the subjugation of central and southern Italy;
(3) ihejus gentium and jus honorarium, representing the latter half
of the Republic; (4) the jus naturale and maturity of Roman
jurisprudence, representing the period of the Empire until the
beginning of the reign of Diocletian; (5) the period of codifica-
tion, i.e. from Diocletian to Justinian. Not that there is any
sharp or fundamental division between these or, indeed, between
any historic epochs. The law is a unity: it has its roots in the
past and grows with the nation itself, and, like it, decays; there
is no break in its continuity. The division is made merely
for convenient treatment of the subject.
It must be kept in view that our knowledge of Roman customs
and laws earlier than the XII. Tables and even for some time
after them cannot be based on strict historical evidence; it is
almost entirely traditional and conjectural, and different writers
will take different views according to the relative value they
place upon this or that piece of presumptive evidence.
It is only the private law that is dealt with in the present
article.
I. THE REGAL PERIOD
i. The People and the Law.
The Beginnings of the Stale. The early Romans were not
different from other Indo-European communities in their
essential characteristics. The tribe, the clan, the family, the
individual: each of these appears in course of development
prior to the XII. Tables. Putting aside much of the traditional
accounts of Livy, Dionysius, and other ancient historians,
regarding the foundation of Rome and its early political and
social life, as mythical, modern critical historians are none the
less agreed that in the earliest period of their existence as a
settled community the Romans were subjected to the govern-
ment of a king (rex), with a council of elders (senatus) and an
assembly of burghers (comitia curiata).
It used to be a somewhat common opinion that the primitive
Romans were a sort of amalgam of three different races Latin,
Sabine and Etruscan. This opinion is mainly based upon the
tradition that the state was originally formed by a union of
three tribes called Ramnes, Tities and Luceres; the Ramnes
being of the Latin race, the Tities of the Sabine and the Luceres
of the Etruscan. Attempts have even been made to find in the
Roman laws and institutions traces of the influence of each of these
races, and especially of the first two patria potestas and manus,
for example, being attributed to the Latin or dominant race;
adoption and confarreation to the Sabine; forms and cere-
monial (such as lictors, fasces, &c.) to the Etruscan. 3 But this
attractive theory of a union of three races, apart from the
suspicion of a symbolic trichotomy (Ires tribus) due to later
times, is based orj. no substantial evidence; 4 many of the
2 See as to historic epochs Muirhead, Hist. Introd. to the Law of
Rome (2nd ed. by Goudy, 1899), p. 421.
3 See Muirhead, Historical Introduction (2nd ed., 1899), pp. 3-5,
and authorities there cited.
4 Some writers deny the existence of the tribes altogether, but
this goes too far. See Bruns-Lenel in Holtzendorff's Encyklo-
pddie d. Rechtswissenschaft, i. p. 86".
REGAL PERIOD]
ROMAN LAW
527
Patri-
cians.
The
gentes.
institutions attributed to the Sabines and Etruscans were, as
Mommsen and others have shown, common to all peoples of
Greek-Italian stock, and could not be strange to the Latins.
We must hold that the Romans were essentially a Latin
race, though influenced by a considerable admixture
with Sabine and, to a lesser degree, Etruscan races (see
ROME).
Patricians, Clients and Plebeians. But whatever their ethno-
graphic descent, it is pretty certain that the Roman civitas
Divisions was in the earliest period an organization that was
of the patriarchal in its essence, but in which there was to be
people. distinguished, on the one hand, a dominant class enjoy-
ing all the rights of citizenship, and, on the other, a semi-servile
or quasi-vassal class excluded from such rights. The former class
were called patricii or Quirites; l the latter were called dientes
and (later) plebeii.
Patricians. There was part of the law of Rome that even in
the Empire was known by the name of jus Quirilium, and this
in the regal period was the only law. The patricians at
first were the Quirites, and prior at least to the time of
Servius Tullius they alone enjoyed rights under this law.
From their number the council of elders was selected; they
alone could take part in the curiate comitia; they alone could
contract a lawful marriage and make a testament; in a word,
all the peculiar institutions of early Rome were for their benefit
alone.
But these rights and prerogatives they enjoyed as members
of gentes or clans, the clans being aggregations of families bear-
ing a common name and theoretically at least tracing
their descent from a common ancestor. These clans, of
which there were normally three hundred altogether
according to a rather doubtful tradition, were organized consti-
tutionally in curies. Of the curies, again, there were thirty in
all, there being probably ten in each of the three tribes, organized
primarily for military and secondarily for political and religious
purposes. Though for the federation of the curiae and gentes
Rome required a common ruler and common institutions,
religious, military and political, yet it was long before such
federation into a state displaced entirely the separate institu-
tions of the several gentes. Every clan had its own cult peculiar
toils own members. It had its common property and its
common burial-place. It probably had some common council
or assembly, for we read not only of special gentile customs,
but of gentile statutes and decrees. Tradition records instances
of wars waged by individual gentes, indicating that they had
the right to require military service alike from their members
and dependants. Widows and orphans of deceased clansmen
were under the guardianship of the gens or of some particular
member of it to whom the trust was specially confided. If a
clansman left no descendants, his property passed to his fellow-
gentiles. Finally, its members were always entitled to rely
upon its assistance, to have maintenance when indigent, to be
ransomed from captivity, and to be avenged when killed or
injured.
Along with the gentiles there were in Rome from the earliest
period other persons known by the name of dientes (clients).
Their origin is wholly unknown. Some of them may
have been the original inhabitants of Rome and their
descendants, but more probably they were mostly immigrants
from other communities or citizens of conquered towns whom
the Romans were unable or unwilling to treat as slaves. Some
may have been slaves to whom liberty de facto had been given.
Following a custom familiar both to Latins and Sabines, such
persons were placed under the protection of the heads of
patrician families. The relationship was hereditary on both
sides, and known as that of patron and client. The client 2
1 The derivation of the name is uncertain, and ancient writers
differed about it. It probably comes either from quiris, a Sabine
word for a spear, or from curia. The derivation from Cures is
inadmissible. See Mommsen, Rom. Staatsrecht (1887, 1888), iii. I,
p. 5 n.
2 The derivation of cliens from cluere indicates the relationship
one who is called on, who hearkens. The theory that clientage
Clients.
became a dependent member of his patron's clan not gentilis
but gentilicius. His patron had to provide him with what
was necessary for his sustenance and that of his family; and,
as ownership or possession of lands increased in extent, it
was probably not unusual for the patron or his gens to give
him during pleasure a plot of land to cultivate for himself.
The patron had, moreover, to assist him in his transactions
with third parties, and obtain redress for him when injured.
The client, on the other hand, had to maintain his patron's
interests by every means in his power. But the advantage
must have been chiefly on the side of the client, who, without
becoming a citizen, obtained directly the protection of his
patron and his clan, and indirectly that of the state. A large
number of clients attached themselves to and received protection
from the king as patron " royal clients," as Cicero calls them.
The plebeians (plebs, from w\rjdos, meaning crowd), as dis-
tinguished from the clients, must be regarded as a hetero-
geneous mass of non-gentile freemen. It used to be _.
the prevailing opinion among modern writers, following
the Roman historians, that the plebeians existed as a body
since the very beginning of the city. They were thought to be
mainly composed of immigrants and refugees who, while being
allowed personal liberty, declined to submit themselves to a
patron. But recently a theory of Mommsen, based on solid
philological and other grounds, has obtained wide adhesion
and tends to become the dominant one. Mommsen's view is
that at first there were only two classes in the community, the
patricians and clients, or, in other words, that' the only plebeians
were the clients who, as such, possessed only quasi-liberty
(Halbfreiheit), and that it was not till after a century or two
that the practice of voluntary clientage began to decay and the
class of plebeian freemen arose. This was partly due to gentes
dying out, so that the clients attached to them were left without
patrons; partly to the numbers of foreigners at Rome (through
transplantation of the inhabitants of conquered cities and
otherwise) having become so large that they felt themselves
sufficiently powerful to do without protection; and partly to
other causes. 3
However this be, it is generally admitted that, during the
latter part of the present epoch at least, plebeians existed
as a body composed of individuals of mixed races not united
by any gentile organizations of their own nor attached to any
Roman gentes. Tradition attributes to Numa the formation
of gilds or societies of craftsmen, such as potters, carpenters,
gold- and silver-smiths (collegia opificum) at Rome, eight or
nine in number. This, though probably a myth as regards
Numa, may be taken as slight evidence of the creation among
the plebeians of associations for trade and other purposes,
that to some extent compensated them for the want of gentile
organization. These gilds seem to have had a common cult
and a common council to arrange disputes and consolidate
customs. Between the brethren (sodales) there was a bond
of close alliance and interdependence, each owing duty to
the other similar to what might be claimed from a guest or a
kinsman.
The Regulative* of Public and Private Order. It would be
absurd to expect any definite system of law in those early times.
What passed for it was a composite of fas, jus and boni mores,
whose several limits and characteristics it is extremely difficult
to define. This may to some extent be accounted for by the
fact that much of what was originally within the domain of
fas, once it had come to be enforced by secular tribunals, and
thus had the sanction of human authority, was no longer
distinguishable from jus; while it may be that others of its
behests, once pontifical punishments for their contravention
had gone into desuetude, sank to nothing higher than precepts
of boni mores.
arose from the voluntary subjection of poorer citizens to the rich
is an hypothesis supported by no satisfactory authority.
* Mommsen, Staatsrecht, iii. I, pp. 66 scq. and pp. 127 seq. For a
different view, Karlowa, Rom. Rechtsgeschichte, \. 62. Cf. Cuq, Instii.
jurid. des Remains (2nd ed., 1904-8), i. 11-12.
ROMAN LAW
[REGAL PERIOD
Jus.
By fas 1 was understood the will of the gods, the laws given
by heaven for men on earth, much of it regulative of ceremonial,
but a by no means insignificant part embodying rules
of conduct. It appears to have had a wider range
than jus. It forbade that a war should be undertaken without
the prescribed fetial ceremonial, and required that faith should
be kept even with an enemy when a promise had been made
to him under sanction of an oath. It enjoined hospitality to
foreigners, because the stranger guest was presumed, equally
with his entertainer, to be an object of solicitude to a higher
power. It punished murder, for it was the taking of a god-
given life; the sale of a wife by her husband, for she had
become his partner in all things human and divine; the lifting
of a hand against a parent, for it was subversive of the first
bond of society and religion, the reverence due by a child
to those to whom he owed his existence; incestuous connexions,
for they defiled the altar; the false oath and the broken vow,
for they were an insult to the divinities invoked; the dis-
placement of a boundary or a landmark, not so much because
the act was provocative of feud, as because the march-stone
itself, as the guarantee of peaceful neighbourhood, was under
the guardianship of the gods. Some breaches of fas were
expiable, usually by a peace-offering to the offended god;
others were inexpiable. When an offence was inexpiable,
the punishment was usually what is called sacratio capilis,
excommunication and outlawry of the offender. The precepts
of the fas therefore were not mere exhortations to a blameless
life, but closely approached to laws, whose violation was
visited with punishments none the less effective that they
were religious rather than civil.
The derivation of the word jus is disputed. The usual deri-
vation is from the Sanskrit, ju, to " join, bind or unite," from
which some deduce as its signification " that which
binds," " the bond of society," others " that which
is regular, orderly or fitting." Breal identifies it with the
jos or jaiis of the Vedas, and the jaes or jaos of the Zend-
Avesta words whose exact meaning is controverted, but
which he interprets as " divine will or power." 2 If Breal's
definition can be adopted we obtain a very significant inter-
pretation of the words addressed by the presiding magistrate
to the assembled comitia in asking them whether they assented
to a law proposed by him, Velitis, jubeatis, Quirites, &c.,
" Is it your pleasure, Quirites, and do you hold it as the divine
will, that," and so on. As legislation by the comitia of the
curies and centuries was regarded as a divine office, and their
vote might be nullified by the fathers on the ground that there
had been a defect in the auspicia, and the will of the gods
consequently not clearly ascertained, this explanation of
Breal's seems not without support, vox gopuli vox dei. If it
be right, then the main difference between fas and jus was
that the will of the gods, which both embodied, was in the
one declared by inspired and in the other by merely human
agency.
This ./MS might be the result either of traditional and inveter-
ate custom (jus moribus conslitutitm) or of statute (lex). s As
to the customs, it can well be believed that at the outset they
were far from uniform ; that not only the customs of the
three original tribes but those also of the different gentes varied,
1 Breal derives fas from the Greek 0M- It signifies the divinely
inspired word. Breal et Bailly, 101.
2 Nouv. rev. hist. (1883), p. 605. But see J. Schmidt in Mommsen,
Staatsrecht, iii. 310 n.
3 For the distinction between jus and lex, see Mitteis, Romisches
Privatrecht (1908), i. 30 seq. There is some controversy about
the etymology of the word lex. See Breal, I.e. p. 610; Schmidt
in Mommsen, S.R. iii. 308 n. While lex is often used like jus
to express law generally, it early acquired two distinct meanings,
viz. (i) an obligation of any kind expressly incorporated in a
private deed (lex privata), as in the phrases lex mancipii, lex
contractus, &c. ; (2) a comitial enactment, hence occasionally
called lex publica (Gaius, i. 3 and ii. 104). But by the jurists
of the Republic this latter meaning was extended so as to cover
all laws resulting from the will of the people, including, for
example, plebiscites and even senatorial or proconsular ordinances
(leges datae).
and that they only gradually approximated, and in course
of time consolidated into a general jus Quiriliunt. Of
legislation there was, so far as is known, practically almost
nothing
What went by the name of boni mores (as distinct from
jus moribus constitutum) must also be regarded as one of the
regulatives of public and private order Part of what
fell within their sphere might also be expressly
regulated by Jas or jus; but there was much that
was only gradually, brought within the domain of these last,
and even down to the end of the Republic not a little that
remained solely under the guardianship of the family tribunal
or the censor's regimen morum. The functions of those who
took charge of boni mores were twofold: sometimes they
restrained by publicly condemning though they could not
prevent the ruthless and unnecessary exercise of legal right,
as, for example, that of the head of the house over his depend-
ants, and sometimes they supplied deficiencies in the law by
requiring observance of duties that could not be enforced by
any legal process. Dutiful service, respect and obedience
from inferiors to superiors, chastity, and fidelity to engagements,
express or implied (fides), were among the officia that were
thus inculcated, and whose neglect or contravention not only
affected the reputation, but often entailed punishments and
disabilities, social, political or religious. It was the duty of
those in authority to enforce their observance by such
animadversio as they thought proper the paterfamilias in
his family, the gens among its members, the king in relation
to the citizens generally; and many a wrong was prevented
not by fear of having to make reparation to the party injured
but by the dread of the penalties that would follow conduct
unbecoming an upright citizen.
That the bulk of the law during the regal period was
customary is universally admitted, and that no laws were
committed to writing prior to the XII. Tables is
generally believed. Yet the jurist Pomponius, a
contemporary of Hadrian, speaks of certain laws
enacted by the comitia of the curies, which he calls leges regiae
and which, he says, were collected by one Sextus Papirius,
a prominent citizen in the reign of Tarquinius Superbus, under
the name of Jus Papirianum.* We are also told by Paul
that this work was commented on by a certain Granius Flaccus, 5
who was, it is supposed, of the time of Julius Caesar or Augustus.
No remains of this Jus Papirianum are extant, but we Have a
considerable number of so-called leges regiae cited by Livy,
Dionysius and others, which contain rules of the private
law relating almost entirely to matters of fas and which appear
to have been enacted under the kings We are also told by
Servius, the commentator on Virgil, that there was a work
known to Virgil called de Ritu Sacrorum, in which leges regiae
were collected. 6 The authenticity of these laws, however,
is disputed, and the question is one of difficulty. Some modern
writers of high authority (e.g. Mommsen hold that the Jus
Papirianum is an apocryphal compilation made from ponti-
fical records about the close of the Republic. 7 It has even
been attributed (the suggestion was first made apparently by
Gibbon) to Granius Flaccus himself. Nevertheless, the internal
evidence from the character and language of the laws them-
selves (apart from the weight that must be given to the testimony
of Pomponius, Servius and other ancient writers) is favourable
to their great antiquity, and it is best to accept the view that
the leges regiae are authentic remains of laws of the regal
period. This does not, however, involve the belief that they
were collected by Papirius, nor that they were enactments
of the comitia curiata, as Pomponius says. They seem rather
to have been regulations made by the king at his own hand.
4 Dig. i. 2. 2, 2 and 36. In the latter passage Papirius is given
the praenomen Publius.
5 Dig. 1. 16, 144.
6 Serv., in Aeneid, 12, 836, cited in Bruns, Fontes, p. 3.
7 It has been suggested that a work of the jurist Manilius men-
tioned by Pomponius (Dig. i. 2. 2, 39) is its source (Zeitschrifl d.
Sav. Stift. xxiv. 420).
REGAL PERIOD]
ROMAN LAW
529
or perhaps old-established customs formulated by the higher
pontiffs and ascribed to the kings. 1
It is also stated by Dionysius that under Servius Tullius
various laws, fifty in number, dealing with contracts and delicts,
were enacted in the comitia of the curies. 2 But we have no
corroboration of this, and recent writers are now generally
agreed in regarding the statement as a legend.
ii. Reforms of Servius Tullius.
It is generally agreed that towards the end of the regal
period, and connected with the king traditionally called Servius
Tullius, a great reform of the constitution took place, which
exercised much influence on the subsequent development of
the law. No doubt there is a good deal of myth attached to
the name of Servius, who seems to have been regarded by later
Romans as a popular monarch, like Alfred by the English, but
the main features of the traditional account of the constitutional
reforms of this period may be taken as based on fair presumptive
evidence. That all of them indeed were evolved from one
brain is hardly credible, and that some of them were in observ-
ance de facto before being made constitutionally binding is
very likely.
The design attributed to Servius was that of altering the old
constitution in order to promote an advance towards equality
between patricians and plebeians. He is credited with having
desired, on the one hand, to ameliorate the position of the
plebs and, on the other, to make them bear a proportionate
share of the burdens of the state in particular, to serve in
the army and contribute to the war tax (tribulum). He effected
this by giving them qualified rights of citizenship, not indeed
by admitting them into the gentile organizations, but by creat-
ing a new political assembly of a distinctly military character
in which they as well as the gentiles could take part. The
so-called Servian reforms may be roughly summarized under
the following four heads, viz. (i) a division of the Roman
territory within the city walls into four local wards called
tribus (to which a number of tribes outside the city tribus
rusticae were afterwards in course of time added); (2) the
establishment of a register of the citizens (census) which was
to contain, in addition to a record of the strength of their
families, a statement of the value of their lands, with the slaves
and cattle employed in their cultivation, and which was to be
revised periodically; (3) a division of the people, as appearing
in the census, into five classes for military purposes, determined
by the value of their holdings in land and its appurtenances,
with a subdivision of each class into so-called centuriae; (4) the
creation of a new assembly with legislative power called comitia
centuriala, in which the vote was to be taken by centuriae.
While it may be an open question how far these reforms, and
particularly the institution of the centuriate comitia, were
actually due to Servius, or only a result of his arrangements,
the whole conception of the new constitution is obviously of
early date and indicative of considerable statesmanship.
The plebeians were thereby made constitutionally part of
the populus Romanus; they became citizens (Qitirites) . 3 They
got commercium and also connubium so far that their marriages
inter se were recognized as legal marriages. Rights and duties
l See Clark, Hist, of Rom. Law (1906), i. 16-19; Kipp, Geschichte
d. Quellen (1903), pp. 24-25. The most comprehensive treatise
on these royal laws, which also contains references to the earlier
literature, is that of yoigt, fiber die Leges Regiae (Leipzig, 1876).
An exhaustive collection of them, including numerous references
to royal institutions by Livy, Dionysius and others, is given in
Brims, Ponies Juris, 6th ed. i. I seq. Another collection is in
Girard, Textes, 3rd ed. pp. 3 seq.
2 Dion. iv. 10, 13.
* The view of some recent writers that the plebeians had at all
times participated in the jus Quiritium and were admitted to the
curiate comitia and even had gentile rights (see Lenel in Holt-
zendorff's Encyklopadie d. Rechtswissenschaft, 6th ed. i. 90 nn.
I, 2, and authorities there cited), must be decidedly negatived.
Not only does it render the whole tradition about the Servian
reforms untrustworthy, but the accounts of the struggles between
patricians and plebs in the early Republic are left largely without
meaning.
were so far to be measured by each citizen's position as a holder
of lands; the amount of land (including slaves and cattle
appurtenant thereto) 4 held by him on quiritarian title was
to determine the nature of the military service he was to render,
the tribute he was to pay, and his right to take part in the new
political assembly. It is indeed probable that a good while
before Servius the conception of individual ownership of lands
and things necessary for their cultivation had been reached,
and that such ownership was recognized not only among the
gentiles, but also de facto even more largely among the plebeians.
The common lands of the gentes had become split up, to a
considerable extent, among families and individuals. However
this be, the creation of the census ensured, as far as possible,
certainty of title, as it was declared that no transfers of property
enrolled in it would be recognized unless made by public con-
veyance with observance of certain prescribed formalities.*
The form of conveyance thus legally sanctioned was called
originally mancupium, afterwards mancipium, and at a still
later period mancipatio, while the lands and other things that
were to pass by it came to be known as res mancipii(oi mancipi).
Hence arose a distinction of great importance in the law of
property (which lasted till Justinian formally abolished it),
between res mancipi and res nee mancipi; the former being
transferable only by mancipation or surrender in court, the
latter by simple delivery (see infra, p. 541).
iii. Institutions of the Private Law.
Law of the Family." The word familia in Roman law had
at once a more extensive and a more limited meaning than
it has in its English form. Husband, wife and The
children did not necessarily constitute an independ- patrkiaa
ent family among the Romans, as with us, nor were t**Hy-
they all necessarily of the same one. Those formed a family
who were all subject to the power originally manus? later
potestas or jus of the same head (paterfamilias). The pater-
familias was himself a member of the family only in the sense
in which a king is a member of the community over which
he rules. He might have a whole host dependent on him,
wife and sons and daughters, and daughters-in-law and grand-
children by his sons, and possibly remoter descendants related
through males; so long as they remained subject to him
they constituted but one family, that was split up only on his
death or loss of citizenship. But if his wife had not passed in
manum (a result apparently unknown among the patricians at
this period), she did not become a member of his family: she
remained a member of the family in which she was born, or,
if its head were deceased or she had been emancipated, she
constituted a family in her own person. Both sons and
4 Modern writers are not agreed as to whether movable res
mancipi were included with lands in the valuation of property
for fixing the classes.
6 Or else by cessio in jure, though this may not have been before
the XII. Tables, and it was in any case of very limited operation.
6 On tribal family and matriarchate among the Romans in pre-
historic times, consult Westermarck, History of Human Marriage
(London, 1891); Post, Grundriss der ethnologischen Jurisprudent
(1894), i. 15-160. Familia and family are used in this section
solely to designate the group of free persons subject by birth,
marriage or adoption to the same paterfamilias. Strictly the word
familia meant the household and all belonging to it. It had also
the following principal meanings: (i) a gens or branch of a gens
(group of families in the stricter sense); (2) the whole body of
agnatic kinsmen (familia communi jure) ; (3) the family estate
or patrimonium, as in the provisions of the XII. Tables about
intestate succession, e.g. adgnatus proximus familiam habeto;
(4) the family slaves collectively, as in the phrase familia rustics.
See Mpmmsen, Staatsr. iii. 10 n. 16 n. 22; Rivier, Precis du droil
de famille romain (Paris, 1891), I.
7 This word manus, though in progress of time used technically
to express the power (hand) of a husband over his wife in familia,
was originally the generic term for all the rights exercised, not only
over the things belonging but also over the persons subject to the
head of the house as seen, for example, in the words " manu-
mission " and -" emancipation." Cf. Inst. i. 5 pr. It should be
observed that among uncivilized peoples there is always a very
small vocabulary, and the same word often has to do duty in several
senses e.g. familia, mancipium, nexum, caput.
530
ROMAN LAW
[REGAL PERIOD
daughters on emancipation ceased to be of the family of the
paterfamilias who had emancipated them. A daughter's
children could never as such be members of the family of their
maternal grandfather; for children born in lawful marriage
followed the family of their father, while those who were illegiti-
mate ranked from the moment of birth as patresfamilias and
matresfamilias.
With the early Romans, as with the Hindus and the Greeks,
marriage was a religious duty a man owed alike to his ancestors
Marri e ancl to himself. Believing that the happiness of the
dead in another world depended on their proper
burial and on the periodical renewal by their descendants of
prayers and feasts and offerings for the repose of their souls, it
was incumbent upon him above all things to perpetuate his
race and his family cult. The Romans were always strictly
monogamous. In taking to himself a wife, he was about to
detach her from her father's house and make her a partner of
his family mysteries. With the patrician at least this was to
be done only with divine approval, ascertained by auspicia.
His choice was limited to a woman with whom he had connubium
(imyania) or right of intermarriage. This was a matter of
state arrangement; and in the regal period Roman citizens
could have it outside their own bounds only with members of
states with which they were in alliance, and with which they
were connected by the bond of common religious observances.
A patrician citizen, therefore, if his marriage was to be reckoned
lawful (justae nuptiae), had to wed either a fellow-patrician or
a woman who was a member of an allied community. In either
case it was essential that she should be outside his sobrinal
circle, i.e. more remote in kinship than the sixth degree. The
ceremony was a religious one, conducted by the chief pontiff
and the flamen of Jupiter, in presence of ten witnesses, repre-
sentatives probably of the ten curies of the bridegroom's tribe,
and was known as farreum or confarrealio. Its effect was to
dissociate the wife entirely from her father's house, and to make
her a member of her husband's; for confarreate marriage in-
volved in manum conventio, the passage of the wife into her
husband's " hand" or power, provided he was himself pater-
familias; if he was not, then, though nominally in his hand,
she was really subject like him to his family head. Any pro-
perty she had of her own which was possible only if she had
been independent before marriage passed to him as a matter
of course; if she had none, her paterfamilias usually provided
her a dowry (dos), which shared the same fate. In fact, so far
as her patrimonial interests were concerned, she was in much
the same position as her children; and on her husband's death
she had a share with them in his inheritance as if she had been
one of his daughters. In other respects manus conferred more
limited rights than patria potestas; for Romulus is said to have
ordained that, if a man put away his wife except for adultery
or one or two other grave offences, he forfeited his estate half
to her and half to Ceres, while if he sold her he was to be given
over to the infernal gods. 1
Patria potestas was the name given to the power exercised
by a father, or by his paterfamilias if he was himself in potestate,
over the issue of such justae nuptiae. The Roman
potestas. Jurists boasted that it was a right enjoyed by none
but Roman citizens; and it certainly was peculiar to
them in this sense, that nowhere else, except perhaps among
the Latin race from which they had sprung, did the paternal
power attain such an intensity. The omnipotence of the
paterfamilias and the condition of utter subjection to him of
his children in potestate became greatly modified in the course
of centuries; but originally the children, though in public
'See Plutarch, Rom. 22; Marquardt, Rom. Altert. v. 7. The
question whether a husband could in early law sell his wife is one
on which modern writers are not agreed. The better opinion is
that he could not do so if the marriage was by confarreation. Apart
from the lex regia above mentioned, it would have been incon-
sistent with her dignity as materfamilias. There, is certainly no
trace of its having been done. In marriages by coemption and
usus, on the other hand, it is not improbable that it was allowed,
though here also there is no evidence of it.
life on an equality with the house-father, in private life, and so
long as the poteslas lasted, were subordinated to him to such
an extent as, according to the letter of the law, to be in his hands
little better than his slaves. They could have nothing of their
own: all they earned was his; and, though it was quite common
when they grew up for him to give them peculia, " cattle of their
own," to manage for their own benefit, these were only de facto
theirs, but de jure his. For offences committed by them outside
the family circle, for which he was not prepared to make
amends, he had to surrender them to the injured party, just
like slaves or animals that had done mischief. If his right to
them was disputed, he used the same action for its vindication
that he employed for asserting his ownership of his field or his
house: if they were stolen, he proceeded against the thief by
an ordinary action of theft; if for any reason he had to transfer
them to a third party, it was by the same form of conveyance
that he used for the transfer of things inanimate. Nor was
this all; for, according to the old formula recited in that sort
of adoption known as adrogation, he had over them the power
of life and death, jus vitae mcisque.
It might happen that a marriage was fruitless, or that a
man saw all his sons go to the grave before him, and that
the paterfamilias had thus to face the prospect of the Adroga-
extinction of his family and of his own descent to tiooaoa
the tomb without posterity to make him blessed. To ad P tloa -
obviate so dire a misfortune, he resorted to the practice of
adoption, so common in India and Greece. If it was a pater-
familias that he adopted, the process was called adrogation
(adrogalio); if it was a filiusfamilias it was simply adoptio.
The latter, unknown probably in the earlier regal period, was,
as we first know it, a somewhat complicated conveyance of
a son by his natural parent to his adopter, the purpose of course
being expressed; its effect was simply to transfer the child
from the one family to the other. But the former was much
more serious, for it involved the extinction of one family that
another might be perpetuated. It was therefore an affair of
state. It had to be approved by the pontiffs, who probably
had to satisfy themselves that there were relatives of the adro-
gatee to attend to the manes of the ancestors whose cult he was
renouncing; and on their favourable report it had to be sanc-
tioned by a vote of the curies, as it involved the deprivation
of his gens of their possible right of succession to him and
possible prejudice to creditors through capitis deminutio. If
it was sanctioned, then the adrogatus, from being himself the head
of a house, sank to the position of a filiusfamilias in the house
of his adopting parent ; if he had had wife or children subject
to him, they passed with him into his new family, and so did
everything that belonged to him and that was capable of
transmission from one person to another. The adopting
parent acquired poteslas over the adopted child exactly as if
he were the issue of his body; while the latter enjoyed in his
new family the same rights exactly that he would have had if
he had been born in it.
The manus and the patria potestas represent the masterful
aspects of the patrician's domestic establishment. Its conjugal
and parental ones, however, though not so prominent
in the pages of the jurists, are not to be lost sight of.
The patrician family in the early history of the law was
governed as much by fas as by jus. The husband was priest
in the family, but wife and children alike assisted in its prayers,
and took part in the sacrifices to its lares and penates. As the
Greek called his wife the house-mistress, Stviroiva, so did the
Roman speak of his as materfamilias? the house-mother. She
was treated as her husband's equal. As for their children, the
poteslas was so tempered by the natural sense of parental duty
on the one side and filial affection on the other that in daily life
it was rarely felt as a grievance; while the risk of an arbitrary
exercise of the domestic jurisdiction, whether in the heat of
passion or under the impulse of justifiable resentment, was
2 Materfamilias is used in the texts in two distinct senses
(i) as a woman sui juris, i.e. not subject to any family head;
and (2) as a wife in manu mariti.
REGAL PERIOD]
ROMAN LAW
guarded against by the rule which required in grave cases the
paterfamilias to consult in the first place the near kinsmen of his
child, maternal as well as paternal. Even the incapacity of the
children of the family to acquire property of their own cannot
in those times have been regarded as any serious hardship; for,
though the legal title to all their acquisitions was in the house-
father during his life, yet in truth they were acquired for and
belonged to the family as a whole, and he was little more than
a trustee to hold and administer them for the common benefit.
The patria poleslas, unless the paterfamilias voluntarily put
an end to it, lasted as long as he lived and retained his status.
The marriage of a son, unlike that of a daughter passing into
the hand of a husband, did not release him from it, nor did his
children become subject to him so long as he himself was in
potestale. On the contrary, his wife passed on marriage into
the power of her father-in-law, and their children as they were
born fell under that of their paternal grandfather; and the
latter was entitled to exercise over his daughters-in-law and
grandchildren the same rights that he had over his sons and un-
married daughters. But there was this difference, that, when
the paler-familias died, his sons and daughters who had re-
mained in polestate and his grandchildren by a predeceased son
instantly became their own masters (sui juris), whereas grand-
children by a surviving son simply passed from the potestas of
their grandfather into that of their father.
The acquisition of domestic independence by the death of
the family head frequently involved the substitution of the
Guard- guardianship of tutors (tutela) for the poleslas that
laaship had come to an end. This was so invariably
of tutors. j n t ne case o f females sui juris, no matter what
their age: they remained under guardianship until they had
passed by marriage in manum mariti. It was only during
pupillarity, however, that males required tutors, and their
office came to an end when puberty was attained. It is im-
probable that during the regal period a testamentary appoint-
ment of tutors by a husband or parent to wife or children was
known in practice. In the absence of it the office devolved
upon the gens to which the deceased paterfamilias belonged.
1 Family Organization among the Plebeians. If perfect identity
of customs cannot be assumed to have existed amongst the
patrician gentes in the regal period of Rome, far less
can it be supposed to have existed amongst the hetero-
geneous population (Latins, Etruscans, Greeks, &c.)
of which the plebs was constituted. Nevertheless, contiguity
of residence and community of interests tend inevitably to
unify customs and cause dissimilarities to disappear, and the
plebeians must have not only gradually brought their own
customs into unison inter se, but adapted them at the same
time in many respects to those of the patricians. Even to
ihose of non-Latin race manus over their wives and potestas
over their children would become a desideratum. Though
the plebeians seem to have been always excluded from con-
farreation, and their matrimonial unions must have been at
first informal and irregular from the point of view of the Quirites,
two civil modes of acquiring marital manus were available to
them after they obtained citizenship, viz. coemptio and uszis.
Some writers hold that neither of these modes was legally
recognized prior to the XII. Tables. 1 This may be so, but it
is improbable. As the plebeians obtained by the Servian
constitution full capacity for quiritarian ownership, it was at
once open to them to adapt the modes sanctioned for acquiring
property to the acquisition of marital manus. Coemptio was
just a simple adaptation of mancipation above referred to
(see also infra, p. 540). It was, as we may infer from what we
know of it at a later time, a sale of the woman to the man per
aes et libram for a nominal price. The price being fictitious,
a piece of copper (raudusculum) was used to represent it, and
this was handed over to the seller, who would ordinarily be
the woman's paterfamilias, or, if she were sui juris, her gentile
tutor. The nuncupatory words used in the ceremony have
unfortunately not been preserved; necessarily, of course, they
1 See as to coemptio, Cuq, Institutions juridiques, 2nd ed., i. p. 62.
Plebeian
family.
varied from those of an ordinary mancipation of property. 1
Though called by the jurists a mode of constituting marriage,
coemptio, as we know it, was strictly a mode of creating manus;
for, though usually contemporaneous with, it might, as Gaius
informs us, follow the marriage at any distance of time, and
was not dissolved by divorce, but required a separate act of
remancipation. Students of comparative law have observed
that in coemptio there are clear traces of earlier bride purchase,
so common even nowadays among uncivilized tribes, where a
real price in cattle or sheep, and not a mere nominal one, has
to be paid for the bride. Usus, on the other hand, was a mode
of acquiring marital manus by possession of the woman as wife
for a certain period of time long cohabitation.* Whether this
was recognized by the law prior to the XII. Tables depends
probably upon whether usucaption, as a mode of acquiring
property, was settled by custom earlier than the Tables. Some
writers, however, think it older than coemptio, and as a de
facto relation prolonged cohabitation as man and wife must
have existed from very early times. Comparative historians
with good reason trace in usus the relics of primitive bride
capture. Both coemption and usus, from the time they were
first recognized by the jus Quirilium, undoubtedly created
patria potestas and agnatic rights.
Law of Property.* The history of the early Roman com-
munity, like many other primitive communities, is marked by
the disintegration of the gentes and the growth of Property
individual property. Yet the distribution of land i a land.
amongst the early Romans is one of the guzzling Patri-
problems of their history. The Servian constitution C * M -
apparently classified the citizens and determined their privi-
leges, duties and burdens according to the extent of their
lands; and yet we know nothing for certain of the way in
which these were acquired. All is conjectural. We have
indeed a traditional account of a partition by Romulus of the
little territory of his original settlement into three parts, one
of which was devoted to the maintenance of the state and its
institutions, civil and religious, the second (ager publicus) to
the use of the citizens and profit of the state, and the third
(ager privalus) subdivided among his followers. Varro and
Pliny relate that to each paterfamilias among his followers
he assigned a homestead (heredium) of two jugera, equal to
about an acre and a quarter. These heredia were to be held
by him and his heirs for ever (quae hercdem sequerenlur); Pliny
adding that to none did the king give more. This can only
be accepted as a partially correct account of what may have
taken place at some early period during the kingly regime.
There can be little doubt that a portion of the Roman ter-
ritory, gradually augmented through new conquests, was early
reserved by the state as ager publicus; that is sufficiently
attested by the complaints made for centuries by the plebeians
of its monopolization by the patricians. It is also probable
that heredia (i.e. plots of land within the city) may have been
granted to the heads of the gentile families, many of whom
would be living in pagi on their respective gentile lands outside
the city. Such heredia became family property, administered
as such by the paterfamilias, but inalienable by him. In this
respect the position would be very similar to what existed
among the ancient Germans and exists to-day in India among
the Hindus. Even late in the Republic, when the idea of
5 One or two writers of the later Empire (e.g. Servius, in Georg.
i. 31) describe coemptio as a mutual purchase, the man and woman
taking alternately the position of emptor and using nuncupatory
words as such; but this seems to be a misapprehension and not
consistent with what Gaius says. See the arguments in favour
of it in Muirhead, Historical Introduction, 2nd ed. pp. 414-415.
Girard, Manuel, 4th ed. p. 150, gives a probable explanation of
the mistake of these late authors.
3 It would thus cure defects in a coemption just as usucaption
did defects in mancipation.
4 See Giraud, Recherches sur le droit de propriiU chez Its Romains
(Aix, 1838); Mac, Histoire de la propriite &c., chez les Romains
(Paris, 1851); Hildebrand, De antiquissimae aeri Romani distri-
butionis fide (Jena, 1862); Cuq, Instil, jurid., 2nd ed., vol. i. pp. 72
seq. ; Beaudouin, La Limitation desfonds de terre (1894), pp. 259 seq.
532
ROMAN LAW
[REGAL PERIOD
individual ownership was paramount, it was still considered a
disgrace for a man to alienate his heredium. But though the
existence of monogamous families seems to imply private
ownership to some extent, yet, as formerly indicated, a large
part of the Roman territory at, and for a good while after,
the foundation of the city must have been gentile lands held
by the separate clans for the use of their members. The fact
that the majority of the rural tribes bore the names of well-
known patrician genles favours the conclusion that even in the
later regal period a good many of the clans still held lands
in their collective capacity. It was at some uncertain time
before Servius that there began to be a break-up of these gentile
lands and their appropriation by individual members. Under
the influence of this movement lands were acquired and held
by families and individuals to a large extent. A patrician's
holding must have been sometimes pretty large so as to enable
him to make grants (so often alluded to by ancient writers)
to his clients, but we have no means of estimating the normal
size. The hercdia were small; even during the Republic there
is some evidence (e.g. the traditional story about Cincinnatus)
that seven jugera were regarded as the normal extent of a
patrician's holding for his own and his family's use. On the
other hand, twenty jugera are commonly supposed to have
been the qualification for enrolment in the first of the Servian
classes. Of course it must be kept in view that a patrician
did not necessarily hold all his lands by gratuitous assignation
or concession either from the state or from his gens; purchase
from the former was by no means uncommon, and it may
have been on his purchased lands that his clients were usually
placed. Those dependants were also probably employed in
large numbers upon those parts of the ager publicus which were
occupied by the patricians and were in historic times known
as possessiones. These, of course, were not the property of
their occupants; it was the lands acquired by assignation or
purchase that were alone, apart from the heredia, regarded as
theirs ex jure Quiritium.
The traditional accounts of the early distribution of lands
among the plebeians are even, if possible, more vague than those
Property regarding the patricians. They had apparently become
la land holders de facto of land in large numbers before the
among Servian reforms. But they can have attained that
plebeians. p OS ;t; on on ]y by gradual stages. While their earliest
grants of land, probably from the kings, can only have
been during pleasure, latterly, as they increased in number and
importance, they were allowed to have permanent possession.
That those who had means also acquired lands by purchase
from the state may be taken for granted. The distinction
between de facto possession and ownership was at best a very
vague one at this period, and, like the holders of provincial
lands in later times, the plebeians might have the benefits of
ownership without ownership. The result of the Servian con-
stitution was to convert this de facto property or permanent
possession into quiritarian ownership. 1
There are some writers who maintain that in the regal period,
prior to the Servian reforms, though after the collective owner-
Property ship of the gentes had begun to disintegrate, there
la mov- was no private property in movables. This proposi-
abies. t j on can a( . most be acc epted only in a qualified sense.
If it be meant that movables generally were not then recognized
as objects of quiritarian dominium which could be vindicated
by any real action, it may be admitted. But otherwise the
distinction between meum and tuum must have been well
recognized, de facto at least. Men must have been in the habit
of transferring things from one to another by simple delivery
in respect of barter, sale or otherwise, and any violent or
" theft uous " appropriation of things in a man's occupation
would be punished by magisterial authority or by ordinary
self-redress by the injured party. A sort of ownership in
1 On this question of land-holding among the early patricians
and plebeians, consult Cuq, Institutions juridiques des Remains,
2nd ed., vol. i. pp. 73-76; Bourcart (French translation of Muir-
head's Historical Introduction), p. 580, and authorities there cited.
possession must at least have been recognized for movables
generally. 2
But apart from this, we must believe that certain kinds of
movables, viz. those which have been described as appurtenant
to land and necessary for its cultivation which with land
formed the real objects, as distinct from the personal subjects,
of the familia were treated from the time of Romulus down-
wards, as in manu of the patresfamilias. These were the res
mancipi already referred to. Quiritarian ownership in them,
as we have seen, was recognized both for patricians and plebs
by the Servian constitution, periodical registration of them in
the census and transference by the quasi-public act of manci-
pation being probably required. Earlier even than with lands,
the conception of private ownership, it has been said, connected
itself with them. 3
A short explanation may now be given of the ceremony of man-
cipation and the nature of res mancipi.
Mancipation is described by Gaius, with particular reference
to the conveyance of movable res mancipi, as a pretended sale in
presence of not less than five citizens as witnesses and a
libripens holding a pair of copper scales. The transferee, ' ' aac 'P a -
with one hand on the thing being transferred, and using *""*
certain words of style, declared it his by purchase with a piece
of copper (which he held in his other hand) and the scales (hoc oere
aeneoque libra) ; and simultaneously he struck the scales with the
as, which he then handed to the transferrer as figurative of the
price. The principal variation when it was. an immovable that
was being transferred was that the mancipation did not require
to be on the spot : the land was simply described by its known name
in the valuation roll. Although in the time of Gaius only a fictitious
sale in fact the formal conveyance upon a relative contract yet
it was not always so. Its history is very simple. The use ol the
scales fixes its introduction at a time when coined money was
not yet current, but raw copper nevertheless had become a standard
of value and in a manner a medium of exchange. That, however,
was not in the first days of Rome. Then, and for a long time,
values were estimated in cattle or sheep, fines were imposed in
them, and the deposits in the kgis actio sacramento (infra, p. 549)
took the same form. The use of copper as a substitute for them
in private transactions was probably derived from Etruria. But,
being only raw metal or foreign coins, it could be made available
for loans or payments only when weighed in the scales: it passed
by weight, not by tale. There is no reason for supposing that
the weighing was a solemnity, that it had any significance beyond
its obvious purpose of enabling parties to ascertain that a vendor
or borrower was getting the amount of copper for which he had
bargained.
It was this practice of everyday life in private transactions that
Servius apparently adopted as the basis of his mancipatory con-
veyance, engrafting on it one or two new features intended to give
it publicity and, as it were, state sanction, and thus render it more
serviceable in the transfer of censuable property. Instead of the
parties themselves using the scales, an impartial balance-holder,
probably an official, was required to undertake the duty, and at
least five citizens were required to attend as witnesses, who were
to be the vouchers to the census officials of the regularity of the
procedure. Whether they were intended as representatives of
the five classes in which Servius had distributed the population,
and thus virtually of the state, is disputed, though the fact that,
when the parties appealed to them for their testimony, they were
addressed not as testes but as Quirites lends some colour to this
view. 4 Servius is also credited with the introduction of rectangular
pieces of copper of different but carefully adjusted weights, stamped
by his authority with various devices (aes signatum), which are
2 The position of the plebeians in this respect did not differ
from that of the patricians.
3 Mancipation seems to have been a very ancient mode of con-
veyance. The use of the balance in barter or sale was known to
the ancient Egyptians at least as early as 2000 B.C., as may be
seen on reliefs in the temple of Dehr-el-Bahri in Upper Egypt.
The derivation of mancipium (mancipatio) from manu capere, to
seize with the hand, is given by Gaius and is confirmed by the fact
that at all times in its history the acquirer had to lay his hand on
the thing being acquired, during the ceremony, if a movable. So
where several things were being mancipated in a lot, this had to
be done to each separately. With lands and other immovables it
was different: they ~might be mancipated in absence, which goes
some way to prove that mancipation must have been extended
to them at a later period. The derivation of mancipatio given by
Muirhead (Historical Introduction, 2nd ed., pp. 59 seq.) from manum
capere, i.e. to acquire power (manus), is open to the objection that
it places the abstract idea of power before the concrete symbol of
it. Cf. Cuq, Institutions juridiques, 2nd ed., i. p. 80 n.
' See Gai. ii. 104.
REGAL PERIOD]
ROMAN LAW
533
usually supposed to have been intended to take the place of the
raw metal (aes rude) formerly in use, and so facilitate the process
of weighing; but there is more reason for thinking they were cast
and stamped as standards to be put into one scale, while the raw
metal whose weight was to be ascertained was put into the other.
Instead, therefore, of being a fictitious sale, as Gaius describes
it, and as it became after the introduction of coined money in the
4th century of the city, the mancipation, as regulated by Servius,
was an actual completed sale in the strictest sense of the term.
What were the precise words of style addressed by the transferee
to the transferrer, or what exactly the form of the ceremonial, we
know not. But, as attendance during all the time that some
thousands of pounds, perhaps of copper, were being weighed would
have been an intolerable burden upon the five citizens convoked
to discharge a public duty, it may be surmised that it early became
a common practice to have the price weighed beforehand, and then
to reweigh, or pretend to reweigh, before the witnesses only a single
little bit of metal (raudusculum) , which the transferee then handed
to the transferrer as " the first pound and the last," and thus
representative of the whole. 1 And where no real price was in-
tended, as in constituting a dos or in coemption, a raudusculum
would also be employed. Whatever may have been its form,
howeveqj its effect was instant exchange of property against a
price weighed in the scales. The resulting obligation on the vendor
to maintain the title of the vendee, and the qualifications that
might be superinduced on the conveyance by agreement of parties
the so-called leges mancipii will be considered below in connexion
with the provisions of the XII. Tables on the subject (infra, p. 542).
The things included in the class of res mancipi were lands and
houses held on Quiritarian title, together with rights of way and
aqueduct, slaves, and the following domestic beasts of draught or
burden, viz. oxen, horses, mules and donkeys; all others were
res nee mancipi. Many theories have been propounded
mancipi. to account for the distinction between these two classes
of things, and to explain the principle of selection that
admitted oxen and horses into the one, but relegated such animals
as sheep and swine to the other. But there is really little difficulty.
Under the arrangement of Servius, what was to determine the nature
and extent of a citizen's political qualifications, military duties and
financial burdens was apparently the value of his heredium (and
other lands, if he had any), and what may be called its appur-
tenances the slaves that worked for the household, the slaves and
beasts of draught and burden that worked the farm, all of which
lived and worked in common with the free members of the familia.
But the cattle a man depastured on the public meadows were no
more res mancipi than his sheep, a fact which, though ultimately
in the later Empire lost sight of, was still understood in the time
of Gaius. 2 To say that the things classed as res mancipi were selected
for that distinction by Servius because they were what were essential
to a family engaged in agricultural pursuits would be to fall short
of the truth. They constituted the familia in the sense of the family
estate proper; whereas the herds and flocks, and everything else
belonging to the paterfamilias, fell under the denomination of pecunia.
So the words are to be understood perhaps in the well-known
phraseology of the mancipatory testament, familia pecuniaque mea. 3
The public solemnity of mancipatio thus sanctioned as a mode
of transferring a Quiritarian right of property, for which manus
was probably as yet the only descriptive word in use, was not long
in being adapted to and utilized for other transactions in which
other kinds of manus were sought to be acquired. These new
adaptations, if confined at first for the most part to plebeians,
were also soon made use of by the patricians, perhaps before as well
as after the XII. Tables, and became by custom part of the common
law. Such were, for example, coemption (as explained above),
emancipation and adoption of filiifamUias, and mortis causa aliena-
tion of a familia and nexum.
Law of Succession. The legal order of succession during the
regal period was extremely simple. It was this, on the death
of a paterfamilias his patrimony devolved upon those
of his descendants in potestate who by that event
became sui juris, his widow (being loco filiae) taking
an equal share with them, and no distinction being
made between movables and immovables. Such persons
were styled self-heirs (sui heredes). Failing widow and children,
1 The conjecture is suggested by the words of style in the solutio
per aes et libram, Gai. iii. 173, 174. There were some debts from
which a man could be effectually discharged only by payment
(latterly fictitious) by copper and scales in the presence of a libripens
and the usual five witnesses. In the words addressed to the creditor
by the debtor making payment these occurred hanc tibi libram
primam postremamque expendo (" I weigh out to you this the first
and the last pound "). The idea is manifestly archaic, and the
words, taken strictly, are quite inappropriate to the transaction in
the form it had assumed long before the time of Gaius.
2 Gai. ii. 15; Ulpian, Frag. xix. I.
'Gai. ii. 104. By the time of the XII. Tables the sharp dis-
tinction between these two terms is tending to disappear.
Succes-
sion
amongst
the pairi
clans.
his patrimony went to his gens. The notion that between the
descendants and the gens came an intermediate class under
the name of agnates does not seem well founded as regards the
regal period; the succession of agnates as such seems to have
been first legally recognized by the XII. Tables, probably
to meet the case of the plebeians, who, having no gentes, were
without legal heirs in default of children. 4
The later jurists more than once refer to the perfect equality of
the sexes in the matter of succession in the ancient law.' But it
was rather nominal than real. A daughter who had passed into
the hand of a husband during her father's lifetime of course could
have no share in the latter's inheritance, for she had ceased to be a
member of his family. One who was in potestate at his death, and
thereby became sui juris, did become his heir, unless he had pre-
vented such a result by testamentary arrangements; but even
then it was in the hands of the gens to prevent risk of prejudice to
themselves. For she could not marry, and so carry her fortune
into another family, without their consent as her guardians;
neither could she without their consent alienate any of the more
valuable items of it ; nor, even with their consent, could she make
a testament disposing of it in prospect of death. Her inheritance,
therefore, was hers in name only; in reality it was in the hands of
her guardians.
Of primogeniture or legal preference of one member of the family
over the others there is not the faintest trace. And yet we are
told of heredia remaining in a family for many generations a
state of matters that would have been impossible had every death
of a paterfamilias necessarily involved a splitting up of the family
estate. It is conceivable that this was sometimes prevented by
arrangement amongst the heirs themselves; and the practice
of every now and then drafting the younger members of families
to colonies diminished the number of those who had a claim to
participate. But the simplest plan of avoiding the difficulty was
for the paterfamilias to regulate his succession by testament; and
this was probably had recourse to, not so much for instituting a
stranger heir when a man had no issue-^-according to patrician
notions his duty then was to perpetuate his family by adopting a
son as for partitioning the succession when he had more children
than one.
There were two sorts of testaments made use of by the
patricians of the regal period that made in the comilia of the
curies (test, calatis comitiis) and that made in the
presence of the army (probably represented for this
purpose by a few comrades) on the eve of battle
(test, in procinctu factum). The first at least and the second
was just a substitute for it on an emergency was far from
being an independent exercise of the testator's volunlas. For,
though in course of time, and under the sanction of the uti
legassit ita jus fslo of the XII. Tables, the curies may have
become merely the recipients of the oral declaration by the
testator of his last will, in order that they might testify to
it after his death, it is impossible not to see in the comitial
testament what must originally have been a legislative act,
whereby the testator's peers, for reasons which they and
the presiding pontiffs thought sufficient, sanctioned in the par-
ticular case a departure from the ordinary rules of succession.
The pontiffs were there to protect the interests of religion,
and the curies to protect those of the testator's gens; and it
is hardly conceivable that a testament could have been sanc-
tioned by them which so far set at nought old traditions as to
deprive a filiusfamilias of his birthright, at least in favour of
a stranger.
* It is quite true, however, that from the first the order of suc-
cession was agnatic; for it was those only of a man's children who
were agnate that had any claim to his inheritance; and the gens
was, theoretically at least, just a body of agnates. The supposed
mention of agnates in a law attributed to Numa is a conjecture of
P. E. Huschke's (in Analecta litteraria, Leipzig, 1826, p. 375). The
law is preserved in narrative by Servius, In Virg. Eclog. iy. 43,
which runs thus: " In Numae legibus cautum est, ut si quis im-
prudens occidisset hominem, pro capite occisi et natis ejus in cautione
(Scalig., condone) offerret arietem." Huschke's substitution of
agnatis for et natis is all but universally adopted; but, even were
it necessary, it need mean nothing more than his children in potestate
or his gens.
6 The Voconian law of 169 B.C. avowedly introduced something
new in prohibiting a man of fortune from instituting a woman,
even his only daughter, as his testamentary heir; but even it
did not touch the Taw of intestacy. See Girard, Manuel, 4th ed.
816.
Testa-
ments.
534
ROMAN LAW
[REGAL PERIOD
It may safely be assumed that by custom at all events the
children of a plebeian usually took his estate on his death in-
testate. But, as he was not a member of a gens,
there was no provision for the devolution of his suc-
cession on failure of children. The want of them he
"i"b / could not supply by adrogation, as he had for long, it
is thought, no access to the assembly of the curies; and
it is doubtful if adoption of a filiusfamilias was known before the
XII. Tables. If therefore, as seems probable, the XII. Tables
first introduced the succession of agnates, a plebeian unsurvived
by children was necessarily heirless, that is to say, heirless in law.
But custom seems to have looked without disfavour on the
appropriation of his heredium by an outsider: a brother or
other near kinsman would naturally have the earliest oppor-
tunity, and, if he maintained his possession of it in the character
of heir for a reasonable period, fixed by the XII. Tables at a
year, the law dealt with him as heir, and in course of time the
pontiffs imposed upon him the duty of maintaining the family
sacra. This was probably the origin, and a very innocent
and laudable one, of the usucapio pro herede, which Gaius
condemns as an infamous institution, and which undoubtedly
lost some of its raison d'etre once the right of succession of
agnates had been introduced.
There is no trace of testamentary succession among the
plebs prior to the Servian constitution, nor is it in the least
degree likely that there was any such. Primitive
causa communities are slow to realize the conception of
convey private testaments, and the plebeians could not at
ance by thj s period make a public one either calatis comitiis
Tio^ 1 "' or Jn procindu- But not long after their admission
to citizenship there is reason to conjecture that manci-
pation was employed by them, not indeed to make a testament
instituting an heir and taking effect only on the testator's death,
but to make a conveyance of a whole patrimony mortis causa.
The transaction took the form of an absolute acquisition, in
exchange for a price (usually nominal), of the transferrer's
familia, 1 by a friend, technically called familiae emptor, on
trust to distribute, on the transferrer's death and according
to his instructions, whatever the transferee was not authorized
to retain for himself. The transferrer may also have had power
to reserve in the mancipation a usufruct of the estate while he
lived. 2 Like so many other of the transactions of the early
law, it was legally unprotected so far as the third parties were
concerned whom the transferrer meant to benefit; they could
only trust to the fides of the transferee. This mortis causa
alienation, whatever the date of its introduction, was the fore-
runner of the so-called testament per aes et libram, to be
afterwards described (infra, p. 543).
Contract and its Breach. To speak of a law of obligations
in connexion with the regal period, in the sense in which the
Contract words were understood in the later jurisprudence,
and its would be a misapplication of language. It would
breach. ^ e g O ; n g t oo f ar to say, however, as is sometimes done,
that before the time of Servius Rome had no conception
of contract; for men must have bought and sold, or at least
bartered, from earliest times must have rented houses, hired
labour, made loans, carried goods and been parties to a
variety of other transactions inevitable amongst a people
engaged to any extent in pastoral, agricultural or trading
pursuits. It is true that a patrician family with a good
establishment of clients and slaves had within itself ample
machinery for supplying its ordinary wants, and was thus to
a great extent independent of outside aid. But there were not
many such families. There must therefore have been contracts
and some customary rules to regulate them, though these were
presumably very imperfect. In many cases, such as those
alluded to, one of the parties at least must have trusted to the
1 The familia, as the collective name for a man's lands and man-
cipable appurtenances, became itself capable of mancipation. The
conveyance was universal. There would be, it is thought, nothing
fliscreditable in a man's conveying his heredium in this form.
2 For a different view cf. Maine, Ancient Law, ed. Pollock, pp.
214 seq.
good faith of the other. What was his guarantee, and what
remedy had he for breach of engagement?
His reliance in the first place was on the probity of the
party with whom he was dealing on the latter's reverence
for Fides, and the dread he had of the disapprobation of his
fellows should he prove false, and of the penalties, social,
religious or pecuniary, that might consequently be imposed
on him by his gens in the case of a patrician, by his gild in
the case of a craftsman, or by the king in the case of any other
plebeian. 3 If the party who had to rely on the other's good
faith was not satisfied with his promise and the grasp of the
right hand that was its seal, 4 he might require his solemn
oath (jusjurandum); and it can hardly be doubted that,
whatever may have been the case at a later period, in the
time of the earlier kings he who forswore himself was amenable
to pontifical discipline. If he preferred a more substantial
guarantee, he took something in pledge or pawn from the
other contractor; and, though he had no legal title to it, and
so could not recover it by judicial process if he lost pofsession,
yet so long as he retained it he had in his own hand a de facto
means of enforcing performance. Upon performance he could
be forced to return it or suffer a penalty not by reason of
obligation resulting from a contract of pledge, for the law
as yet recognized none, but because, in retaining it after the
purpose was served for which he had received it, he was
committing theft and liable to its punishment. At this stage
breach of contract, as such, does not seem to have founded
any action for damages or reparation before the tribunals;
but it is not improbable that, where actual loss had been
sustained, the injured party was permitted to resort im-
mediately to self-redress by seizure of the wrong-doer or
his goods. Self-help was according to the spirit of the time
not self-defence merely in presence of imminent danger,
but active measures for redress of wrongs already completed.
There was one contract, however, notorious in after years under
the name of nexum, that must have received legal sanction soon
after the Servian reforms, though probably, like mancipa- contract
tion of property itself, known in practice earlier. In the
XII. Tables it is apparently referred to as an existing aes et
institution. In its normal character it was a loan of money, libram."
or rather of the raw copper that as yet was all that stood
for money. How far in its original use it was accompanied by any
formalities beyond the weighing of it in a pair of scales (which was
rather substance than form) we know not; and what right it con-
ferred on the creditor over his debtor who failed to repay can be
only matter of speculation. Apparently the result of the Servian
reforms was the regulating and ensuring the publicity of the con-
tract and making the creditor's right of self-redress by appre-
hension (manus injectio) and imprisonment, &c., of his debtor
conditional on the observance of the prescribed formalities of the
nexum. The character and effects, however, of this the earliest
independent contract of the jus civile, are much disputed and will
be explained below on p. 545 seq.
Public and Private Offences and their Punishment. For
anything like a clear line of demarcation between crimes
and civil injuries we look in vain in regal Rome, offences
Offences against the state itself, such as trafficking ana their
with an enemy for its overthrow (proditio) or treason- punish-
able practices at home (perduellio) were matter of meat ~
state prosecution and punishment from the first. But in
the case of those that primarily affected an individual or
his estate there was a halting between, and to some extent
a confusion of, the three systems of private vengeance, sacral
3 Such as debarment from gentile or gild privileges, exclusion
from right of burial in the gentile or gild sepulchre, fines in the
form of cattle and sheep, &c.
4 Some of the old writers (e.g. Liv. i. 21, 4, xxiii. 9, 3; Plin.
H.N. xi. 45; Serv. in Aen. iii. 687) say that the seat of Fides was in
the right hand, and that to give it (promittere dextram is this the
origin of the word '^promise ".?) in making an engagement was
emphatically a pledge of faith. See a variety of texts illustrating
the significance of the practice, and testifying to the regard paid
to Fides before foreign influences and example had begun to corrupt
men's probity and trustworthiness, in Lasaulx, Ueber a. Eid bei
d. Romern (Wiirzburg, 1844), p. 5 seq.; Danz, Der sacrale Schutz
im rom. Rechtsverkehr (Jena, 1857), pp. 139, 140. Cf. Pernice,
Labeo, vol. ii. (2nd ed., Halle), p. 459 seq.
REGAL PERIOD]
ROMAN LAW
535
atonement and public or private penalty. 1 These may be
said to have followed in sequence but overlapped each other.
The same sequence is observable in the history of the laws
of other nations, the later system gradually gaining ground
upon the earlier and eventually superseding it. 2 The remark-
able thing in Rome is that private vengeance should so long
not only have left its traces but continued to be an active
power. According to tradition it was an admitted right of
the gens or kinsmen of a murdered man in the days of Numa;
a law of his is said to have provided that, where a homicide
was due to misadventure, the offering to them of a ram should
stay their hands (supra, p. 533). And this seems to have been
also prescribed in the XII. Tables (VIII., 24). To avenge the
death of a kinsman was more than a right: it was a religious
duty, for his manes had to be appeased; and so strongly was
this idea entertained that, even long after the state had
interfered and made murder a matter of public prosecution,
a kinsman was so imperatively bound to set it in motion that
if he failed he was not permitted to take anything of the
inheritance of the deceased. The talion we read of in the
XII. Tables is also redolent of the vindicta privata, although
practically it had become no more than a means of enforcing
reparation. And even the nexal creditor's imprisonment of
his defaulting debtor (infra, p. 551), which was not abolished
until the 5th century of the city, may not unfittingly, in view
of the cruelties that too often attended it, be said to have
savoured more of private vengeance than either punishment
or procedure in reparation.
Expiatio, supplicium, sacratio capitis, all suggest offences against
the gods rather than against either an individual or the state. But it is
difficult to draw the line between different classes of offences, and pre-
dicate of one that it was a sin, of another that it was a crime and of a
third that it was but civil injury. They ran into each other in a way
that is somewhat perplexing. Apparently the majority of those
specially mentioned in the so-called leges regiae and other records of
the regal period were regarded as violations of divine law, and the
punishments appropriate to them determined upon that footing.
Vet in many of them the prosecution was left to the state or to
private individuals. It is not clear, indeed, that there was any
machinery for public prosecution except in treason and murder
the former because it was essentially a state offence, the latter
because it was comparatively early deemed expedient to repress the
blood-feud, which was apt to lead to deplorable results when clansmen
and neighbours appeared to defend the alleged assassin.
Take some of those offences whose sanction was sacratio capitis.
Breach of duty resulting from the fiduciary relation between patron
and client, maltreatment of a parent by his child, exposure or killing
of a child by its father contrary to the Romulian rules, the ploughing
up or removal of a boundary stone, the slaughter of a plough-ox
all these were capital offences; the offender, by the formula sacer
eslo, was devoted to the infernal gods. Festus says that, although
the rules of divine law did not allow that he should be offered as a
sacrifice to the deity he had especially offended (nee fas est eum
immolari), yet he was so utterly beyond the pale of the law and its
protection that any one might kill him with impunity. But, as the
sacratio was usually coupled with forfeiture of the offender's estate
or part of it to religious uses, it is probable that steps were taken
to have the outlawry or excommunication judicially declared,
though whether by the pontiffs, the king or the curies does not
appear; such a declaration would, besides, relieve the private
avenger of the incensed god of the chance of future question as
to whether or not the citizen he had slain was sacer in the eye of
the law.
That there must have been other wrongful acts that were regarded
in early Rome as deserving of punishment or penalty of some sort,
besides those visited with death, sacration or forfeiture of estate,
total or partial, cannot be doubted; no community has ever been
so happy as to know nothing of thefts, robberies and assaults.
The XII. Tables contained numerous provisions in reference to
them; but it is extremely probable that, down at least to the time
of Servius Tullius, the manner of dealing with them rested on
custom, and was in the main self-redress, restrained by the inter-
vention of the king when it appeared to him that the injured party
was going beyond the bounds of fair reprisal, and frequently bought
1 See Rein, Das Criminalrccht der Romer (Leipzig, 1844), pp. 24 seq. ;
Clark, Early Roman Law: Regal Period (London, 1872), pp. 34 seq. ;
Mommsen, Strafrechl, pp. 6, 36, 900.
1 Probably every offence at first was an act attributable to the
whole family or clan, and it was upon them or by them and not
upon the individual wrong-doer or by the injured party that ven-
geance was taken.
off with a composition. When the offence was strictly within the
family or the gens, it was for those who exercised jurisdiction over
those bodies to judge of the wrong and prescribe and enforce the
penalty.
Jurisdiction and Procedure. Of the course of justice, whether in
criminal or civil matters, during the regal period we know little that
can be relied on. Ancient writers speak of the king as - H
having been generally supreme in both. But this can be y f
accepted only with considerable reservation. For the 2,^'
paterfamilias, aided by a council in cases of importance,
was judge within the family his jurisdiction sometimes excluding
that of the state, at other times concurring with it, and not to
be stayed even by an acquittal pronounced by it. He alone was
competent in any charge against a member of the family for a crime
or offence against the domestic order adultery or unchastity of
wife or daughter, undutiful behaviour of children or clients, or the
like. Death, slavery, banishment, expulsion from the family, im-
prisonment, chains, stripes, withdrawal of peculium, were all at his
command as punishments; and it may readily be assumed that in
imposing them he was freer to take account of moral guilt than an
outside tribunal. The indications of criminal jurisdiction on the
part of the gens are slight; but its organization was such that it is
difficult not to believe that it must occasionally have been called on
to exercise such functions. And it must not be lost sight of that,
as murder seems to have been the only crime in regard to which
private revenge was absolutely excluded, the judicial office of the
kings must have been considerably lightened, public opinion approv-
ing and not condemning self-redress so long as it was kept within the
limits set by usage and custom.
The boundary between civil and criminal jurisdiction, if it ex-
isted at all, was extremely shadowy. Theft and robbery, for example,
if one may conclude from the position they held in the later juris-
prudence, were regarded not as public but as private wrongs;
and yet when a thief was caught in the act of theft by night he
might be slain, and when by day might be scourged and thereafter sold
as a slave. But in both cases it may also be assumed that a practice,
afterwards formally sanctioned by the XII. Tables that of the
thief compounding for his life or freedom was early admitted, and
the right of self-redress thus made much more beneficial to the
party wronged than when nothing was attained but vengeance on
the wrongdoer. In assaults, non-manifest thefts, and other minor
wrongs, self-interest would in like manner soon lead to the general
adoption of the practice of compounding; what was originally a
matter of option in time came to be regarded as a right ; and with
it there would be occasional difficulty in settling the amount of the
composition, and consequent necessity of an appeal to a third party.
Here seems to be the origin of the king's jurisdiction in
matters of this sort. He was the natural person to whom
to refer such a dispute; for he alone, as supreme magis-
trate, had the power to use coercion to prevent the party wronged
insisting on his right of self-redress, in face of a tender by the
wrongdoer of what had been declared to be sufficient repara-
tion. But that self-redress was not stayed if the reparation found
due was withheld; as the party wronged was still entitled at a
much later period to wreak his vengeance upon the wrongdoer by
apprehending and imprisoning him, it cannot reasonably be doubted
that such also was the practice of the regal period.
How far the kings exercised jurisdiction in questions of quiritarian
right, such as disputes about property or inheritance, is by no
means obvious. Within the family, of course, such questions
were impossible, though between clansmen they may have been
settled by the gens or its chief. The words of style used in the
sacramental real action (infra, p. 548) suggest that there must have
been a time when the spear was the arbiter, and when the con-
tending parties, backed possibly by their clansmen or friends, were
actual combatants, and victory decided the right. Such a pro-
cedure could not long survive the institution of a state. In Rome
there seems to have been very early substituted for it what from
its general complexion one would infer was a submission of the
question of right to the pontiffs as the repositories of legal lore.
Their proper functions, however, being sacred, they had to bring
what was a question of purely civil right within their jurisdiction,
by engrafting on it a sacral element, viz. by requiring each of the
parties to make oath to the verity of his contention ; and the point
that in form they decided was which of the two oaths was false and
therefore to be made atonement for. In substance, however, it
was a finding on the real question at issue; and the party in whose
favour it was pronounced was free to make it effectual if necessary
by self-redress in the ordinary way.
Of Servius, Dionysius says Busing, as he often does, language
more appropriate to the republican than to the regal period that
he drew a line of separation between public and private o,_j
judicial processes, and that, while he retained the former
in his own hands, he referred the latter to private judges,
and regulated the procedure to be followed in causes brought before
them. 8 Something of the sort was absolutely necessary. He was
enormously increasing the number of the citizens, that is to say, of
1 Dion. Hal. iv. 25.
ROMAN LAW
[JUS CIVILE
those who were to enjoy in future the privileges of quiritarian right,
and multiplying the sources of future disputes that would have
to be determined by the tribunals. The nature of the jurisdiction
created by him, if any, to meet the new aspect of things is much
controverted. He has been credited with the institution of the
collegiate courts of the Centumviri and the Decemviri (stlitibus
judicandis) as well as the private judge (unus judex), but the argu-
ments in support of this view are not strong, and are, of course,
based wholly on presumptions. However, it will be convenient to
say a few words about each of these courts here.
The centumviral court * is often referred to by Cicero, and the
range of its jurisdiction in his time seems to have included every
_ . possible question of manus in the old sense of the word-
status of individuals, property and its easements, and
inheritance whether testate or intestate. By the time
court. Q Q a j us [he on ly matters apparently that were in practice
brought before it were questions of inheritance by the jus civile,
though theoretically it was still competent in all real actions, and
the lance, the emblem of quiritarian right generally, was still its
ensign. During the later Republic the Centumviri formed a quasi-
corporate body of private judges selected originally from the tribes
(afterwards from the ordinary list of judices) annually by the urban
praetors. 2 Some writers identify the centumviral court with the
Romulian senate of lop; others attribute its institution to Servius
Tullius and hold that it was a plebeian court at first ; others make
it contemporaneous with the XII. Tables; others bring it down
to the 6th century of the city; while the weight of recent authority
is in favour of the view that it is not earlier than the beginning of
the 7th century. The arguments in support of these several views
cannot be gone into here. It is enough to say that we have no
positive proof of its existence earlier than the 7th century, though
presumptions are in favour of its having been somewhat earlier.
In the exercise of their office the Centumviri acted more independ-
ently than private judices ventured to do, and even introduced
some considerable reforms into the law.
There was a court at Rome during the Republic called the De-
cemviri stlitibus judicandis. 3 These decemvirs in historic times
Decent- constituted a quasi-corporate body of judicial magistrates,
. . whose duty it was to try certain kinds of actions, especially
those relating to personal liberty. During the Princi-
pate, while ceasing to act as a separate court, they pre-
sided over the divisions into which the centumviral court had been
under Augustus divided. Their origin is quite unknown. Pom-
ponius indeed says that they were originally created soon after
the institution of the peregrin praetorship in 242 B.C. for this very
purpose of presiding over centumviral cases, 4 but this statement
is generally discredited and, if true, their practice of so presiding
must quickly have gone into disuse. Those writers who attempt
to ^trace back the centumvirs to the regal period give, as a rule,
a like antiquity to the Decemviri stlilibus judicandis. On the other
hand, some authorities identify them with the decemviri judices
mentioned by Livy 6 as having been declared by the lex Valeria-
Horatia to be as sacrosanct as the tribunes of the plebs. But
these latter judices seem to have been a purely plebeian court
which early went into desuetude, and there is really no evidence of
identity.
So far back as historic evidence goes we find that actions were
tried and judgments pronounced by judices and arbitri. There
"Judices" ncve ^ was more than a single judge (unus or unicus judex)
and appointed to try a case, but there might be more than one
" rbtt I " ar b'' er > an d frequently there were three. All kinds of
actions, even a sacramental action in rem, could be brought
before the unus judex, but especially appropriate to him were all
personal claims of alleged indebtedness, whether arising out of a
legal or illegal act, denied either in tola or only as to the amount.
Matters of that sort involved as a rule no general principle of law
but rather mere disputes as to facts, which could well be decided
by a single individual. There is much more reason for crediting
Servius with the institution of the single judge (the arbiters may
have been a creation of the XII. Tables) than with either of the
collegiate courts. If we believe that in the early regal period the
king acting with the pontiffs kept all jurisdiction in his own hands,
it is plain that this must have become a practical impossibility after
the admission of the plebeians to citizenship. For the trial of
disputed facts it would be necessary to delegate jurisdiction, and
'Literature: Huschke, Servitis Tullius, pp. 585 seq.; Keller-
Wach, Rom. Civil Process (1883), 6; Bethmann-Hollweg, Ge-
schichle d. C. P. i. 23; Wlassak, Process-Gesetze, i. 125 seq. and
ii. 201 seq.; Girard, Organisation judiciaire des Remains, i. 23 n. ;
Martin, Le tribunal des centumvirs (Paris, 1904). In this last-named
work a succinct account of the court and the various theories about
it is given.
1 On the question of their election, see Greenidge, Legal Pro-
cedure in Cicero's Time, pp. 41 and 264.
3 Girard, Organisation judiciaire, i. 159; Pauly - Wissowa,
Encyklopddie, s.v. " Decemviri."
4 Dig. i. 2, 29.
6 Livy, ix. 46, 5; Karlowa, Rom. R.G. i. 1 1 8.
the earliest judices may have been the king's commissioners for
such cases. If this be right, it was the beginning of a system that
bore wondrous fruit in after years, and that, as will be shown in
the sequel, helped the praetors to build up, through the formulae,
the whole body of equity.
Under the kings it is not improbable that several of the legis
acliones, more or less undeveloped, were already in use, civil pro-
but the nature of these actions will be more conveni- cedure.
ently considered later on (infra, p. 566).
II. THE Jus CIVILE
(From the establishment of the Republic until the
subjugation of central and southern Italy.)
i. Constitutional Events affecting the Law.
Jus Civile contrasted with Jus Quirilium. The term jus
civile, as used to designate this chapter, though almost synony-
mous with, may be taken as somewhat more com- Nature
prehensive than, jus Quirilium. It is a term of of "Jus
later origin than the latter. Jus Quiritium was clvlle -"
based entirely on old custom and legislation, finding, one
might say, its culmination in the XII. Tables; whereas in
the jus civile, as here understood, there appears the element
of doctrinal interpretation of both statute and custom the
magistrates and jurists (particularly the pontiffs) adding
much to the earlier law by introducing into it this element.
We can say that the jus civile in this sense is jus Quiritium
as developed by interpretation. It is as yet, however, little
influenced, as was the more comprehensive jus civile of later
periods, by the elements of jus gentium and equity. Still
nowhere, we must note, are the terms jus Quiritium and jus
civile placed in contrast by the jurists; they were each jus
proprium civium Romanorum. In the classical law the term
jus Quiritium seems to be used principally in formulae framed
in accordance with old custom.
Though our information regarding the present period is
less legendary than that of the kings, it is still far from being
completely authentic, as no original documents
belonging to it are extant. There is little dispute
among critics that Rome was sacked and burned
by the Gauls about 387 B.C. or a few years later, and it is
probable that the original pontifical annals (annales maximi)
upon which Livy and other Roman historians have presumably
based their narratives of early history were destroyed at that
time along with all other written records. What credence,
then, we may give to the ancient historical narratives, for the
period of the Republic antecedent to this event, depends
largely upon how far the pontifices managed to have their
lost records restored. In any case, however, there is sufficient
presumptive evidence to warrant belief in such prominent
events of the early Republic as the creation of two annually
elected patrician consuls, with potestas similar to that of the
kings, the creation of tribunes of the plebs, the enactment
of the decemviral code, and periodic struggles between
patricians and plebs, the one to keep and the other to gain
political power. To know the exact dates of these events is
relatively of little importance.
Legislation in Favour of the Plebs. In their uphill battle
for social and political equality the plebeians conquered stage
by stage. The more important of their successes may here
just be mentioned, with all reserve as to credibility, in the
order of their traditional dates. By the lex Valeria (de pro-
vocatione) of 509 B.C. it was provided that no Roman citizen
should be deprived of life, liberty or citizenship (i.e. suffer
poena capilis), or be scourged, by any magistrate within the
city, without an appeal (prowcatio) to the comitia centuriata.
This statute was often referred to by later Romans as a sort
of Magna Carta; Livy calls it unicum praesidium libertatis.
In 494 or 471 B.C. the tribunes of the plebs were created with
right of intercession, and about the same time plebeian acdiles
and judices decemviri (the latter to act as judges or arbiters
in litigations); the persons of all these officials being declared
inviolable during their tenure of office. About 471 B.C. the
concilium plebis became legislatively recognized, the tribunes
JUS CIVILE]
ROMAN LAW
537
were elected in it, and its resolutions (plebiscite) became directly
binding on plebeians. The XII. Tables, twenty years later,
were the fruit of the agitation of the plebeians for a revision
and written embodiment of the law. In 449 plebiscita were
subject presumably to auctoritas patrum declared by the lex
Valeria- Horatia binding on the whole populus, while about
the same time, or perhaps a little earlier, the patrician-plebeian
comitia of the tribes was instituted. 1 By the lex Canuleia of
^^5 B.C. intermarriage between patricians and plebeians was
sanctioned. Repeated protests by the plebeians against the
monopolization of the public domain land by members of the
higher order resulted in the definite admission of their right to
participate in its occupation by one of the Licinian laws of
367 B.C. The long course of cruel oppression of insolvents
(mainly plebeians) by their patrician creditors was put an end
to by the Poetilian law about 326 B.C., depriving nexal contract
of its privileges and generally prohibiting the use of chains
and fetters on persons incarcerated for purely civil debt. By
the Hortensian law of about 287 B.C. plebiscita were declared
binding (presumably without auctoritas patrum) on the whole
body of citizens. And from 421 B.C., when one of their number
first reached the regular state magistracy as quaestor, down to
252 B.C., when one was elected pontifex maximus, the plebeians
gradually vindicated their right as citizens to share in all the
honours of the state. There is also evidence that plebeians
were early in the Republic admitted to the senate and also to
the comitia curiata.
The legislative bodies during the present period were thus
three in number: the comitia of the centuries, the concilium
Legisia- plebis and the comitia tributa. As to the comitia of
tive the curies, it seems to have hardly concerned itself
bodies. ^jj g enera i legislation, but met merely to confer
imperium on the higher magistrates and to sanction testaments
and adrogations of the gentiles. The legislation of the centuries
dealt for the most part (though the XII. Tables were enacted
by it) with questions affecting public and constitutional rather
than private interests. It could be convened only by a magis-
trate having military imperium, i.e. at first only the consuls,
for the reason that it was theoretically a military assembly
met for civil purposes (exercitus civilis). It is called in the
XII. Tables comitiatus maximus. Its procedure was cumbrous
and ill-adapted for legislation. As to the relation of the con-
cilium plebis to the comitia tributa there is much controversy.
The old opinion which identified them is now generally aban-
doned. According to Mommsen 2 they differed in the following
points: (i) The comitia was an assembly of the whole people
voting in tribes instead of centuries, while the concilium was
an assembly of the plebs alone; (2) the comitia was always
convoked and presided over by a patrician magistrate (often
the praetor), while the concilium had to be convoked and pre-
sided over by a plebeian official (usually a tribune); (3) in the
comitia auspices had to be taken beforehand, but not in the
concilium; (4) an enactment of the comitia was a lex binding
on all the populus, while an enactment of the concilium was a
plebiscitum binding only on the plebs. It is, however, not
possible to take Mommsen's view that plebiscita were not
binding on the whole populus prior to the lex Hortensia, without
disregarding distinct statements of Livy as to the lex Valeria-
Horatia and the lex Publilia? But whatever the relation of
these two legislative assemblies to each other may have been
originally, it is certain that the Hortensian law equalized them
so far as their effects were concerned, and, looking to the small
number of patricians compared with the plebs, it would prob-
ably be a matter of indifference in which assembly the vote
was taken. The greater part of the legislation dealing
with the private law in the later Republic consisted of
plebiscita.
1 There is diversity of opinion about this. Mommsen thinks
the comitia tributa was earlier than the XII. Tables, and that the
lex Valeria- Horatia applied to it. See next note.
2 Mommsen, Rom. Forschungen, i. 177 seq.; Rom. Staatsrecht, iii.
322 seq.
3 Livy, iii. 55, 3; viii. 12, 14.
ii. The XII. Tables.
Causes of their Enactment. The change from monarchy to
republic brought of itself no benefit to the plebs, but rather
the reverse. One of their chief complaints was against the
administration of justice. They complained that they were
kept in ignorance of the laws, and that in particular the consuls
used their magisterial punitive powers (coercitio) unfairly and
with undue severity when a plebeian was the object of them.
The state of matters gradually became so intolerable that in
the year 462 B.C., according to the ancient tradition, a proposal
for a statute was made by C. Terentilius Arsa, one of the
tribunes, by which a commission should be appointed to draw
up a code of laws in writing. He carried a rogation in the
concilium plebis to this effect. The senate at first strenuously
resisted, but after a few years was induced to give way, and
its assent to the proposal was obtained.
Tradition records that the first practical step towards its
realization was the despatch of a mission to Athens, to study
the laws of Solon and collect any materials that comptta-
might be of service in preparing the projected code, tioo of
On the return of the commissioners in 452 B.C. all the xn.
the magistracies were suspended, and a body of ten ***'*
patricians, called decemviri legibus scribundis, was appointed
with consular powers, under the presidency of Appius Claudius,
for the express purpose of putting the laws into shape. Before
the end of the ensuing year (451) the bulk of the code was
ready and was at once passed into law by the comitia of the
centuries and published on ten tables (whether of brass or wood
is doubtful), which were set up in the Forum. Next year,
owing to additions being found necessary, the decemvirate was
renewed, with, however, a change of membership (some plebeians
being chosen), and in the course of a few months it had com-
pleted the supplemental matter. On the downfall of the
decemvirate, these new laws, after being duly accepted by
the comitia, were published on two other tables, thus bringing
the number up to twelve. The code then received the official
name of Lex XII. Tabularum.
The foregoing account of the enactment of the Tables is an
attempt to summarize what is stated by Livy and other Roman
writers on the subject. Though inconsistent and
sometimes even contradictory about details, these tktty."'
writers are on the main facts in concordance. . Until a
few years ago, the fact of the publication of such a code about
the date above given had been accepted by modern historians,
even the most iconoclastic, without question; unlike the
leges regiae, the XII. Tables had always been regarded as
authentic. But in his History of Rome, published in 1898,
Professor Pais of Turin 4 emitted the view that the decemviral
code was really a private compilation made about the year
304 B.C. by Cn. Flavius, the scribe of Appius Claudius the
censor, and probably at the latter's instigation; or, in other
words, that it was just the so-calkd Jus Flavianum which all
writers had hitherto regarded as a work dealing with the styles
of legis actiones and the calendar of court days. In Pais's
view the annalists, in accordance with a habit of theirs, dupli-
cated the same event by counterfeiting an earlier Appius
Claudius, &c., in order to magnify the antiquity and authority
of the laws collected by Flavius, while the whole account of
the decemviral legislation was invented by them. More recently
Professor Lambert of Lyons has attempted by similar arguments
to prove that the XII. Tables were a private compilation of
customs already in observance, and of sacerdotal and other
rules already in circulation, made about 197 B.C. by the jurist
Aelius Paetus, and were in fact identical with the Tripertita or
Jus Aelianum, which had always heretofore been supposed to
contain merely a recension of the Tables with an interpretation
and commentary. 6 This is not the place to discuss these theories.
Though of course incapable of positive disproof, the weight
4 Pais, Storia di Roma (Turin,, i. 566 seq.
6 Nouvelle Revue historique (1902), xxvi. 149 seq.; Revue gentralt
du droit, nos. 5 et 6; Melanges, Appleton (1903), pp. 126 seq.
ROMAN LAW
[JUS CIVILE
of presumptive evidence is against them; they have hitherto
found little or no support from other Romanists, and they
have, in our opinion, been sufficiently refuted on philological
and other grounds by Girard 1 and others. 2
There were provisions in the Tables that were almost literal
renderings from the legislation of Solon; and others bore a re-
So rces rnarkable correspondence to laws in observance in Greece,
but they may have been only indirectly borrowed. 3 By
far the greater proportion of them, however, were native and
original, not that they amounted to a general formularization
of the hitherto floating customary law, for, notwithstanding Livy's
eulogium of them as the " fountain of the whole law, both private
and public," it seems clear that many branches of it were dealt
with in the Tables only incidentally, or with reference to some
point of detail. The institutions of the family, the fundamental
rules of succession, the solemnities of such formal acts as mancipa-
tion, nexum, and testaments, the main features of the order of
judicial procedure, and so forth, of all of these a general know-
ledge was presumed, and the decemvirs thought it unnecessary to
define them. What they had to do was to make the law equal
for all, to remove every chance of arbitrary dealing by distinct
specification of penalties and precise declaration of the circum-
stances under which rights should be held to have arisen or been
lost, and to make such amendments as were necessary to meet
the complaints of the plebeians and prevent their oppression in
the name of justice. Probably very little of the customary law,
therefore, was introduced into the Tables, that was already univer-
sally recognized, and not complained of as either unequal, defective
or oppressive. Only one or two of the laws ascribed to the kings
(assuming their greater antiquity) reappeared in them; yet the
omission of the rest did not mean their repeal or imply denial of
their validity, for a few of them continued still in force during the
Empire, and are founded on by Justinian in his Digest. Neither
apparently were any of the statutes of the Republic anterior to
the Tables embodied in them, although for long afterwards many a
man had to submit to prosecution under these laws and to suffer
the penalties they imposed.
The original Tables are said to have been destroyed when Rome
was sacked and burned by the Gauls. But they were probably
Remains at once reproduced, and transcripts of them in more or
less modernized language must have been abundant if,
as Cicero says was still the case in his youth, the children were
required to commit them to memory as an ordinary school task.
This renders all the more extraordinary the fact that the remains
of them are so fragmentary and their genuineness in many cases
so debateable. They were embodied, as above mentioned, in the
Tripertita of Sextus Aelius Paetus in the year 197 B.C., who prob-
ably republished them in somewhat modernized language and
from whose work, it is thought, all later writers took their contents.
They must have formed the basis of all the writings on the jus
civile down to the time of Servius Sulpicius Rufus, who first took
the praetor's edicts as a text; and they were the subjects of mono-
graphs even by authors later than Sulpicius, amongst them by
M. Antistius Labeo in the early years of the Empire, and by Gaius,
probably in the reign of Antoninus Pius. Yet a couple of score
or so are all that can be collected of their provisions in what pro-
fess to be the ipsissima verba of the Tables, though in a form in
most cases more modern than what we encounter in other remains
of archaic Latin of the 4th century of the city. These are con-
tained principally in the writings of Cicero, the Nodes Atticae of
Aulus Gellius, and the treatise De verborum significatione of Festus;
the two latter dealing with them rather as matters of antiquarian
curiosity than as rules of positive law. There are also many
allusions to particular provisions in the pages of Cicero, Varro,
Gellius and the elder Pliny, as well as in those of Gaius, Paul,
Ulpian and other ante-Justinian jurists; but these are not to be
implicitly relied on, as we have evidence that they frequently
represent the (sometimes divergent) glosses of the interpreters
rather than the actual provisions of the statute. Reconstruction
has therefore been a work of difficulty, and the results far from
satisfactory, that of the latest editor, Voigt, departing very con-
siderably from the versions generally current during the last half-
century. 4
1 Textes, pp. 3-4; Nouv. Rev. hist. xxvi. 381 seq.
2 Erman, Z. d. Sav. Stift. (1903), xxiii. 450; Lenel, Z. d. Sav.
Stifl. (1905), xxvi. 498.
3 The decemvirs may have obtained them either from Magna
Graecia or from Etruria, as the story of a mission to Athens is
improbable.
4 Dirksen's Ubersicht der bisherigen Versuche zur Kritik u. Her-
stellung d. Zwolf-Tafel-Fragmente (Leipzig, 1824), supplies the basis
of almost all the later work on the Tables anterior to that of Voigt.
Schoell, in his Legis XII. Tab. reliquiae (Berlin, 1866), made a valu-
able contribution to the literature of the subject from a philological
point of view His version has been adopted substantially by
Bruns in his Fontes juris, i. 16 seq. (6th ed. by Mommsen and
Gradenwitz), and Girard in his Textes (3rd ed., Paris, 1903). See
In form the laws contained in the Tables were of remarkable
brevity, terseness and pregnancy, with something of a rythmical
cadence that must have greatly facilitated their retention _
in the memory. Rarely, if ever, were the rules they
embodied permissive; they were nearly all in the im- ^eristic
perative mood, sometimes entering into minute detail
but generally running on broad lines, surmounting instead of re-
moving difficulties. Their application might cause hardship in
individual instances, as when a man was held to the letter of what
he had declared in a nexum or mancipation, even though he had
done so under error or influenced by fraudulent misrepresentations;
the decemvirs admitted no exceptions, preferring a hard-and-fast rule
to any qualifications that might cause uncertainty. The system
as a whole is one of jus as distinguished from fas. In the royal laws
execration {sacralio capilis, sacer esto) was a common sanction;
but in the Tables it occurs only once pure and simple, and that with
reference to an offence that could be committed only by a patrician,
material loss caused by a patron to his client (palronus, si clienti
fraudem faxsit, sacer esto). In all other cases the idea that a crime
was an offence against public order, for which the community
was entitled in self-protection to inflict punishment on the
criminal, is prominent. Hanging and beheading, flogging to death,
burning at the stake, throwing from the Tarpeian rock, such are
secular penalties that are met with in the Tables; but often, though
not invariably, the hanging and so forth is at the same time declared
a tribute to some deity to whom the goods of the criminal are
forfeited (consecratio bonorum). The Tables also recognize the system
of self-help.
The manus 'injectio of the third Table the execution done by a
creditor against his debtor was probably in essence the same
procedure as under the kings, but with the addition of some regula-
tions intended to prevent its abuse. Against a thief taken in the act
the same procedure seems to have been sanctioned; it was lawful
to kill him on the spot if the theft was nocturnal, or even when it
was committed during the day if he used arms in resisting his
apprehension. According to Cicero there was a provision in these
words: " si telum manu fugit magis quam jecit, arietem subicito ";
this is perhaps just a re-enactment in illustrative language of the
law attributed to Numa, that for homicide by misadventure
" if the weapon have sped from the hand rather than been aimed "
a ram was to be tendered as a peace-offering to the kinsmen of him
who had been slain. The original purpose must have been to stay
the blood revenge, but in the Tables it can only have been intended
to stay the prosecution which it was incumbent on the kinsmen
of a murdered man to institute. So with talionic penalties: "si
membrum rupit ni cum eo pacit, talio esto " such, according
to Gellius, were the words of one of the laws of the Tables, and they
undoubtedly recognize talion, " an eye for an eye, a tooth for a
tooth "; while at the same time regulating it by enabling the
injured man to bring an action and sanctioning a money recompense
(Wehrgeld) in lieu of it. 6
The structure of the provisions of the Tables was not such as to
enable the plain citizen to apply them to concrete cases, or to
know how to claim the benefit of them in the tribunals,
without some sort of professional advice. Pomponius states
that no sooner was the decemviral legislation published
than the necessity was felt for its interpretation, and for the
preparation by skilled hands of styles of actions by which
its provisions might be made effectual. Both of these duties fell to
the pontiffs as the only persons who, in the state of civilization of the
period, were well qualified to give the assistance required; and Pom-
ponius adds that the college annually appointed one of its members to
be the adviser of private parties and of the judices in those matters.
The interpretatio, commenced by the pontiffs and continued by the
jurists during the Republic, which, Pomponius says, was regarded as
part of the jus civile, was not confined to explanation of the words of
the statute, but was in some cases their expansion, in others their
Interpre-
tation
of the
Tables.
also Muirhead, Historical Introduction (2nd ed., 1899), and Words-
worth, Fragments and Specimens of Early Latin (Oxford, 1874),
pp. 253 seq. The last-named writer in a subsequent part of his
volume (pp. 502-38) has added notes, historical, philological and
exegetical, which constitute a valuable commentary on the Tables
as a whole. Voigt's two volumes, under the title of Geschichte und
System des Civil-und-Criminal-Rechtes wie Processes, der XII.
Tafeln nebst deren Fragmenten (Leipzig, 1883), contain an exposition
of the whole of the earlier jus civile, whether embodied in the Tables
or not. The history of them occupies the first hundred pages or
thereby of the first volume; his reconstruction of fragments and
allusions a good deal fuller than any earlier one and supported
by an imposing array of authorities, which, however, often rest
on arbitrary assumptions is in the same volume, pp. 693-737.
There is little doubt that talio was actually enforced
under the decemviral code, just as it was under the Jewish and
Mahommedan codes, and as we see it among semi-civilized com-
munities (e.g. the Abyssinians) at the present day. See Code of
Khammurabi, 196 seq.; Leviticus xxiv. 20; Lane, Modern Egyptians,
p. 94. Many references are given by Lenel in Z. d. Sav. Stift. xxiv.
509.
JUS CIVILE]
ROMAN LAW
539
limitation, and in many the deduction of new doctrines from the
actual jus scriptum, and their development and exposition. An
event that did much to diminish the influence of the pontiffs in con-
nexion with it was the divulgcment in the year 304 B.C., as already
mentioned, by Cn. Flavius, of a formulary of actions and a calendar
of lawful and unlawful days, which got the name of Jus Flavianum,
The practice adopted in the beginning of the 6th century by Tiberius
Coruncanius, the first plebeian chief pontiff, of giving advice in law
in public had a still greater effect in popularizing it; and the
Tripertita or Jus Aelianum, some fifty years later a collection that
included the Tables, the interpretatio and the current styles of
actions made it as much the heritage of the laity as of the ponti-
fical college.
Subsequent Legislation. Of legislation during the 4th and
5th centuries that affected the private law we have but scanty
Subse- record. The best -known enactments are the Canuleian
queat law of 445 B.C. above mentioned; the Genucian,
leglsla- Marcian and other laws about usury and the rate of
tl0 "' interest; the Poetilian law of 326 B.C. abolishing
imprisonment of nexal debtors by their creditors; the Silian
law, probably not long afterwards, which introduced a new form
of process for actions of debt; and the Aquilian law about
287 B.C., which amended the decemviral provisions for actions
of damages for culpable injury to property, and continued to
regulate the law on the subject even in the books of Justinian.
iii. Development of the Substantive Institutions of the Law.
The Citizen and his " Caput." The early law of Rome was
-essentially personal, not territorial. A man enjoyed the benefit
The of its institutions and of its protection, not because he
citizen happened to be within Roman territory, but because
ana his ne was a citizen, one of those by whom and for whom
"caput." j tg j aw wag es t a bHshed. The theory of the early
Romans was that a man sojourning within the bounds of a
foreign state was at the mercy of the latter and its citizens,
that he himself might be dealt with as a slave, and all that
belonged to him appropriated by the first comer; for he was
outside the pale of the law. Without some sort of alliance
with Rome a stranger had no right to claim protection against
maltreatment of his person or attempt to deprive him of his
property; and even then, unless he belonged to a state entitled
by treaty to the international judicial remedy of recuperalio,
it was by an appeal to the good offices of the supreme magistrate,
or through the intervention of a citizen to whom he was allied
by the (frequently hereditary) bond of hospitium, and not by
means of any action of the jus civile set in motion by himself.
A non-citizen originally hoslis, and afterwards usually called
pcregrinus 1 in time came to be regarded as entitled to all the
rights recognized by so-called jus gentium as belonging to a
freeman, and to take part as freely as a Roman in any transaction
of the jus gentium; but that was not until Rome, through
contact with other nations and the growth of trade and com-
merce, had found it necessary to modify her jurisprudence by
the adoption of many new institutions of a more liberal and less
exclusive character than those of the jus civile.
A citizen's civil personality was technically his caput. The
extent of it depended on his family status. It was only among
citizens that the supremacy of the paterfamilias and the sub-
jection of those in manu, poleslate or mancipio were recog-
nized only among them therefore that the position of an
individual in the family was of moment. While in public life
a man's supremacy or subjection in the family was immaterial,
in private life it was the paterfamilias alone who enjoyed full
jural capacity. Those subject to him had a more limited
personality; and, so far as capacity to take part in transactions
of the jus chile was concerned, it was not inherent in them but
derived from their paterfamilias: they were the agents of his
1 Neither " alien " nor " foreigner " is an adequate rendering of
peregrinus. For peregrini included not only citizens of other
states, independent or dependent, but also Am5Xi5, men who
could not call themselves citizens (cives) at all, as, for example, the
dedilicii whom Rome had vanquished and whose civic organization
she had destroyed, offenders sent into banishment, &c., and also,
until Caracalla s general grant of the franchise, the greater portion
of her provincial subjects.
will, representatives of his persona in every act whereby a
right was acquired by them for the family to which they be-
longed.
Whenever a citizen either ceased altogether to be a member
of a Roman family or passed, either permanently or temporarily,
into subjection to some paterfamilias outside his own "Capiti*
family, 2 there was technically capitis minutio or demiau-
deminutio. To harmonize with the gradually estab- **""
lished conception of jural personality in non-citizens, and perhaps
also from their partiality for tripartite divisions, the jurists
about the end of the Republic divided capitis deminutio into three
degrees, viz. maxima, media and minima a division unknown
to lawyers of an earlier period when civitas was theoretically
identified with liberlas. When a citizen forfeited his freedom,
his capitis deminutio was said to be maxima; he lost all capacity,
whether under the jus civile or the jus gentium. When, retain-
ing freedom, he went into exile or joined a Latin colony, or
otherwise became a peregrin, the loss (deminutio) of his capacity
was only media or minor; it was his rights and privileges under
the jus civile that alone were affected. When both freedom
and citizenship remained, and there was produced merely
the severance of connexion with a particular family (Jamiliae
mutatio), the loss was said to be minima. Illustrations of c. d.
minima present themselves in the case of a paterfamilias be-
coming filiusfamilias by adrogation, or a malerfamilias passing
into the hand of a husband by confarreation or coemption; in
both cases he or she who had been sui juris thereby became
alieni juris. It was immaterial whether the -change was from
a higher family position to a lower, or from a lower to a higher,*
or to the same position in the new family that had been held in
the old as when a filiusfamilias was transferred by his father
into the potestas of an adopter, or when the filiifamilias of a
person giving himself in adrogation passed with him into the
potestas of the adrogator: in every case there was capitis
minutio. It was not the change of family position that caused it,
but the subjection to a new poleslas. Thus the civil person-
ality of Titius while a. filiusfamilias in the polestas of Sempronius,
e.g. the expectancy of succession, the agnatic relationships,
the derivative capacity for being a party to a mancipation or
a sponsio that resulted from the relationship, all came to an
end through the subjection to a new paterfamilias, temporary
or permanent. He might acquire another and independent
capacity on becoming sui juris by emancipation, or another
derivative capacity on passing into the polestas of Maevius by
adoption; but while subject to a new paterfamilias his old
personality quoad civilia was extinguished. This is what some
of the jurists mean when they say that capitis deminutio was.
civil death. 4
An important consequence of minima capilis deminutio was
that it not only extinguished patria potestas where it existed,
but severed the bond of agnation between the capite minulus
and all those who had previously been related to him as agnates.
There was no longer any right of succession between them on
intestacy; their reciprocal prospective rights of tutory were
defeated, and the minutio of either tutor or ward put an end to
a subsisting guardianship, assuming always that it was a lulela
legitima or agnatic cura furiosi. Very remarkable, yet quite
logical, was the doctrine that the minulio extinguished the
claims of creditors of the minulus; their debtor, the person
with whom they had contracted, was civilly dead, and dead
without an heir, and therefore there was no one against whom
an action of the jus civile could be directed in order to enforce
payment. But equity eventually provided a remedy, by
2 This is Mommsen's theory. See Staalsrecht, iii. I. p. 8.
8 Children who became sui juris by their parent's death, as they
came under no new potestas, were not regarded as capite minuti.
4 Owing to the ill-defined views among the Roman jurists them-
selves regarding the nature of cap. dem. various theories more or
less divergent have been maintained about it by modern writers, of
none of which can it be said that it has been generally accepted.
Mommsen's theory, above adopted, seems to present fewest diffi-
culties. See the subject discussed and authorises cited by Goudy
in 2nd edition of Muirhead's Historical Introduction, pp. 422-27.
54
ROMAN LAW
QUS CIVILE
giving the creditors a praetorian action in which the minutio
was held as rescinded, and which the new paterfamilias was
bound to defend on pain of having to give up all the estate he
had acquired through the adrogation or in manum conventio.
In other respects also the strict effects of this capUis minutio
were attenuated or done away with by the jurists of the Empire,
e.g. as regards personal servitudes.
The Law of the Family Relations. So far as appears no serious
inroad was made by the XII. Tables on the law affecting husband
Law of and wife, unless in the recognition of the legality of
family so-called " free " marriages, i.e. entered into without
relations. anv so i em nity, and not involving that subjection of
the wife to the husband (manus) which was a necessary
consequence of the patrician confarreation and plebeian co-
emption. These latter were left untouched, while on the other
hand acquisition of marital manus through usus was fully
recognized. As formerly mentioned, it had become a practice
with some of the plebeians to tie the marriage bond rather
loosely in the first instance, possibly in consequence of objection
by the women (as became quite general even among patricians
at a later period) to renounce their independence and right to
retain their own property and earnings, but more probably
because taking a woman to be merely the mother of children
(matrimonium) had been practically forced upon them before
coemption had been introduced as a means of making her a
lawful wife, and so they had become in a manner habituated
to it. But the idea that, as a man might acquire the ownership
of a thing to which his legal title was defective by prolonged
possession of it, so he might acquire manus over the woman
with whom he had thus informally united himself by prolonged
cohabitation with her as his wife had probably matured and
become customary law. The Tables accepted it; all that was
needed was to define the conditions under which manus should
be held to have been superinduced, and the wife converted from
a doubtful uxor into a lawful mater familias. Hence the pro-
vision that, if a woman, married neither by confarreation nor
coemption, desired to retain her independence, she must each
year absent herself for three consecutive nights from her
husband's house (trinoctialis usurpatio) twelve months' un-
interrupted cohabitation being required to give him that power
over her which would have been created instantly had the
marriage been accompanied by either of the recognized solem-
nities.
Amongst the fragments of the Tables so industriously collected
there is none that refers to a wife's marriage portion (dos) ; but it
is hardly conceivable that it was as yet unknown. Justinian says
that in ancient times it was regarded as a donation to the husband
with his wife, rather than as a separate estate that was to be used
by him while the marriage lasted but to revert to her or her repre-
sentatives on its -dissolution. And it is easy to see that, where
there was manus, the wife becoming a member of her husband's
family and everything of hers becoming his, such must originally
have been its character. 1 But even then, when a man gave his
daughter (filiafamilias) who could have nothing of her own in
marriage, and promised her husband a portion with her, there
must have been some process of law for compelling him to pay it;
and Voigt's conjecture that an actio dictae dotis was employed for
the purpose has something in its favour. 2 As regards divorce,
Cicero alludes vaguely to a provision in the Tables about a man
depriving his wife of the house-keys and turning her out of doors,
with some such words as " take what is thine and get thee gone."
This can only refer to free or non-manus marriages, but even for
hand marriages, while repudiations by husbands (but not by wives)
were competent, the statement of the historians is that they were
few and far between until the 6th century of the city, and that,
until the same date, any man who turned his wife away, however
serious the ground, without the cognition of the family council,
was liable to penalties at the hands of the censors. 3
Of the two or three provisions of the Tables known to us that
affected details of the patria potestas, which itself was assumed to
be so well established by customary law as to need no statutory
sanction or definition, one was in the words " si pater (familias)
ter filium venum duuit, a patre filius liber esto." This came to
be construed by the pontifical lawyers as meaning that so powerful
1 See Cicero, Top. iv. 23.
2 Voigt, XII. Tafeln, ii. p. 486. It has not, however, received
any support from more recent writers.
* See Esmein, Melanges, pp. 23 seq.
was the bond of the potestas over a son that it could not be com-
pletely loosed until the father had three times gone through the
process of fictitious sale by which emancipation was effected. But
the conception of the law seems to indicate that its original purpose
must have been rather to impose a penalty on the father and confer
a benefit on a son in potestate, by declaring him ipso jure free from
it on a certain event, than to place difficulties in the way of his
emancipation. " If a house-father have thrice sold his son, the
latter shall be free from his father." It reads as if the intention
were to rescue the son from what, by its frequent repetition, was
suggestive of a total absence of parental affection rather than
reluctant obedience to overwhelming necessity. May not its
object have been to restrain the practice, which did not wholly
disappear even in the late Empire, of men selling their sons or giving
them to their creditors in security of loans such sales or pledges,
at the time of the Tables, being effected only by an actual transfer
of the child per aes et libram as a free bondman (in mancipii causa),
accompanied by, in the case of a loan, a pact for reconveyance
when the loan was repaid? Whatever its ratio, however, and
whatever the earlier practice, it was upon this law that the inter-
preting pontiffs based the rules for adoptions and emancipations
of filiifamilias. The usual procedure in adoptions was as follows:
The natural 'father mancipated his son to a friend for a nominal
price and the latter then manumitted him, the son thereupon
reverting into his father's potestas. This was repeated a second
time with the same result. After the third sale (patria potestas
being extinguished) the purchaser remancipated to the parent.
In the latter's hands the son was now in causa mancipii, and so in
a position in which he could be permanently transferred to the
adopter. This was effected by an in jure cessio, in which the
adopter averred that the child was his filiusfamilias, and in which
judgment was at once given in his favour on the natural parent's
admission or tacit acquiescence. A similar method was followed
in emancipation of a filius, except that of course there was no cessio
in jure, but instead thereof the parent manumitted immediately
after the reconveyance to him. Neither in adoption nor emancipa-
tion, however, was remancipation to the paterfamilias essential,
though it was usual, and in the case of emancipation carried with
it important rights of succession and tutory. For daughters and
grandchildren the pontifical jurists by a casuistic interpretation
of the said law held one mancipation to be in all cases enough to
extinguish the patria potestas.
The nature of the relation between master and slave, like that of
manus and patria potestas, seems also to have been too notorious
to require exposition in the Tables. We find recorded only two
references to it, one dealing with the case of a slave who had a con-
ditional testamentary gift of freedom (statu liber), the other with
noxal surrender (noxae deditio). The provision about noxal sur-
render was not limited to a slave; it was apparently to the effect
that, if a member of a man's family (familiaris, i.e. a son or a
daughter in potestate or a slave) committed a theft of, or did mischief
to, property belonging to a third party, or -a domestic animal be-
longing to one man did harm to another, the father of the delin-
quent child, or the owner of the slave or animal, should either
surrender him or it to the person injured or make reparation in
damages. In course of time the surrender came to be regarded
as a means of avoiding the primary obligation of making reparation.
But comparative jurisprudence recognizes in the enactment of the
Tables a modified survival of the ancient right of an injured party
to have the delinquent corpus man, beast or thing given up to
him to wreak his revenge upon it privately, the modification con-
sisting in the alternative of reparation offered to the owner. This
noxal surrender, failing reparation, had gone out of use in the case
of daughters in potestate before the time of Gaius, and in the case
of sons before that of Justinian; but it was still sanctioned so
far as slaves and domestic animals were concerned even in that
emperor's legislation.
Guardianship and the Introduction of the Order of Agnates. So
long as Rome was patrician the gens apparently charged itself
with the guardianship of a clansman's orphan pupil Gentile
children and his widow and unmarried daughters guardian-
above pupillarity after his decease (tutela), as well ****
as with that of male members of his family who were sui
juris, but above the age of pupillarity, when they chanced
to be lunatic, imbecile, prodigal or helplessly infirm (cura,
curatio). The gens in council, in all probability, appointed
one of its members to act as tutor or curator as the case might
be, itself prescribed his duties, and itself called him to account
for any failure in his administration.
But, as this gentile tutory could not be extended to the
plebeians, among whom some law of guardianship was as
much required as among their fellow-citizens of the higher
order, the decemvirs found it expedient to devise a new one
of universal application. The Tables contained no express
authority for testamentary nomination of tutors to the widow
JUS CIVILE]
ROMAN LAW
of the testator, or to his pupil children and grown-up unmarried
daughters; but such appointment, if unknown previously,
was soon held to be justified by a liberal interpretation of the
very inclusive provision, " uti legassit suae rei, ita jus esto."
In the absence of testamentary appointment the nearest male
agnates of lawful age were to be tutors. This tutory of agnates
was an invention of the decemvirs, just as was the agnates'
right of succession on intestacy. The plebeians had no gentes,
at least until a much later period; so, to make the law equal
for all, it was necessary to introduce a new order of heirs and
tutors. " Tutores ... ex lege XII. Tabularum introducuntur
Guard- a g na ti " is the very notable language of Ulpian.
ianship And his words are very similar in speaking of their
r right of succession; for, while he says of testamentary
agnates. inheritances no more than that they were confirmed
by the XII. Tables, he explains that the legitimae hereditates
of agnates and patrons were derived from them. 1 The phrases
legitima cognatio, legitima hereditas, legilimi hercdes, tulela
legitima, tutores legitimi themselves proclaim the origin' of ag-
nation, agnatic inheritance and agnatic tutory; for, though
the word legitimus might be applied to any institution based
on statute, yet in the ordinary case it indicated one introduced
by the XII. Tables, the law of laws.
A man's agnates, in the strict sense, were those of his collateral
kinsmen who were subject to the same patria poteslas as himself,
or would have been had the common ancestor been still alive.
A man's sons and daughters in potestate, therefore, whether the
relationship was by birth or adoption, and his wife in manu
(being filiae loco) were each other's agnates. But a wife not in
manu was not their agnate; nor were children who had been
emancipated or otherwise capile minuti the agnates of either
their brothers and sisters or their mother in manu. A man
was an agnate of his brother's children, assuming always that
there had been no capitis deminutio on either side; but he was
not an agnate of his sister's children, for they were not ejusdem
familiae: they were agnates of their father's family, not of
their mother's. In like manner, and again assuming the absence
of minutio capitis, the children of brothers were each other's
agnates, but not the children of a brother and a sister or of two
sisters. Brothers and sisters were agnates of the second degree;
a man and his brother's children were of the third, the children
of two brothers (palrueles) of the fourth, and so on, it being
a condition, however, that the kinship should always result
either from lawful marriage or from adoption in one or other
of its forms.
When, therefore, a man died leaving pupil male descendants or
unmarried female descendants who by his death became sui juris,
they got their brothers of lawful age as their tutors; if he was
survived by his wife, and she had been in manu, her sons, or it might
be stepsons, acted for her in the same capacity ; in either case
they took office as the nearest qualified male agnates. If the
widow had no sons or stepsons of full age, and the children conse-
quently no qualified brothers, the tutory devolved on the agnates
next in order, i.e. the brothers german and consanguinean of
the deceased husband and father; for they were agnates of the
third degree. And so with agnates of the fourth and remoter
degrees. 2 Failing agnates who could demonstrate their propin-
quity, the tutory passed to the gens when the ward happened to
belong to one. This is nowhere expressly stated; but Cicero
gives what he represents to be an enactment of the Tables, making
the fellow-gentiles of a lunatic his guardians on failure of agnates;
and analogy seems to justify the extension of the same rule to the
case of sane pupil and female wards. 3
The curatory of minors above pupillarity was of much later
date than the Tables. The only curatories they sanctioned
were those of lunatics (furiosi) and spendthrifts (prodigi). A
1 Ulp. Frag, xxvii. 5, " legitimae hereditatis jus ... ex lege
Duodecim Tabularum descendit." This derivation of agnatic
inheritance from the XII. Tables was specially noticed by Danz in
his Gesch. d. rom. Rechts (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1871-73), ii. 95, but is
generally ignored.
2 To determine the degree of propinquity between two persons
it was necessary to count the generations upwards from the first
to the common ancestor and downwards from him to the second.
Consequently brothers were related in the second degree, uncle and
nephew in the third, first cousins in the fourth, and so on.
3 See Gai. i. 165.
lunatic was committed to the care of his agnates, and, failing
them, of his fellow-gentiles; and a few words in Festus seem
to suggest that arrangements had to be made by them for his
safe custody.
Mancipation and the Law of Properly. In the early law, as we
have seen, there was no technical word for ownership of things:
it was an element of the house-father's manus. In owner-
time, although it is impossible to say when, the word th/pia
dominium came into use, but, so far as can be dis- " n *
covered, it did not occur in the XII. Tables, and
must have been of later introduction. In those days,
when a man asserted ownership of a thing, he was
content to say, " It is mine," or " It is mine according to *'"
the law of the Quirites." It is said by some jurists of eminence
that under the law of the Tables what afterwards came to be
called " dominium ex jure Quiritium " was competent only in.
the case of res mancipi of a man's house and farm, and things
appurtenant thereto, as slaves and animals with which he worked
them. There is much to be said for this hypothesis, but it is so
far contradicted by Ulpian and Paul, who tell us that tigna
juncta (that is, building materials, vine stakes and the like,
which undoubtedly were res nee mancipi) were exceptionally
excluded from vindication. On the other hand, these texts
may be explained as mere deductions by interpretation at a
later time of the words " ne solvito " of the XII. Tables. 4 At
any rate it is pretty certain that before the close of the present
period res nee mancipi as well as res mancipi could be held in
quiritarian ownership.
The modes in which these two classes of things might be
acquired in property were various. But there was this
important difference: that, while a natural mode of acquisi-
tion sufficed in the case of res nee mancipi, some civil one was
necessary for the derivative acquisition, at all events, of res
mancipi. The most important were mancipation, surrender
in court, usucapion and bequest as singular modes, and
inheritance, in manum convenlio, adrogation and purchase of a
confiscated estate, as universal ones. All of these, with the
exception of mancipation, applied equally to res mancipi and
res nee mancipi. But there was, in addition, for res nee mancipi,
what was the commonest of all the modes of transferring
things of this class, simple tradition. If the transfer of these
was by the owner, with the intention of passing the property,
then the simple delivery of possession (traditio) was enough,
unless indeed it was in virtue of a sale; in which latter case
the ownership remained with the vendor, notwithstanding
the change of possession, until the price was paid or security
given for it. 6 Only mancipation, surrender in court and
usucapion, however, need be noticed at present.
The origin of the distinction between mancipable and non-
mancipable things, and of the form of conveyance by mancipation
applicable to the first, has been explained (supra, p. 529).' .
Originally mancipation was not the imaginary sale that
Gaius speaks of, but as real a sale as could well be con-
ceived^the weighing in scales, held by an official, of the raw metal
that was to be the consideration for the transfer of a res mancipi,
and the handing of it by the transferee to the transferrer, with the
declaration that thereby and therewith the thing in question became
his in quiritary right. On the introduction of coined money weigh-
ing became unnecessary. The price was counted out before the
ceremony, or sometimes left to be done afterwards; and though,
in that spirit of conservatism that was so marked in the adhesion
4 Dig. xlvii. 3, I pr. and xlvi. 3, 98, 8. See Cuq, 7ns/. Jurid. 2nd
ed. i. 91 n.; and on lignum junctum in general, Girard, Manuel
de droit remain, 4th ed. p. 330.
' Our only authority for attributing this fundamental rule to
the XII. Tables is Justinian's Institutes, ii. i, 41, where there is
clear evidence of a Tribonianism. The rule undoubtedly must have
been applied to res mancipalae in the Tables, and possibly its
extension to tradition of res nee mancipi may have been due to
interpretation. See Girard, ut supra, p. 288; cf. Cuq, Institutions
Jurid. i. p. 87.
6 Literature : Leist, Mancipation and Eigenthumstradition (Jena,
1865); Jhering, Geist. d. rom. Rechts, vol. ii. 46; Bechmann,
Der Kauf nach gemeinem Recht (Erlangen), i. pp. 47-302; V'oigt,
XII. Tafeln, vol. i. 22, vol. ii. 84-88; Kalowa, Rom. Rechtsgesch.
ii. pp. 363-81.
542
ROMAN LAW
[JUS CIVILE
to time-honoured forms after their raison d'etre was gone, the scale-
bearer and the scales were still retained as indispensable elements
of the mancipation, yet the scales were simply touched by the
purchaser with a raudusculum or a single com, in order that he
might be able to recite the old formula: " I say that this slave is
mine in quiritary right, and that by purchase (for such and such a
price) with these scales and this bit of copper." And that one
coin, says Gaius, was then handed by the transferee to the trans-
ferrer as if it were in fact the price of the purchase (quasi pretii
loco). Thus transformed, the mancipation was undoubtedly an
imaginary sale; for the real price might have been paid weeks
or months before, or might not be paid until weeks or months
afterwards. The mancipation had become nothing more than a
conveyance, and in this form it continued down to the end of the
3rd century of the Empire to be the appropriate mode of transfer
of a res mancipi, or at least of conferring on the transferee of such
a thing a complete legal title (dominium ex jure guiritium). After
that, however, it seems gradually to have gone into disuse, being
inapplicable to lands out of Italy that did not enjoy what was
called jus Italicum; and long before the time of Justinian it had
practically disappeared.
The effects of a mancipation, provided the price had been paid
or security given for it, were that the property passed instantly to
the purchaser, and that the transferrer was held to warrant the
transferee against eviction from the moment the price was received.
In the absence of either payment or sureties for it, the title still
remained with the vendor, so that it was in his power, by means
of a real action, to get back what had been mancipated, even
though it had passed into the possession of the vendee. The
vendor's liability to the vendee in the event of eviction is usually
supposed to have arisen ipso jure that is to say, without anything
expressly said about it; the acceptance by the transferrer of the
coin with which the scales had been struck was held to have im-
posed upon him an obligation to maintain the transferee in posses-
sion, under a penalty of double the amount of the price, recoverable
by the latter by what is usually called an actio auctoritatis. But
this ipso jure obligation did not arise when the mancipation was
either really or fictitiously gratuitous (nummo uno), really, in the
case of donations, &c., fictitiously, when, on purpose to exclude the
warranty, the recital of the transferee was that the price was a single
sesterce.
The right of a vendee to sue an actio auctoritatis arose only when
eviction resulted from a decree in a regular judicial process at the
instance of a third party disputing his title, and was conditional
on his having done all that was necessary on his part to bring his
vendor (auctor) into the field to defend his own interests. And
the duration of the auctoritas was limited by the Tables to two years
in the case of lands and houses, to one year in the case of other
things. As possession for those periods was sufficient to cure any
defect in the vendee's title, it was but reasonable that with their
expiry the vendor's liability on his warranty should be at an end.
By a provision of the Tables in the very inclusive terms, " cum
nexum faciet mancipiumque, uti lingua nuncupassit, ita jus esto,"
the importance of mancipation was immensely increased; for any
sort of qualification germane to the transaction might be super-
induced upon it, and the range of its application thus greatly
extended. Such qualifications were spoken of as leges mancipii,
self-imposed terms, conditions or qualifications of the conveyance
and, as integral parts of the transaction per aes et libram, they
partook of its binding character and were law between the parties.
The matter of oral declaration might be the acreage of lands, their
freedom from burdens or right to easements, reservation of a usu-
fruct, undertaking to reconvey on a certain event, or what not,
so long as it did not express a term or condition; the result was
just so many obligations created per aes et libram, whose con-
travention or denial (Cicero tells us) was punished with a twofold
penalty. 1 Ordinarily the words spoken in the hearing of the
witnesses fixed the beginning and the end of the liability; it was
enough that they .were literally complied with, however much
the other party might be injured by something inconsistent with
their spirit, or which he had not taken the precaution to require
should be made matter of declaration. But there was an exception
(although not introduced until long after the Tables) in the case
of that particular mancipatory agreement which was known by
the name of fiducia, i.e. where the mancipation was to a creditor
in security or to a friend for safe custody, and the engagement
was to return the thing mancipated, in the one case when the debt
secured by it was paid and in the other on demand. In such cases
the transferee took the conveyance more in the transferrer's interest
than his own; he became a sort of trustee, entitled to be treated
with consideration, and neither mulcted in a twofold penalty when
his inability to reconvey was due to no fault of his, nor forced to
reconvey until relieved of charges incurred by him in reference to
1 Cic. de Of. iii. 16, 65. Some writers, e.g. Girard, Manuel de
droit remain, p. 550, n. 5, take the view that, apart from the actio
auctoritatis, it was only where the extent of the land was mis-
stated (actio de modo agri) that the penalty of a duplum was ipso
jure incurred. But this puts a gloss on Cicero's language.
the property. Accordingly it became the practice to import into
the mancipation a reference to fides " fidi fiduciae causa meum
esse aio," with explanation of the purpose, conditions, &c., of the
fiducia, and this explanation as a rule not in the nuncupatory
words, forming a relative lex mancipii, but in a separate agreement
or paclum fiduciae. This pact then became enforceable not by
ordinary legis actio, as part of the mancipation, but separately
on grounds of ood faith alone. It gave rise to an actio fiduciae
which some writers think was just an application of the legis actio
per judicis postulationem , but which more probably was originally
an action in factum granted by the urban praetor by virtue of
his imperium. In any case it was one Of the earliest instances of
an action inter cives based on principles of good faith. The fiduciary
clause had the effect of freeing alike the right of the vendor and the
obligation of the vendee from the hard-and-fast lines of the jus
strictum, and subordinating them to the principles of bona fides. 2
Of the civil modes of acquiring property on singular title ap-
plicable to both res mancipi and res nee mancipi surrender in court
(injure cessio) was just a rei vindicatio arrested in its initial _
stage. The parties, ccdent and cessionary, having pre- aer^n'
viously arranged the terms of transfer sale, donation or court
otherwise appeared before the magistrate; the cession-
ary, taking the position of plaintiff, declared the thing his in
quiritary right; the cedent, as defendant, was asked what he had
to say in answer; and, on his admission or silence, the magistrate
at once pronounced a decree (addictio) which completed the transfer,
but which might be subject to a fiduciary reservation or deduction
of a servitude. It was probably more resorted to for the con-
stitution of servitudes, both real and personal, and transfer of
such rights as patria potestas, futory-at-law of a woman, or an
agnatic inheritance that had already opened, than for conveyance
of property. For it was not only inconvenient, inasmuch as it
required the parties to appear before the supreme magistrate in
Rome, and could not be carried through by any one under power
(as mancipation might), but it had also the serious disadvantage that
it did not ipso jure imply any warranty of title by the cedent in the
event of eviction or give rise to an action de modo agri. Nor did it,
like mancipation and tradition, make payment of the price a condition
precedent of the transfer of property. The reason was that in
form the right of the cessionary flowed from the magisterial decree :
" Since you say the thing is yours, and the cedent does not say it
is his, I declare it yours," and not from any act or word of the
cedent's, who was passive in the matter.
Usucapion, 3 regulated by the XII. Tables, but not improbably
recognized previously in a vague and uncertain way, converted
uninterrupted possession (usus) into quiritary property
by efflux of time. The provision in the Tables, as
given by Cicero, was to this effect: " usus auctoritas
fundi biennium est, ceterarum rerum omnium annuus est."
The relation in which the words usus and auctoritas stand to
each other has been a subject of much discussion: the pre-
vailing opinion amongst modern civilians is that the two
words should be taken disjunctively, the first alone referring
to usucapion, and the second to the warranty of title incumbent
on the vendor in a mancipation, and that both were limited
to two years in the case of lands (and, by extensive interpreta-
tion, houses), and to one year in the case of anything else.
In the later jurisprudence the possession required to be based
on a sufficient title and the possessor to be in good faith. But
the decemviral code, as is now generally admitted, contained
no such requirements; any citizen occupying immovables or
holding movables as his own, provided they were usucaptible
and he had not taken them theftuously, acquired a quiritary
right in two years or one, as the case might be, simply on the
strength of his possession. Originally, therefore, it was simply
the conversion of de facto possession, no matter how acquired
so long as not by theft, into legal ownership when prolonged
for the statutory period, too often the maintenance of might
at the cost of right. But in time it came to be regarded rather
as a remedy for some defect of title, arising either from
irregularity of conveyance or incapacity of the party from
whom a transfer had been taken; and with the progress of
2 There is much diversity of opinion about fiducia. See Oertmann,
ftducta im rom. Privatrecht (Berlin, 1890) ; Girard, Manuel, 4th ed.
PP- 519-23; Sohm, Institutionen (Eng. trans., and ed.), pp. 63-65.
'Literature: Stintzing, Das Wesen von bona fides und titulus
in d. rom. Usucapionslehre (Heidelberg, 1852); Schirmer, Die
Grundidee d. Usucapion im rom. Recht (Berlin, 185";); Pernice,
Labeo, 2nd ed. ii. 328 seq.; Voigt, XII. Tafeln, ii. oY, Karlowa,
Rom. R.G. ii. 387 seq.; Esmein, " Sur 1'histoire de 1'usucapion,'
Melanges (1886), pp. 171 seq.
JUS CIVILE]
ROMAN LAW
543
jurisprudence it developed into the carefully regulated positive
prescription which has to a greater or less extent found a place
in every modern system.
The conception of the abstract notion of a real right in
(or over) the property of another person (jus in re aliena)
is not to be looked for at so early a period in the
re aikaa. history of the law as that now under consideration.
The rural servitudes of way and water were no doubt
very early recognized, for they ranked as res mancipi, and
the XII. Tables contained various regulations in reference to
the former. Usufruct, too, was probably not unknown; but
the urban praedial servitudes bear the impress of a somewhat
later jurisprudence. Pignorate and hypothecary rights were
certainly unknown as rights protected by action. 1 Between
private parties the only thing legally recognized of the nature
of a real security was the fiducia that is described above.
Approaching more nearly to the modern idea of a mortgage
was the security praedibus praediisque required by the state
from those indebted to it in assurance of their obligations.
Here there was the double guarantee of sureties (praedes) and
mortgages of lands of theirs (praedia subsignata) ; but how
they were dealt with when the debtor made default is by no
means clear.
Changes in the Law of Succession. The two forms of testa-
ment of the regal period, viz., that made in the comilia of
Forms of the curies and that by soldiers on the eve of battle,
testa- still remained in use in the early Republic; though
meat - before the end of the Republic they were displaced
by the general adoption of that executed with the copper and
scales (lestamentum per acs et libram). It seems to be the
general opinion that it was to the first two alone that the
words applied which stood in the forefront of the provisions
of the XII. Tables about inheritance: "uti legassit suae rei,
ita jus esto." Whether resort was to the comilia or to the
army, the testator's own will in the matter was henceforth
to be supreme. There was to be no more reference to the
pontiffs as to the expediency of the testament in view of the
interests of the family sacra, and of creditors of the testator's;
from legislators, sanctioning a departure from the ordinary
rules of succession, the assembled Quirites became merely
witnesses recipients of the oral declaration of the testator's
will in regard to his inheritance. 2
The testament with the copper and the scales is depicted
by Gaius as a written instrument. But he presents it in what
Testa- might be described as the third stage of its history.
meat Its probable origin has been explained (supra, p. 534).
per aes et j t was originally not a testament but only a make-
""' shift for one. A plebeian was not qualified in the
regal period to make a testament in the comitia; so, instead,
he transferred his estate to a friend on whom he could rely,
with instructions how to distribute it on his death. The
transferee was called familiae emplor, because the conveyance
was in form a mancipation for a nominal price.
It is not at all unlikely that the same device may occasionally
have been resorted to by a patrician who had neglected to make a
regular testament, and was seized with mortal illness before he had
an opportunity of appealing to the curies. 3 But such a disposition
was not a testament, and may not have been so called. A testa-
ment was the nomination of a person as the testator's heir. It
made the person instituted as fully the representative of the testator
after his death as his heir-at-law would have been had he died
1 Hypothecary rights were unknown until near the end of the
Republic. But Festus (s.v. "Nancitor"; see Bruns, Fonles,
6th ed., lii. 16) speaks of a provision in the Cassian league between
Rome and the Latin states of the year 262 u.c. " Si quid pignoris
nasciscitur, sibi habeto " which may suggest that the Romans
at this period were not altogether unacquainted with pledge or pawn
of movables as a transaction of some value de facto if not de jure.
2 See Girard, Manuel de droit remain, 4th ed. p. 800. On the
" uti legassit " law of the Tables see ibid. p. 782, and cf. Cuq,
Institutions Juridiqu.es, 2nd ed. pp. 124-125.
3 The comitia, Gaius tells us (ii. 102), met only twice a year to
sanction testaments. In Mommsen's view, Rom. Chronologic
(1859), pp. 241 seq., these days were the 24th of March and the
24th of May.
intestate. The original mortis causa mancipation that opened the
way for the testament per aes et libram conferred upon the familiae
emptor no such character. Gaius says that he stood in place of an
In ir (keredis loco), inasmuch as he had such of an heir's rights and
duties as the familiae venditor had it in his power to confer and
impose; but the transaction was but a conveyance of estate, with
a limitation of the right of the grantee. It has been argued that,
as the law did not recognize conditional mancipation, the conveyance
must have operated as a complete and immediate divestiture of
the grantee. But this does not follow. For it was quite competent
for a man, in transferring property by mancipation, to reserve to
himself a life interest; and apparently it was equally competent
for him to postpone delivery of possession, without infringing the
rule that the mancipation itself could not be ex certo lempore. So
far as one can sec, therefore, there was nothing to prevent the
grantor of the conveyance (or quasi-testator) bargaining that he was
to retain the possession till his death; and, as the familia was an
aggregate of estate (universitas rerum) which retained its identity
notwithstanding any change in its component elements, he must
in such case have been as free to operate on it while he survived,
as if he had never conveyed it by mancipation.
Cicero incidentally remarks 4 what indeed the nature of the
transaction of itself very distinctly suggests that the true
testament with the copper and the scales had its statutory
warrant, not in the uti legassit suae rei of the XII. Tables, but
in the provision contained in the words: " cum nexum faciet
mancipiumque, uti lingua nuncupassit, ita jus esto." Reflec-
tion on the import and comprehensiveness of these words led
the pontifical interpreters to the conclusion that there was
nothing in them to prevent the direct institution of an heir
in the course of the vcrba muncupata engrafted on a mancipa-
tion. From the moment this view was adopted and put in
practice the familiae mancipalio ceased to be a transfer of the
testator's estate to the familiae emptor; the latter's purchase
was now for form's sake only, though still an indispensable
form, since it was it alone that, according to the letter of the
statute, imparted efficacy to the nuncupatio. But it was the
nuncupalio the oral declaration addressed to the witnesses
that really contained the testamentary disposition, i.e. the
institution of an heir, with such other provisions as the testator
thought fit to embody in it. This was the second stage in the
history of the testament per aes et libram. The third was
marked by the introduction of tablets in which the testamentary
provisions were set out in writing, and which the testator
displayed to the witnesses, folded and tied up in the usual
manner, declaring that they contained the record of his last
will.
Gaius narrates the words spoken by the familiae emptor and
addressed to the testator as follows: " Your estate and belongings
(familia pecuniaque tua), be they mine by purchase with this bit
of copper and these copper scales, subject to your instructions, but
in my keeping, that so you may lawfully make your testament
according to the statute (quo tu jure testamentum facere possis
secundum legem publicam)." The meaning of the words " in my
keeping (endo custodelam meam)" is not quite obvious; they are
probably remnants of an older style, but may be due to a clerical
error of the writer of the Verona MS. Certain it is that they no more
imported a real custody than a real property in the familiae emptor;
for the testator remained so entirely master of his estate that the
very next day if he pleased he might mancipate it anew to a different
purchaser, and nuncupate fresh testamentary writings. The nuncu-
pation by the testator was in these terms: " As is written in these
tablets so do I give, so do I legate, so do I declare my will ; therefore,
Quirites, grant me your testimony "; and, adds Gaius, " whatever
the testator had set down in detail in his testamentary tablets he
was regarded as declaring and confirming by this general statement."
To the appeal of the testator the witnesses responded by giving their
testimony in words which unfortunately are not preserved; and
then the testament was sealed by testator, officials and witnesses,
the seals being outside according to the early fashion. 6
Although this testament with the copper and the scales was justi-
fied in the first instance by the provision of the XII. Tables as to
the effect of nuncupative words annexed to a mancipation, yet in
course of time it came to be subordinated to that other one which
dealt directly with testamentary dispositions: uti legassit suae rei,
ita jus esto. Upon the words uti legassit the widest possible meaning
was put by the interpreters: not only was a testator held entitled
on the strength of them to appoint tutors to wife and children, to
enfranchise slaves and make bequests to legatees, but he might
4 Cic. De Oral. i. 57, 245.
6 On the above passage of Gaius, see Sohm, Inst. 99.
544
ROMAN LAW
[JUS CIVILE
Intestate
succes-
sion.
even disinherit a child in his potestas(suusheres) in favour o! astranger,
so long as he did so in express terms. Institution of a stranger,
without specific mention of the suus heres, however, was fatal, if
the latter was a son; for without express disherison (exheredalio)
his father could not deprive him of the interest he had in the family
property as in a manner one of its joint owners. It can hardly be
supposed that disherison was contemplated by the compilers of
the Tables; it was foreign to the traditional conception of the
family and the family estate. But it was a right whose concession
could not be resisted when claimed as embraced in the uti legassit,
although generally discountenanced, and as far as possible restrained
by the strictness of the rules imposed on its exercise.
In the absence of a testament, or on its failure from any
cause, the succession opened to the heirs ab intestato. So
notoriously were the sui hcrcd.es entitled to the first
place and that not so much in the character of heirs
as of persons now entering upon the active exercise
of rights hitherto existing, though in a manner dormant
that the compilers of the XII. Tables thought it superfluous
expressly to declare it. " If a man die intestate, leaving no
suus heres, his nearest agnate shall have his estate. If the
agnate also fail, his gentiles shall have it." It has been pointed
out, in dealing with the tutory of agnates, that the notion of
agnation, as a bond distinct from that which connected the
gentile members of a clan, was due to the decemvirs. They
had to devise a law of intestate tutory and succession suitable
alike to the patricians who had gentes and to the plebeians
who had none. To put the latter in exactly the same position
as the former was beyond their power; for the fact had to be
faced that the plebeians had no gentile institutions, and to
create them was impossible. The difficulty was overcome by
accepting the principle of agnation upon which the patrician
gens was constructed, and establishing an agnatic circle of
kinsmen (perhaps at first limited to the sixth degree) to which
the gens as a collective body should be postponed in the case
of the patricians, and which should come in place of it in the
case of the plebeians. It was not perfect equalization, but
the nearest approach to it that the circumstances permitted.
The difference was that, when the agnates of a plebeian intestate
failed, his inheritance was vacant; whereas, on failure of those
of a patrician, there was devolution to his gens in its collective
capacity. Two " interpretations " put upon the statute had
an important bearing in this connexion, viz. (i) that, if the
nearest agnates in existence declined the succession, those
next in degree were not allowed to take it; and (2) that no
female agnate could take it more remote than a sister of the
deceased intestate. The division among two or more agnates
was always per capita, not per stirpes.
The order of intestate succession thus established by the
XII. Tables, which prevailed until amended by the praetors
probably, in the 8th century of the city, was first to the sui
heredes of the deceased, next to his nearest agnate or agnates,
and finally, if the deceased was a patrician, to his gens. 1 His
sui heredes, speaking broadly, were those of his descendants
in his potestas when he died who by that event (or even after
it, but before his intestacy became manifest) became sui juris,
together with his wife in manu (who, as regarded his succession,
was reckoned as a daughter); but they did not include children
whom he had emancipated or daughters who had passed in
manum of a husband. Emancipated children did not even come
in as agnates on failure of sui; for emancipation severed the
tie of agnation as well as that of potestas. For the same reason
no kinsman who had been emancipated, and so cut off from the
family tree, could claim as an agnate; for those only were
agnates who were subject to the same patria potestas, or would
have been had the common family head been still alive.
The opening of a succession (technically delatio hereditatis) in
favour of sui heredes, whether in virtue of a testamentary institu-
tion or by operation of law on intestacy, at once invested
them with the character, rights and responsibilities of
heirs. No acceptance was necessary, nor, according to
the rules of the jus civile, was any declinature competent. They
Position
of heirs.
'This was for freeborn citizens; for freedmen, the patron (or his
children in potestate) took the place of the nearest agnates.
had been all along in a manner joint owners with their parent of
the family estate, which by his death had become, nominally at
least, an inheritance; and, as he had not thought fit to terminate
their interest in it by emancipating or disinheriting them, they were
not now allowed to disown it. Hence they were spoken of as
necessary heirs (heredes sui et necessarii). A slave, too whom his
owner had instituted in his testament with gift of liberty was a
necessary heir: he could not decline, and was invested with the
character of heir the moment the testator died. Not so with stranger
institutes or agnates taking on intestacy: they were free to take or
reject the inheritance as they saw fit; consequently, an act of
acceptance (aditio) was necessary on their part to make them
heirs.
This was a formal declaration before witnesses, which got the
name of cretio? It was not unusual for a testator, in instituting
an heir, to require that he should make a formal declaration of
acceptance within a limited time, failing which his right should pass
to a substitute, who in turn was required to enter within a certain
time; and so on with any number of substitutes, the series ending
with one of his slaves, who became heir without entry, and thus
saved the testator from the disgrace of post mortem bankruptcy
in the event of the inheritance proving insolvent. The uli legassit
of the Tables, as interpreted by the pontiffs, conferred upon a
testator very great latitude of testamentary disposition, even to
the extent of disherison of sui heredes. This was a course,
however, that was probably rarely resorted to unless when a child
had been guilty of gross ingratitude, or when the parent had reason
to believe his estate was insolvent and desired to protect his children
from the responsibilities of inheritance. Usually his sui, if he had
any, would be his institutes, and the purpose of the testament
either to apportion the estate amongst them as he thought expedient,
or to give him an opportunity of appointing tutors, bequeathing
legacies, or enfranchising slaves. On intestacy the sui took equally,
but per slirpes; that is to say, grandchildren by a son who had
predeceased or been emancipated, but who themselves had been
retained in their grandfather's potestas, took amongst them the
share to which their father would otherwise have been entitled,
instead of taking equal shares with their surviving uncles. It was
by no means unusual, when the whole inheritance descended to
sons, for them to hold it in common for many years as quasi partners
(consortes) ; but any one of them was entitled at any moment to claim
a partition which was effected judicially, by an arbitral procedure
introduced by the XII. Tables, termed a judicium (or arbitrium)
familiae erciscundae. Where two or more strangers were instituted
testamentarily, whether to equal or unequal shares, if one of
them failed either by predecease or declinature his share accrued
ipso jure to the others; for it was a rule that early became pro-
verbial that a man could not die partly testate and partly in-
testate. There was the same accrual among agnates on intestacy;
and both they and stranger testamentary institutes had the same
action for division of the inheritance that was made use of by
sui heredes.
According to Gaius it was as a stimulus to heirs to enter as soon
as possible to an inheritance that had opened to them, and thus
Usucaplo
pro
herede.
make early provision alike for satisfying the claims of
creditors of the deceased and attending to his family
sacra, that the law came to recognize the somewhat re-
markable institution of usucapion or prescriptive acqui-
sition of the inheritance in the character of heir (usucapio pro herede).
Such usucapion was impossible there was no room for it if the
deceased had left sui heredes; for the inheritance vested in them
the moment he died. But, if there were no sui heredes, then any
person taking possession of the property that had belonged to the
deceased, and holding it for twelve months without interruption,
thereby acquired it as if he were heir: in fact, according to the views
then held, he acquired the inheritance itself. Gaius characterizes
it as a dishonest acquisition, inasmuch as the usucapient knew
that what he had taken possession of was not his. But, as already
explained, the usucapion of the XII. Tables did not require bona
fides on the part of the uscapient; he might acquire ownership
by prolonged possession of what he knew did not belong to him
so long as he did not appropriate it theftuously, i.e. knowing that
it belonged to another. But an inheritance unappropriated by
an heir who had nothing more than a right to claim it belonged in
strictness to no one; and there was no theft, therefore, when a
person took possession of it with a view to usucapion in the character
of heir. There can be little doubt that on the completion of his
possession he was regarded as heir just as fully as if he had taken
under a testament or as heir-at-law on intestacy that is to say,
that he was held responsible to creditors of the deceased and required
to charge himself with the family sacra. Gaius does not say as much ;
but both the Coruijcanian and the Mucian edict 3 imposed the latter
burden upon him who had usucapted by possession the greater
part of a deceased person's estate; and it is but reasonable to
suppose that the burden of debts must in like manner have fallen on
the usucapient or usucapients in proportion to the shares they had
taken of the deceased's property.
2 Gai. ii. 164-173.
3 Cic. de leg. ii. 48, 49.
JUS CIVILE]
ROMAN LAW
545
Contract
la
The Law of Obligations. In his Liber Aureorum Gaius says
obligations arise from either contract or delict, or miscellaneous
Law of causes (variae causarum figurae). But those arising
obiiga- from contract fill a place in the later jurisprudence
tions. vastly greater than those arising from delict. In the
XII. Tables it was different. In them delicts were much more
prominent than contracts wrongs entitling the sufferer to
demand the imposition of penalties upon the wrong-doer that
in most cases covered both reparation and punishment. The
disproportion in the formulated provisions in reference to the
two sources of obligation, however, is not surprising. For,
first of all, the purpose of the decemviral code was to remove
uncertainties and leave as little as possible to the arbitrariness
of the magistrates. In nothing was there more scope for this
than in the imposition of penalties; and, as different offences
required to be differently treated, the provisions in reference
to them were necessarily multiplied. In the next place, the
intercourse that evokes contract was as yet very limited. Agri-
culture was the occupation of the great majority; of trade
and commerce there was little; coined money had hardly
begun to be used as a circulating medium. Lastly, the safe-
guards of engagement then lay to a great extent in the sworn
oath or the plighted faith, of which the law (jus) hardly yet
took cognisance, but which found a protection quite as potent
in the religious and moral sentiments that had so firm a hold
on the people.
It may be asked If a man purchased sheep or store cattle, a
plough, a toga, a jar of wine or oil, had he no action to compel
delivery, the vendor no action for payment of the price?
Did the hire of a horse or the loan of a bullock create no
obligation? Was partnership unknown, and deposit,
and pledge, and suretyship in any other form than that
of vadimoniumr One can have no hesitation in answering that,
as transactions of daily life, they must all have been more or less
familiar. It does not follow, however, that they were already regu-
lated by law and protected by the ordinary tribunals. Modern
historical jurists are pretty well agreed that not only the real con-
tracts of loan (mutuum and commodatum) , deposit, and pledge, but
also the consensual ones of sale, location, partnership, and mandate,
and the verbal one of suretyship, were as yet barely recognized by
law. The law recognized conveyance but hardly contract. Sale
was the offspring of barter of instant exchange of one thing for
another. With such instant exchange there was no room for obliga-
tion to deliver on either side. The substitution of coined money
for the raw metal can hardly have effected any radical change:
the ordinary practice of those early times must still have been
ready-money transaction an instant exchange of ware for price;
and it can only have been when, for some reason or other, the
arrangement was exceptionally for delivery or payment at a future
date, say next market day, that obligation was held to have been
created. Was that obligation enforceable by the civil tribunals?
Some jurists hold that it was that at no time were the jus gentium
contracts outside the protection of judicial remedies, although by
a simpler procedure than that resorted to for enforcement of the
contracts of the jus civile. But two provisions in the XII. Tables
seem to prove that it was not so enforceable when they were drawn
up. The first is that already referred to as recorded by Justinian -
that, where a thing was sold and delivered, the property, neverthe-
less, was not to pass until the price had been paid or sureties (vades) for
it accepted by the vendor. Far from being a recognition of the obliga-
tory nature of the transaction, this provision is really a recognition
of the inability of the law to enforce payment of the price by the
vendee; it is a declaration that, on the tatter's failure to pay, the
vendor, unprotected by any personal action, should be entitled to
get back the thing sold as still his own, no matter in whose hands he
found it. The second related to the case ot a person who had
bought a victim for sacrifice, but had failed to pay for it. A real
action for its revindication by the seller after it had been consumed on
the altar was out of the question ; so he was authorized by the Tables,
by the process o( pignoris capio, at his own hand to appropriate in
satisfaction a sufficient equivalent out of the belongings of the
purchaser, against whom he had no personal action.
It was a principle of the law of Rome through the whole of
its history, though in course of time subject to an increasing
Keqais- number of exceptions, that mere agreement between
ites of two persons did not give him in whose favour it was
binding conceived a right to demand its enforcement. To
contract. ent j t i e a man to c i a i m the intervention of the civil
tribunals to compel implement of an engagement undertaken
by another, it was necessary (subject to those exceptions)
xxiii. 18
either that it should be clothed in some form prescribed or
recognized by the law, or that it should be accompanied or
followed by some relative act which rendered it something
more than a mere interchange of consent. Under the juris-
prudence of the XII. Tables the formalities required to elevate
an agreement to the rank of contract and make it civilly obli-
gatory sometimes combined ceremonial act and words of style,
sometimes did not go beyond words of style, but in all cases
took place before witnesses. Dotis dictio, the undertaking of
a parent to provide a dowry with his daughter whom he was
giving in marriage, and vodimonium, the guarantee of a surety
for the due fulfilment of the undertaking either of a party to
a contract or a party to a litigation (some think only the latter),
probably required nothing more than words of style before
persons who could if necessary bear witness to them; whereas
an engagement incident to a mancipation, or an undertaking
to repay borrowed money, required in addition a ceremony
with the copper and the scales. This undertaking to repay
arose from the contract of nexum, which was, it is thought,
older than the Tables; both it and the verbal contract by
sponsio or stipulation, which was younger, require here further
consideration.
The Nexal Contract} The tumults and seditions so frequent
in Rome during the first two centuries of the Republic are
as frequently attributed by ancient writers to the causes of
abuses of the law of debt as to any other cause, social plebeian
or political. The circumstances of the poorer pie- Borrow
beians were such as to make it almost impossible to *"*'
avoid borrowing. Their scanty means were dependent on 'the
regular cultivation of their little acres, and on each operation
of the agricultural year being performed in proper rotation
and at the proper season. But this was every now and again
interfered with by wars which detained them from home at
seed-time or harvest, practically rendering their farms unpro-
ductive, and leaving them and their families in straits for the
commonest necessaries of life.
The practice of lending per libram was doubtless of great
antiquity indeed, the intervention of the scales was a necessity
when money or what passed for it had to be weighed
instead of counted; and not improbably old custom contract.
conceded to a lender who had thus made an advance
in the presence of witnesses some very summary and stringent
remedy against a borrower who failed in repayment. How, after
the Servian reforms, it was subjected to much the same formalities
as were required for mancipation has been shown already. With
the introduction of a coinage the transaction, instead of being
per libram simply, became one per aes et libram; the scales were
touched with a single piece, representing the money which had
already been or was about to be paid, a formula recited whereby
the obligation of repayment was imposed on the borrower, and
an appeal made to the witnesses for their testimony. Unfor-
tunately this formula is nowhere preserved. Huschke assuming
that the lender was the only speaker, formulates it thus
" quod ego tibi mille libras hoc aere aeneaque libra nexas dedi,
eas tu mini post annum jure nexi dare damnas esto "- -" whereas
with this coin and these copper scales I have given thee a
thousand asses, be thou therefore bound jure nexi to repay
them to me a year hence." The phrase damnas esto, like the
rest of the formula, is unsupported by any conclusive authority ;
1 The modern literature on the subject of nexum is very large
and the views taken of it are discordant. The fundamental work
is that of Huschke, Ober d. Recht des Nexum (Leipzig, 1846). Danz
(Gesch. d. rom. Rechts, ii. 2nd ed., 1873, 146) gives a list of the
more important writings about it and a resume of the principal
theories. To this list, which comes down to 1870, may be added
Bekker, Die Aktionen des rom. Privatrechts, i. (Berlin, 1871),
c. I ; Brinz, " Der Begriff obligatio," in Griinhut's Zettschr. i.
(1874), ii seq.; and Voigt, XII. Tafeln, i. 63-65; Girard,
Manuel, 4th ed. pp. 476-482; Schlossmann, Nexum (1904); Mitteis,
" Uber das Nexum, Ztsch. d. Sav. Stiff, xxii. 96 seq., and xxv.
282-283; Mommsen, Ztsch. d. Sav. Sttft. xxiii. 348 seq.; Lenel,
Z. d. S. S. xxiii. 84 seq.; Bekker, Z. d. S. S. xxiii. 11-23 and
429-430; Kiibler, Z. d. S. S. xxv. 254 seq.; Senn. Now. Rev. hist.
(1905). PP- 49 seq.
5
ROMAN LAW
[JUS CIVILE
but, as it is in harmony with the formula which is given
by Gaius for dissolving an obligation of this kind, and with
that most frequently employed in the Republic for imposing
by a public act liability to pay a fixed and definite sum, it
may not be wide of the mark.
What was the effect of this procedure? The question is one
not easily answered. Brinz expressed the opinion that the creditor
was entitled in virtue of the nexum to take his debtor into custody
at any time when he considered such a course necessary for his
own protection, even before the conventional term of repayment
that the debtor was in bonds, virtually a pledge, from the very
first, and the tightness or looseness of them a matter in the dis-
cretion of his creditor. 1 Voigt holds that the nexum did not give
the creditor any peculiar hold over his debtor, and that on the
latter's failure to repay an ordinary action was necessary, to be
followed by the usual proceedings in execution if judgment was
in favour of the former. These views may be said to be the two
extremes; and between them lie a good many others, more or less
divergent. The difficulty of arriving at a conclusion is caused to
some extent by the ambiguity of the words nexus and nexum. The
transaction itself was called nexum and occasionally also nexus;
the money advanced was nexum aes (hence nexi, i.e. aeris, datio);
the bond was nexus (of the fourth declension); and the debtor
on whom the bond was laid was also nexus (of the second). All
this is simple enough. But we find the same word nexus employed
by the historians as almost synonymous with vinctus to denote
the condition of a debtor put in fetters by his creditor. That
might be the condition either of a nexal borrower or of an ordinary
judgment-debtor. The former in such a case was doubly nexus;
he was at once in the bonds of legal obligation and in those of
physical constraint. In many passages in which Livy and others
speak of the nexi it is extremely difficult, sometimes impossible, to
be sure in which sense they use the word. It is therefore not sur-
prising that there should be considerable diversity of opinion on the
subject. 2
Since Huschke, the great majority of writers-^-Voigt, s Lenel
and Mitteis are distinguished exceptions concur in opinion that
the nexal contract entitled the creditor, after expiry of thirty
days from the conventional date of repayment of the loan, to proceed
against his debtor by manus injectio without any antecedent action
or judgment, and failing settlement to detain him, and put him
to servile labour, and subject him to servile treatment, until the
loan was repaid. The parallel of such a course is to be met with
amongst many ancient nations Jews, Greeks, Scandinavians,
Germans, &c.* And it was not altogether unreasonable. If a
borrower had already exhausted all available means of raising
money, had sold or mortgaged everything he possessed of any
value, what other course was open to him in his necessity except to
impledge himself? That the creditor should have been entitled to
realize the right he had thus acquired without the judgment on
it of a court of law is equally intelligible. It was just a case of
regulated self-help. The nexal contract was a public act, carried
out in the presence of the five citizen witnesses and libripens,
who were witnesses alike of the acknowledgment of indebtedness
and of the tacit engagement of the debtor. The only valid ob-
jection apparently that could be stated against the creditor's appre-
hension of his debtor in execution was that the indebtedness no
longer existed that the loan had been repaid. But a nexal debt
1 Brinz, in Grunhut's Zeitschr. \. 22. He likens the position
of the nexus to that of a thing land, say mortgaged to a creditor
in security of a claim. Such security the Roman jurists con-
stantly speak of as res obligate, and sometimes as res nexa. As
Brinz observes, the thing was obligate, from the first, and continued
so as long as the debt it secured was unpaid, even though the
creditor found it unnecessary to reduce it into possession or interfere
with it in any way.
* As to the use of the terms nexum and nexus by the classical
jurists, see Roby, Roman Private Law (1902), vol. ii. pp. 296 seq.
8 He holds that the obligation created nexo did not impose any
immediate liability on the borrower which the lender could enforce
without judicial intervention, but that the latter required to proceed
against the former in ordinary course, by what he calls an actio
pecuniae nuncupatae. Mitteis, ut supra, supports, to a considerable
extent, Voigt's views as to the necessity of further proceedings
after the nexal contract, and rejects the notion of non-judicial
manus injectio, but regards the actio pecuniae nuncupatae as non-
existent. Cf. Mitteis, Rom. Privatrecht (1908), pp. 137 seq. Accord-
ing to Lenel, Z. d. Sar. Stift. 84 seq., there never existed any nexal
contract of loan, and the whole doctrine on the subject has there-
fore no solid foundation.
4 See authorities in Brinz's paper in Grunhut's Zeilschr. i. 25.
The Greek phrase was liri a&na.Ti 5o(feii<. There is a curious
style in Marculfus (Form. ii. 27), in which a borrower engages
that, until he shall have repaid his loan, his creditor shall have
right to his services so many days a week, and shall have power
to inflict corporal punishment if there be dilatoriness in rendering
them.
could be legally discharged only by nexi liberalio, which also was a
solemn procedure per aes el libram in the presence of five citizen
witnesses. What need for a judicial inquiry in the presence of facts
so notorious? A creditor would rarely be daring enough to pro-
ceed to manus injectio if his loan had been repaid; if he did, the
testimony of the witnesses to the discharge would at once procure
the release of his alleged debtor. It was probably to give oppor-
tunity for such proof, if there was room for it, that the XII. Tables
required that a creditor who had apprehended a nexal debtor should
bring him into court before carrying him off into detention.
Whether there was room for a vindex and for a magisterial
addiction of the debtor after sixty days, with power to kill or
sell into slavery after addiction, are disputed questions, but there
seems no good reason for distinguishing a nexal from a judicalus
debtor in these respects. Untenable is the notion at any rate that
the nexus by the mere contract was placed in loco servi, or that by
arrest he was in a worse position than one condemned for a judg-
ment debt, of whom Quintilian states distinctly that he still
retained his position in the census and in his tribe. Many a time
when the exigencies of the state required it, were the nexi tempo-
rarily released in order to obey a call to arms to fulfil the duty
incumbent on them as citizens. The nexal debtor's position after
arrest in regard to his family rights is obscure. If originally they
shared his nexal condition, this did not long continue to be the
law. If he was a house-father he seemingly still retained his
manus over his wife and potestas over his children. Their earnings
legally belonged to him, and did not fall to his creditor. It was
the body of his debtor that the creditor was entitled to, and too
often he wreaked his vengeance on it by way of punishment;
there was as yet no machinery for attaching the debtor's goods
in substantial reparation for the loss caused by his breach of con-
tract.
The abuses to which this system of personal execution gave rise
were great. Livy tells us that in the year 428 u.C. (326 B.C.) a
more than ordinarily flagrant outrage com'mitted by a poftlllaa
creditor upon one of his young nexi, who had given him- t
self up as responsible for a loan contracted by his deceased
father, roused the populace to such a pitch of indignation as to
necessitate instant remedial legislation. The result was the Poet-
ilian law (Lex Poetilia Papiria). So far as can be gathered from the
meagre accounts of it we possess, it contained at least these three
provisions (i) that fetters and neck, arm or foot blocks should in
future be applied only to persons undergoing imprisonment for
crime or delict; (2) that no one should ever again be the nexus
of his creditor in respect of borrowed money; and (3) that all existing
nexi should be released. The first was intended to prevent un-
necessary restraint upon judgment-debtors formally given over to
their creditors. The second did not necessarily abolish the con-
tract of loan per aes el libram, but only what had hitherto been an
ipso jure consequence of it the creditor's right to incarcerate his
debtor without either the judgment of a court or the warrant of
a magistrate. For the future, execution was to be done against a
borrower only as a judgment-debtor formally made over to his creditor
by magisterial decree, and under the restrictions and limitations
imposed by the Poetilian law itself. This very soon led to the
disuse of nexal obligation; once it was deprived of its distinctive
processual advantages it rapidly gave place to the simpler engage-
ment by stipulation usually enforceable per condictionem. As for
the release of the then existing nexi, Cicero, Livy and Dionysius say
nothing of any condition annexed to the boon the statute conferred
upon them; but Varro limits it to those qui bonam copiam jurarunt
those apparently who were able to declare on oath that they had
done their best and could do no more to meet their creditors' claims.*
Such a limitation can hardly be called unreasonable, even were we
to assume as probably we ought to do that the release spoken of
was only from the bonds of physical restraint, not from those of
legal obligation.
Introduction of the Stipulation? Few events in the history
of the private law were followed by more far-reaching conse-
quences than the introduction of the stipulation. It
exercised an enormous influence on the law of contract; uoa *
for by means of it there was created a unilateral
obligation that in time became adaptable to almost every con-
ceivable undertaking by one man in favour of another. By
the use of certain words of style in the form of question and
answer any lawful agreement could thereby be made not only
5 The meaning of these words, however, is disputed. See Green-
idge, Infamia, 206, and authorities there cited.
6 Literature: Gngist, Die formellen Vertrdge d. rom. Rechts
(Berlin, 1845), pp. 113 seq.; Heimbach, Die Lehre vom Creditum
(Leipzig, 1849); Danz, Der sacrale Schutz im rom. Rechtsverkehr
(Jena, 1857), pp. 102-142, 236 seq.; Schlesinger, Zur Lehre von den
Formalcontracten (Leipzig, 1858), 2; Voigt, Jus. nat., &c., d. Rom.
vol. ii. 33, vol. iv. Beilage xix. ; Bekker, Aklionen, i. 382-401;
Karsten, Die Stipulation (Rostock, 1878); Voigt, Rom. Rechtsge-
schichte, 7; Girard, Manuel, 483 seq.; Karlowa, Rom. Rechts-
geschichte, ii. 699 seq.
JUS CIVILE]
ROMAN LAW
547
morally but legally binding, so that much which previously had
no other guarantee than a man's sens| of honour now passed
directly under the protection of the tribunals. Stipulations
became the complement of engagements which without them
rested simply on good faith, as when a vendor gave his stipu-
latory promise to his vendee to guarantee peaceable possession
of the thing sold or its freedom from faults, and the vendee in
turn gave his promise for payment of the price. The question
and answer in the form prescribed by law made the engagement
fast and sure. Hence the generic name of the contract; for
Paul's derivation of it from stipulum, " firm " (which itself
comes from stipes, a staff), is to be preferred to that of Varro
and Festus from slips (money), or to a later and rather fanciful
one from stipula (a straw). It was round the stipulation that
the jurists grouped most of their disquisitions upon the general
doctrines of the law of contract capacity of parties, requisites
of consent, consequences of fraud, error and intimidation,
effects of conditions and specifications of time, and so forth.
It may well be said, therefore, that its introduction marked an
epoch in the history of the law.
There is, however, no certainty either as to the time or as to the
manner of its introduction. So far as appears, it was unknown at the
time of the compilation of the XII. Tables, at least in private life;
one of the first unmistakable allusions to it is in the Aquilian law of
about 287 B.C. The mention of it in that enactment, however, is with
regard to a phase of it which cannot have been reached for many
years after it had come into use ; and the probability is that it origin-
ated before the middle of the 5th century of the city, its first statu-
tory recognition being in the Silian law introducing the legis actio
per condictionem (infra, p. 550). In its earliest days it bore the name
not oi'stipulatio but of sponsio, for the reason that the interrogatory
of the party becoming creditor was invariably formulated with the
word spondes e.g. centum dare spondes? while the answer was
simply spondeo.
There has been much speculation as to the origin of the contract.
Modern criticism has three theories: (l) that it was the verbal
remnant of the nexum, after the business with the copper
* and the scales had gone into disuse ; (2) that it was evolved
origin. ou( . o f t jj e oaL th(j us j U randum orsponsio)at the great altar of
Hercules and the appeal to Fides (supra, p. 534) ; (3) that it was im-
ported from Latium, which it had reached from some of the Greek
settlements farther south. The last view is the most probable,
though there is much to be said also in favour of the second theory. 1
Verrius Flaccus, as quoted by Festus, connects it with the Greek
arivSav and airovⅈ and Gaius incidentally observes that it was
said to be of Greek origin. A libation (airovMj) is frequently referred
to by Homer and Herodotus as an accompaniment of treaties and
other solemn covenants a common offering by the parties to the
gods which imparted' sanctity to the transaction. Leist 2 is of
opinion that the practice passed into Sicily and Lower Italy, but
that gradually the libation and other religious features were dropped,
although the word avovMi was retained in the sense of an engage-
ment that bound parties just as if the old ritual had been observed,
and that it travelled northward into Latium and thence to Rome
under the name of sponsio, being used in the first instance in public
life for the conclusion of treaties, and afterwards in private life for
the conclusion of contracts. The meaning of spondes as a question
by a creditor to his debtor (although latterly, we may well believe,
unknown to them) thus came to be: " Do vou engage as^solemnly
as if the old ceremonial were gone through between us?" There
are many examples of such simplification of terms, none more
familiar than when a man says, I give you my oath upon it,"
without either himself or the individual addressed thinking it
necessary that the form should:be gone through.
It is not a little remarkable that the use of the words spondes
and spondeo in contracting were, down at least to the time of
Gaius, confined in Rome to Roman citizens. The
sponsio as a form of contract was essentially juris
civilis. So at first were the later and less solemn forms
of stipulation promittisne? promitto, fideipromittisne? fidei-
promilto. Gaius speaks of these latter, along with such simple
forms as dabisne? dabo faciesne? faciam, as juris gentium,
i.e. binding even between Romans and peregrins. Such they
became eventually, but peregrins probably could not make use
of the stipulation until a good while after the lex Silia. Yet
although juris civilis, both the sponsio and the later forms were
1 See the arguments in favour of this theory in Girard, Manuel,
4th ed. pp. 484 sqq.
2 Graeco-Italische Rechtsgeschichte (Jena, 1884), pp. 465-70. Upon
the sponsionis vinculum internationally, see Livy, ix. 9.
Its
nature.
from the first free from many of the impediments of the earlier
actus legitimi. No witnesses were required to assist at them;
and they were always susceptible of qualification by conditions
and terms. It was long, however, before parties had much
latitude in their choice of language; spondeo was so peculiarly
solemn that no equivalent could be admitted; and even the
later styles may be said to have remained stereotyped until well
on in the Empire. And it was the use of the words of style that
made the contract. It was formal, not material; that is to
say, action lay upon the promise the words embodied, apart
from any consideration whether or not value had been given
for it. In time this serious disadvantage was abated by prae-
torian exceptions and otherwise, as will be noted below. Origin-
ally the stipulation was employed only in regard to engage-
ments whose terms were in every respect definite and certain,
and was enforced by the legis actio per condictionem, or some-
times possibly by actio Sacramento in personam. But in time
it came to be employed in engagements that were from the
first indefinite. This seems to have been due to the inter-
vention of the praetors, and to have received special impetus
after. the system of the legis actiones had begun to give place
to that per formulas. The remedy in such a case was not spoken
of as a condiction but as an actio ex stipulatu.
iv. The Actions of the Law.
The Legis Actiones generally. 3 We owe to Gaius the only
connected (though, owing to the state of the Verona MS., rather
fragmentary) account we possess of the legis- actiones, as the
system of judicial procedure was called which prevailed in
Rome down to the substitution of that per formulas by the
Aebutian and Julian laws the first either in the 6th or early
in the yth century of the city, and the second in the age of
Augustus. He tells us that as genera agendi or generic forms
of process they were five in number, each taking its name from
its characteristic feature, viz. (i) sacramento, (2) per judicis
postulationem, (3) per condictionem, (4) per manus injectionem,
and (5) per pignoris capionem. The third was unknown in the
decemviral period, and was introduced by the Silian law for-
merly mentioned. The other four were all more or less regulated
by the XII. Tables, but must in some form have been anterior
to them. It is utterly impossible, however, to say of any one
of them, apart from the condictes, at what time it was intro-
duced, or what was the statute (lex) by which it was sanctioned;
it may well be that they were not of statutory introduction at
all, but were called legis actiones simply because recognized and
indirectly confirmed by the Tables. In character and purpose
each of the five had its peculiarities. The first three were
directly employed for determining a question of right or liability,
which, if persistently disputed, inevitably resulted in a judicial
inquiry. The fourth and fifth might possibly result in judicial
intervention; but primarily they were proceedings in execution,
in which the party moving in them worked out his own remedy.
As regards their comparative antiquity, there is much to be said
for the opinion of Jhering and Bekker that manus injectio, as
essentially nothing more than regulated self-help, must have
been the earliest of the five, and that the legis actio sacramento
and the judicis postulatio must have been introduced in aid
of it, and to prevent too hasty resort to it where there was
room for doubt upon questions either of fact or law.
8 The literature on the subject is very voluminous, great part of
it in periodicals. Amongst the leading works are those of Keller,
Der rom. Civilprozess u. die Actionen (6th ed. by Wach, Leipzig,
1883), 12-21; Bethmann-Hollweg, Der rom. Civilprocess (3 vols.,
Bonn, 1864-1866), the first volume of which is devoted to the legis
actiones; Buonamici, Delle Legis Actiones nell' antico diritlo rotnano.
(Pisa, 1868); Bekker, Die Aktionen d. rom. Privatrechts (2 vols.,
Berlin, 1871-1873), particularly vol. -i. pp. 18-74; Karlowa, Der
rom. Civilprozess zur Zeit d. Legisactionen (Berlin. 1872); Padeletti,
" Le Legis Actiones," in the Archivio Giuridico (1875), xvii,
321 sqq.; Schultze, Privatrecht u. Prozess in ihrer Wechselbetichung
procedure
isation judiciaire, i. 15-20, 56-104, 167-252.
ROMAN LAW
[JUS CIVILE
In the three judicial legis acliones the first step was the in jus
vocatio or procedure for bringing the respondent into court, minutely
regulated by the provisions ofthe first of the XII. Tables. This
was not done by any officers of the law; there was no writ of
summons of any sort ; the party moving in the contemplated litiga-
tion had himself to do what was needed. If the defendant did not ap-
pear, there could be no decree by default. Once before the magistrate
(consul or praetor), the plaintiff stated his contention. If ad-
mitted or not disputed by the defendant, the magistrate at once
pronounced his decree, leaving the plaintiff to work out his remedy
as the law prescribed. But, if the case presented was met either
with a denial or counterclaim, the magistrate remitted it for trial
either to a collegiate tribunal or to one or more private citizens as
judges or arbiters. The act of remit was technicaljy litis conleslalio
or ordinatio judicii, the first so named because originally the parties
called upon those present to be witnesses to the issue that was being
sent for trial. This was the ordinary practice under both the
system of the legis actiones and that of the formulae, and continued
to exist until the time of Diocletian. In the first stage the pro-
ceedings were said to be in jure, and the duties of the magistrate in
reference to them were part of his jurisdictio; in the second they
were said to be in judicio, those presiding in it being styled judices.
All that the judge or judges had to do was to pass judgment on the
question remitted to them. They were " right-declarers " only, not
right-enforcers." If their judgment was for the plaintiff, and he
failed to obtain an amicable settlement, he had himself to make it
operative by subsequent proceedings by manus injectio, and that
under the eye of the magistrate, not of the judge.
From an enumeration in Cicero of a variety of causes proper to
the centumviral court the conclusion seems warranted that it was
its peculiar province to decide questions of quiritary right in the
strictest acceptation of the word. They were all apparently in his
time real actions (vindications) claims of property in land or of
servitudes over it, of right as heir under a testament or in opposition
to it, of rights of tutory and succession ab intestate as agnate or
gentile, and so forth. It was a numerous court of Quirites, determin-
ing by its vote the question of quiritary right submitted to it. Many
such questions in course of time, and possibly at first of express
consent of parties, came to be referred to a single judge; but some,
and notably claims of inheritance under or in opposition to a
testament, were still frequently remitted to the centumviral court
even in the classical period. Personal actions, however, do not ap-
pear ever to have fallen within its cognizance: they were usually
sent to a single judge a private citizen selected by the parties,
but appointed by the magistrate, and to whom the latter adminis-
tered an oath of office. But, in a few cases in which an action
involved not so much a disputed question of right as the exercise
of skill and discretion in determining the nature and extent of a
right that in the abstract was not denied, the remit was to a plurality
of private judges or arbiters, usually three.
The Legis Actio Sacramento. 1 The characteristic feature oi
this legis actio, as described by Gaius, was that the parties,
after a somewhat dramatic performance before the
magistrate, each challenged the other to stake a
memo. , . . . . /.it,
certain sum, the amount of which was fixed by the
Tables, and which was to abide the issue of the inquiry by the
court or judge to whom the cause was eventually remitted.
This stake Gaius refers to indifferently as sacramentum, summa
sacramenti, and poena sacramenti. The formal question the
court had to determine was whose stake had been justified,
whose not (cujus sacramentum justum, cujus injustum); the
first was returned to the staker, the second forfeited originally
to sacred and afterwards to public uses. But the decision on
this formal question necessarily involved a judgment on the
matter actually in dispute, and, if it was for the plaintiff, entitled
him, failing an amicable arrangement, to take ulterior steps for
making it effectual. The procedure was still employed in the
1 To the literature in the last note may be added Asverus, Die legis
actio sacramenti (Leipzig, 1837) ; Huschke (rev. Asverus), in Richter's
Krit. Jahrbuch, vol. iii. (1839), pp. 665 sqq.; Stintzing, Verhdltniss d. I.
a. Sacramento zum Verfahren durch sponsio praejudicialis (Heidelberg,
1853); Danz, Der sacrale Schutz, pp. 151-221; Danz, "Die 1. a.
Sacram. u. d. Lex Papiria," in the Zeitschr. f. Rechtsgeschichte
vol. vi. (1867), pp. 339 sqq. ; Huschke, Die Multa it. d. Sacramentum
(Leipzig, 1874); Lotmar, Zur I. a. Sacramento in rent (Munich
1876); Brinz (crit. Lotmar), "Zur Contravindication in d. 1. a
sacr.," in the Festgabe zu Spengel's Doctor- Jubilaum (Munich, 1877)
pp. 95-146; Miinderloh, " Ueber Schein u. Wirklichkeit an d. 1. a
sacramenti," in the Z. f. Rechtsgesch. vol. xiii. (1878), pp. 445 sqq.
E. Roth, in the Z. d. Savigny Stiftung, vol. iii. (1882), Rom. Abtheil
pp. 121 sqq.; Fioretti, Leg. act. Sacramento (Naples, 1883); Jhering
' Reich u. Arm im altrom. Civilprozess," in his Scherz u. Erns,
in der Jurisprudenz (Leipzig, 1885), pp. 175 sqq.; Schulin, Lehrbuch
pp. 525 sqq.; Pfliiger, Die legis actio Sacramento (Leipzig, 1898)
I
ime of Gaius in the few cases that continued to be referred
o the centumviral cou^t, but otherwise it had been long in
disuse.
Gaius explains that it was resorted to both in real and personal
actions. Unfortunately the MS. of his Institutes is defective
n the passage in which he described its application to the
.alter. We possess the greater part of his account of the actio
in rem as employed to raise and determine a question of owner-
ship; but his illustration is of vindication of a slave, and not
so interesting or instructive as the proceedings for vindication
of land. These, however, can be reconstructed with tolerable
certainty with the aid derived from other sources, especially
:rom Cicero, Varro and Gellius.
The parties appeared before the magistrate, each carrying a
rod (festuca) representing his spear (quir or hasta), the symbol, as
"aius says, of quiritarian ownership. The first word was spoken
y the raiser of the action, and addressed to his opponent: " I say
that the land in question [describing it sufficiently for identifica-
tion] is mine in quiritary right (meum esse exjurequiritium) ; where-
:ore I require you to go there and join issue with me in presence
of the magistrate (in jure manum conserere)." Thereupon, accord-
ing to the earliest practice, the magistrate and the parties, accom-
panied by their friends and backers, proceeded to the ground for
the purpose: the court was transferred from the forum to the
land itself. "As distances increased, however, and the engagements
of the consuls multiplied, this became inconvenient. Instead of
it, the parties went to the spot without the magistrate, but on
his command, and there joined issue in the presence of their seconds,
who had been ordered to accompany them, and who probably
made a report of the due observance of formalities on their return.
Still later the procedure was further simplified by having a turf or
sod brought from the place beforehand, and deposited a few yards
from the magistrate's chair; and, when he ordered the parries to
go to the ground and join issue, they merely brought forward the
turf and set it before him, and proceeded to make their formal
vindications upon it, as representing the whole land in dispute.
The ritual was as follows: The raiser of the action, addressing
his adversary, again confirmed his ownership, but this time with
the significant addition: "As I have asserted my right by word
of mouth, look you, so do I now with my vindicta"', and there-
with he touched the turf with his rod, which was called vindicta
when employed for this purpose. The magistrate then asked
the other party whether he meant to counter-vindicate. If he
replied in the negative or made no response, there was instant
decree (addictio) in favour of the first party, and the proceedings
were at an end. If, however, he counter-vindicated, it was by
repeating the same words and going through the same form as his
adversary: " I say that the land is mine in quiritary right, and I
too lay my vindicta upon it." The verbal and symbolical vindica-
tion and counter-vindication completed what was technically the
manus consertio. The parties were now in this position: each
had asserted his ownership, and had figuratively had recourse to
arms in maintenance of his contention. But the matter was to
be settled judicially, so the magistrate once more intervened and
ordered both to withdraw from the land. The dialogue was then
resumed, the vindicant demanding to know from his opponent upon
what pretence (causa) he had counter-vindicated. In the illustra-
tion in Gaius he avoided the question and pleaded the general issue:
" I have done as is my right in laying my vindicta on the land."
But there can be little doubt that in certain circumstances the
counter-vindicant would deem it expedient to disclose his title.
This was very necessary where he attributed his right to a con-
veyance upon which two years' possession had not yet followed;
in such a case he had to name his author (auctorem laudare) if
he desired to preserve recourse against the latter on the warranty
implied in the mancipation. That probably entailed a suspension
of the proceedings to allow of the author's citation for his interest;
and on their resumption, if he appeared and admitted his auctoritas,
he was formally made a party to the action.
The proceedings had now reached the stage at which the sacra-
ment came into play. The first challenge came from the vindicant,
" Since you have vindicated unrightfully, I challenge you with a
sacrament of 500 asses," to which the counter-vindicant responded,
-" And I you." This was technically the Sacramento provocatio.
The magistrate thereupon remitted the matter for trial to the
centumviral court, or to a single judge, having declared what
exactly was the question put in issue which the court or judge
was to decide. The parties then called upon the bystanders to
be witnesses of the magistrate's remit, this appeal to witnesses
being, as is generally held, the litis contestation At the same
time, according to Gaius's account of the procedure, the magistrate
required sureties from the parties for the eventual payment by
him who was unsuccessful of the sacrament he had offered to
2 But see Colassak, Die Litis contestation (1889), pp. 69 sqq., for a
different view.
JUS CIVILE]
ROMAN LAW
549
stake, and which became a forfeit to the exchequer. (The original
practice probably was for the stake to be deposited by both parties
in the hands of the pontiffs before they were heard by the judge
or judges; after judgment that of the gainer was restored to him,
while that of the loser was retained for religious uses.) The magis-
trate also made arrangements for the interim possession of the
land by one or other of the litigants (but preferably, it is thought,
by the possessor), taking security from him that, if he was eventu-
ally unsuccessful, it should be returned to his opponent, along with
all the fruits and profits drawn in the interval. At the trial, as both
parties were vindicants, there must have been a certain burden
of proof upon both sides. The vindicant, one may believe, must
have been required to establish in the first instance that the thing
he claimed had at some time been his; and then, but probably not
tilt then, the counter-vindicant would have to prove a later title in
his person sufficient to exclude that of his opponent. The judgment,
as already observed, necessarily involved a finding on the main
question; but in form it was a declaration as to the sacrament:
that of the party who prevailed .was declared to be just, and that
of his unsuccessful opponent unjust.
Looking at this ritual as a whole, the conviction is irresistible
that it could not have been so devised by one brain. It reveals
and combines three distinct stages in the history of procedure
appeal to arms and self-help, appeal to the gods and the spiritual
power, appeal to the civil magistrate and his judicial office. As
Gellius says, the real and substantial fight for might, that in olden
days had been maintained at the point of the spear, had given
place to a civil and festucarian combat in which words were the
weapons, and which was to be settled by the interposition of the
praetor. But this does not explain the sacramentum. Various
theories have been proposed to account for it. According to Gaius,
it was nothing more than the sum of money staked by each of
the parties, which was forfeited originally to sacred and after-
wards to public uses by him who was unsuccessful, as a penalty
for his rashly running into litigation; and substantially the same
explanation is given by Festus in one of his definitions of the word.
But this is far from satisfactory, for it involves the apparent
absurdity of declaring that a penalty imposed by law could be
just in the case of the party who was in the right, and unjust in
the case of him who was in the wrong. There is another definition
in Festus " a thing is said to be done Sacramento when the sanction
of an oath is interposed " that lends support to the opinion that
there was a time when parties to a question of right were required
to take an oath to the verity of their respective assertions; that
they were also required concurrently to deposit five bullocks or
five sheep, according to the nature or value of the thing in dispute,
to abide the issue of the inquiry; 1 that the question for determina-
tion was whose oath was just and whose unjust; and that he who
was found to have sworn unjustly forfeited his cattle or sheep as
a piamentum a peace-offering to the outraged deity while the
other party reclaimed his from the repository in which they had been
detained in the interval. 2 It was made an opportunity doubtless
by the priests to get some profit for their temples.
1 It was the Lex Aternia Tarpeia of the year 454 B.C. that com-
muted the five bullocks and five sheep into 500 and 50 Ib of copper
respectively (Cic. De Rep. ii. 35, 60, where the words usually
printed " de multae sacramento " should read " de multa et sacra-
mento "). See Festus, s.v. " Peculatus " (in Bruns, Fontes). As to
the relative value of oxen and sheep, it is interesting to note that,
by the customs of the modern Ossetians, ten sheep are also held
to be equivalent to one ox. See Kovalewsky, Coutume contem-
poraine, p. II. For the pounds' weight of raw metal the XII.
Tables substituted the same number of asses, declaring that 500
should be the summa sacramenti when the cause of action was
worth 1000 asses or more, 50 when worth less or the question one
of freedom or slavery (Gai. iv. 14).
2 Varro, De L. L. v. 180, says that, even after the summa sacra-
menti had been converted into money, it was deposited ad pontem
some bridge, he does not say which, where there was a sacred
" pound." (Curiously enough, the Irish spelling of " pound "
is "pont"; Skeat's Etym. Diet., s.v. " Pound. '0 A most in-
genious and plausible explanation was suggested by Danz in 1867,
in the Zeitschr. f. Rechtsgesch. vi. 359. Recalling the facts that
there had been discovered in the Tiber Island sacella of Jupiter
Jurarius and Dius Fidius, the two deities to whom solemn oaths
were usually addressed, and that the island was spoken of as " inter
duos pontes," because connected with both banks of the river
by bridges bearing no particular names, he suggested that the island
may have been the place to which disputants resorted to make
their sacramenta, and that the cattle, sheep or money were deposited
in a place for the purpose before the bridge was crossed. Much
the same explanation was offered by Huschke two years later in his
book Das alte romische Jahr (Breslau, 1869), p. 360, apparently
without being aware of Danz's speculation. He adds, on the
authority of the Iguvine Tables, that, while bullocks were offered
to Jupiter, only sheep were offered to Dius Fidius. The island,
he thinks, must have been selected as neutral ground to which
all parties might have access, and which obviated intrusion into
The writers who adopt this view are far from being unanimous
as to details. But there seems to be enough to render it more than
probable that, at an intermediate stage between the vera solida vis
of ancient times and the vis civilis el festucaria which Gellius and
Gaius depict, there was a procedure by appeal to the gods through
means of oaths of verity sworn by the parties, in the manner and
with the consequences that have been indicated. That in time it
should have dropped out of the ritual is quite in the order of things.
Its tendency was to become a mere form, imposing no real restraint
on reckless litigation. The restraint was rather in the dread of
forfeiture of the sacramental cattle, sheep or money that would
follow a verdict that an oath had been unjust. And it must have
been felt besides that jt was unfair to brand a man as a false-
swearer, needing to expiate his offence by an offering to the gods,
whose oath had been perfectly honest. That he should suffer a
penalty for his imprudence in not having taken more care to ascertain
his position, and for thus causing needless annoyance to others,
was reasonable, but did not justify his being dealt with as one who
had knowingly outraged the deity to whom he had appealed. So
the oath the original sacramentum disappeared, the name pass-
ing by a natural enough process to the money which had been
wont to be deposited before the oath was sworn, but which now
ceased to be an offering in expiation by a false-swearer, and became
a mere penalty (forfeited to the state) of rash litigation (poena
temere litigantis). So when praedes later took the place of actual
deposits, they became bound as state debtors for the sacramentum.
It may well be assumed that in most cases the finding of the court
as to the justness or unjustness of the respective sacraments of the
parties was the end of the case that it was at once accepted and
loyally given effect to. If in favour of the party to whom interim
possession had been given by the magistrate there could be no
difficulty; he retained the object in dispute with the fruits and
profits he had drawn in the interval between lilts contestatio and
judgment. If, however, the finding was for the other party, and
amicable arrangement was not come to, it is not clear whatcourse
was followed. Gaius says that in awarding interim possession
(vindicias dicere) the praetor required the grantee to give security
by sureties (praedes) to his adversary for restitution to the latter
in the event of his success; while Festus preserves a law of the
XII. Tables which, according to Mommsen's rendering, declared
that, when it turned out that interim possession had been awarded
to the wrong party, it was to be in such party's power to demand
the appointment of three arbiters who should ascertain the value
of the object of vindication and its fruits, and assess the damages
due for non-restitution at double the amount. This provision
seems to have been intended to afford the wrongful interim possessor,
who was not in a position to make specific restitution to his suc-
cessful opponent, a means of avoiding the apprehension and im-
prisonment which were the statutory consequences of failure to
implement a judgment. It is probable that in time this duplicated
money payment came to be regarded as the satisfaction to which
the successful party in a vindication was entitled in every case in
which, no matter for what reason, he was unable to obtain the
thing itself and its fruits from their interim possessor; that con-
sequently an arbitrium liti aestimandae, or reference to arbiters
to assess their value, resulted in every such case; and that it was
to assure its payment that the praetor required the party to whom
the interim possession was awarded to give to his opponent the
sureties (praedes litis et vindiciarum) to whom Gaius alludes.*
This procedure in the sacramental action for vindication of land
was applicable to every kind of manus which a man could claim to
have over persons or things, though necessarily with variations more
or less important in the ritual. But the sacramental action was also
quite common for claims in personam. As regards personal actions,
the ordinarily received opinion, which rests, however, on slender
foundations, is that from the first the parties met on equal terms;
that, if it was a case of money debt, the creditor commenced the
proceedings with the averment that the defendant owed him the
sum in question, " I say that you ought to pay me (dare oportere)
1000 asses "; that this was met with a denial; and that a sacra-
mental challenge followed on either side. All are agreed that the
remit was to a single iudex after an interval of thirty days from the
proceedings in jure; that where the claim was for a definite sum the
plaintiff had to establish his case to the letter; and that his sacra-
ment was necessarily declared unjust if he failed to prove his claim
by a single penny. But there is considerable diversity of opinion
as to whether by this form of process a claim of uncertain amount
the temples of the two gods on the Capitol and Quirinal respectively.
And it is to its use as the scene of the sacramental procedure that
he attributes its name of " holy island," rather than to the fact of
its having been the seat of the temple of Aesculapius. Huschke
recurs to and enforces this view in his Multa und Sacramentum
(1874), p. 410, where he does refer to Danz's paper.
8 Another theory is that, while the interim possessor could not be
proceeded against, the praedes, who were really bound in his place
and not merely as accessories, were directly subject to execution
as debtors of the state. On this and other theories, see Cufnot in
Nouv. Rev. hist. pp. 345 sqq. ; Girard, Manuel, pp. 328-29.
550
ROMAN LAW
LJUS CIVILE
Per
could be insisted on as, for example, for damages for breach of a
warranty of acreage of lands sold, or of their freedom from burdens.
If it could, then probably the question raised and dealt with sacra-
mento was the abstract one of liability Was the warranty given,
and has it failed? the sum due in respect of the breach being left
to be dealt with in a subsequent arbitral process (arbitrium liti
aestimandae).
The Legis Actio per Judicis Poslulationem. 1 The defects
of the Verona MS. have deprived us of Gaius's account of this
legis actio. There is little elsewhere that can with any
certainty be said to bear upon it. The most important
pos/uto- j s a no[e j n Valerius Probus T.PR.I.A.V.P.V.D.,
tionem. wn j cn jg generally interpreted te, praetor, judicem
arbilrumve postulo uti des. This petition to the magistrate
to appoint a judge, arbiter or arbiters (as the case might
be) in all probability was part of the procedure in the
action, and that from which it derived its distinctive name.
Beyond this all is conjecture, alike as to the nature and form of
the action and the cases to which it was applicable. Gaius says
of the legis actio sacramento that it was general, and that it was
the procedure that was to be resorted to where no other was
prescribed by statute. There are, however, nowhere indica-
tions of an express instruction that proceedings in any particular
case were to be per judicis postulationem.
While it is impossible with certainty to trace the history of this
procedure to its first beginnings, yet the impression is general that
it must have originated in the regaj period. It is commonly held
to have been applicable to the divisory actions, and some others
triable by arbiters as directed by the XII. Tables. Some eminent
writers hold that it was employed in certain actions in which
equitable considerations were allowed to be taken into account
by the judge (e.g. the actio fiduciae), and generally in so-called
jurgia as contrasted with lites. But this theory has many diffi-
culties to contend with. It has no support from any ancient writer,
and it leads to the result that the courts by legis actiones had power
to take into consideration questions of bona fides, which is not only
in contradiction with what Gaius says (iv. Ii), but inconsistent with
their character. 2
The Legis Actio per Condictionem? This, the youngest
" action of the law," was introduced, Gaius says, by the Silian
Per law as a means of recovering a liquid money debt
condtc- (certa pecunia) , and afterwards made available by the
tionem. Calpurnian law for enforcing personal claims (as
distinguished from real rights) for anything else definite
and certain (omnis res certa), and in both its forms, there-
fore, essentially an action of debt. The date of both
enactments is matter of controversy, although there is no
question that the Silian was the earlier. Gaius says of it that
its purpose was far from obvious, as there was no difficulty in
recovering money either by a sacramental action or one per
judicis postulationem. But it is probable, as above stated,
that money due under a nexal contract was recoverable by
neither of these processes, but by the much more summary one
of manus injectio, a procedure which would be practically put
an end to by the Poetilian law of 326 B.C. We are disposed to
regard the lex Silia and the new procedure it authorized as a
result of the change made by this last-mentioned statute. To
have put off a creditor for money lent either with a sacramental
action or one per judicis poslulationem, would have been to
deprive him of the advantages of manus injectio to a greater
extent than was called for. At any rate, it seems to have been
provided by the Silian law that, when a man disputed his
liability for what was called pecunia certa credita, and forced his
creditor to litigation, the plaintiff was entitled, if he pleased,
to require from him an engagement to pay one-third more by
'To the literature on p. 548, note I, add Baron, " Zur leg. act.
per judicis arbitrive postulationem," in the Feslgabe fur Aug. W.
Heffler (Berlin, 1873), pp. 29 sqq. ; Huschke, Multa, &c., pp. 394 sqq. ;
Adolf Schmidt, " Ueber die 1. a. per jud. post.," in the Zeitschr. d
Sav. Stift. (1881), vol. ii., Rom. Abtheil. pp. 145 sqq.; Voigt, XII.
Tafeln, vol. i. 61.
4 See on this Mitteis, Romisches Privatrecht (1908), p. -51 and p
44 ". ii.
3 To the literature on p. 548, note I, add Bekker, Aktionen, vol. i.
cap. 4-7; Voigt, Jus naturale, &c., d. Romer (Leipzig, 1856-75),
vol. iii. 98, 99; Baron, Die Condictionem (Berlin, 1881) 5 is 16-
Jobbe-Duval, Procedure Civile (1896), i. 61 sqq.
way of penalty in the event of judgment being against him,
while the soi-disant creditor had similarly to undertake to pay
as penalty the same amount in case of judgment in favour of
the alleged debtor. Those engagements (sponsio et reslipulatio
terliae partis) were not allowed in every case in which a definite
sum of money was claimed per condictionem, but only when
it was technically pecunia credita. In Cicero's time creditum
might arise either from loan, stipulation or literal contract
(expensilalio); but the last dated probably at soonest from
the beginning of the 6th century, and stipulation apparently
was a result of the Silian law itself, so that the pecunia credita
of this enactment can have referred only to borrowed money.
The same phrase, according to Livy, was employed in the
Poetilian law; it was thereby enacted, he says, that for pecunia
credita the goods, not the body of the debtor, ought to be taken
in execution. A connexion, therefore, between the Poetilian
law and the disuse of the nexum on the one hand, and the Silian
law and the introduction of the legis actio per condictionem on
the other, can hardly be ignored, and raises a probability that
the latter statute was a consequence of the former, and was
passed immediately or soon after the year 326 B.C. In the action
on the Calpurnian law, it is probable that there was no penalty
of a third part on either side. A peculiarity of the legis actio
per condictionem is that the plaintiff could when before the
magistrate refer the case to the defendant's oath (juramenlum
necessarium) . Taking the oath involved absolution, refusal
involved condemnation.
Little is known of the procedure in this legis actio, for, in conse-
quence of the loss of a leaf in the Verona MS., we are without part
of Gaius's account of it. It got its distinctive name, he says, from
the condictio or requisition made by the plaintiff on the defendant,
whom he had brought into court in the usual way, to attend again
on the expiry of thirty days to have a judge appointed. The pro-
cedure on the reappearance of the parties on the thirtieth day
(provided a settlement had not been arrived at in the interval)
varied according as the action was (i) for a definite sum of money
falling under the category of pecunia credita, or (2) for any other
definite sum of money or a definite thing or quantity of things. In
the action for pecunia credita the sponsio et restipulatio tertiae partis
were exchanged ; and it is probable that, if either party refused on
the praetor's command so to oblige himself towards the other,
judgment was at once pronounced in favour of the latter without
any remit to a judex. How the issue was adjusted when the
sponsion and restipulation were duly given we are not informed,
but, judging by analogy from the procedure in an action for breach
of interdict under the formular system, and on the broader ground
that there must have been machinery for a condemnation of the
plaintiff on his restipulation in the event of his being found in the
wrong, it may reasonably be concluded that there were in fact three
concurrent issues sent to the same judex the first on the main
question, the second on the defendant's sponsion and the third on
the plaintiff's restipulation. When a sum of money other than
pecunia credita or a thing or quantity of things other than money
was sued for, those subsidiary issues were unnecessary if the view
above expressed be correct.
As Baron has demonstrated, it was not the usual practice to
introduce any words explanatory of the ground of indebtedness
when the action was either for money (other than pecunia credita)
or for a thing or quantity of things. It might be loan, or bequest,
or sale, or purchase, or delict, or unjustifiable enrichment, or any
of a hundred causae; it would have to be stated of course before the
judge; but in the initial stage before the praetor and in the issue
all that was necessary was the averment that the defendant was
owing such a sum of money or such a thing. It was for the judge to
determine whether or not the averment was established and, in
certain cases, that non-delivery was due to the fault of the defendant;
the plaintiff, however, was bound to make his averment good to the
letter of his claim. In the event of the plaintiff being successful in
an action for certa pecunia, but delay was made by the defendant
in satisfying the judgment, execution followed in ordinary form.
How the matter was arranged in an action on the Calpurnian law
for a certa res is not so obvious. What the plaintiff wanted was
specific delivery or damages, and by some the opinion is entertained
that he formulated Jiis claim alternatively. Of this there is no
evidence; and Gaius's statement that under the system of the legis
actiones condemnation was always in the ipsa res, i.e. the specific
* , n & .^^ f r '. ' ea ds to the assumption that a judgment for the
plaintiff, on which specific implement failed, must have been followed
by an arbitrium liti aestimandae for assessment of the damages in
money, and that execution proceeded thereon as if the judgment
had been for a sum of money in the first instance. The general
opinion, however, is that the judge to whom the issue was remitted
JUS CIVILE]
ROMAN LAW
55
Pfer
mattus
Injec-
tlonem.
assessed the damages himself and as a matter of course that the
instruction to him was quanti res erit, tantam pecuniam condemnato.
The Legis Actio per Manus Injectionem. 1 This "action of
the law " was ordinarily employed as a means of execution
against the body of a judgment-debtor or one who had
confessed liability in the first stage of a process. But,
in certain cases, it is conjectured, it was thought
proper that a creditor should have a more summary
remedy than was afforded by a sacramental action or one per
judicis postulalionem, and he was allowed to apprehend his debtor
without any antecedent judgment or confession; in which cases,
if the debtor disputed liability, the question could be tried only
in proceedings at his instance, or sometimes at that of a third
party on his behalf, for a stay of execution. It will simplify
matters, however, to confine our attention to it in the meantime
as a means of execution against the body of a judgment-debtor.
Gaius's description of it is very general; for details we are
indebted principally to the Nodes Alticae of Aulus Gellius, in
an account which he gives (put into the mouth of Caecilius
Africanus, a well-known jurist of about the same time as Gaius,
and a contemporary of his own) of the provisions of the XII.
Tables in reference to it. Africanus is made to say that accord-
ing to his belief (opinor) the words of the statute were these:
" For admitted money debts and in causes that have been
regularly determined by judgment (aeris confessi rebusque jure
judicatis) there shall be thirty days' grace. After that there may
be manus i/ijectio. The apprehending creditor shall then bring
his debtor before the magistrate. If he still fail to satisfy
the judgment, and no vindex come forward to relieve him, his
creditor may carry him home and put him in chains. He may
live at his own cost; if not, his creditor must give him daily
a pound of spelt, or more if he please." Africanus continues
narrative: " There was still room for the parties to come to
terms; but, if they did not, the debtor was kept in chains for
sixty days. Towards the end of that time he was brought before
the praetor in the comitium on three consecutive market-days,
and the amount of the judgment-debt proclaimed on each occa-
sion. After the third proclamation capite poenas dabat "
what these words mean will be considered in the sequel " or
else he was sent across the Tiber to be sold to a foreigner. And
this capital penalty, sanctioned in the hope of deterring men
from unfaithfulness to their engagements, was one to be dreaded
because of its atrocity and of the new terrors with which the
decemvirs thought proper to invest it. For, if it was to more
creditors than one that the debtor had been adjudged, they
might, if they pleased, cut up and divide his body. Here are
the words of the statute ' Tertiis nundinis partis secanlo.
Si plus minusve secuerunt, se fraude esto.' "
Such is Gellius's account of the provisions of the XII. Tables
in reference to this legis actio, and he is to a considerable extent
corroborated by Quintilian, Tertullian and Dio Cassius. But it
is to be borne in mind that he does not vouch for its accuracy;
the Tables were already in his time matter of antiquity, and even
the jurists knew little about them beyond what was still in observ-
ance. That he has reproduced them only partially seems almost
beyond question; for in another chapter he himself quotes a couple
of sentences that are to all appearance from the same context. We
have to face, therefore, the extreme probability that the record is
incomplete and the possibility besides that it is not literally accurate.
There is room for error, consequently, in two directions; but the
nature and effect of the procedure in its main features may be
gathered from the texts as they stand with reasonable certainty.
It was competent only after thirty days from the date of judg-
ment or confession. 2 It was apprehension of the debtor by the
1 To the literature on p. 548, note I, may be added Huschke, Nexum
(1846), pp. 79 seq.; Savigny, " Das altrom. Schuldrecht," in his
Verm. Schriften (1850), ii. 396 seq.; Hoffmann, Die Forcten u.
Sanaten, nebst Anhang liber d. altrom. Schuldrecht (Vienna, 1866),
pp. 54 seq. ; Vainberg, Le nexum et la contrainle par corps en droit
Rom. (Paris, 1874), pp. 36 seq.; Voigt, XII. Tafeln, vol. i. 63-65;
Jhering (as on p. 548), pp. 196 seq., 232 seq.; Cuq, Institu-
tions juridiques, 2nd ed. i. 141 seq.; Schlossmann, Altromisches
Schuldrecht (1904); Kleineidam, Personalexekution der XII. Tafeln
(1904).
1 In his Historical Introduction, 2nd ed. pp. 192-193, Muirhead
maintains that the " aeris confessi " of the Tables refers to nexal
creditor himself, in its first stage, at least, an act of pure self-help.
The debtor had at once to be brought before the magistrate, in
order that his creditor might solemnly go through the required
formalities before he could carry him away and provisionally confine
him in the domestic lock-up. It was this appearance before the
magistrate that made it a legis actio. Such a course, however,
was avoided either (i) by instant payment or other implement of
the judgment or arrangement with the creditor, or (2) by the inter-
vention of a vindex or champion. The position taken by the latter
was not that either of a surety or of an attorney for the judicatus
demanding a rehearing of the case: he appeared rather as a con-
troverter in his own name of the right of the creditor to proceed
further with his execution, on the ground that the judgment was
invalid. This might necessitate an action between the vindex and
the creditor, in which the former was plaintiff, but to which the
debtor was not a party. If it failed, then the vindex was liable
for double the amount of the original debt, as a penalty on him for
having improperly interfered with the course of justice; his inter-
ference was treated as a delict, but on payment he had presumably
relief against the original debtor who had been liberated through
his intervention. Failing a vindex and failing payment, the creditor
took his debtor home and incarcerated him, dealing with him for
sixty days in the manner above described. On their expiry, without
any arrangement, there was a magisterial decree (addictio) awarding
the debtor to his creditor.
What right did this addictio confer upon the creditor? The
debtor, says Gellius, " capite poenas dabat," which he interprets
as meaning that his creditor might put him to death, the alterna-
tive being his sale as a slave beyond the Tiber. There is, however,
a diversity of opinion among the modern writers as to the true meaning
of these words. While some hold, and rightly it is thought, that
the Gellian interpretation is correct, others object to it as extravagant.
It is objected to by Muirhead on the ground, inter alia, of its
incredible severity in the case of petty debtocs. He holds that
capite poenas dabat meant simply that the debtor " paid the penalty
with his person," _in contradistinction to " his means." Caput is
thus merely used in opposition to bona. Even more numerous are
the writers who object to Gellius's statement that the body of the
addictus when killed might be cut in pieces where there were several
creditors. They hold that the words partis secanto of the Tables
referred not to the body but to the belongings of the debtor, that
when there were concurrent creditors they shared his familia
amongst them. 8 But these views are, it is thought, somewhat
fanciful refinements. Poena capitis always implies either death,
slavery or deprivation of citizenship; there is nothing more astonish-
ing in a creditor's right to kill his debtor than in a father's right to
kill his child; and comparative law gives many instances, of a
parallel kind, of the harshness of primitive law to defaulting debtors.
The partis secanto was probably a relic of earlier times, and Gellius
admits that he never heard or read of a dissection having taken
place.
The cruelties and indignities to which creditors subjected
both their judgment and nexal debtors led, as above noticed,
to many a commotion in the first two centuries of the Republic.
The latter were probably much more numerous than thejudicati,
and, being in great part the victims of innocent misfortune,
it was the sufferings they endured at the hands of relentless
creditors that so often roused the sympathies and indignation
of the populace. But the judgment-debtors had suffered
along with them; and some of the provisions of the Poetilian
law of 326 B.C., already mentioned, were meant to protect the
former against the needless and unjustifiable severity that had
characterized their treatment by their creditors. The manus
injectio itself was not abolished, nor the possible intervention
of a vindex ; neither were the domum duetto that followed, and
the provisional imprisonment with the light chains, authorized
by the Tables while it lasted; nor apparently was the formal
addictio of the debtor to his creditor when the sixty days had
expired without arrangement. But after addiction, if it was
for nothing more than civil debt, there were to be no more
dungeons and stripes, fetters and foot-blocks; the creditor was
to treat his debtor and his industry as a source of profit that
would in time diminish and possibly extinguish his indebted-
ness, rather than as an object upon which he might perpetrate
any cruelty by way of punishment. Although the edict of
P. Rutilius of 107 B.C. provided a creditor with machinery for
debtors, but this view has, it is thought, insurmountable objections
to overcome.
' For a fuller explanation, see Muirhead, Hist. Introduction,
2nd ed. pp. 198 seq., and authorities there cited. See also Kleineidam,
Personalexekution, pp. 235 seq. Lenel must be added to those
writers who think that " partis secanto," &c., refers to the goods of
the debtor (Zeitschr. d. Sat. Stift. xxvi. pp. 507-509).
552
ROMAN LAW
[JUS CIVILE
attaching the estate of his debtor, he had still the alternative
of incarceration. This might be avoided under the Julian
law of cessio bonorum by the debtor's making a complete
surrender of his goods to his creditor; but, failing such surrender,
incarceration continued to be resorted to even under the legis-
lation of Justinian. During the Empire, of course, it was not
by manus injectio that the incarceration was affected; for it
went out of use with the definitive establishment of the formular
system of procedure.
It was as directed against judgment and nexal debtors that
manus injectio was of most importance and chiefly made its mark in
history. But there were other cases in which it was resorted to
under special statutory authority, where a remedy seemed advisable
more sharp and summary than that by ordinary action. In some
of these it was spoken of as manus injectio pro judicato (i.e. as if
upon a judgment), in others as simple manus injectio (manus injectio
pura). In the first the arrestee was not allowed to dispute his
alleged indebtedness in person; he could do so only through a
vindex; and if no one intervened for him in that character he was
carried off and dealt with by his arresting creditor as if a judgment
had been obtained against him. In the second he was not required
to find a vindex, but might himself dispute the verity of the charge
made against him, under penalty, however, as is generally supposed
(though it is disputed), of a duplication of his liability if he failed
in his contention. By a lex Valha, probably in the latter half of the
6th century of the city, this manus injectio pura was substituted
for that pro judicato in all cases in which the ground of arrest was
neither judgment nor so-called depensum, i.e. payment by a surety
or other party on account of the true debtor, who failed to relieve
the former within six months of such payment. 1
The Legis Actio per Pignoris Capionem? In the ritual of the
actio sacramenti the vis civilis et festucaria was a reminiscence
Pg,. of the vera solida vis with which men settled their
pigooris disputes about property in the earliest infancy of the
<*/>' commonwealth. Manus injectio was a survival from
times when the wronged was held entitled to lay hands
upon the wrongdoer, and himself subject him to punishment;
custom and legislation intervened merely to regulate the condi-
tions and mode of exercise of what essentially was still self-help.
In pignoris capio self-help was likewise the dominant idea. It
may be fairly enough described by the English legal term
distress the taking by one man of property belonging to
another in satisfaction of or in security for a debt due by the
latter which he had failed to pay. The seizure, however, did
not proceed upon any judgment, nor did it require the warrant
of a magistrate; it might be resorted to even in the absence
of the debtor, and on a dies nefastus; but it required to be
accompanied by certain words of style, spoken probably in
the presence of witnesses. It was only in a few exceptional
cases that it was competent, in some by force of custom, in
others by statute, nearly all of which seem to be given by
Gaius, 3 and all of them being of a military, religious or fiscal
character. What was the procedure, and what its effects, are
far from certain. Jhering, founding on some expressions of
Cicero's, conjectures that, whether the debt was disputed or
not, the distrainer could neither destroy nor sell nor definitely
appropriate his pignws without magisterial authority, that
in every case he was bound to institute proceedings in justifica-
tion of his caption, and to take in them the position of plaintiff.
The idea is ingenious, and puts the pignoris capio in a new and
interesting light. It makes it a summary means of raising a
question of right for whose judicial arbitrament no other process
of law was open, with the additional advantage that it secured
instant satisfaction to the raiser of it in the event of the question
being determined in his favour. If against him, the inevitable
result, in substance at least, must ha,ve been a judgment that
he had no right to retain his pledge, with probably a finding
1 On manus injectio pro judicato and pura, see Gaius, iv. 22-25.
'To the literature on p. 548, note i, add Degenkolb, Die Lex
Hieronica (Berlin, 1861), pp. 95 seq.; Jhering, Geist d. ram. Rechts,
vol. i. nc; Voigt, XII. Tafeln, i. 502 seq.; Girard, Manuel,
pp. 977 seq.; Wlassak, Processgesetze, i. 252 seq. For a compara-
tive view, see Maine, Early Institutions, pp. 275 seq.; Jenks, Law
and Politics in the Middle Ages, pp. 263 seq.
8 For a case not mentioned by Gaius, see Girard, Textes, 3rd ed.
p. 122; Bruns, Fontes, 6th ed. p. 181.
that he was further liable to its owner in the value of it, as a
punishment for his precipitancy. 4
Judicial or Quasi- Judicial Procedure outside the Legis Actiones.
Whatever may have been the extent of the field covered by the
actions of the law, they did not altogether exclude other pL_,_ rfl ,_
judicial or quasi-judicial agencies. The supreme magis-
trate was frequently called upon to intervene in matters
brought under his cognizance by petition or complaint,
in which his. aid was sought not so much to protect a
vested right of property or claim as to maintain public order, or
to prevent the occurrence or continuance of a state of matters that
might prove prejudicial to family or individual interests. The
process was not an action, with its stages in jure and in judicio,
but an inquiry (cognitio) conducted from first to last by the magis-
trate himself; and his finding, unless it was a dismissal of the
complaint or petition, was embodied in an order (decretum, inter-
dictum) which it was for him to enforce by such means as he thought
fit, manu militari, or by fine or imprisonment. Some jurists
are disposed to give a very wide range to this magisterial inter-
vention. One of its most important manifestations was in con-
nexion with disputes about the occupancy of the public dom-ain
lands. These did not belong in property to the occupants, so that
an action founded on ownership was out of the question. But, as
the occupancy was not only recognized but sanctioned by the state,
it was right, indeed necessary in the interest of public order, that
it should be protected against disturbance. In the measures
resorted to for its protection Niebuhr recognized the origin of the
famous possessory interdict uti possidetis; and, although opinions
differ as to whether protection of the better right or prevention of
a breach of the peace was what primarily influenced the magis-
trate's intervention, there is, apart from .some distinguished ex-
ceptions, a pretty general accord in accepting this view. Another
illustration of this magisterial intervention is to be found in the
interdiction of a spendthrift, a decree depriving of his power of
administration a man who was squandering his family estate and
reducing his children to penury; a third presents itself in the
removal of a tutor from office on the ground of negligence or mal-
administration, on complaint made to the magistrate by any third
party in what was called postulatio suspecti tutoris; and a fourth
in the putting of a creditor in possession of the goods of an insolvent
debtor, which must have been common enough even before the
general bankruptcy regulations of the Rutilian edict. These are
to be taken merely as examples of this magisterial intervention,
which manifested itself in very various directions; and it is easy
to see how largely such procedure might be utilized for remedying
the grievances of persons who, from defect of complete legal title,
want of statutory authority, or otherwise, were not in a position
to avail themselves of the " actions of the law."
In one of the Valerio-Horatian laws consequent on the second
secession of the plebeians there was mention of ten judges (judices
decemviri), whose persons were declared as inviolable as those of
the tribunes of the people and the plebeian aediles. These were,
it is generally supposed, a body of judges elected to officiate on
remit from a tribune or aedile in questions arising between members
of the plebeian body. We are without details as to the institution
of this plebeian judicatory, the questions that fell under its cog-
nizance, the forms of process employed, the law administered by it
and the effect of its judgments. It is not much referred to by the
historians; and its decadence has been attributed to the fact that
the Lex Hortensia of 287 B.C. made the nundinae lawful court-days
(dies fasti), and so made it possible for the country folk coming to
the city to market to carry on their processes before the praetor.
It has also been identified by some writers 6 with the decemviri stlitibus
judicandis, whose jurisdiction has been already noticed (supra, p. 536).
As all in a manner exercising judicial or quasi-judicial functions
must also be mentioned the pontiffs, the consuls, and afterwards
the censors as magistri morum, the chiefs of the gentes within the
gentile corporations, and heads of families within their households.
While it may be the fact that with the enactment of the XII.
Tables the jurisdiction of the pontiffs 6 was materially narrowed,
4 Cf. Gaius, iv. 32. This would be according to the spirit
of the early system, which endeavoured to check reckless or
unfounded litigation by penalities, e.g. forfeiture of the summa
sacramenti and duplication of the value of unrestored property and
profits in the sacramental procedure; duplication of the value
of the cause when judgment was against the defendant in an action
upon an engagement embodied in a lex mancipii or lex nexi; dupli-
cation against a vindex who interfered ineffectually in manus
injectio against a judgment-debtor; duplication against an heir
who refused without^'udicial compulsitor to pay a legacy bequeathed
per damnationem; the addition of one-third more by way of penalty
where a debtor was found liable in an actio certae creditae pecuniae
(Gai. iv. 171), &c.
6 See Voigt, Rom. Rechtsgeschicnte, i. Beilage i.; contra, Wlassak,
Processgesetze, i. 144 seq.
6 See Cauvet, Le droit pontifical chez les anciens Romains (Caen,
1869) ; Bouche-Leclerq, Les pontijes de Vancienne Rome (Paris, 1871) ;
Marquardt, Rom. Staatsverwalt. lii. 290 seq.
JUS GENTIUM]
ROMAN LAW
553
it certainly did not disappear, witness the famous case in which
Cicero mad*" before them the oration of which he was so proud,
Pro domo sua. The action of the consuls and afterwards of the
censors as guardians of public morals, and the social and political
disqualifications and pecuniary penalties with which they visited
persons who had been guilty of perjury or gross perfidy, did not
a little to foster fidelity to engagements. Through the same agency
the exercise of a variety of rights whose abuse could not be made
matter of action the husband's power over his wife, the father's
over his children was controlled and kept within bounds. It
was not on light grounds, indeed, that the majesty of the pater-
familias within the household could be called in question; it was
only when he forgot that in the exercise of serious discipline within
his family he was bound to act judicially. For he also was a judge
judex domesticus, as he is often called, though in all cases of
gravity he was required to invoke the advice of his kinsfolk in a
family council. On him lay the duty of controlling his family;
if he failed to do so he was himself in danger of censorial animad-
version. 1
Between citizens and foreigners with whom Rome was in alliance
by a treaty (temporary or permanent) conferring reciprocal rights
Reel- ^ ac ! ; ion, the proceedings took the form known as reci-
peratlo peratio or recuperatio? The action was probably always
raised in the forum contractus. According to the common
opinion the magistrate ordinarily presiding there heard what parties
had to say in plaint and defence, and then put into a simple formula
the points of fact arising on them, authorizing the recuperators
to whom the matter was remitted to find for plaintiff or defendant
according to circumstances. The recuperators were generally
three, sometimes five, sometimes perhaps still more numerous,
but always in odd number; but whether the nationality of both
parties required to be represented we are not told. Expedition
being in most cases a matter of importance, recuperators were
required to give judgment within ten days, and the number of
witnesses was usually limited to ten. How execution proceeded
upon it, if it were for the plaintiff, does not clearly appear; Voigt,
founding on a few words in Festus, concludes it must have been
by something like pignoris capio. This recuperatory procedure in
time came to be resorted to in processes de libertate and even in
some litigations where both parties were citizens. There are numerous
instances of the latter in Cicero; and it is remarkable that in
the praetorian actions ex delicto the remit was usually not to a
judex but to recuperators. The explanation may be in the com-
parative summariness of the remedy.
III. THE Jus GENTIUM AND Jus HONORARIUM
(Latter half of the Republic.)
i. Influences thai operated on the Law.
Growth of Commerce and Influx of Foreigners. While it may
be admitted that commerce was beginning to take root in
influx Rome in the 5th century, yet it was not until the
ottor- 6th that it really became of importance. The cam-
eigners. paigns in which Rome was engaged until the end
of the First Punic War absorbed all its energies. But after
that time the influx of strangers, and their settlement in
the city for purposes of trade, became very rapid- not only
of Latins and other allies, but Greeks, Carthaginians and
Asiatics. To them and the regulation of their affairs the jus
civile the law peculiar to Rome and its citizens was applic-
able only if they were members of allied states to which com-
mercium and recuperalio were guaranteed by treaty. But
many were not in this favoured position; and even those who
were soon found the range of Roman modes of acquiring pro-
perty and contracting obligations too narrow for their require-
ments. Hence a jus gentium was gradually developed 3 which
very early in its history drove treaty covenants for recuperatio
out of use; its application may for a time have been limited
to transactions between non-citizens or between citizens and
non-citizens, but it was eventually accepted in the dealings
of citizens inter se and became part and parcel of the jus
1 On Judex domesticus, see Greenidge, Legal Procedure in Cicero's
Time, pp. 376 seq.
2 See Sell, Die recuperatio der Romer (Brunswick, 1837); Huschke
(rev. Sell), in Richter's Krit. Jahrbiicher, i. (1837), 868-911; Voigt,
Jus naturale, &c., ii. 28-32; Karlowa, Rom. Civilprocsss, pp.
21.8-230; Girard, Organisation judiciaire des remains (1901), i. 97 seq.
3 On the Roman jus gentium, see Voigt, Das jus naturale. aequum
et bonum, und jus gentium, d. Romer (4 vols., Leipzig, 1856-
18753; Nettleship, in the Journal of Philology, (1885), xiii. 169
seq.; Kriiger, Gesch. d. Quelkn, 16, 17; Mommsen, Staatsrecht,
iii. 604 n.
Romanorum. Gaius and Justinian speak of it as " the common
law of mankind," " the law in use among all nations "; but the
language must not be taken too literally. The Roman jus
gentium was not built up by the adoption of one doctrine or
institution after another that was found to be generally current
elsewhere. In the earliest stages of its recognition it was
" an independent international private law, which, as such,
regulated intercourse between peregrins or between peregrins
and citizens on the basis of their common libertas "; 4 during
the Republic it was purely empirical and free from the influence
of scientific theory, but its extensions in the early Empire were
a creation of the jurists a combination ot comparative juris-
prudence and rational speculation. To say that it was de
facto in observance everywhere is inaccurate; on the contrary,
it was Roman law, built up by Roman jurists, though called
into existence through the necessities of intercourse with and
among non-Romans.
It may be a little difficult for a modern jurist to say with
perfect precision what were the doctrines and institutions of
the jus gentium as distinguished from the jus civile. But the
distinction was quite familiar to the Romans, as witness, for
example, the statement of Marcian, in reference to the AiroXt&s,
that they enjoyed all the rights competent to a man under the
former, but none of those competent to him under the latter.
Institution of the Peregrin Praetorship. The praetorship,* as
already mentioned, was an outcome of the Licinian laws of the
year 367 B.C. (see PRAETOR). Down to the end of the The
5th century of the city the praetor so appointed super- ptngrta
intended single-handed the administration of justice, praetor.
alike between citizens and foreigners. But with the altered
condition of things in the beginning of the 6th century, and the
influx of strangers which has already been alluded to, the work
seems to have been found ^too onerous for a single magistrate,
and a second praetor was created. The date is generally
assumed to have been about the year 242 B.C.; Pomponius
says distinctly that the creation of the new office was rendered
necessary by the increase of the peregrin population of Rome,
and that the new magistrate got the name of praetor peregrinus
because his principal duty was to dispense justice to this foreign
element. After the submission of Sicily and Sardinia the
number of the praetors was increased to four and after the
conquest of Spain to six; Sulla raised the number to eight,
and Caesar eventually to sixteen. But all the later creations
were for special purposes; the ordinary administration of
justice within the city was left with the representatives for the
time of the two earliest, who came to be usually distinguished
as praetor qui inter cives jus dicit (or urbanus) and praetor qui
inter cives et peregrines jus dicit (or peregrinus). It would be
going too far to speak of the latter as the principal author of
the jus gentium; for a large proportion of the actions for en-
forcing jus gentium rights were civil, not honorary a fact
which proves that the rights they were meant to protect and
enforce had their origin in the jus civile, although moulded to
meet new requirements by tacit consuetude and the agency
of the jurists. But even in this view the peregrin praetor
must have had a powerful influence in giving shape and con-
sistency to the rising jursiprudence, by means of the formulae
he adjusted for giving it practical effect.
Simplification of Procedure and Introduction of New Remedies under
the Aebutian Law. The lex Aebutia is only twice mentioned by
ancient writers (once by Aulus Gellius and once by Gaius), Dttorms
and we know neither its precise date nor its specific pro- ofAebu-
visions. And yet, to judge by its effects, it must have ^. .
been one of the most important pieces of legislation in the
latter half of the Republic, for Gellius speaks of it as having given
the death-blow to many of the institutions of the XII. Tables, and
Gaius couples it with two Julian laws of the time of Augustus as
4 Voigt, Jus nat. ii. 661. He distinguishes the jus civile, jus
gentium and jus naturale as the systems whTch applied respectively
to the citizen, the freeman and the man.
6 See Labatut, Histoire de la Prlture (Paris, 1868) ; Mommsen,
Staatsrecht, ii. 176 seq.; Karlowa, Rom. Rechtsgeschichte, i. 217
seq. ; Girard, Organisation judiciaire, i. 160 seq., and on the peregrin
praetorship in particular, pp. 206 seq.
554
ROMAN LAW
[JUS GENTIUM AND
the statutory instrument whereby the formular system of procedure
was substituted for that per legis actiones. Its date was probably
about the end of the 6th or beginning of the yth century of the city.
Girard, who has examined the question with great care, places it in
the first third of the 7th century, 1 and, though his reasoning is not
quite conclusive, it largely refutes the arguments of older writers,
who in many cases put the date a century and more earlier. It
is the opinion of Wlassak 2 that it was a piece of tentative legislation,
and that as regards citizens it in no wise abolished the actions of
the law but merely made the formulary procedure alternative to
them, according as the praetor, on the representation of the parties,
might determine in each case; formulae, in his view, being first
made compulsory, subject to a few exceptions, by the Julian laws.
This is a probable theory and is now adopted by many recent writers.
The main purpose of the statute seems to have been to empower the
urban praetors to adapt existing remedies to altered circumstances,
and inter alia to fashion new actions on the jus civile for the use
of the peregrins, to whom the legis actiones were rarely, if at all,
available. But, whatever may have been its actual provisions, the
result was the adoption of a procedure which gradually supplanted
that by the actions of the law, which was much more pliant than the
latter, and whose characteristic was this that, instead of the issue
being declared by word of mouth by the parties, and requiring as a
rule to embody with perfect accuracy the statutory provision on
which it was based, it was formulated in writing under the direc-
tion of the praetor, in the shape of an instruction to the judge to
inquire into the merits of the dispute, with power to condemn or
acquit according to his finding. A statute was necessary for accom-
plishing such an innovation, not only because the existing procedure
was directly prescribed by statute, but also among other reasons
because the legis actiones were favourites of the pontifical colleges
(being often profitable to them), and any attempt by the magistrates
to dispense with them would have been opposed by these powerful
bodies. It is now the dominant opinion among modern writers,
and it seems based on reasoning which cannot be gainsaid, that even
prior to the lex Aebutia written formulae were employed in practice,
particularly if not exclusively in the peregrin praetor's court, and
that one of the objects of the statute was to legalize similar procedure
in civil actions. 3 All such formulae granted by the peregrin praetor
must of course have been in factum conceptae. Unless we hold
this view it is difficult to see by what means the rights and obliga-
tions of peregrins in their transactions inter se or with citizens
could have been enforced, as civil actions, save perhaps in excep-
tional cases where by treaty they enjoyed jus commercii, were not
open to them. Written instructions to the recuperators or other
judges for trying suits in which a peregrin was a party would be a
practical necessity, for these judges would have to decide according to
jus gentium, whose rules would probably be strange to them, and
their instructions would therefore have to be precise and definite.
Verbal instructions would have led to miscarriages of justice.
From this point of view we can see how the peregrin praetor became
the primary organ in developing jus gentium. But there is some
reason for holding that the urban praetor had also, before the
Aebutian law, occasionally exercised his imperium by granting
actions in factum, and in this way perhaps enforced a number of
contracts and other obligations in which elements of equity and
good faith were present and which the jus civile left remediless.
Actions of this kind among cives would be in the nature of arbitria
accepted voluntarily by the parties. The latter view certainly
explains several apparent anomalies in the later law, for which
no other good explanation can be found, as, for instance, the fact
that in deposit and commodate actions in factum as well as in jus
might be brought. Also the actio in factum for enforcing a con-
tract of fiducia can in this way be explained. It also serves
to throw light upon the development of some of the bonae fidei
contracts. 4
Provincial Conquests. The growth of commerce and the enormous
increase of wealth, which made great capitalists and enabled them
through the agency of freedmen and slaves to carry on trade
on a scale hitherto unknown, and which thus helped to foster
t '? e -7 J " gentium, were no doubt due to a large extent to pro-
vincial conquests. But these operated also in other direc-
tions.Theofficials who proceeded to theconquered provinces
as governors found themselves face to face with la wsand institutions in
many respects differing from those of Rome. Political considerations
dictated how far these were to be respected, how far subverted. In
'Girard, Ztsch. d. Sav. Stift. xiv. 11-54 and xxix. 113 seq.;
Manuel, 4th ed. p. 993; cf. Mitteis, Rom. Privatrecht (1908),
p. 52 n. ; and Wlassak, Z. d. Sav. Slift. xxv. 81 seq. and xxviii.
I seq.
1 Wlassak, Rom. Processgesetze (1888), i. pp. 62-73, PP- 85 seq.
and pp. 103-139.
* See Sohm, Inslilulionen, Ledlie's translation (and ed.), pp. 69,
80; Wlassak, Processgesetze, ii. 304 seq.; Cuq, Institutions jurid.
(2nd ed.) i. 285-286.
4 These points are well stated by Mitteis, Ro'm. Privatrecht (1908),
pp. 39 seq. ; see authorities cited by him in note 2, p. 39. Contra,
Girard, Z. d. Sav. Stift. xxix. 154-158.
'* of
P d* I "i
provinces, more especially the Eastern ones, it was thought
unnecessary to do more than supplement the existing system by the
importation of doctrines of the jus gentium and the procedure of
the praetor's edicts; while in others, in which it was deemed ex-
pedient to destroy as rapidly as possible all national feeling and every
national rallying point, a Romanizing of all their institutions was
resorted to, even to the extent of introducing some of the formal
transactions which previously had been confined to citizens. But in
either case there was a reflex action. The native institution had to
be studied, its advantages and disadvantages balanced, the means
considered of adapting it to the praetorian procedure, and the
new ideas so presented as to make them harmonize as far as possible
with the old. All this was a training of no small value for those who,
on their return to Rome, were to exercise an influence on legislation
and the administration of the law. They brought back with them
not merely an experience they could not have obtained at home, but
sometimes a familiarity with foreign institutions that they were
very willing to acclimatize in Italy. Rome thus enriched its law
from the provinces, deriving from them its emphyteutic tenure
of land, its hypothec, its Rhodian law of general average and a
variety of other features that were altogether novel. They were
sanctioned by tacit recognition, by edicts of the praetors and in
other ways; but, in whatever way received, they were indirectly
fruits of provincial conquest.
Spread of Literature and Philosophy. The effect on Roman
civilization of the addiction of educated men in the later Republic
to literature and philosophy is a matter for consideration . _
in connexion with Rome's general history. It is not nf nt""-
proposed to consider here the question how far specific <ure '.
doctrines of Roman law bear the impress of the influence P hllo-
of the schools, especially that of the Stoics; it is a subject S ophy
much too large to be disposed of in a few lines. 5 The
matter is mentioned simply for the sake of noting that the spirit
of critical inquiry aroused and fostered by literary and philosophical
study, seriously and conscientiously undertaken, contributed greatly
to promote a new departure in jurisprudence that became very
marked in the time of Cicero the desire to subordinate form to
substance, the word spoken to the will it was meant to manifest,
the abstract rule to the individual case to which it was proposed
to apply it. This was the first effort of what then was called
equity to temper and keep within the bounds the rigour of the jus
strictum. The praetors, the judges and the jurisconsults all had
their share in it. Although modern jurists are prone to speak of
praetorian equity as if it were a thing apart, yet the same spirit was
leavening the law in all directions and in the hands of all who had
to deal with it, the difference being that the form and publicity
of the edict gave to its applications by the praetors a more pro-
minent and enduring record than was found in the decisions of
private judices or the opinions of counselling jurisconsults.
Decline of Religion and Morals. It would be equally out
of place to enlarge here on the causes and manifestations of
that decline in religious sentiment and public and Decline of
private virtue which was fraught with such disastrous religion
results in the later days of the Republic. The private
law was influenced by it to a considerable extent,
alike in those branches which regulated the domestic relations
and those which dealt with property and contract.
The ever-increasing disregard of the sanctity of the marriage
tie is one of those features in the history of the period which
strikes even the most unobservant. While from the first
the law had denounced causeless separation and visited it
with penalties, in principle it maintained the perfect freedom
of repudiation on the part of the husband. With the simple
and frugal habits of the first five centuries of Rome, and the
surveillance of the consilium domesticum, the recognition of
this principle produced no evil results; family misunder-
standings were easily smoothed over, and divorces were of
rare occurrence. But during the 6th and 7th centuries of
the Republic a change to looser morals took place, and the
family council lost much of its control. This was doubtless
largely due to the decay of hand marriages, wives consequently
remaining outside their husband's familia and often holding
5 It is one that was discussed with much greater fervour a century
ago than it is now. *.O( the later literature may be mentioned Van
Vollenhpven, De exigua vi quam philosophia Graeca habuit in effor-
manda jurisprudentia Romana (Amsterdam, 1834); Ratjen, Hat die
Stoische Phil, bedeutenden Einfluss gehabt, &c.1 (Kiel, 1839); V'oigt,
Jus. nat., &c., vol. i. 49-51 ; Laferrtere, De ['influence du Sto'icisme
sur la doctrine des jurisconsultes Remains (Paris, 1860); Hildenbrand,
Gesch. u. System d. Rechts- und Staats-Philosophie (Leipzig, 1860),
vol. i. 141, 142. The earlier literature is given in Hildenbrand,
P- 593-
JUS HONORARIUM]
ROMAN LAW
555
property of their own. With increasing luxury and licentious-
ness divorce became common. 1
This looseness of the marriage bond, as was naturally to
be expected, had its effect on the other family relations. The
right of children to take their father's inheritance began to
be lightly esteemed. The law or rather the interpretation
put upon the uti legassit of the XII. Tables had empowered
him testamentarily to disinherit them, or in instituting them
to limit their right to a mere fraction of the inheritance; but
it was assumed that this power would be exercised with
discretion and only when justified by circumstances. But
in the later days of the Republic, amid the slackened ties of
domestic life, paternal as well as conjugal duty seems to have
often been lost sight of, and children were disinherited or cut
off with a nominal share of the inheritance in order that a
stranger might be enriched. This led to the recognition by
the centumviral court, without apparently any legislative
enactment or praetor's edict to warrant it, of what was called
the querela inofficiosi testamenti challenge of a testament
by a child whose natural claims had been capriciously and
causelessly disregarded. While the practice may for a time
have been hesitating and uncertain, yet early in the empire,
through means of this querela, the rule came to be established
that every child was entitled, notwithstanding the terms of
his father's testament, to at least a fourth (portio legitima,
quarla legitima) 2 of what would have come to him had his
parent died intestate, unless it appeared that the latter had
had adequate grounds for excluding him or limiting him to a
smaller share. A parent might in like manner challenge an
undutiful testament made by his child to his prejudice; and
ultimately in certain cases so might brothers and sisters
inter se.
The decline of morals had an equally marked effect on the
transactions of daily life, calling for precautions and remedies
that had not been found requisite in the hey-day of the
TTIOTIS TWV 'Puficduv. Men no longer relied on each other's
good faith unless backed by stipulations, securities (cautiones)
and guarantees. The Rutilian bankruptcy arrangements and
the aclio Pauliana for setting aside alienations in fraud of
creditors indicate a laxity in mercantile dealings that was
perhaps an inevitable consequence of the growth of trade
and commerce. But, that such remedies as, for example,
the exceptio rei vendilae el traditae or the exceplio non numeratae
pecuniae should have been found necessary the one an answer
to a vendor (with the price in his pocket) who attempted to
dispossess his vendee because some of the formalities of con-
veyance had been neglected, the other an answer to an action
on a bond for repayment of money that by some accident
had never been advanced proves that the law had now to
encounter fraud in all directions, and that Graeca fides had tc
a great extent displaced the old Roman probity.
ii. Factors of the Law.
Legislation. It cannot be said that during the period of nearly
two centuries and a half embraced within the present epoch the
private law owed much to legislation. The vast majority
Legtsla- O f (.[je enactments of the time referred to by the his-
iioo. torians dealt with constitutional questions, municipal and
colonial government, agrarian arrangements, fiscal policy, sumptuary
prohibitions, criminal and police regulations, and other matters
that affected the public law rather than the private. Those of the
latter class mentioned by Gaius and Ulpian in their institutional
works barely exceed a score in number; and of these not above
half a dozen can be said to have exercised a permanent influence
on the principles (as distinguished from the details) of the law.
Most of them were enactments of the concilium, plebis or of the
comilia of the tribes, to which ordinary legislation had passed as
1 Voigt, Die Lex Maenia de dote (Weimar, 1866), attributes to
a lex Maenia of 168 B.C. the creation of the judicium de moribus
which superseded the family council as a divorce court by pro-
viding a penal action on divorce. The existence, however, of a
statute for this purpose has not been proved, and is discredited by
most recent writers. See Czylharz, Das romische Dotalrecht (Giessen,
1870).
2 From this the legitim of children recognized by most continental
countries nowadays is derived.
more readily convened and more easily worked than the comitia
of the centuries.
Edicts of the Magistrates. 1 The practice of propounding edicts
was very ancient, and had been followed by kings and consuls long
before the institution of the praetorship. It was one of
-
the most obvious ways of exercising the imperium with ^
which the supreme magistrate was invested to lay an
injunction upon a citizen and enforce his obedience, or to
confer upon him some advantage and maintain him in its enjoyment.
It was one of the ways in which public order was protected where
there had been no invasion of what the law regarded as a right,
and where, consequently, there was no remedy by action. That the
earlier edicts of the praetors were of this character issued, that is
to say, with reference to particular cases, and what afterwards came
to be called edicta repentina or prout res incidit posita there is little
reason to doubt. In time a new class of edicts appeared which got
the name of edicta perpetua (or perpetuae jurisaictionis causa pro-
posita) announcements by the praetor, published on his album (as
the white boards displayed for the purpose in the forum were called),
of the remedy he would be prepared to grant on the application of
any one alleging that the state of facts contemplated had arisen. The
next year's praetor was free to adopt the edicts of his predecessor
or not; but it was usual for him to do so if they had been found
beneficial in practice, he adding to them new provisions suggested
by demands made upon past praetors for edicta repentina, but which
they had not generalized, or even proposing for acceptance some
remedy entirely of his own devising. As each new praetor entered
upon office he announced his jurisdicttonal programme his lex
annua, as it was called from this particular point of view, by far the
greater part of it tralaticium, i.e. transmitted from his predecessors,
and only a few paragraphs, diminishing in number as time pro-
gressed, representing his own contribution. And so it went on in
the first years of the Empire, until the praetorian function was
eclipsed by the imperial; and at last, after having, by instruction,
of Hadrian, been subjected to revision, and consolidated along with
the Aedilian Edicts, by Salvius Julianus, it was, as will be noticed
below, sanctioned as binding on the whole Empire. The term
" Edict " is applied both to the single edicts and also to the whole
body of them together.
There is some reason for supposing that the edict attained con-
siderable proportions in the time of Cicero; for he mentions that,
whereas in his youth the XII. Tables had been taught to the boys
in school, in his later years these were neglected, and young men
directed instead to the praetor's edicts for their first lessons in law.
Of a few of them the date and authorship are known with tolerable
precision; but of the history of the majority, including some of the
most important, such as those introducing restitutio in integrum
on the ground of lesion through error, absence, minority and the
like, and those revolutionizing the law of succession, we are to a
great extent in the dark. It was one of the great advantages the
edicts had over legislative enactments that they might be dropped,
resumed or amended by a new praetor according to his judgment of
public requirements. For the edict was viva vox juris civilis
intended to aid, supplement and correct it in accordance with the
ever-changing estimate of public necessities; and this would have
been impossible had its provisions from the first been as stereotyped
as they became by the consolidation in the time of Hadrian.
The edict seems to have contained two parts the first what
may be called the edicts proper, and the second styles of actions,
&c., whether derived from the 'jus civile or from the jus praetorium.
The styles or formulae for civil actions were published without any
corresponding edict; for praetorian actions styles were published
appropriate to their corresponding edicts. There were also inde-
pendent formulae for interdicts, processual stipulations, &c. The
contents of the edicts proper were in detail very various, but all
devoted to an exposition of the ways in which the praetor meant to
exercise his jurisdiction during his year of office. They were not
didactic or dogmatic formulations of law, but rather announce-
ments of what remedy he would grant in such and such circumstances,
or direct orders to do or prohibitions against doing certain things.
A party claiming an action or whatever else it might be under any
of them did so not of right, as he would have done had his claim
had a statutory or customary foundation, but of grace- on the
strength of the praetor's promise to grant him what he claimed and
make the grant effectual. That was why originally such an ^action
had to be raised and concluded within the particular praetor's year
of office a rule which in time, by abuse, was converted into the
somewhat different one that a purely praetorian_ action (i.e. not
originally of the jus civile) had to be raised within a year of the
occurrence to which it referred.
As already observed, the praetor's edicts proceeded upon lines of
equity; that is to say, they were directed against the strictness
and formalism of the jurisprudence of the XII. Tables. Such may
be said to have been the general tendency of the edicts as a whole.
* See Lenel, Beitrdge zur Kunde des praetorischen Edicts (Stuttgart,
1878), and the introductory chapters in his Edictum Perpetuum
(Leipzig, 2nd ed., 1907); Karlowa, Rom. Rechtsgesch. vol. i. 60;
Voigt, Rom. Rechtsgesch. 19, 20
556
ROMAN LAW
[JUS GENTIUM AND
But it was the tendency of the whole jurisprudence of the time, and
by no means peculiar to the praetorian creation. Nowhere in the
texts are the praetors spoken of as the mouthpieces of equity as
distinguished from law. Such a distinction recurs frequently in
Cicero; he identifies aequitas with the spirit of a law or agreement,
and jus with its letter, but it is in order to sing the praises not of
the praetors but of the pleaders who maintained the former as
against the latter, and of the judges who were persuaded by their
arguments. Much of what was contained in the edict might quite
as well have been embodied in statute, and we know that in time
statute came to its aid ; witness a very remarkable provision of it
" I will give bonorum possessio as may be enjoined by statute,
whether comitial enactment or senatusconsult."
Of the edicts of the peregrin praetor and their relation to that of
his urban colleague little is known. That they differed in some
respects there can be no doubt, for in the lex Rubria (49 B.C.) for
settling the government of Cisalpine Gaul the magistrates are
directed, with reference to a certain action, to formulate it in the
way prescribed in the edict of the peregrin praetor. The latter,
therefore, must to some extent have been in advance of that of
the urban praetor, probably in this respect, that, being prepared
primarily for the regulation of questions affecting non-citizens, it
more thoroughly than the other avoided formalities that were com-
petent only to citizens, and thus to a greater extent simplified pro-
cedure. The edicts of the provincial governors must have varied
according to circumstances, being in all cases composites of pro-
visions, more or less numerous, borrowed from the edicts of the
praetors and additions suggested by the peculiar wants of the
different provinces for which they were framed (provinciate genus
edicendi). As for those of the curule aediles, who amongst other
duties were charged with the supervision of markets, their range
was very limited ; their most important provisions haying reference
to open sales of slaves, horses and cattle, and containing regulations
about the duties of vendors exposing them, and their responsibility
for latent faults and vices. They also had cognisance of certain
delicts committed in the streets and markets. As the aediles had
no imperium their restricted jus edicendi may have been conferred
on them by custom or statute.
Consuetude, Professional Jurisprudence and Res Judicatae. Great
as may be the difficulty experienced by philosophical jurists in
Coasue- defining the ground of the authority of consuetudinary
' law, there is no room to dispute the importance of its
^ contributions to every system of jurisprudence ancient
and modern. The men who first drew, accepted and
endorsed a bill of exchange did as much for the law as any lawgiver
has ever accomplished. They may or may not have acted on the
advice of jurists; but, whether or not, they began a practice which
grew into custom, and as such was recognized by the tribunals as
a law-creating one-^-one conferring rights and imposing obligations.
There is much of this far more probably than is commonly imagined
in the history of every system of law.
_In Rome the process was sometimes wonderfully expeditious;
witness what Justinian narrates of the introduction and recognition
of testamentary trusts and of codicils to last wills, both in the time
of Augustus. It can hardly be doubted that the literal contract
per expensilationem originated in the same way, probably in the
end of the 5th or the beginning of the 6th century of the city. The
keeping of domestic account-books may have been enjoined and
enforced by the censors; but it was custom, and neither statute nor
praetor's edict, that made an entry in them to another person's
debit creative of a claim against the latter for certa pecunia credita,
that might be made effectual by an action under the Silian law.
It must have been in exactly the same way that mutuum, formless
loan of money, came to be regarded as the third variety of cerla
credita pecunia, and to be held recoverable under the same action.
True, this could not have been attained without the co-operation of
the judices. But then each case was as a rule tried by a single private
citizen, whose office ended with his judgment, and who was untram-
melled by the authority of any series rerum judicatarum. 1 He had
simply to decide whether in his view expensilation or formless loan
created such an obligation as was covered by the words pecuniam
dart oportere. There may for a time have been a divergent practice,
contradictory findings, as Cicero says there were in his day upon the
question whether aequitas or jus strictum was to be applied to the
determination of certain matters; but the eventual unanimity of
judicial opinion in one direction was but the expression of the
general sentiment of the citizens, of whom the judices were the
representatives.
These are but examples of the way in which consuetudinary law
was constructed. It required the combined action of the laity and
the judices, both at times acting under professional advice ; in some
cases even that of the praetors was necessary. It would have
1 It was not until the Empire that a " series rerum perpetuo
similiter judicatarum," a uniform series of precedents, was held to
be law. During the Republic a judge was much freer, and not only
entitled but bound to decide according to his own notion of what was
right, taking the risk of consequences if his judgment was knowingly
contrary to law.
been impossible, for instance, to have introduced the consensual
contracts into the Roman system and determined what were the
obligations they imposed on either side, without magisterial co-
operation in framing the formulae that were to be submitted to
the judges. Taking the action on sale as an illustration, the formula
substantially was this: " It being averred that the defendant sold
such or such a thing to the plaintiff, whatever, judge, it shall appear
that the defendant ought in good faith to give to or do for the
plaintiff in respect thereof, in the money equivalent thereof condemn
the defendant; otherwise, acquit him." It is very manifest that
the free hand here given to the judge must immensely have facilitated
the reception of customary doctrine into the law. The judge was
to a great extent the spokesman of the forum; his judgment was
formed in accordance with current public opinion, which he had
ample opportunity of gauging; it was the reflection of that general
sentiment of right, which, phrase it how we may, is the real basis
of all customary law. And so in an action for establishing a right
of property in a res nee mancipi. The formula was very simple:
" If it appear that such or such a thing belongs to the plaintiff in
quiritary right, then, judge, whatever be its value for the plaintiff, in
that condemn the defendant ; should it appear otherwise, acquit him."
The primary duty of a judge on such a remit was to determine
whether the title on which the plaintiff founded his pretensions
gave him a right that came up to property; and it can hardly be
disputed that it was by the decisions of a series of judges, in a series
of such actions, that the long list of natural modes of acquiring
property given by Justinian under technical names was gradually
brought into view. Those decisions, whether upon the obligations
of a vendor, direct or indirect, or upon the sufficiency of a title
founded on by a party averring a right of property by natural
acquisition, doubtless were in many cases arrived at under pro-
fessional advice, and were in all cases embodied in judgments. But
that does not in the least deprive the doctrine deduced from them of
its character of customary law. It was not until the Empire that the
opinions of the jurists submitted to a judge (responsa prudentium)
were invested -with binding authority. During the Republic, if a
judge deferred to them, it was simply because he regarded them as
in consonance with well-qualified public opinion; and what a series
of consistent judgments of this sort built up was in the strictest
sense a law based on consuetude.
As regards the professional jurists in particular it has already been
observed that, according to the testimony of the Roman historians,
the law was a monopoly of the patricians down at least to
the middle of the 5th century of the city. Livy goes so far
as to speak of it as in penetralibus pontificum repositum,
among the secrets of the pontifical college. It was so
doubtless during the regal period. But after the publi-
cation of the XII. Tables this could be the case only in a qualified
sense, the pontiffs becoming the official interpreters of that which
in the letter was patent to the world. The Jus Flavianum, with
its formulary of actions, about the year 304 B.C., the practice of
giving advice in law in public adopted by Tib. Coruncanius in the
beginning of the 6th century, and the Tripertita (also called Jus
Aelianum), embodying the current interpretatio, some fifty years
later, put an end not only to pontifical but to patrician monopoly. 2
From this time onwards there was a series of jurists (jurisconsulti,
jurisperiti, jurisprudentes or prudentes, as they were styled), gradu-
ally increasing in number and eminence, of whom a list is given
by Pomponius, and many of whom are signalized by Cicero,
particularly in his Orator and Brutus. They occupied themselves
in giving advice to clients (see PATRON AND CLIENT), teaching,
pleading at the bar, framing styles of contracts, testaments, and
various other deeds of a legal character, or writing commentaries or
shorter treatises on different branches of the law. 8
iii. Substantive Changes in the Law during the Period.
The Publician Edict. There were necessarily many changes
during the period in the law of property and of minor real rights,
several of them of no mean importance. But the greatest '
of all was that effected by the Publician Edict, 4 indirectly
recognizing the validity (l) of what Theophilus calls
bonitary ownership as an actual though inferior ownership of res
mancipi, and (2) of what got the name of bonae fidei possessio
Pro-
fessional
juris-
prudence.
2 There is some doubt whether the Jus Aelianum mentioned by
Pomponius (Dig. i. 2, 2, 7) was not an independent collection of
actions by Sextus Aelius different from his Tripertita mentioned
(Dig. i. 2, 2, 38). See Bremer, Jurispr. Ante-Hadriana (1896), i. p. 15.
8 Sanio^ Zur Geschichte der rom. Rechtswissenschaft (Konigsberg,
1858) ; Grellet-Dumazeau, Etudes sur le barreau remain (2nd ed.,
Pans, 1858); Karlawo, Rom. 'Rechtsgesck. i. 61; Roby, Introd. to
Digest, chaps, vii. and viii.; Jors, Rom. Rechtswissenschaft (1888),
vol. i.; Bremer, Jurispr. Antehadriana, vol. i.
* See Ribereau, Theorie de V in bonis habere ou de la propriete
pretonenne (Paris, 1867); Huschke, Das Recht der Publicianischen
Klage (Stuttgart, 1874); Schulin (rev. Huschke), in the Krit.
Vierteljahrschrift, xviii. (1876), 526 seq.; Lenel, Beitrage zur
Kunde a. praetonschen Edicts: I. Das Public. Ed. (Stuttgart,
1878); Appleton, Histoire de la propriete pretonenne (Paris, 1889);
JUS HONORARIUM]
ROMAN LAW
557
as a fictitious ownership of either res mancipi or res nee mancipi,
valid against all the world except the true dominus. The accounts
we possess of this edict are somewhat inconsistent and even con-
tradictory; the explanation may be that it went through a process
of amendment and expansion at the hands of successive praetors,
and that eventually it may have had more than one section, without
our always being able to say to which of them the criticism of a
particular commentator is directed. But there is no doubt of its
general tendency of the defects it was meant to correct and of the
way in which the correction was accomplished.
One of the defects was this: if a man had taken a transfer of
a res mancipi from its rightful owner, but simply by tradition
instead of by mancipation or cession in court, he did not
acquire dominium ex jure Quiritium, and the transferrer
"" remained undiyested. The result was that the latter
was in law entitled to raise a rei vindicatio and oust the
"*** transferee whose money he might have in his pocket, while if
a third party had obtained possession of the thing, but in such a way
as not to be amenable to an interdict, the transferee could have no
effectual vindication against him, as he was not in a position to prove
dominium ex jure Quiritium. The first difficulty was overcome by the
exceptio rei vendible et traditae, also a praetorian remedy, and pro-
bably older than the Publician; to the transferrer's vindication
on the strength of his unextinguished quiritary right the transferee
pleaded sale and delivery as an effectual praetorian defence. But,
when a third party was in possession, and the transferee by simple
delivery had to take the initiative, the position was more com-
plicated. Such third party might be in perfect good faith;
he might even have acquired from the original transferrer and
fortified his acquisition with a formal conveyance. But that was
no sufficient reason in equity why he should be allowed to defeat the
prior right of the original transferee, who, if he had possessed for the
requisite period of usucapion before the third party came upon the
scene would have cured the defect of the informal delivery and ac-
quired an unassailable quiritary right. So the praetor announced
in his edict that, if a man came to him and represented that he had
bought a res mancipi from its owner, and had had it delivered to
him, but had lost possession within the period of usucapion, he (the
praetor) would allow him a vindication embodying a fiction of
completed usucapion (infra), with which he might proceed either
against the transferrer or any third party withholding the thing
in question.
The publication of such an edict and the formula of the action
based upon it (which, though of praetorian origin, was in many
respects dealt with as just a variety of the rei vindicatio) had almost
the same effect as if the legislature had directly enacted that in
future delivery of a res mancipi in pursuance of a sale or other good
cause would confer a right of ownership in it even before usucapion
-had been completed. Till completed, however, the transferee
was not quiritary owner: the thing in question was only in bonis,
" of his belongings," and the legal title, though an empty one
nudum jus Quiritium remained in the transferrer; it was only with
the completion of the usucapion that it became the transferee's
plena jure. The inevitable result of the recognition of this tenure
in bonis was that mancipation came to be regarded in many cases
as an unnecessary formality ; and the marvel is that it continued to
hold its ground at all. The explanation may be that it afforded a
substratum for and gave force of law to the verba nuncupala that
accompanied the negotium per aes et libram; and, although many
of these might quite well be thrown into the form of stipulations,
yet there were others that it may have been thought safer to leave
to take effect under the provisions of the earlier law.
The second case that was met by the Publician Edict whether
as originally published or by an amendment of it cannot be deter-
mined was that of the bona fide transferee of a thing by
Bnnae purchase or other sufficient title who, having lost possession
adel of it before usucapion, found to his cost that the transferrer
possesslo. had not been itsowner, that noownership therefore had been
transmitted to him (the transferee), and that consequently he was
not in a position to raise a vindication with its averment of dominium
ex jure Quiritium. 1 As against the true owner, whose property had
been disposed of by a stranger behind his back, there would be no
Lenel, Palingenesia, ii. pp. 511 seq.; Girard, Manuel, 4th ed. pp. 348
seq. ; Lenel Edict. Perpet. 2nd ed. 164, and references in n. 10
there.
1 This case is the only one alluded to by Justinian (Inst. iv. 6, _4).
He had abolished the distinction between quiritarian and bonitarian
property, which had, he says, become in practice a mockery (Cod.
vii. 25), and so it was unnecessary for him to mention the other.
Lenel, in the second edition of his Edictum Perpetuum, i. p. 164,
gives strong reasons for holding that there was from the beginning
only one eclict and one formula which was applied alike to bonitary
ownership and bona fide possession. Cf. Appleton, I.e. i. p. 49.
For the different theories, see Girard, Textes, 3rd ed. pp. 137-38.
What was the nature of the so-called actio Publiciana recissoria
in which completed usucapion was feigned not to have taken
place, seems doubtful. Inst. iv. 6, 3, 5. See Cuq. Inst. Jurid.
vol. ii. 2nd ed. p. 722 n. ; Lenel, Edict. Perpet. pp. 117-19.
equity in such an action, and the owner was given an effectual
exceptio justi dominii; but as against all the world except the true
owner (and perhaps a person who also was in causa usucapiendi),
his " better right " was recognized by the praetor, who accorded
to him a vindication proceeding on a fiction of completed usucapion,
for usucapion would cure the defect of his title, just as it did that
of the bonitarian owner. In this way the praetors introduced
that bonae fidei possessio which was worked out with much skill by
the jurists of the early Empire, and which assumed very large pro-
portions in the Justinianian law when the term of prescription had
been greatly extended, and the difficulty of proving property (as
distinguished from bona fide possession) consequently very much
increased. The Publician action was arlso in time made applicable
in modified form to servitudes and other real rights as much as to
property.
Development of the Law of Contract. 1 It is impossible within the
limits of an article such as this to indicate a tithe of the amendments
that were effected on the law of obligations during the
period whose distinguishing features were the rise of a Changes
jus gentium and the construction of the praetor's edict. I" tew of
In every branch of it there was an advance not by steps ">'".
but by strides in that of obligations arising from contract, of
those arising from delict, and of those arising from facts and cir-
cumstances, such as unjustifiable enrichment at another person's
cost. 3 The law of suretyship, in its three forms of sponsio,fide-
promissio, and fidejussio, received considerable attention, and
formed the subject of a series of legislative enactments for limiting
a surety's liability ; while that of agency, which was sparingly ad-
mitted in Rome, had a valuable contribution from the praetorian edict
in the recognition of a man's liability, more or less qualified, for the
contractual debts of his filiifamilias and slaves, as also, and without
qualification, for the debts properly contracted of persons, whether
domestically subject to him or not, who were managing a business
on his account, or whom he had placed in charge of a ship belonging
to him. The development of the law in the matter of obligations
generally was greatly facilitated by the praetorian simplification
of procedure and the introduction of new forms of actions the
instruction to a judge, " Whatever in respect thereof the defendant
ought to give to or do for the plaintiff, in that condemn him,"
preceded by a statement of the cause of action, giving wide scope
for the recognition of new sources of liability.
The origin of the verbal contract of stipulation and its action-
ability under the Silian and Calpurnian laws have already been
explained. It was theoretically a formal contract, i.e.
creative of obligation on the strength of the formal ques-
tion and answer interchanged by the parties, even though
no substantial ground of debt might underlie it; but in time it
became the practice to introduce words the single word recte was
enough excluding liability in case of malpractice (clausula doli) ;
and finally even that became unnecessary when the praetors had
introduced the general exceptio doli, pleadable as an equitable
defence to any personal action. And it was essentially productive
only of unilateral obligation, i.e. the respondent in the interrogatory
alone incurred liability; if mutual obligations were intended it was
necessary that each should promise for his own part, with the
result that two contracts were executed which were perfectly inde-
pendent. Originally the only words that could be employed were
spondesf on the one side, spondeo on the other; and in this form the
contract was juris civilis and competent only to citizens (and non-
citizens enjoying commercium?). In time the words promittisl
promitto, came to be used alternatively. They were, eventually at
least, competent to peregrins as well as to citizens, although that
may not have been until the stipulation had become of daily use
ampn?st the former in the still simpler phraseology dabist dabo,
faciesf faciam. Originally competent only for the creation of
an obligation to pay a definite sum of money, and afterwards one
for delivery of a specific thing other than money, the contract
came in time, by the simplification of the words of interrogatory
and response and especially by the substitution of the conditions
of the formular system for the legis actiones of the Silian and Cal-
purnian laws, and the introduction of the actio ex slipulatu to meet
cases of indefinite promise to be adaptable to any sort of unilateral
engagement, whether initiated by it or only confirmed. It was of
immense service too outside the ordinary range of contract in what
were called necessary (in contradistinction to voluntary) stipula-
tions, of which a variety of illustrations are given infra, p. 569.
In all directions advantage was taken of it to bind a man by formal
contract either to do or to refrain from doing what in many cases
he might already be bound ipso jure to do or to abstain from doing,
and that because of the simplicity of the remedy an action on
8 See Bekker, Aktionen, i. c. 5-8, and App. D, E, F and vol. ii.
c. 15, 16; Voigt, Jus naturale, &c., vol. iii. 106-24, and vol. iv.
App. xix., xxi.
3 Such obligations usually imposing the duty of restitution of
unjustifiable gains filled a considerable space in the practice and
doctrine of the period, and early gave rise to a variety of brocards,
e.g. " Nemo cum alterius damno lucrari debet," " Nemo damnum
sentire debet per lucrum alterius," &c.
ROMAN LAW
LJUS GENTIUM AND
his stipulation that would lie against him in the event of his
failure.
A second form of contract that came into use to a considerable
extent in the latter half of the Republic is what is commonly called
i iirr.il tne li tera l contract, or, as Gaius phrases it with greater
contract, accuracy, the nomen transscripticium. 1 Notwithstanding
the prolific literature of which it has been the subject, it
must be admitted that in many points our knowledge of it is
incomplete and uncertain. The prevalent opinion, formed before
the discovery of the Verona MS. had made known Gaius's description
of it, and almost universally adhered to ever since, is that such
contracts were created by entries in the account-books which the
censors insisted that all citizens of any means should keep with
scrupulous regularity. They are often alluded to by the lay writers;
but the text principally relied on is what remains of Cicero's speech
for the player Roscius. From the tenor of the argument in that
case, and incidental remarks elsewhere, the conclusion has been
formed that a citizen who made an entry in his codex whether of
the nature of a cash-book or a ledger is much disputed to the debit
of another, thereby made the latter his debtor for a sum recoverable
by an actio certae creditae pecuniae. Gaius in his description of the
contract does not mention the codices; but his account is not incon-
sistent with the notion that the entries (nomina) of which he speaks
were made in them. He says that those entries were of two sorts,
nomina arcaria and nomina transscripticia. The former were
entries of cash advances; and of them he observes that they did
not create obligation, but only served as evidence of one already
created by payment to and receipt of the money by the borrower.
These entries were posted periodically (usually each month)
from a day-book (adversaria), and there were distinct pages in the
codex for what was thus paid out of the area (expensum) and what
was paid in. Of the nomina transscripticia Gaius says that there
were two varieties, the entry transcribed from thing to person
and that transcribed from one person to another, and that both
of them were not probative merely but creative of obligation. The
first was effected by a creditor (A) entering to the credit of his
debtor (B) the liquidated amount of what the latter was already
owing as the price of something purchased, the rent of a house
leased, the value of work done, or the like, and then on the opposite
page of the codex debiting him with same sum as expensum.
The second was effected by A transcribing B's debt in a similar way
to the debit of a third party (C), hitherto a debtor of B's, and who
consented to the transaction A at the same time crediting B
with the sum thus booked against C, and B in his books both
crediting C with it (acceptilatio) and marking it as paid to A (ex-
pensilatio). These nomina transscripticia were purely fictitious
entries so far as any passing of money was concerned, though
they had to be made by the direction (jussus) of the person made
chargeable as debtor. Corresponding entries in the debtor's own
codex, though usual, do not seem to have been necessary.
All this at first sight seems just a series of book-keeping opera-
tions. But it was much more than that for the Roman citizens
who first had recourse to it. There was a time, as formerly stated,
when sale, and lease and the like, so long as they stood on their
own merits, created no obligation enforceable at law, however much
it might be binding as a duty to Fides or (as moderns would say)
in the forum of conscience; to found an action at law it required
to be clothed in some form approved by the jus civile. The nexum
may possibly have been one of those forms, the vendee or tenant
being fictitiously dealt with as borrower of the price or rent due
under his purchase or lease; the stipulation was another, the obliga-
tion to pay the price or rent being made legally binding by its
embodiment in formal question and answer. But stipulation was
competent only between persons who were face to face, whereas
expensilation was competent also as between persons at a
distance from each other. This of itself gave expensilation
which, originally at least, was as much a negotium juris civilis
as the sponsio one advantage over stipulation. But it had also
a further advantage, which was not affected by the subsequent
recognition of the real and consensual contracts as productive of
legal obligation on their own merits: it enabled subsequent tran-
scription of debts from one person to another to be effected. This
last must have been of infinite convenience in commerce, not
only by enabling traders to dispense with a reserve of coin, but
by obviating the risks attending the transit of money over long
1 Literature: Savigny, "Uber den Literalcontract der Romer "
(originally 1816, with additions in 1849), in his Verm. Schriften,
i. 205 seq.; Keller, in Sell's Jahrb. f. hist. u. dogm. Bearbeit. des
rom. Rechts, i. (1841), 93 seq.; Gneist, Die formellen Vertrage d.
rom. Rechts (Berlin, 1845), 321 seq.; Danz. Cesch. d. rom. Rechts,
ii. 42 seq. (where there is a resumiS of the principal of the older
theories); Buonamici, in the Archivio Giuridico, xvi. (1876),
3 seq.; Gide, Etudes sur la novation (Paris, 1879), 185, seq.;
Voigt, " Uber die Bankiers," &c., in Abhandl. d. K. S. GesMschafl
d. Wissenschaften (1887), x. 515 seq., and adverse review of this
work by Niemeyer in Z. d. Sav. Stiff. (1890), xi. 312 seq.;
Karlowa, Rom. R. G. ii. 746-57; Mitteis, Z. d. Sav. Stift. xix.
230 seq.
distances. It was this that led, as Theophilus says was the case,
to the conversion even of stipulatory obligations into book -debts;
it was not that thereby the creditor obtained a tighter hold over
his debtor, but that an obligation was obtained from him which in
a sense was negotiable and therefore more valuable. But in other
respects it was much more restricted than stipulation. Thus it
only applied to money debts; it did not admit of conditions (though
it did admit of a term) ; and it was never available to peregrins,
though the Sabinians proposed that transcription a re in personam
should be binding on them.
The evolution of the four purely consensual contracts sale,
location, partnership and mandate supplies matter for one of the
most interesting chapters in the whole history of the law. Con _
But, as it is impossible in such an article as this to attempt sensual
to mark the successive stages in the progress of all of them, contract*.
we shall confine ourselves to sale. The others did not and
could not follow identically the same course: location ran most
nearly parallel with sale; but partnership and mandate, from their
nature, not only started at a different point from the other two,
but reached the same goal with them that of becoming productive
of obligation simply on the strength of consent interchanged by the
parties by paths that were sometimes far apart. Nevertheless, a
sketch of the history of the origin of the contract of sale may be
sufficient to indicate generally some of the milestones that were
successively passed by all four. 2
Going back as far as history carries us, we meet with it under the
names of emplio and venditio, but meaning no more than barter;
for emere originally signified simply "to take " or " acquire " contracts
(occipere). Sheep and cattle (pecus, hence pecunio) may / sa / e .
for a time have been a very usual article of exchange on one
side, and then came raw metal weighed in the scales. But it was still
exchange, instant delivery of goods on one side against simultaneous
delivery of so many pounds weight of copper on the other. With
the reforms of Servius Tullius, as we have seen, came the distinction
between res mancipi and res nee mancipi, and with it a regulated
mancipation of the former. It was still barter; but along with it
arose an obligation on the part of the transferrer of the res mancipi
to warrant the transferee against eviction a warranty that was
implied in the mancipation. Whether this rule obtained from the
first or was the growth of custom it is impossible to say; but it is
probable that it was the XII. Tables which fixed that the measure
of the transferrer's liability to the transferee in the event of eviction
should be double the amount of the price. Equally impossible is it
to say when the practice arose of embodying declarations, assurances
and so forth in the mancipation (leges mancipii), which were held
binding on the strength of the negotium juris civilis in which they
were clothed. They received statutory sanction in the Tables, in
the words already referred to more than once " cum nexum faciet
mancipiumque, uti lingua nuncupassit, ita jusesto," which means in
effect " whatever shall by word of mouth be declared by the parties
in the course of a transaction per aes et libram in definition of its
terms shall be law as between them."
The substitution, by or soon after the decemvirs, of coined money,
that was to be counted, for rough metal that had been weighed,
converted the object of transfer on one side into price (pretium), as
distinguished from article of purchase (merx) on the other; and sale
thus became distinct from barter. In contemplation of the separa-
tion of the mancipation and the price-paying, and the transition of
the former into a merely imaginary sale, the decemvirs enacted
that, mancipation notwithstanding, the property of what was sold
should not pass to the purchaser until the price had been paid or
security by sureties (vades) given for it to the vendor; and it was
probably by the interpretation of the pontiffs that to this was added
the rule that until the price was paid no liability for eviction should
attach to the transferrer (or auctor). The reason perhaps of the
provision on this point in the XII. Tables was that a vendor who had
mancipated or delivered a thing sold by him before receiving the
price had no action to enforce payment of the latter; and in such
circumstances it was thought but right to give him the opportunity
of getting back the thing itself by a real action. It might be,
however, that the price had been paid, and yet the vendor refused
to mancipate. It was long, apparently, before the purchaser could
in such a case compel him to do so. After the introduction of the
legis actio per condictionem he (the purchaser) had undoubtedly the
power to recover the money on the ground of the vendor's unjusti-
fiable enrichment that the latter had got it for a consideration
which had failed (causa data, causa nan secuta) ; and it is possible
that before that he had a similar remedy per judicis postulationem or
by an action in factum.
Down to this point, therefore, say the beginning of the 6th
century, there were several obligations consequent on sale of a res
mancipi; but not one- of them arose directly out of the sale itself,
2 The literature on the history of the contract of sale is profuse,
but mostly scattered in periodicals and much of it fragmentary.
It may be enough to refer to Bechmann, Der Kauf nach Gemeinem
Recht (3 vols., 1876, 1884 and 1905); Karlowa, Rom. R. G. v.
pp. 611-32; Girard, Nouv. Rev. historique (1883), pp. 539 seq., and in
his Manuel, 4th ed. pp. 533 seq.
JUS HONORARIUM]
ROMAN LAW
559
or could be enforced simply on the ground that it had taken place.
The vendor was bound to support the purchaser in any action by
a third party disputing his right, and to repay him the price twofold
in the event of that third party's success; and he was bound,
moreover, to make good to him any loss he had sustained through
a deficiency of acreage he had guaranteed, non-existence of servi-
tudes he had declared the lands enjoyed, existence of others from
which he had stated they were free, 1 incapability of a slave for
labour for which he was vouched fit, and so on. But breaches of
those obligations were probably all regarded as of a delictual char-
acter; the obligations were binding, not in virtue of the sale per se,
but of the transaction per aes et libram superinduced upon it; and, if
the vendor had at any time to return the price on failure to manci-
pate what he had sold, it was not because he had committed a breach
of contract, but because he had unjustly enriched himself at the
purchaser's expense.
In sales of res nee mancipi, just as in those of res mancipi, a vendor
who had been incautious enough to deliver his wares before he had
been paid, or had got stipulatory security for the price, or had
converted it into a book-debt, might recover them bv a real action
if payment was unduly delayed ; while the purchaser who had paid
in advance but failed to get delivery might also get back his money
from the vendor on the plea of unwarrantable enrichment. But,
as mancipation was, as is generally supposed, incompetent for
carrying the property, some other machinery had to be resorted to
than that of the copper and the scales for imposing upon the vendor
an obligation of warranty against eviction, defects and so forth.
What it was is a question much controverted among modern writers.
It may be that, until trade began to assume considerable pro-
portions, and when a transaction was between citizens, a purchaser
was content to rely partly on the honesty of his vendor, partly on
the latter's knowledge that he ran the risk of an action for theft if
what he sold belonged to another, 2 and partly on the maxim common
in all ages and climes, caveat emptor. When it was one between a
citizen and a peregrin, a different set of rules of course came into
operation; for between them disputes were settled by actions in
factum before recuperators, whose decisions were arrived at very
much on considerations of natural equity. On the whole, while
admitting it to be quite maintainable that the urban praetors, under
the influence of jus gentium, granted arbitria for enforcing obligations
of parties in sales inter cives even a good while prior to the lex
Acbutia, the balance of evidence, we think, is in favour of the view
that it was the popularization of the stipulation that facilitated the
development of sale into a bonaefidei contract.
We read of a satisdatio secundum mancipium, a stipulatio habere
licere and a stipulatio duplae. The nature of the first is obscure;
it seems to have been connected with mancipatory sales,
and probably to have been the guarantee of a sponsor for
the liabilities imposed upon the vendor by the transaction
per aes et libram and the verba nuncupata that were
covered by it. 3 The stipulation habere licere occurs in
Varro, in a collection of styles of sales of sheep, cattle, &c., some of
which he says were abridgments of those of M. Manilius, who was
consul in the year 149 B.C. It was the guarantee of the vendor of
a res nee mancipi, or even occasionally of a res mancipi sold without
mancipation, that the purchaser should be maintained in possession
of what he had bought; it entitled him to reparation on eviction,
measured not by any fixed standard but according to the loss he had
sustained. It cannot have been introduced, therefore, until after
the Lex Aebuiia and the formulation by the praetor of the aclio
ex stipulalu. The stipulatio duplae was one binding the vendor for
double the price in case of eviction, and was entered into not only
where no mancipation of a res mancipi took place or one which
might be challengeable for invalidity, but also where valuable res
nee mancipi were sold.
The idea of the stipulatio duplae may have been borrowed from the
duplum incurred by a vendor on the eviction of a purchaser acquiring
a thing by mancipation ; for one of its earliest manifestations was
in the edict of the curule aediles, who insisted on it from persons
selling slaves, probably because the dealers were for the most part
foreigners, and therefore unable to complete their sales per aes et
libram. Judging from Varro, it was a form of stipulation against
eviction that in his time was used only in sales of slaves, although
he adds that by agreement of parties it might be limited to a simplum.
There were also stipulations against vices in the object sold. We
learn from Varro what is also indicated in various passages of
Plautus that the vendor at the same time and in the body of the
same slipulatio duplae guaranteed that the sheep or cattle he was
selling were healthy and of a healthy stock and free from faults,
1 Cicero says (De Off. iri. 16, 65) that, though by the XII. Tables
it was enough if a vendor per aes et libram made good his positive
assurances (uti lingua nuncupassit, ita jus esto), the jurists held him
responsible for reticence about burdens or defects he ought to have
revealed, and liable for a poena dupli exactly as if he had guaranteed
their non-existence.
2 " In rebus mobilibus . . . qui alienam rem vendidit et tradidit
furtum committit " (Gai. ii. 50).
See Lenel, Edict. Perpet. 2nd ed. p. 521.
Con-
firmatory
stipu-
lations.
and that the latter had not done any mischief for which their
owner could be held liable in a noxal action ; and similarly that
a slave sold was healthy and not chargeable for any theft or other
offence for which the purchaser might have to answer. If any of
these guarantees turned out fallacious, the purchaser had an actio
ex stipulalu against the vendor: " Whereas the plaintiff got from
the defendant a stipulation that certain sheep he bought from him
were healthy, &c. [repeating the words of guarantee], and that he,
the plaintiff, should be free to hold them (Kabere licere), whatever it
shall appear that the defendant ought in respect thereof to give to
or do for the plaintiff, in the value thereof, judge, condemn him;
otherwise, acquit him." It is an observation of Bekker's 4 that
the actio empli in its original shape was just a simplified- _ .. ,
tion of the actio ex stipulatu on a vendor's guarantees; ^j^
the stipulations to which we have been alluding had become
such unfailing accompaniments of a sale as to be matters
of legal presumption, the result being that the words "whereas this
plaintiff bought from the defendant the sheep about which the
action has arisen " were substituted in the demonstratio (as the
introductory clause of the formula was called) for the detailed recital
of what had been stipulated. Bekker justifies this by reference to
the language of Varro, who seems to include under the words emptio,
venditio not merely the agreement to buy and sell but also the
stipulations that usually went with it.
The introduction of an actio empti in this shape, however, was
far from the recognition of sale as a purely consensual contract.
If the price was not paid at once, the purchaser gave his stipulatory
promise for it, or got some one on whom the vendor placed more
reliance to do so for him, or else the vendor made a book-debt of it;
and, if it had to be sued for, it was in all these cases by a condictio
certae pecuniae and not by an action on the sale. If the price was
paid but the thing purchased not delivered, the only remedy open
to the purchaser was to get back his money by the same conduction,
unless, indeed, the guarantee habere licere was held to cover delivery,
in which case the purchaser might obtain damages in an actio
ex stipulatu under the name of actio empti. But this aclio empti,
whether raised on the ground of non-delivery, eviction or breach of
some other warranty, was really an action on the verbal contracts
ihat had accompanied the sale a strictum jus action in which the
judge could not travel beyond the letter of the engagements of the
purchaser. In the latter years of the Republic, and probably a
littje before the time of Q. Mucius Scaevola, it was a bonae fidei
action. How had the change come about? A single case of hard-
ship may have been sufficient to induce it, such as the defeat of a
claim for damages for eviction on the ground that the stipulatory
guarantee had been accidentally overlooked. Ulpian says: "As the
stipulatio duplae is a thing of universal observance, action on the
ground of eviction will lie ex empto if perchance the vendor of a
slave have failed to give his stipulatory guarantee, for everything
that is of general custom and practice ought to be in view of the
judge in a bonae fidei judicium. ' 6
Very little was required to convert the stricti juris actio empti,
really nothing more than an actio ex stipulatu, into a bonae fidei
one simply the addition by the praetor of the words " on con-
siderations of good faith " (ex fide bona) to the " whatever the
defendant ought to give to or do for the plaintiff." The effect,
however, was immeasurable not that it did away with the practice
of stipulatory guarantees, for Varro wrote after the time of Q.
Mucius (who speaks of the action on sale as a bonae fidei one), and
references to them are abundant in the pages of the classical jurists;
but it rendered them in law unnecessary. It made sale a purely
consensual contract in which, in virtue of the simple agreement to
buy and sell, all the obligations on either side that usually attended
it were held embodied without express formulation or (still less)
stipulatory or literal engagement. And, in instructing the judges
to decide in every case between buyer and seller suing ex empto or
ex vendito on principles of good faith, it really empowered them to
go far beyond " general custom and practice," and to take cognisance
of everything that in fairness and equity and common sense ought
to influence their judgment, so as to enable them freely to do justice
between the parties in any and every question that might directly
or indirectly arise out of their relation as seller and buyer.*
The history of the four nominate real contracts mutuum (i.e.
loan of money or other things returnable generically), commodate
(i.e. loan of things that had to be returned specifically), .
deposit and pledge is even more obscure than that of the 'nt
consensual ones. 7 Down to the time of the Poetilian law
loan of money, corn, &c., was usually contracted per aes et libram;
and it is probable that on the subsequent disuse of the nexum the
4 Bekker, Aktionen (1871), i. 156 seq. and 314 seq.
6 Ulp., " Lib. I. ad ed. aedil.," in Dig. xxi. I, fr. 31, 20.
The above view is supported in the main by_ Girard, Manuel,
524 seq. For other views see Pernice, Labeo, i. 456 seq.; Cuq,
Inst. Jurid. 2nd ed. vol. i. pp. 226 snq.
7 Demelius, in the Zeitschr. f. Kechtsgesch. (1863), ii. 217 seq.:
Bekker, Aktionen, i. 306 seq.; Ubbelohde, Zur Gesch. d. benannten
Realcontracte (Marburg, 1870) ; Huschke, Lehrevom Darlehn (Leipzig,
1882); Girard, Manuel, 4th ed. pp. 505 sqq.
560
ROMAN LAW
[JUS GENTIUM
obligation on a borrower to repay the money or corn advanced to
him was made actionable, under the Silian and Calpurman laws
respectively, by a stipulation contemporaneous with the loan.
With the rise of jus gentium loan became actionable on its own
merits that is to say, the advance and receipt of money as a loan
of itself laid the borrower under a stricti juris obligation to repay it,
even though no stipulatory engagement had intervened; the res
in this case the giving and receiving mului causa completed the
contract. The obligation that arose from it was purely unilateral,
and enforceable, where the loan was of money, by the same action
cerlae pecuniae creditae as stipulation and literal contract; and so
strictly was it construed that interest on the loan was not claimable
along with it, the res given and received being the full measure of the
obligation of repayment. The other three commodate, deposit
and pledge became independent real contracts much later than
mutuum, possibly not all at the same time, and none of them appar-
ently until very late in the Republic. All of them, of course, had
been long known as transactions of daily life; the difficulty is to
say when they first became actionable in the urban praetor's court
(for in transactions with peregrins actions in factum would doubtless
be granted), and under what guise.
It is impossible within the space at our command to criticize the
various theories entertained of their vicissitudes, for they neces-
sarily vary to some extent in regard to each. We must content
ourselves, therefore, with the simple statement that eventually,
and within the period with which we are now dealing, they came
to be recognized as independent real contracts, the res by which
they were completed being the delivery of a thing by one person to
another for a particular purpose, on the understanding that it was
to be returned when that purpose was served. And it is to be noted
that, while mutuum transferred the property of the money lent,
the borrower being bound to return not the identical coins but
only an equal amount, in pledge it was only the possession that
passes, while in commodate and deposit the lender or depositor
retained both property and (legal) possession, the borrower or de-
positary having nothing more than the natural detention. In all
but mutuum, therefore, there was trust; the holder was bound, to
an extent varying according to circumstances, to care for what he
held as if it were his own, and entitled to be reimbursed for outlay
on its maintenance bound to return it, yet excused if his failure
to do so was due to a cause for which in fairness he could not be
held responsible. Consequently the actions on these three con-
tracts, differing from that on mutuum, were all bonae fidei, the
judge being vested with full discretion to determine what was fair
and equitable in each individual case.
Praetorian Amendments on the Law of Succession. The most im-
portant change in the law of succession during the latter half of the
Republic was due to the praetors. They introduced , under
the technical name of bonorum possessio, 1 what was really
rum Dene fi c i al enjoyment of the estate of a deceased person
ssto without the legal title of inheritance. There is much to
' lead to the conclusion that the series of provisions in
regard to it which we find in the Julian consolidation of the Edict
were the work of a succession of praetors, some of them probably
not under the Republic but under the Empire; but it will be
convenient to give here a general view of the subject as a whole,
disregarding the consideration that some of its features may not
have been given to it within the period now under notice.
Justinian, speaking of the origin of bonorum possessio, observes
that in promising it to a petitioner the praetors were not always
_ actuated by the same motives; in some cases their object
was to facilitate the application of the rules of the jus civile,
eatary. j n some to amenc j their application according to what they
believed to be the spirit of the XII. Tables, in others, again, to set
them aside as inequitable. 2 It is not unreasonable to assume that
it was with the purpose of aiding the jus civile that the first step
was taken in what gradually became a momentous reform; and
it is probable that this first step was the announcement by some
praetor that, where there was dispute as to an inheritance, and a
testament was presented to him bearing not fewer seals than were
required by law, he would give possession of the goods of the defunct
to the heir named in it. s In this as it stands there is nothing but a
regulation of possession of the bona of the inheritance pending the
1 For a rsum6 of the principal theories (down to 1870) about the
origin of bonorum' possessio, see Danz, Geschickte d. ro'm. Rechts,
vol. ii. 176. Of the later literature it is enough to mention Leist,
in the first 4 vols. of his continuation of Gluck's Pandecten-Commen-
tar (Erlangen, 1870-1879); Sohm, in his Inst. d. r. R. (Eng. trans.,
2nd ed.), pp. 580 seq.; A. Schmidt, in Z. d. Sav. Stift. xvii. 324 seq.
2 Inst. hi. o pr. and I.
8 Cic., In Verr. II. i. 45, 117. He says (writing in 70 B.C.) that
an edict to that effect was already tralaticium,_ i.e. had been adopted
year after year by a series of praetors. Gaius (ii. 119) speaks of
seven at least as the requisite number of seals ; i.e. probably those of
the libripens and the five citizen witnesses, and that of the antestatus,
whose functions are not' well understood, but whose official designa-
tion appended to his seal recurs so regularly in inscriptions as to
leave no doubt that his was originally the seventh.
question of legal right. Just as between two parties contending
about the ownership of a specific thing in a rei vindicatio tne praetor
first settled the question of interim possession, so did he promise
to do here when a question was about to be tried about the right
to an inheritance (si de hereditate ambigitur). It was a provisional
arrangement merely, and very necessary in view of the state of the
law which permitted a third party, apart from any pretence of title,
to step in and complete a usucapiopro herede by a year's possession
of the effects of the inheritance. Even at the time when the Edict
was closed it was not necessarily more than a provisional grant ;
for, if heirs-at-law of the deceased appeared and proved that,
although the testament bore on the outside the requisite number of
seals, yet in fact some solemnity of execution, such as the Jamiliae
venditw or testamenti nuncupatio, had been omitted, the grantee
had to yield them up the possession that had been given him pending
inquiry. It was only by a rescript of Antoninus Pius that it was
declared that a plea by the heir-at-law of invalidity of a testament
on the ground of defect of formalities of execution might be de-
feated by an exceptio doli, on the principle that it was contrary
to good faith to set aside the wishes of a testator on a technical
objection that was purely formal. Thus was the bonorum possessio
secundum tabulas, i.e. in accordance with a testament, from being
originally one in aid of the jus civile, in course of time converted
into one in contradiction of it. That the motives and purposes of
the series of praetors who built up the law of bonorum possessio
must have varied in progress of years is obvious; and, once the
machinery had been invented, nothing was easier than to apply it
to new ideas. The praetor could not make a man heir that he
always disclaimed; but he could give a man, whether heir or not,
the substantial advantages of inheritance, and protect him in
their enjoyment by praetorian remedies. He gave him possession
of the goods of the deceased, with summary remedies for ingathering
them, which, once in his hands, would become his in quiritarian
right on the expiry of the period of usucaption ; and subsequently,
by interpolation into the formula of a fiction of heirship, he gave him
effectual personal actions against debtors of the deceased, rendering
him liable in the same way to the deceased's creditors.
Another variety of the bonorum possessio was that contra tabulas
in opposition to the terms of a testament. If a testator had neither
instituted nor expressly disinherited a son who was one of his
sui heredes, then his testament was a nullity, and the child
passed over had no need of a praetorian remedy. Where
sui heredes other than sons were passed over the jus civile upheld the
will but allowed them to participate with the instituted heirs by
a sort of accrual. But the Edict went further; for, if the institute
was a stranger, i.e. was not a person in the potestas of the testator
with the child passed over, then, on the petition of the latter, the
praetor gave him and any other sui concurring with him possession
of the whole estate of the deceased as on intestacy, the institute
being left with nothing more than the empty name of heir. Another
application of the bonorum possessio contra tabulas was to the case
of emancipated children of the testator. By the jus civile he was
not required to institute or disinherit them; for by their emanci-
pation they had ceased to be sui heredes, and had lost that interest
in the family estate which was the raason why they had to be
mentioned in the testament of their paterfamilias. The praetors
although probably not until the empire, and when the doctrines
of the jus nalurale were being more freely recognized put them
on the same footing as unemancipated children, requiring that they
also should be either instituted or disinherited, and giving them
bonorum possessio if they were not. It was contra tabulas in the
sense that it displaced the instituted heirs either wholly or partially
wholly when the institutes were not children of the deceased, par-
tially when they were. In the latter case, at least when sui were
affected by it, the grant of bonorum possessio was under the equitable
condition that the grantees should collate or bring into partition
all their own acquisitions since their emancipation.
The third variety of bonorum possessio was that granted ab
intestate. The rules of the jus civile in reference to succession on
intestacy were, as we have seen, extremely strict and
artificial. They admitted neither emancipated children
nor agnates who had undergone capitis deminutio; they
admitted no female agnate more remote than a sister; if the
nearest agnate or agnates declined, the right did not pass to those
of the next degree ; mere cognates, kinsmen of the deceased who
were not agnates , e.g. grandchildren or others related to him
through females and agnates capite minuti, were not admitted at
all; while a wife had no share unless she had been in manu of the
deceased and therefore filiae loco. All these rules the praetors
amended, and so far paved the way for the revolution in the law
of intestate succession which was accomplished by Justinian.
They established four orders or classes of heirs. (l) Displacing
the sui heredes of the jus civile, they gave the first place to descend-
ants (liberi), including in the term all those whom the deceased
would have been bound either by the jus civile or the Edict to
institute or disinherit had he made a will, i.e. his wife in manu, sons
and daughters of his body whether in potestate at his death or
emancipated, the representatives of sons who had predeceased him,
and adopted children in his potestas when he died. (2) On failure
latestato.
JUS NATURALE]
ROMAN LAW
561
of liberi the right to petition for bonorum possessio opened to the
nearest collateral agnates of the intestate, under their old name
of legitimt heredes. (3) Under the jus civile, on failure of
agnates (and of the gens where there was one), the succes-
onit'ro/ s ' on was vacant ar "d fell to the fisc, unless perchance it was
usucapted by a stranger possessing pro herede. The fre-
/nit.si.iit t t_ ** . r t j* t_ j L. ii_
succcs- quency of such vacancies was much diminished by the
sloa. recognition by the praetors of the right of cognates to claim
bonorum possessio in the third place. Who they had pri-
marily in view under the name of " cognates " it is impossible to say.
The epithet is most frequently applied by modern writers to kins-
men related through females; but in its widest sense it included all
kinsmen without exception, and in a more limited sense all kinsmen
not entitled to claim as agnates. There were included amongst
them therefore although it is very probable that the list was not
made up at once, but from time to time by the action of a series
of praetors not merely kinsmen related through females (who
were not agnates), but also agnates of a remoter degree who were
excluded as such because the nearest agnates in existence had
declined, persons who had been agnates but by reason of capitis
minutio had lost that character, female agnates more distantly
related than sisters, and children of the intestate who at the
time of his death were in an adoptive family. All these took
according to proximity, but not beyond the sixth degree and the
children of a second cousin in the seventh. (4) Finally, the claim
passed to the survivor of husband and wife, assuming always that
their marriage had not involved manus. This list constituted
the praetorian order of succession on intestacy among freeborn
citizens. The praetorian order of succession to freedmen and
cmancipati was necessarily different, the patron or quasi-patron
taking the place of agnates; but it is too detailed and complex
to be gone into here.
All these bonorum possessiones had to be formally petitioned for.
In that ab intestato descendants were allowed a year for doing so,
while other persons were limited to loo days, the period for those
entitled in the second place beginning when that of those entitled
in the first had expired, and so on. The grant was always made
at the risk of the petitioner; nothing was assured him by it; it
might turn out real and substantial (cum re) or merely nominal
(sine re), according as the grantee could or could not maintain it
against the heir of the jus civile. For the latter was entitled to
stand on his statutory or testamentary right, without applying to
bonorum possessio, although in fact he often did so for the sake of
the summary procedure it supplied him for ingathering the effects
of the deceased.
The Law of Procedure. The use of the fprmular system of pro-
cedure as alternative to that by the " actions of the law " corn-
La o/ menced long before the end of the period now under
,,,. consideration; and we have had occasion more than
cedure. once to observe how greatly it facilitated the develop-
ment of the institutions of property and contractual
obligation. But as the change was only completed in the early
Empire it will be more convenient to defer explanation Qf the nature
of the new procedure in the meantime.
IV. THE Jus NATURALE AND MATURITY OF ROMAN
JURISPRUDENCE
(The Empire until the time of Diocletian.)
i. Characteristics and Formative Agencies of the Law during
the Period.
Characteristics generally and Recognition of a Jus Naturals
in particular. The first three centuries of the Empire witnessed
the perfection of Roman jurisprudence and the commence-
ment of its decline. During that time the history of the law
presents no such great landmarks as the enactment of the
XII. Tables, the commencement of a praetor's edict, the
recognition of simple consent as creative of a contractual
bond, or the introduction of a new system of judicial pro-
cedure; the establishment of a class of patented jurists
speaking as in a sense the mouthpieces of the prince, and the
admission of all the free subjects of the Empire to the privileges
of citizenship, are about the only isolated events to which one
can point as productive of great and lasting results. There
were, indeed, some radical changes in particular institutions,
such as the caduciary legislation of Augustus, intended to
raise the tone of domestic morality and increase fruitful
marriages, and the legislation of the same emperor and his
immediate successor for regulation of the status of enfranchised
slaves; but these, although of vast importance in themselves,
and the first of them influencing the current of the law for
centuries, yet left upon it no permanent impression. It was
by much less imposing efforts that it attained the perfection
to which it reached under the sovereigns of the Severan house
a steady advance on the lines already marked out in the
latter years of the Republic. The sphere of the jus Quiritium
became more and more circumscribed, and one after another
of the formalities of the strict jus civile was abandoned. The
manus of the husband practically disappeared; the pair in
poleslas of the father lost much of its significance by the
recognition, notwithstanding it, of the possibility of a separate
and independent estate in the child (peculium castrense);
slaves might be enfranchised to a certain extent by informal
manumission; res mancipi constantly passed by simple
tradition, the right of the transferee being secured by the
Publician action; servitudes and other real rights informally
constituted were maintained as effectual tuitione praetoris ;
an heir's acceptance of a succession could be accomplished by
any indication of his intention, without observance of the
formal cretio of the earlier law; and many of the incidental
bargains incident to consensual contract, but varying their
natural import, that used to be embodied in words of stipula-
tion, came to be enforceable on the strength of formless con-
temporaneous agreements.
The preference accorded by the magistrates and jurists and
judges to the jus gentium over the jus civile is insufficient to
account for these and many other changes in the idea of
same direction, as well as for the ever-increasing /*
tendency evinced to subordinate word and deed naturale -
to the voluntas from which they arose. They are rather
to be attributed to the striving on the part of many after
a higher ideal, to which has been given the name of jus
naturale. 1 It is sometimes said that the notion of a jus
naturale as distinct from the jus gentium was peculiar to Ulpian,
and that it found no acceptance with the Roman jurists
generally. But this is inaccurate. Justinian, indeed, has
excerpted in the Digest and put in the forefront of his Institutes
a passage from an elementary work of Ulpian's, in which he
speaks of a jus naturale that is common to man and the lower
animals, and which is substantially instinct. This is a law
of nature of which it is quite true that we find no other jurist
taking account, and it may be attributed to a habit, specially
noticeable in Ulpian's writings, of making tripartite classifica-
tions. But though the classical jurists are undoubtedly
indistinct in their conceptions about the matter, many of
them refer again and again to jus naturale in the sense of law
based on natural reason; and Gaius is the only one (Justinian
following him) who definitely, though not consistently, makes
it synonymous with jus gentium. There can be no question
that the latter was much more largely imbued with precepts
of natural law than was the jus civile, but it seems incorrect
to say that natural law and jus gentium were identical; it is
enough to cite but one illustration, pointed out again and
again in the texts: while the one admitted the legality of
slavery, the other denied it. While the jus civile studied the
interests only of citizens, and the jus gentium those of freemen
irrespective of nationality, the law of nature had theoretically
a wider range and took all mankind within its purview. The
doctrine of the jus gentium agreed in this respect with that
of the jus civile that a slave was nothing but a chattel; yet
we find the latter, when tinctured with the jus naturale,
recognizing many rights as competent to a slave, and even
conceding that he might be debtor or creditor in a contract,
although his obligation or claim could be given effect to only
indirectly, since he could neither sue nor be sued. 2
Voigt thus summarizes the characteristics of this speculative
Roman jus naturale: (i) its potential universal applicability to
all men, (2) among all peoples, (3) at all times, and (4) its cllarac .
correspondence with the innate conviction of right (innere tfrlstlc ,
Rechtsuberzeugung). 3 Its propositions, as gathered from o fj u!1
the pages of the jurists of the period, he formulates thus : aatunh.
(i) recognition of the claims of blood (sanguinis vel
cognationis ratio); (2) duty of faithfulness to engagements is
1 See Voigt, Das Jus naturale . . . der Romer, particularly vol. i.
52-64, 89-06; Maine, Ancient Law, chap. iii.
2 Ulp. in Dtg. xliv. 7 fr. 14. ' Voigt, I.e. p. 304.
562
ROMAN LAW
[JUS NATURALE
natura debet . . . cujus fidem secuti sumus; (3) apportionment
of advantage and disadvantage, gain and loss, according to the
standard of equity ; (4) supremacy of the voluntatis ratio over the
words or form in which the will is manifested. 1 It was regard
for the first that, probably pretty early in the principate, led the
praetors to place emancipated children on a footing of equality
with unemancipated in the matter of succession, and to admit to
succession collateral kindred through females as well as those
related through males; and that, in the reigns of Hadrian and
Marcus Aurehus respectively, induced the senate to give a mother
a preferred right of succession to her children, and vice versa. _It
was respect for the second that led to the recognition of the validity
of what was called a natural obligation, one that, because of some
defect of form or something peculiar in the position of the parties,
was ignored by the jus civile and incapable of being made the
ground of an action for its enforcement, yet might be given effect
to indirectly by other equitable remedies. Regard for the third
was nothing new in the jurisprudence of the period; the Republic
had already admitted it as a principle that a man was not to be
unjustifiably enriched at another's cost; the jurists of the empire,
however, gave it a wider application than before, and used it as a
key to the solution of many a difficult question in the domain of
the law of contract. As for the fourth, it was one that had to be
applied with delicacy ; for the voluntas could not in equity be pre-
ferred to its manifestation to the prejudice of other parties who in
good faith had acted upon the latter. We have many evidences
of the skilful way in which the matter was handled, speculative
opinion being held in check by considerations of individual interest
and general utility.
A remark of Voigt's on the subject is well worthy of being kept
in view, that the risk which arose from the setting up of the pre-
cepts of a speculative jus naturale, as derogating from the rules of
the jus civile, was greatly diminished through the position held by
the jurists of the early Empire. Their jus respondendi made them
in a sense legislative organs of the state, so that, in introducing
principles of the jus naturale, or of aequum et bonum, they at the
same moment defined them and gave them the force of law. They
were, he says, " philosophers in the sphere of law, searchers after
the ultimate truth; but, while they usually in reference to a
concrete case sought out the truth and applied what they had
found, they combined with the freedom from constraint of specula-
tion, the life-freshness of practice, and the power of assuring the
operativeness of their abstract propositions." *
Influence of Constitutional Changes. The changes in the con-
stitution aided not a little the current of the law. Men of foreign
descent reached the throne and recruited the senate, some-
times proud indeed of the history and traditions of Rome,
caracer ^ e ^ ' n mos * ; cases free from prejudice in favour of institu-
of Jurists tions that had nothing to recommend them but their anti-
quity. Military life, for obvious reasons, had not the same
attractions as during the Republic; there was no longer a tribu-
nate to which men of ambition might aspire; the comitia soon
ceased to afford an outlet for public eloquence; so that men of
education and position had all the more inducement to devote
themselves to the conscientious study and regular practice of the
law. This was greatly encouraged by the action of Augustus
in creating a class of, so to say, patented jurists privileged to give
answers ex auctoritate principis to questions submitted to them
by the magistrates and judges. It was still more so perhaps by
Hadrian's reorganization of the imperial privy council, wherein a
large proportion of the seats were assigned to jurists of distinction.
Several of the emperors had lawyers amongst their most intimate
and trusted friends. Again and again the office of praetorian pre-
fect, the highest next the throne, was filled by them; Papinian,
Ulpian and Paul all held it in their time. Jurisprudence, there-
fore, was not merely an honourable and lucrative profession
under the new arrangements, but a passport to places of eminence
in the state; and till the death of Alexander the ranks of the
jurists never failed to be recruited by men of position and ability.
Extension of Citizenship to the Empire generally. It was in the
year A.D. 212 that Caracalla published his Constitution conferring
E tension cit i zensn >P n all the free inhabitants of the Empire.
olcitliea- F ar - reacm ng as were its consequences, the primary pur-
shioto P ose was P ure ' v fiscal. The lex Vicesimaria, passed
whole under Augustus, had imposed a tax of 5% on testa-
Bmpire. mentary inheritances and bequests, except where the whole
succession was worth less than a certain sum or the heir
or legatee was a heres domesticus of the deceased. It was con-
tinued by his successors and was very profitable, thanks to the
propensity of the well-to-do classes for single blessedness, fol-
lowed by testamentary distribution of their fortunes amongst
their friends. But it affected only the successions of Roman
citizens, so that the great mass of the provincials escaped it. Cara-
calla, being needy, not only increased it temporarily to 10%, but
widened the area of its operation by elevating all his free subjects
to the rank of citizens. The words of Ulpian regarding the con-
stitution are very inclusive, " in orbe Romano qui sunt . . .
_ ...
and
character
1 Voigt, l.c. pp. 321-323.
5 Voigt,/.c. p. 341.
cives Romani effect! sunt ";' but there is considerable diversity
of opinion as to their meaning, caused partly by the fact that
peregrins are still mentioned by some of Caracalla's successors, and
there can be little doubt that among others it did not apply to
Junian Latins or peregrini dediticii. Limit the constitution,
however, as we may, there can be no question of its immense im-
portance. By conferring citizenship on the provincial peregrins
it subjected them in their legal relations to the law of Rome, and
qualified them for taking part in many transactions both inter
vivos and mortis causa which previously had been incompetent for
them. It did away with the necessity for regarding jus gentium as
something distinct from jus civile. The principles and doctrines of
jus gentium, it is true, survived and were expanded and elaborated
as freely and successfully as ever; but they were so dealt with as
part and parcel of the civil law of Rome, which had ceased to be
Italian and become imperial.
Legislation of Comitia and Senate. Augustus, clinging as much
as possible to the form of republican institutions, thought it ex-
pedient not to break with the old practice of submitting
legislative proposals to the vote of the comitia of the
tribes. Some of the leges of his reign were far from
insignificant. Besides various measures for the amend-
ment of the criminal law, &c., there were three sets of en-
actments of considerable importance which owed their authorship
to him : the first to improve domestic morality and encourage fruitful
marriage, the second to abate the evils that had arisen from the too
lavish admission of liberated slaves to the privileges of citizenship,
and the third to regulate procedure in public prosecutions and private
litigations.
The first set included the lex Julia de adulteriis et de fundo
dotali of 18 B.C. and the lex Julia et Papia Poppaea of A.D. 9 the
latter a voluminous matrimonial code, in which an earlier
lex de mariiandis ordinibus (18 B.C.) seems to have been
Enact-
ment*
under
Augustus
incorporated, and which for two or three centuries exer-
abotit
marriage;
cised such an influence as to be regarded as one of the sources of
Roman law almost as much as the XII. Tables or Julian's con-
solidated Edict. It was often spoken of as the lex Coducaria, one
of its most remarkable provisions being that unmarried persons
(within certain ages and under certain qualifications) should forfeit
entirely anything to which they were entitled under a testament,
and that married but childless persons should similarly forfeit
one-half, the lapsed provisions (caduca) going to the other persons
named in the will who were qualified in terms of the statute, and
failing them to the fisc. However well intended, the language of
Juvenal and others raises doubts whether the law did not really
do more harm than good. By the Christian emperors many of its
provisions were repealed as inconsistent with the New Testament
views of celibacy, &c., while others fell into disuse; and in the
Justinian books hardly a trace is left of its distinctive features.
The second set included the Fufia-Caninian law of the year 2 B.C.,
the Aelia-Sentian law of the year A.D. 4, and the Junia-Norban
law of the year A.D. 19 the last it is thought passed in the . .
reign of Tiberius, but probably planned by Augustus.*
The Aelia-Sentianlawregulatedthematterof manumission, , ""
with the result that a slave might on that event, and accord-
ing to circumstances minutely described, become either (i) a citizen,
or (2) a freedman with the possibility of attaining citizenship by a
process indicated in the statute, or (3) a freedman who, because
of his having undergone certain punishments for grave offences,
was forbidden to reside within a hundred miles of Rome and denied
the hope of ever becoming a citizen (libertus dediticius). The
Junian law was passed in order to define more precisely the status
in the meantime of those freedmen who had a poten.iality of citizen-
ship. It did so by assimilating them, to a large extent, to the
colonial Latins, denying to them the rights of a citizen proper so far
as concerned family and succession, but conceding to them all
the patrimonial rights of a citizen and the fullest power of dealing
with their belongings so long as not mortis causa and to the prejudice
of their patrons. This was the Junian Latinity so prominent in
the pages of Gaius, but of which our limits exclude any detailed
description.
The third set of enactments referred to included the two leges
Juliae judiciariae, of which we know but little. They were probably
enacted in the year 17 B.C. One lex Julia seems to have , aklan
dealt with judicia publica and another with procedure in .
private litigations. Gaius, however, seems to refer to
two leges Juliae judiciorum privatprum, and it is the opinion of
Wlassak, who had studied the subject profoundly, that the second
of these was enacted for municipalities outside Rome and was in
similar terms to the first. It was these two last-mentioned
judiciary statutes that, as Gaius tells us, completed the work of
the Aebutian law ^substituting the formular system for that
3 Ulp. in Dig. i. 5 fr. 17. As to the effects of this conslitutio
Antonina, see Mitteis, Reichsrechl und Volksr., c. vi.
4 There is a long-standing controversy as to the date of this lex
Junta, some writers placing it earlier than the lex Aelia-Senlia.
See Girard, Manuel, 4th ed., p. 124, and authorities cited in Muirhead.
Hist. Introduction, 286 n. 7 and 317 n. 6.
JUSNATURALE]
ROMAN LAW
563
of legis actiones. The one regulating procedure in private suits at
Rome must have been a somewhat comprehensive statute, as a
passage in the Vatican fragments refers to a provision of its 27 th
section ; and our ignorance of its contents therefore, beyond one or
two trifling details, is the more to be regretted. The opinion of
Wlassak, already referred to, is that the judiciary laws made
procedure by formulae compulsory, while the Aebutian law had left
it optional. In all cases remitted to a unus judex or other private
judges a formula was to be henceforth compulsory; a legis actio
could no longer be tried before private judges but only exceptionally
by the centumviral court. 1
From the time of Tiberius onwards it was the senate that did
the work of legislation, for the simple reason that the comilia
Levlsla- were no longer fit for it. And very active it seems to have
tlon of been. This may have been due to some extent to the fact
Senate. that so many professional jurists, aware from their practice
of the points in which the law required amendment, pos-
sessed seats in the imperial council, where the drafts of the senatus-
consults were prepared. It was the senatusconsults that were the
principal statutory factors of what $ra.s called by both emperors and
jurists the jus novum law that departed often very widely from the
principles of the old jus civile, that was much more in accordance
with those of the Edict, and that to a great extent might have been
introduced through its means had not the authority of the praetors
been overshadowed by that of the prince. In the end of the 2nd
and the beginning of the 3rd century the supremacy of the latter
in the senate became rather too pronounced, men quoting the oratio
in which he had submitted to it a project of law instead of the
resolution which gave it legislative effect. No doubt such project
must have been carefully considered beforehand in the imperial
council, and rarely stood in need of further discussion; but the
ignoring of the formal act that followed it tended unduly to em-
phasize the share borne in it by the sovereign, and made it all
the easier for the emperors after Severus Alexander to dispense
altogether with the time-honoured practice.
The Consolidated Edictum Perpetuum. The edicts of the praetors,
which had attained very considerable proportions before the fall
, of the Republic, certainly received some additions in the
Edftai ear ly Empire. But those magistrates did not long enjoy
the same independence as of old; there was a greater
imperium than theirs in the state, before which they hesitated to
lay hands on the law with the boldness of their predecessors. They
continued as before to publish annually at entry on office the edicts
that had been handed down to them through generations; but their
own additions were soon almost limited to mere amendments
rendered necessary by the provisions of some senatusconsult that
affected the jus honorarium. They ceased to be that viva vox juris
civilis which they had been in the time of Cicero; the emperor, if
any one, was now entitled to the epithet ; the annual edict had lost
its raison d'etre. Hadrian apparently was of opinion that the
time had come for writing its " explicit," and giving it another
and more enduring and authoritative shape, binding on all future
magistrates. He accordingly, it is said, commissioned Salvius
Julianus to revise it or Julian, when urban praetor, may have done
so at his own hand with the emperor's approval and the senate
gave it binding force. It did not, however, become statute law;
the distinction between jus civile and jus praetorium still continued.
The revised Edict unfortunately, like the XII. Tables, is no
longer extant. It is only a very slight account we have of the
revision a line or two in Eutropius and Aurelius Victor, and a few
lines in two of Justinian's prefaces to the Digest. We may assume
from what is said there that both abridgment and rearrangement of
the edicts of the urban praetor took place, but the question remains
how far Julian consolidated with them those of the peregrin praetor
and other officials who had contributed to the jus honorarium.
Those of the curule aediles, we are told, were included; Justinian
says that they formed the last part of Julian's work; they formed,
in fact, a sort of addendum to it. There is reason to believe that so
much of the edicts of the provincial governors as differed from those
of the praetors were also incorporated in it, and that the edicts
of the peregrin praetors, in so far as they contained available matter
not embodied in those of their urban colleagues or the provincial
governors, were dealt with in the same way. 2 The consolidation
got the name of Edictum Perpetuum in a sense somewhat different
from that formerly imputed to edicta perpetua as distinguished from
edicta repenlina; it became perpetual in the English sense of
the word. Sanctioned by senatusconsult and by the emperor, it
became a closed chapter so far as the praetors were concerned ; for,
though it continued for a time to hold its place on their album with
its formularies of actions, they had no longer any power to alter
'Wlassak, Processgesetze, i. 191 sqq., and ii. 221 sqq.
1 It may be, however, that the edicts of the peregrin praetors and
provincial governors were independently codified. See Girard,
Manuel elementaire, 4th ed. 53-4. An attempt recently made
by von Velsen, Z. d. Sav. St. xxi. (1900), 73 sqq., to identify the
edictum provinciate with that of the peregrin praetor from the time
of Augustus is far from convincing and has received no support from
other writers. See Kipp. Gesch. d. Quellen, p. 123 n.
or even perhaps make additions to it. Havi-ig ceased to be a mere
efflux of their imperium and become a type prescribed by statute,
its interpretation and amendment were no longer in their hands but
in the hands of the emperor.
The Julian Edict was not divided into parts or books like
Justinian's Digest but only into titles, which were perhaps numbered
and certainly were rubricated. Since the publication of Lenel's
great work, noted below, modern Romanists are agreed that the
formularies of actions it contained were distributed in their appro-
priate places throughout the work and not collected together in one
place as used to be supposed. Thus a formula based on the civil
law (e.g the rei vindicatio) appeared by itself (i.e. without any edict)
as a separate head or subdivision of the title appropriate to it;
while formulae based on the praetor's imperium (e.g. that of the
praetorian action de dolo) were placed under their respective edicts.
The general arrangement of the subject-matter is not difficult to
discover, as we have documentary evidence to a certain extent in
writings which have come down to us. These are principally
(i) the Digest of Justinian, in the prefaces to which we are told
expressly that it followed the order of the Edict except in certain
places specially noticed; (2) the Code of Justinian; (3) the extracts
from divers commentaries on the Edict by the classical jurists
principally preserved in the Digest. As the inscriptions of these
extracts contain the name of the author, the work and the par-
ticular book from which they are taken, they have proved of great
help towards understanding the arrangement especially the com-
mentaries of Ulpian and Paul on the urban edict and the com-
mentary of Gaius on the provincial edict. Lenel has shown that
Julian's plan of arrangement was neither logical nor symmetrical,
but adhered in great measure to the old order (tralatitious) of the
urban praetors. The following fourfold division of the subject-
matter is, according to Lenel (partially following Rudorff), clearly
ascertainable : first, a series of titles dealing with the preliminary
steps in all actions such as jurisdiction, summons, intervention of
procurators and the like; second, titles dealing mainly with matters
of ordinary procedure or rather with actions granted principally
in accordance with statute (judicia legitima) as petitio hereditatts, rei
vindicatio, &c. ; third, titles dealing with actions resting principally
on the magistrate's imperium (judicia imperio continentia) ; fourth,
execution of judgments, including bankruptcy, &c. These four
parts were followed by a kind of appendix containing in three titles
the separate styles of interdicts, exceptions and praetorian stipula-
tions. Finally, the edicts of the curule aediles, with their formulae
also consolidated, were added at the end of the work. From the
fragments of the jurists preserved by Justinian (principally from
the three above-mentioned commentaries, but also to an important
extent from Julian himself in his Digesta) repeated attempts have
been made in modern times to reproduce the Edict in its entirety.
Most of these are mere transcripts with attempted reconstructions
of passages in Justinian's Digest and of little value. The only
really scientific and worthy critical efforts are those of Rudorff in
1869 and, above all, of Lenel in 1883.*
The Responses of Patented Counsel. The right of responding
under imperial authority (jus respondendi ex auctoritaie principis),
first granted by Augustus and continued by his successors
down to about the time of Severus Alexander, did not *"' K "
imply any curtailment of the right of unlicensed jurists .
to give advice to any one who chose to consult them. -
What it did was to give an authoritative character to a
response, so that the judge who had asked for it and to
whom it was presented for the judges were but private
citizens, most of them unlearned in the law was practically
bound to adopt it as if it had emanated from the emperor
himself. It may be that Augustus was actuated by a political
motive that he was desirous by this concession to attach lawyers
of eminence to the new regime, and prevent the recurrence of the
evils experienced during the Republic from the too great influence of
patrons. But, whatever may have prompted his action in the
matter, its beneficial consequences for the law can hardly be over-
rated. For the powers with which they were invested enabled the
patented counsel to influence current doctrine not spcculatively
merely but positively (jura condere), and so to leaven their inter-
pretations of the jus civile and jus honorarium with the principles
of natural law as to give a new complexion to the system.
Instead of giving his opinion like the unlicensed jurist by word
of mouth, either at the request of the judge or at the instance of
one of the parties, the patented counsel, who did not require to
3 Rudorff, De jurisdiction edictum: edicti perpetui quae reliqua
sunt (Leipzig, 1869), and rev. by Brinz in the Krit. Vierteljahr-
sckrift (1876), xi. 471 sqq.; Lenel, Das Edictum Perpetuum: tin
Versuch zu dessen WiederhersteUung (Leipzig, 1883), 2nd ed., 1907
(French ed. translation by Peltier, 2 vols., 1901-3). The last gained
the " Savigny Foundation Prize " offered by the Munich Academy
in 1882 for the best restitution of the formulae of Julian's Edict,
but goes far beyond the limited subject prescribed; see Brinz's
report upon it to the Academy in the Zeitschr. d. Sav. Stift. (1883),
vol. iv. Rom. Abtheil, 164 sqq. See Karlowa, Rom. Rechtsgesch, i.
628-41 ; Kriiger, Gesch. d. Quellen, 84 sqq.
ROMAN LAW
[JUS NATURALE
give his reasons, reduced it to writing and sent it to the couri
under seal. Augustus does not seem to have contemplated the
possibility of conflicting responses being tendered from two or more
jurists equally privileged. It was an awkward predicament for a
judge to be placed in. Hadrian solved the difficulty by declaring
that in such a case the judge should be entitled to use his own
discretion. 1 That on receiving a response with which he was dis
satisfied he could go on calling for others until he got one to his
mind, and then pronounce judgment in accordance with it on the
ground that there was difference of opinion, is extremely unlikely
The more probable explanation of Hadrian's rescript is, that the
number of patented responding counsel was very limited; that a
judge, if he desired their assistance, was required by this rescript
to consult them all (quorum omnium si, &c.) ; that, if they were
unanimous, but only then, their opinion had force of statute (legis
vicem optinet) ; and that when they differed the judge must decide
for himself.
Constitutions of the Emperors. 1 Gaius and Ulpian concur ir
holding that every imperial constitution, whether in the shape ol
//// of rescr 'P t ' decree or edict, had the force of statute. It may
nerore be that by the time of Ulpian that was the prevailing
* opinion; but modern criticism is disposed to regarc
the dictum of Gaius, written in the time of Antoninus Pius, as
coloured by his Asiatic notions, and not quite accurate so far at
least as the edicts were concerned. Apart from executive laws
(leges datae), the early imperial edicts were theoretically rather
part of the jus honorarium. As supreme magistrate the emperor
had the same jus edicendi that consuls and praetors had had before
him, and used it as they did to indicate some course of action he
meant to adopt and follow or some relief he proposed to grant.
His edicts were as a rule drawn up in writing in the imperial council
and publicly notified in all parts of the Empire. His range, ol
course in respect of his imperium, was much greater than that ol
the praetors had been; for his authority endured for life, and
extended over the whole Empire and every department of govern-
ment. But in principle, .it is thought, his successor on the throne
was no more bound to adopt any of his edicts than a praetor was to
adopt those of his predecessors. That it was not unusual for an edict
to be renewed, and that it occasionally happened that the renewal
was not by the immediate successor of its original author, are
manifest from various passages in the texts. Sometimes, when its
utility had stood the test of years, it was transmuted into a senatus-
consult; this fact proves of itself that an edict per se had not the
effect of statute. But their adoption by a succession of two or
three sovereigns, whose reigns were of average duration, may have
been held sufficient to give them the character of consuetudinary
law; and. by a not unnatural process, unreflecting public opinion
may have come to impute force of statute to the edict itself rather
than to the longa consuetude that followed on it, thus paving the
way for the assertion by the sovereigns of the later Empire of an
absolute right of legislation, and for the recognition of the lex
edictalis as the only form of statute.
The imperial rescripts and decrees (rescripta, decreta) appar-
ently acquired force of law (legis vicem oblinenl) pretty early in
Rescripts t ' le E ra P' re > an 4 their operation was not theoretically
and limited to the lifetime of the prince from whom they
Decrees ^ad proceeded. But they were not directly acts of
legislation. In both the emperor theoretically did no
more than authoritatively interpret existing law, although the
boundary between interpretation and new law, sometimes difficult
to define, was not always closely adhered to. Thus the decretum
Marci, penalizing procedure by self-help, and the epistula Hodriani,
introducing the beneficium divisionis among co-sureties, are notable
instances of authoritative interpretation. The rescript was strictly
a written answer by the emperor to a petition, either by an official
or a private party, for an instruction as to how the law was to be
applied in any particular case to the facts set forth: when the
answer was in a separate writing it was usually spoken of as an
epistula; when noted at the foot of the application its technical
name was subscriptio. But sometimes also general orders of the
emperors addressed to some official and intended for a province or
particular community were classed under the head of rescripts.
The decree was the emperor's ruling, orally announced, in a case
submitted to him judicially; it might be when it had been brought
before him in the first instance extra ordinem, or when it had been
removed by supplicatio from an inferior court in its earliest stage,
or when it came before him by appeal. Such decrees were duly
1 Gaius, i. 7; Justinian, Inst. i. 2, 8. The passages from
Pomponius in Dig. i. 2, 2, 48, 49 are of doubtful meaning, and
different interpretations of them have been given. Cf. Sohm
Institutions (translation by Ledlie, 2nd ed.), p. 97; Girard, Manuel,
p. 70; Kipp, Geschichte d. Quellen, p. 99.
2 Gai. i. 5; Ulp., in Dig., i. 4, fr. I, i; Mommsen, Rom.
Staatsrecht, n. 843 seq.; Wlassak, Krit. Studien zur Theorie der
Rechtsquellen im Zeitalter d. klass. Juristen (Gratz, 1884) ; A. Pernice
(crit. Wlassak), in 'Zeitschr. d. Sav. Slift. (1885), vi. Rom.
Abtheil. 293 seq.: Karlowa, Rom. Rechtsgesch. i. 8-;; Kipp,
Quellen, 59 seq.
recorded and kept apud acta. It was theoretically as a judge that
the emperor pronounced his decree, though in practice he some-
times went beyond the case in hand, evolving new doctrines. Pro-
ceeding as it did from the fountain of authoritative interpretation,
the decree had a value far beyond that of the sentence of an in-
ferior court (which was law only as between the parties), and formed
a precedent which governed all future cases involving the same
question. Those rescripts and decrees constituted one of the most
important sources of the law during the first three centuries of
the Empije, and were elaborated with the assistance of the most
eminent jurists of the day, the rescripts being the special charge
of the magister libettorum. From the time of the Gordians to that of
the abdication of Diocletian they were almost the only channel
of the jus scriptum that remained.
A fourth class of imperial constitutions were the so-called mandata.
These, however, were mainly of the nature of instructions ..
by the emperors to individual imperial officials, similar to Jnan " ata -
edicts, and dealt with public law for the most part.
Professional Jurisprudence. The present period of legal history
is by modern writers sometim called " the classical age of juris-
prudence," though that term is more usually and correctly
restricted to the years between Hadrian and the close of . .
Severus Alexander's reign. It has been called " classical," Jurists,
on the analogy of the Augustan age of literature, from the celebrity
of the jurists who flourished during it and the scientific pre-eminence
of their works. For accounts of the great jurists, see articles GAIUS,
&c., and also H. J. Roby's Introduction to the Study of Justinian' s
Digest 3 and Professor Karlowa's Rechtsgeschichte.* For an account
of the extant remains of their writings, such as the Institutes of
Gaius, the Rules of Ulpian, the Sentences of Paul and a variety
of other works, reference may be made to Muirhead's Historical
Introduction to the Private Law of Rome, where a brief account of the
jurists is also given. 6
ii. Substantive Changes in the Law.
Concession of Peculiar Privileges to Soldiers. While the
period with which we are dealing saw the substantial disappear-
ance of the distinction between citizen and peregrin, it witnessed
the expansion of another that between soldiers and civilians
(milites, pagani). The most remarkable effluxes of the jus
militare (as it is sometimes called) were the military testament
and the castrense peculium. The first was practically Miiitaiy
exempted from all the rules of the jus civile and the Testa-
praetors' edict alike as to the form and substance of meats.
last wills. It might be in writing, by word of mouth,
by the unspoken signs perhaps of a dying man; all that was
required was the voluntas so manifested as not to be mistaken.
More extraordinary still it was sustained even though its
provisions ran counter to the most cherished rules of the common
law. Contrary to the maxim that no man could dispense with
the institution of an heir or die partly testate and partly in-
testate, a soldier might dispose of part of his estate by testament
with or without nomination of an heir, -and leave the rest to
descend to his heirs ab intestato. Contrary also to the maxim
semel heres semper heres, he might give his estate to A. for life
or for a term of years, or until the occurrence of some event,
with remainder to B. Contrary to the general rule, a Latin
or peregrin, or an unmarried or married but childless person,
might take an inheritance or a bequest from a soldier as freely
as could a citizen with children. His testament, in so far as
it disposed only of bona castrensia, was not affected by capitis
deminutio minima. It was not invalidated by praeterition of
sui heredes, nor could they challenge it because they had less
under it than their " legitim "; nor could the instituted heir
claim a Falcidian fourth, even though nine-tenths of the
uccession had been assigned to legatees. Finally, a later
lestament did not nullify an earlier one, if it appeared to be
the intention of the soldier testator that they should be read
together.
3 Cambridge, 1884, chaps, ix.-xv.
4 Leipzig, 1885, i. 87-92. See also Kruger, Geschichte d.
Quellen, 18-27, and, for the period from Augustus to Hadrian,
Bremer, Jurisprudent-id Antehadriana, ii.
'Edited by Goudy, 1889, 61-65. See also Kruger, GK-
schichte d. Quellen, 18-27; Lenel, Palingenesia Juris Civilis
2 vols., Leipzig, 1888-89), a work which contains all the texts of
he ante-Justinian jurists, as contained in the Digest and other
.ources, arranged systematically, with valuable critical and explana-
ory notes, but excluding the Institutes of Gaius, Paul's Sentences
and Ulpian's Rules.
JUS NATURALE]
ROMAN LAW
565
All this is remarkable, manifesting a spirit very different from
that which animated the common law of testaments. True, it was
a principle with the jurists of the classical period that the voluntatts
ratio was to be given effect to in the interpretation of testamentary
writings; but that was on the condition that the requirements of
jaw as to form and substance had been scrupulously observed. But
in the military testament positive rules were made to yield to the
voluntas in all respects: the will was almost absolutely unfettered.
Roman law in this matter gave place to natural law. One would
have expected the influence of so great a change to have manifested
itself by degrees in the ordinary law of testaments; yet it is barely
visible. In a few points the legislation of Constantine, Theodosius 1 1.
and Justinian relaxed the strictness of the old rules; but there
was never any approach to the recognition of the complete supre-
macy of the voluntas. I n the Corpus Juris the contrast between the
testamentum paganum and the lestamentum militare was almost as
marked as in the days of Trajan. The latter was still a privileged
deed, whose use was confined to a soldier actually on service, and
if he received an honourable discharge, for twelve months after his
retirement.
The peculium castrense had a wider influence; for it was the first
of a series of amendments that vastly diminished the importance
_ of the patria potestas on its patrimonial side. It had
its origin in a constitution of Augustus granting to
filiifamilias on service the right to dispose by testament
of what they had acquired in the active exercise of their profession
(quod in castris adquisterant) - 1 But it soon went much further.
Confined at first to filiifamilias on actual service, the privilege was
extended by Hadrian to those who had obtained honourable discharge.
The same emperor allowed them not merely to test on their peculium
castrense, but to manumit inter vivos slaves that formed part of it;
and by a little step further the classical jurists recognized their right
to dispose of it onerously or gratuitously inter wyos. In the 3rd
century the range of it was extended so as to include not only
the soldier's pay and prize, but all that had come to him, directly
or indirectly, in connexion with his profession his outfit, gifts
made to him during his service, legacies from comrades and so on.
All this was in a high degree subversive of the doctrines of the
common law. It may almost be called revolutionary; for it in-
volved in the first place the recognition of the right of a person
alieni juris to make a testament as if he were sui juris, and in
the second place the recognition of a separate estate in a filiusf ami-
lias which he might deal with independently of his paterfamilias,
which could not be touched by the latter's creditors, and which he
was not even bound to collate (or bring into hotch-pot) on claiming a
share of his father's succession. The radical right of the parent,
however, was rather suspended than extinguished; for, if the
soldier son died intestate, the right of the paterfamilias revived :
he took his son's belongings, not as his heir appropriating an in-
heritance, but as his paterfamilias reclaiming a peculium?
The Family. The legislative efforts of Augustus to encourage
marriage, to which persons of position showed a remarkable distaste,
Famll have already been mentioned. The relation of husband
Relati as an< ^ w 'f e s ti'l m ' aw required no more for its creation
than deliberate interchange of nuptial consent, although
in certain cases some act indicative of change of life, such as the
bride's home-coming to her husband's house, was regarded as
the criterion of completed marriage. 3 But it was rarely accom-
panied with manus. So repugnant was such subjection to patrician
ladies that they declined to submit to confarreate nuptials; and so
great consequently became the difficulty of finding persons qualified
by confarreate birth to fill the higher priesthoods that early in the
Empire it had to be decreed that confarreation should in future be
productive of manus only quoad sacra, and should not make the
wife a member of her husband's family. Manus by a year's unin-
terrupted cohabitation was long out of date in the time of Gaius;
and, although that by coemption was still in use in his time, it
was almost unknown by the end of the period. Husband and
wife therefore had their separate estates, the common establish-
ment being maintained by the husband, with the assistance of the
revenue of the wife's dowry (dos) an institution which received
much attention at the hands of the jurists, and was to some extent
regulated by statute. Divorce (either of common consent or by
repudium by either spouse) was unfortunately very common ; it
was lawful even without any assignable cause; when blame attached
to either spouse, he or she suffered deprivation to some extent of the
nuptial provisions, but there were no other penal consequences.
Not only in the case of a filiusfamilias who had adopted a
military career, but in all directions, there was manifested a strong
tendency to place restrictions on the exercise of the patria potestas.
This was due in a great degree to the hold that the principles of
natural law were gaining within the Roman system, perhaps due
1 Inst. ii. 12 pr.
2 This was altered by Justinian's Il8th Novel, under which a
paterfamilias taking any part of a deceased son's estate did so as his
heir; see infra, p. 573.
' Some writers take the view that such act was always essential.
See Girard, Manuel, 4th <jd. p. 151.
to the -fact that the emperors, having succeeded to the censorial
regimen morum, allowed these principles freely to influence their
edicts and rescripts. Exposure of an infant was still apparently
allowed ; but a parent was no longer permitted, even in the character
of household judge, to put his son to death or cruelly ill-treat him;
in fact his prerogative was limited to moderate chastisement, the
law requiring, in the case of a grave offence that merited severer
punishment, that he should bring his child before the competent
magistrate. His right of sale, in like manner, was permitted only
when he was in great poverty and unable to maintain them, while
their impignoration by him was prohibited under pain of banishment.
Except in the solitary case of a son who was a soldier, a pater-
familias was still recognized as in law the owner of all the earnings
and other acquisitions of his children in potestate; but the old rule
still remained that for their civil debts ne was not liable beyond
the amount of the fund he had advanced them to deal with as de
facto their own (peculium profecticium), except when he had derived
advantage from their contract or had expressly or by implication
authorized them to enter into it as his agents. To the party with
whom he had contracted a filiusfamilias was himself liable as fully
as if he had been a paterfamilias, with one exception, namely, when
his debt was for borrowed money; in that case, with some very
reasonable qualifications, it was declared by the well-known Mace-
donian senatusconsult (of the time of Vespasian) that the lender
should not be entitled to recover payment, even after his borrower
had become sui juris by his father's death. Between a father and
his emancipated son there was, and always had been, perfect free-
dom of contract; but so was there now between a father and his
soldier son in any matter relating to the peculium castrense, even
though the son was in potestate. What is still more remarkable is
that the new sentiment which was operating on the jus civile
admitted the possibility of natural obligation between paterfamilias
and filiusfamilias even in reference to the peculium profecticium,
which, though incapable of direct enforcement by action, was yet
to some extent recognized and given effect to indirectly.
In the matter of guardianship, while the tutory of pupils was
carefully maintained and the law in regard to it materially amended
during the period under review (particularly by a senatusconsult
generally referred to as the Oratio divi Severi, prohibiting aliena-
tion of the ward's property without judicial authority), that of
women above the age of pupillarity gradually disappeared.* The
guardianship or curatory (cura) of minors above pupillarity owed
its establishment as a general doctrine to Marcus Aurelius. The
Plaetorian law 6 of the middle of the 6th century of the city had
indeed imposed penalties on those taking undue advantage of the
inexperience of minors, i.e. persons sui juris under the age of twenty-
five; and from that time the praetors were in the habit of granting
restitutio in integrum in cases of lesion and appointing curators to act
with such persons for the protection of their interests in particular
affairs. But it was Marcus Aurelius that first made curatory a
general permanent office, to endure in the ordinary case until the
ward attained majority. The powers, duties and; responsibilities
of such curators became a matter for careful and elaborate defini-
tion and regulation by the jurists, whose exposition indeed of the
law of guardianship generally, whether by tutors or curators, has
found wide acceptance in modern systems of jurisprudence.
The Law of Succession and particularly Testamentary Trusts.
There were far more positive changes in the law of succession than
in either that of property or that of obligation. The rise
and progress of the military testament has already been ,
explained. The testament of the common law was still '
ostensibly that per aes et libram; but the practice of
granting bonorum possessio secundum tabulas to the persons named
as heirs in any testamentary instrument that bore outside the
requisite number of seals led, from the time of Antoninus Pius,
to the frequent neglect of the time-honoured formalities of the
familiae mancipalio and nuncupatio testamenti. It was his rescript,
formerly mentioned, declaring that an heir-at-law should no longer
be entitled to dispute the last wishes of a testator on the technical
ground of non-compliance with the purely formal requirements
of the law, that practically established what Justinian calls the
praetorian testament.
One of the commonest provisions in the testaments of the period
was the fideicommissum, a request by the testator to his heir to
enter on the inheritance and thereafter denude wholly or partially
in favour of a third party. It was introduced in the time of
Augustus by (it is said by Theophilus) a testator who had married
a peregrin wife, and desired thus indirectly to give to his peregrin
children the succession which, as not being citizens, they could
neither take ab intestate nor as his direct testamentary heirs.* He
probably soon found imitators, and their number must have rapidly
multiplied once the emperor, shocked at the perfidy of a trustee
4 Dig. xxvii. 9 fr. I, 2.
6 Also sometimes called lex Laetoria. See, e.g. reference to a
recently discovered papyrus in Z. d. Sav. Stift. xxii. 170.
Fideicommissa, as informal requests to heirs or legatees to hand
over what they received to third parties, were known earlier than
Augustus, but had no legal force.
5 66
ROMAN LAW
IJUS NATURALE
who had failed to comply with the request of his testator, indicated
his approval of the new institution by remitting the matter to the
consuls of the day, with instructions to do in the circumstances
what they thought just. So quickly did it establish itself in public
favour, and so numerous did the questions become as to the con-
struction and fulfilment of testamentary trusts, that under Claudius
it was found necessary to institute a court specially charged with
their adjudication that of the praetor fideicommissarius.
The employment of a trust as a means of benefiting those who
were under disqualifications as heirs or legatees, as, for example,
persons who had no testamenti factio, women incapacitated by the
Voconian law, unmarried and married but childless persons in-
capacitated by the Julian and Papia-Poppaean law, and so on, was
in time prohibited by statute; but that did not affect its general
popularity. For, whether what was contemplated was a transfer
of the universal hereditas or an aliquot part of it to the beneficiary
(fideicommissum hereditatis), or only of some particular thing
(fideicommissum rei singulars'), a testamentary trust had various
advantages over either a direct institution or a direct bequest
(legatum). Still the imposition upon the heir of a trust in favour of
a beneficiary, whether it required him to denude of the whole or
only a part of the inheritance, did not in theory deprive him of his
character of heir or relieve him of the responsibilities of the position ;
and at common law therefore he was entitled to decline the suc-
cession, often to the great prejudice of the beneficiary. In order
to avoid such a mischance, and at the same time to regulate their
relations inter se and towards debtors and creditors of the testator,
it became the practice for the parties to enter into stipulatory
arrangements about the matter; but these were to some extent
rendered superfluous by two senatusconsults, the Trebellian in the
time of Nero and the Pegasian in that of Vespasian, which not only
secured the beneficiary against the trustee's (i.e. the heir's) repudia-
tion of the inheritance, but also protected the latter from all risk
of loss where he was trustee and nothing more, and enabled the
former to treat directly with debtors and creditors of the testator
and himself ingather the corporeal items of the inheritance.
It was one of the advantages of a trust-bequest, whether universal
or singular, that it might be conferred in a codicil, even though
unconfirmed by any relative testament. The codicil (codicilli), also
Ein invention of the time of Augustus, was a deed of a very simple
nature. Though in the later Empire it required to be formally
attested by at least five witnesses, it was at first quite informal.
It was inappropriate either for disherison of sui or institution of an
heir; but if confirmed by testament, either prior or posterior to
its date, it might contain direct bequests, manumissions, nomina-
tions of tutors, and the like, and whether confirmed or unconfirmed
might, as stated, be utilized as a vehicle for trust-gifts. Latterly
it was held operative, even in the absence of a testament, the trusts
contained in it being regarded as burdens on the heir-at-law.
The most important changes in the law of intestate succession
during the period were those accomplished by the Tertullian and
Orphitian senatusconsults, fruits of that respect for the precepts of
natural law which in so many directions was modifying the doctrines
of the jus civile. The first was passed in the reign of Hadrian, the
second in the year 178, under Marcus Aurelius. Down to the time
of the Tertullian senatusconsult a mother and her child by a marriage
that was unaccompanied with manus stood related to each other
only as cognates, being in law members of different families; con-
sequently their chance of succession to each other was remote, being
postponed to that of their respective agnates. The purpose of the
senatusconsult was to prefer a mother to all agnates of her deceased
child except father and brother and sister; father and brother
excluded her; but with a sister of the deceased, and in the absence
of father or brother, she shared equally. While there can be little
doubt that it was considerations of natural law that dictated this
amendment, yet its authors were top timid to justify it on the
abstract principle of common humanity, and so they confined its
application to women who had the jus liberorum, i.e. to women of
free birth who were mothers of three children and freedwomen
who were mothers of four, thus making it ostensibly a reward of
fertility. The Orphitian senatusconsult was the counterpart of the
Tertullian. It gave children, whether legitimate or illegitimate, a
right of succession to their mother in preference to all her agnates;
and subsequent constitutions extended the principle, admitting
lawful children to the inheritance not only of their maternal grand-
parents but also to that of their paternal grandmother.
iii. Judicial Procedure.
The Formular System. 1 The ordinary procedure during the
greater part of the first three centuries of the Empire was still
. two-staged; it commenced before the praetor (in jure)
and was concluded before a judge or judges (in judicio).
im ' But the legis actiones had with a few exceptions given place
to praetorian formulae. Under the sacramental system parties,
1 See Keller (as on p. 547, n.), '23-43; Bethmann-Hollweg (as
in same note), vol. ii. 81-87; Bekker (as in same note), vol. i.
chaps. 4-7, vol. ii. chaps. 15, 19, 20; Baron, Cesch. d. rom. Rechts
(Berlin, 1884), vol. i. 202-215.
and particularly the plaintiff, had themselves to formulate in
statutory or traditional words of style the matter in controversy
between them; and as they formulated, so did it go for trial to-
centumviral court or judex, with the not infrequent result that it
was then all too late discovered that the real point in the case had
been missed. Under the formular system parties were free to-
represent their plaint and defence to the praetor in any words they
pleased, the plaintiff asking for a formula and usually indicating
the style on the album that he thought would suit his purpose, and
the defendant demanding when necessary an exception, i.e. a plea
in defence, either praetorian or statutory, that, without traversing
the facts or law of the plaintiff's case, avoided his demand on grounds
of equity or public policy or the like. It was for the praetor to
consider and determine whether the action or exception should or
should not be granted, and, if granted, whether it should be accord-
ing to the style exhibited on the album or according to a modification
of it. The result he embodied in a written and signed appointment
of a judge, whom he instructed what he had to try, and empowered
to pronounce a finding either condemning or acquitting the defendant.
This writing was the formula.
Although it was not until the early Empire that this system of
civil procedure attained its full development, yet it had begun
between one and two centuries before the fall of the Republic.
Gaius ascribes its introduction and definitive establishment to the
lex Aebutia and two judiciary laws of the time of Augustus, formerly
mentioned (supra, pp. 98, 124). The Aebutian law, of which
unfortunately we know very little, is generally supposed to have
empowered the praetors (i) to devise a simpler form of procedure
for causes already cognizable per legis actionem, (2) to devise
forms of action to meet cases not cognizable under the older system,
and (3) themselves to formulate the issue and reduce it to writing.
It was by no means so radical a change as is sometimes supposed.
There were formulae employed by the peregrin praetor before it
and also perhaps something analogous thereto by the urban praetor.
There were also formulae of a kind employed both in the procedure
per judicis postulationem and in that per condictionem. The differ-
ence between the latter and the formulae of the Aebutian system
was that they were in part mere echoes of the statutory words of
style uttered by the plaintiff, and that they were not written but
spoken in the hearing of witnesses.
A large proportion of the personal actions of the formular system
were evolved out of the legis actio per condictionem. The sequence
of operations may have been something like this. Taking
the simplest form of it, the action for certa pecunia under
the Silian law, the first step was to drop the formal con-
dictio from which it derived its character of legis actio, thus
avoiding a delay of thirty days; the plaintiff stated his de-
mand in informal words, and, if the defendant denied indebtedness,
the praetor straightway formulated a written appointment of and
instruction to a judge, embodying in it the issue in terms sub-
stantially the same as those he would have employed under the
earlier procedure: " Titius be judge. Should it appear that
N. N. ought to pay (dare oportere) 50,000 sesterces to A. A., in that
sum condemn N.N. to A. A.; 2 should it so not appear, acquit him."
This was no longer the legis actio per condictionem, because what
had made it legis actio was gone, but the condictio certae pecuniae
of the formular system. The condictio triticaria of the same system
ran on the same lines: "Titius be judge. Should it appear that
N. N. ought to give A. A. the slave Stichus, then, whatever be
the value of the slave, in that condemn N. N. to A. A.," and so on.
In each of these examples the formula included only two of the
four principal clauses that might find place in it 3 an " intention "
and a " condemnation." The matter of claim in both cases was
certain, so much money in one, a slave in the other; but, while
in the first the condemnation also was certain, in the second it was
uncertain. What if the claim also was uncertain, say a share
of the profits of a joint adventure assured by stipulation ?
It was perhaps competent for the plaintiff to specify a definite
sum, and claim that as due to him; but it was very hazardous,
for unless he was able to prove the debt to the last sesterce he lost
his case. To obviate the risk of such failure the praetors devised
the actio ex stipulatu, whose formula commenced with a "demon-
stration " or indication of the cause of action, and whose " inten-
tion " referred to it and was conceived indefinitely: "Titius be
judge. Whereas A. A. stipulated with N. N. for a share of the
profits of a joint adventure, whatever in respect thereof N. N. ought
to give to or do for (darefacere oportet) A. A., in the money amount
Its appli-
cation to
Personal
Actions.
1 In the typical Roman styles of actions the plaintiff was
usually called Aulus Agerius and the defendant Numerius
Negidius.
3 Gaius enumerates them as demonstratio, intentio, adjudicatio
and condemnatio, and describes their several functions in iv. 39-43.
The intentio and condemnatio were much the most important,
the others being employed only in certain kinds of actions.
Besides these a formula might be preceded by a praescriptio
(Gai. iv. I3&-I37), and have incorporated in it fictions
( 32-38), exceptions ( 115-125), and replications, duplications,
&c. ( 126-129).
JUS NATURALE]
ROMAN LAW
5 6 7
thereof condemn N. N.," and so on. 1 Once this point was attained
further progress was comparatively easy, the way being open for
the construction of formulae upon illiquid claims arising from trans-
actions in which the practice of stipulation gradually dropped out
of use, till at last the bonae fidei judicia were reached, marked by
the presence in the " intention of the words ex fide bona
" whatever in respect thereof N. N. ought in good faith to give to or
do for A. A."
In the case of real actions the transition from the legis actiones
to the formulae followed a different course. The Aebutian law,
while sanctioning the competency of formulae, did not
* &PP interfere with the procedure per sacramentum when
* a ' al reference was to be to the centumviral court on a ques-
1 tion of quiritarian right. In the time of Cicero that court
was apparently still in full activity (supra), but by that
of Gaius, owing, it is supposed, to the Julian laws having made for-
mulae in most cases compulsory, it was rarely resorted to except
for trial of questions of inheritance. In his time questions of
property were raised either per sponsionem or per formulam peti-
loriam. The procedure by sponsion may be regarded as a sort of
bridge between the sacramental process and the petitory vindi-
catio. In it the question of real right was determined only in-
directly. The plaintiff required the defendant to give him his
stipulatory promise to pay a nominal sum of twenty-five sesterces
in the event of the thing in dispute being found to belong to the
former; and at the same time the defendant gave sureties for its
transfer to the plaintiff, with all fruits and profits, in the same
event. The formula that was adjusted and remitted to a judge
raised ex facie only the simple question whether the twenty-five
sesterces were due or not: the action was in form a personal, not a
real one, and was therefore appropriately remitted to a single judex
instead of to the centumviral tribunal. But judgment on it could
be reached only through means of a finding (sentenlia) on the question
of real right; if it was for the plaintiff, he did not claim the amount
of the sponsion, but the thing which had been found to be his;
and, if the defendant delayed to deliver it, with its fruits and pro-
fits, the plaintiff had recourse against the latter's sureties. The
petitory formula, was undoubtedly of later introduction and much
more straightforward. Like the condictio certae pecuniae, it con-
tained only " intention " and " condemnation.' It ran thus:
" Titius be judge. Should it appear that the slave Stichus, about
whom this action has been raised, belongs to A. A. in quiritary
right, then, unless the slave be restored, whatever be his value,
in that you will condemn N. N. to A. A.; should it not so appear,
you will acquit him."
The formulae given above, whether applicable to real or personal
actions, are so many illustrations of trie class known as formulae
j juris civilis or in jus conceptae. The characteristic of
. such a formula was that it contained in the " intention "
n tas ana guc |, phrases as the following ejus esse ex jure Quiritium,
praestare oportere? dare oportere, dare facere oportere,
conceptae, * -, . r , V, J ,
or damnum deciaere oportere. 3 such words were em-
ployed where the right to be vindicated or the obligation to
be enforced had its sanction directly in the jus civile whether
in the shape of statute, consuetude or interpretation. Where, on
the other hand, the right or obligation had its sanction solely
from the praetor's edict, special formulae had to be framed. The
actions employed in such cases were actiones juris honorarii, and
these either actiones utiles or actiones in factum. The first were
adaptations of actions of the jus civile to cases that did not pro-
perly fall within them; the second were actions entirely of prae-
torian devising, for the protection of rights or redress of wrongs
unknown to the jus civile.*
1 This actio ex stipulatu used to be regarded as nothing more than
a variety of the condictio incerti. It is doubtful, however, whether
in the condictiones incerti (e.g. the condictio furtiva) there was any
demonstratio. See Girard, Manuel, p. 614 n. 2 and 3 and authorities
there cited.
1 Employed in the divisory actions, i.e. for dividing common
property, partitioning an inheritance, or settling boundaries; the
demand was that the judge should adjudicate (or assign) to each of
the parties such a share as he though just. See Lenel, Edict.
Perpet. 2nd ed. pp. 202, 205.
3 Employed in certain actions upon delict, where the old penalties
of death, slavery or talion had in practice, or by the praetor's
authority, been transmuted into money payments, and the de-
fendant consequently called upon to pay penal damages. Accord-
ing to Lenel, Ed. Perp. 2nd ed. p. 287, the form dare facere praestare
oportere was probably used in actions pro socio.
* These latter have an analogy to the English " action on the
case." In a few instances there was both civil and praetorian
remedy for the same wrong; for Gaius observes (iv. 47) that in
commodate and deposit failure of the borrower or depositary to
return the thing lent to or deposited with him gave rise to actions
that might be formulated either in jus or in factum. In the same
section he gives the styjes of actiones depositi in jus and in factum
conceptae ; their comparison is instructive. The formula in factum
must almost certainly have been the earlier and shows, it is thought,
I'lilis actio may be translated as analogous or adapted action,
i.e. analogous to a direct action. Where a direct action was in-
applicable to particular cases or persons, according to iciiaae*
the terms of a lex, edict, &c., the praetor frequently
adapted the statute, &c., to such cases and persons by
granting an actio utilis. He did so where he thought them to be
within the spirit though not the letter of the law. He effected his
object commonly by a modification of the regular formula either
objectively, as by adding, or omitting, or altering words, or sub-
jectively by transposing names of parties. But sometimes also
the adaptation was made by the introduction of a legal fiction into
the regular formula, and in this case the action was called utilif
fictitia or simply fictitia. The actiones utiles might, therefore, be of
two kinds, ordinary and fictitious. Those of common occurrence
early became stereotyped in the Edict and even got special names.
As illustrations of an ordinary actio utilis, in which the formula
was objectively modified, reference may be made to the numerous
actions for wrongful damage to property under the lex Q^ig^y^
Aquilia. Thus this statute in its first chapter used the
term occidere, which means killing by a physical act of violence
(corpore corpori), but to meet cases of Killing without violence
(e.g. by poison) the praetors simply substituted the words mortis
causam praestare for occidere in the formula. As illustrations of
an ordinary actio utilis with subjective transposition of names, we
may mention the actio Rutiliana applicable to a purchaser of the
bankrupt estate of a living debtor, the action by an assignee of a
debt against the debtor, and the action of a procurator suing for
his principal. In these the names of the bankrupt, cedent and
principal respectively appeared in the intentio, while the plaintiff's
name was inserted in the condemnatio.
Resort to a fiction is sometimes said to be a confession of weakness,
and adversely criticized accordingly. But every amendment on
the law is an admission of defect in what is being amended ; AcUoae*
and it was in sympathy with the spirit of Roman juris- nctltlae.
prudence, when it found an action too narrow .in its de-
finition, to include some new case that ought to fall within it,
rather by feigning that the new case was the same as the old, to
bring it within the scope of the existing and familiar action, than
to cause disturbance by either altering the definition of the latter
or introducing an entirely new remedy. A bonorum possessor
held a position unknown to the jus civile; he was not an heir, and
therefore not entitled offhand to employ the actions competent
to an heir, either for recovering the property of the defunct or
proceeding against his debtors. The praetor could have had no
difficulty in devising new actions to meet his case ; but he preferred
the simpler expedient of adapting to it an heir's actions, by intro-
ducing into the formula a fiction of civil heirship; so he did with the
bonorum emptor or purchaser of a deceased bankrupt's estate at
the sale of it in mass by his creditors. A peregrin could not sue
or be sued for the penalties imposed for theft or culpable damage
to property, for the XII. Tables and the Aquilian law applied only
to citizens; but he could both sue and be sued under cover of a
fiction of citizenship. A man who had acquired a res mancipi on
a good title, but without taking a conveyance by mancipation or
surrender in court, if he was dispossessed before he had completed
his usucapion, could not sue a rei vindicatio for its recovery, for
he was not in a position to affirm that he was quiritarian owner;
neither, for the same reason, could a man who in good faith and on
a sufficient title had acquired a thing from one who was not in a
position to alienate it. But in both cases the praetor granted him
what was in effect a rei vindicatio proceeding on a fiction of completed
usucapion the Publician .action referred to on p. 556. These are
examples of actiones fictitiae actions of the jus civile adapted by
this very simple expedient to cases to which otherwise they would
have been inapplicable, and forming one of the most important
varieties of the actiones utiles.
Quite different was the course of procedure in the actiones in
factum, whose number and varieties were practically unlimited,
although for the most part granted in pursuance of the praetor's
promise in the edict that under such and such circumstances he
would make a remit to a judex (judicium dabo), 1 and formulated in
accordance with the relative skeleton styles also published on the
album. A great number of them came to be known by special names,
as, for example, the actio de dolo, actio negotiorum gestorum, actio
hypothecaria, actio de pecunia constitute, actio vi bonorum raptorum,
actio de superficie, &c. the generic name actio in factum being
usually confined to the innominate ones. Their formulae, unlike
those in jus conceptae, submitted no question of legal right for the
that deposit and commodate were enforced (perhaps first by the
peregrin praetor) by means of edicts before being admitted into
the rus civile.
'Examples: "Si quis negotia alterius ... gesserit, judicium
eo nomine dabo " (Dig. iii. 5, 3, pr.) ; " Quae dolo malo facta esse
dicentur, si de his rebus alia actio non erit et justa causa esse
videbitur, judicium dabo " (Dig. iv. 3, I, l); " Nautae caupones
stabularii quod cujusque salvum fore receperint, nisi rcstituent.
in eos judicium dabo " (Dig. iv. 9, I, pr.); " Quod quis commodasse
dicetur, de eo judicium dabo " (Dig. xiii. 6. I, pr.).
568
ROMAN LAW
[JUS NATURALE
Pro-
cedure
extra
ordinem.
consideration of the judge, but only a question of fact, proof of
which was to be followed by a condemnation. That of the actio
de dolo, for example, ran thus: " Titius be judge. Should it appear
that, through the fraud of N. N., A. A. was induced to convey
and cede possession to him of his farm (describing it), then, unless
on your order N. N. restores it, you will condemn him in damages to
A. A. ; if it shall not so appear, you will acquit him." Actions in
factum might be utiles as well as direct; e.g. actio quasi-Serviana
or hypothecaria was utilis, being based on analogy to the actio
Semana.
Our limits do not admit of any explanation of the purpose, form,
or effect of the prescriptions, exceptions, replications, &c., that were
engrafted on a formula when required; or of the ways in which
the " condemnation " was occasionally " taxed " by the praetor,
so as to prevent the award of extravagant damages; or of the
consequences of defects in the formula; or of the procedure injure
before it was adjusted, or in judicio afterwards; or of appeal for
review of the judgmentjby a higher tribunal; or of execution
(which was against the estate of the judgment-debtor, and took
the form of incarceration only when his goods could not be attached).
Our main object has been to show how elastic was this procedure,
and how the praetorian formulae, in conjunction with the relative
announcements in the edict, supplied the vehicle for the intro-
duction into the law of an immense amount of new doctrine. The
system was fully developed before Julian's consolidation of the
Edict ; and the statutory recognition which the latter then obtained,
though it stopped the praetor's power of amending the law, did
nothing to impair the efficiency of the existing procedure.
Procedure extra Ordinem. 1 The two-staged procedure, first in
jure and then in judicio, constituted the ordo judiciorum priva-
torum. Early in the Empire, however, it became the
practice in certain cases to abstain from adjusting a
formula and making a remit to a judex, and to leave the
cause in the hands of the magistrate from beginning to end.
In these cases, speaking generally, the magistrate acted
as an administrative official. Such cases did not necessarily come
before the ordinary judicial praetors; on the contrary, they were
committed as a rule to special officials (e.g. consuls) who were
appointed to decide them by the emperors. This kind of procedure
was adopted sometimes because the claim that was being made
rested rather on moral than on legal right, and sometimes in order
to avoid unnecessary disclosure of family misunderstandings.
Thus, the earliest questions that were raised about testamentary
trusts were sent for consideration and disposal to the consuls,
apparently because, in the existing state of jurisprudence, it was
thought incompetent for a beneficiary to maintain in reference to
the heir (who had only been requested to comply with the testator's
wishes) that he was bound in law to pay him (dare oportere) his
bequest. Had the difficulty arisen at an earlier period, and in the
heyday of the constructive energy of the praetors, they would
probably have solved it with an actio in factum. As it was, it fell
to the emperors to deal with it, and they adopted the method of
extraordinaria cognitio, the jurisdiction which they in the first
instance conferred on the consuls being before long confided to a
magistrate specially designated for it, the praetor fidei commissarius,
Questions between tutors and their pupil wards in like manner
began to be dealt with extra ordinem, the cognition being entrusted
by Marcus Aurelius to a praetor tutelaris; while fiscal questions
in which a private party was interested went to a praetor fisci, whose
creation was due to Nerva. Claims for aliment between parent and
child or patron and freedman rested on natural duty rather than on
legal right; they could not therefore well be made the subject-
matter of a judicium, and consequently went for disposal to the
consuls or the city prefect, and in the provinces to the governor.
Questions of status, especially of freedom or slavery, at least from
the time of Marcus Aurelius, were also disposed of extra ordinem;
and so were claims by physicians, advocates and public teachers
for their honoraria, and by officials for their salaries, the Romans
refusing to admit that these could be recovered by an ordinary
action of location. In all those extraordinary cognitions the pro-
cedure began with a complaint addressed to the magistrate, instead
of an in jus vocatio of the party complained against ; it was for the
magistrate to require the attendance of the latter (evocatio) if he
thought the complaint relevant. The decision was a judicatum or
decretum according to circumstances.
Jural Remedies flowing directly from the Magistrate's Imperium?
Great as were the results for the law of the multiplication
and simplification of judicia through the formular system;
it may be questioned whether it did not benefit quite as
much from the direct intervention of the praetors and other
magistrates in certain cases in virtue of the imperium
with which they were invested. This manifested itself
principally in the form of (i) interdicts; (2) praetorian stipulations;
Direct
magis-
terial
Inter-
vention.
1 See Keller- Wach, Civilprocess, 81 ; Bethmann-Hollweg,
Riim. Civilprocess, vol. ii. 122; Bekker, Aktionen, vol. ii. chap.
23 ; Baron, Gesch. d. rom. Rechts, vol. i. 220.
2 Keller- Wach, Rom. Civilprocess, 74-80; Bethmann-Hollweg,
Rom. Civilprocess, vol. ii. 98, 119-121; Bekker, Akt. vol. ii.
(3) missio in possessionem ; and (4) in integrum restitutio. All these
had been in common use during the Republic.
I. The interdicts' have already been referred to as in use under
the r6gime of the jus civile; but their number and scope were vastly
increased under that of the jus proetorium. The char-
acteristic of the developed procedure by interdict was
this that in it the praetor reversed the ordinary course
of things, and, instead of waiting for an inquiry into the facts
alleged by a complainer, provisionally assumed them to be true
and pronounced an order upon the respondent, which he was bound
either to obey or show to be unjustified. The order pronounced
might be either restitutory, exhibitory (in both cases usually spoken
of in the texts as a decretum), or prohibitory: restitutory, when,
for example, the respondent was ordained to restore something he
was alleged to have taken possession of by violent means, to remove
impediments he had placed in the channel of a river, and the like;
exhibitory, when he was ordained to produce something he was
unwarrantably detaining, e.g. the body of a freeman he was holding
as his slave, or a will in which the complainer alleged that he had an
interest; prohibitory, as, for example, that he should not disturb
the status quo of possession as between the complainer and himself,
that he should not interfere with a highway, a watercourse, the
access to a sepulchre, and so forth. If the respondent obeyed the
order pronounced in a restitutory or exhibitory decree, there was
an end of the matter. But frequently, and perhaps more often than
not, the interdict was only the commencement of a litigation,
facilitated by sponsions and restipulations, in which the questions
had to be tried (i) whether the interdict or injunction was justified,
(2) whether there had been breach of it, and, (3) if so, what damages
were due in consequence. The procedure therefore was often any-
thing but summary.
In the possessory interdicts uti possidelis and utrubi in particular
it was extremely involved, due to some extent to the fact that
they were double interdicts (interdicla duplicia), i.e. addressed
indifferently to both parties. Gaius says, but, as most modern
writers think, erroneously, that they had been devised as ancillary
to a litigation about ownership, and for the purpose of deciding
which of the parties, as possessor, was to have the advantage of
standing on the defensive in the rei vindicatio. 4 That they were so
used in his time, as in that of Justinian, cannot be doubted. But
it is amazing that they should have been, for they were much more
cumbrous than the vindicatio to which they led up. Take the
interdict uti possidetis, which applied to immovables, as utrubi did
to movables. Both parties being present, the praetor addressed
them to this effect: " I forbid that one of you two who does not
possess the house in question to use force in order to prevent the
other who is in possession, provided he is so neither by clandestine
or violent exclusion of the first, nor in virtue of a grant from him
during pleasure, from continuing to possess as at present." It is
manifest that this decided nothing; it was no more than a pro-
hibition of disturbance of the status quo ; it left the question entirely
open which of the parties it was that was in possession, and which
that was forbidden to interfere. The manner of its explication was
somewhat singular. Each of the parties was bound at once to
commit what in the case of one of them must have been a breach of
the interdict, by a pretence of violence offered to the other (vis ex
conventu) ; 6 each of them was thus in a position to say to the other :
" We have both used force; but it was you alone that did it in
defiance of the interdict, for it is I that am in possession." The
interim enjoyment of the house was then awarded to the highest
bidder, who gave his stipulatory promise to pay rent to his adversary
in the event of the latter being successful in the long-run; penal
sponsions and restipulations were exchanged upon the question
which of them had committed a breach of the interdict ; and on
these, four in number, formulae were adjusted and sent to a judex
for trial. If the procedure could not thus be explicated, because
either of the parties declined to take part in the vis ex conventu,
or the bidding, or the sponsions and restipulations, he was assumed
to be in the wrong, and, by what was called a secondary interdict,
required to yield up his possession or detention and to abstain
from disturbing the other " in all time coming." Whatever we
may think of the action system of the Romans in the period
of the classical jurisprudence, one cannot help wondering at a
chaps. i6-i8; Baron, vol. i. 216-219. Procedure in these cases is
also sometimes included under the term cognitio extraordinaria.
3 In addition to the authorities in last note, see K. A. Schmidt,
Das Interdiktenverfahren d. Rom. in geschichtl. Entwickelung (Leipzig,
1853); Mach61ard, Theorie des interdits en droit romain (Paris,
1864); Karlowa, Rom. R. G. ii. pp. 313 seq. ; Ubbelohde, Die Inter-
dicte d. rom Rechts, 1889-96 (in Gluck's Pandecten Serie d. Biicher,
43 and 44); Jobbe'-Dirval, La Procedure civile chez les Remains
(1896), i. pp. 207 seq.
4 If that had been their original purpose, they must have been
unknown as long as a rei vindicatio proceeded per sacramentum ; for
in the sacramental real action both parties vindicated, and both
consequently were at once plaintiffs and defendants.
6 So Gaius calls it ; it was probably the same thing as the vis
moribus facia referred to by Cicero, Pro Caec. I, 2, 8, 22.
CODIFICATION]
ROMAN LAW
procedure so cumbrous and complex as that of their possessory
interdicts.
2. A praetorian stipulation l was a stipulatory engagement im-
posed upon a man by a magistrate or judge, in order to secure a
_ third party from the chance of loss or prejudice through
torian some act or omission either of him from whom the engage-
ment was exacted or of some other person for whom he was
latioas responsible. Although called praetorian, because the cases
in which such stipulations were exigible were set forth in
the Edict, there can be no question that they originated in the jus
civile ; in fact, they were just a means of assuring to a man in advance
the benefit of an action of the jus civile^ whereby he might obtain
reparation for any injury suffered by him through the occurrence
of the act or omission contemplated as possible. They were enforced
nearly always by granting or refusing an action or by missio in
possessionem. Ulpian classifies them (rather illogically) as cautionary
(cautionales) , judicial and common. The first were purely pre-
cautionary, and quite independent of any action already in depend-
ence between the party moving the magistrate to exact the stipu-
lation and him on whom it was desired to impose it. There were
many varieties of them, connected with all branches of the law
for example, the_ cautio damni infecti, security against damage to a
man's property in consequence, say, of the ruinous condition of his
neighbour s house, the cautio usufructuaria that property usufructed
should revert unimpaired to the owner on the expiry of the usu-
fructuary's life interest, the aedilian stipulation against faults in
a thing sold, and so forth. In all these cases the stipulation or
cautio was a guarantee against future loss or injury, usually cor-
roborated by sureties, and made effectual by an action on the stipu-
lation in the event of loss or injury resulting. Judicial stipulations,
according to Ulpian's classification, were those imposed by a judge
in the course of and with reference to an action in dependence before
him, as, for example, the cautio judicatum solvi (that the defendant
would satisfy the judgment), the cautio de dolo (that a thing claimed
in the action would not be fraudulently impaired in the meantime)
and many others. Common were such as might either be imposed
by a magistrate apart from any depending action or by a judge in
the course of one, such as that taken from a tutor or curator for the
faithful administration of his office, or from a procurator that his
principal would ratify what he did.
3. Missio in possessionem was the putting of a person in possession
provisionally in the first instance, either of the whole estate of
another '(missio in bona) or of some particular thing belong-
'" ing to him (missio in rent) . The former was by far the more
important. It was resorted to as a means of execution
not only against a judgment-debtor but also against a man
who fraudulently kept out of the way and thus avoided summons in
an action, or who, having been duly summoned, would not do what
was expected on the part of a defendant; against the estate of a
person deceased to which no heir would enter, thus leaving creditors
without a debtor from whom they could enforce payment of their
claims; and also against the estate that had belonged to a person
who had undergone capitis deminutio, if the family head to whom
he had subjected himself refused to be responsible for his debts.
Missio in rent was granted where, for example, a man refused to give
cautio damni infecti; the applicant was then put in possession of
the ruinous property for his own protection.
4. In integrum restitutiof reinstatement of an individual, on
grounds of equity, in the position he had occupied before some occur-
rence which had resulted to his prejudice and for which no
other legal remedy existed was one of the most remarkable
manifestations of the exercise of magisterial imperium. It
was not that the individual in question, either directly by
action or indirectly by exception, obtained a judgment that
either rendered what had happened comparatively harmless or gave
him compensation in damages for the loss he had sustained from it,
but that the magistrate and it could only be the praetor, the urban
or praetorian prefect, a provincial governor or the emperor himself
at his own hand pronounced a decree that as far as possible restored
the status quo ante. It was not enough, however, to entitle a man to
this extraordinary relief, that he was able to show that he had been
taken advantage of to his hurt, and that no other adequate means
of redress was open to him; he required in addition to be able to
found on some subjective ground of restitution, such as minority,
or, if he was of full age, intimidation which could not be resisted,
mistake of fact, fraud, absence or the like. It required also to be
applied for within a limited period originally an annus utilis, but
under Justinian a quadrienniunt counting from the time the
party was in a position to make the application. What should be
held to amount to a sufficient ground of restitution, either objective
or subjective, was at first left very much to the discretion of the
magistrate; but even here practice and jurisprudence in time
1 Schirmer, Ueber die pratorischen Judicial-Stipulationen (Greifs-
wald, 1853); Keller- Wach, Civilprocess, 77; Bekker, Aktionen, ii.
chap. 16.
2 Savigny, System d. rom. Rechts. vol. vii. 315-343; Karlowa,
Rom. R. G. ii. pp. 1064-1104; Keller-Wach, op. cit. 79; Bekker,
Aktionen, ii. chap. 18.
569
fixed the lines within which he ought to confine himself, and made
the principles of in integrum restitutio as well settled almost as those
of the actio quod metus causa or the actio de dolo.
V. THE PERIOD or CODIFICATION
(Diocletian to Justinian.)
i. Historical Events thai Influenced the Law.
Supremacy of the Emperors as Sole Legislators. From the
time of Diocletian onwards the making of the law was exclusively
in the hands of the emperors. The senate still existed, Emperor*
but shorn of all its old functions alike of government *oie legit-
and legislation. 3 The responses of patented jurists uton -
were a thing of the past. It was to the imperial consistory
alone that men looked for interpretation of old law or promul-
gation of new.
In the reign of Diocletian rescripts were still abundant; but the
constitutions in the Theodosian and Justinianian Codes from the
t u me i Constantine downwards are mostly of a wider scope, and of
the class known as general or edictal laws (leges generates edictales).
It would be wrong, however, to infer that rescripts had ceased ; for
Justinian s Code contains various regulations as to their form,
and the matter is dealt with again in one of his Novels. The reason
why so few are preserved is that they were no longer authoritative
except for the parties to whom they were addressed. This was
expressly declared by the emperors Arcadius and Honor! us in 398
in reference to those they issued in answer to applications for advice
from officials; and it is not unreasonable to assume that a limitation
of the same sort had been put at an earlier date on the authority of
those addressed to private parties. Puchta is of opinion that the
enactment of Honorius and Arcadius applied equally to decreta,
for the reason that during this period matters of litigation did
not come under the cognisance of the emperors except on appeal,
and that under the new arrangements of Constantine the judgment
of affirmance or reversal was embodied in a rescript addressed to
the magistrate from whom the appeal had been taken. The rule
of Arcadius and Honorius was renewed in 425 by Theodosius and
Valentmian, who qualified it, however, to this extent that, if
it contained any distinct indication that the doctrine it laid down
was meant to be of general application, then it was to be received
as an edict or lex eeneralis. To this Justinian adhered in so far as
rescripts in the old sense of the word were concerned; but he
declared that his judgments (decreta) should be received everywhere
as laws of general application, and so should any interpretation
given by him of a lex eeneralis, even though elicited by the petition
of a private party. The imperial edicts, adjusted in the consistory,
were usually addressed to the people, the senate or some official,
civil, military or ecclesiastical, according to the nature of their
subject-matter.
Influence of Christianity.* A disposition has sometimes been
manifested to credit nascent Christianity with the humaner spirit
which began to operate on some of the institutions of the
law in the first century of the Empire, tut which in a c
previous section we have ascribed to the infiltration into "". 3
the jus civile of doctrines of the jus naturale, the product
of the philosophy of the Stoa. The teaching of Seneca did
quite as much nay, far more to influence it then than the lessons
that were taught in the little assemblies of the early converts. It
would be a bold thing to say that, had Christianity never gained its
predominance, that spirit of natural right would not have continued
to animate the course of legislation, and to evoke, as years pro-
gressed, most of those amendments in the law of the family and the
law of succession that were amongst the most valuable contributions
of the imperial constitutions to the private law. It may well be
that that spirit was intensified and rendered more active with the
growth of Christian belief; but not until the latter had been publicly
sanctioned by Constantine, and more especially after Theodosius
declared it to be the religion of the state, do we meet with incon-
testable records of its influence. We find them in enactments in
favour of the church and its property, and of its privileges as a
legatee; in those conferring or imposing on the bishops a super-
vision of charities and charitable institutions, and a power of
interfering in matters of guardianship; in the legitimation per
subsequens matrimonium of children born of concubines; in the
introduction of a mode of manumitting slaves in facie ecclesiae;
8 There was a senate both at Constantinople and at Rome during
the later Empire. In his History, Zosimus, lii. ii, says: ['lovXionfe]
Kwxt nlv TjirAXei [KuvaravTivouTrb\ti\ ytpovalav txtw Sxrrtp rp Pupp-
Both senates were addressed by the emperors on matters of legisla-
tion. See Cod. Theod. yi. 2.
4 See Troplong, De I 'influence du christianisme sur le droit civil des
Romains (Paris, 1843, and subsequently); Merivalo, The Conversion
of the Roman Empire (Boyle Lectures for 1864) (London, 1864),
particularly lect. iv. ; Allard, Le Christianisme el I 'empire romain
(2nd ed., Paris, 1897).
570
ROMAN LAW
[CODIFICATION
in the recognition of the efficacy of certain acts done in presence
of two or three of the clergy and thereafter recorded in the church
registers; in the disabilities as to marriage and succession with
which heretics and apostates were visited, and in a variety of minor
matters. Of greater importance were three features for which it
was directly responsible the repeal of the caduciary provisions of
the Papia-Poppaean law, the penalties imposed upon divorce, and
the institution of the episcopalis audientia.
The purpose of the caduciary law was to discourage celibacy and
encourage fruitful marriages; but legislation in such a spirit could
not possibly be maintained when celibacy had come to be inculcated
as a virtue, and as the peculiar characteristic of a holy life. The
penalties alike of orbitas and coelibatus were abolished by Constantine
in the year 320. The legislation about divorce, from the first of
Constantino's enactments on the subject down to those of Justinian,
forms a miserable chapter in the history of the law. Not one of
the emperors who busied himself with the matter, undoing the ill-
advised work of his predecessors and substituting legislation of his
own quite as complicated and futile, thought of interfering with the
old principle that divorce ought to be as free as marriage and inde-
pendent of the sanction or decree of a judicial tribunal. Justinian
was the first who, by one of his Novels, imposed a condition on parties
to a divorce of common accord (communi consensu), namely, that
they should both enter a convent, otherwise it should be null ; but,
so distasteful was this to popular feeling, and so little conducive to
improvement of the tone of morals within the conventual precincts,
that it was repealed by his successor. The legislation of Justinian's
predecessors and the bulk of his own were levelled at one-sided re-
pudiations, imposing penalties, personal and patrimonial (l) upon
the author of a repudiation on some ground the law did not recognize
as sufficient and the lawful grounds varied almost from reign to*
reign and (2) upon the party whose misconduct gave rise to a
repudiation that was justifiable. The bishop's court (episcopate
judicium, episcopalis audientia) had its origin in the practice of the
primitive Christians, in accordance with the apostolic precept, of
submitting their differences to one or two of their brethren in the
faith, usually a presbyter or bishop, who acted as arbiter. On the
state recognition of Christianity the practice obtained legislative
sanction, Constantine giving the bishop's court concurrent juris-
diction with the ordinary civil courts where both parties preferred
the former, and by a later enactment (whose authenticity, however,
is open to some doubt) going so far as to empower one of the parties
to a suit to remove it to the ecclesiastical tribunal against the will
of the other. He also declared that the judgments were to be
enforced by the civil courts. 1 For various reasons, advantage was
taken of this power of resorting to the bishop to an extent which
seriously interfered with the proper discharge of his spiritual
functions, so that in 398 Arcadius in the Eastern Empire judged
it expedient to revert to Constantine's original rule, and, at least
as regarded laymen, to limit the right of resort to the episcopal
judicatory to cases in which both parties consented. The same
thing was done by Valentinian in the Western Empire in 452. It
is impossible to say with any approach to exactitude what effect
this intervention of the clergy as judges in ordinary civil causes
for they had no proper criminal jurisdiction had on the develop-
ment of the law. But it can hardly have been without some
influence in still further promoting the tendency to subordinate act
and word to will and intention, to deal leniently with technicalities,
and to temper the rules of the jus civile with equity and considera-
tions of natural right.
Abandonment of the Formular System of Procedure? The formular
system, with its remit from the praetor to a sworn judex who was
to try the cause, was of infinite advantage to the law; for
the judgment was as a rule that of a free and independent
citizen, untrammelled by officialism, fresh from some centre
of business, chosen by, and in full sympathy with, the
parties between whom he had to decide. Such a system
was incompatible with the autocratic government of Diocletian and
Constantine; and it is with no surprise that we find the former of
these sovereigns instructing the provincial governors that in future,
unless when prevented by pressure of business (or, according to
a later constitution of Julian's, when the matter was of trifling
importance), they were not to remit them but were themselves to hear
the causes brought before them from first to last, as had previously
been the practice in the extraordinariae cognitiones. The remit in
the excepted cases was not, as formerly, to a private citizen, but
to what was called a judex pedaneus, who acted as an inferior sub-
stitute of the magistrate and was probably a matriculated member
of the local bar ; and for a time his delegated authority was embodied
1 The truth of this as well as the previous rule depends on the
authenticity of a Sirmondian constitution. See Cuq, Inst. Jurid. ii.
p. 868 n.
'Wieding, Der Justinianeische Libellprocess (Vienna, 1865);
Bethmann-Hollweg (Gesch. d. C.P.), vol. iii. (1866); Muther (rev.
Wieding), in the Krit. Vierteljahrschrift. vol. ix. (1867), pp. 161 seq.,
329 seq.; Wieding, in same journal, vol. xii. (1870), pp. 228 seq.;
Bekker, Aktionen, vol. ii. chaps. 23, 24; Cuq, Inst. Jurid. 2nd ed.
ii. pp. 875 seq.
New
methods
of pro-
cedure.
in a formula after the old fashion. But even this exceptional use
of it did not long survive, for an enactment by the two sons of
Constantine, conceived in terms the most comprehensive, declared
fixed styles to be but traps for the unwary, and forbade their use
in any legal act whatever, whether contentious or voluntary. The
result was, not only the formal disappearance of the distinction
between the proceedings in jure and in judicio (judicium receiving
a more extensive meaning) but the practical (though not formal)
disappearance also of the distinctions between actions in jus and in
factum, and between actiones directae and actiones utiles, the con-
version of the interdict into an actio ex interdicto, admission of the
power of amendment of the pleadings, condemnation in the specific
thing claimed, if in existence, instead of its pecuniary equivalent,
and execution accordingly by the aid of officers of the law.
Under the new system a process was full from first to last of
intervention by officials. The in jus vocatio of the XII. Tables-
the procedure by which a plaintiff himself brought his adversary
into court became a thing of the past. So also did the vadimonium.
In the earlier part of the period the proceedings commenced with
the litis denuntiatio introduced in the time of Marcus Aurelius and
remodelled by Constantine; but under Justinian (though probably
begun before his reign) the initial step was what was called the
libellus conventionis. This was a short and precise written state-
ment addressed by the plaintiff to the court, explaining (but with-
out detail) the nature of the action he proposed to raise and the
claim he was making, which was accompanied by a formal under-
taking to proceed with the cause and follow it out to judgment,
under penalty of having to pay double costs to the defendant. If
the judge was satisfied of the relevancy of the libel, he pronounced
an interlocutor (interlocutio) ordaining its service on the respondent;
this was done by an officer of the court, who cited him to appear on
a day named, usually at a distance of one or two months. The
defendant, through the officer, had to put in an answer (libellus
contradictionis), at the same time giving security for the proper
maintenance of the defence and eventual satisfaction of the judg-
ment. If defendant did not appear after three summonses the
case was heard and decree given in his absence. On the day ap-
pointed the parties or their procurators were first heard on any
dilatory pleas, such as defect of jurisdiction; if none were offered,
or those stated repelled, they then proceeded to expound their
respective grounds of action and defence, each finally making oath
of his good faith in the matter (juramentum calumniae), and their
counsel doing the same.
From this point, which marked the litis contestatio or joinder of
issue, the procedure was much the same as that in judicio under the
formular system. Evidence was taken and judgment given. But
in all cases in which the demand was that a particular thing should
be given or restored, and the plaintiff desired to have the thing
itself rather than damages, execution might be specific and effected
through officers of the law (manu militari). Where, on the other
hand, the condemnation was pecuniary, the usual course, where
performance was not made, was for the judge, through his officers,
to take possession of such things belonging to the defendant as
were thought sufficient to satisfy the judgment (pignus in causa
judicati captum), and they were eventually sold judicially if the
defendant still refused to pay; the missio in bona of the classical
period was not resorted to except in the case of insolvency.
The Valentinian Law of Citations. 3 This famous enactment,
the production of Theodosius (II.), tutor of the youthful Valen-
tinian III., was issued from Ravenna in the year 426,
and was addressed to the Roman senate. It ran thus :
" We accord our approval of all the writings of Pa-
pinian, Paul, Gaius, Ulpian and Modestine, conceding to
Gaius the same authority that is enjoyed by Paul, Ulpian
and the rest, and sanctioning the citation of all his works. We
ratify also the jurisprudence (scientia) of those earlier writers whose
treatises and statements of the law the aforesaid five have im-
ported into their own works, Scaevola, for example, and Sabinus,
and Julian, and Marcellus, and of all others whom they have been
in the habit of quoting as authorities (omniumque quos illi celebrar-
iint), provided always, as their antiquity makes them uncertain,
that the texts of those earlier jurists are verified by collation of
manuscripts. 4 If divergent dicta be adduced, that party shall
prevail who has the greatest number of authorities on his side; if
the number on each side be the same, that one shall prevail which
has the support of Papinian ; but, whilst he, most excellent of them
all, is to be preferred to any other single authority, he must yield
to any two. [Paul's and Ulpian's notes on his writings, however,
as already enacted, are to be disregarded.] Where opinions are
equal, and none entitled to preference, we leave it to the discretion
of the judge which he shall adopt."
Valen-
tin fan's
law of
citations.
3 Theod. Cod. i. 4, 3; Puchta, in the Rhein, Museum f. Jurisprud.
vol. v. (1832), pp. 141 seq., and Verm. Schriflen (Leipzig, 1851), pp. 284
seq.; Karlowa, Rom. Rechtsgesch. vol. i. pp. 933 seq.; Sohm, Inst*
21, nn. I and 2, and authorities there cited.
4 There is, however, a good deal of doubt as to what is meant by
the words collatione codicum in this Edict. See Sohm as in preceding
note, and authorities cited by him.
CODIFICATION]
ROMAN LAW
Collec-
tions of
statutes.
Codifica-
tion.
This constitution has always been regarded as a signal proof of
the lamentable condition into which jurisprudence had sunk in
the beginning of the 5th century. Constantine, a hundred years
earlier, had condemned the notes of Ulpian and Paul upon Papin-
ian. There were no longer any living jurists to lay down the law
(jura condere) ; and, if it was to be gathered from the writings of
those who were dead, it was perhaps as well that the use of them
should be regulated. The Valentinian law proceeded so far in the
same direction. It made a selection of the jurisconsults of the
past whose works alone were to be allowed to be cited, Papinian,
Paul, Ulpian and Modestine, the four latest patented counsel of
any distinction; Gaius, ot authority previously only in the schools,
but whose writings were now approved universally, notwithstand-
ing that he had never possessed the jus rei>pondendi; and all the
earlier jurists whose dicta these five had accepted. But it went yet
a step further, for it declared all of them, with the sole exception of
Papinian, to be ol the same authority, and degraded the function of
the judge in most cases so far at least as a question of law was con-
cerned to the purely arithmetical task of counting up the names
which the industry of the advocates on either side had succeeded in
.adducing in support of these respective contentions. It is probable
that, from the days of Hadrian down to Severus Alexander, when
the emperor in his council had to frame a rescript or a decree, its tenor
would be decided by the vote of the majority; but that was after
argument and counter-argument, which must in many cases have
modified first impressions. Taking the votes of dead men, who had
not heard each other's reasons for their opinions, was a very different
process. It may have been necessary; but it can have been so
only because a living jurisprudence had no existence, because the
constructive talent of the earlier Empire had entirely disappeared.
ii. Ante- Justinian Collections of Statutes and Jurisprudence.
Of cardinal importance for this period were the collections of
imperial constitutions made prior to Justinian. There
were three of these, viz. the Gregorian, the Hermogenian
and the Theodosian Codes ; l the first two being the work of
private hands, though they afterwards received statutory
sanction from Theodosius II., the third being due to that
emperor himself.
Codex Gregorianus. This was a collection of imperial constitutions
from Hadrian to Diocletian, made by a certain Gregorius about the
_ ri endof the 3rd century (a. 295?),who,inMommsen'sopinion 2
Code ' was at t ' lat t ' me a P rolessor at tne ' aw school of Beirut.
Only fragments of it have come down to us, obtained
chiefly from Alaric's Breviary, the Lex Romano. Burgundionum, the
Consultatio, the Collatio and the Vatican Fragments mentioned below ;
but it was a work of considerable size, divided into books and titles.
Codex Hermogenianus.* This, like the Gregorian, was compiled
in the Eastern Empire, apparently at the end of the 3rd century,
Hermo- I 3 "' at any rate n * ' ater t ' lan l ^ e yCar 32 4' ^ S ' nowever '
it contains a constitution of the year 365 there must have
Code been subsequent additions to it. Only fragmentary remains
of it are extant, obtained from the same sources as the
Gregorian. Its author was a certain Hermogenianus (perhaps the
jurist of that name cited in the Digest), and the work seems to have
been intended as a sort of supplement to the Gregorian Code. It
was a smaller work than the latter, being divided only into titles,
and, unlike it, contains no pre-Diocletian constitutions. It has,
however, a great number of contemporary ones, issued by Diocletian
especially during the years 293 and 294. It was from this work
and that of Gregorius that Justinian obtained the constitutions
contained in his Code for the period prior to Constantine, and from
the language he uses about the two Codes it would seem that they
had been regarded in the courts before his time as the only authori-
tative record of constitutions during the period covered by them.
Codex Theodosianus. In the year 429 the emperor Theodosius
nominated a commission of nine persons to collect the constitutions
issued by the emperors from Constantine to his own reign.
From the termspftheedict appointing them heseemstohave
intended to initiate the preparation of a body of law which,
if his scheme had been carried into execution, would have
rendered that of Justinian unnecessary. In a constitution about ten
years later he explains the motives that had actuated him : that he
saw with concern the poverty-stricken state of jurisprudence and how
few men there were who, notwithstanding the prizes that awaited them,
were able to make themselves familiar with the whole range of law;
and that he attributed it very much to the multitude of books and
Theo-
doslfta
Code.
1 Mommsen suggests (Z. d. Sav. Stift., 1889, x. pp. 345 seq.) that
the name codex (meaning a volume) was given to them because,
instead of being written on papyrus rolls, they were originally written
in the form of tabulae publicae and bound together as a parchment
volume. Private collections of Constitutions had been made even
earlier than Gregorian (e.g. by Papirius Justus).
2 Z. d. Sav. Stift. xxii. pp. 139 seq.
3 Mommsen, Z. d. Sav. Stift. (1889), x. pp. 347 seq.; Kipp, Gesch.
d. Quellen, pp. 78-79. The fragments of both this and the Gregorian
Code, edited by Kriiger, are given in the Collectio Juris Antej. by
K. M. and S., vol. iii. pp. 236-245.
the large mass of statutes through which the law was dispersed, and
which it was next to impossible for any ordinary mortal to mast cr.
His scheme was eventually to compile one single code from materials
derived alike from the writings of the jurists, the Gregorian and
Hermogenian collections of rescripts, and the constitutions from
the time of Constantine downwards. His language leaves little
doubt that it was his intention to have this general code carefully
prepared, so as to make it a complete exponent of the existing
law, which should take the place of everything, statutory or juris-
prudential, of an earlier date. The collection of constitutions which
he directed his commissioners meantime to prepare, and which
was to contain even those that were merely of historical interest
(provided only it was made clear how later enactments had affected
them), was to be the first step in the execution of his project. For
some reason or other nothing followed upon this enactment, and in
435 a new commission of sixteen persons was nominated to collect
the constitutions, but nothing was said in their instructions about
anything ulterior. They were directed, however, to deal with their
material in a systematic way, as by arranging the constitutions
chronologically under definite titles, separating, where necessary,
any constitutions dealing with more than one matter into parts,
so as to bring each matter under its proper title, and with power
otherwise to make such omissions, additions and alterations as
seemed good to .them for the same object. The work was completed
in less than three years and published at Constantinople early in the
yeai 438, with the declaration that it should take effect from the
1st of January following, and a copy was sent to Valentinian, who
notified it to the senate at Rome and ordained that it should come
into force in the West from the I2th of January 439. The arrange-
ment is in sixteen books, subdivided into titles with rubrics in
which the constitutions are as a rule (though not consistently)
placed in chronological order. They cover the whole field of law,
private and public, civil and criminal, fiscal and administrative,
military and ecclesiastical. The private law is contained in the
first five books. This code was usually called 4n later documents
" Theodosianus," without codex adjected. All constitutions since
Constantine not contained in it were abrogated. The manuscripts
in which it has come down to us are very defective, but many
lacunae have been filled up from other sources, especially from
Alaric's Breviary. Unfortunately the lacunae are principally in
the books relating to the private law. 4
Novellae Post-Theodosianae. The imperial constitutions subse-
quent to the publication of the Theodosianus got the name of Novels
(novellae leges). There were three collections of these, all _
made in the Western Empire, and they are generally known
as post-Theodosian Novels. The first collection con-
taining edicts of Theodosius himself, sent by him to f, 05 5
Valentinian III. in 447, was published by the latter emperor
in the following year. The second collection contained in addition to
edicts of Theodosius some edicts of Marcian and other emperors of
the East, and also some of Valentinian, Majprian and other emperors
of the West. The third collection was published in abridged form in
Alaric's Breviary. These collections are not extant, but from Alaric's
Breviary, with additions from manuscript sources, modern editions
of the Novels have been prepared. 6 There was also a collection of
constitutions, issued between the years 33 1 and 425, nearly all relating
to church matters, first published; by T. Sirmondus in 1631, and now
known as the Sirmondian Constitutions.*
Besides the collections of statutes just mentioned there were a
number of juristic works of this period, containing both ...
statute law (leges) and common law (jus) in combination, 5 1 ffT'"
made by private individuals. Of these the following,
which have come down to us in a more or less imperfect tto as
condition, are the most important:
The Collatio Legum Mosaicarum el Romanarum'' or, as its title
bears, Lex Dei quam praecipit Dominus ad Moysen is a parallel
of divine and human law, especially in the matter of delicts _ .. ..
and punishments, the former drawn from the Pentateuch,
and the latter from the works of Gaius, Papinian, Paul, Ulpian, and
4 There have been several editions of the Theodosian Code. That
of J. Gothofredus, published after his death in 1652 (ed. with additions
by Ritter in 7 yols., Leipzig, 1736-41), is a work of monumental
learning and still indispensable on account of its commentary.
But the latest and best edition is that of Mommsen, being the last
work from the pen of that great master. It has been published at
Berlin in 1905 under the title, Theodosiani libri xri. cum constitutioni-
bus Sirmondianis et leges novellae ad Theodosianum pertinentes ediderunt
Th. Mommsen et Paulus M. Meyer: I. Theodosiani libri xvi. cum
constitutionibus Sirmondianis edidit, adsumpto apparatu P. Krugeri,
Th. Mommsen (1905).
'These Novels, so far as preserved, have been published as
a second part of Mommsen's edition of the Theodosian Code.
II. Leges ad Theodosianum pertinentes edidit adjutore Th. Mommseno
Paulus M. Meyer (1905).
8 These are contained in the Mommsen-Meyer edition of the
Theodosianus.
7 Collectio Juris Antejustiniani, by Kriiger and Mommsen, iii.
pp. 107 seq. ; Girard, Texles, pp. 543 seq. ; Kriiger, Quellen, pp. 302 seq.
572
ROMAN LAW
[CODIFICATION
Modestine, rescripts from the Gregorian and Hermogenian Codes,
and one later general enactment. Its date is probably soon after
the year 390, but its authorship is unknown. 1
Fragmenta Vaticana.* These fragments, discovered by Cardinal
Angelo Mai in a palimpsest in the Vatican in 1821, seem to have
formed part of a book of practice, compiled in the Western
Vatican Empire and of considerable dimensions. The extant frag-
ments of the Titles into which it was divided deal with
meats - sale, usufruct, dowries, donations, tutories and processional
agency, and have been extracted from the writings of Papinian. Paul
the Ulpian, an unknown work on interdicts, and _the imperial
constitutions prior to Theodosius, the latest of which is of the year
372. Its antiquity is therefore probably about the same as that
of the CdttoMoP
T%e Consultatio. 4 The so-called Veteris cujusdam Jurisconsulti
Consullatio was first published in 1577 by Cujas, from whom it got
its name. It is a collection of answers by an advocate,
Consul- supported by citations of texts (consultationes) upon
tatio - questions of law submitted for his opinion by a solicitor,
and is of value for the extracts it contains from Paul's Sentences
and the three above-mentioned codes. It is thought to have been
written in Gaul in the end of the 5th or beginning of the 6th
Syro-Roman Law-Book.* This was a sort of manual of Roman
law drawn up in the East, apparently in the Greek language, at an
uncertain date, but some time between Theodosius and
Justinian. Translations of it into Syriac, Arabic and
Armenian have come down to us, and it would seem that the
work in these translations was greatly made use of in legal
Book. practice in the East (especially in the ecclesiastical Courts)
for several centuries, having in some places more authority attached
to it than had the Digest and Code of Justinian. As a repertory
of Roman law it is of little value, as it misunderstands or varies
from that law in many respects, but it is of importance as showing
how firmly Hellenic law and customs maintained themselves in the
East during the decay of the Empire. 6
Light has also been thrown upon the ante-Justinian law by the
numerous papyri documents, mostly in Greek, that have been in
recent years recovered in Egypt (especially by Grenfell and Hunt)
and elsewhere. 7 Mitteis, Gradenwitz and others have done much
to elucidate these, by numerous publications. But to give any-
thing like a consecutive account of them would occupy much space
and cannot be attempted here. 8
Romano-Barbarian Codes (Leges Romanae)? Besides the collec-
tions of statutes and juristic law mentioned in this section, there
were several official collections made prior to Justinian
in Western Europe, after it had fallen under the dominion
of Gothic and other kings. There are three of these
which require special notice each of them compiled from
documentary sources of ante- Justinian law. Though of consider-
able use in explicating difficulties and filling up lacunae in the
earlier law sources, they must be used with caution for that purpose,
as they contain not a few corruptions of the original texts. They
are:
i. Edictum Theoderici. 10 This was compiled at the instance of
Theoderic, king of the Ostrogoths, not long after the year 500 (not
later than 515). Theoderic after he had conquered Italy
desired to be representative of the emperor and always
acknowledged his suzerainty. He did not aim at being
an independent legislator, and his Edict is therefore of
limited scope and in no proper sense a code. Its materials were
Codes.
Edict of
Theo-
deric.
1 For opinions as to its author, see Girard, I.e. p. 543. He must
have been an ecclesiastic.
* Collectw Jur. Antej. iii. pp. I seq. (ed. Mommsen); Karlowa,
Rom. R.G. i. pp. 969 seq.; Kriiger, Quellen, pp. 298-302.
3 Mommsen, however (Collectio, iii. p. n), thinks it was compiled
about the time of Constantine.
* Collect. Jur. Antej. iii. pp. 203-20; Girard, Textes, pp. 590
seq. See Kriiger, Quellen, pp. 305-7.
6 Ed. by Bruns and Sachau under the name Syrisch-Romisches
Rechtsbuch aus demfiinften Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1880). See Esmein,
Melanges, pp. 403 seq.; Ferrini, Z. d. Sav. Stift. (1902), xxiii. pp. 101
seq.; Kriiger, Quellen, pp. 320 seq.
* The first volume of a complete collection of the versions of the
Syrian Law-Book, with a translation into German by Sachau, was
published at Berlin in 1907.
'' E.g. the Amherst Papyri, by Grenfell and Hunt. See Archiv
fur Papyrusforschung (since 1900).
8 For an account of the papyri found at Sinai, containing parts
of a commentary on Ulpian, ad_ Sabinum, supposed to have been
written after A.D. 438, s=ee Muirhead, Hist. Introd. p. 374, and
Girard, Textes, p. 578. For other papyri, see Girard, op. cit. pp.
838-44.
9 See Kriiger, Gesch. d. Quellen, 41 ; Brunner, Deutsche Rechts-
gesch. (1887), i. 49, 50.
10 Ed. Bluhme in Pertz's Monumenta Germaniae, Leges, v. pp. 145
seq. (Hanover, 1875); see Savigny, Gesch. d. r. R. ii. pp. 172 seq.;
Gaudenzi in Z. d. Sav. Stift. (Germ. Abtheil.), 1886, vii. pp. 29 seq.
I mainly drawn, without however indication given, from the writings
of Paul, the Gregorian, Hermogenian and Theodosian Codes, and
the post-Theodosian Novels. Divided into 155 chapters, with no
systematic arrangement, it touches upon all branches of the law,
public and private, but especially criminal law and procedure.
Though it contains a certain infusion of Gothic law and was
professedly intended to apply to all Theoderic's subjects, both
Goths and Romans, it seems nevertheless generally admitted
that this idea cannot have been fully realized, and that in
some matters with which it deals, e.g. the law of the family,
Gothic customs must still have continued to prevail for Gothic
subjects.
2 The Lex Romana Wisigothorum or Breviarium Alarici or
Alaricianum u (both of these titles are modern) was a much more
ambitious and important collection than the one last ,
mentioned. It was compiled by a commission of lawyers
appointed by Alaric II.. king of the Western Goths, with
approval of the bishops and nobles, and published at
Aire in Gascony in the year 506. The compilers selected their
material partly from the leges (imperial constitutions after Diocletian)
and partly from the vetus jus (juristic law), taking what they con-
sidered appropriate, without materially altering the text of their
authorities except in the way of excision of passages that were
obsolete or superseded. For the leges they utilized some 400 of the
3400 enactments (according to Haenel's estimate) of the Theodosian
Code and about 30 of the Post-Theodosian Novels; for the jus
they made use of Paul's Sentences, Gaius's Institutes (in a corrupt
and greatly abridged form in two books dating probably from, and
adapted to the law of, the 5th century), the first book of Papinian's
Responses (a single responsum), and the Gregorian and Hermogenian
Collections (which were treated as jus). All of these, except Gains
(for the reason mentioned), were accompanied by interpretations
(i.e. for the most part explanatory adaptations of the passages to
the existing practice) which were largely borrowed from books in
current use for purposes of instruction, and which resemble the
interpretation of the XII. Tables in that they are often not so much
explanatory of the text as qualificative or corrective. The Breviary
exercised great influence in western Europe ; and there is no question
that, until the rise of the Bologna school in the end of the nth
century, it was from it more than from the books of Justinian that
western Europe, other than Italy, acquired its scanty knowledge of
Roman law.
3. The Lex Romana Burgundionum n to which erroneously,
about the 9th century, owing to a mistake of a MS. transcriber,
the name Papianus (a contraction of Papinianus) was _. _
given. It is a collection which King Gundobad, when
publishing his code of native law (Lex Gundobada) for his
native subjects, had promised should be prepared for the
use of his Roman subjects. It was published probably before his
death in 516. It deals with private law, criminal law and pro-
cedure, distributed through forty-seven titles, and is arranged much
in the same order as the Gundobada, from which it has a few extracts.
Its statutory Roman sources are the same as those of the Breviary ;
its juristic sources are Paul's Sentenceo and a work of Gaius of
which we cannot say with certainty that it is his Institutes. It
also contains some inter prelationes of the same character as those
in the Breviary, but whether taken directly from the latter or not is
disputed. _ After the conquest of the Burgundian kingdom by the
Franks this code ceased to have any direct authority, but was used
in the .courts as a sort of supplement to the Breviary, being often
bound in the same volume with the latter.
iii. Justinian's Legislation.
Justinian's Collections and his own Legislation. The history
of Justinian outside his legislative achievements, and his
collections in detail, are dealt with in the article Jas .
JUSTINIAN I. Ambitious to carry out a reform more tiaiaa's
complete even than that which Theodosius had planned codifiut-
but failed to execute, he took the first step towards it tloa '
little more than six months after the death of his uncle Justin,
in the appointment of a commission to prepare a collection of
statute law (leges), among which he included the rescripts of
the Gregorian and Hermogenian Codes, which were commonly
at this period described a& jus. It was published in April 529;
and in rapid succession there followed his Fifty Decisions
"Ed. Haenel (Leipzig, 1849); Conrat (Cohn), Brev. Alaricianum
(1903). This work oi. Cohn is a systematic arrangement of the
Breviary, with the Latin text as given by Haenel, and a translation
into German of the interpretatio (or, where there is none, of the
text itself), and some explanatory notes. See Karlowa, Rom. R.G.
i. pp. 976 seq. ; Kriiger, Quellen, 40.
n Ed. Bluhme in Pertz's Monumenta German. Hist. Leges, iii.
pp. 505 seq. (Hanover, 1863); de Salis Monum. Germ. Leg.
sec. I. and ii. p. i (Hanover, 1892). See Karlowa, Rom. R.G. L
pp. 983-985.
"
CODIFICATION]
ROMAN LAW
573
(529-531), his Institutes 1 (November 21, 533), his Digest of
excerpts from the writings of the jurists (December 16, 533),'
and the revised edition of his Code, in which he incorporated
his own legislation down to date (November 16, 534).' From
that time down to his death in 565 there followed a series of
Novels (novellae constitutiones), mostly in Greek, which were
never officially collected, and of which probably some have
been lost. 4
Taking his enactments in the Code and his Novels together,
we have of Justinian's own legislation not far short of 600
His own constitutions. Diocletian's contributions to the Code
enact- are more than twice as numerous; but most of them
meats. professed to be nothing more than short declaratory
statements of pre-existing law, whereas Justinian's, apart
from his Fifty Decisions, were mostly reformatory enact-
ments, many of those in the Novels as long as an average act of
parliament, and often dealing with diverse matters under the
same rubric. They cover the whole field of law, public and
private, civil and criminal, secular and ecclesiastical. It
cannot be said that they afford pleasant reading: they are
so disfigured by redundancy of language, involved periods and
nauseous self-glorification. But it cannot be denied that many
of those which deal with the private law embody reforms of
great moment and of most salutary tendency. The emperor
sometimes loved to pose as the champion of the simplicity
and even-handedness of the early law, at others to denounce
it for its subtleties; sometimes he allowed himself to be in-
fluenced by his own extreme asceticism, and now and again
we detect traces of subservience to the imperious will of his
consort; but in the main his legislation was dictated by what
he was pleased to call humanilas so far as the law of persons
was concerned, and by naturalis ratio and public utility so far
as concerned that of things. The result was the eradication of
almost every trace of the old jus Quiritium, and the substitution
for it, under the name of jUs Romanum, of that cosmopolitan
body of law which has contributed so largely to almost every
modern system.
Changes in the Law of the Family. With the Christian emperors,
from Constantine downwards, almost the last traces disappeared of
the old conception of the familia as an aggregate of persons
and estate subject absolutely to the power and dominion
of its head. Manus, the power in a husband over his
relations. w jj e an( j ^ belongings, was a thing of the past; both
stood now on a footing of equality before the law; perhaps it might
be more accurate to say, at least with reference to the Justinianian
legislation, that the wife was the more privileged of the two in respect
both of the protection and the indulgence the law accorded her.
With manus the old confarreation and coemption had ceased,
marriage needing nothing more than simple interchange of consent,
except as between persons of rank (illustres) or when the intention
was to legitimate previous issue; in the latter case a written marriage
settlement (instrumentum dotale) was required, and in the former
both such a settlement and a marriage in church before the bishop
and at least three clerical witnesses, who granted and signed a
certificate of the completed union. The legislation of the Christian
emperors on the subject of divorce, largely contributed to by
Justinian in his Novels, has already been referred to. In regard
to the dos, many new provisions were introduced, principally for
curtailing the husband's power of dealing with it while the marriage
lasted, enlarging the right of the wife and her heirs in respect of it,
and simplifying the means of recovering it from the husband or his
1 The best edition is that of Krtiger, which is prefixed to the
stereotype edition of the Corpus Juris by Mommsen, Kriiger and
Schoell, vol. i., and also published separately.
2 The best edition is that of Mommsen, Digesta Justiniani (2 vols.,
Berlin, 1866-70), and also vol. i. of the stereotype edition of the
Corpus Juris mentioned in preceding note. A new and handy
edition, however, based on that of Mommsen, by Bonfante and
several other Italian professors, is now in course of publication.
Books I .-XXVI 1 1. were published up to 10.08 (Milan). A collotype
facsimile of the Florentine MS. of the Digest is also in course of
publication in Italy. Fascicoli I.-VI. have already (1908) appeared
(Rome, 1902-7).
3 The best edition is that of Krtiger, forming vol. ii. of the Corpus
Juris last mentioned.
The best edition is that of Schoell, completed by Kroll in 1895,
and forming vol. iii. of the Corpus Juris last mentioned. It contains
the Greek texts, Latin Vulgate and a Latin translation more correct
than the Vulgate.
heirs when the marriage was dissolved. Between the time of
Constantine and that of Theodosius and Valentinian a new form of
matrimonial settlement became established. It became apparently
a legally sanctioned practice for a man to make (apart from ordinary
marriage presents) a settlement on his intended wife either by actual
transfer or by promise of a provision which was to remain his
property (though without the power of alienation) during the
marriage, but to pass to her on his predecease or on divorce by his
fault. This got the name of donatio ante nuptias, or sometimes, as
being a sort of counterpart for the dos, antipherna. There was
some important legislation about it by the two last-mentioned
emperors; Leo and Justin followed suit; and Justinian, in his
Code and Novels, published five or six enactments for its regulation.
The general result was that, wherever a dos was given or promised on
the part of the wife, there a donatio of equal amount was to be
constituted on the part of the husband; that, if one was increased
during the marriage, a corresponding increase was to be made to
the other; that it might be constituted or increased after the
marriage without infringing the rule prohibiting donations between
husband and wife, which caused Justinian to change its name to
donatio propter nuptias ; that the wife might demand its transfer to
her (to the same extent as she could that of the dos) on her husband's
insolvency, but under obligation to apply its income to the main-
tenance of the family ; and that on the dissolution of the marriage
by her husband's death or by a divorce for which he was in fault,
she had an hypothec and other ample remedies for reducing it into
possession. 6
The change in the complexion of the relations between husband
and wife under the Christian emperors, however, was insignificant
when compared with that which had overtaken the relation between
parent and child. Justinian in his Institutes reproduces ihe boast
of Gaius that nowhere else had a father such power over his children
as was exercised by a Roman paterfamilias. True it is that the
patria potestas in name still held a prominent place in the Justin-
ianian collections; but it had been shorn of most, of the prerogatives
that had characterized it in earlier periods. To expose a newborn
child was forbidden under penalties. To take the life of a grown-
up one unless it was a daughter slain with her paramour in the
act of adultery was murder; for the domestic tribunal, with the
judicial power of life and death in the paterfamilias as its head, had
long disappeared.
Further, a parent could no longer sell his child save only when
the child was an infant and he in such extreme poverty as to be
unable to support it. Even the right to make a noxal surrender
of his son to a party who had suffered from the latter's delict had
silently become obsolete; so greatly had altered sentiment, in
sympathy with legislation, curtailed the power of the paterfamilias
over those in his potestas. This noxae deditio was formally abolished
by Justinian. All that remained of the patria potestas, in short, in the
Justinianian law was little more than would be sanctioned in most
modern systems as natural emanations of the paternal relationship.
Thus he had right of moderate chastisement for offences (for the
infliction of graver punishments he had to apply to the magistrate),
of testamentary nomination of guardians, of pupillary substitution
(enlarged by Justinian), and of withholding consent from the
marriage of a child, but subject in this last case to magisterial
intervention if used unreasonably.
How the right of the paterfamilias over the earnings and acquisi-
tions of his children was modified by the recognition of the peculium
castrense has been shown in a previous page. But the modification
was carried to such an extent "by the Christian emperors as finally
to negative the father's ownership altogether, except as regarded
acquisitions that were the outcome of funds advanced by him to his
child for his separate use (peculium profecticium). Of some of the
child's acquisitions (bona adventicia) his father had, down to the
time of Justinian, the life interest and right of administration;
but by his legislation even these might be excluded at the pleasure
of the parties from whom the acquisitions had been derived or by
maladministration of the father.
By the classical law the father's radical right in his son's peculium
castrense revived on the latter's death; for if he died intestate
the former appropriated it not as his son's heir, but as an owner
whose powers as such had been merely temporarily suspended. But
by one of the chapters in the famous 1 1 8th Novel on the law of
intestate succession even this prerogative of the paterfamilias was
abolished, and all a child's belongings except his peculium pro-
fecticium were recognized as his own in death as well as in life, so that
if any of them should pass to his parent on his intestacy it should
only be by title of inheritance and in the absence of descendants.
In every other branch of the law of the family the same reforming
spirit was manifested. Adoption of filiifamilias was no longer
followed in all cases by a change of family for the adoptee, but only
when either the adopter was in fact one of his ancestors in whose
'See Esmein, Melanges, pp. 58-70; Mitteis, Reichsrecht und
Volksrecht in d. Ostt. Provinz., deals with its history, pp. 256-312.
Though beneficial on the whole, the regulations of Justinian on this
matter seem rather too great an interference with the freedom of
marriage settlements.
574
ROMAN LAW
[CODIFICATION
potestas he had never been, such as a paternal or maternal grand-
father, when there was a natural potestas to underlie and justify
the civil one or when an ancestor gave in adoption a grandchild
who was in his potestas but would not become sui juris by his death.
The mode of strict adoption also was simplified, the old procedure
by sales and manumissions, which degraded the child too much to
the level of a slave, was abolished. The modes of legitimation of
children born of a concubine, especially that by subsequent marriage
of the parents, first introduced by Constantine, were regulated, and
the extent of the rights of the legitimated issue carefully defined.
Emancipation was simplified in a similar way to that of strict
adoption. Tutory at law was opened to the pupil's nearest kinsman,
whether on 'the father's side or the mother's; and the mother
herself, or the child's grandmother, might be allowed, under certain
conditions, to act as its guardian. Slavery was often converted
into the milder condition of colonate; but, even where this did not
happen, the rights of owners were not allowed to be abused ; for
slaves were permitted to claim the protection of the magistrate, and
cruelty by a master might result in his being deprived of his human
property. Kinship that had arisen between two persons when one
or both were slaves (servilis cognatio) was recognized as creative not
only of disabilities but of rights. The modes of manumission were
multiplied, and the restriction of the legislation of the early empire
abolished; and a freedman invariably became a citizen, Junian
Latinity and dediticiancy being no longer recognized.
Amendments on the Law of Property and Obligation. In the law
of property the principal changes of the Christian Empire were the
simplification of the forms of conveyance, the extension
v "' of the colonate, the introduction and regulation of em-
propeny. p),yt eus i s anc j t ne remodelling of the law of prescription.
Simplification of the forms of conveyance was necessary only in the
case of res mancipi, for res nee mancipi had always passed by delivery.
From the Theodosian Code it is apparent that movable res mancipi
usually passed in the same way from very early in the period, and that
for the mancipation of lands and houses for in jure cessio had dis-
appeared with the formular system -a solemnis traditio, i.e. a written
instrument and delivery following thereon, and both before witnesses,
had been gradually substituted. Of this there is no trace in the
Justinianian Code. For Justinian abolished all remains of the dis-
tinction between res mancipi and res nee mancipi, between full
ownership, bonitarian ownership and nudum jus Quiritium, placing
movables and immovables on a footing of perfect equality so far as
their direct conveyance was concerned. But, as regarded the pos-
session required of an acquirer to cure any defect in the conveyance,
he made a marked difference between immovables and movables.
For, amalgamating the old positive usucaption of the jus civile with
the negative " prolonged possession " (longi temporis possessio)
that had been first introduced for immovables in the provinces
(probably by the provincial edict), and afterwards by rescripts of
Caracalla for movables, 1 he declared that possession on a sufficient
title and in good faith should in future make the possessor legal
owner of the thing possessed by him, provided that the possession of
himself and his author had endured uninterruptedly for three years
in the case of a movable, and in the case of an immovable for ten
years if the party against whom he possessed was resident in the
same province, or for twenty if he resided in another one.
The same causes that led to the colonate induced the introduction
of emphyteusis, 2 an institution which had already existed in some
_ . of the Eastern provinces when independent, and which
ieusif came to be utilized first by the emperors, then by the
church, and afterwards by municipalities and private
landowners, for bringing into cultivation the large tracts of provincial
land belonging to them which were unproductive and unprofitable
through want of supervision on the spot. Its nature and conditions
(which bore a certain similarity to the earlier jus in agro vectigali of
the Western Empire, with which it was ultimately fused, and to
hereditary leases sometimes granted in the early Empire) were
carefully defined by Zeno and amended by Justinian. The
emphyteuta, as the grantee of the right was ultimately called, did
not become owner; the granter still remained dominus, all that the
grantee enjoyed being a jus in re aliena, but so extensive as hardly
to be distinguishable from ownership. It conferred upon him and
his heirs a perpetual right in the lands included in the grant, in con-
sideration of a fixed annual payment to the lord (canon) and due
observance of conventional and statutory conditions; but he was
not entitled to abandon it, nor able to free himself of the obligations
he had undertaken, without the lord's consent. The latter was
entitled to hold the grant forfeited if the canon fell into arrear
for three years (in church lands for two), or if the land-tax was in
arrear for the same period, or if the emphyteuta allowed the lands to
deteriorate, or if he attempted to alienate them (alienare meliora-
1 Dig. xliv. 3, 9.
2 See Elia Lattes, Studi storici sopra il Contralto d' Enfiteusi nelle sue
relazioni col Colonato (Turin. 1868), chaps. I and 3; and Francois, De
I'Emphyteose (Paris, 1883); Beaudouin in Nouv. rev. hist. (1898), pp.
545 seq.; Karlowa, Rom. R. C. ii. pp. 1268 seq. The name comes
from the obligation imposed upon the grantees to make plantations
Testa-
mentary
BUKCCS-
tiones as the text says) without observance of statutory requirements.
These were that he should intimate an intended alienation and the
name of the intended alienee to the lord, so that the latter, before
giving his assent, might satisfy himself that he would not be a loser
by the transaction; and, if the alienation was to be by sale, he had
to state the price fixed, so as to give the lord the opportunity of
exercising his statutory right of pre-emption at the same figure. If
those requirements were complied with, and the lord (himself declin-
ing to purchase) stated no reasonable objection to the proposed
alienee, he was not entitled to resist the alienation, provided a
payment (laudemium) was made to him of 2% of the sale price
or of the value of the lands in consideration of his enforced
consent.
The changes in the law of obligation were more superficial than
those in the law of property, and consisted principally obllza-
in the simplification of formalities and in some cases
in their entire abolition. To describe them, however,
would carry us into details which would here be out of place.
Changes in the Law of Succession. The changes made in the
law of succession by Justinian's Christian predecessors, especially
Theodosius II. and Anastasius, were far from insignificant;
but hisown were in somedirections positively revolutionary.
The testament per aes et libram of thejus civile probably
never obtained any firm footing in the East ; for it was only g " oa
by Caracalla's constitution conferring citizenship on all his
free subjects that provincials generally acquired testamenti factio ; and
by that time a testament bearing externally the requisite number of
seals had been recognized as sufficient for a grant of bonorum possessio
unchallengeable by the heirs-at-Iaw, even though they were able to
prove that neither familiae mancipatio nor testamenti nuncupatio
had intervened. Hence thb universal adoption of what Justinian
calls the praetorian testament, which, however, underwent consider-
able reform at the hands of the emperors, notably Theodosius II.
and Valentinian III., in the requirement (in the ordinary case) of
signature by the testator and subscription by the witnesses, thereby
becoming what Justinian calls the tripartite testament. There
was much hesitating legislation on the subject before the law was
finally established as it stands in the Justinianian books; and even
at the last we find it encumbered with many exceptions and reserva-
tions in favour of testaments that were merely deeds of division by
a parent among his children, testaments made in time of plague,
testaments made before a magistrate and recorded in books of court,
testaments entrusted to the safe keeping of the emperor, and so
forth. Codicils had become deeds of such importance as, in the
absence of a testament, to be dealt with as imposing a trust on the
heir-at-law; it was therefore thought expedient to deny effect to
them unless attested by at least five witnesses. And a most im-
portant step in advance was take.n by Justinian in the recognition
of the validity of an oral mortis causa trust; for he declared that, if it
should be represented to a competent judge that a person on his
death-bed had by word of mouth directed his heir to give something
to the complainant, the heir should be required either on his oath
to deny the averment or to give or pay what was claimed.*
In the matter of intestacy there had been long a halting between
two opinions a desire still further to amend the law in the direction
taken by the praetors and by the legislature in the Ter-
tullian and Orphitian senatusconsults, and yet a hesitancy
about breaking altogether from the time-hallowed principle
of agnation. Justinian in his Code went far beyond his
predecessors, making a mother's right of succession independent
altogether of the jus liberorum; extending that of a daughter or
sister to her descendants, without any deduction in favour of ag-
nates thus excluded; admitting emancipated collaterals and their
descendants as freely as if there had been no capitis deminutio
minima; applying to agnates the same successio graduum that the
praetors had allowed to cognates, and so forth. But it was by his
Novels, especially the iiSth and I27th, that he revolutionized
the system, by eradicating agnation altogether (except as regard^
adopted children) and settling the canons of descent which were the
same for real and personal estate solely on the basis of blood
kinship, whether through males or females, and whether crossed or
not by a capitis deminutio. First came descendants of the intestate,
male and female alike, taking per capita if all were of the same
degree, per stirpes if of different degrees. Failing descendants, the
succession passed to the nearest ascendants, and, concurrently with
them, to brothers and sisters of full blood (germani) and (by Nov. 127)
the children of any that had predeceased. Where there were ascend-
ants alone, one-half of the succession went to the paternal line
and one-half to the maternal; where there were ascendants and
brothers and sisters, or only brothers and sisters, the division
was made equally per capita; when children of a deceased brother
or sister participated jt was per stirpes. In the third class came
brothers and sisters of half blood and their children, and grand-
children of brothers and sisters german; the division here was on
the same principle as in the second class. The fourth class included
all other collaterals according to propinquity, apparently to the
remotest degree, and without distinction between full and half blood;
3 Inst. ii. 23, 12.
The
118th
Novel
CODIFICATION]
ROMAN LAW
575
but among those the nearest in degree excluded the more remote,
and when all were of the same degree they took per capita.
A reform effected by Justinian by his 115th Novel ought not to
pass unnoticed; for it rendered superfluous all the old rules about
~. disherison and praeterilion of a testator's children, practi-
115th cally abolished bonorum possessio contra tabulas as regards
Novel. freeborn persons and established the principle that a child
had, as a general rule, an inherent and indefeasible right
to be one of his father's heirs in a certain share at all events of his
succession, and that a parent had the same right in the succession
of his child if the latter had died without issue. The enactment
enumerated certain grounds upon which alone it should be lawful
for a parent to disinherit his child or a child his parent, declaring
that in every case of disherison the reason of it should be stated in
the testament, but giving leave to the person disinherited to dispute
and disprove the facts when the testament was opened. If a child
who had not been disinherited and one improperly disinherited
was eventually in the same position was not instituted to some
share, however small, of his parent's hereditas, he was entitled to
have the testament declared null in so far as the institutions in
it were concerned, thus opening the succession to himself and the
other heirs-at-law, but without affecting accessory provisions, such
as bequests, nominations of tutors, &c.; and if the share to which
he was instituted was less than his legitim (legitima or debita porlio)
he was entitled to an action in supplement. The legitim, which
under the practice of the centumviral court had been one-fourth
of the share to which the child would have been entitled ab intestate,
had been raised by Justinian (by Novel 18) to one-third at least,
and one-half where there were five or more entitled to participate.
He did not allow challenge of the will to be excluded, as in the
earlier querela inofficiosi testamenti, because the testator had made
advances to his child during his life or left him a legacy which
quantitatively equalled the legitim; his idea was that a child was
entitled to recognition by his parent 05 one of his heirs, and that to
deny him that position without statutory grounds was to put upon
him an indignity which the law would not permit.
Amongst the other beneficial changes effected by Justinian may
be mentioned the assimilation so far as possible of heredilas and
Othe bonorum possessio, so that the latter might be taken like
the former without formal petition for a grant of it; the
equiparation of legacies and singular trust-gifts, and
the application of some of their rules to mortis causa donations; the
extension of the principle of " transmission " to every heir without
exception, so that, if he died within the time allowed him for con-
sidering whether or not he would accept (tempus deliberandi) , his
power of acceptance or declinature passed to his heirs, to be exercised
by them within what remained of the period ; the introduction of
entry under inventory (cum beneficio imientarii) , which limited the
heir's responsibilities and rendered unnecessary the nine or twelve
months of deliberation; and the application of the principle of
collation to descendants generally, so that they were bound to throw
into the mass of the succession before its partition every advance
they had received from their parent in anticipation of their shares.
iv. The Justinianian Law-Books.
Their Use in the Courts and in the Schools. Although the Institutes
were primarily intended to serve as a text-book in the schools,
it was expressly declared that it and the Digest and the
Code should be regarded as just so many parts of one great
piece of legislation and all of equal authority; and that,
although Digest and Code were but collections of common
law and legislation that had proceeded originally from many
different hands, yet they were to be treated with the same respect
as if they had been the work of Justinian himself. But, while
everything within them was to be held as law, nothing outside them
was to be looked at, not even the volumes from which they had been
collected; and so far did this go that, after the publication in 534
of the revised Code, neither the first edition of it nor the Fifty
Decisions were allowed to be referred to. If a case arose for which
no precedent was to be found, the emperor was to be resorted to for
his decision, as being outside his collections the only fountain of the
law. To preserve the purity of the texts Justinian forbade the use
of conventional abbreviations (sigla) in making transcripts, visiting
an offender with the penalties of falsification (crimen falsi). Literal
translations into Greek were authorized, and indeed were necessary
for many of his subjects; so were indexes and TropaTirXa, i.e.
summaries of parallel passages, texts or individual titles. Com-
mentaries and general summaries were forbidden under heavy
penalties, as an interference with the imperial prerogative of inter-
pretation. 1 But these prohibitions do not seem to have been
enforced, as we have accounts and remains not only of translations
but of commentaries, notes, abridgments, excerpts and general
summaries even in Justinian's lifetime. These, it is true, were
mostly by professors (antecessores), and their productions may have
been intended primarily for educational purposes; but they soon
passed into the hands of the practitioners and were used without
scruple in the courts. A Greek Paraphrase of the Institutes, usually
Justin*
laalan
law-
books.
'Const. Deo Auctore, 12; Tanta, 21.
attributed to Thepphilus, a professor in Constantinople and one of
Justinian's commissioners, has been supposed to have been used
by him in his prelections. It embodies much more historical
matter than is to be found in the Institutes; but it contains a good
many inaccuracies and its value has been very differently rated by
different critics. Its latest editor, Ferrini, who puts a high estimate
on it, is of opinion that the original of it was a reproduction in Greek
of Gaius, drawn up at Beirut, which was remodelled after the plan
of Justinian's Institutes, and had the new matter of this latter work
subsequently incorporated in order to adapt it to the altered con-
ditions; but he denies that there is any sufficient authority for
ascribing it to Theophilus. If he be right in assuming that it was
really based on a redaction of Gaius, its historical explanations will
be received with all the more confidence. 2
Fate of the Justinianian Books in the East. The literary work
indicated in the preceding section was continued throughout the 6th
century. But the next three were comparatively barren, _.. t
the only thing worth noting being the 'ExXo-yi) ruv vbfiuv ii> *
avvroiuf ttvonivii of Leo the Isaurian in 740. professedly
an abstract of the whole Justinianian law amended and
rearranged; but it was repealed by Basil the Macedonian on
account of its imperfections and its audacious departure from the
law it pretended to summarize. The last-named emperor, followed
by his son Leo the Philosopher, set themselves in the end of the gth
and beginning of the loth centuries to the production of an authori-
tative Greek version of the whole of the Justinianian collections
and legislation, omitting what had since become obsolete, excising
redundancies, and introducing such of the post-Justinianian legisla-
tion as they thought merited preservation. The result was^the
Basilica (fa BaaiXuco.sc. vd/tifia), which was completed and published
in the reign of Leo, though begun in the reign of Basil, who also
published a sort of institutional work, entitled np&xfipov, which was
revised and republished by Leo under the name ot'Enavaytayfi rov v&pov.
The Basilica 3 consists of sixty books, subdivided into titles, following
generally the plan of the Justinianian Code, but with the whole law
on any particular subject arranged consecutively, whether from
Institutes, Digest, Code or Novels (see article BASILICA). Leo's son,
Constantinus Porphyrogenitus, made an addition to it in the shape
of an official commentary collected from the writings of the 6th-
century jurists, the so-called Uapaypcupal rSiv xa.\tuC>v, which is
now spoken of as the scholia to the Basilica, and has done good
exegetical service for modern civilians. Later annotations by
jurists of the loth to the I2th century are also called scholia but are
of less value. The Basilica retained its statutory authority until
the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453. But long before that
it had fallen into neglect in practice; and though nearly the whole
of it and a great part of its scholia have come to us, yet not a single
complete copy of it exists. Its place was taken by epitomes
and compendia, the last being the 'EiA/Si/SXoj of Constantinus
Harmenopoulos about 1345, " a miserable epitome of the epitomes
of epitomes," as Bruns calls it, which survived the vicissitudes of
the centuries, and finally received statutory authority in the modern
kingdom of Greece in the year 1835, in place of the Basilica, which
had been sanctioned thirteen years before, in 1822.*
Their Fate in the West. Before the rise of the Bologna school it
was to a much greater extent from the Romano- Barbarian codes than
from the books of J ustinian that central and western Europe, f hetr
apart from Italy, derived their acquaintance with Roman f f la
law. Theoderic's Edict can have had little influence after <Ae Wetti
Justinian's recovery of Italy, and the Romano-Burgundian
law was no doubt gradually displaced by Alaric's Breviary after
Burgundy had fallen into the hands of the Franks; but the Breviary
itself found its way in all directions in France and Germany, pene-
trating even into England, mainly through the agency of the church.
There must, however, have been other repertories of Roman law in
circulation (and among others probably either Gaius's Commen-
taries or Ulpian's Rules), as witness a testament made in Paris in
the end of the 7th century, mentioned by Savigny as preserved by
Mabillon, in which the testator uses the old formula of the jus civile,
" ita do, ita lego, ita tester, ita vos Quirites testimonium mihi per-
hibetote," words that are not to be found either in the Visigothic or
the Justinianian collections. We know that in his pragmatic sanction
of the year 554, Justinian anew accorded his imperial sanction to
the jura and leges, i.e. the Digest and Code, which he says he had
long before transmitted to Italy, at the same time declaring that his
Novels were to be of the same authority there as in the East. Two
years after this came Julian's Latin epitome of the Novels (a private
work by a Constantinopolitan professor), not improbably prepared by
command of the emperor himself. That Justinian's works soon came
1 Editions by Reitz, 1751, and Ferrini, 1884-97.
s Ed. Heimbach, 6 yols. with Latin translation (and in 1846 a
supplement by Zachariae a Lineenthal), Leipzig, 1833-70. A new
supplement forming vol. 7, by Ferrini and Mercati, was published
in 1897.
4 For the history of Byzantine law subsequent to Justinian, see
Zachariae, Geschichte des Griechisch.-Rom. Rechts (3rd ed., 1892), and
Hisloria juris Graeeo-Romani (1839); Mortreuil, Histoire du droit
byzantin (3 vols., 1843-46).
ROMANOS
to some extent into use in Italy is beyond question; for there is pre-
served in Marini's collection the testament of one Mannanes, executed
at Ravenna in the reign of Justinian's immediate successor Justin II.,
in which the requirements of both Code and Novels are scrupu-
lously observed. Of other monuments of the same period that
prove their currency in Italy several are referred to by Savigny
in the second volume of his History of the Roman Law in the Middle
Ages, among which may be mentioned the Turin gloss of the
Institutes, which Fitting ascribes to about the year 545,' and two
little pieces known as the Dictatum de consiliariis and the Cottectio
de tuloribus.* The invasion of the Lombards, the disturbance they
caused in Italy for two centuries, and the barrier they formed
between it and the rest of Europe militated against the spread of
the Justinianian law northwards; but it was taught (from the 6th
to the nth century) without much interruption at law schools in
Rome, and also at Ravenna, the seat of the exarchs, to which (but
this is doubtful) the school (studium) of Rome, revived by Justinian,
is said to have been transferred in the nth century. By the
Lombards, as their savagery toned down, the Roman law was so
far recognized that they allowed it to be applied to the Romans living
within their territory, and it is said even to have been taught in
Pavia, which they had established as their capital. Their overthrow
by Charlemagne opened an outlet for it beyond Italy; and there is
evidence that in the gth century Justinian's works, or some of them,
were already circulating in the hands of the clergy in various parts
of Europe. Yet there are few remains of any literature of this
period indicating much acquaintance with them. The only writings
worth mentioning are the so-called Summa Perusina, an abridgment
of the first eight books of the Code, ascribed to the 7th century;
the Lombardic Quaestiones ac Manila containing observations on the
Germanic and Roman laws with texts drawn from the Institutes,
the Digest, the Code and Julian's Epitome, and supposed to have
been written early in the nth century; the so-called Brachylogus, 3
in large part a sort of abbreviated revision of Justinian's Institutes,
but with references also to his other books, which Fitting and
others hold to have been written in France (perhaps Orleans),
possibly by a pupil of Irnerius, about the very beginning of the
1 2th century; and the Pelri Exceptiones legum Romanorum, a
similar systematic exposition of the law in four books, probably
written in the nth century earlier than Irnerius's Summa. Both
the Brachylogus and the Petrus were mainly compiled from pure
Justinianian sources.
Apart from these remains a word may here be said about the
work of the glossarists. 4 It was at the very end of the nth century
that at the law school of Bologna, then under the guidance
of the celebrated Irnerius, the study of Roman law began
somewhat suddenly to attract students from all parts of
Europe. Partly through ignorance and partly through the
action of the clergy, the parts of the Justinianian legislation that had
hitherto been in ordinary use were the Institutes, the Code and the
Novels. The first, from its elementary character, had naturally
commended itself; the Code and the Novels, with their abundant
legislation on matters ecclesiastical, were in many respects charters
of the church's privileges, and were prized accordingly; but the
Digest, as being the work of pagan jurists, had been looked on askance
and practically little used. The Code and the Novels, however,
with their modicum of wheat concealed in a great quantity of
chaff, offered little attraction to laymen of intelligence; and,
when under the guidance of Irnerius their attention was first con-
centrated on the Digest, it must have come to them as a sort of
revelation. Dogmatic and exegetic teaching of the Corpus Juris
in all its parts was actively begun, and a new school arose called the
glossarists (glossatores) , of whom Irnerius has always been rightly
regarded as the founder. This great man, who is said to have
been trained both in logic and rhetoric and to have afterwards
studied and taught law at Rome before coming to Bologna, was more
than a glossatpr. He was also the first of the medievalists to treat
the law in a scientific way. In his Summa Codicis (a work attributed
to him by Fitting on evidence which seems almost conclusive) he
produced for his contemporaries and successors an independently
planned and so far systematic manual of the subject-matter of the
Code, omitting the last three books. 6 The subject was treated in
full relation to the other parts of the Corpus Juris, but follows in
general the titles of the Code. The glossators got their name from
the glossae, i.e. marginal and interlinear annotations (both gram-
matical and doctrinal) with which they furnished the texts of the
1 Fitting, Vber die sogenannte Twiner Institutionen-glosse (Halle,
1870); cf. Conrat, Gesch. d. Quellen u. Lilt. d. rom. R. im friiheren
Miltelaller, vol. i. pp. 180 seq., Leipzig, 1891.
2 Conrat ut sup. pp. 137-140.
3 Brachylogus totius juris civilis is a fuller title given to it. It
has also been called Corpus legum. It first got the name Brachylogus
in the l6th century.
4 Savigny, Geschichte d. r. R. vpls. 3-5.
6 See Summa Codicis of Irnerius by Fitting (Berlin, 1894). Two
other works attributed to Irnerius, called respectively Quaestiones
de SuUilitatibus Juris and a treatise De Aequitate, have been edited
by the same author. See also Fitting, Z. d. Sav. Stift. xvi. pp. I sefl.
Corpus Juris which were in their hands. They also wrote summae,
casus, brocarda, &c., for use both in the courts and the schools,
and occasionally special treatises. They confined their work
entirely to the Corpus Juris, being almost wholly ignorant of the
history of the law. Beginning with Irnerius, the school lasted for
about a century and a half, and ended with Franciscus Accursius,
who died in 1260 after having made a systematic but summarized
collection of the glosses of his predecessors, which was afterwards
known as the Glossa Ordinaria or " The Great Gloss." Among the
more famous representatives of the school (other than Irnerius)
were, in the 1 2th century, Bulgarus, Martinus, Jacobus and Hugo,
known as the quatluor doctores, and Accursius himself. To these
may be added Placentinus and Vacarius of the I2th and Azo
and Odofredus of the 1 3th century. The Digest, as used by the
glossarists, was divided into three parts, known as Digestum Vetus
(books 1-24, tit. 2), Infortiatum (books 24, tit. 3-38), and Digestum
Novum (books 39 to the end). The manuscripts of these, as used
by the glossarists, are called the Vulgate (lectio Vulgate), to distinguish
them from the Florentine Manuscript (lectio Pisana), on which,
indeed (or on the same original source as it), they were probably all
primarily based, but from which, as far at least as book 33, they
varied in numerous readings. The historical explanation of the
cause of this just-mentioned threefold division is given by Mommsen
in the preface to his larger edition of the Digest, to which it will be
sufficient to refer. 6 The whole Corpus Juris was by the glossarists
distributed into five volumes, viz. the three just named; a fourth,
containing the first nine books of the Code; and the fifth, called volu-
men parvum legum, containing the Institutes; 134 of the Novels
in Latin (known as the A uthenticum ') ; and the last three books of
the Code.
The success of the Accursian gloss was rather detrimental to
scientific development of the law. It became a sort of code in
itself which both in the schools and the courts tended to supersede
the texts of Justinian. The intelligent study of the Sources was
neglected while lawyers devoted themselves to subtle distinctions
and useless divisions of subject-matter. It led to the application
during the I4th and I5th centuries of the methods of scholasticism
to the Roman law. The authors of this scholastic jurisprudence,
which prevailed during the greater part of these centuries, have
been called post-glossators and scribentes or commentators. Their
most noted representative was Bartolus (1314-1357), after whom
they were often called Bartolists. This school, however (mainly
Italian), did much towards developing a definite system of common
law in Italy based on the Roman, and thereby facilitated the
reception of Roman law in Germany and other countries. 8
In the i6th century a new start or, so to say, second renaissance
was given to the Roman law. The study of classical antiquities,
so active on the side of literature, extended to jurisprudence also.
The juridical writings which had been handed down from the
Romans ceased to be regarded purely as positive law, binding accord-
ing to the letter, but as a part of ancient tradition whose spirit as
well as form must be examined by the light of the past. Among
the pioneers in this new method, to whom the name of Humanists
has been given, must be specially mentioned Alciatus (1492-1540),
Cujacius (1522-1590) and Donellus (1527-1591). Medievalism has
passed away, and with these jurists began what has been called the
modern Roman law, to describe which, however, is entirely beyond
the province of this article. (H. Go.)
ROMANOS, called 6 ;ueXa>36j, Greek hymn-writer, " the
Pindar of rhythmic poetry," was born at Emesa (Horns) in
Syria. From the scanty notices of his life we learn that he
resided in Constantinople during the reign of the emperor
Anastasius. 9 Having officiated as a deacon in the church of
the Resurrection at Berytus, he removed to Constantinople,
where he was attached to the churches of Blachernae and
Cyrus. According to the legend, when he was asleep in the
last-named church, the Virgin appeared to him and commanded
him to eat a scroll. On awaking (it was Christmas Day), he
immediately mounted the pulpit, and gave forth his famous
hymn on the Nativity. Romanos is said to have composed
more than 1000 similar hymns or co-ntakia (Gr. KOVTCLKIOV,
" scroll ") celebrating the festivals of the ecclesiastical year,
the lives of the saints and other sacred subjects on the death
of a monk (extremely impressive); the last judgment; the
treachery of Judas; the martyrdom of St Stephen; Simeon
'Digesla Justiniani Augusli, recognovit Th. Mommsen (Berlin,
1870). ,.
7 Or liber authenticorum. So called because it contained a more
complete collection and correcter translation of the Greek Novels
than the Epitome of Julian. It was the one used in the law courts
in the middle ages.
8 See Sohm, Institutionen, 27, and authorities there cited.
On the question whether Anastasius I. (491-518) or II. (713-716)
is meant, see Krumbacher, who is in favour of the earlier date.
ROMANOV ROMAN RELIGION
577
Stylites; paschal and pentecostal hymns. The MS. of the
hymns, written by his own hand, was said to have been preserved
in the church of Cyrus, in which he was buried and celebrated
as a saint on the ist of October. Prof. C. Krumbacher, who
has edited the works of Romanes from the best (the
Patmos) MSS., regards him as the greatest poet of the
Byzantine age, and perhaps the greatest ecclesiastical poet
of any age.
Editions: J. B. Pitra, Analecta Sacra, i. (1876), containing
29 poems, and Sanctus Romanus Veterum Melodorum Princeps
(1888), with three additional hymns from the monastery of St John
in Patmos. See also Pitra's Hymnographie de l'glise grecque (1867) ;
C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Lilteratur (1897);
and HYMNS.
ROMANOV, the name of the Russian imperial dynasty,
regnant in the male line from 1613 to 1730, and thenceforward
in the female line. The Romanovs descended from Andrei,
surnamed Kobyla, who is said to have come to Moscow from
1 Prussia about 1341 to enter the service of the grand-duke
Semen (d. 1353). His son Feodor, surnamed Koschka, was
the ancestor of the families of Suchovo-Kobylin, Kalytschev
and Scheremetjev, as well as of the Romanovs. Feodor's
grandson, Sakhariya Ivanovich, was a boyar of Vasilii V.,
grand-duke of Moscow at intervals between 1425 and 1462,
and the family took its name from his grandson Roman, whose
daughter Anastasia Romanovna married the tsar Ivan the
Terrible. Her brother Nikita Romanovich married the princess
Eudoxia Alexandrovna, a descendant of Andrei Jaroslavovich,
grand-duke of Susdal- Vladimir (d. 1264), and in this way the
Romanovs were linked up with the ancient royal house of
Rurik. The Romanovs suffered heavily in the disorders follow-
ing on the death of Ivan. Some were executed and others
exiled. Nikita's son Feodor (the archimandrite Philaret)
was banished, but was recalled by the false Demetrius. In
1610 he was imprisoned by the king of Poland, but his piety
and virtues led to the election of his son, Mikhail Feodorovich
Romanov, to the throne of the tsars in 1613. Philaret became
patriarch of Moscow in 1619, and supported his son's govern-
ment until his death in 1634. Mikhail was seventeen when he
began his reign, and died in 1645. He was succeeded by his
son Alexis, whose three sons, Feodor III., Ivan II. and Peter I.
(the Great), inherited the throne. After the two years' reign of
Peter's widow, Ekaterina Aleksievna Skavronska (Catherine I.),
his grandson, Peter Aleksievich (Peter II.), succeeded. He
died in 1730, and the succession devolved on the family of
Ivan II., on his daughter Anna (1730-40) and his great-grand-
son Ivan III., and in 1741 on Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the
Great. Peter's elder daughter, Anna, had married Charles
Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp, and with the accession of her
son, Peter III., in 1762 begins the present reigning dynasty of
Holstein-Gottorp or Oldenburg-Romanov.
See R. Nisbet Bain, The First Romanovs (1905) ; P. V. Dolgoru-
kov, Notice sur les principales families de la Russie (2nd ed., Berlin,
1858).
ROMAN RELIGION. In tracing the history of the religion
of the Roman people we are not, as in the case of Greece, dealing
with separate, though interacting, developments in a number
of independent communities, but with a single community
which won its way to the headship first of Latium, then of Italy
and finally of a European empire. But this very fact of its
ever-extending influence, coupled with an absence of dogmatism
in belief, which made it at all times ready and even anxious to
adopt foreign customs and ideas, gave its religion a constantly
shifting and broadening character, so that it is difficult to
determine the original essentials. By the time when Latin
literature begins, the genuine Roman religion had already
been overlaid by foreign cults and modes of thought, by the
classical period it was except in formal observance practically
buried and to a large extent fossilized. But the comparative
study of religions has suggested the lines of reconstitution
and the careful analysis of survivals embedded in literature
and the evidence of monumental remains, and in particular
xxni. 19
of the old calendars, has enabled modern scholars to make good
progress in the task of separating the elements due to different
periods and influences.
The Roman people were of Aryan stock, a section of a host
of invaders from the north, who overran and settled in the Italian
peninsula. They preserved traces of their original nationality
not merely in the general cast of their religious thought, but
in certain common features such as the worship of the hearth
(Vesta) and of the sky-divinity (Jupiter) (see GREEK RELIGION).
But the development of their religion was arrested at an earlier
stage than that of the Greeks: with them at any rate in the
genuine Roman period Animism never passed into Anthropo-
morphism; they stopped at the conception of the " spirit "
without reaching that of the " god." Their belief might be
described as a polydemonism rather than a polytheism, or
more correctly, to avoid altogether the intrusion of foreign
notions, as a " multinuminism."
In the cult and ritual of Rome there are enshrined many sur-
vivals from a very early form of religious thought prior to the de-
velopment of the characteristic Roman attitude of mind. p e usb-
Fetishism the belief in the magic or divine power of
inanimate objects is seen in the cult of stones, such as
the silex of Jupiter (luppiter), which plays a prominent part
in the ceremonial of treaty-making, and the lapis used in the
ritual of the aquaelicium, a process, probably magic in origin,
designed to produce rain after a long drought. The boundary-
stones between properties (termini) were also the objects of cult
at the annual festival of the Terminalia, and the " god Terminus,"
the symbolic boundary-stone, shares with Jupiter the great
temple on the Capitol. Tree-worship (q.v.) again is a constantly
recurring feature, seen, for instance, in the permanently sacred
character of the ficus Ruminalis and the caprificus of the
Campus Martius, and above all in the oak of luppiter Ferelrius,
on which the spolia opima were hung after a victory. Nor did
Roman fetishism stop short at natural objects. The household
was always the centre of religious cult, and certain objects
in the house the door, the hearth, the store-cupboard (penus)
seem always to have had a sacred significance, and so became
the objects and later the sites of the domestic worship. Of the
cult of animals there is just sufficient trace to show that it must
formerly have had its place in religious rite; the animals, once
the objects of worship, appear in later times as the attributes
of divinities, for instance, the sacred wolf and woodpecker of
Mars.
But Fetishism must very early have developed into Animism,
the feeling of the sacredness of the object into the sense of an
indwelling spirit. In the animistic attitude we have in-
deed the true background of the genuine Roman religion ;
but its characteristic and peculiar development is a kind
of " higher Animism," which can associate the " spirit " not
merely with visible and tangible objects, but with states and
actions in the life of the individual and the community. No
doubt the later indigitamenta (" bidding-prayers ") which give
us detailed lists of the spirits which preside over the various
actions of the infant, or the stages in the marriage ceremony,
or the agricultural operations of the farmer, are due in a large
measure to deliberate pontifical elaboration, but they are a
true indication of the Roman attitude of mind, which reveals
itself continually in the analysis of the cults of the household
or the festivals of the agricultural year.
The " powers " (numina, not de'i), which thus become the objects
of worship, are spirits specialized in function and limited in sphere.
They are not conceived of in any anthropomorphic form, their sex
even may often be indeterminate (" sive mas, sive femina " is the
constantly recurring formula of prayer), but the sphere of action
of each is clearly marked and an appeal to a spirit outside his own
special sphere would never even be thought of. Locality thus
becomes an important point in the conception of the numen: the
household spirits must be worshipped at the door, the hearth, the
store-cupboard, and the external spirits of the fields and countryside
have their sacred hill-tops or groves. But the numen has no form
of sensuous representation, nor does he need a house to dwell in:
statue and temple are alien to the spirit of Roman religion. Nor
are the numina. not beinjt anthropomorphic, capable of relation
ROMAN RELIGION
to one another: hence there is no Roman mythology. Yet, all-
powerful in their individual spheres of action, they can influence the
fortunes of men and can enter into relations with them. The
primary attitude of man to the numina seems clearly to be one
of fear, which survives prominently in the " impish " character of
certain of the spirits of the countryside, such as Faunus and Inuus,
and is always seen in the underlying conception of religio, a sense of
awe in the presence of a superhuman power. But the practical
mind of the Roman gives this relation a legal turn: the ius sacrum,
which regulates the dealings of men with the divine powers, is an
inseparable part of ius publicum, the body of civil law, and the
various acts of worship, prayer and thanksgiving are conceived of
under the legal aspect of a contract. The base-notion is that the
spirits, if they are given their due, will make a return to man : the
object of the recurring annual festivals is to propitiate them and
forestall any hostile intention by putting them, as it were, in debt to
man more rarely to express gratitude tor benefits received.
In such a religion exactness of ritual must play a large
part so large, indeed, that many modern critics have been
Ritual misled into regarding the Roman religion as a mere
network of formalities without any background of
genuine religious feeling. This formalism shows itself in many
ways. It is necessary in the first place to make quite certain
that the right deity is being addressed: hence it is well to
invoke all the spirits who might be concerned, and even to add
a general formula to cover omissions: here we have the ritual
significance of the indigitamenla. Place, again, as we have
seen, was an essential element even in the conception of the
nunten, and is therefore all-important in ritual. So, too, is the
character of the offering: male victims must be sacrificed to
male deities; female victims to goddesses: white animals
are the due of the di superi, the gods of the upper world, black
animals of the gods below. Special deities, moreover, will
demand special victims, while the more rustic numina, such as
Pales (q.v.), should be given milk and millet cakes rather than
a blood-offering. All-important, too, is the order of ceremonial
and the formula of prayer: a mistake or omission or an unpro-
pitious interruption may vitiate the whole ritual, and though
such misfortunes may occasionally be expiated by the addi-
tional offering of a piaculum, in more serious cases the whole
ceremony must be recommenced ab inilio. Herein lies the
importance of the priesthood: the priest is not, as in other
religions, the mediator between god and man, but on the one
hand for the purpose of state-worship the chosen representative
of the whole people, on the other the repository of tradition
and ritual lore.
This conception of the nature of the numina and man's
relation to them is the root notion of the old Roman religion,
House- and the fully-formed state cult of the di indigetes even
bold at the earliest historical period, must have been the
worship. resu i t O f i on g an( j g ra dual development, of which we
can to a certain extent trace the stages. The original settle-
ment on the Palatine, like its neighbour on the Quirinal, was
an agricultural community, whose unit both from the legal
and religious point of view was not the individual but the house-
hold. The household is thus at once the logical starting-point
of religious cult, and throughout Roman history the centre of
its most real and vital activity. The head of the house (pater-
familias) is the natural priest and has control of the domestic
worship: he is assisted by his sons as acolytes (camilli) and
deputes certain portions of the ritual to his wife and daughters
and even to his bailiff (vilicus) and his bailiff's wife. The
worship centres round certain numina, the spirits indwelling
in the sacred places of the original round hut in which the
family lived. Janus, the god of the door, comes undoubtedly
first, though unfortunately we know but little of his worship
in the household, except that it was the concern of the men.
To the women is committed the worship of the " blazing hearth,"
Vesta, the natural centre of the family life, and it is noticeable
that even to Ovid (Fast. vi. 291-92) the conception of Vesta
was still material and not anthropomorphic. The Penates
(q.v.) were the numina of the store-cupboard, at first vague
and animistic, but later on, as the definite deus-notion was
developed, identified with certain of the other divinities of
household or state religion.
To these numina of the sacred places must be added two other
important conceptions, that of the Lar familiaris and the Genius.
The Lar familiaris has been regarded 1 as the embodiment ,
of all the family dead and his cult as a consummation of G *7*
ancestor-worship, but a more probable explanation regards
him as one of the Lares (q.v.; numina of the fields worshipped at the
compita, the places where properties marched) who had special
charge of the house or possibly of the household servants (familia) ;
for it is significant that his worship was committed to the charge
of the vilica. The Genius is originally the " spirit of developed
manhood," the numen which is attached to every man and represents
the sum total of his powers and faculties as the Juno does of the
woman: each individual worships his own Genius on his birthday,
but the household-cult is concerned with the Genius of the pater-
familias. The established worship of the household then repre-
sents the various members of the family and the central points
of the domestic activity; but we find also in the ordinary
religious life of the family a more direct connexion with morality
and a greater religious sense than in any other part of the
Roman cult. The family meal is sanctified by the offering of a
portion of the food to the household numina: the chief events
in the individual life, birth, infancy, puberty, marriage, are all
marked by religious ceremonial, in some cases of a distinctively-
primitive character. The dead, too, though it is doubtful whether
in early times they were actually worshipped, at any rate have
a religious commemoration as in some sense still members of the
family.
The next stage in the logical development of the state
religion should naturally be found in the worship of the gens,
the aggregate of households belonging to one clan, Agri-
but our information about the gentile worship is so cultural
scanty and uncertain 2 that we cannot make practical worship.
use of it. It is more profitable to turn from the life of the
household to the outdoor occupations of the fields, where
the early Roman settler met with his neighbours to celebrate the
various stages of the agricultural year in religious ceremonies
which afterwards became the festivals of the state calendar.
Here we have a series of celebrations representing the occupa-
tions of the successive seasons, addressed sometimes to numina
who developed later on into the great gods of the state, such
as Jupiter, Mars or Ceres, sometimes to vaguer divinities who
remained always indefinite and rustic in character, such as
Pales and Census. Sometimes again, as in the case of the
Lupercalia (q.v.), the attribution is so indefinite that it is hard
to discover who was the special deity concerned; in other
cases, such as those of the Robigalia and the Meditrinalia,
the festival seems at first to have been addressed generally
to any interested numina and only later to have developed an
eponymous deity of its own. Roughly we may distinguish
three main divisions of the calendar year, the festivals of Spring,
of the Harvest and of Winter, preserving on the whole their
peculiar characteristics, (i) In the Spring (it must be remem-
bered that the old Roman calendar began the year with March)
we have ceremonials of anticipation and prayer for the crops
to come: prominent among them are the Fordicidia, with its
symbolic slaughter of pregnant cows, addressed to Tellus, the
Cerealia, a prayer-service to Ceres for the corn-crop, and the
most important of the rustic celebrations of lustration and
propitiation, the Parttia, the festival of Pales. To these
must be added the Ambanialia (q.v.), the lustration of the
fields, a movable feast (and therefore not found in the calendars)
addressed at first to Mars in his original agricultural character
(see MARS). (2) Of the Harvest festivals the most significant
are the twin celebrations on August 2ist and 2$th to the divinity-
pair Census and Ops, who are both concerned with the storing
of the year's produce, and two mysterious vintage festivals,
the Vinalia Rustica and the Medilrinalia, connected origin-
ally with Jupiter. (3) The Winter festivals are less homo-
geneous in character, but we may distinguish among
them certain undoubtedly agricultural celebrations, the
Saturnalia (at first connected with the sowing of the next
year's crop, but afterwards overlaid with Greek ceremonial),
and a curious repetition of the harvest festivals to Census
and Ops.
1 e.g. by De March!.
2 See, however, De Marchi, // Culto Privato di Roma Antica,
vol. ii.
ROMAN RELIGION
579
State
religion,
In passing to the religion of the state we are clearly entering
on a later period and a more developed form of society. The
loose aggregation of agricultural households gives place
to the organized community with new needs and new
ideals, and at the same time in religious thought the
old vague notion of the numen is almost universally superseded
by the more definite conception of the deus not even now
quite anthropomorphic, but with a much more clearly realized
personality. We find then two prominent notes of the state
influence, firstly, the adaptation of the old ideas of the house-
hold and agricultural cults to the broader needs of the com-
munity, especially to the new necessities of internal justice
between citizens and war against external enemies, and secondly
the organization of more or less casual worship into something
like a consistent system. Adaptation proceeds at first naturally
enough on the lines of analogy. As Janus is in the household
the numen of the door, so in the state he is the god associated
with the great gate near the corner of the forum: the Penates
have their analogy in the Di Penates populi Romani Quiritium
by whom the magistrates take their oath on entering office,
the Lar familiaris in the Lares Praestites of the community,
and the Genius in the new notion of the Genius populi Romani
or Genius urbis Romae. But the closest and most curious
analogy is seen in the case of Vesta. The Vesta of the state
is in fact the king's hearth, standing in close proximity to the
Regia, the king's palace; the Vestal Virgins, who have charge
of the sacred fire, are the " king's daughters," and as such even
in republican times were in the manus of the pontifex maximus,
who was the successor of the king on the legal side of his religious
duties, as the rex sacrorum was on the sacrificial side. But
adaptation meant also reflection and the widening of old con-
ceptions under the influence of thought and even of abstract
ideas. Thus, the simple reflection that the door is used for
the double purpose of entrance and exit leads to the notion of
the Janus of the state as bifrons (" two-faced "): the thought
of the^door as the first part of the house to which one comes,
produces the more abstract idea of Janus as the " god of be-
ginning," in which character he has special charge of the first
beginnings of human life (Consevius), the first hour of the day,
the Calends of the month and the first month of the year in
the later calendar: for the same reason his name takes the first
place in the indigitamenta. But development proceeds also
on broader and more important lines. Jupiter in the rustic-
cult was a sky-god concerned mainly with the wine festivals
and associated with the sacred oak on the Capitol. Now he
develops a twofold character: as the receiver of the spolia
opima he becomes associated with war, especially in the double
character of the stayer of rout (Staler) and the giver of victory
(Victor), in which last capacity he later gives birth to an off-
shoot in the abstract conception of the goddess Victoria. As
the sky-god again he is appealed to as the witness of oaths in
the special capacity of the Dius Fidius, producing once more
an abstract offshoot in the goddess Fides. In these two con-
ceptions, justice and war, lie the germs of the later idea of
Jupiter as the embodiment of the life of the Roman people both
in their internal organization and in their external relations. In
much the same manner Mars takes on in addition to his agricul-
tural character the functions of war-god, which in time completely
superseded the earlier idea. Finally, we must notice, as the sign
of the synoecismus of the two settlements, the inclusion of the
Colline deity, Quirinus, apparently the Mars of the originally
rival community. In these three deities, Jupiter, Mars, Quirinus,
we have the great triad of the earliest stage of the state religion.
Organization showed itself in the fixing of the annual calendar
and the development of the character and functions of the
priesthood, and as we should expect, in a new conception of the
legal relation of the gods to the state. In the earlier stage
whose notions of course still persist alongside of the state religion
each household has its own relations to its numina: now the
state approaches the gods through its duly appointed repre-
sentatives, the magistrates and priests. Their presence is
typical of that of the whole people, and the private citizen is
required to do no more on festival days than a ceremonial ab-
stinence from work. It is obvious that the state religion has a
less direct connexion with morality and the religious sense than
the worship of the household, but it has its ethical value in a
sense of discipline and a consecration of the spirit of patriotism.
The later stages represent not the spontaneous development
of the genuine Roman religion, but its alteration and super-
session by new cults and ideas introduced from foreign External
sources. Authorities are generally agreed in rccog- to/hi-
nizing three periods: (i) from the end of the Regal
epoch to the second Punic War, when Rome was influenced
by other peoples in Italy, with whom she was brought into
contact by commerce or war; (2) from the second Punic War
to the end of the Republic, when contact with Greek and
oriental sources and the growth of literature revolutionized
religious notions and led to a philosophic scepticism; (3) the
Imperial epoch, opening with a revival of old religious notions
and later marked by the official worship of the deified emperors
and the wide influence of oriental cults.
(i) By the end of the regal period Rome had ceased to be a mere
agricultural community and had developed into a city-state. There
had consequently grown up within the state a large artisan class,
excluded from the old patrician gentes and therefore from the state
cult: at the same time the beginnings of commerce had opened
relations with neighbouring peoples. The consequence was the
introduction of certain new deities, the di novensides, from external
sources, and the birth of new conceptions of the gods and their
worship. We may distinguish three main influences, to a certain
extent historically successive, (a) Tradition always assigned to the
last three kings of Rome a connexion with the mysterious people
of Etruria, and their influence at this period though not very
definite was certainly extensive. To them, possibly Etruria.
through the mediation of Falerii, a Latin town on the
Etruscan border, was due the introduction of Minerva, who, as the
goddess of handicraft and protectress of the artisan gilds, was
established in a temple on the Aventine. Soon, however, she found
her way on to the Capitol, and there a new Etruscan triad, Jupiter,
Juno and Minerva, possibly going back from Etruria to Greece, was
enshrined in a magnificent new temple built by Etruscan workmen
and decorated in the Etruscan manner. In this temple the deities
were represented by images, and on its dedication day, September
1 3th, at the novel festival of the epulum Jovis, the images were
adorned and set out as partakers of the feast, a proceeding wholly
foreign to the native Roman religion (see further ETRUKIA,
Religion), (b) Secondly, in war and peace Rome formed relations
with her neighbours of Latium, and, as a sign of the Latin league
which resulted, the cult of Diana was brought from Aricia and
established on the Aventine in the " commune Latinorum . w
Dianae templum " (Varro, Ling. Lai. v. 43) : about the
same time was built the temple of Jupiter Latiaris on the Alban
mount, its resemblance in style to the new Capitoline temple pointing
to Rome's hegemony. So great was Rome's sense of kinship to the
Latins that in two cases Latin cults were introduced inside the
pomoerium: the worship of Hercules, which came from Tibur in
connexion with commerce, was established at the ara maxima in the
forum boarium, and the Tusculan cult of Castor as the patron of
cavalry found a home close to the forum Romanum : it is a strange
irony that both these deities should in reality have been in their
origin Greek. Other Italian cults introduced at this period were those
of Juno Sospes and Juno Regina, Venus and Fortuna Primigenia,
a goddess of childbirth who came from Praeneste. (c) Later on in
the same period contact with the cities of Magna Graecia brought
about the wide-reaching introduction of the Sibylline books.
Whatever may be their origin and they came from Cumae they
were placed in the Capitoline temple under the care of a
special commission of two (duovin sacris faciundis, later
decemviri and quindecimviri), and their " oracles," which
were referred to in times of great national stress, recommended the
introduction of foreign cults. In 493 B.C., at a time of serious
famine, they ordered the building of a temple to the Greek triad
Demeter, Dionysus and Persephone, who were identified with the
old Roman divinities Ceres, Liber and Libera: Apojlo must
have come with or before the books themselves, though his temple
was not built till 433 B.C.: Mercury followed, the representative
of 'EpAnjs 'EMToXaios, Asclepius was brought from Epidaurus to
the Tiber island in 293 B.C., and Dis and Proserpina, with their
strange chthonic associations and night ritual, probably from
Tarentum in 249 B.C. With new deities came new modes of worship:
the graecus ritus, in which, contrary to Roman usage, the worshipper's
head was unveiled, and the lectisternium (q.v.), an elaborate form of
the " banquet of the gods." In this period, then, we find first a
legitimate extension of cults corresponding to the needs of the
growing community, and secondly a religious restlessness and a
consequent tendency to more dramatic forms of worship.
5 8
ROMANS
(2) The two chief 'notes of the next period are superstition and
scepticism: both the populace and the educated classes lose faith
a Jt in the old religion, but they supply its place in different
ways. The disasters of the early part of the second
Punic War revealed an unparalleled religious nervousness:
portents and prodigies were announced from all quarters, it was
felt that the divine anger was on the state, yet there was no belief
in the efficacy of the old methods for restoring the pax deum.
Accordingly recourse is had, under the direction of the Sibylline
books, to new forms of appeal for the divine help, the general vowing
of the ver sacrum and the elaborate Greek lectisternium after Trasimene
in 217 B.C., and the human sacrifice in the forum after Cannae in
the following year. The same spirit continues to show itself in the
almost reckless introduction of Greek deities even within the walls of
the pomoerium and their ready identification with gods of the old
religion, whose cult they in reality superseded. Thus we hear of
temples dedicated to Juventas = Hebe (191 B.C.), Diana = Artemis
(179 B.C.), Mars = Ares (138 B.C.), and find even such unexpected
identifications as that of the Bona Dea (q.v.) a cult title of the
ancient Fauna, the female counterpart of the countryside numen
Faunus with a Greek goddess of women, Damia. At the same
time the new acquaintance with Greek art introduces the making
of cult statues, in which the identified Greek type is usually adopted
without change, with such curious results as the representation of the
Penates under the form of the Dioscuri. But more significant still
was the order of the Sibylline books in 206 B.C. for the introduction
of the worship of the Magna Mater(see GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS)
from Pessinus and her ultimate installation on the Palatine in
191 B.C. : the door was thus opened to the wilder and more orgiastic
cults of Greece and the Orient, which at once laid hold on the
popular mind. In the train of the Magna Mater came the secret
Oriental cu .' t f Bacchus, which grew to such proportions in
deities private worship that it had to be suppressed by decree of
the Senate in 186 B.C., and later on were established the
cults of Ma of Phrygia, introduced by Sulla and identified with
Bellona, the Egyptian Isis, and, after Pompey's war with the pirates,
even the Persian Mithras (g.ti.). In all these more emotional rituals,
the populace sought expression for the religious emotions which
were not satisfied by the cold worship of the older deities.
Meanwhile a corresponding change was taking place in the
attitude of the educated classes owing to the spread of Greek
literature. The knowledge of Greek mythology, to which they were
thus introduced, set poets and antiquarians at work in a field wholly
foreign to the Roman religious spirit, the task of creating a Roman
anthropomorphic mythology. This they accomplished partly by
the popular process of adoption and identification, partly by imi-
tative creation. In this way grew up the " religion of the poets,"
whose falseness and shallowness was patent even to contemporary
thinkers. But more important was the influence of philosophy,
which led soon enough to a general scepticism among the upper
classes. Its first, note is struck by Ennius in his translation of the
Scept/- Sicilian rationalist Euhemerus, who explained the genesis
clsm. f tne gods as apotheosized mortals. In the last century
of the Republic the two later Greek schools of Epicurean-
ism and Stoicism laid hold on Roman society. The influence of
Epicureanism was wholly destructive to religion, but not perhaps
very widespread : Stoicism became the creed of the educated classes
and produced several attempts, notably those of Scaevola and
Varro, at a reconciliation of philosophy and popular religion, in
which it was maintained that the latter was in itself untrue, but a
presentation of a higher truth suited to the capacity of the popular
mind. Such a theory was bound to be fatal, as it makes religion
at once a mere instrument of statecraft.
The result on the old religion was twofold. On the one hand,
worship passed into formalism and formalism into disuse. Some
of the old cults passed away altogether, others survived in name and
form, but were so wholly devoid of inner meaning that even the
learning of a Varro could not tell their intention or the character of
the deity with whom they were concerned. The old priesthood, and
in particular the flaminia, came to be regarded as tiresome restric-
tions on political life and were neglected: from 87 to 1 1 B.C. the
office offlamen Dialis was vacant. On the other hand, as the result in
part of the theory of Stoicism, religion passed into the hands of
the politicians: cults were encouraged or suppressed from political
motives, the membership of the colleges of pontifices and augurs,
now conferred by popular vote, was sought for its social and political
advantages, and augury was debased till it became the meanest tool
of the politician. In the general wreck of the old religion, little
survived but the household cult, protected by its own genuineness
and vitality.
(3) The revival of Augustus, which marks the opening of the last
stage, was perhaps the most remarkable phenomenon in the whole
story. It was no doubt very largely political, a part of his plan
for the general renaissance of Roman life, which was to centre no
longer round the abstract notion of the state, but round the persons
Imperial of an imperial house. But it was genuinely religious, in
rellgloa. tnat he ^w that no revival could be effective which did
not appeal to the deeper sentiments of the populace. It
was thus his business to revitalize the old forms with a new and
more vigorous content. His new palace on the Palatine he intended
to be primarily the seat of the Julian family and the cults associated
with it, and secondarily the centre of the new popular religion.
With this object he consecrated there his new temple of Apollo
(28 B.C.), associated for long with the Julian house, and adopted by
Augustus as his special patron at Actium, and transferred to its
keeping the Sibylline books, thus marking the new headquarters of
the Graeco-Roman religion. Similar in purpose was his institution
of the ludi saeculares in 17 B.C., in which a day celebration was
added to the old wavwxh, and Apollo and Diana deliberately set up
as a counterpart to the Capitoline Jupiter and Juno: Horace^
hymn written for the festival is a good epitome of Augustus's
religious intentions. In the same spirit he established a new shrine
of Vesta Augusta within the palace, a private cult at first, but
destined to be a serious rival of the ancient worship in the forum. A
still more marked action was the building of a great temple at the
end of his own new forum to Mars Ultor, Mars, the ancestor of the
Julian gens, as of the Roman people itself, and now to be worshipped
as the avenger of Caesar's murderers. Nor did he hesitate to avail
himself of the popular outburst, which immediately after the murder
had consecrated the site of Caesar's cremation with a bustum, to
erect on the spot a permanent temple to his adopted father, under the
definitely religious title of divus Julius. No doubt he also did much
generally to revive the ancient cults: he rebuilt, as he tells us
himself, eighty-two temples which had fallen into disrepair, he
re-established the old priesthoods, filling once more the office of
ftamen Dialis and reviving such bodies as the Sodales Titii (see
TITUS TATIUS) and the Arval Brothers (q.v.); but the new revival
attached itself primarily to these four cults, and their tendency was
unmistakable. Originally, no doubt, Augustus designed to attract
religious feeling generally to the reigning house, but it was inevitable
that the more personal note should be given to it. The deification
of Julius Caesar was one important step: another was the natural
prominence in the palace of the cult of the Genius of the emperor
himself. As the palace cults became national, the worship of the
Genius was bound to spread, and ultimately Augustus sanctioned
its celebration at the compita together with the worship of the old
Lares. But here he and the wiser of his successors drew the line,
and though under oriental influence divine honours were paid to the
living emperor outside Italy, they were never permitted officially
in Rome. In the succeeding centuries Augustus's intentions were
realized with a fullness which he would hardly have wished, and the
cult of the imperial house practically superseded the state religion
as the official form of worship.
With this last period the story of Roman religion really draws
to a close. For, though the form of the old cults was long
preserved and even Antoninus Pius was honoured in an in-
scription for his care of the ancient rites of religion, the vital
spirit was almost gone. In the popular mind the hosts of
exciting oriental cults, which in the 3rd and 4th centuries of
the Empire filled Rome with the rites of mysticism and initia-
tion, held undisputed sway; and with the more educated a
revived philosophy, less accurate perhaps in thought, but
more satisfying to the religious conscience, gave men a clearer
monotheistic conception, and a notion of individual relations
with the divine in prayer and even of consecration. It was
with these elements fiercely antagonistic because so closely
allied in character that the battle of Christianity was really
fought, and though, after its official adoption, the old religion
lingered on as " paganism " and died hard at the end, it was
really doomed from the moment when the Augustan revival
had taken its irrecoverable bias in the direction of the emperor-
worship.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. (a) General. Preller, Romische Mythologie,
edited by Jordan; J. Marquardt, Romische Staatsvenuallung,
vol. in., edited by Wissowa; Th. Mommsen, History of Rome;
E. Aust, Die Religion der Romer; G. Wissowa, Religion und Kultus
der Romer and Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur romischen Religions-
und Stadtgeschichte; W. Warde Fowler, The Roman Festivals;
J. B. Carter, The Religion of Numa; W. H. Roscher, Lexicon der
gnechischen und romischen Mythologie; Pauly- Wissowa, Real-
encyclopddie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft; Corpus In-
scriptionum Latinarum. See further, GREEK RELIGION; MITHRAS;
ETRURIA, Religion; and articles on the deities, festivals and colleges.
(b) Special. For the Imperial Period, G. Boissier, La Religion
romame d'Auguste aux Antonins: La fin du Paganism*; Henzen,
Ada Fratrum Arvalium; for the private and gentile cults, A. de
Marchi, // culto private di Roma Antica. (C. BA.)
ROMANS, a town of south-eastern France, in the department
of Drome, izj m. N.E. of Valence on the railway to Grenoble.
Pop. (1906) town, 13,304; commune, 17,622. Romans stands
on an eminence on the right bank of the Isere, a fine stone
ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE
581
bridge uniting it with Bourg-de-Peage (pop. 4668) on the other
side of the river. Both towns owe their prosperity to their situa-
tion in the most fertile part of the valley of the Isere. The
present parish church belonged to an abbey founded in 837 by
St Bernard, bishop of Vienne. The principal portal is a fine
specimen of 12th-century Romanesque, and the lower part of
the nave is of the same period; the choir and the transept are
striking examples of the style of the I3th century.
Romans has a tribunal of commerce and a communal college.
Its industries include tanning, leather-dressing and shoe-making,
silk-spinning, hat-making, absinthe-distilling and oil-refining.
There is trade in walnuts, walnut-oil, silk, cattle, &c.
ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE. In this book of the New
Testament, the apostle Paul begins, after a brief pregnant
introduction (i. 1-7), by explaining that he had hitherto been
prevented from carrying out his cherished project of visiting
the church of Rome, whose faith was world-wide (i. 8 f.). Mean-
while, he outlines the gospel which he preached as an exhibition
of God's righteousness, tK TclartuK vltrriv. This forms the
leading theme of the epistle.
Both Gentile (i. 18-32) and Jew (ii. I, iii. ao) 1 alike have missed
this righteousness up till now, but the revelation of God in Jesus
Christ (iii. 21-31) had brought the divine boon within reach of all.
The condition of its reception was not nationality but faith. Hence,
as Paul stops for a moment to argue (iv. 1-25), the Jew cannot claim
any preference; Abraham himself, before circumcision and the law
came into force, was a man of faith, and consequently all believers
(not all legal Jews, iv. 16) are true descendants of Abraham. 2
Returning to the blissful results of this 5iKcuoaiwij revealed in Jesus
Christ (v. I n), Paul proceeds to contrast these with the sombre
effects produced in humanity by the fall of Adam. Life had now
triumphed over death, grace over sin (v. 12 f.). But the super-
session of the law, which was bound up with the regime of sin and
death, does not mean the relaxation of the moral bond. On the
contrary (vi. I f.), the reception of God's grace and spirit implies
the death of the believing man to sin. The struggle of the soul 3
between the thwarting power of sin and the ethical demands of
the law (vii. I f.) cannot be ended happily save by the interposition
of Jesus Christ, whose Spirit guarantees a sound life in this world
and life eternal in the world to come (viii. 12 f.).
The splendid and unfettered 4 prospects of faith, which thus break
on the apostle's vision, only serve to deepen his distress in one
direction. 6 As a theologian and as a patriot, he is confronted with
the problem of Israel's collective repudiation of a boon to which
their own history, as he read it, clearly pointed. Reverting to the
thought of ii. 17 f. and iv. I, Paul now essays, in ix.-xi., to show
how this unbelief of Israel is to be reconciled with the justice and
the promises of God. He begins by showing, as in Gal. iv. 7_ f.
(cf. Rom. ii. 28-29), that mere physical descent could not entitle
a Jew to the promises. Besides (ix. 1429), no Jew has the right
to challenge God's sovereign freedom. If God determines to extend
the promise of faith to the Gentiles, who shall accuse Him of injustice?
The rejection of the Jews is their own fault, due to their obstinacy
and legalism (ix. 3O-x. 21). Finally, Paul tries to see this fact of
Israel's unbelief in the light of a wide religious philosophy of history ;
it (xi. l-io) cannot be anything but a temporary and partial
(xi. 11-24)' phase; the future will clear up the present; the final
1 On iii. cf. G. W. Matthias's Exegetischer Versuch (Cassel, 1857).
2 " Paul here unconsciously changes the conception of law. By
introducing the example of Abraham he shows that the book of
the law contains the doctrine of justification by faith, and through
the latter, therefore, is not made of none effect. This proof rests,
objectively regarded, on a fallacy; for the law, of which the validity
is threatened by the doctrine of justification, is that part of the
book of the law which demands the observance of all commands,
not that which relates anything about Abraham. But this error
of thought would be easily concealed from a mind with the rabbinical
training of Paul's" (Schmiedel, in Hibbert Journal, 1902, pp. 548-
549).
3 Cf. Engel's exhaustive monograph, Der Kampf urn Romer vii.
(1902), and, for the ideas of i.-viii., Du Bose's The Gospel according
to St Paul (1907), and Titius, Der Paulinismus (1900), pp. 159 ff.
4 The word all, as Matthew Arnold observes (St Paul and Protest-
antism, ch. i.), is " in some sense the governing word of the Epistle
to the Romans."
5 As arranged in the canonical edition, ix.-xi. are closely interwoven
with i.-viii., and xi. 32-36 concludes not simply ix.-xi. but i.-xi.
(cf. Buhl in Sludien und Kritiken, 1887, 295-320). Certainly what
Paul has in mind throughout the epistle is not a Judaizing tendency
among the Jewish Christians at Rome, but the general and perplexing
question of Judaism in relation to the new faith. Cf. Hoennicke's
Das Judenchristentum (1908), pp. 1 60 f.
* In this passage Paul has generally been held to have erred
result will be the inclusion of all Israel in th* heritage of the
messianic kingdom of Christ. The prospect of this consummation
stirs him to an outburst of adoration, with which the whole section
ends (xi. 33-36) . 7
Applying the thought of God's mercy to the obligations of believing
men (xii. 1-2), Paul proceeds now to sketch the ethical duties of
Christians in the church (xii. 3-21), in society, and in the itate
(xiii. 1-7); love is the supreme law (xiii. 8- id), and the nearness
of the end the supreme motive to morality (xiii. 11-14). These
considerations are still before Paul's mind as he descends from
general counsels to a special problem of practical ethics, raised by
the varying attitude of Christians at Rome towards food offered
to idols (xiv. i f.). After laying down the principle of individual
responsibility, he appeals for charity and mutual consideration
(xiv. 13-xv. 6), and for Christian forbearance.' Finally, he exhorts
all, Gentile and Jewish Christians alike (xv. 8-13), to unite in
thanksgiving for God's mercy to them in Christ.
In a brief epilogue, the apostle justifies himself for having thus
addressed the Roman Christians. He alleges (xv. 14 f.) his apostolic
vocation and informs them of his future movements. With an
Rom. xvi. contains a separate note (1-23), together with a
doxology (25-27). The former came from Paul's pen, but
it did not belong originally to this epistle. 10 In
all likelihood it is a letter of commendation for [
TI i 11 1.1 i problem*.
Phoebe 11 which includes vers. 1-23 (so e.g.
Weizsacker, McGiffert and Jtilicher), though most break
it off at ver. 20 (so Eichhorn, Ewald, Schulz, Renan, Weiss,
Lipsius, von Soden, &c.), while others do not begin it
until ver. 3 (so e.g. Ewald, Schurer, Reuss and Mangold:
Der Romerbrief, pp. 136 f.). Vers. 21-23 might indeed follow
xv. 33, but it is not Paul's way to add salutations after a final
Amen, and the passage connects as well with xvi. 20, though
it may have lain originally (Jiilicher) between 16 and 17. The
main reasons n for conjecturing that this section was addressed
separately, not to Rome but to a city like Ephesus, lie in its
contents. Paul was as yet a stranger to Rome, and it is extremely
difficult to suppose that he already knew so many individuals
there. The earlier tone of Romans shows that he was writing
as a comparative stranger to strangers. Any touches of
familiarity with the local circumstances (as in xiv.-xv.) are no
more than might have percolated to him through hearing and
botanically in his allegory. For a defence of his accuracy, see
W. M. Ramsay's Pauline and other Studies (1907), 219 f.
7 On the method of dialectic in this section, see Bishop Gore's
paper in Studia Biblica (vol. iii.). The literature up to 1907 is
summarized in H. J. Holtzmann's Neutest. Theologie, ii. pp. 171 f.,
one of the most significant essays being that of Beyschlag on
Die paulin. Theodicee (1868). Wernle (Beginnings of Christianity,
i. pp. 315 f.) sums up his discussion by pointing out that " the
Jesus of history is simply non-existent for St Paul when he treats
apologetic problems of this nature. No mention whatever is made
of him in the three chapters of Romans which treat of Israel's fate.
The literal text of the Septuagint seems to be the only decisive
authority, and that is so sacred and almighty, that, whenever it
comes into collision with the human conscience, the latter is silenced
when the voice of revelation speaks."
8 The weaker minority probably were a Jewish-Christian circle
(cf. Riggenbach in Studien und Kritiken, 1893, pp. 649-678). For
the religious aspect of vegetarianism in these ancf other circles, see
von Dobschiitz's Christian Life in the Primitive Church (1904),
pp. 125 f., 396 f.
It was a sufficient reason for writing to the Romans that
Paul was expecting to visit them, but was obliged one', more to
postpone an event to which he had long looked forward. There
was nothing in the circumstances of the church that required his
intervention, and, as he was therefore free to choose his subject,
he wrote out of the fullness of his heart that grand defence of the
gospel which, though shaped by the conditions of the times, is ani-
mated by the timeless Spirit, and has proved to be a possession
for ever (Drummond, p. 246).
10 For the literature, cf. the present writer's Historical New Testa-
ment (1901), pp. 209-213. The hypothesis has won very wide
acceptance, but several editors ana critics (including Harnack,
Zahn and Clemen) remain unconvinced. Cf. also Wabnitz in
Revue de theologie et des quest, religieuses (1900), 461-469.
11 On her functions, see Zscharnack's der Dienst der Frau in den
ersten Jahrhunderten der christlichen Kirche (1902), pp. 45 f.
1J Cf. Lucht (Ober die beiden letzten Kapitel des Romerbriefes, 1871.
pp. 126 f.), with Weizsacker's brilliant pages in his Apostolic Age,
i. pp. 379 f.).
ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE
report; they do not imply the presence of friends upon the spot
who kept him supplied with information. On the other hand,
the circle of people addressed in xvi. 1-23, with its wealth of
individual colour and personal detail, presupposes a sphere
where Paul had worked for long. He can appeal to these
Christians. He can speak sharply with authority to them.
Now, as he wrote from Corinth, the only other city which
answers to this description is Ephesus, the centre of Paul's
long Asiatic mission. With that city and district several of the
names in xvi. 1-23 are more or less directly connected, e.g.
Epaenetus (5), Aquila and Priscilla (3), who were at Ephesus
immediately before Romans was written (Acts xviii. 18, 26; cf.
1 Cor. xvi. 19), and apparently were there (cf. 2 Tim. iv. ip) not
long afterwards. These are the first people mentioned in the
note, nor is there any likelihood that they or the rest of Paul's
friends' had made a sudden migration to the capital. Doubt-
less, there was fairly constant communication between Rome
and the provinces, and in the course of time these friends may
have gradually followed the apostle thither. Hence it is not
remarkable that almost all the names mentioned in this note
have been found by archaeologists (cf. Lightfoot's Philippians,
pp. 171 f.) within the Roman Corpus Inscriptionum. Most of
them, anyhow, are fairly common throughout the Roman world
(cf. Lietzmann, p. 73), whilst half are to be found in the Greek
Corpus Inscriptionum for Asia Minor (e.g. Epaenetus, Hermes,
Hernias). 2 Furthermore, the sharp warning against errorists
and heretics (xvi. 17-20) suits Rome at this period much less
aptly than Ephesus (cf. i Cor. xvi. 8-9; Acts xx. 29 f.; Rev. ii.
2 f.), where trouble of this kind was in the air. Controversy
against false teachers is conspicuously absent from Romans.
Nor is it possible to regard (with Zahn) such counsels as merely
prophylactic; they are too definite and pointed. They imply
the existence of a community with which Paul was personally
acquainted, and to which he felt himself bound and free to
address keen, authoritative reproaches.
The textual phenomena of the doxology (xvi. 25-27), which
occurs in some MSS. after xiv. 23, are sufficiently strange;
they suggest that the epistle must have passed through a
certain process of editing, during the 2nd century, previous
to its final incorporation in the canon of the epistles. 3 It may
further be conjectured that the epistle does not lie before the
modern reader in the precise shape in which it left Paul and his
amanuensis at Corinth. Opinions, indeed, vary on the doxology.
Either it is authentic but irrelevant, added by Paul as a post-
script, or it is unauthentic, 4 due to some copyist who added it as
1 Erbes (Zeitschrift fiir Kirchengeschichte, 1901, 224-231) makes
xvi. i-l6a a note forwarded by Paul to Rome during his last voyage
thither, in order to advise some of the local Christians of his arrival
(Acts xxviii. 15), but this theory is no improvement upon that of
Semler, who regarded xvi. 3-16 as designed for Paul's friends outside
Rome, to introduce the bearers of the larger epistle. The point
of such hypotheses is to explain how the note came to be attached
to Romans, but this can be shown otherwise (cf. Deissmann's
Licht vom Oslen, 1908, pp. 164, 201). Eichhorn (Einleit. in das N.T.
iii. 243 f.) regarded xvi. 120 as addressed to Corinth, while Schenkel
viewed it as designed for all the churches which Phoebe was to visit.
* In the Ephesian Acta Johannis (c. A.D. 160) the house of
Andronicus (Rom. xvi. 7 ?) is one centre of Christian activity.
E. H. Gifford (pp. 27-30) evades the difficulty by taking xvi. 3-20 as
part of a second letter written by Paul after, not before, his release
from imprisonment.
* The most recent and radical analyses are those of Spitta
(Urchristentum, iii. 1902) and Volter (Paulus u. seine Briefe, 1905).
The former detects a short letter written (xii.-xv. 7, xvi. 1-20) after
Acts xxviii. 30, during a tour of the Gentile churches (A.D. 63-64),
and another (i.-xi. ip, xv. 14-33) written to believing Jews in order
to justify the Gentile mission and afterwards edited for Gentile
readers with the addition of xi. 1 1 f ., xv. 8-13, &c, Volter (pp. 135 f .)
distinguishes an original letter (in i. I, 56-7, 8-17, v. 1-12, 15-19,
21, vi. I-I3, 16-23, xii.-xv. 6, xv. 14-16, 236-33, xvi. 21-24) from
editorial additions, and also from still later accretions in ii. 14-15,
iii. 23-26, vii. 256, xi. n f., xv. 7-13, 17-230, xvi. 17 f., 25 f. Spitta's
views are properly set aside by Feine and Bahnsen (Protest. Monat-
shefte, 1902, 331 f.) amongst others.
* It suggests a stereotyped form (cf. Mangold, Der Romerbrief,
44-81, and Holtzmann, Ephes. Col. Brief, 307-310). " In spite of
the vindication of the style word by word, the impression it bears
upon the mind is hardly Pauline. It seems artificial rather than
a suitable finale at the close. In the Pauline canon Romans
originally occupied the last place. It would therefore be
natural that a note like that of xvi. 1-23 should be put in here,
especially if this canon was drawn up at Rome, whither Phoebe
probably travelled eventually. The doxology would then be
shifted from after xiv. 23 or inserted for the first time for ecclesi-
astical purposes. The material conditions of such a process are
lucidly stated by Dr C. R. Gregory in his Canon and Text of the
New Testament (1907), PP- 3*9 f-
The problems presented by the structure of these chapters 5
cannot be solved adequately by the mere hypothesis, worked
out variously by critics like Paulus, Griesbach (Curarum in
historiam textus Graeci epistolarum Pauli spec. i. pp. 45 f.),
Eichhorn and Flatt, that they are a series of postscripts or
afterthoughts, much less by the conjecture that, in whole
or in part, they are unauthentic (Baur, Volkmar, &c.). The
only tenable line of argument, in the present state of criticism,
is to regard their phenomena as due to compilation, at the
time when the canon (perhaps of Paul's epistles) was first
formd. If the hypothesis already outlined is set aside, it is
open to the critic to regard large portions of the canonical
Romans as having originally occupied a separate setting, 4
or to ascribe the textual variations to the exigencies of church
reading after the formation of the canon (which might explain
the absence of kv 'Pco/iB in i. 7, 15, and the duplicate position
of the doxology). 7
The uncertainty as to the literary structure of the epistle
naturally renders it hazardous to infer the character of the
Christians who are addressed, but it may be said that the
results of the long debate on this point are converging upon
the belief that the predominant class in the local church or
churches were Gentile Christians, while proselytes must have
swelled the ranks to no inconsiderable degree. Since Weiz-
sacker wrote, the older view of Baur (cf. his Paul, Eng. tr.
i. pp. 321 f.) has steadily lost ground. Zahn is now its main
supporter, and his contentions are not convincing. Even
were ix.-xi. taken as the kernel of the epistle, its obvious
motive is to be found in the need of explaining to Gentile
Christians the reasons for Israel's apparent rejection, and
passages like i. 5 f., 13, xi. 13, xv. 15 f., are, if not decisive, at
any rate superior to any references which can be urged fairly
on the opposite side. To a church of this kind, in the capital
of the Empire, Paul writes out his gospel more fully than in
any other of his extant epistles. It is the essence of the
gospel that he treats, and that is the revelation of God's
righteousness to man by faith in Jesus Christ. Neither
sacraments nor organization come within his purview. Even
eschatology lies quite in the background. Paul writes of the
inspired " (Denney, p. 582). Proofs of its Pauline authorship are
led fully by Zahn (Einleitung in das N.T. 21 f.) and Jacquier
(Histoire des limes du N.T., 1903, pp. 271 f.); cf. also Bacon in
Journal of Biblical Literature (1899), pp. 184 f. The entire data of
xv.-xvi. are discussed fully by Lightfoot and Hort, in the former's
Biblical Essays (pp. 287 f.) and in the latter's admirable volume
(Romans and Eph'esians), as well as in Sanday and Headlam's
edition (pp. Ixxxv. f.).
6 Ryder (Journal of Biblical Literature, 1898, pp. 184 f.) suggests
that xv.-xvi. 24 form a letter or part of a letter written not
by Paul but by his amanuensis, Tertius, to his friends at Rome,
c. A.D. 64, previous to the Neronic persecution.
6 So J. Weiss (in Theologische Studien, 1897, pp. 182 f.), as well as
those who, like Renan (S. Paul, Ixiii-lxxv), find different editions
in the canonical epistle, one meant for Thessalonica (i.-xiv. 33,
xvi. 25-27), one for Ephesus (i.-xiv., xvi. 1-20) and one for Rome
(i.-xi., xv.), or who, like Lightfoot (Biblical Essays), see a double
recension, the original draft having been meant for Rome (i.-xvi.
23), the later being, like Ephesians, a circular epistle.
7 Thf epistle was so systematic in treatment and wide in scope
that it lent itself readily to this "catholicizing" manipulation;
thus the fact that xv.-xvi. are very rarely" quoted in primitive
tradition may be due to their fullness of local detail, which would
have less interest for the later church. But the question of course
arises, May not the epistle, in whole or in part, have originally been
more of a treatise in epistolary form than at first sight appears?
For various suggestions as to the problem of i. 7 see Harnack in
Zeitschrift fiir die neutest. Wissenschaft (1902), 83-86; R. Steinmetz
(ibid., 1908, 177 f.) ; and Schmiedel in Hibbert Journal (1903), pp. 537 f.
ROMANSHORN ROMANUS
heart of the gospel with all his heart, and while a certain con
troversial 1 element inevitably enters into his exposition
since he is writing with his eye on the Roman Church any
such considerations are quite subordinate to his dominating
aim.
The epistle dates itself. Paul is on his way to Jerusalem
with the moneys collected from the Macedonian and Achaian
churches (xv. 19-32), and, after his visit to the Jewish capital
he proposes to visit the church of Rome en route for a mission
in Spain. The situation corresponds to that outlined in
Acts xx. 2-3. Paul probably despatched the epistle from
Corinth. This conclusion would be put almost beyond doubt
were Rom. xvi. regarded as an integral part of the origina!
epistle, since in that case Timothy and Sosipater (xvi. 21)
would be with Paul as in Acts xx. 4, like Gaius (xvi. 23)
and Erastus, both of whom were Corinthians (i Cor. i. 14;
2 Tim. iv. 20). Phoebe of Cenchreae, the seaport of Corinth,
would also be the bearer of the epistle (xvi. i). But even
apart from the evidence of ch. xvi., the tone of the epistle
(especially of xv. 19 f.) indicates that Paul regards his work
in the eastern provinces as done, and now turns to the West.
It is just possible, of course, that the epistle was written from
some other town, perhaps in Illyricum (so H. E. G. Paulus),
but the facilities of communication point to Corinth. 2
LITERATURE. The ablest recent editions of the Greek text have
been those of B. Weiss (in Meyer's commentary, gth ed. 1890,
thorough and all-round), R. A. Lipsius (Hand-Commenlar,
2nd ed. 1892), H. Oltramare (Paris, 1881-82), Sanday and
Headlam (Internal. Crit. Comm. 5th ed. 1905, strong in philology
and external criticism), and Denney (Expositor's Greek Testament,
1901, a masterpiece of theological exposition), to which the Roman
Catholic commentaries of A. Schafer (Munster, 1891) and Comely
(Paris, 1896) may be added. The patristic and medieval literature
is summarized by Sanday and Headlam (op. cit. pp. xcviii. f.),
and a conspectus of the vast later work may be found in W. P.
Dickson's translation of Meyer (Edinburgh, 1873-74). The
editions of Tholuck (1842), Moses Stuart (3rd ed. 1876), Godet
(1879-80, Eng. trans. 1888), E. H. Gifford (Speaker's Commentary,
1881) and Philippi (4th ed. Frankfort, 1896) are of special theo-
logical value, Godet's for its delicate exegesis and Gifford's for its ade-
quacy of treatment; so, from its own point of view, is F. Delitzsch's
Brief an die Romer aus dem griech. Urtext in das He'rdiscke ubersetzt,
und aus Talmud und Midrasch erldutert (1870); with which may be
classed the earlier works of Reiche ( Versuch einer ausfuhrl. Erkldrune,
fcc, 1833-34) i>nd C. F. A. Fritzsche (1836-43)- Since Dean
Alford (1852), the freshest English editors have been Dr David
Brown (Glasgow, 1860), Moule (Cambridge Bible, 1879), C. J. Vaughan
(7th ed. 1890), B. Jowett (3rd ed. 1894), J- Agar Beet (gth ed.
1901) and Garvie (Century Bible, 1901). Julicher's notes in Die
Schriften des N T. (1907), though written from a different standpoint,
resemble Denney's in their conciseness and penetration. Lietz-
mann's edition, again, is slight and philological (Handbuch zum
Neuen Testament, 1907). Lightfoot's posthumous fragment (Notes
on Epistles of St Paul, 1895, PP- 2 37-3O5) unfortunately breaks off
at vii. 25. In addition to the special monographs already noted
in the course of this article, the essays of H. E. G. Paulus (De
originibus Pauliepist. ad Rom., Jena, 1801), Lorenz (Der Romerbrtef,
1884), Grafe (Uber Veranlassung und Zweck des R., 1881), G. B.
Stevens (The Pauline Theology, 1894), Feine (Der Rdmerbrief,
1903) and A. Robertson (Hastings' Diet, of Bible, iv. 295-306)
may be specially mentioned out of a large crowd, together with G.
Semeria's monograph, // pensiero di S. Paolo nella lettera ai Romani
(Rome, 1903). Holsten's position is stated in a series of articles
583
die wissensch. Theologie (1892), pp. 296-347. The recent literary
and historical discussions are chronicled in C. Clemen's Paulus,
i. 85 f., ii. 238 f., with which the English reader may compare
R. J. Knowling's The Testimony of StPaulto Christ (1905), pp. 60 f.,
1 Not, however, in the sections bearing on the Law. '' It has
been customary to explain this feature of the epistle by the fact of
its having been written to a church with which Paul had no personal
relations, and this may count for something. But there is a deeper
and a worthier reason for the contrast in tone between this epistle
and those written to the Galatian and Corinthian churches. The
whole situation is changed. Then Paul was fighting for existence
with his back to the wall ; now he writes as one conscious that
the cause of Gentile Christianity is safe " (A. B. Bruce, S/ Paul's
Conception of Christianity, 1894, p. 96).
1 This is carefully worked out by Paley in his Horae Paulinae
(ed. Birks, 1825), pp. 8 f.
311 f., 465 f. On Marcion's text of the epistle cf. Zahn's Gcschichte
des N.T Kanons, ii. pp. 515-521; on the early reception of the
epistle in the church, Gregory's Canon and Text of the N.T. (1907),
pp. 192 f., and Leipoldt a Cesehichte des netit. Kanons (1907), i.
pp. 77 f., 188 f., 192 f., 209 f. (J. Mr.)
ROMANSHORN, an important commercial town in the
Swiss canton of Thurgau. It is situated on the west shore of
the lake of Constance, and by rail is sij m. N.E. of Ziirich,
i2\ m. S.E. of Constance, and 10 m. N.W. of Rorschach.
In 1900 its population was 4577, mostly German-speaking,
while there were 3093 Protestants to 1478 Romanists.
Originally a small fishing village, it belonged to the abbot of
St Gall from 1432 to 1798, when it became part of the canton
of Thurgau. In 1856 the railway from Romanshorn to Zurich
was opened, and this vastly increased the commercial import-
ance of Romanshorn. Nowadays it is the centre of a great
transit trade, as it communicates, by means of the lake, with
the principal towns on its shores. The corn trade and that
in timber are among the most important, while there are
many industrial establishments. It is essentially a modern
commercial centre.
ROMANUS, the name of four East Roman emperors.
ROMANUS I. (Lecapenus), who shared the imperial throne
with Constantine VII. (g.v.) and exercised all the real power
from 919 to 944, was admiral of the Byzantine fleet on the
Danube when, hearing of the defeat of the army at Achelous
(9 1 ?)) he resolved to sail for Constantinople. After the marriage
of his daughter Helena to Constantine he was first proclaimed
" basileopater " in 919 and soon after crowned colleague of
his son-in-law. His reign, which was uneventful, except for
an attempt to check the accumulation of landed property,
was terminated by his own sons, Stephen and Constantine, who
in 944 carried him off to the island of Prote and compelled
him to become a monk. He died in 948.
ROMANUS II. succeeded his father Constantine VII. hi 959
at the age of twenty-one, and died poisoned, it was believed,
by his wife, Theophano in 963. He was a pleasure-loving
sovereign, but showed judgment in the selection of his ministers.
The great event of his reign was the conquest of Crete by
Nicephorus Phocas.
ROMANUS III. (Argyrus), emperor 1028-1034, was an un-
distinguished Byzantine patrician, who was compelled by the
dying emperor Constantine IX. to marry his daughter Zoe
and to become his successor. He showed great eagerness to
make his mark as a ruler, but was mostly unfortunate in his
enterprises. He spent large sums upon new buildings and in
endowing the monks, and in his endeavour to relieve the pressure
of taxation disorganized the finances of the state. In 1030 he
resolved to retaliate upon the incursions of the Moslems on
the eastern frontier by leading a large army in person against
Aleppo, but by allowing himself to be surprised on the march
sustained a serious defeat at Azaz near Antioch. Though this
disaster was retrieved by the successful defence of Edessa by
George Maniakes and by the defeat of a Saracen fleet in the
Adriatic, Romanus never recovered his popularity. His early
death was supposed to have been due to poison administered
his wife.
See J. B. Bury in the English Historical Review (1889), pp. 53-57;
C,. Schlumberger, L'Epopee byzantine (Paris, 1905), iii. pp. 56-158.
ROMANUS IV. (Diogenes), emperor 1068-1071, was a
member of a distinguished Cappadocian family, and had risen
to distinction in the army, when he was convicted of treason
against the sons of Constantine X. While waiting execution
ic was summoned into the presence of the empress regent,
Sudocia Macrembolitissa, whom he so fascinated that she
granted him a free pardon and shortly afterwards married him.
After his coronation he carried on three successful campaigns
against the Saracens and Seljuk Turks, whom he drove beyond
he Euphrates; in a fourth he was disastrously defeated by
Alp Arslan on the banks of the Araxes and taken prisoner.
After releasing himself by the promise of a large ransom and
he conclusion of a peace, he turned his arms against the
5 8 4
ROME
[THE ANCIENT CITY
pretender Michael VII., but was compelled after a defeat to
resign the empire and retire to the island of Prote, where he
soon died in great misery. It was during this reign that, by the
surrender of Bari (1071), the Byzantine empire lost its last
hold upon Italy.
See J. G. C. Anderson in the Journal of Hellenic Studies (1897),
pp. ^6-vj. On all the above see also J. B. Bury's edition of Gibbon's
Vecline and Fall (M. O. B. C.)
ROME (Roma), the capital of the modern kingdom of Italy,
in the province of Rome, on the river Tiber, 17 miles N.E. from
its mouth on the Mediterranean. As formerly the centre of the
ancient Roman republic and of the Roman empire, and the
headquarters of the Christian Church, Rome is unique among
historical cities, and its antiquarian interest far surpasses that
of any other locality in the world. In the following account
the general subject of Rome is treated broadly under two
aspects, themselves subdivided. These are: (i) the topo-
graphy and growth of the city of Rome, the evolution of which
is traced from the earliest times to the present, and (2) Roman
history, i.e. the political and social history of the Roman republic,
empire and medieval commune.
The nine or ten hills and ridges on which the city stands
are formed of masses of tufa or conglomerated sand and ashes
thrown out by neighbouring volcanoes now extinct, but active
down to a very recent period. One group of these volcanoes is
that around Lago Bracciano, while another, still nearer to Rome,
composes the Alban Hills. That some at least of these craters
have been in a- state of activity at no very distant period has
been shown by the discovery at many places of broken pottery
and bronze implements below the strata of tufa or other volcanic
deposits. Traces of human life have even been found below
that great flood of lava which, issuing from the Alban Hills,
flowed towards the site of Rome, only stopping about 3 miles
short, by the tomb of Cecilia Metella.
The superficial strata on which Rome is built are of three main
kinds: (i) the plains and valleys on the left bank of the Tiber
are covered, as it were, by a sea of alluvial deposits, in the midst
of which (2) the hills of volcanic origin rise like so many islands;
and (3) on the right bank of the Tiber, around the Janiculan
and Vatican Hills, are extensive remains of an ancient sea-
beach, conspicuous in parts by its fine golden sand and its de-
posits of greyish white potter's clay. From its yellow sand the
Janiculan has been sometimes known as the Golden Hill, a
name which survives in the church on its summit called S. Pietro
in Montorio (Monte d'Oro). In addition to these three chief
deposits, at a few places, especially in the Aventine and Pincian
Hills, under-strata of travertine crop out a hard limestone
rock, once in solution in running water, and deposited gradually
as the water lost its carbonic-acid solvent, a process still rapidly
going on at Term, Tivoli and other places in the neighbourhood.
The conditions under which the tufa hills were formed have been
very various, as is clearly seen by an examination of the rock
at different places. The volcanic ashes and sand of which the
tufa is composed appear in parts to lie just as they were showered
down from the crater; in that case it shows but little sign of
stratification, and consists wholly of igneous products. In parts
time and pressure have bound together these scoriae into a soft
and friable rock; in other places they still lie in loose sandy
beds and can be dug out with the spade. Other masses of
tufa again show signs either of having been deposited in water,
or else washed away from their first resting-place and redeposited
with visible stratifications; this is shown by the water-worn
pebbles and chips of limestone rock, which form a conglomerate
bound together by the volcanic ashes into a sort of natural
cement. A third variety is that which exists on the Palatine
Kill. Here the shower of red-hot ashes has evidently fallen
on a thickly growing forest, and the burning wood, partly
smothered by the ashes, has been converted into charcoal,
large masses of which are embedded in the tufa rock. In some
places charred branches of trees, their form well preserved, can
be easily distinguished. The so-called " wall of Romulus " is
built of this conglomerate of tufa and charred wood; a very
perfect section of the branch of a tree is visible on one of the
blocks by the Scalae Caci.
So great have been the physical changes in the site of Rome
since the first dawn of the historic period that it is difficult
now to realize what its aspect once was. The Forum Romanum,
the Velabrum, the great Campus Martius (now the most
crowded part of modern Rome), and other valleys were once
almost impassable marshes or pools of water (Ov. Fasti,
vi. 401; Dionys. ii. 50). The draining of these valleys was
effected by means of the great cloacae, which were among
the earliest important architectural works of Rome (Varro,
Ling. Lot. iv. 149). Again, the various hills and ridges were
once more numerous and very much more abrupt than they
are now. At an early period, when each hill was crowned by a
separate village fort, the great object of the inhabitants was
to increase the steepness of its cliffs and render access difficult.
At a later time, when Rome was united under one govern-
ment, the very physical peculiarities which had originally
made its hills so populous, through their natural adaptability
for defence, became extremely inconvenient in a united city,
where architectural symmetry and splendour were above all
things aimed at. Hence the most gigantic engineering works
were undertaken: tops of hills were levelled, whole ridges
cut away, and gentle slopes formed in the place of abrupt
cliffs. The levelling of the Velia and the excavation of the
site for Trajan's forum are instances of this. The same works
were continued in the middle ages, as when in the I4th century
an access was made to the Capitoline Arx 1 from the side of
the Campus Martius; up to that time a steep cliff had prevented
all approach except from the side of the Forum.
Finally, after Rome had become the capital of united Italy,
in the last quarter of the ipth century, an extensive govern-
ment plan (piano regulatore) was gradually carried out, with
the object of reducing hills and valley to a uniform level and
constructing wide boulevards on the chessboard method of
a modern American city. The constant fires which have at
times devastated Rome have been a powerful agent in obliter-
ating the natural contour of the ground; and the accumulated
rubbish from this and other causes has in some places overlaid
the ground to a depth of 40 ft., notably in the valleys.
THE ANCIENT CITY
The chief building materials used in ancient Rome may
be enumerated as follows: (i) Tufa, the " ruber et niger
tophus" of Vitruvius (ii. 7), varying in colour from Building
warm brown to yellow or greyish green (called materi-
capellaccio). The Aventine, Palatine and Capitoline a7s<
Hills contained quarries of the tufa, much worked at an early
period (see Liv. xxvi. 27, xxxix. 44, and Varro, L.L. iv. 151).
It is a very bad " weather-stone," but stands well if protected
with stucco (Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 166). (2) Lapis Albanus, from
Alba Longa, of volcanic origin, a conglomerate of ashes, gravel
and fragments of stone; its quarries are still worked at Albano
and Marino. This is now called peperino, from the black
scoriae, like peppercorns, with which the brown conglomerate
mass is studded. (3) Lapis Gabinus, from Gabii, very similar
to the last, but harder and a better weather-stone; it contains
large lumps of broken lava, products of an earlier eruption,
and small pieces of limestone. According to Tacitus (Ann. xv.
43), it is fire-proof, and this is also the case with the Alban
stone. Lapis Gabinus is now called sperone. (4) Silex (mod.
selce), a lava from the now extinct volcanoes in the Alban
Hills, used for paving roads; when broken into small
pieces and mixed with lime and pozzolana it formed an
immensely durable concrete. It is dark grey, very hard and
breaks with a slightly conchoidal fracture (Plin. H.N. xxxvi.
135; Vitr. ii. 7), but does not resemble what is now called silex
or flint. (5) Lapis Tiburtinus (travertine), the chief quarries
of which are at Tibur (Tivoli) and other places along the
river Anio; a hard pure carbonate of lime, of a creamy white
colour, deposited from running or dripping water in a highly
1 By the great flight of marble steps up to S. Maria in AraCoeli. .
THE ANCIENT CITY]
ROME
585
stratified form, with frequent cavities and fissures lined with
crystals. As Vitruvius (ii. 5) says, it is a good weather-stone,
but is soon calcined by fire. If laid horizontally it is very strong,
but if set on end its crystalline structure is a great source of
weakness, and it splits from end to end. Neglect on the part
of Roman builders of this important precaution in many cases
caused a complete failure in the structure. This was notably
the case in the rostra. (6) Pulvis Puteolanus (pozzolana), so
called from extensive beds of it at Puteoli a volcanic pro-
duct, which looks like red sandy earth, and lies in enormous
beds under and round the city of Rome. When mixed with
lime it forms a very strong hydraulic cement, of equal use in
concrete, mortar or undercoats of stucco. It is to this material
that the concrete walls of Rome owe their enormous strength
and durability, in many cases far exceeding those of the
most massive stone masonry. Vitruvius devotes a chapter
(bk. ii. ch. 6) to this very important material.
Bricks were either sun-dried (lateres crudi) or kiln-baked
(lateres cocti, testae). The remarks of Vitruvius (ii. 3) seem to
refer wholly to sun-dried bricks, of which no examples now
exist in Rome. It is important to recognize the fact that among
the existing ancient buildings of Rome there is no such thing
as a brick wall or a brick arch in the true sense of the word; bricks
were merely used as a facing to concrete walls and arches and
have no constructional importance. 1 Concrete (opus caemen-
ticium, Vitr. ii. 4, 6, 8), the most important of all the materials
used, is made of rough pieces of stone, or of fragments of marble,
brick, &c., averaging from about the size of a man's fist and
embedded in cement made of lime and pozzolana forming
one solid mass of enormous strength and coherence. Stucco,
cement and mortar (tectorium, opus albarium and other names)
are of many kinds; the ancient Romans especially excelled
in their manufacture. The cement used for lining the channels
of aqueducts (opus signinum) was made of lime mixed with
pounded brick or potsherds and pozzolana; the same mixture
was used for floors under the " nucleus " or finer cement on
which the mosaic or marble paving-slabs were bedded, and
was called caementum ex testis tunsis. For walls, three or four
coats of stucco were used, often as much as 5 in. thick
altogether; the lower coats were of lime and pozzolana, the
finishing coats of powdered white marble (opus albarium) suit-
able to receive painting. Even marble buildings were usually
coated with a thin layer of this fine white stucco, nearly as hard
and durable as the marble itself a practice also employed
in the finest buildings of the Greeks probably because it
formed a more absorbent ground for coloured decoration;
stone columns coated in this way were called " columnae
dealbatae " (Cic. In Verr. ii. i, 52 seq.). For the kinds of sand
used in mortar and stucco, Vitruvius (ii. 4) mentions sea, pit
and river sand, saying that pit sand is to be preferred.
Marble appears to have come into use about the beginning of the
1st century B.C. Its introduction was at first viewed with great
Decora- jealousy,' as savouring of Greek luxury. The orator
Crassus was the first to use it in his house on the Palatine,
materials. bui't about 92 B.C. ; and, though he had only six small
columns of Hymettian marble, he was for this luxury
nicknamed the " Palatine Venus " by the stern republican
M. Brutus (Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 7). The temporary wooden theatre
of the aedile M. Aemilius Scaurus, built in 58 B.C., appears to have
been the first building in which marble was more largely used ; its
360 columns and the Tower order of its scena were of Greek marble
(see Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 5, 50). In a very few years, under the rule
of Augustus, marble became very common. 2
Of white statuary majble four principal varieties were used,
(i) Marmor Lunense, from Luna, near the modern Carrara (Strabo,
v. p. 222), is of many qualities, from the purest creamy white and the
finest grain to the coarser sorts disfigured with bluish grey streaks.
1 In less solid constructions than those which have survived until
modern times bricks were doubtless used by themselves.
2 The oft-quoted boast of Augustus (Suet. Aug. 29) that he
" found Rome of brick and left it of marble " has probably much
truth in it, if for " brick " we read " peperino and tufa." In the
time of Augustus burnt brick was very little used, the usual wall-
facings being opus quadratum of tufa or peperino, and opus reticu-
latum of tufa only.
(Ex., the eleven Corinthian columns in the Borsa.) (2) Marmor
Hymettium, from Mount Hymettus, near Athens, is coarser in
grain than the best Luna marble and is usually marked with grey
or blue striations (Strabo ix. p. 399). (Ex., the forty-two columns
in the nave of S. Maria Maggiore and the columns in S. Pietro in
Vincoh.) (3) Marmor Penteltcum, from Mount Pentelicus, also near
Athens, is very fine in grain and of a pure white; it was more used
for architectural purposes than for statues, though some sculptors
preferred it above all others, especially Pheidias and Praxiteles.
(Ex., the bust of the young Augustus in the Vatican.) (4) Marmor
farium, from the Isle of Paros, is very beautiful, though coarse in
texture, having a very crystalline structure. (Ex., the nineteen
columns of the round temple in the Forum Boarium.)
Nine chief varieties of coloured marbles were used in Rome.
(i) Marmor Numidicum (mod. giallo antico; Plin. H.N. v. 22),
from Numidia and Libya, hence also called Libycum,
is of a rich yellow, deepening to orange and even pink. Co1 '"!
Enormous quantities of it were used.especially for columns,
wall-linings and pavements. (Ex., seven columns on the arch of
Constantme, taken from the arch of Trajan ; the eighth column
is in the Lateran basilica.) (2) Marmor Carystium (mod. cipoltino),
from Carystus in Euboea (Strabo x. p. 446), has alternate wavy
strata of white and pale green the "undosa Carystos" of Statius
(Silv. i. 5, 34). From its well-defined layers like an onion (cipolla)
is derived its modern name. (Ex., columns of temple of Antoninus
and Faustina.) (3) Marmor Phrygium or Synnadicum (mod.
pavonazzetto), from Synnada in Phrygia (Strabo xii. p. 577; Juv.
xiv. 307; Tibull. iii. 3, 13), is a slightly translucent marble, with
rich purple markings, violet verging on red. It was fabled to be
stained with the blood of Atys (Stat. Silv. i. 5, 37). (Ex., twelve
fluted columns in S. Lorenzo fuori le Mura, and four columns in the
apse of S. Paolo fuori, saved from the ancient nave of the basilica,
burnt in 1823.) (4) Marmor lasium (probably the modern porta
santa), from lasus, is mottled with large patches of dull red, olive
green and white. The " holy doors " of the fbur great basilicas
are framed with it, hence its modern name. (Ex., the slabs in front
of the hemicycle of the Rostra and four columns in S. Agnese fuori
le Mura). (5) Marmor Chium (probably the modern Africano),
from Chios, is similar in the variety of its markings to the portasanla,
but more brilliant in tint. (Ex., a great part of the paving of the
Basilica Julia and two large columns in the centre of the facade of
St Peter's.) (6) Marmor Taenarium (mod. rosso antico), from
Taenarum in Laconia (Strabo viii. p. 367; Pliny, H.N: xxxvi.
158), is a very close-grained marble, of a rich deep red, like blood.
As a rule it does not occur in large pieces, but was much used for
small cornices and other mouldings in interiors of buildings. Its
quarries in Greece are still worked. (The largest pieces known are
the fourteen steps to the high altar of S. Prassede and two columns
nearly 12 ft. high in the Rospigliosi Casino dell' Aurora.) (7) The
name Marmor Taenarium is also applied by the ancients to a black
marble (nerp antico) now no longer quarried. It is mentioned by
Tibullus (iii. 3, 14) in conjunction with Phrygian and Carystian
marbles; see also Prop. iii. 2, 9, and Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 135. (Ex.,
two columns in the choir of S. Giovanni in Laterano.) (8) Lapis
Atracius (verde antico), found at Atrax in Thessaly, was one of the
favourite materials for decorative architecture; it is not strictly a
marble (i.e. a calcareous stone) but a variety of " precious serpentine,"
with patches of white and brown on a brilliant green ground. It
seldom occurs in large masses. (The finest known specimens are
the twenty-four columns beside the niches in the nave of the Lateran
basilica.) (9) The hard oriental alabaster, the " onyx " or " alabas-
trites " of Pliny (H.N. xxxvi. 59, xxxvii. 109) ; its chief quarries
were on the Nile near Thebes,* in Arabia and near Damascus. In
Pliny's age it was a great rarity; but in later times it was introduced
in large quantities, and fragments of a great many columns have
been found on the Palatine, in the baths' of Caracalla and elsewhere.
It is semi-transparent and beautifully marked with concentric
nodules and wavy strata. An immense number of other less
common marbles have been found, including many varieties of
breccia, whose ancient names are unknown. 4
From the latter part of the ist century B.C. hard stones granites
and basalts were introduced in great quantities. The basalts
" basanites " of Pliny (xxxvi. 58) are very refractory, and __
can only be worked by the help of emery or diamond dust. /r * n "<
The former was obtained largely at Naxos; diamond-
dust drills are mentioned by Pliny (H.N. xxxvii. 200).
The basalts are black, green and brown, and are usually free from
spots or markings; examples of all three exist, but are com-
paratively rare. The red variety called " porphyry " was used
in enormous quantities. It is the " porphyntes " of PHny (H.N.
* These Nile quarries were worked during the igth century, and
many blocks were imported into Rome for the rebuilding of S.
Paolo fuori le Mura.
4 On the subject of Roman marbles, see Corsi, Dette pietre antiche
(ed. 3, 1845), and Pullen, Handbook of Roman Marbles (London,
1894) ; also Brindley in Transactions of the Royal Institute of British
Architects (1887). A collection of 1000 specimens, originally formed
by Corsi, is preserved in the museum at Oxford.
5 86 ROME
xxxvi. 57), and was brought from Egypt. It has a rich red ground,
covered with small specks of white felspar; hence it was also called
" leptopsephos." A large number of columns of it exist, and it was
much used for pavements of opus Alexandrinum. A rich green
porphyry or basalt was also largely used, but not in such great
masses as the red porphyry. It has a brilliant green ground covered
with rectangular light green crystals of felspar. This is the lapis
Lacedaemonius (wrongly called by the modern Romans " scrpent-
ino "), so named from its quarries in Mount Ta^getus in Lace-
daemonia (Paus. iii. 21, 4; Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 55; Juv. xi. 175).
It appears to have been mostly used for pavements and panels of
wall linings. The granites used in Rome came mostly from near
Philae on the Nile (Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 63). The red sort was called
lapis pyrrhopoecilus and the grey lapis psaronius. The columns in
the Basilica Ulpia are a fine example of the latter; both sorts are
used for the columns of the Pantheon and those of the temple of
Saturn in the Forum. Gigantic ships were specially made to carry
the obelisks and other great monoliths (Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 2, 67).
The style of architecture employed in ancient Rome (see
ARCHITECTURE, section Roman, and ROMAN ART) may be
Anhi- sa id to have passed through three stages the
iectunt Etruscan, the Greek and the Roman. During the
styles. fi rs t f ew centuries of the existence of the city, both
the methods of construction and the designs employed appear
to have been purely Etruscan. The earliest temples were
either simple cellae without columns, or else, in the case of
the grander temples, such as that of Capitoline Jupiter, the
columns were very widely spaced (araeostyle), and consequently
had entablatures of wooden beams. The architectural decora-
tions were more generally in gilt bronze or painted terra-cotta
than in stone, and the paintings or statues which decorated
the buildings were usually the work of Etruscan artists. 1 The
Greek influence is more obvious; it is found in the period
following the Second Punic or Hannibalic War, and almost all
the temples of the earlier imperial age are Greek, with certain
modifications, not only in general design but in details and
ornaments. Greek architects were largely employed, such as
Apollodorus of Damascus, who designed Trajan's forum and
other buildings; on the other hand, a Roman, Cossutius, was
employed on the building of the Olympieum at Athens, in the
and century B.C. Roman architects such as Vitruvius and
C. Mucius in the ist century B.C., Severus and Celer under
Nero, and Rabirius under Domitian, were Greek by education,
and probably studied at Athens (see Vitr. vii. Praef.; Hirt,
Gesch. d. Baukunst, ii. p. 257).* The Romans, however, though
far below the Greeks in artistic originality, were very able
engineers, and this led to the development of a new and more
purely Roman style, in which the restrictions imposed by the
use of the stone lintel were put aside and large spaces were
covered with vaults and domes cast in semi-fluid concrete, a
method which had the enormous advantage of giving the arched
form without the constant thrust at the springing which makes
true arches or vaults of wide span so difficult to deal with. The
enormous vaults of the great thermae, the basilica of Con-
stantine, and the like, cover their spaces with one solid mass
like a metal lid, giving the form but not the principle of the arch,
and thus allowing the vault to be set on walls which would at
once have been thrust apart had they been subjected to the
immense leverage which a true arched vault constantly exerts
on its imposts." This is a very important point, and one which
is usually overlooked, mainly owing to the Roman practice of
facing their concrete with bricks, which (from an examination
1 Pliny (H.N. xxxv. 154), quoting Varro, says that the decorations
in painting and sculpture of the temple of Ceres near the Circus
Maximus were the work of the first Greek artists employed in Rome,
and that before that (c. 493 B.C.) " all things in temples were
Etruscan." Vitruvius (iii. 3) says, " Ornantque signis fictilibus
aut aereia inauratis eorum fastigia Tuscanico more, uti est ad
Circum Maximum Cereris, et Herculis Pompeiani, item Capitolii "
(cf. iv. 7, vi. 3).
1 The frequent use of engaged columns is a peculiarity of Roman
architecture, but it is not without precedent in Greek buildings of the
best period, e.g. in the temple of Zeus at Agrigentum. Surface
enrichments over the mouldings were used far more largely by the
Romans than by the Greeks.
1 In the beautiful drawings of Choisy (L'Art de bdtir chez les
Remains, Paris, 1873) the structural importance of the brick used in
vaults and arches is very much exaggerated.
[THE ANCIENT CITY
of the surface only) appear to be a principal item in the con-
struction. The walls of the Pantheon, for example, are covered
with tiers of brick arches, and many theories have been invented
as to their use in distributing the weight of the walls. But a
recognition of the fact that these walls are of concrete about
20 ft. thick, while the brick facing averages scarcely 6 in. in
thickness, clearly shows that these " relieving arches " have
no more constructional use as far as concerns the pressure
than if they were painted on the surface of the walls. The
same applies to the superficial use of brick in all arches and
vaults. Although, however, the setting of the concrete rendered
the brick facing superfluous, it played its part in sustaining the
fluid mass on its centring during the process of solidification.
At first tufa only was used in opus quadratum, as we see in the
so-called wall of Romulus. Next the harder peperino began to be
worked: it is used, though sparingly, in the " Servian "
wall, and during the later Republic appears to have been
largely employed for exterior walls or points where there
was heavy pressure, while other parts were built of tuia.
Thirdly, travertine appears to have been introduced about the 2nd
century B.C. but was used at first for mereiy ornamental purposes,
very much as marble was under the Empire; after about the middle
of the 1st century A.D. travertine began to be largely used for the
solid mass of walls, as in the temple of Vespasian and the Colosseum.
The tufa or peperino blocks were roughly 2 (Roman) ft. thick in
regular courses (the ' isodomum " of Vitruvius) by 2 ft. across the
end, and under the Republic often exactly 4 ft. long, so that two
blocks set endways
ranged with one set
lengthways. They
were arranged in
alternate courses
of headers and
stretchers, so as to
make a good bond;
this is the " em-
plecton " of Vit-
ruvius (ii. 8). The
so-called Tabular-
ium of the Capitol
is a good example
of this. The harder
and more valuable
travertine was not
cut in this regular
way, but pieces of
all sizes were used,
just as they hap-
pened to come from
the quarry, in order
to avoid waste :
blocks as much as
15 by 8 ft. were
used, and the
courses varied in
thickness t h e
" pseudisodomum "
of Vitruvius. When
tufa or peperino
travertine, it was
cut so as to range
with the irregular
courses of the
latter.
It is interesting
to note the manner
in which the Roman
builders mixed their
different materials
according to the
weight they had to
carry. While tufa
was frequently used
for the main walls,
peperino (e.g. in the
1 Servian " wall on
the Aventine) or^
travertine (e.g. in*
the forum of Au-
gustus and the
temple of Fortuna
:G. i. Example of Construction in which
many materials are used; upper part of one
of the inner radiating walls under the cunei
of the Colosseum. A, A. Marble seats on
brick and concrete core, supported on vault
made of pumice-stone concrete (C). B.
Travertine arch at end of raking vault (C).
D. One of the travertine piers built in flus/h
with the tufa wall to give it extra strength.
E, E- Wall of tufa concrete faced with
triangular bricks, carrying the vaults of
pumice concrete which support the marble
seats. F. Travertine pier at end of radia-
ting wall. G. Brick-faced arch of concrete
to carry floor of passage. H, H. Tufa wall,
opus quadratum. J, J, J. Line of steps in
next bay. K, K. Surface arches of brick,
too shallow to be of any constructional use,
and not meant for ornament, as the whole
was stuccoed ; they only face the wall (which
is about 4 ft. thick) to the average depth of
4 in.
temp]
Virilis, so called) was inserted at points of special pressure, such
as piers or arches (see fig.). The Colosseum is a particularly
elaborate example of this mixed construction with three degrees
of pressure supported by three different materials.
FlG. 7. PLAN OF ANCIENT ROME.
THE ANCIENT CITY]
ROME
587
The use of mortar with opus quadratum is a sign of a comparatively
early date. It occurs, e.g. in the " Servian " wall on the Aventine
.. and in the Tabularium. Under the Empire massive blocks,
whether of tufa, travertine or marble, are set without any
mortar. It must, however, be observed that in these early instances
the " mortar " is but a thin stratum of lime, little thicker than stout
paper, used not as a cement to bind the blocks together, but simply
damns to g ' ve e J' nts a smoothly fitting surface. The actual
binding together was done by clamps and dowels, as well
as by the mass and weight of the great blocks used. Except in the
earliest masonry, each block was very carefully fastened, not only
to the next blocks on the same course, which was done with double
dove-tailed dowels of wood, but also to those above and below with
stout iron clamps, run with lead (Vitr. ii. 8). 1 In more ornamental
marble work bronze clamps were often used. Concrete is rarely
found in connexion with opus quadratum; part of the " Servian
wall on the Aventine received a backing of concrete at a relatively
late period Up to the ist century B.C it was faced with opus
incertum small irregularly shaped blocks of tufa, 3 to 6 in.
across, with pointed ends driven into the concrete while it was soft,
and worked smooth on the face only (see fig. 2). From the beginning
of the 1st century B.C. opus reticulatum? formed of
rectangular tufa prisms laid in a regular pattern like a
net (whence the name), is found. It is very neat in
appearance, and is often fitted with great care,though it was
generally covered with stucco. The so-called " house of Livia "
on the Palatine is a good exampleof the earlier sort, when the quoins
were made of small rectangular blocks
of tufa. Under the Empire brick
quoins came into use (as may be
seen, e.g. in the so-called palace of
Caligula). Though in Rome opus
reticulatum was ajmost always made
of tufa, in the neighbourhood of the
city it was sometimes of peperino or
even lava, where these materials were
found on the spot.
retku-
lalum.
SECTION OF ANGLE
FIG. 2. Concrete Wall FIG. 3. Section of Concrete Wall, show-
faced with (A) Opus In- ing the use of bricks merely as a
certumand(B)OpusRe- facing,
ticulatum. C shows the
section, similar in both.
Of concrete walls faced with burnt bricks no dated example
earlier than the middle of the 1st century B.C. is known. The facing
consisted at first of triangular fragments of tiles (teguloe),
broken for the purpose and more or less irregular in shape
facing. anc j s j ze> k ut f rom t h e latter part of the 1st century A.D.
onwards triangular bricks were specially manufactured for wall-
facings. This shape was adopted in order to present a large surface
on the face with little expenditure of brick, and also to improve the
bond wrth the concrete behind (see fig. 4). Even party walls of small
rooms are not built solid, but have a concrete core faced with brick
triangles about 3 in. long. In order to support the facing until the
concrete was set, the Roman builders used a wooden framing covered
with planks on the inside. Sometimes the planks were nailed outside
the wooden uprights, as was done with unfaced concrete walls, and
then a series of grooves appear in the face of the brickwork. Walls
faced with opus reticulatum must have been supported temporarily
in the same way.
The character of the brick facing is a great help towards deter-
mining the date of Roman buildings. In early work the bricks are
thick and the joints thin, while in later times the reverse is the case,
so that brickwork of the time of Severus and later has more bricks
to the foot than that of the Flavian period.
The length of the bricks as it appears on the face is no guide to
the date, since one or more of the sharp points of the brick triangles
were frequently broken off before they were used. Moreover,
1 The expansion of the iron through rust, which caused the stone to
split, has frequently been a great source of injury to Roman walls, as
well as the practice, common in the middle ages, of breaking into the
stones in order to extract the metal.
1 These two kinds of stone facings are mentioned thus by Vitruvius
(ii. 8), " reticulatum, quo nunc [reign of Augustus] omnes utuntur,
et antiquum, quod incertum dicitur."
varieties both in quality of workmanship and size of the bricks often
occur in work of the same date. In the remains of Nero's Golden
House great varieties appear, and some of the walls in the inferior
rooms are faced with very irregular and careless brickwork. 1 Special
care and neatness were employed in the rare cases when the wall was
not to be covered with stucco, which in the absence of marble was
usually spread over both inside and outside walls. All these circum-
stances make great caution necessary in judging of dates; fortunately
after the 1st century A.D., and in some cases even earlier, stamps
impressed on bricks, and especially on the large tiles used for arches,
give clearer indications. The reason of the almost universal use
of smooth facings either of opus reticulatum or of brick over concrete
walls is a very puzzling question; for concrete itself forms an
excellent ground for the stucco coating or backing to the marble slabs,
while the stucco adheres with difficulty to a smooth facing, and is
very liable to fall away. The modern practice of raking out the
joints to form a key was not employed by the Romans, but before
the mortar was hard they studded the face of the wall with marble
plugs and iron or bronze nails driven into the joints, so as to give
a hold for the stucco a great waste both of labour and material. 4
The quality of the mortar varies according to its date: during the
ist and 2nd centuries it is of remarkable hardness made of lime
with a mixture of coarse pozzolana of a bright red colour; in the
3rd century *t began to be inferior in quality; and the pozzolana used
under the later Empire is brown instead 01 red.
_ Concrete was at first always made of lumps of tufa; then traver-
tine, lava, broken bricks and even marble were used, in fact all
the chips and fragments of the mason's yard. Under concrete
the Empire the concrete used was made with travertine walls aod
or lava for foundations, with tufa or broken bricks for vau u s ,
walls, and with tufa or pumice-stone (for the sake of
lightness) for vaults. Massive walls were cast in a mould ; upright
timbers, about 6 by 7 in. thick and 10 to 14 ft. long, were set in
rows on each face of the
future wall; planks 9 to
lo in. wide were nailed
to them, so as to form a
case, into which the semi-
fluid mass of stones,
lime and pozzolana was
poured. When this was
set the timbers were re-
moved and refixed on the
top of the concrete wall;
then fresh concrete was
poured in; and this pro-
cess was repeated till the
wall was raised to the re-
quired height. Usually
such cast-work was only
used for foundations and
cella walls, the upper
parts being faced with
brick; but in some cases
the whole wall to the top
was cast in this way and
the brick facing omitted.
In strength and dura-
bility no masonry, how-
ever hard the stone or
large the blocks, could
ever equal these walls of
concrete when made with
hard lava or travertine,
for each wall was one
perfectly coherent mass,
and could only be de-
stroyed by a laborious
process like that of
FIG. 4. Example of Marble Lining, from
the Cella of the Temple of Concord.
A. Slabs of Phrygian marble. B.
Plinth moulding of Numidian
"giallo." C. Slab of cipollino
(Cary st ' an marble). D. Paving of
porta santa. E and F. " nucleus "
and " nidus " of concrete bedding.
G, G. Iron clamps run with lead to
fix marble lining. H. Bronze clamp.
J. Cement backing.
quarrying hard stone from its native bed. Owing to this method
of building the progress of the work from day to day can often be
traced by a change in the look of the concrete. About 3 ft. appears
to have been the average amount of wall raised in a day.
Marble linings were fixed very firmly to the walls with long
clamps of metal, hooked at the end so as to hold in a hole made in
the marble slab. Fig. 4 gives an example, of the time of Marble
Augustus, fixed against a stone wall. The blocks were
usually marked in the quarry with a number, and often tf&
with the names of the reigning emperor and the overseer
of the quarry. These quarry-marks are often of great value as
indications of the date of a building or statue.' Metropolitan
'Some of the bricks are as much as 2j in. thick, while ij in. is
the usual maximum for Roman bricks.
4 The Roman method of applying stucco to walls with a wooden
" float " exactly as is done now, is shown in a painting from Pompeii
(see Ann. Inst., 1881, pi. H.).
'See Bruzza, in Ann. Inst. (1870), pp. 106-204; Hirschfeld, Die
kaiserlichen Verwaltungsbeamten (1905), pp. 162 ff.
588
ROME
[PREHISTORIC REMAINS
Roads.
building acts, not unlike those of modern London, were enacted
by several of the emperors. These fixed the materials to be used,
thickness of walls, minimum width of streets, maximum height
allowed for houses, &c. After the great fire in Nero's reign, A.D.
64, an act was passed requiring the lower storeys of houses to be
built with fire-proof materials, such as peperino or burnt brick.
Enormous accumulations of statues and pictures enriched Rome
during its period of greatest splendour. In the first place, the
numerous statues of the republican and even of the regal
Ancient period were religiously preserved at a time when, from
works of their archaic character, they must have been regarded
rather as objects of sacred or archaeological interest than
as works of art (Plin. H.N. xxxiv. 15 ff., xxxv. 19 ff.). Secondly
came the large Graeco-Roman class, mostly copies of earlier Greek
works, executed in Rome by Greek artists. To this class belongs
most of the finest existing sculpture preserved in the Vatican and
other museums. Thirdly, countless statues and pictures were stolen
from almost every important city in Greece, Magna Graecia, Sicily
and western Asia Minor. These robberies began early, and were
carried on for many centuries. The importations included works
of art by all the chief artists from the Jth century downwards.
Long lists are given by Pliny (H.N. xxxiii.-xxxvi.), and pedestals
exist with the names of Praxiteles, Timarchus, PolycHtus, Bryaxis
and others. These accumulated works of sculpture* were of all
materials gold and ivory (Suet. Tit. 2), of which seventy-four
are mentioned in the catalogue of the Breviarium, many hundreds
or even thousands of silver 1 (Plin. H.N. xxxiii. 151 f.), while
those of gilt bronze and marble must have existed in almost untold
numbers (Paus. viii. 46). Nor were the accumulated stores of
Greek paintings much inferior in number; not only were easel
pictures by Zeuxis, Apelles, Timanthes and other Greek artists
taken, but even mural paintings were carefully cut off their walls
and brought to Rome secured in wooden frames (Plin. H.N.
xxxv. 173, and compare ibid. 154).
The roads were made of polygonal blocks of lava (silex),
neatly fitted together and laid on a carefully prepared bed,
similar to that used for mosaic paving (see MOSAIC
and ROADS). Roads thus made were called viae
stralae. A good specimen of Roman road-making, in which
the blocks were fitted together with the utmost accuracy, is to
be seen in a portion
of the Clivus Capi-
tolinus in front of the
temple of Saturn (see
fig. 5, which also shows
the massive travertine
curb which bordered
the road; sometimes
the curb was of lava).
In 1901 the late and
badly laid pavement of
the Sacra Via on the
ascent of the Velia
was removed, and the
earlier paving laid bare
at a lower level. The
original pavement of
SECTION. the Nova Via was ex-
10FEET. P sed m I0 4- Other
well-preserved viae
FIG. 5. Example of Early Basalt Road by stralae are those leading
the Temple of Saturn on the Clivus up to the p a l a ti ne from
Capitohnus. A. Travertine paving rjf c c v
B. Polygonal basalt blocks. C. Con- th Summa Sacra Via
crete bedding. D. Rain-water gutter, and that which follows
The curb shown is taken from another the curved line of shops
part of the road. i n Trajan's forum.
The following is a list of the chief roads which radiated from
Rome: (i) Via Appia issued from the Servian Porta Capena and the
Aurelian P. Appia; from it diverged (2) Via Latina, which issued
from the Aurelian P. Latina ; (3) Via Labicana and (4) Via Tiburtina
issued from the Servian P. Esquilina; from (3) diverged (5) Via
Praenestina at the double arch of the Claudian aqueduct, now
P. Maggiore, while (4) passed through the Aurelian P. Tiburtina;
(6) Via Nomentana and (7) Via Salaria issued from the Servian
P. Collina and passed respectively through the Aurelian P. Nomen-
tana and P. Salaria; (8) Via Flaminia issued from the Servian
P. Fontinalis, and was called Via Lata for the first half-mile or more,
1 Eighty silver statues of Augustus, some equestrian and some in
quadngae, are mentioned in the Man. Anc. 4, 51.
1
then passed through the Aurelian P. Flaminia; (9) Via Aurelia,
from the Transtiberine P. Aurelia; (10) Via Portuensis, from the
Transtiberine P. Portuensis; (ll) Via Ostiensis, from the Servian
P. Trigemina and the Aurelian P. Ostiensis; (12) Via Ardeatina,
from the Servian P. Naevia and the Aurelian P. Ardeatina.
Remains of Prehistoric Rome.
It is evident from recent discoveries that the site of Rome
was inhabited at a very early period. 2 Flint implements and
remains of the Bronze Age have been found on the Aventine
and elsewhere; and from the Early Iron Age onwards we have
a continuous archaeological record, owing to the discovery of
ancient burial-places. In 1902 a very early necropolis was
brought to light at the S.E. corner of the temple of Antoninus
and Faustina, some 17 ft. below the level of the Forum. The
graves contain either the ashes of cremated bodies placed in a
large vessel (dolio), or skeletons buried either in a simple trench
(fossa), a tufa sarcophagus or a tree-trunk. The cremation
graves are the earlier, and none are later than the 6th century,
while the oldest may be of the 9th; the pottery and other
objects placed in the graves belong to the Early Iron Age. It
is clear that this cemetery is earlier than the union of the
Palatine and Quirinal settlements in one city (see below, p. 759).
Other early cemeteries have been discovered on the Quirinal
and Esquiline, which were in use from the beginning of the
Iron Age down to the beginning of the historic period. The
large necropolis on the Esquiline is cut in two by the " Servian "
wall, which is evidently of later date. The later tombs contain
objects of Etruscan, Phoenician and Greek manufacture.
There is no doubt that the earliest settlement bearing the
name of Rome was on the Palatine hill, 3 which was both easy
of defence and possessed the means of communica- The
tion with its neighbours in the proximity of the Palatine
Tiber. The name Roma is said to mean " river," clty-
but this is uncertain. The Palatine is roughly square in out-
line, and the Roman antiquarians sometimes applied the name
Roma Quadrata to the earliest settlement; but the term seems
more properly to have applied to a sanctuary connected with
the foundation of the city. The ideal boundary of the city
was formed by the Pomerium (see Varro, L.L. v. 143; Liv.
i. 44; Dionys. i. 88), whose original course is traced by Tacitus
(Ann. xii. 24). It passed along the foot of the hill (per ima
mantis Palatini), the angle-points being given by the Ara
Maxima in the Forum Boarium, the Ara Consi in the Circus
Maximus, the Curiae Veteres (near the arch of Constantine)
and the Sacellum Larum (at the N. angle). But this was of
course not a defensible site, and the extent of the fortified city
can only be determined by the traces of its early walls. These
enable us to fix its line along the whole valley of the Velabrum,
on the west of the hill, and along the valley of the Circus
Maximus as far as the so-called Paedagogium, about half-way
on the south side.
Considerable remains of this fortification exist near the west angle
of the hill. These show that the natural strength given by the
cliff was increased by artificial means. The wall was set
neither at the top nor at the foot of the hill, but more Anckat
than half-way up, a level terrace or shelf all round being fortlf/-
cut in the rock on which the base of the wall stood. Above <*tlons.
that the hill was cut away into a cliff, not quite perpendicular but
slightly " battering " inwards, to give greater stability to the wall,
which was built up against it, like a retaining wall, reaching to the
top of the cliff, and probably a few feet higher. The stones used in
this wall are soft tufa, a warm brown in colour, and full of masses of
charred wood. The cutting to form the steep cliff probably supplied
part of the material for the wall; and ancient quarries, afterwards
used as reservoirs for water, exist in the mass of rock on which the
so-called temple of Jupiter Victor stands. It has been asserted that
these tufa blocks are not cut but split with wedges; this, however,
is not the case. Tufa does not split into rectangular masses, but
2 On the prehistoric^ remains of Rome and Latium, see Pinza
in Monumenti antichi pubblicati per euro delta reale Accademia
dei Lincei, vol. xv., 1905; also Comm. Boni's reports on the necro-
polis adjoining the Forum in the Notizie degli scavi, and Modestor,
Introduction d I'histoire romaine (Paris, 1907).
3 The " primacy of the Palatine " has been disputed by Carter
(Amer. Jour. Arch., 1908, p. 181), who thinks that the first city was
that of the Four Regions (see below) formed by the Etruscan kings.
PREHISTORIC REMAINS]
ROME
589
would be shattered to pieces by a wedge; moreover, distinct
tool-marks can be seen on all the blocks whose surface is well pre-
served and in the quarries themselves. Chisels from one-fourth to
three-fourths of an inch in width were used, and also a sharp-pointed
pick or hammer. The wall is about 10 ft. thick at the bottom, and
increases in thickness above as the scarped cliff against which it is
built recedes. It is built of blocks laid in alternate courses of headers
and stretchers, varying in thickness from 22 to 24 in., in length
from 3 to 5 ft. and in width from 19 to 22 in. These blocks are
carefully worked on their beds, but the face is left rough, and the
vertical joints are in some cases open, spaces of nearly 2 in. being
left between block and block; in other cases the vertical joints
are worked true and close like the beds. No mortar was used. At
two points on the side of the Velabrum winding passages are
excavated in the tufa cliff, the entrance to which was once closed
by the ancient wall. One of these in early times (before water in
abundance was brought to the Palatine on aqueducts) was used as
a reservoir to collect surface water, probably for use in case of siege ;
circular shafts for buckets are cut downwards through the rock from
the top of the hill. A similar rock-cut cistern with vertical shafts,
of very early date, exists at Alba Longa. Opposite the church of
S. Teodoro a series of buttresses belonging to the early wall exists,
partly concealed by a long line of buildings of the later years of the
Republic and the early Empire, to make room for which the greater
part of the then useless wall was pulled down, and only fragments
left here and there, where they could be worked into the walls of
the later houses.
The age of the walls here described cannot be determined with
certainty, but their resemblance to the remains of the " Servian "
wall, especially in the system of " headers and stretchers " and the
dimensions of the blocks, makes it certain that they do not differ
greatly in date from that work. The chief technical difference lies
in the open vertical joints found in some cases; but too much stress
should not be laid on this feature. There are, however, at the
western angle of the hill some remains of an earlier fortification,
constructed with blocks of grey-green tufa, smaller in size than those
of the main wall. A few courses have been preserved, owing to the
fact that at the angle of the hill this wall was encased first of all by
that described above and afterwards by concrete substructures of
imperial date. The technique is primitive, as the blocks are of
irregular size and are not laid in courses of " headers and stretchers " ;
the nearest parallel is supplied by the foundations of the temple of
Jupiter Capitolinus. These remains are shown by Delbriick, Der
Apollotempel auf dem Marsfelde, pi. iii., cf. p. 13 f.
Pliny (H.N. iii. 66) tells us that the city of Romulus had three
gates (cf. Serv. Ad. Aen. i. 222); and three approaches to the
. Palatine city can be traced. One is the so-called Scalae
Caci, a long sloping ascent cut through the rock (see
'"*? . fig. 17) from the side of the Circus Maximus; some
vua ' remains of the early wall still exist along the sides of this
steep ascent or staircase. The upper part of this has remains of a
basalt pavement, added in later times, probably covering the more
ancient rock-cut steps. The name of the gate which led at this
point into the Palatine city is unknown. The only two gates whose
name and position can be (with any degree of probability) identified
are the Porta Romanula and the Porta Mugonia. The former of
these is called Porta Romana by Festus (ed. Miilfer, p. 262), who
states that it was at the foot of the Clivus Victoriae (see fig. 17)
and was so called by the Sabines of the Capitol because it was their
natural entrance to Roma Quadrata (see also Varro, L.L. v. 164
(who only mentions the two gates named above), vi. 24). It would
thus have been at the foot of the hill in the Velabrum (see below,
p. 600); but Varro says that it was approached by steps from the
Nova Via, l which would place it at the N. angle of the Palatine. The
stairs connecting the Nova Via with the Clivus Victoriae still exist.
Doubtful traces of the Porta Mugonia (see Sol. i. 24) have been
discovered where a basalt paved road leads up into the Palatine from
the Summa Sacra Via and the Summa Nova Via, which join near the
arch of Titus; exposure to weather has now destroyed the soft tufa
blocks of which this gate was built. This is probably the " vetus
porta Palatii " of Liyy (i. 12), through which the Romans fled when
defeated by the Sabines.
The Palatine settlement was the nucleus around which, by a series
of expansions, the historical city of Rome grew up. The first step
nrn ih was tne ama 'g ama t' on f Roma Quadrata with the villages
f on the neighbouring spurs of the Esquiline and Caelian.
or early -phis gave birth to the community of the Seven Hills, whose
"*'" existence is proved by the survival of the festival known as
the Septimontium, celebrated on the nth of December (Fest. 340;
Macrob. i. 16, 6). The seven hills were not those familiar in later
nomenclature, but the following: (i) Palatium and (2) Cermalus,
the two summits of the Palatine; (3) Velia, the saddle between
the Palatine and Esquiline; (4) Oppius and (5) Cispius, the two
westernmost spurs of the Esquiline, together with (6) Fagutal, the
extreme crest of the Oppius; (7) Sucusa (confused by later writers
with Subura), the eastern spur of the Caelian. Varro (L.L. v. 48)
mentions the murus terreus Carinarum, which may have belonged
1 " Novalia," MSS. " Navalia " has been conjectured.
to the defences of this community, since the N.W. slope of the
Oppius bore the name Carinae; but there is no proof that the
Septimontium was a walled city.
The next stage in the development of Rome was marked by the
division of the city into four regions, ascribed by tradition to
Servius Tullius, 1 who was said to have formed the four city tribes,
corresponding with the regions: (i) Suburana, including the
Caelian and the valley between that hill and the Esquiline;
(2) Esquilina, the Oppius and Cispius; (3) Collina, the Quirinal
and Viminal; (4) 1 'al.it in. i, including the Palatine and Velia. The
third region was an addition to the City of the Seven Hills; the new
city was, in fact, formed by the union of the old Latin settlement with
a Sabine community on the Quirinal. The Capitol was the citadel,
but was not included in the city (hence the phrase urbs et Capitolium).
Tradition likewise assigned to Servius Tullius' the construction
of the great wall which embraced not merely the four regions but
a considerably extended area, including the Aventine.
Excavations have done much to determine the line of the tl"*/
Servian wall, especially the great works undertaken in laying
out a new quarter of the city on the Quirinal, Esquiline and
Viminal, which have laid bare and then mostly destroyed long lines
of wall, especially along the agger. Beginning from the Tiber,
which the Servian wall touched at a point near the present Ponte
Rotto, and separating the Forum Holitorium (outside) from the
Forum Boarium (inside), it ran in a straight line to the Capitoline
hill, the two crests of which, the Capitolium and the Arx, with the
intermediate valley the Asylum, were surrounded by an earlier
fortification, set (Dionys. ix. 68) M X&Jwtt . . . nal -ri-rpaa dirorA^oif.
In this space there were two gates, the Porta Flumentana, next the
river (see Cic. Ad Alt. vii. 3; Liv. xxxv. 19, 21); and the Porta
Carmentalis close to the Capitolium. 4 From the Capitoline hill the
wall passed to the Quirinal along a spur of elevated ground, after-
wards completely cut away by Trajan. Close to the Capitol was the
Porta Fontinalis, whence issued the Via Lata. Remains of the wall
and foundations of the gate exist in Via di Marforio. After passing
Trajan's forum, we find remains of the walls en the slope of the
Quirinal. A piece of the wall has been exposed in the new Via
Nazionale, and also an archway under the Palazzo Antonelli, which
may represent the Porta Sanqualis (see Festus, ed. Miiller, p. 343).
The Porta Salutaris (Festus, pp. 326-327) was also on the Quirinal,
probably on the slope between the Trevi fountain and the royal
palace. Its position is indicated by the existence of some tombs
which give the line of the road. On the north-west of the Quirinal
was the Porta Quirinalis (Festus, p. 254), probably near the
" Quattro Fontane." In the Barberini palace gardens, and especi-
ally in those of the Villa Barberini (Horti Sallustiani), extensive
remains of the wall have been recently exposed and destroyed,
which was also the fate of that fine piece of wall that passed under the
new office of finance, with the Porta Collina, which was not on the
line of the present road, but about 50 yds. to the south (see Dionys.
ix. 68; Strabo iv. p. 234). Thus far in its course from the Capitol
the wall skirted the slopes of hills, which were once much more
abrupt than they are now; but from the Porta Collina to the
Porta Esquilina it crossed a large tract of level ground; and here
its place was taken by the great agger described below. About the
middle of it the Porta Viminalis was found in 1872; it stood, as
Strabo (iv. p. 234) says, 6ird utaif r<f x<i/aaTi, and from it led a road
which passed through the Porta Chiusa (ancient name unknown)
in Aurelian's wall. Foundations of the Porta Esquilina were found
in 1875 close behind the arch of Gallienus. The further course of
the wall across the valley of the Colosseum is the least known part
of the circuit. Hence the wall skirts the slopes of the Caelian
(where, as is probable, it was pierced by the Porta Caelemontana and
Porta Querquetulana) to the valley along which the Via Appia
passed through the Porta Capena, near the church of S. Gregorio.
Its line along the Aventine is fairly distinct, and near S. Balbina
and in the Vigna Torlonia are two of the best-preserved pieces (see
below). There were three gates on the Aventine, the Porta
Naevia on the southern height, P. Raudusculana in the central
depression, and P. Lavernalis on the northern summit. Under the
Aventine it appears to have touched the river near the existing
foundations supposed to be those of the Pons Sublicius. The Porta
Trigemina was close by the bank. Hence to our starting-point the
river formed the defence of the city, with its massive quay wall.
The wall is built of blocks of tufa, usually the softer kinds, but
varying according to its position, as in most cases the stone used
was that quarried on the spot. In restorations a good
deal of peperino is used. The blocks average from 23 to fniai'a
24 in. in thickness roughly 2 Roman feet and are '
laid in alternate courses of headers and stretchers. The method
of construction varied according to the nature of the ground
s Varro, L.L. v. 46-54.
3 Livy i. 44; Dion. Hal. iv. 13. The wall is, however, said to
have been planned and partly executed by Tarquinius Priscus
(Liv. i. 36, 38; Dion. Hal. iii. 37); and the fortification of the
Aventine is ascribed to Ancus Mart ins (Dion. Hal. iii. 43).
4 See Sol. i. 13 ; Liv. ii. 49, xxiv. 47, xxv. 7. xxvii. 37 ; Ascon.
Ad. Cic. in Toga, p. 81.
59
ROME
[PREHISTORIC REMAINS
traversed by the fortification. Where the wall followed the face 01
the cliffs, as for instance on the Capitol and Quirinal, it was raisec
on an artificial shelf after the fashion employed on the Palatine
(vide supra). In other places, where the slope was gentler, the wal
was formed of rubble with revetments of opus quadratum, e.g. on
the Aventine; finally, where the ground was flat, as on the plateau
of the Esquiline, a ditch was dug and an embankment formed by the
upcast; this agger, as it was called, was then faced with retaining
walls of opus quadratum. The length of the agger on the Esquiline
is put by Dionysius (ix. 68) at 7 stadia, which agrees, roughly
speaking, with the discoveries made in 1876-1879, when the railway
station was built and the new quarters laid out. The total length
was about 4225 ft., the thickness of wall and agger about so It.,
while the ditch was 100 Roman ft. in width and 30 in depth. There
is, however, a difference in technique between the inner and outer
retaining walls of the agger. The inner wall is built of greenish
tufa in blocks of irregular size, while in the outer brown tufa is
employed and the blocks are of standard size, two headers ranging
with each stretcher. Between the railway station and the Dogana
a fine lofty piece of the front wall remains, with traces of the Porta
Viminalis ai^d of the lower back wall. Unfortunately the whole of
the bank or agger proper has been removed, and the rough back
of the great retaining wall exposed. Both tufa and peperino are
used, the latter in restored parts; the blocks vary in length, but
average in depth the usual 2 Roman ft. The railway cutting, which
has destroyed a great part of the agger, showed clearly the section
ot the whole work : the strata of different kinds of soil which appeared
on the sides of the foss appeared again in the agger, but reversed as
they naturally would be in the process of digging out and heaping
up. Dionysius (ix. 68) states the length of the agger to have been
7 stadia that is, about 1400 yds. which agrees (roughly speaking)
with the actual discoveries. Originally one road ran along the
bottom of the foss and another along its edge ; the latter existed
in imperial times. But the whole foss appears to have been filled
up, probably in the time of Augustus, and afterwards built upon;
houses of mixed brick and opus reticulatum still exist against the
outside of the great wall, which was itself used as the back wall of
these houses, so that we now see painted stucco of the time of
Hadrian covering parts of the wall of the kings. Another row of
houses seems to have faced the road mentioned above as running
along the upper edge cf the foss, thus forming a long street. As
early as the time of Augustus a very large part of the wall of the
kings had been pulled down and built over, so that even then its
circuit was difficult to trace (Dionys. iv. 13). A very curious series
Masons' ^ masons ' mar ks exists on stones of the agger wall (as
well as on those of some other early buildings). They are
deeply incised, usually on the ends of the blocks, and
average from 10 to 14 in. in length: some are single letters or
monograms; others are numbers, e.g. J, , the numeral 50. Fig. 6
shows the chief forms
from the Palatine and
Esquiline. 1
There are also ex-
tensive remains of the
" Servian " wall on
the Aventine, in the
Via di Porta S. Paolo.
Here the wall has a
backing of concrete
and the upper portion
is built with blocks
of peperino, set in
FIG. 6. Masons' Marks on Early Walls. mort , ar * nd bevelled
. at the edges. These
are unmistakable signs that the wall has undergone restoration.
This portion is pierced by an arch about' 9} ft. high, which probably
served as an embrasure for a military engine. Finally, where the
wall skirts the bank of the Tiber it is built in two sections a founda-
tion about 2 metres in height and 3 in width, which forms a
landing-stage, and an upper wall, 6 metres high, which retains the
bank. It is built of peperino, and is probably later than the
rest of the fortification.
The age of this wall is uncertain, but it has been rendered exceed-
ingly probable that it belongs to the 4th century B.C. The evidence
tor this is derived from the comparison of other fortifications in
central Italy, from the measurements of the blocks employed
which presuppose the later Roman foot of 296 millimetres, and from
tire character of the alphabet from which the masons' marks are
taken. 2 Livy (vi. 32) speaks of a contract entered into by the
censors of 378 B.C. for the construction of a wall of opus quadratum
and this probably refers to the older portions of the existing wall
which was built owing to the fear of a second Gallic invasion. 3
/See Bruzza, Ann. Inst. (1876), 72; Jordan, Topographie. i. 250;
Richter, Uber antike Steinmetzzeichen (1885).
2 See Richter in the work quoted above, and Beitrage zur romischen
Topographie (Berlin, 1903) ; also Delbruck, Der Apollotempel auf dem
Marsfelde in Rom, pp. 14 ff.
1 For earlier studies of the Servian wall consult Nibby and Cell, Le
ON THE. AOC ER WALL.
The Servian city did not include what is now the most crowded
part of Rome, and which under the Empire was the most architectur-
ally magnificent, namely, the Campus Martius, which was probably
to a great extent a marsh. It was once called Ager Tarquiniorum,
but alter the expulsion of the Tarquins was named Campus Martius
from an altar to Mars, dating from prehistoric times (Liv. ii. 5).
Of that wonderful system of massive arched sewers 4 by which,
as Dionysius (iii. 68) says, every street of Rome was drained into
the Tiber, considerable remains exist, especially of the r .
Cloaca Maxima, which runs from the valley of the Subura, cloacae -
under the Forum along the Velabrum, and so into the Tiber by the
round temple in the Forum Boarium; it is still in use, and well
preserved at most places. Its mouth, an archway in the great
quay wall nearly 1 1 ft. wide by 12 high, consists of three rings of
peperino " youssoirs," most neatly fitted. The rest of the vault
and walls is built of mixed tufa and peperino. 6 Pliny (H.N.
xxxvi. 104) gives an interesting account ol what is probably this
great sewer, big enough (he says) for a loaded hay-cart to pass
along. The mouths of two other similar but smaller cloacae are
still visible in the great quay wall near the Cloaca Maxima, and a
whole network of sewers exists under a great pail of the Servian
city. Some of these are not built with arched vaults, but have
triangular tops formed of courses cf stone on level beds, each
projecting over the one below a primitive method of construc-
tion, employed in the Tullianum The great quay wall of
tufa and peperino which lined the Tiber at the mouth
of the Cloaca Maxima is also of early date. In later Oreat
times this massive wall was extended, as the city grew, quay w
all along the bank of the Campus Martius, and, having lost its
importance as a line of defence, had frequent flights of stairs built
against it, descending to the river. Some of these are shown in one
of the fragments of the marble plan (see Jordan, F.U.R. Frag. 169).
In 1879 a travertine block was dredged up inscribed P. BARRONIVS .
BARBA . AED . CVR . GRADOS . REFECIT, dating from the 1st
century B.C. This records the repair of one of these river stairs. 6
The Tullianum is the earliest of the existing buildings of
Rome. Imprisonment as a punishment was unknown to Roman
law, and hence the Career, where criminals were detained
pending trial, was of small dimensions. Its remains are pre-
served beneath the church of S Giuseppe dei Falegnami, and c
below them is the Tullianum, a dungeon where executions Ca "- er -
.mum and
took place. It is partly cut in the tufa rock of the Capitoline hill and
partly built of 2-ft. blocks of tufa, set with thin beds of pure lime
mortar, in courses projecting one over the other. Its name is
derived, not from Servius Tullius, as Varro (v. 151) asserts, but from
an early Latin word, tuttus, a spring of water; its original use was
probably that of a cistern or well. It was closed by a conical vault,
arched in shape, but not constructionally an arch very like the
so-called " treasury of Atreus " at Mycenae, and many early Etruscan
tombs. When the upper room with its arched vault, also of tufa,
was built the upper part of the cone seems to have been removed,
and a flat stone floor (a flat arch in construction) substituted. 7
That its use as a cistern was abandoned is shown by the cloaca
which leads from it, through the rock, to a branch of the Cloaca
Maxima. This horrible place was used as a dungeon, prisoners
being lowered through a hole in the stone floor the only access.
The present stairs are modern. The two chambers are vividly
described by Sallust (Cat. 55). The entrance to the upper prison
was on the left of the stairs leading up from the Forum to the Clivus
Argentarius, the road tc the Porta Fontinalis (see fig. 7, General
Plan of Ancient Rome). Lentulus and the Catiline conspirators
as well as Jugurtha, Vercingetorix and other prisoners of import-
ance, were killed or starved to death in this fearful dungeon, which
is called T& 0dpo0pox by Plutarch (Marius, xii.). According to a
doubtful tradition of the Catholic Church, St Peter was imprisoned
in the Tullianum. The name Mamertine prison is of medieval
origin. The front wall of the prison was restored in the reign of
libenus A.D. 22, and bears this inscription on a projecting string-
course C . VIBIVS . C . F . RVFINVS . M . COCCEIVfS M F
NERVAJCOS . EX . S. C." The floor of the upper prison is about
16 ft. above the level of the Forum. The Capitol was approached
from the Career by a flight of steps Scalae Gemoniae on which
Mura di Roma (1820); Piale, Porte del Recinto di Servio iiow
Becker, De Romae Muris (Leipzig, 1842); Lanciani, Ann. Inst.
r J^'.P',, 4 ?' M 2- Inst - ix - P 1 - xxvii.; Borsari, " Le mura e porte
di Servio, Butt. Comm. Arch. (1888), pp. 12 ff.
4 See Liv. i. 38, 56 ; Dionys. iv. 44.
5 In the upper part of its course the Cloaca Maxima was restored
in some places, under the Empire, with a vault of brick-faced concrete ;
at the entrance to the Forum a large bend was made when the
Basilica Aemilia was extended westwards in 34 B.C.
6 A great quay wall with arched cloaca, similar in style to those
in Rome, exists at the mouth of the river Marta near Tarquinii
and similar constructions are found in other Etruscan cities.
Livy (i. 33) mentions the " career . . . media urbe imminens
>ro, and also speaks (xxxiv. 44) of an " inferiorem carcerem,"
and at xxix. 22 of a criminal being put in the Tullianum.
8 Consules suffecti for A.D. 22.
FORUM ROMANUM]
ROME
59 1
the bodies of criminals were exposed; 1 Pliny (H.N. viii. 145) calls
it the " stairs of sighs " (gradus gemitorii).
Forum Romanum and Adjacent Buildings.
The Forum Romanum or Magnum, as it was called in late times
to distinguish it from the imperial fora, occupies a valley which
extends from the foot of the Capitoline hill to the north-west part
of the Palatine. Till the construction of the great cloacae it was,
at least in wet seasons, marshy ground, in which were several
pools of water. In early times it was bounded on two sides by
rows of shops and houses, dating from the time of the first
Tarquin (Liv. i. 35). The shops on the south-west side facing
the Sacra Via, where the Basilica Julia afterwards was built,
were occupied by the Tabernae Veteres. 2 The shops on the
northern side, being occupied by silversmiths, were called
Tabernae Argentariae, and in later times, when rebuilt after a
'fire, were called Tabernae Novae (see Liv. xxvi. 27, xl. 51).*
An altar to Saturn (Dionys. i. 34, vi. i), traditionally set up by
the companions of Hercules, and an altar to Vulcan, both at the
end towards the Capitol, with the temple of Vesta and the Regia
at the opposite end, were among the earliest monuments grouped
around the Forum. The Lacus Curtius vanished, as Varro says
(L.L. v. 148-49), probably with other stagnant pools, when
the cloacae were constructed (Liv. i. 38, 56).* Another pool,
the Lacus Servilius, near the Basilica Julia, was preserved in
some form or other till the imperial period. Under Sulla it was
used as a place to expose the heads of many senators murdered
in his proscriptions (Cic. Rose. Am. 32, 89; Seneca, De Prov.
3, 7). The Volcanal was an open area, so called from the early
altar to Vulcan, and was (like the Comitium) a place of public
meeting, at least during the regal period. 6 It was raised above
the Comitium, and was a space levelled en the lower slope of the
Capitoline hill behind the arch of Severus; the foundations of
the altar were discovered in 1898. It was probably much en-
croached upon when the temple of Concord was enlarged in the
reign of Augustus. Fig. 8 gives a carefully measured plan of the
Forum, showing the most recent discoveries.
Unlike the fora of the emperors, each of which was surrounded
by a lofty wall and built at one time from one design, the archi-
tectural form of the Forum Romanum was a slow growth. The
marshy battlefield of the early inhabitants of the Capitol and
Palatine became, when the ground was drained by the great cloacae,
under a united rule the most convenient site for political meetings,
for commercial transactions, and for the pageants of rich men's
funerals, ludi scenici, and gladiatorial games. 9 For these purposes
a central space, though but a small one, was kept clear of buildings ;
but it was gradually occupied in a somewhat inconvenient manner by
an ever-accumulating crowd of statues and other honorary monu-
ments. On three sides the limits of this open space are marked by
paved roads, faced by the stately buildings which gradually took
the place of the simple wooden tabernae and porticus of early times.
The Comitium 7 was a level space in front of the Curia ; the construc-
tion of both is ascribed to Tullus Hostilius. For the position of the
Comitium and the Curia 8 see plan of Forum (fig. 8). Varro (L.L.
v - 'SS-Sfc) gives the following account of the buildings which were
grouped along the northern angle of the Forum:
" Comitium ab eo quod coibant eo comitiis curiatis et litium
causa. Curiae duorum generum, nam et ubi curarent sacerdotes res
1 See Tac. Hist. iii. 74, 85; Suet. Vit. 17.
2 See Livy (xliv. 16), who mentions a house of P. Africanus, " pone
veteres ad Vortumni signum," which was bought by T. Sempronius to
clear the site for the Basilica Sempronia in 169 B.C. This basilica
was afterwards absorbed in the Basilica Julia.
8 Hence these two sides of the Forum are frequently referred to in
classical writings as " sub veteribus " and " sub novis."
4 In later times it was an enclosed space containing an altar; it is
described by Ovid (Fast. vi. 403) ; according to one tradition it
marked the spot where Curtius's self-immolation filled up the chasm
which had opened in the Forum (see Dionys. ii. 41). (See below.)
'See Dionys. ii. 50, vi. 67; Plin. H.N. xvi. 236; Plut. Quaes.
Rom. 47.
* The first gladiatorial show in Rome was given in 264 B.C. in the
Forum Boarium by D. Junius Brutus at his father's funeral (Liv.
Epit. xvi.), the first in the Forum Romanum in 216 B.C. (Liv.
xxiii. 30). See also Liv. xxxi. 50, xli. 28; and Suet. Goes. 39;
Aug. 43; and Tib. 7.
7 On the Comitium see Detlefsen, Ann. Inst. (1860), pp. 128 ff. t
and the works mentioned below, note 1 1.
1 Liyy (xlv. 24) indicates their relative positions by the phrase
" comitium vestibulum Curiae."
divinas, ut Curiae Veteres, et ubi scnatus humanas, ut Curia Host ilia,
quod primum aedificavit Hostilius rex. Ante hanc Rostra, quojus
loci id vocabulum, quod ex hostibus capta fixa sunt rostra. Sub
dextra hujus a Comitio locus substructus, ubi nationum subsisterent
legati qui ad senatum csscnt missi. Is Graecostasis appellatus a
parte ut mult.i. Senaculum supra Graecostasim, ubi Aedis Con-
cordiae et Basilica Opimia. Senaculum vocatum, ubi senatus, aut
ubi seniores consisterent."
The curia or senate-house passed through many vicissitudes. 1
At first called Curia Hostilia, from its founder Tullus Hostilius
(Liv. i. 30), it lasted till 52 B.C., when it was burnt at the
funeral of Clodius, and was then rebuilt by Faustus Sulla,
and from his gens called Curia Cornelia (Dio Cass. xl. 50). It was
again rebuilt by Julius Caesar, and dedicated by Augustus (29 B.C.)
under the name of the Curia Julia, as recorded in the inscription of
Ancyra (q.v .) CVRIAM . ET. CONT1NENS . El . CHALCIDICVM
. . . FECl. Little is known about the adjoining buildings called the
Athenaeum and Chalcidicum; Dion Cassius (Ii. 22) mentions the
group. In the reign of Domitian the Curia Julia was restored
(Prosp. Aquit. p. 571), and it was finally rebuilt by Diocletian.
The existing church of S. Adriano is the Curia of Diocletian, though
of course much altered, and with its floor raised about 20 ft. above
the old level. _ The level of the entrance was raised in the middle
ages, and again in 1654. Sixteenth-century drawings and engrav-
ings show the lower level. The ancient bronze doors now at the end
of the nave of the Lateran basilica originally belonged to this
building, and were removed thence by Alexander VII. The brick
cornice and marble consoles, covered with enriched mouldings in
stucco, and the sham marble facing, also of stucco, if compared with
similar details in the baths of Diocletian, leave no doubt as to this
being a work of his time, and not, as was at one time assumed, the
work of Pope Honorius I. (A.D. 625-38) who consecrated it as the
church of S. Adriano.
From the Curia a flight of steps led down to the Comitium (Liv. i.
36), a space consecrated as a templum according to the rules of augury
(Cic. De Or. iii. 3) and used for the meetings of the Comitia
Curiata, and for certain religious ceremonies performed,
after the fall of the monarchy, by the rex sacrtficutus. It
contained ancient monuments, relics, such as theficus ruminalis, and
the supposed tomb of Romulus, whose site was marked in later times
by a " black stone " (lapis niger). Facing the Curia stood the platform
from which speakers addressed the people, adorned in 338 B.C. with
the beaks of the ships captured from the Latins at the naval victory
of Antium and hence called the rostra. Caesar determined to
remove the rostra from the Comitium to the Forum, and this plan
was carried out after his murder. From the original rostra Cicero
delivered his Second and Third Catiline Orations, and they _.,.
were the scene of some of the most important political *
struggles of Rome, such as the enunciation of their laws
by the Gracchi. Beside the Comitium another monument was
erected, also adorned with beaks of ships, to commemorate the same
victory at Antium. This was the Columna Maeniana, so called in
honour of Maenius (Plin. H.N. xxxiv. 20, vii. 212). The Columna
Duilia was a similar monument, erected in honour of the victory of
C. Duilius over the Punic fleet in 260 B.C.; a fragment of it with
inscription (restored in imperial times) is preserved in the Capitoline
Museum. 10 Columns such as these were called columnae rostratae.
In 1899-1900 the site of the Comitium which was considerably
reduced in extent by the building of the later Curia was excavated
by Commendatore Boni, in some parts as far as the virgin soil. 11
Remains of walls and pavements of various periods (some very
early) were discovered; some of the walls, there is no doubt,
supported the platform of the early rostra, which appears to have
been at first rectangular and at a later time curved. Opposite to
the Curia is a square paved with black marble slabs, which it is
natural to identify with the lapis niger of tradition. Beneath this
pavement was found a group of early monuments, which were at
some time destroyed and afterwards covered over. We are told
on the authority of Varro that Romulus was buried in front of (or
behind) the rostra, and that two lions were sculptured as guardians
of his tomb; and we find in fact a foundation (D, fig. 9) from
which project two moulded bases of tufa (A, B) on which the lions
may well have stood, on either side of a block (C) which might
serve as an altar. Beside this tomb (if such it be) stood the trunk
of a tufa column (E) and a rectangular stele (F) which bears on all
its faces an inscription written alternately upwards and downwards,
so that only the ends of the lines can be read. That it is the earliest
specimen of the Latin language is undoubted; and it certainly
mentions the rex. But after the expulsion of the kings the rex
' On the Curia and its vicissitudes see Lanciani, L'Auia e gli Uffici
del Senato Romano (1883).
IO The column itself is a copy made by Michelangelo; it is at the
foot of the stairs of the Palazzo dei Conservatori.
11 The discoveries of Comm. Boni have given rise to much discussion.
Of the numerous articles, Sec., which have appeared it will suffice to
name Petersen, Comitium, Rostra, Grab des Romulus (1904), and
Pinza, // Ccmizio romano nell' etd repubblicana (1905); see Huelscn,
The Roman Forum, pp. no ff.
592
ROME
[FORUM ROMANUM
The Capitol
Forum Romanum
ity , by pcnnission ot K*rl
sacrificulus performed his functions in the Comitium, and the
inscription may refer to him. This may be the stele to which
Dionysius of Halicarnassus refers as marking the tomb of Hostus
Hostilius (father of Tullus Hostilius) whose site (according to those
who believed in the translation of Romulus to heaven) was marked
by the lapis niger.
FIG. 9. Early Monuments in the Comitium.
A, B. Moulded tufa bases.
C. Base of altar (?).
D. Rectangular foundation.
E. Truncated column.
F. Stele with inscription.
G. Steps leading to platform of rostra.
The dotted line shows the position of the lapis niger.
The Senaculum appears to have been a place of preliminary
meeting for the senate before entering the Curia (Liv. xli. 27;
g eaa . Val. Max. ii. 2, 6) ; it adjoined the temple of Concord,
culum a "^ wnen tn i s was rebuilt on an enlarged scale in the
reign of Augustus it appears probable that its large
projecting portico became the Senaculum.
FIG. 8. The Roman Forum
A great part of the north-east side of the Fcrum was occupied by
two basilicae, which were more than once rebuilt under different
names. The first of these appears to have been adjacent ...
to the Curia, on its west side; it was called the Basilica . f
Porcia, and was founded by the elder Cato in 185 B.C.
(see Liv. xxxix. 44, and Plut. Cato Major, 19); it was burnt with
the Curia at Clodius's funeral. On the north side of the Forum
another basilica, called Aemilia et Fulvia (Varro vi. 4), was built
in 179 B.C. by the censors M. Fulvius and M. Aemilius Lepidus ; *
it stood, according to Livy (xl. 51), " post argentarias novas," the
line of silversmiths' shops along the north-east side of the Forum.
In 50 B.C. it was rebuilt by L. Aemilius Paulus with Caesar's money
(Plut. Goes. 29; Appian, Bell. Civ. ii. 26), and was more than once
restored within the few subsequent years by members of the same
family. Its later name was the Basilica Pauli, and it was remark-
able for its magnificent columns of Phrygian marble (Plin. H.N.
xxxvi. 102) or pavonazzetto. Part of the western end was still
standing in the l6th century, and was drawn by Giuliano da Sangallo
(Huelsen, The Roman Forum, fig. 61). Recent excavations have
shown that it was approached from the Forum by a flight of
steps leading to a two-storeyed colonnade. Behind this was a
row of tabernae in the middle of which was the entrance to the
main hall, consisting in a nave and three aisles (two on the north
side).
Near the middle of the north-east side of the Forum stood also
the small bronze temple of Janus, 2 the doors of which were shut
on those rare occasions when Rome was at peace. 3 A _ .
first brass of Nero shows it as a small cella, with richly ,.
ornamented frieze and cornice. Another aedicula near
that of Janus was the shrine of Venus Cloacina (or the Purifier),
on the line of the cloaca which runs under the Basilica Aemilia;
1 The Forum Piscatprium or fish-market appears to have been
at the back of this basilica (see Liv. xl. 51).
2 The original temple was one of the prehistoric buildings attri-
buted to Romulus and Tatius (Serv. Ad Aen. i. 291), or by Livy
(i. 19) to Numa.
'See Man. Anc. 2, 42; Procop. Bell. Goth. i. 25; Liv. i. 19;
Suet. Aug. 22.
FORUM ROMANUM]
ROME
The Sacra Via
and its surroundings
*II
* ;
n / JSLTff**Jr
and the Sacra Via.
its foundations and plinth were brought to light in 1899 (Liv. iii. 48 ;
Plin. H.N. xv. 119).
Fig. 8 shows plan of the rostra as they existed under the Empire.
We see an oblong platform about 78 ft. long and 1 1 ft. high above
the level of the Forum; its ground floor, paved with
Existing herring-bone bricks, is 2 ft. 6 in. below the Forum paving.
rostra. j ts en j an( j s ^ e wa lls are of tufa blocks, 2 ft. thick and
2 ft. wide, each carefully clamped to the next with wooden dovetail
dowels. Its floor was supported by a series of travertine piers,
carrying travertine lintels, on which the floor slabs rested. Outside
it was completely lined with Greek marble and had a richly moulded
plinth and cornice; the front wall was restored in 1904, and the
fragments of the cornice replaced. A groove cut in the top of the
cornice shows the place where marble cancel!! were fixed; one of
the cornice blocks is partly without this groove, showing that the
screen did not extend along the whole front of the rostra. This
agrees with a relief on the arch of Constantine, representing the
emperor making an oration from the rostra, with other buildings
at this end of the Forum shown behind. In this relief the screen
is shown with a break in the middle, so that the orator, standing
in the centre, was visible from head to foot. Two tiers of large
holes to hold the bronze rostra are drilled right through the tufa
wall, and even through the travertine pilasters where one happens
to come in the way; these holes show that there were nineteen
rostra in the lower tier, and twenty above set over the intermediate
spaces of the lower row. The back wall of the rostra is of concrete
faced with brick. The inside space, under the main floor of the
rostra, is coated thickly with stucco the brick wall being studded
in the usual way with iron nails to form a key for the plaster.
Immediately behind the rostra is a curved platform approached
by steps from the side facing the Capitol. It has been much disputed
whether this platform is earlier or later than the rostra ; but
the evidence of the construction at the point of juncture
platform. seems to s h O w that the hemicycle is the earlier. When
the arch of Severus was built, part of the platform of the rostra
was cut away and a court of irregular shape was thus formed, from
which the rostra was approached by steps. The front wall of the
hemicycle was now exposed in its eastern half; this was faced
with slabs of porta santa marble, pilasters of africano, and a moulded
plinth of white marble, whose blocks bear the Greek characters
T, A, E, Z, H, 6, K; the omissions make it clear that the
blocks were removed from some other building. A number of holes
in the marble, some of which contain fragments of metal pins, show
that bronze ornaments were at one time attached to the facing.
The hemicycle has been identified (without sufficient reason) with
the Graecostasis, a platform near the rostra reserved for foreign
embassies (Varro, L.L. v. 155; Cic. Q.F. ii. i), which continued to
exist throughout the imperial period and was restored by Antoninus
Pius (Vita 9, 2). It is, however, far more likely that it represents
the original form of the rostra as removed to the Forum according
to Caesar's design. 1 When the oblong platform was built (perhaps
by Trajan) it was approached from the back by the hemicycle. The
bronze rostra on the imperial structure were believed to be the
original beaks from Antium, moved from the old rostra (Florus,
i. n). On its marble platform stood many statues, 1 e.g. of Sulla,
Pompey, two of Julius Caesar, and others (Dio Cass. xlii. 18
and xliv. 4) ; these are represented on a bas-relief from the arch
of Constantine. It is further commonly believed that the marble
plutei which now stand in the centre of the Forum once decorated
the rostra. Owing probably to the weight of the many statues
proving too much for the travertine piers, which are not set on
their natural beds but endways, and therefore are very weak, the
structure seems to have given way at more than one time, and the
floor has been supported by piers and arches of brick-faced concrete,
1 See Mau in Rom. Mitt. 1906, pp. 230 ff.
2 The original rostra had specially honorary statues to those
Roman ambassadors who had been killed while on foreign service
(Liv. iv. 17); these were probably removed during Cicero s lifetime
(Cic. Phil. ix. 2, 4; see also Dio Cass. xliii. 49, and Plin. H.N.
xxxiv. 23, 2$). Ghastly ornaments fixed to these rostra in the
year 43 B.C., shortly after they were built, were the head and hands
of the murdered Cicero (Appian, Bell. Civ. iv. 20; Dio Cass.
xlvii. 8; Juv. x. 120), as on the original rostra had been fixed
many heads of the chief victims of the proscriptions of Marius and
Sulla (see Appian, Bell. Civ. i. 71, 94; Florus iii. 21). The denarius
of the tens Lollia with the legend PALIKANVS represents th<?
rostra of the late republican period.
594
ROME
[FORUM ROMANUM
inserted either in place of or at the sides of the shattered piers. These
later additions, apparently of the 3rd and 4th centuries, are omitted
in fig. 8 for the sake of clearness. In or about A. p. 470 the fagade
of the rostra was prolonged northwards by an addition in very poor
brickwork, apparently to celebrate a naval victory over the Vandals.
At the northern end of the curved platform there is a cylindrical
structure of concrete faced with brick and lined with thin marble
slabs; it is in three stapes, each diminishing in size, and
''"" appears to be an addition of about the time of Severus.
This is usually identified with the Umbilicus Romae, or
central point of the city, mentioned in the Notitia and the
EinsiedelnMS.(Jordan, Topographic der Stadt Rom, ii.65).
Near the rostra, below the temple of Saturn, stood the Millianum
Aureum, a marble column sheathed in gilt bronze and inscribed
with the names and distances of the chief towns on the roads which
radiated from the thirty-seven gates of Rome (Plin. H.N. iii. 66).
It was set up by Augustus in 20 B.C., and its position " sub aede
Saturni " is indicated by Tacitus (Hist. i. 27; see schol. on Suet.
Otho. 6, and Plut. Galba, 24). The Miliarium is mentioned in
the Notitia (Reg. viii.) as being near the Vicus Jugarius. Its pre-
cise position cannot be determined. Fragments of a marble cylinder
and cornice with floriated reliefs, now lying in front of the temple
of Saturn, probably belonged to this monument; they were found
in 1835 near the supposed site.
The position of the temple of Saturn is indicated in Man. Anc.
(see below, n. 6) and shown on the marble plan, and is also identified
_ by various passages in ancient writers. Varro (L.L. v. 42)
speaks of it as being infaucibus Capitolii ; Servius (Ad Aen.
ii. 115) says that it is in front of the Clivus Capitolinus, and
near the temple of Concord (see Plate VIII.). It was built against
a steep slope or outlying part of the Capitoline hill ' (cf. Dionys.
i. 34) on the site of a prehistoric altar to Saturn, after whom the
Capitoline hill was originally called Mons Saturnius. The public
treasury was part of this temple (Serv. Ad Aen, ii. 116, and Macrob.
Sat. i. 8). Tne original temple is said by Varrp (ap. Macrob. i. 8)
to have been begun by the last Tarquin, and dedicated by T. Larcius,
the first dictator, 498 B.C.; but Dionysius (vi. i) and Liyy (ii. 21)
attribute it to the consuls A. Sempronius and M. Minucius in 497 B.C.
It was rebuilt on a larger scale by L. Munatius Plancus in 42 B.C.
(Suet. Aug. 29). The only part remaining of this date is the very
lofty podium of massive travertine blocks, and part of the lower
course of Athenian marble, with which the whole was faced. In
the 1 6th century a piece of the marble frieze was found, inscribed
L, . PLANCVS . L . F . CO3 . IMPER . ITER . DE . MANIB . (C.I.L.
vi. 1316). The erection of the six granite columns in the front and
two at the sides, with their clumsily patched entablature, bearing
the inscription SENATVS . POPVLV3QVE . ROMANVS . INCENDIO .
CONSVMTVM . RE3TITVIT, belongs to the last rebuilding in
the time of Diocletian. Some of these fine columns are evidently
earlier than this rebuilding, but were refixed with rude caps
and bases. One of the columns is set wrong way up, and the
whole work is of the most careless sort. Part of the inscription,
once inlaid with bronze, recording this latest rebuilding, still
exists on the entablature. On the Forum side the temple is flanked
by the Vicus Jugarius, while the steep Clivus Capitolinus winds
round the front of the great flight of steps leading up to the cella,
and then turns along the north-west side of the temple. 2 The
Vicus Jugarius (see fig. 8), part of the basalt paving of
' cu . which is now exposed, was so called (see Festus, ed. Miiller,
p. 104) from an altar to Juno Juga, the guardian of
marriage. Starting from the Forum, it passed between the temple
of Saturn and the Basilica Julia, then close under the cliff of
the Capitolium (see Liv. xxxv. 21) and on to the Porta Carmen-
talis. It was spanned at its commencement by a brick-faced arch
lined with marble, the lower part of which exists, and is not earlier
than the 3rd or 4th century. 3 At this end of the Forum the arch of
Tiberius was built beside the Sacra Via. It was erected in A.D. 17,
to commemorate the recovery of the standards lost by Varus. 4
The concrete foundation has recently been exposed.
The Basilica Julia' occupies a great part of the south-west side
of the Forum, along the line of the Sacra Via; its ends
are bounded by the Vicus Jugarius and the Vicus
Tuscus. It was begun by Julius Caesar, who dedicated it
when still unfinished, on the 26th of September 46 B.C., completed
Basilica
Julia.
1 Below the temple of Saturn the Clivus Capitolinus is carried on an
arched substructure of somewhat irregular opus reticulatum. -This has
been described (but without much probability) as the rostra of Caesar.
2 A portion of these streets with part of the temple of Saturn and
the Basilica Julia is shown on fragments of the marble plan (see
Plate VIII.).
3 One side of this gate was built against one of the marble piers
of the Basilica Julia, a perfect print of which still exists in the
concrete of the gate, though the marble pier itself has disappeared.
The other side of the gate abutted against the marble-lined podium
of the temple of Saturn.
4 See Tac. Ann. ii. 41 , who says it was propter aedem Saturni.
'See Suet. Aug. 29; Gerhard, Bas. Giulia, &c. (1823); and
Visconti, Escavazione della Bas. Giulia (1872).
Vicus
Tuscus.
by Augustus, and again rebuilt by him after a fire, as is recorded
in Man. Anc. 4, 13," in an important passage which gives its complete
early history. It consisted of a central hall with aisles, galleries
and clerestory, surrounded on three sides by a colonnade in two
storeys approached by steps; on the S.W.a row of rooms or tabernae
took the place of the colonnade. The central nave was paved with
richly coloured oriental marbles, namely pavonazzetto, cipollino,
giallo and africano. The covered aisles are paved with large slabs
of white marble. 7 Many tabulae lusoriae, or gambling boards, art
scratched on this marble paving (cf. Cic. Phil. ii. 23)." Low marble
cancelli, with moulded plinth, closed the otherwise open arches of
the basilica; many fragments exist, and one piece of the subplinth
is still in situ. This basilica held four law-courts, which in important
cases held joint sessions. Trajan and other emperors held law-
courts there (Dio Cass. Ixxxviii. 10). An inscription found near
it (C.I.L. vi. 1658) records its restoration by Septimius Severus in
A.D. 199, after a fire; it was again burnt in 283 and restored by
Diocletian. These fires had destroyed nearly all the fine marble
arches of Augustus; and Diocletian rebuilt it mostly with brick
or travertine piers, portions of which remain.' A final restoration is
recorded in inscriptions discovered at various times from the l6th
century onwards, as being carried out by Gabinius Vettius Probianus,
praefect of the city in 377 ; one of these is on a pedestal which now
stands in the Vicus Jugarius. Suetonius (Cal. 37) mentions that it
was one of Caligula's amusements to throw money to the people
below from the roof of this basilica, which formed a link in the bridge
by which this maniac connected the Palatine with the Capitolium.
The Vicus Tuscus passes from the Sacra Via between the Basilica
Julia and the temple of Castor to the Velabrum and Circus Maxi-
mus; its basalt paving has been exposed at many points
along its whole line. A very early statue of Vortumnus
stood in this street, a little to the south-west of the
Basilica Julia, where part of its pedestal was found in 1 549 inscribed
VORTVMNVS TEMPORIBVS DIOCLETIANI . ET . MAXIM1ANI . . .
(C.I.L. vi. 804; 10 see also Pseudo-Ascon, Ad Cic. Verr. ii. I, 59).
The Vicus Tuscus was also called Thurarius, from shops of perfume-
sellers (see Schol. ad Hor. Sat. ii. 3, 228, and Ep. ii. i, 269). It is
the street along which processions passed, mentioned by Cicero
(Verr. ii. I, 59) as extending a signo Vertumni in Circum Maximum.
The temple of Castor 11 or, more properly, of " the Castores,"
i.e. Castor and Pollux on the south-east side of the Vicus Tuscus
was founded to commemorate the apparition in the Forum f emp i e
of the Dioscuri, announcing the victory of Aulus Postumius /casto
at Lake Regillus, 496 B.C., and was dedicated in 484 B.C.
by the son of A. Postumius (Liv. ii. 20, 42; Dionys. vi. 13; Ov.
Fast. i. 706). In 119 B.C. it was restored by the consul L. Caecilius
Metellus Dalmaticus (Ascon. In. Cic. Pro Scaur. 46). and finally
rebuilt in the reign of Augustus by Tiberius and Drusus, A.D. 6
(Suet. Tib. 20; Ov. Fast. i. 705; Dio Cass. Iv. 8, 27); the three
existing Corinthian columns and piece of entablature, all very
delicate and graceful in detail, and of the finest workmanship, in
Pentelic marble, belong to a still later restoration under Trajan or
Hadrian. One point shows Roman timidity in the use of a lintel:
the frieze is jointed so as to form a flat arch, quite needlessly, with
the object of relieving the weight on the architrave. Its plan,
hexastyle, with only eleven columns on the sides, is shown in
fig. 8. It had a lofty podium, faced with marble and decorated
with a heavy cornice and pilasters, one under each column. The
podium is an interesting example of the enormous solidity of Roman
buildings of the best period. Solid tufa walls, 8 ft. thick, are built
under the whole of the cella and the front row of columns, while the
columns of the sides rest on spurs of similar walling, projecting at
right angles from that under the cella; the part immediately under
the columns is of travertine, and the spurs are united and strengthened
laterally by massive flat arches, also of travertine. Between the
foundations of the columns were chambers used as offices, &c.
With the exception of a small chamber under the steps, entered
from the Vicus Tuscus, the entire podium is filled up by a solid
mass of concrete, made of broken tufa, pozzolana and lime, the whole
forming a lofty platform, about 22 ft. high, solid as a rock, on which
the columns and upper structure are erected. The podium contains
" Forvm . Ivlivm . et . basilicam . qvae . fvit . inter . aedem .
Castoris . et . aedem . Satvrni . coepta . profligataqve . opera . a .
patre. meo. perfect, et. eandem. basilicam. consvmptam. incendio
. ampliatp . eivs . solo . svb . titvlo . nominis . filiorvm . inchoavi .
et . si.^vivvs . non . perfecissem . perfici . ab . haeredibvs . [meis .
ivssil]." The filii here referred to are Augustus's grandsons,
Gaius and Lucius, adopted by him in 17 B.C. (see Dio Cass. Ivi. 27).
7 Three medieval lime-kilns were found by Canina within this
basilica, which accounts for the scantiness of the existing remains.
8 A few have inscriptions, e.g. " Vinces . gaudes: perdes . plangis."
9 The whole building has unhappily been much falsified by need-
less restoration.
10 A drawing of this pedestal, which is now lost, with MS. note by
Ligorio, exists in Cod. Vat. 3439, fol. 46.
11 The temple of Castor is shown on two fragments of the marble
plan, and its position is also indicated by the passage in the Man.
Anc. quoted above (note 6).
FORUM ROMANUM]
ROME
595
/ D/vus
. . .
a few remains 'of the earliest temple, built of blocks of grey-green
tufa. Two fragments of mosaic, with simple lozenge pattern in
white marble and basalt, still exist in the cella of this temple. The
level of the mosaic, which probably belongs to the rebuilding of
Tiberius, lies considerably below that of the later floor, which seems
to date from Hadrian's reign. It has all the characteristics of early
mosaic very small tesserae fitted with great accuracy, like the
early mosaic in the Regia. The temple of Castor was often used
as a meeting-place for the senate, and its lofty podium formed a
tribunal for orations. 2 The Fons or Lacus Juturnae (see Ov.
Fast. i. 705, and Dionys. vi. 13), at which the Dioscuri were fabled
to have watered their horses, was beside their temple ; the precinct
was discovered in 1900-1. The Lacus itself, a basin 16} ft. square
and 6J ft. deep, is immediately opposite the three standing columns
of the temple; in the centre is a base of opus reticulatum, which
supported statues of the Dioscuri; an altar with reliefs, together
with other sculptures, has been found close by, and a few yards
off is a small chapel or aedicula, intended for a statue of Juturna,
and in front of it a well-curb (puteal) of white marble, set up by the
aedile M. Barbatius Pollio in the reign of Augustus.
Close to the temple of Castor, at the angle of the Forum, stood
the arch of Augustus, set up in 20 B.C. to commemorate the recovery
. . of the standards taken from Crassus by the Parthians.
Its foundations were discovered in 1888; it had three
' bays, and rested on the pavement of a street which before
the time of Augustus formed the E. boundary of the Forum.
On the other side of the Sacra Via stand the remains of the temple
of Divus Julius, erected by Augustus. Though little beyond its
_ . concrete core is left, its plan can be fairly well made out
f rom the voids in the concrete, which show the position
of the tufa foundations under the walls and columns (as
in the temple of Castor). The temple itself, a hexastyle
prostyle building, with close intercolumniation (Vitr. iii. 2), stood
on a lofty podium with a curved recess in the front between two
flights of stairs (see Plate VIII.). The wall which now fills up the
recess is a late addition. In 1898 the base of a large altar was
discovered in the niche, doubtless that mentioned by Appian
(Bell. Civ. ii. 148). The podium, which projects in front of the
temple itself, was adorned with beaks from the ships taken at
Actium (Dio Cass. li. 19), and hence it was called the Rostra
Julia, to distinguish it from the other rostra described above.
Both were used for the funeral orations in honour of Augustus
(Suet. Aug. loo; see also Dio Cass. liv. 35). Besides the concrete
core and the curved tufa wall ot the recess, little now exists except
a small bit of the mosaic of the cella floor and some fragments of
the cornice and pediment, of fine Greek marble. This temple is
represented on coins of Augustus and Hadrian.
The temple of Vesta, founded according to tradition by Numa,*
stands at the southern angle of the Forum on the ancient line of
the Sacra Via (Ov. Trist. iii. I, 28). No shrine in Rome
/emp/c wag e q ua i ; n sanctity to this little circular building, which
5 a * contained the sacred fire and the relics on which the welfare
and even the existence of Rome depended. The original building
was destroyed in 390 B.C. by the Gauls; it was burnt again in
241 B.C., again in the great fire of Nero's reign, and then in the reign
of Commodus; after this it was rebuilt by Severus, to whose age
belong the fragments of columns, cornice and other architectural
features now lying around the ruined podium. With the aid of
coins 4 and a relief preserved in the Uffizi at Florence 5 it is possible
to make a sufficiently accurate restoration of the temple.' It con-
sisted of a circular cella, surrounded by eighteen columns, with
screens between them; the circular podium, about 10 ft. high,
still exists, mainly of concrete with some foundations of tufa blocks,
which may belong to the original structure. Recent excavations
have disclosed a pit (favissa) in the middle of the podium, where
the ashes of the sacred fire were temporarily stored. In the time of
Pliny (H.N. xxxiv. 7) the tholus or dome over the cella symbol-
izing the canopy of heaven (Ov. Fast. vi. 276) was covered with
Syracusan bronze. Its position near the temple of Castor is
mentioned by Martial (i. 71-73).'
The Regia, or office of the pontifex maximus, was on the Sacra
Via, close by the temple of Vesta. It [also was traditionally
founded by Numa, and used as his dwelling-house; it
_ .
Regia.
in 390 B.C. by the Gauls, and was again
burnt in 210 B.C. (Liv. xxvi. 27), when the temple of Vesta narrowly
1 On these see Delbriick, Das Capitolium von Signia (1903), p. 22;
Der Apollotempel auf dem Marsfelde (1903), p. 14; van Buren in
Class. Rev. xx. pp. 77 ff.
2 The front of the podium was decorated with ships' beaks. One
of the mad acts of Caligula was to make the temple of Castor into
the vestibule of his palace by breaking a door through the back of
the cella (Suet. Cal. 22).
* Another legend attributes its founding to Romulus.
* On the coins see Dressel, Zeitschr. fur Numismatik (1899), 20 ff.
6 Lanciani, L' A trio di Vesta (1884), pi. xix.
' See Huelsen, The Roman Forum, p. 190, fig. 108.
7 See Jordan, Vesta und die Laren (Berlin, 1865) ; and Auer in
the Denkschriften der Wiener Akademie (1888), ii. 209 ff.
escaped. Ovid (Trist. iii. I, 28) describes this end of the Forum
thus:
" Haec est a sacris quae via nomen habet,
Hie locus est Vestae, qui Pallada servat et ignem,
Hie fuit antiqui Regia parva Numae."
It was again damaged by fire in 148 B.C. and 36 B.C., after which
it was rebuilt in marble by Cn. Domitius Calvinus. and its outer
walls inscribed with the lists of consuls and triumphs (fasti consulares
et triumphales) of which many fragments have been recovered.
Recent excavations have brought to light the tufa foundations of
the republican building, including a round substructure, which may
have supported the sacrarium Martis, in which were preserved the
ancilia or sacred shields and spears (Cell. iv. 6), and an under-
ground cistern, which has been brought into connexion with the
shrine of Ops Consiva (Varro, L.L. vi. 21). The official residence
of the pontifex maximus was not the Regia, but the domus publica;
when Augustus succeeded to the office, he conveyed a part of his
residence on the Palatine to the state in order to satisfy the claims
of tradition, and presented the domus publica to the vestals.
The excavations of 1883-84 laid bare remains of this very interesting
building, and showed that it was a large house extending close up
to the Atrium Vestae; its orientation corresponded with that of
the Regia. The existing remains are of several dates first, walN
of soft tufa, part possibly of the earliest building; second, walls of
hard tufa, of rather later date; and lastly, concrete walls faced
with brick, decorated with painted stucco, and columns of travertine,
also stuccoed and painted, 8 with a large quantity of fine mosaic of
that early sort which has very small tesserae put together with
great accuracy. These valuable remains were preserved in spite
of the erection of later buildings over them, because the levels of
the later floors were higher than those of the Regia, and thus covered
and protected the mosaics and lower parts of the walls and columns.
The Atrium Vestae, or house of the vestals, like the temple, wa*
many times burnt and rebuilt; the existing building, which was
excavated in 1883-84 and more completely in I9pi, seems . .
to have been built after the great fire of A.D. 64, and to V,
have been restored or enlarged several times by the
Flavian emperors, who added the colonnade; Hadrian, who built
the tablinum and other rooms at the end ;the Antonines, and Septimiu*
Severus, who restored the whole after the fire of A.D. 192.' It
consists of a large atrium or quadrangle with columns of cipollino.
At one end is the tablinum, with three small rooms on each side of
it probably for the six vestals. A bathroom, bakehouse, servants'
offices, and some rooms lined with rich marbles extend along the
south-west side. This extensive building is set against the side of
the Palatine, which is cut away to admit the lower storey. Thus the
level of the first upper floor is nearly the same as that of the Nova
Via, on which it faces, about 23 ft. above the ground floor. 1 he
upper floor is in part well preserved; it contains a large suite of
bath and other rooms, which were probably the sleeping apartments
of the vestals. All the better rooms and the baths are lined with
polished marbles, many of great beauty and rarity; the floors are
mostly mosaic of tessellated work. The paving of the tablinum was
a beautiful specimen of inlay in porphyry and marble. In many
places alterations and clumsy patchings of the 4th and 5th centuries
are apparent. A number of statues of the chief vestal, or virgo
vestalis maxima, with inscribed pedestals, were found in the atrium,
mostly of the 3rd century, though a few are earlier; these are of
especial interest as illustrating the sacerdotal dress of the vestals. 10
Nothing but the Nova Via separates the Atrium Vestae from the
imperial palace (see Plin. Ep. vii. 19; Aul. Cell. i. 12), which
extends over the site of the Lucus Vestae " qui a Palatii radice
in Novam Viam deyexus est " (Cic. De Div. i. 45). A curious
octagonal structure in the middle of the atrium looks very much
like a border for flower-beds; and it is possible that this miniature
garden was made by the vestals when the Lucus Vestae ceased to
exist. By the main entrance from the Forum stood a small aedicula
a large pedestal, at the angles of which were columns supporting
an entablature." It no doubt contained a statue of Vesta, there
being none within the temple. It is of the time of Hadrian. Gratian
confiscated the house and endowments of the vestals in A.D. 382,
but the atrium continued to be partly inhabited for many centuries
later by imperial or papal officials. 11 In September 1884 a road was
8 The columns were crimson, the travertine rain-water gutter
bright blue, and the inner walls had .simple designs in panels of
leaf ornament and wreaths.
A full account of the Atrium Vestae and its successive restora-
tions is given in Miss E. B. Van Deman's Atrium Vestae vi9og).
10 The most important of these have been removed to the Museo
delle Terme.
11 The front is inscribed SENATVS . POPVLVSQVE . ROMANVS .
PECVNIA .PVBL1CA . FAC1ENDAM . CVRAVIT.
12 In the excavations of December 1883 a pot was found in the
north corner containing 830 silver pennies of English kings of the
9th and loth centuries Alfred the Great, Edward I., Aethelstan,
Eadmund I., and others. A list of these is given by De Rossi in
Lanciani's work, L'Atrio di Vesta (Rome, 1884). None are later
59 6
ROME
[FORUM ROMANUM
discovered leading up past the tablinum end of the atrium front
the Sacra Via to the Nova Via. In about the 4th century this roac
appears to have been blocked up at the Nova Via end by a building
which adjoined the Atrium Vestae.
At the north-east corner of the Forum stood the arch of p. Fabius
Maximus, consul in 121 B.C., called Allobrogicus from his victory
Arch of over the Allobroges (Schol. on Cic., In Verr., Actio i. 7)
i Hhiux. Liv. Ep. Ivi. ; Plin. H.N. vii. 166). It marked the
extreme limit of the Forum in this direction (Cic. Pro
Plane, 7, 17), as the rostra did at the other end. Remains of this
arch were dug up and mostly destroyed in 1546, near the temple
of Faustina; on one of the fragments then discovered was
inscribed Q.FABIVS.Q. F. MAXSVMVS.AED.CVR.REST. (Dessau
Inscr. Lai. Sel. 430). About twenty-five other fragments were
found in 1882.*
The temple of Faustina the elder stands at the east angle of the
Forum, facing the later line of the Sacra Via. It is prostyle hexa-
_ style, and has monolithic columns of cipolhno and a rich
/emp/e of enta bl a ture of Greek marble, with graceful reliefs of
Faustina. grifi j ns and candelabra on the frieze. 2 The walls are of
massive peperino, once lined with marble. On the front is in-
scribed DIVO. ANTONINO. ET. DIVAE. FAVSTINAE. EX. S. C.
This temple, built by Antoninus Pius in memory of his wife, who
died in 141, was after his death dedicated also to him, and the
first line was then added (Vita Ant. Pii, 6). In the Middle Ages it
was consecrated as the church of S. Lorenzo in Miranda, and a great
part of its cella has been destroyed. The front is now excavated to
the original level. This temple is shown on the reverse of several
coins of Antoninus Pius; some have the legend DEDICATIO.
AEDIS.
The space between the north-west end of the Forum and the
Tabularium is occupied by a range of important buildings (see
Temple at Plate VIII.). The chief of these is the temple of Concord
Concord. ( see Festus, ed. Miiller, p. 347) shown on a fragment of the
marble plan, founded by Camillus in 366 B.C. (Plut.
Cam. 42), and restored by Opimius after the death of C. Gracchus
(121 B.C.). It was afterwards rebuilt by Tiberius out of the spoils
gained in Germany; it was rededicated by Tiberius in A.D. 10
in his own name and that of his brother Drusus (who had died
in B.C. 9) [Suet. Tib. 20; Dio. Cass. Iv. 25]. It is shown with
unusual minuteness on the reverse of a first brass of Tiberius. The
existing remains 3 are of the rebuilding by Tiberius, and show that
it was unusual in plan, having a large cella much wider than its
depth, and a very large projecting portico. Its construction is an
interesting example of the Roman use of many different materials.
The lower part of the walls was of massive tufa blocks, the upper
part of the cella of travertine; and the inner low wall, which sup-
ported ranges of internal columns, was of mixed concrete, tufa and
travertine. The whole was lined with marble, white outside, and
rich oriental marbles inside (see fig. 4), which were also used for the
pavement. The door-sill is made of enormous blocks of porta
santa marble, in which a bronze caduceus (emblem of Mercury) was
inlaid. Between the internal columns of the cella stood rows of
statues; and the temple also contained a large collection of pictures,
engraved gems, gold and silver plate, and other works of art, mostly
the work of ancient Greek artists (see Plin. H.N. xxxiv. 19,
xxxv. 36, 40, xxxvi. 67, xxxvii. 2). 'On the apex of the pediment was
a group of three figures embracing; the tympanum was filled with
sculpture; and statues were set in the open porch. Though now
only the podium and the lower part of the cella wall exist, with
foundations of the great flight of steps, many rich fragments both
of the Corinthian entablature and of the internal caps and bases
are preserved in the Tabularium; and some of the marble lining
is still in situ. The Einsiedeln MS. gives part of the inscription
of the front S.P.Q.R. AEDEM. CONCORDIAE. VETVSTATE.
COLLAPSAM . IN.MELIOREM . FACIEM.OPERE . ET.CVLTV .
SPLENDIDIORE. RESTITVERVNT (C.I.L. vi. 89).*
than 946, and a bronze fibula inlaid with silver with the name of
Pope Marinus II. (942-46) makes it seem probable that this hoard
was concealed during his pontificate.
1 Not. degli Scavi (1882), p. 225.
1 This finely sculptured frieze is almost an exact copy of that on
the temple of Apollo at Miletus.
* The size of the earlier and smaller temple is indicated by the
rough blocks on the face of the wall of the Tabularium, close against
which the temple stands. When the Tabularium was built it was
not thought worth while to dress to a smooth face that part of its
wall which was concealed by the then existing temple of Concord.
4 Little is known of the Basilica Opimia, which probably adjoined
the earlier temple of Concord, and the existing building appears
also to have occupied the site of the Senaculum (see Festus, ed.
Muller, p. 347). For various exciting scenes which took place in
the temple of Concord and on its steps, see Cic. Phil. vii. 8; Sallust,
Bell. Cat. if). Another temple of Concord, built in 216 B.C., stood
on the Capitoline Arx (Liv. xxii. 33, xxiii. 21); and a bronze
aedicula of Concord in the Area Vulcani, which must have been close
by the great temple. This was dedicated by Cn. Flavius, 305 B.C.
(see Liv. ix. 46); according to Pliny (H.N. xxxiii. 19) it stood " in
The temple of Vespasian stands close by that of Concord, abutting
on the Tabularium in a similar way, and blocking up a doorway
at the foot of a long flight of steps (see fig. i). It consists
of a nearly square cella with prostyle hexastyle portico of ^ el "P' e *
the Corinthian order; three of the columns are still
standing, with their rich entablature, the frieze of which is > >ailtta '
sculptured with sacred instruments. The walls are of enormous
blocks of travertine with strong iron clamps; the whole was lined
with white Pentelic marble outside, and inside with coloured
oriental marbles. There was an internal range of columns, as in
the temple of Concord. This temple was begun by Titus in A.D. 80,
in honour of his father Vespasian, and finished by Domitian, who
dedicated it to Vespasian and Titus. The inscription on the
entablature, given in the Einsiedeln MS., records a restoration by
Severusand Caracalla DIVO. VESPASIANO. AVGVSTO.S.P.Q.R.
1MPP. CAESS. SEVER VS.ET.ANTONINVS. PII. FELIC. AVGG.
RESTITVERVNT; part of the last word only now exists.
In the narrow space between the temples of Concord and Vespasian
(only about 7 ft. in width) a small brick and concrete edifice stands
against the Tabularium. In it was found an inscribed base dedicated
to Faustina the younger by one of the viatores (messengers) of the
quaestors, who probably had their office here.
The next building is the Porticus Deorum Consentium, a colonnade
in two wings which join at the obtuse angle, with a row of small
rooms or shrines partly cut into the tufa rock of the hill
behind. This conjunction of twelve deities was of \ r
Etruscan origin; they were six of each sex and were
called Senatus Deorum (Varro, L.L. viii. 70, and De Re Ji
Rust, i. i). 6 The columns are of cipollino with Corinthian
caps; on the frieze is an inscription recording a restoration by
Vettius Agorius Praetextatus, praefect of the city in A.D. 367.
Under the marble platform is a row of seven small rooms, the brick
facing of which is perhaps of the Flavian period.
The arch of Severus stands by the rostra, across the road on the
north-east side of the Forum; the remains of the ancient travertine
curb show that originally the road went along a rather
different line, and was probably altered to make room Arch of
for this great arch, which was accessible only by steps, Seyerus.
and was not used for ordinary traffic. It was built in A.D. 203,
after victories in Parthia, and was originally set up in honour of
Severus and his two sons M. Aurelius Antoninus (Caracalla) and
Geta. Caracalla, after murdering Geta, erased his name from all
monuments to his honour in Rome. Representations of the arch
on coins of Severus show that its attic was surmounted by a chariot
of bronze drawn by six horses, in which stood Severus crowned by
Victory; at the sides were statues of Caracalla and Geta, with an
equestrian statue at each angle. The arch, except the base, which
is of marble-lined travertine, is built of massive blocks of Pentelic
marble, and has large crowded reliefs of victories in the East, showing
much decadence from the best period of Roman art.
The central space of the Forum is paved with slabs of travertine,
much patched at various dates; it appears to have been marked
out into compartments with incised lines (see Plate VIII.),
the use of which is not known. There are also square Central
holes which probably held masts on which awnings could space of
be spread. Numerous clamp-holes all over the paving Forum,
show where statues and other ornaments once stood. The recorded
number of these is very great, and they must once have thickly
crowded a great part of the central area. Two short marble walls
or plutei covered with reliefs, discovered in 1872, stand on the north
side. The rough travertine plinth on which they have been set is
evidently of late date. Each of these marble screens has (on the
inside) reliefs of a fat bull, boar and ram, decked out with sacrificial
wreaths and vittae the suovetaurilia. On the outside are scenes
in the life of Trajan: in both cases the emperor is speaking from the
rostra. On one we also see him seated on a suggestus instituting
a charity for destitute children in A.D. 101 a scene similar to one
shown in one of his first brasses with the legend ALIM[ENTA]
ITALIAE; 6 at the other end the emperor stands on the rostra, on
which the two tiers of beaks are shown; he is addressing a crowd
of citizens. In the background is shown the long line of arches of
the Basilica Julia, with (on the left) what is probably the temple
of Castor and the arch of Augustus. On the right are the statue of
Marsyas and the sacred fig-tree. 7 On the other slab a crowd of
officials are bringing tablets and piling them in a heap to be burnt.
This records the remission by Trajan of some arrears of debt due
to the imperial treasury (Auspn. Grot. Act. 32). The background
bere represents again the Basilica Julia, with (on the right) the Ionic
:emple of Saturn and the Corinthian temple of Vespasian. Between
them is an arch, which may be that of Tiberius. 8 On the left the
jraecostasi, quae tune supra Comitium erat." Both these were
Drobably only small shrines.
6 Twelve gilt statues are mentioned by Varro.
6 Cohen, vol. ii. 303-5.
7 This is not the ficus ruminalis in the Comitium, but another
mentioned by Pliny (H.N. xv. 20) in the middle of the Forum.
8 As it seems to be on a higher level, it may indicate the
Tabularium.
PALATINE HILL]
ROME
597
fig-tree and the statue of Marsyas are repeated. Other explanations
of these reliefs have been given, but the above appears the most
probable. Towards the other end of the Forum are remains of a
large concrete pedestal. It may possibly have supported an
equestrian statue of Constantino, which was still standing in the
8th century. A smaller foundation, laid bare by Comm. Boni's
excavations in 1905, is thought by him to have supported the
equestrian statue of Q. Marcius Tremulus, the conqueror of the
Hernici, set up before the temple of Castor in B.C. 305 (Liv. ix. 43).
% The seven cubical brick and concrete structures, once faced with
marble, which line the Sacra Via are not earlier than the time of
Diocletian. They are probably the pedestals of honorary columns
such as those shown in the relief on Constantine's arch, mentioned
above. The column erected in honour of the tyrant Phocas by
Smaragdus in the eleventh year of his exarchate (608) is still stand-
ing. It is a fine marble Corinthian column, stolen from some earlier
building; it stands on rude steps of marble and tufa. The name
of Phocas is erased from the inscription ; but the date shows that
this monument was to his honour. In the 4th century, or perhaps
even later, a long brick and concrete building faced with marble was
built along the whole south-east end of the Forum, probably a row
of shops. They were destroyed by Comm. Rosa's order. Two
columns one of pavonazzetto, the other of grey granite were set
up on two of the brick bases in 1899.
In 1902 a network of passages (cuniculi) was discovered about
3 ft. beneath the pavement of the Forum. These have tufa walls
and concrete vaults; they are about 8 ft. high and 5 ft. broad. At
the intersections of the passages are square chambers, in the centre
of which are travertine blocks with sockets for windlasses. The
construction of the passages seems to date from the time of Julius
Caesar, and it is thought that they were used for scenic purposes
when games were given in the Forum.
In 1903 a large concrete foundation was found, partly blocking the
E. end of one of the cuniculi. There can be no doubt that this once
supported the colossal equestrian statue of Domitian described by
Statius (Silv. i. I, 21 ff.) which was destroyed after his murder.
Embedded in the concrete was a cist of massive travertine blocks
which was found to contain five archaic vases similar to those from
the early necropolis (above, as init.). One held a nugget of quartz
containing pure gold. It is uncertain whether these were buried here
for ritual purposes or were the contents of an early tomb found in
digging the foundations. Near this monument there were found in
1904 remains of an enclosure of irregular shape which once contained
an altar. This must have been the altar which in imperial times
represented the Lacus Curtius (Ov. Fast. vi. 403). Beside this were
found some remains of a structure of imperial date which Comm.
Boni identified with the Tribunal at which justice was administered
by the emperors. 1
Palatine Hill or Palatium.
In addition to the early walls described above, only a few re-
mains now exist earlier in date than the later years of the republic;
these are mostly grouped near the Scalae Caci (see fig. 10, in
Plan), and consist of small cellae and other structures of unknown
use. 2 They are partly built of the soft tufa used in the " wall
of Romulus," and partly of hard granulated tufa so called.
Various names, such as the " hut of Faustulus " and the " Augur-
atorium," have been given to these very ancient remains, but
with little reason. On thing is certain, that the buildings were
respected and preserved even under the empire, and were prob-
ably regarded as sacred relics of the earliest times.
1 Authorities on the Forum ; For the earlier literature of the
subject it will suffice to refer to Jordan, Topographic der Stadt Rom,
i. 2, 195-429, and, in English, to Nichols, The Roman Forum
(1877). By far the best account based on the recent discoveries of
Comm. Boni is Huelsen, The Roman Forum (Eng. trans, from the
2nd German edition, by J. B. Carter, 1906), in which full references
are given. The official reports of excavations by Comm. Boni
appear at intervals in the Notizie degli Scavi, and are largely con-
cerned with the ancient necropolis. Huelsen publishes reports in
the Romische Mitteilungen which are of great value.
2 Our knowledge of these remains has been considerably increased
by excavations in this region begun in 1907, which form the subject
of a series of reports in the Notizie degli Scavi ; their significance is
discussed by Pinza in the Annali delta Societa degli ingegneri ed
architetti Italiani for that year, cf. Ashby in Classical Quarterly
(1908), p. 145 ff. It is almost too much to hope that the difficult
problems raised by these discoveries will ever be solved ; meanwhile
it may be noted (i) that abundant traces of a primitive settlement
(pottery, foundations of huts, &c.) have come to light near the
W. angle of the hill ; (ii) that walls of various epochs have been found
which may have belonged to a system of fortification, though this
cannot be demonstrated; (iii) that beneath a piece of walling built
with regularly laid tufa blocks was found an inhumation-grave con-
taining pottery of the 4th century B.C.
nomu*
Remains of more than one temple of the republican period exist
near this west angle of the Palatine. The larger of these (see Plan)
has been called conjecturally the temple of Jupiter Victor
(Liv. x. 29; Ov. fast. iv. 621).' It stands on a levelled Temple of
platform of tufa rock, the lower part of which is excavated Jupiter
into quarry chambers, used in later times as water Vktor.
reservoirs. Two ancient well-shafts lined with tufa communicate
with these subterranean hollows. Extensive foundations of hard
tufa exist in the valley afterwards covered by the Flavian palace (see
Plan, " Foundations of the Domus Augustana "). The masonry is in
parts of republican date, and was used to support the Flavian
palace. Not far from the top of the Scalae Caci are the masMvc
remains of a large cella, nothing of which now exists except the
concrete core faced with opus incertum in alternate layers of tufa
and peperino. It was probably once lined with marble. By it a
noble colossal seated figure of a goddess was found, in
Greek marble, well modelled, a work of the 1st century
A.D. The head and arms are missing, but the figure is
probably rightly called a statue of Cybele; and inscriptions dedi-
cated to Magna Mater have been found close to the temple.
Augustus in the Monumentum Ancyranum (4, 8) records AKDLM.
MATRIS.MAGNAE.IN.PALATIO.FECI; and there can be little
doubt that this is the temple in question. Some interesting early
architectural fragments are lying near this temple; they consist of
drums and capitals of Corinthian columns, and part of the cornice
of the pediment, cut in peperino, and thickly coated with hard white
stucco to imitate marble. Between this and the temple of Jupiter
Victor are extensive remains of a large porticus, with tufa walls and
travertine piers, also republican in date. The use and name of this
building are unknown.
Remains of extensive lines of buildings in early opus reticulatum
exist on the upper slopes of the Palatine, all along the Velabrum
side, and on the south-west side as far as the so-called Paedagogium.
These buildings are constructed on the ruins of the wall of Romulus,
a great part of which has been cut away to make room for them;
their base is at the foot of the ancient wall, on the shelf cut midway
in the side of the hill; their top reached originally above the upper
level of the summit. They are of various dates, and cannot be
identified with any known buildings. Part is apparently of
the time of the emperor Tiberius, and no doubt belongs to
the Dpmus Tiberiana mentioned by Suetonius (Tib. 5; Tac.
Hist. i. 27, iii. 71) ; this palace covered a great part of the
west corner of the hill. Of about the same date is a very interesting
and well-preserved private house built wholly of opus House at
reticulatum, which formed part of the imperial property, Uvla.
and was respected when the later palaces were built. The
discovery of lead-pipes bearing the inscription IVLIAE . AVQ (C.I.L.
xv. 7264) has led to the conjecture that the house was that bequeathed
to Livia by her first husband, Tib. Claudius Nero. At the north-west
end is a small atrium, out of which open three rooms commonly called
the tablinum and aloe, as well as a triclinium, all decorated with good
paintings of mythological and domestic scenes, probably the work
of Greek artists, as inscriptions in Greek occur, e.g. EPMHC, under
the figure of Hermes, in a picture representing his deliverance of lo
from Argus. 4 This suite of rooms was a later addition to the house.
The south-east portion was three storeys high, and is divided into
a great number of very small rooms, mostly bedrooms. The house is
built in a sort of hole against the side of an elevation, so that the
upper floor behind is level with an ancient paved road. The dampness
caused by this is counteracted and kept off the paintings by a lining
of flange-tiles over the external walls, under the stucco, thus forming
an air-cavity all over the surface. From the back of the house, at
the upper level, along subterranean passage leads towards the Flavian
palace, and then, turning at right angles and passing by the founda-
tions of the so-called temple of Jupiter Victor, issues in the ancient
tufa building mentioned above. Another crypto-porticus starts near
this house and communicates with the long semi-subterranean passage
by which the palaces of Caligula and Domitian are connected. It is
ornamented with very beautiful stucco reliefs of cupids, beasts and
foliage, once painted and gilt. Some hold that the house was that
of Germanicus, into which the soldiers who killed Caligula in the long
crypto-porticus escaped, as described by Josephus (Ant. Jud. xix. i ;
see also Suet. Col. 58).
From the Summa Sacra Via a road led to the Area Palatina in
the centre of the hill. Here was the sanctuary called Roma quadrate,
containing the mundus, a pit in which the instruments
used in the founding of the city were deposited. To the
east was the Area Apollinis, the entrance of which led
through lofty propylaea into a very extensive peristyle 'L w ai
or porticus, with columns of Numidian giallo; the temple '
was of white Luna marble. In the centre of this enclosure stood
the great octostyle peripteral temple of Apollo Palatinus. The
splendour of its architecture and the countless works of art in gold,
8 It has recently been argued by Pinza that this is the temple of
Apollo built by Augustus.
4 See Man. Inst. xi. pis. xxii., xxiii.; Mau, Ceschichte der
Wandmalerei, pi. ix. ; Renier, Les Peintures du Palatin (Paris,
1870).
ROME
[PALATINE HILL.
silver, ivory, bronze and marble, mostly the production of the best
Greek artists, which adorned this magnificent group of buildings,
must have made it the chief glory of this splendid city. This
temple was begun by Augustus in 36 B.C.,' after his Sicilian victory
over Sextus Pompeius, and dedicated on the 9th of October 28 B.C. 1
A glowing account of the splendours of these buildings is given
by Propertius (ii. 2, iii. 31). Inside the cella were statues of Apollo
between Latona and Diana by Scopas, Cephisodotus and Timotheus
respectively (Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 24, 25, 32); beneath the base of
the group were preserved the Sibylline books. The pediment had
sculpture by Bupalus and Archermus of Chios (Plin. H.N. xxxvi.
13), and on the apex was Apollo in a quadriga of gilt bronze. The
double door was covered with ivory reliefs of the death of the Niobids
and the defeat of the Gauls at Delphi. The Ancyran inscription
records that Augustus melted down eighty silver statues of himself
and with the money " offered golden gifts " to this temple, dedicat-
ing them both in his own name and in the names of the original
donors of the statues. 3 The Sibylline books were preserved under
the statue of Apollo (Suet. Aug. 31); and within the cella were
vases, tripods and statues of gold and silver, with a collection of
engraved gems dedicated by Marcellus (see Plin. H.N. xxxvii. n,
xxxiv. 14). In the porticus was a large library, with separate
departments for Latin and Greek literature, 4 and a large hall where
the senate occasionally met (Tac. Ann. ii. 37). Round the porticus,
between the Numidian marble columns, were statues of the fifty
Danaids, and opposite them their fifty bridegrooms on horseback
(see Schol. on Pers. ii. 56). In the centre, before the steps of the
temple, stood an altar surrounded by four oxen, the work of Myron
(Prop. iii. 31, 5). In the centre of the Palatine stood the palace
of Augustus, built in the years following 36 B.C., and renewed
after a fire in A.D. 3. It contained a small temple of Vesta
(C.I.L. i? p. 317), dedicated on the 28th of April 12 B.C., when
Augustus was elected pontifex maximus. Augustus's building
was completely transformed by later emperors, but the name
domus Augustana was retained in official use. The Area Apollinis
and its group of buildings suffered in the fire of Nero, and were
restored by Domitian. The whole was finally destroyed in the
great fire of 363 (Ammian. xxiii. 3, 3), but the Sibylline books were
saved.
To the north-west of the Area Palatina stood the Domus Tiberiana,
a palace built by Tiberius on substructures of concrete which crown the
north-west slope of the hill and form a platform now occupied
Tlbert ky *^ e Farnese gardens, overlooking the Clivus Victoriae.
Caligula is said to have added to this palace on the side
towards the Forum, making the temple of Castor into a
vestibule, and to have connected it with the Capitol by a bridge whose
piers were found by the temple of Augustus and the Basilica Julia;
but this was destroyed after his death. At a later time the palace
was extended so as to include the northern angle of the Palatine,
which had once been covered with private houses. Among these
were the dwellings of Q. Lutatius Catulus, Q. Hortensius, Scaurus,
Crassus (Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 3, 24), whose house was afterwards
bought by Cicero. 6 Many other wealthy Romans had houses on
this part of the Palatine. The part now existing is little more than
the gigantic substructure built to raise the principal rooms to the
level of the top of the hill. The lowest parts of these face the Nova
Via, opposite the Atrium Vestae, and many storeys of small vaulted
rooms built in mixed brick and opus reticulatum rise one above
the other to the higher levels. 6 The palace extends over the Clivus
Victoriae, supported on lofty arches so as to leave the road un-
blocked ; many travertine or marble stairs lead to the upper rooms,
some starting from the Nova Via, others from the Clivus Victoriae.
A large proportion of these substructures consist of dark rooms,
some with no means ,of lighting, others with scanty borrowed light.
Many small rooms and stairs scarcely 2 ft. wide can only have been
used by' slaves. The ground floors on the Nova Via and the Clivus
Victoriae appear to have been shops, judging from their wide
openings, with travertine sills, grooved for the wooden fronts with
narrow doors, which Roman shops seem always to have had very
like those now used in the East. The upper and principal rooms
were once richly decorated with marble linings, columns and
mosaics; but little of these now remains. The upper part of
the palace, that above the Clivus Victoriae, is faced wholly
with brickwork, no opus reticulatum being used as in the lower
portions by the Nova Via. This marks a difference of date,
and this is confirmed by the occurrence of brick stamps of the
2nd century A.D.
1 TEMPLVM . APOLLINIS . IN . SOLO . MAGNAM . PARTEM .
EMPTO . FECI (Man. Anc. 4, i).
2 See Dio Cass. xlix. 15, liii. I, and C.I.L. i. 2 p. 331.
3 See also Suet. Aug. 52, whose account is rather different.
4 Schol. to Juv. i. 128, and Suet. Aug. 29.
6 Cic. Pro Domo, 43 ; Val. Max. vi. 3, i ; and see Becker, Handb.
i. p. 423.
6 At this point the Palatine is cut away into four stages like
gigantic steps; the lowest is the floor of the Atrium Vestae, the
second the Nova Via, the third the Clivus Victoriae, and the top of
the hill forms the fourth.
The next great addition to the buildings of the Palatine was the
magnificent suite of state apartments built by Domitian, over
a deep natural valley running across the hill (see Plan).
The valley was filled up and the level of the new palace .
raised to a considerable height above the natural soil. '*
Remains of a house, decorated with painting and rich marbles,
exist under Domitian's peristyle, partly destroyed by the foundations
of cast concrete which cut right through it. The floor of this house
shows the original level, far below that of the Flavian palace. This
building is connected with the palace of Caligula by a brandi
subterranean passage leading into the earlier crypto-porticus. It
consists of a block of state-rooms, in the centre of which is a large
open peristyle, with columns of oriental marble, at one end of which
is the grand triclinium with magnificent paving of opus sectile in
red and green basalt and coloured marbles, a piece of which is well
preserved; next to the triclinium, on to which it opens with large
windows, is a nymphaeum or room with marble-lined fountain
and recesses for plants and statues. On the opposite side of the
peristyle is a large throne-room, the walls of which were adorned
with rows of pavonazzetto and giallo columns and large marble
niches, in which were colossal statues of porphyry and basalt; at
one side of this is the basilica, with central nave and apse and narrow
aisles, over which were galleries. The apse, in which was the
emperor's throne, is screened off by open marble cancelli, a part of
which still exists. It is of great interest as showing the origin of
the Christian basilica (see BASILICA). 7 On the other side of the
throne-room is the lararium, with altar and pedestal for a statue;
next to this is the grand staircase, which led to the upper rooms,
now destroyed. The whole building, both floor and walls, was
covered with the richest oriental marbles. Outside were colonnades
or porticus, on one side of cipollino, on the other of travertine,
the latter stuccoed and painted. The magnificence of the whole,
crowded with fine Greek sculpture and covered with polished
marbles of the most brilliant colours, is difficult now to realize; a
glowing description is given by Statius (Silv. iv. II, 18; see also
Plut. Poplic. 15, and Mart. viii. 36). Doors were arranged in
the throne-room and basilica so that the emperor could slip out
unobserved and reach by a staircase (g on Plan) the crypto-porticus
which communicates with Caligula's palace. The vault of this
passage was covered with mosaic of mixed marble and glass, a few
fragments of which still remain; its walls were lined with rich
marbles; it was lighted by a series of windows in the springing of
the vault. This, as well as the Flavian palace, appears to have
suffered more than once from fire, and in many places import-
ant restorations of the time of Severus, and some as late as
the 4th century, are evident. In 1720-28 extensive excavations
were made here for the Farnese duke of Parma, and an immense
quantity of statues and marble architectural fragments were dis-
covered, many of which are now at Naples and elsewhere. Among
them were sixteen beautiful fluted columns of pavonazzetto and
giallo, fragments of the basalt statues, and an immense door-sill
of Pentelic marble, now used for the high altar of the Pantheon ;
these all came from the throne-room. The excavations were carried
on by Bianchini, who published a book on the subject. 8
In the middle of the slopes of the Palatine, towards the Circus
Maximus, are considerable remains of buildings set against the early
wall and covering one of its projecting spurs, consisting
in a series of rooms with a long Corinthian colonnade.
The rooms were partly marble-lined and partly decorated
with painted stucco, on which are incised a number of
interesting inscriptions and rude drawings. Here, in 1856, was
found the celebrated caricature of the Crucified Christ, now in the
Museo Kircheriano. 9 The inscription CORINTHVS . EXIT . DE .
PEDAGOGIC suggests that this building was at one time used as
a school, perhaps for the imperial slaves. 10 A number of soldiers'
names also occur, e.$. HILARYS . MI . V . D . N . (Hilarus miles
vestitor domini nostri ?) ; some are in mixed Latin and Greek
characters. After one pair of names is inscribed PEREG, showing
that they belonged to the corps called frumentarii stationed in the
Castra Peregrinorum on the Caelian. Most of these inscriptions
appear to be as early as the 1st century A.D. " These interesting
graffiti have in great part perished during the last few years. Some
inscriptions found in the larger rooms seem to indicate that the
imperial wardrobe found a place in them.
To the south of the Flavian state-rooms, on the side of the hill
overlooking the Circus, was a building with a central peristyle
(" Palace of Domitian " on Plan), which was excavated in 1775 and
7 The brick stamps on the tiles laid under the marble paving of
the basilica have CN.DOMITI.AMANDI. VALEAT.QVI.FECIT.,-
the last three words a common augury of good luck stamped on
bricks or amphorae.
8 Pal. dei Cesari (Verona, 1738); see Guattani, Not. di Antich.
(1798).
'See Kraus, Das Spottcrucifix vom Palatin (Freiburg, 1872), and
Becker, Das Spottcrucifix, &c. (Breslau, 1866).
10 The paedagogium was, however, on the Caelian. Huelsen suggests
that it is here used as a slang term for a prison.
11 See Henzen, in the Bull. Inst., 1863, p. 72, and 1867, p. 113.
PALATINE HILL]
ROME
599
3!! 1 1 1 1 1 ITTTTTTrr
Vigna Barberini \
:-;->v ,
- Sit. of^ \_ " '
~ Tenmlc ef \^
S Sebastiano - ~"
_ (I <I Original limtlli of Domm TOtrimmtL
6 /Vf.cm o/ <<>>( or MecMtf cfr .t
of TtmfH of I ,'cfory (?l
timaint of tartg walls
< tVa< o/ /iril c. <i/r I.C.
/* Foandat 0*> of anticat gatttrOf
Staircall fielding to Crgptcportieut
p 10 w 30 40 50
FIG. 10. Plan of the Palatine.
again partly laid bare in 1869 and the following years. This has
often, but wrongly, been called the palace of Augustus; we should
rather see in it the dwelling-rooms of the Flavian palace. Adjoining
it is the so-called stadium of the Palatine (" Hippodromus" on
Plan), begun by Domitian, enlarged by Hadrian, and much altered or
restored by Severus. The greater part of the outer walls and the
large exedra or apse at the side, with upper floor for the emperor's
seat, are of the time of Hadrian, as is shown by the brick stamps,
and the character of the brick facing, which much resembles that
of the Flavian time (bricks ij in. and joints J in. thick). 1 The
stadium is surrounded with a colonnade of engaged shafts, forming
a sort of aisle with gallery over it. Except those at the curved end,
which are of Hadrian's time, these piers are of the time of Severus,
as are also all the flat piers along the outer wall, one opposite each
of those in the inner line. Severus restored the galleries after the
great fire of A.D. 191. This building was the hippodromus Palalii;
the word here means, not a racecourse, but a garden (Plin. Epp. 5, 6, 19).
In addition to the stadium, Hadrian built a number of very
1 In parts of the outer wall brick stamps of the Flavian period
appear, e.g. FLAVI AVQ.L.CLONI " [A brick] of Flavius Clonus,
freedman of Augustus" (C.I.L. xv. 1149).
handsome rooms, forming a palace on the south-east side and at the
south-west end of the stadium. These rooms were partly destroyed
and partly hidden by the later palace of Severus, the Hadrian'*
foundations of which in many places cut through and palate.
render useless the highly decorated rooms of Hadrian.
The finest of these which is now visible is a room with a large
window opening into the stadium near the south angle; it has
intersecting barrel vaults, with deep coffers, richly ornamented in
stucco. The oval structure shown in the plan (fig. 10), with other
still later additions, belongs to the 6th century ; in its walls, of opus
mixtum, are found brick stamps of the reign of Theodoric, c. 500.
The palace of Septimius Severus was very extensive and of
enormous height; it extends not only all over the south angle of the
Palatine but also a long way into the valley of the Circus P^KC o/
Maximus and towards the Coelian. This part (like Stvtm*.
Caligula's palace) is carried on very lofty arched sub-
structures, so as to form a level, uniform with the top of the hill,
on which the grand apartments stood. The whole hejght from the
base of the Palatine to several storeys above its summit must have
been enormous. Little now remains of the highest storeys, except
part of a grand staircase which led to them. Extensive baths,
originally decorated with marble linings and mosaics in glass and
6oo
ROME
[CAPITOLINE HILL
Arch at
Titus.
marble, cover a great part of the top of the hill. These and other
parts of the Palatine were supplied with water by an aqueduct built
by Nero in continuation of the Claudian aqueduct, some arches
of which still exist on the slope of the Palatine (" Aqtla Claudia"
on Plan) (see Spart. Sept. Sev. 24). One of the main roads up to
the Palatine passes under the arched substructures of Severus, and
near this, at the foot of the hill, at the south angle, Septimius
Severus built an outlying part of his palace, a building of great
splendour called the Septizodium, 1 or House of the Seven Planets.
Part of the Septizodium existed as late ^s the reign of Sixtus V.
(1585-90), who destroyed it in order to use its marble decorations
and columns in the new basilica of St Peter; drawings of it are
given by Du Pe>ac, Vestigj di Roma (1575), pi. 13, and in other works
of that century. 2
The name Palatium seems to have originally denoted the sou them
height of the Palatine hill, while the summit overlooking the Vela-
brum was called Cermalus, and the saddle connecting the
e a an Palatine and the Esquiline on which the temple of Venus
Cermalus. an( j R ome anc j (. ne ar ^ n o f Xitus now stand bore the
name Velia.* It is evident that this was once higher than it is now;
a great part of it was cut away when the level platform for the
temple of Venus and Rome was formed. The foundations of part
of Nero's palace along the road between this temple and the
Esquiline are exposed for about 20 to 30 ft. in height, showing a
corresponding lowering of the level here, and the bare tufa rock,
cut to a flat surface, is visible on the site of Hadrian's great temple;
that the Velia was once much joftier is also indicated by the story
of the removal of Valerius Publicola's dwelling. 4
The arch of Titus, erected in memory of that emperor's sub-
jugation of the Jews, but not completed until after his death,
stands at the pcint where the Sacra Via crosses the Velia ;
it is possible that it once stood farther to the east and
was removed to its present position when the temple of
Venus and Rome was built. The well-known reliefs of the archway
depict the Jewish triumph and the spoils of the Temple. In the
middle ages the arch was converted into a fortress by the Frangipani ;
their additions were removed and the arch restored in its present
shape in 1821.
On the Velia and the adjoining Summa Sacra Via were the temples
of the Lares and Penates which Augustus rebuilt. 6 The " Aedes
Sacra Larum " is probably distinct from the " Sacellum Lamm "
V4j mentioned by Tacitus (Ann. xii. 24) as one of the points
in the line of the original pomerium. The temple of
Jupiter Stator, traditionally vowed by Romulus during his repulse
Temple of ^ tne Sabines (Liv. i. 12), stood near the Porta Mugonia,
Jupiter anc * tne r e f r e near the road leading up to the Palatine
Stator. Sacra Via. 6 To the south-east of the arch of Titus (see
Plan) are the remains of a concrete podium which may
have belonged to this temple in its latest form; and Comm. Boni
discovered (in 1907) some early tufa walling close to the above-
named arch in which he recognized the foundations of the earlv
Temple of tem P'. e - Augustus rebuilt the temple of Vicjory, which
Victory gave its name to the Clivus Victoriae; this temple stood
on the site of a prehistoric altar (Dionys. i. 32), and was
more than once rebuilt, e.g. by L. Postumius, 294 B.C. (Liv. x. 33).
In 193 B.C. an aedicula to Victory was built near it by M. Porcius
Cato (Liv. xxxv. 9). Remains of the temple and a dedicatory
inscription were found in 1728' not far from the church of
S. Teodoro; the temple was of Parian marble, with Corinthian
columns of Numidian giallo antico. The Sacra Via started at the
Sacellum Streniae, an unknown point on the Esquiline, probably
in the valley of the Colosseum (Varro, L.L. v. 47), in the quarter
called Cerolia. Thence it probably (in later times) passed round
part of the Colosseum to the slope leading up to the arch of Titus
on the Velia ; this piece of its course is lined on one side by remains
of private houses, and farther back, against the cliff of the Palatine,
are the substructures of the Area Apollinis. From the arch of
Titus or Summa Sacra Via the original line of the road has been
altered, probably when the temple of Venus and Rome was built
by Hadrian. Its later course passed at a sharp angle from the arch
1 The form Septizonium is also found.
*See Huelsen, Das Septizonium des Septimius Severus (Berlin,
1886); Maass, Die Tagesgotter in Rom und den Provinzen (Berlin,
1902).
" Huic (Palatio) Germalum et Velias conjunxerunt . . .
Germalum ' a germanis Romulo et Remo, quod ad ficum Rumin-
alem ibi invent! " (Varro, L.L. v. 54).
4 Liv. ii. 7 ; Cic. Rep. ii. 31 ; see also Ascon. Ad Cic. in Pis. 52.
'AEDEM.LARVM.IN.SVMMA.SACRA.VIA.AEDEM.DEVM.
PENATIVM. IN. VELIA... FECI (Man. Anc.).
6 Dionys. ii. 50; see also Plut. Cic. 16; Ov. Fast. vi. 793, and
Tnst.'m. i, 131. Near this temple, and also near the Porta Mugonia,
was the house of Tarquinius Priscus (Liv. i. 41 ; Solin. i. 24). Owing
to the strength of its position this temple was more than once
selected during troubled times as a safe meeting-place for the Senate;
it was here, as being a " locus munitissimus," that Cicero delivered
his First Catiline Oration (see Cic, In Cat. i. i).
7 See Bianchini, Pal. dei Cesari (1738), p. 236, pi. viii.
of Titus to the front of Constantino's basilica, and on past the
temple of Faustina. It is uncertain whether the continuation of
this road to the arch of Severus was in later times called the Sacra
Via or whether it rejoined its old line along the Basilica Julia by
the cross-road in front of the Aedes Julii. Its original line past
the temple of Vesta was completely built over in the 3rd and /j.th
centuries, and clumsily fitted pavements of marble and travertine
occupy the place of the old basalt blocks. 8 The course of the
Nova Via' (see Plan) along the north-east slope of the Palatine 10
was exposed in 1882-84. According to Varro (L.L. vi. 50) it was a
very old road. It led up from the Velabrum, probably winding
along the slope of the Palatine, round the north angle above the
church of S. Maria Antiqua. The rest of its course, gently ascending
towards the arch of Titus, is now exposed, as are also the stairs
which connected it with the Clivus Victoriae at the northern angle
of the Palatine; a continuation of these stairs led down to the
Forum."
The extent of the once marshy Velabrum (Gr. F Xos) is not known,
though part of its site is indicated by the church of S. Giorgio in
Velabro; Varro (L.L. vi. 24) says, " extra urbem antiquam v I -
f uit, non longe a porta Romanula." It was a district full of
shops (Plaut. Capt. 489; Hor. Sat. ii. 3, 30). The Vicus
Tuscus on its course from the Forum to the Circus skirted the
Velabrum (Dionys. v. 26), from which the goldsmiths' arch was an
entrance into the Forum Boarium.
From the S.W. end of the Velabrum the Clivus Victoriae rose in
a gradual ascent along the slope of the Palatine and ultimately
wound round the northern angle.
Capitoline Hill 12
The Capitoline hill, once called Mons Saturnius (Varro, L.L.
v. 42), consists of two peaks, the Capitolium and the Arx, 13 with
an intermediate valley (Asylum). The older name of the Capi-
tolium was Mons Tarpeius (Varro, L.L. v. 41). Livy (i. 10)
mentions the founding of a shrine to Jupiter Feretrius on the
Capitolium by Romulus; 14 this summit was afterwards occupied
by the great triple temple dedicated to Jupiter, Juno Temple of
and Minerva, a triad of deities worshipped under the Jupiter
names of Tinia, Thalna and Menerva in every Etruscan CapHal-
city. This great temple was (Liv. i. 38, 53) founded to " s "
by Tarquin I., built by his son Tarquin II., and dedicated by
M. Horatius Pulvillus, consul suffectus in 509 B.C. U It was
built in the Etruscan style, of peperino stuccoed and painted
(Vitr. iii. 3), with' wooden architraves, wide intercolumniations
and painted terra-cotta statues. 16 It was rebuilt many times;
the original temple lasted till it was burnt in 83 B.C.; it was
then refounded in marble by Sulla, with Corinthian columns
stolen from the temple of Olympian Zeus in Athens (Plin.
xxxvi. 4, 5), and was completed and dedicated by Q. Lutatius
Catulus, whose name appeared on the front. Augustus, although
he restored it at great expense (Man. Anc. 4, 9), did not intro-
duce his name by the side of that of Catulus. It was again
burnt by the Vitellian rioters in A.D. 70, and rebuilt by Vespasian
in 7 1. 17 Lastly, it was burnt in the three days' fire of Titus's
reign 18 and rebuilt with columns of Pentelic marble by Domitian ;
the gilding alone of this last rebuilding is said to have cost
2^ millions sterling (Plut. Publ. 15). Extensive substructures
of tufa have been exposed on the eastern peak; in 1875 a
fragment of a fluted column was found, of such great size that
it could only have belonged to the temple of Jupiter; and a few
other architectural fragments have been discovered at different
times. The western limit of the temple was determined in
1865, its eastern limit in 1875, and the S.E. angle in 1896.
8 See Jordan, Topographic der Stadt Rom. i. 2. 274-91.
8 See Solinus (i. 24) and Varro (ap. Cell. xvi. 17), who mention
its two ends, summa and infima (cf. Liv. v. 32).
"See Not. d. Scavi (1882), p. 234. Original level laid bare, 1904.
11 See marble plan on Plate VII. and cf. Ov. Fast. vi. 395.
12 See Rodocanachi, Le Capitole remain (1903; Eng. trans., 1906).
13 The first-named was the southern, the 'second the northern
summit.
14 This is the earliesftemple mentioned in Roman history. It was
rebuilt by Augustus (Man. Anc. 4, 5).
"See Plut. Publ. 14; C.I.L. i. p. 487; Liv. ii. 8. Dionys. v. 35
wrongly gives 507 B.C.
16 Plin. xxxy. 157; see Tac. Hist. iii. 72; Val. Max. v. 10.
"Suet. Vit. 15, and Vesp. 8; cf. Tac. Hist. iv. 53, and Dio
Cass. Ixvi. 10.
18 Suet. Dom. 5 ; Dio Cass. Ixvi. 24.
IMPERIAL FORA]
ROME
601
It appears that the figures given by Dionysius (iv. 61) for the
area are slightly too large. The true measurements were
1 88 X 204 Roman ft. 1 The temple is represented on many
coins, both republican and imperial; these show that the
central cella was that of Jupiter, that of Minerva on his right
and of Juno on his left. The door was covered with gold
reliefs, which were stolen by Stilicho (c. 400; Zosim. v. 38),
and the gilt bronze tiles (cf. Plin. xxxiii. 57) on the roof were
partly stripped off by Geiseric in 455 (Procop. Bell. Vand.
i. 5), and the rest by Pope Honorius I. in 630 (Marliani, Topogr.
ii. i). 2 Till 1348, when the steps up to Ara Coeli were built,
there was no access to the Capitol from the back; hence the
three ascents to it mentioned by Livy (iii. 7, v. 26-28) and
Tacitus (Hist. iii. 71-72) were all from the inside of the Servian
circuit. Even on this inner side it was defended by a wall, the
gates in which are called " Capitolii fores " by Tacitus. Part of the
outer wall at the top of the tufa rock, which is cut into a smooth
cliff, is visible from the modern Vicolo della Rupe Tarpeia;
this cliff is traditionally called the Tarpeian rock, but that must
have been on the other side towards the Forum, from whence it
was visible, as is clearly stated by Dionysius (vii. 35, viii. 78).'
Another piece of the ancient wall has been exposed, about
half-way up the slope from the Forum to the Arx. It is built
of soft yellow tufa blocks, five courses of which still remain
in the existing fragment. The large temple of Juno Moneta
(" the Adviser ") on the Arx, built by Camillus in 384 B.C.,
was used as the mint; hence monela= " money " (Liv. vi. 20).
A large number of other temples and smaller shrines stood on
the Capitoline hill.'a word used broadly to include both the Capitolium
and the Arx. 4 Among these were the temple of Honos and Virtus,
built by Marius,-and the temple of Fides, founded by Numa, and
rebuilt during the First Punic war. Both these were large enough
to hold meetings of the senate. The temples of Mars Ultor (Man.
Anc. 4, 5) and Jupiter Tonans (Suet. Aug. 29; Man. Anc. 4, 3)
were built by Augustus. Other shrines existed to Venus Victnx
Ops, Jupiter Gustos, and Concord the last under the Arx (Liv.
xxii. 33) and many others, as well as a triumphal arch in honour
of Nero, and a crowd of statues and other works of art (see Plin.
H.N. xxxiii. 9, xxxiv. 38, 39, 40, 43, 44, 79, xxxv. 69, ipo, 108,
157), so that the whole hill must have been a mass of architectural
and artistic magnificence.
The so-called Tabularium 6 occupies the central part of the side
towards the Forum; it is set on the tufa rock, which is cut away
_ to receive its lower storey. It derives its name from an
inscription which remained in situ until the I5th century
""' (C.I.L. vi. 1314); whilst all public departments had
their tabularia, this was a central Record Office, where copies of
laws, treaties, &c., were preserved. It was built by Catulus,
who was also the dedicator of the great temple of Jupiter (Tac.
Hist. iii. 72; Dio Cass. xliii. 14), consul in 78 B.C. Its outer
.walls are of sperone, its inner ones of tufa; the Doric arcade has
capitals, imposts and entablature of travertine. Above the arcade
was a gallery or porticus, faced with a Corinthian colonnade, of
which a few architectural members have been found. The columns
appear to have belonged to the 1st century A.D. A road paved
with basalt passes through the building along this arcade, entered
at one end from the Clivus Capitolinus, and at the other probably
from the Gradus Monetae, a flight of steps leading from the temple
of Concord and the Forum up to the temple of Juno Moneta on the
Arx. The entrance from the Clivus Capitolinus is by a wide flat
arch of peperino beautifully jointed; the other end wall has been
mostly destroyed. The back of this building overlooked the Asylum
1 See Bull. Comm. Arch. iii. (1875), p. 165; Man. Inst. v. pi. xxxyi.,
x. pi. xxxa; Jordan, Topographic der Stadt Rom, i. 2, 69; Notizie
degli Scavi, 1896, p. 161, 1897, p. 30; Richter, " Der kapitolinische
Jupitertempel und der italische Fuss," in Hermes (1887), p. 17.
1 The pediment is shown on a relief now lost, but extant in the
i6th century and reproduced in drawings of that date. It has
been recently proved to have decorated the Forum of Trajan (Wace
in Papers of the B.S.R. iv. p. 240, pi. xx.). The front of the
temple is shown on one of the reliefs of Marcus Aurelius now
in the Palazzo dei Conservatori (Papers of the B.S.R. iii. pi.
xx vi.).
3 See Rodocanachi, The Roman Capitol, p. 50. A graceful account
of the legend of Tarpeia is given by Propertius, Eleg. iv. 4.
4 A structure of great sanctity, dating from prehistoric Etruscan
times, was the Auguraculum, an elevated platform upon the Arx,
from which the signs in the heavens were observed by the augurs
(see Festus, ed. Miiller, p. 18).
6 On the Tabularium see Delbriick, Hellenistische Bauten in Latium,
i. (1907)- PP- 23-46.
or depression between the two peaks. From this higher level a
long steep staircase of sixty-seven steps descends towards the
Forum; the doorway at the foot of these stairs has a flat arch,
with a circular relieving arch over it; it was blocked up by the
temple of Vespasian. Great damage was done to this building
by the additions of Boniface VIII. and Nicholas V., as well as
by its being used as a salt store, by which the walls were much
corroded. 8
The Imperial Fora.
The Forum Julium (see fig. II, Plan), with its central temple of
Venus Genetrix, was begun, about 54 B.C., by Julius (who dedicated
it in an unfinished state in 46 B.C.) and completed by forum
Augustus. 7 Being built on a crowded site it was some- . ..
what cramped, and the ground cost nearly a hundred
million sesterces. 8 Part of its circuit wall, with remains of five
arches, exists in the Via delle Marmorelle ; and behind is a row of
small vaulted rooms, probably shops or offices. The arches are
slightly cambered with travertine springers and keys; the rest,
with the circular relieving arch over, is of tufa; it was once lined
with slabs of marble, the holes for which exist. Foundations of
the circuit wall exist under the houses towards S. Adriano, but the
whole plan has not been made out. In the centre of the Forum
stood the temple of Venus Genetrix, whose remains were seen and
described by Palladio (Arch. iv. 31). This temple was vowed by
Caesar at the battle of Pharsalus. 9
The forum of Augustus (see fig. n) adjoined that of Julius on
its north-east side; it contained the temple of Mars Ultor, built to
commemorate the vengeance taken on Caesar's murderers
at Philippi; 42 B.C. (Oy. Fast, v. 575 seq.).' It was
surrounded with a massive wall of peperino, over 100 ft.
high, with travertine string-courses and cornice; a large piece of
this wall still exists, and is one of the most imposing relics of ancient
Rome. Against it are remains of the temple of Mars, three columns
of which, with their entablature and marble ceiling of the peristyle,
are still standing; it is Corinthian in style, very richly decorated,
and built of fine Luna marble. The cella is of peperino, lined with
marble; and the lower part of the lofty circuit wall seems also to
have been lined with marble on the inside of the forum. The large
archway by the temple (Arco dei Pantani) is of travertine. Palladio
(Arch, iv.) and other writers of the l6th century give plans of the
temple and circuit wall, showing much more than now exists. The
temple, which was octastyle, with nine columns and a pilaster on the
sides, occupied the centre, and on each side the circuit wall formed
two large semicircular apses, decorated with tiers of niches for
statues. 11
The Forum Pacis, built by Vespasian, was farther to the south-
east; the only existing piece, a massive and lofty wall of mixed
tufa and peperino, with a travertine archway, is opposite _
the end of the basilica of Constantine. The arch opened
into the so-called Templum Sacrae Urbis, a rectangular
building entered by a portico on its west side, whose north wall was
decorated with a marble plan of the city of Rome (see below, p. 608).
The original plan was probably burnt with the whole group of
buildings in this forum in 191, in the reign of Commodus (Dio Cass.
Ixxii. 24) ; but a new plan was made, and the building restored in
concrete and brick by Severus. The north end wall, with the clamps
for fixing the marble plan, still exists, as does also the other (restored)
end wall with its arched windows towards the forum ; one hundred
and sixty-seven fragments of this plan were found c. 1563 at the
foot of the wall to which they were fixed, and are now preserved in
the Capitoline Museum; drawings of seventy-four pieces now lost
are preserved in the Vatican 12 (Cod. Vat. 3439). The whole of
these fragments were published by Jordan, Forma Urbis Romae
(Berlin, 1874). Other fragments have since been brought to
light, and the whole series was rearranged in the Palazzo dei
Conservatori in 1903. The circular building at the end facing
on the Sacra Via is an addition built by Maxentius in honour
of his deified son Romulus; like the other buildings of Maxen-
tius, it was rededicated and inscribed with the name of his conqueror
6 The Porta Pandana (" ever-open gate ") gave access from the
Area Capitolina, upon which the temple of Jupiter stood, to the
Tarpeian rock.
7 See Man. Anc. (quoted above) ; Plin. Hist. Nat. xxxv. 156,
xxxvi. 103.
8 Cic. Ep. ad Alt. iv. 16; Suet. Goes. 26; Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 103.
9 See Dio Cass. xliii. 22 ; Appian, Bell. Civ. ii. 102 ; Vitr.
iii. 3; Plut. Caes. 60.
10 The Ancyran inscription records IN.PRIVATO.SOLO.[EMP]TO.
MARTIS.ULTORIS.TEMPLVM . FORVMQVE.AVGVSTVM.EX.
[MANI]BIIS.FECI. See Suet. Aug. 29, 56; Dio Cass. Ivi. 27;
Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 102, xxxv. 94, xxxiv. 48, vii. 183, where many fine
Greek works of art are mentioned as being in the forum of Augustus.
11 Those of Roman leaders and generals, from Aeneas and Romulus
to Augustus. See Borsari, Foro a' Augusta, &c. (1884).
12 An interesting description of this discovery is given by Vacca,
writing in 1594 (see Schreiber in Berichte der sacks. Cesellsch. der
Wissenschaften, 1881). The scale is roughly I to 250.
602
ROME
[TEMPLES AND BUILDINGS
r*
'J ^jKbrum Pacisfl] Vespasianio
Iroir. Richlcr* Topographic dcr sudt Rom, by pfraiMJon ol C.:L Bcik Kt>< VcrUibuclihinait:n.
FIG. n. Imperial Fora.
Constantino. 1 The original building of Vespasian was probably an
archive and record office; it was certainly not a temple. The fine
bronze doors at the entrance to the temple of Romulus are much
earlier than the building itself, as are also the porphyry columns
and very rich entablature which ornament this doorway. Pope
Felix IV. (526-30) made the double building into the church of
SS. Cosmo e Damiano, using the circular domed temple of Romulus
as a porch. 2 The chief building of Vespasian's forum was the Tern-
plum Pacis, 3 dedicated in 75, one of the most magnificent in Rome,
which contained a very large collection of works of art.
The forum of Nerva (see fig. n) occupied the narrow strip left
between the fora of Augustus and Vespasian; being little more
than a richly decorated street, it was called the Forum
Fon/m of fransitorium or Forum Palladium, from the temple to
Minerva which it contained. It was begun by Domitian,
and dedicated by Nerva in 97 (see Suet. Dom. 5; Mart. i. 2, 8).
Like the other imperial fora, it was surrounded by a peperino wall,
not only lined with marble but also decorated with rows of Corinthian
columns supporting a rich entablature with sculptured frieze. Two
columns and part of this wall still exist; on the frieze are reliefs of
weaving, fulling and various arts which were under the protection of
Minerva. A great part of the temple existed till the time of Paul
V., who in 1606 destroyed it to use the remains for the building of
the Acqua Paola.' In the reign of Scverus Alexander a series of
colossal bronze statues, some equestrian, were set round this forum;
they represented all the previous emperors who had been deified,
and by each was a bronze column inscribed with his res gestae
(Hist. Aug.; Sev. Alex. 28).
The forum of Trajan with its adjacent buildings was the last and,
at least in size, the most magnificent of all ; it was in progress from
1 13 to 1 17, at least. A great spur of hill, which connected
the Capitoline with the Quirinal, was cut away to make a
irajaa. level site for this enormous group of buildings. It con-
sisted (see fig. n) of a large dipteral peristyle, with curved
projections, lined with shops on the side. That against the slope
of the Quirinal, three storeys high, still partly exists. The main
entrance was through a triumphal arch (Dio Cass. Ixviii. 29).
Aurei of Trajan show this arch and other parts of his forum. 6 The
opposite side was occupied by the Basilica Ulpia (Jordan, F. U.R.
iii. 25, 26), part of which, with the column of Trajan, is now visible;
none of the columns, which are of grey granite, are in situ, and
the whole restoration is misleading. Part of the rich paving in
oriental marble is genuine. This basilica contained two large
libraries (Dio Cass. Ixviii. 16; Aul. Cell. xi. 17).
1 For accounts of this group of buildings, see De Rossi, Bull.
Arch. Crist. (1867), pp. 66 ff.; and Lanciani, Bull. Comm. Arch.
Rom. (1882), pp. 29 ft.
1 " Hie (Felix) fecit basilicam SS. Cosmae et Damiani ... in
Via Sacra, juxta Templum Urbis Romae " (Lib. Pont., Vita S.
Felicis IV.). By the last words the basilica of Constantino is
meant.
'Statues by Pheidias and Lysippus existed in the Forum Pacis
as late as the 6th century (Procop. Bell. Goth. iv. 21).
4 Drawings of it are given by Du PeVac and Palladio (Arch. iv. 8).
' See Aul. Cell. xiii. 25, 2; and Amm. Marc. xvi. 10, 15.
The Columna Cochlis (so caned trom its spiral stairs) is, including
capital and base, 97 ft 9 in. high,' i.e. lop Roman ft.; its pedestal
has reliefs of trophies of Dacian arms, and winged Victories. fralan'M
On the shaft are reliefs arranged spirally in twenty-three co i um a.
tiers scenes of Trajan's victories, containing about 2500
figures. Trajan's ashes were buried in a gold urn under this column
(Dio Cass. Ixviii. 16); and on the summit was a colossal gilt
bronze statue of the emperor, now replaced by a poor figure of
St Peter, set there by Sixtus V.' Beyond the column stood the
temple of Trajan completed by Hadrian; its foundations exist
under the buildings at the north-east side of the modern f em nj e o /
piazza, and many of its granite columns have been found, fralao.
This temple is shown on coins of Hadrian. 8 The architect
of this magnificent group of buildings was Apollodorus of Damascus
(Dip Cass. Ixix. 4), who also designed many buildings in Rome
during Hadrian's reign. 9 In addition to the five imperial fora,
and the Forum Magnum, Holitorium and Boarium, mentioned
above, there were also smaller markets for pigs (Forum Suarium),
bread (Forum Pistorium) and fish (Forum Piscarium), all of which,
with some others, popularly but wrongly called fora, are given in the
regionary catalogues.
Other Temples, &c.
Besides the temples mentioned in previous sections remains of
many others still exist in Rome. The circular temple by the Tiber,
in the Forum Boarium (Plan, No. 5), formerly thought
to be that of Vesta, is possibly that of Portunus, the god
of the harbour (Varro, L.L. vi. 19). Its design is similar
to that of the temple of Vesta in the forum (fig. 8), and, except the
entablature and upper part of the cella, which are gone, it is well
Other
temples.
6 Its pedestal is inscribed, " Senatus Populusque Romanus Imp.
Caesari Divi Nervae F. Nervae Trajano Aug. Germ. Dacico Pontif.
Maximo Trib. Pot. XVII. [i.e. A.D. 113] Imp. VI. Cos. VI. P. P. ad
dcclarandum quantae altitudinis mons et locus tantis operibus sit
egestus." This would seem to indicate the height of the hill removed
to form the site, and is so explained by Dion Cass. (Ixviii. 16). It
is impossible that the saddle connecting the Quirinal with the
Capitoline hill can have been too ft. in height (Brocchi, Suolo di
Roma, p. 133), but it may be that the cliff of the Quirinal was cut
back to a slope reaching to a point about 72 ft. high ; thus the state-
ment of the inscription is much exaggerated. Comm. Boni has
found the remains of a road beneath the pavement of the Forum,
near the column, and believes that the inscription refers to the
height of the buildings. Comparetti refers mons to the mass of
marble quarried to build the Forum; Sogliano to the mass of ruins
and rubbish carted away; Mau to the Servian agger between the
Capitol and Quirinal (see Rom. Mitth., 1907, 187 ff.).
7 For the reliefs, se Cichorius, Die Reliefs der Trajanssaule (1896-
1900); Peterson, Trajans dakische Kriege (1899-1903); Stuart Jones,
Papers of the B. R. S., vol. v. From their lofty position they are now
difficult to see, but originally must have been very fairly visible from
the galleries on the colonnades which once surrounded the column.
See_Aul. Cell. xi. 17, i; Hist. Aug. Hadr. 19; and compare
Pausanias (v. 12, 6; x. 5, n), who mentions the gilt bronze roofs of
Trajan's forum.
9 See Richter and Grifi, Ristauro del Foro Trajano (1839).
TEMPLES AND BUILDINGS]
ROME
603
preserved. It may date from the 2nd century B.C. The neighbour-
ing Ionic temple, popularly called of Fortuna Virilis, is of special
interest from its early date, probably the end of the 3rd century B.C.
The complete absence of marble and the very sparing use of traver-
tine, combined with the simple purity of its design, indicate an
early date. 1 It has a prostyle tetrastyle portico of travertine, and
a short cella of tufa with engaged columns; the bases of these and
of the angle columns are of travertine. The frieze has reliefs of
ox skulls and garlands. The whole was originally stuccoed and
painted so that the different stones used would not show. Fig. 12
gives the plan, showing the hard travertine used at the points of
greatest pressure, while the main walls with the half columns are
of the weaker and
U softer tufa. The
dedication of this
temple is doubtful;
but it is probably
either that of For-
tuna or of Mater
Matuta, both of
which were de-
stroyed by fire in
213 B.C. and re-
FIG. i2.-So-called Temple of Fortuna Virilis. red in the fol-
The black shows tufa; the shading travertine.
in Cosmedin contains some remains of a temple (Plan, No. 4)
which has been identified with that of Hercules built by Pompey
ad Circum Maximum (Vitr. iii. 2, 5; Plin. H.N. xxxiv. 57).
The temple stands close to the carceres of the Circus Maxi-
mus, in the Forum Boarium. The columns built up in the
church did not, however, belong to a temple, but to a pprticus.
Within the walls of S. Niccolo in Carcere in the Forum Holitorium
(Plan, No. 1 8) are preserved remains of three small hexastyle
peripteral temples, two Ionic and one Tuscan, set close side
by side. 2 A fragment of the marble plan includes part of this
group. The Tuscan temple is built of travertine, the others
of tufa and peperino, with travertine at the points of greatest
pressure. They are probably those of Janus ad Theairum Marcelli,
dedicated by C. Duilius in the First Punic War (Tac. Ann. ii. 49);
of Spes, built by A. Atilius Calatinus, of about the same date (Tac.
Ann. ii. 49); and of Juno Sospita, dedicated by C. Cornelius
Cethegus in 197 B.C. (Liv. xxxiv. 53). Near the Forum Holitorium
are extensive remains of the large group of buildings included in the
Porticus Octaviae (Plan, No. 16), two of which, dedicated to Juno
Regina and Jupiter Stator, with part o f the enclosing porticus and
the adjoining temple of Hercules Musarum, are shown on a fragment
of the marble plan. The Porticus Octaviae, a large
rectangular space enclosed by a double line of columns,
was built in honour of Octavia by her brother Augustus
on the site of the Porticus Metelli, founded in 146 B.C. This must
not be confounded with the neighbouring Porticus Octavia founded
by Cn. Octavius, the conqueror of Perseus (Liv. xlv. 6, 42), in
168 B.C., and rebuilt under the same name by Augustus, as is re-
corded in the Ancyran inscription. The whole group was one of
the most magnificent in Rome, and contained a large number of
works of art by Pheidias and other Greek sculptors. The existing
portico, which was the main entrance into the porticus, is a restora-
tion of the time of Severus in 203. The church of S. Angelo in
Pescheria and the houses behind it conceal extensive remains of the
porticus and its temples (see Ann, Inst., 1861, p. 241, 1868, p. 108;
and Contigliozzi, /. Portici di Ottavia, 1861).*
Remains of a large peripteral Corinthian temple are built into
the side of the Borsa (formerly the Custom House). Eleven
marble columns and their rich entablature are still in
situ, with the corresponding part of the cella wall of
peperino; in 1878 a piece of the end wall of the cella
was discovered, and, under the houses near, part of a large peri-
bolus wall, also of peperino, forming an enclosure with columns
all round the temple nearly 330 ft. square (see Bull. Comtn. Arch.
Rom. vi. pi. iv., 1878). This temple has commonly been identified
with that of Neptune (Dio Cass. Ixvi. 24), built by Agrippa, and
surrounded by the Porticus Argonautarum (Dio Cass. liii. 27;
Mart. iii. 20, Ii); but it clearly dates, at least in its present form,
from the 2nd century A.D., and is not improbably the temple of
Hadrian, mentioned in the Notitia as being near this spot.
The temple of Venus and Rome on the Velia (see fig. 8) was the
_ . . largest in Rome; it was pseudo-dipteral, with ten Corin-
lemnieot t j,; an co i umns o f Greek marble at the ends, and prob-
Romc ' a b'y twenty at the sides; it had an outer colonnade
round the peribolus of about 180 columns of polished
granite. Of these only a few fragments now exist ; for several centuries
1 Fiechter (Rom. Mitth., 1906, pp. 220 ff.) has endeavoured to show
that the temple in its present form dates from the 1st century B.C.
2 For drawings of them, see the list given by Huelsen in Jordan,
Topographic, i. 3, 511, note II.
1 The remains of the Porticus Octaviae have been more com-
pletely exposed by the demolition of the Ghetto.
the whole area of this building was used as a quarry, while the
residue of the marble was burnt into lime on the spot in kilns built
of broken fragments of the porphyry columns. A considerable part
of the two cellae with their apses, set back to back, still exists; in
each apse was a colossal seated figure of the deity, and along the
side walls of the cellae were rows of porphyry columns and statues
in niches. The vault is deeply coffered with stucco enrichments
once painted and gilt. The roof was covered with tiles of gilt
bronze, which were taken by Pope Honorius I. (625-38) to cover the
basilica of St Peter's. These were stolen by the Saracens during
their sack of the Leonine city in 846. The emperor Hadrian himself
designed this magnificent temple, which was partially completed
in 135; the design was criticized severely by the architect Apollo-
dorus (Dio Cass. Ixix. 4; Vita Hadr. 19). The temple was
probably finished by Antoninus Pius; it was partly burned in
the reign of Maxentius, who began its restoration, which was
carried on by Constantine. The existing remains of the two cellae
are mainly of Hadrian's time, but contain patches of the later
restorations. Between the south angle of this temple and the arch
of Constantine stand the remains of a fountain, usually known as the
Meta Sudans. This was a tall conical structure in a large circular
basin, all lined with marble. From its brick facing it appears to be
a work of the Flavian period.
That part of the Caelian hill which is near the Colosseum is
covered with very extensive remains a great peribolus of brick-
faced concrete, apparently of Flavian date, and part of a BuUdlagt
massive travertine arcade in two storeys, similar to that oa t fj e
of the Colosseum; most of the latter has been removed caellaa,
for the sake of the stone, but a portion still exists under Esqulllae
the monastery and campanile of SS. Giovanni e Paolo. ant /
There can be no reasonable doubt that these substruc- Qulrloal.
tures carried the temple of Claudius, built by Vespasian
(Suet. Vesp. 9).
The so-called temple of Minerva Medica (" Nympheum " on Plan)
on the eastern slope of the Esquiline (so named fr.om a statue found
in it), a curiously planned building, with central decagonal domed
hall, probably belonged to the palace of Gallienus (263-68). Some-
what similar ruins beside the neighbouring basilica of S. Croce
formed part of the Sessorium, a palace on the Esquiline. The
remains on the Quirinal, in the Colonna gardens, of massive marble
entablatures richly sculptured were formerly thought to belong to
Aurelian's great temple of the Sun, but it now appears certain that
they belong to the very extensive thermae of Constantine, part of
the site of which is now occupied by the Quirinal palace and neigh-
bouring buildings. 4
The excavations of recent years have brought to light, and in
many cases destroyed, a large number of domestic buildings;
these discoveries are recorded in the Notizie degli Scavi pri vate
and the Bull. Comm. Arch. Rom. The extensive cutting bouses
away of the Tiber bank for the new embankment exposed
some very ornate houses near the Villa Farnesina, richly decorated
with marble, fine wall-paintings, and stucco reliefs, equal in beauty
to any works of the kind that have ever been found. These are now
exhibited in the Museo delle Terme, but the houses themselves have
been destroyed. The laying out of the new Quirinal and Esquiline
quarters has also exposed many fine buildings. Some remains on
the Esquiline have been supposed (without much probability) to
belong to the villa of Maecenas. A very remarkable vaulted room,
decorated with paintings of plants and landscapes, has been shown
to be a greenhouse; 5 at one end is an apse with a series of step-like
stages for flowers. This one room has been preserved, though the
rest of the villa has been destroyed ; it is on the road leading from
S. Maria Maggiore to the Lateran. The walls are a very fine speci-
men of tufa opus reticulatum, unmixed with brick, evidently of the
early imperial period. Among the numerous buildings discovered
in the Horti Sallustiani near the Quirinal was a very fine house of
the 1st century A.D., in concrete faced with brick and opus reticu-
latum. It had a central circular domed hall, with many rooms and
staircases round it, rising four storeys high. This house was set in
the valley against a cliff of the Quirinal, so that the third floor is
level with the upper part of the hill. It is nearly on the line of the
Servian wall, which stood here at a higher level on the edge of the
cliff. This park was laid out by the historian Sallust, and remained
in the possession of his famijy until the reign of Tiberius, when it
became imperial property; it was used as a residence by Nero
(Tac. Ann. xiii. 47) and other emperors till the 4th century. 6 In
1884, near the Porta S. Lorenzo, a long line of houses was discovered
during the making of a new road. Some of these were of opus
reticulatum of the 1st century B.C.; others had the finest kind of
4 gee Palladio (Terme dei Romani, London, 1732), who gives the
plan of this enormous building, now wholly hidden or destroyed.
6 Bull. Inst. (1875), 89-96; see also Bull. Comm. Arch. (1874),
137 ff., pis. xi.-xviii.
6 During excavations made here in 1876, lead pipes were found
inscribed with the name of the estate, the imperial owner
(Severus Alexander), and the plumber who made them ORTORVM .
SALLVSTIANOR . IMP . SEVER . ALEXANDRI . AVQ . NAEVIVS .
MANES . FECIT . (C.I.L. XV. 7249)-
604
ROME
[TEMPLES AND BUILDINGS
brick-facing, probably of the time of Nero; all had been richly
decorated with marble linings and mosaics. The line of the
street was parallel to that of the later Aurelian wall, which at
this part was built against the back of this row of houses. At
the same time, behind the line of houses were uncovered fine
peperino and tufa piers of the aqueduct rebuilt by Augustus,
one arch of which forms the Porta S. Lorenzo. These interesting
remains have all been completely destroyed. A fine house of
the end of the 1st century A.D., with richly decorated walls, was
exposed in June 1884 against the slope of the Quirinal, near the
Palazzo Colonna; it was immediately destroyed to make room for
new buildings.
The praetorian camp was first made permanent and surrounded
with a strong wall by the emperor Tiberius (Suet. Tib. 37). Owing
.. to the camp being included in the line of the Aurelian
wall, a great part of it still exists; it is a very interesting
specimen of early imperial brick-facing. The wall is only
12 to 14 ft. high, and has thinly scattered battlements, at intervals
of 20 ft. The north-east gate (Porta Principalis Dextra) is well
preserved; it had a tower on each side, now greatly reduced in
height, in which are small windows with arched heads moulded
in one slab of terra-cotta. The brick-facing is very neat and
regular, the bricks being about li in. thick, with i-in. joints.
On the inside of the wall are rows of small rooms for the
guards. Part of the Porta Praetoria also remains. This camp
was dismantled by Constantine, who removed its inner walls;
the outer ones were left because they formed part of the Aurelian
circuit. The present wall is nearly three times the height of
the original camp wall. The upper part was added when
Aurelian included it in his general circuit wall round Rome.
The superior neatness and beauty of Tiberius's brick- facing make
it easy to distinguish where his work ends and that of the later
emperors begins. Owing to the addition of the later wall it
requires some care to trace the rows of battlements which belong
to the camp.
The Pantheon is the most perfect among existing classical build-
ings in Rome. The inscription on the frieze of the portico (M .
, . AGRIPPA . L . F . COS . TERTIVM . FECIT) refers to a build-
ing erected by Agrippa in 27 B.C., consecrated to the
divinities of the Julian house (Mars, Venus, etc.) under the name
Pantheum (" all-holy "); cf. Dio Cass. liii. 27; Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 43.
It was sometimes used as the meeting-place of the Fratres Arvales
before they began to meet in the temple of Concord (C.I.L. v. 2041).
Pliny mentions the sculpture by the Athenian Diogenes which
adorned it, and its capitals and dome covering of Syracusan bronze
(xxxiv. 7). It was long supposed that the present rotunda was the
Pantheon of Agrippa; but this was destroyed in the great fire of
A.D. 80 (Oros. 7, 12; Hieron. Abr. 2127); and recent investiga-
tions have shown that the rotunda is a work of Hadrian's reign,
bricks of that period having been found in all parts of the building.
Excavations have made it probable that the site of the rotunda was
previously occupied by an open piazza, whose pavement of coloured
marbles has been discovered beneath the flooring, and that Agrippa's
Pantheon covered the present piazza and faced southward. The
present portico has been reconstructed ; it is probable that Agrippa's
portico had ten columns in the front. The ceiling of the portico too
was of bronze, supported by hollow bronze girders, 1 which remained
till Urban VIII. melted them to make cannon for S. Angelo; the
bronze weighed 450,000 ft. The bronze tiles of the dome were
stolen long before by Constans II., in 663, but on their way to
Constantinople they were seized by the Saracens. The portico has
eight columns on the front and three on the sides, all granite monoliths
except the restored ones on the east side, sixteen in all. The
capitals are Corinthian, of white marble; the tympanum (&tr6s) of
the pediment was filled with bronze reliefs of the battle of the gods
and the giants. 2 The walls of the circular part, nearly 20 ft. thick,
are of solid tufa concrete, thinly faced with brick. The enormous
dome, 142 ft. 6 in. in span, is cast in concrete made of pumice-stone,
pozzolana and lime; being one solid mass, it covers the build-
ing like a shell, free from any lateral thrust at the haunches.
On the face of the concrete is a system of superimposed relieving
arches in brick. These no longer possess any constructive value,
but were designed to preserve the stability of the dome whilst the
concrete became firmly set. Round the central opening or hypae-
thrum still remains a ring of enriched mouldings in gilt bronze, the
only bit left of the bronze which once covered the whole dome. The
lower storey of the circular part and the walls of the projecting
portico were covered with slabs of Greek marble ; a great part of the
latter still remains, enriched with Corinthian pilasters and bands
of sculptured ornament. The two upper storeys of the drum were
covered outside with hard stucco of pounded marble. Inside the
whole was lined with a great variety of rich oriental marbles. This
magnificent interior, divided into two orders by an entablature
supported on columns and pilasters, has been much injured by
1 A drawing of this interesting bronze work, by G. A. Dosio, is
preserved in the Uffizi at Florence (No. 1021).
* On the architrave is cut an inscription recording the restoration
of the Pantheon by Severus in 202.
Ooldea
House ol
Nero.
alteration.' About 608 the Pantheon was given by Phocas to
Boniface IV., who consecrated it as the church of S. Maria ad
Martyres. In 1881-82 the destruction of a row of houses TA
behind the Pantheon exposed remains of a grand hall with . '
richly sculptured entablature on Corinthian columns, part Alai ooa
of the great thermae of Agrippa, which extend beyond the '
Via della Ciambella. A great part of the thermae appears from the
brick stamps to belong to an extensive reconstruction in the reign
of Hadrian 4 (see BATHS).
Close by the Pantheon is the church of S. Maria sopra Minerva,
which stands (as its name records) on or near the site of a temple to
Minerva Chalcidica (Plan, No. 12), probably founded by Pompey the
Great, c. 60 B.C. (Plin. H.N. vii. 97), and restored by Domitian.
Adjoining this were temples to Isis and Serapis, a cult which became
very popular in Rome in the time of Hadrian; large quantities of
sculpture, Egypto-Roman in style, have been found on this site at
many different times. 6
Several of the barracks (excubitoria) of the various cohorts of the
vieiles or firemen have been discovered in various parts of Rome.
That of the first cohort (Plan, No. 29) is buried under the
Palazzo Savorelli; that of the second (Plan, No. 30) was
on the Esquiline, near the so-called temple of Minerva
Medica; that of the third (Plan, No. 31) was near the baths of
Diocletian. The most perfect is that of the seventh cohort (Plan,
No. 34), near S. Crisogono in Trastevere, a handsome house of the
2nd century, decorated with mosaic floors, wall-paintings, &c. 6
The excavations made in exposing the ancient church of S.
Clemente brought to light interesting remains of different periods;
drawings are given by Mullooly, St Clement and his Basilica (1869),
and De Rossi, Bull. Arch. Crist. (1863), 28.
Some remains exist of the Golden House of Nero, which, including
its parks, lakes, &c., covered an incredibly large space of ground,
extending from the Palatine, over the Velia and the site
of the temple of Venus and Rome, to the Esquiline, filling
the great valley between the Caelian and the Esquiline
where the Colosseum stands, and reaching far over the
Esquiline to the great reservoir now called the " Sette Sale." No
other extravagances or cruelties of Nero appear to have offended
the Roman people so much as the erection of this enormous palace,
which must have blocked up many important roads and occu-
pied the site of a whole populous quarter. It was partly to make
restitution for this enormous theft of land that Vespasian and Titus
destroyed the Golden House and built the Colosseum and Thermae
of Titus on part of its site. Adjoining the baths of Titus were those
built on a much larger scale by Trajan. Under the substructions
of these extensive remains of the Golden House still exist; 7 and at
one point, at a lower level still, pavements and foundations remain
of one of the numerous houses destroyed by Nero to clear the site.
The great bronze colossus of Nero, 120 ft. high (Suet. Nero, 31),
which stood in one of the porticus of the Golden House, was moved
by Vespasian, with head and attributes altered to those of Apollo
(Helios), on to the Velia; and it was moved again by Hadrian,
when the temple of Rome was built, on to the base which still exists
near the Colosseum. Several coins show this colossus by the side
of the Colosseum.
Under the Palazzo Doria, the church of S. Maria in Via Lata,
and other_ neighbouring buildings extensive remains exist of a
great porticus, with long rows of travertine piers; this
building, is designated on fragments of the marble plan
with the words SAEPT . . . LIA. This must be the
Saepta Julia, begun by Julius Caesar, and completed by Agrippa
in 27 B.C., as the voting place for the Comitia Centuriata, divided
into compartments, one for each century. The building contained
rostra, and was also used for gladiatorial shows. Under the later
empire it became a bazaar and resort of slave-dealers.
That curiously planned building on the Esquiline, in the new
Piazza. Vit. Emmanuele, where the so-called trophies of Marius once
were placed (see Du P6rac, Vestigi, pi. 27), is one of the numerous
castella or reservoirs from which the water of the various aqueducts
was distributed in the quarters they were meant to supply, and
may perhaps be identified with the Nymphaeum Alexandri built
Saepta
Julia.
3 The bronze door is not in its present form antique, having been
recast by order of Pius IV.
4 The plan of the whole group, including the Pantheon, is given
by Palladio (op. cit.). The recent discoveries are given by Laifciani,
Not. d. Scavi (1882), p. 357, with a valuable plan. See also Geymiiller,
Documents inedits sur les Thermes d' Agrippa (Lausanne, 1883);
Beltrami and Armanini, // Panteon (1898); Durm, Baukunst der
Romer, ed. 2, pp. 50 ff. ; Rivoira, Rivista di Roma (1910), p. 412.
6 See Lanciani in Bull. Comm. Arch. Rom. (1883), and Marucchi,
ibid. (1896) ; Fea, Mistell. ccliv. 1 12. Part of the Serapeum is shown
on fragments of the marble plan, which have been pieced together
by Huelsen (Jordan, Topographic der Stadt Rom. i. 3, pi. x.).
6 See Visconti, La stazione delta Coorte VII. de' Vigilt (1867).
7 See De Romanis, Le antiche camere esquiline (1822). It should
be noted that the paintings said to have belonged to the baths of
Titus really decorated the Golden House, over which the baths of
Titus and Trajan were built.
PLACES OF AMUSEMENT]
ROME
605
by Severus Alexander at the termination of his Alexandrine aque-
duct, opened in 225 (see Hist. Aug. Sev. Alex. 25). But the marble
trophies now set at the top of the Capitoline steps bear a quarry
mark which shows them to be of the time of Domitian : it consists
of the following inscription, now not visible, as it is cut on the
under part IMP . DOM . AVG . GERM . PER . CHREZ . LIB . # CS .'
Places of Amusement.
The Circus Maximus (see CIRCUS) occupied the Vallis Murcia 2
between the Palatine and the Aventine. Its first rows of seats,
Circuses which were of wood, are said to have been made under
the Tarquins (Liv. i. 26, 35; Dionys. iii. 68). Per-
manent carceres were set up in 329 B.C. and restored in 174 B.C.
(Liv. viii. 20, xli. 27). In the reign of Julius Caesar it was rebuilt
with (for the first time) lower seats of stone (Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 102),
the upper being still of wood (Suet. Caes. 39) ; Dionysius (iii. 68)
describes it as it was after this rebuilding. 1 1 was further ornamented
with marble by Augustus, Claudius and other emperors. The
wooden part was burnt in the great fire of Nero, and again under
Domitian; it was considerably enlarged by Trajan, and lastly
it was restored by Constantino. In its later state it had a marble
facade with three external tiers of arches with engaged columns,
and (inside) sloping tiers of marble seats, supported on concrete
raking vaults (Plin. Paneg. 51). A great part of these vaults
existed in the 1 6th century, and is shown by Du Perac. It is said
by Pliny (H.N. xxxvi. 102) if the text be not corrupt to have
held 250,000 spectators, while the Regionaiy Catalogues give the
number of seats as 485,000; but Huelsen has shown (Bull. Comm.
Arch., 1894, 421 ff.) that the figures are much exaggerated and must,
moreover, be interpreted, not of the number of spectators, but of
the length of the tiers expressed in feet. The end with the carceres
was near the church of S. Maria in Cosmedin. 3 Some of its sub-
structures, with remains of very early tufa structures on the Palatine
side, still exist below the church of S. Anastasia (see Plan of Palatine).
The obelisk now in the Piazza del Popolo was set on the spina by
Augustus, and that now in the Lateran piazza by Constantius II.
The Circus Flaminius in the Campus Martius was built in 221 B.C.
by the C. Flaminius Nepos who was killed at the Trasimene Lake
in 217 B.C.; remains of the structure existed until the l6th century,
when they were destroyed to build the Palazzo Mattei. In the
middle ages its long open space was used as a rope-walk, hence the
name of the church called S. Caterina dei Funari, which occupies
part of its site. 4 The circus of Caligula and Nero was at the foot
of the Vatican Hill (Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 74). The modern sacristy of
St Peter's stands over part of its site. The obelisk on its spina re-
mained standing in situ till it was moved by Fontana 6 for Sixtus V.
to its present site in the centre of the piazza. The great stadium,
foundations of which exist under most of the houses of the Piazza
Navona (Agonalis), and especially below S. Agnese, is that built
by Domitian and restored by Severus Alexander. That it was a
stadium and not a circus is shown by the fact that its starting end
is at right angles to the sides and not set diagonally, as was always
the case with the carceres of a circus; nor is there any trace of
foundations of a spina. The best preserved circus is that built
by Maxentius in honour of his deified son Romulus, by the Via
Appia, 2 m. outside the walls of Rome. It was attributed to
Caracalla till 1825, when an inscription recording its true dedication
was found. 6
The first permanent naumachia was that constructed by Augustus
between the foot of the Janiculan hill and the Tiber. The naumachia
of Domitian was pulled down and the materials used to restore the
Circus Maximus (Suet. Dom. 5) ; it was perhaps restored by Trajan,
for the remains of a naumachia built of opus reticulatum mixed with
brick have been discovered near the mausoleum of Hadrian.
The first stone theatre in Rome was that built by Pompey in
55-52 B.C. (see THEATRE: Roman) ; it contained a temple to Venus
Theatres Victrix, and in front of it was a great porticus, called
Hecatostylum from its hundred columns. This is shown
on the marble plan. 7 Considerable remains of the foundations
exist between the Piazza dei Satiri, which occupies the site of the
1 See Bruzza, in Ann. Inst. (1870), and Lenormant, Trophies de
Marius, Blois (1842). This once magnificent building, with the
marble trophies in their place, is shown with much minuteness on
a bronze medallion of Severus Alexander (see Froehner, Medaillons
de I'empire, Paris, 1878, p. 169).
s So called from a prehistoric altar to the Dea Murcia (Venus) ;
Varro, L.L. v. 154.
3 Part of it is shown on a fragment of the marble plan (see Jordan,
F.U.R.); it is represented on a bronze medallion of Gordian III.,
with an obelisk on the spina and three metae at each end ; in front
are groups of wrestlers and boxers (see Grueber, Rom- Med. pi. xli.,
London, 1874).
4 The remains extant in the i6th century were described by
Ligorio, Libra delle Antichitd (1553), p. 17.
6 See his Trasportazione dell' Obelisco Vat. (1590).
* Nibby, Circo di Caracalla, (1825); Canina, Edifizj di Roma,
iv. pis. 194-96.
7 Plut. Pomp. 52; Dion Cass. xxxix. 38; Tac. Ann. xiv. 20.
scena, and the Via.de" Giubbonari and Via del Paradiso. Adjoining
this was the porticus Pompeiana, which contained the curia of
Pompey, where Caesar was murdered, after which it was walled
up. The colossal statue, popularly supposed to be that of Pompey,
at the feet of which Caesar died, 8 now in the Palazzo Spada, was found
in '553 n ar the theatre. This theatre was restored by Augustus
(Man. Anc. 4, 9) ; in the reign of Tiberius it was burnt, and its
rebuilding was completed by Caligula. The scena was again burnt
in A.D. 80, and restored by Titus. According to Pliny (H.N.
xxxvi. 115), it held 40,000 spectators; the Regionary Catalogues
give the number 17,580. Huelsen estimates its capacity at 9000-
10,000 spectators. In 1864 the colossal gilt bronze statue of Hercules,
now in the Vatican, was found near the site of the theatre of Pompey,
carefully concealed underground. The theatre of Marcellus is much
more perfect; complete foundations of the cunei exist under the
Palazzo Savelli, and part of the external arcade is well preserved.
This is built of travertine in two orders, Tuscan and Ionic, with
delicate details, very superior to those of the Colosseum, the arcade
of which is very similar to this in general design. This theatre
was begun by J. Caesar, and finished by Augustus in 13 B.C., who
dedicated it in the name of his nephew Marcellus.' It was restored
by Vespasian (Suet. Vesp. 19). Foundations also of the theatre
dedicated by Cornelius Balbus in 13 B.C. (Suet. Aug. 29; Dio
Cass. liv. 25) exist under the Monte dei Cenci; and in the Via dei
Calderari there is a small portion of the external arcade of a porticus
(Plan, No. 42) ; the lower storey has travertine arches with engaged
columns, and the upper has brick-faced pilasters. This has been sup-
posed to be the Crypta Balbi mentioned m the Regionary Catalogues,
but is more probably the Porticus Minucia, built in 110 B.C. An
interesting account of the temporary theatre of M. Aemilius Scaurus,
erected in 58 B.C., is given by Pliny (H.N. xxxvi. 5, 113). The
same writer mentions an almost incredible building, which consisted
of two wooden theatres made to revolve on pivots, so that the two
together made an amphitheatre; this was erected by C. Curio in
50 B.C. (H.N. xxxvi. 116).
The first stone amphitheatre in Rome was that built by Statilius
Taurus in the reign of Augustus. (For the Colosseum and Amphl-
the Amphitheatrum Castrense, see AMPHITHEATRE; for theatres.
the Baths, see that article.)
Arches, Columns, Tombs and Bridges.
The earliest triumphal arches were the two erected by L. Stertinius
(196 B.C.) in the Forum Boarium and in the Circus Maximus, out
of spoils gained in Spain. 10 In the later years of the Arcbe*
empire there were nearly forty in Rome. The arch
of Titus and Vespasian on the Summa Sacra Via was erected by
Domitian to commemorate the conquest of Judaea by Titus in his
father's reign. Reliefs inside the arch represent the triumphal
procession Titus in a chariot, and on the other side soldiers bearing
the golden candlestick, trumpets and table of prothesis, taken from
the Jewish temple. The central part only of this monument is
original; the sides were restored in 1823." Another arch in honour
pi Titus had previously been built (A.D. 80) in the Circus Maximus ;
its inscription is given in the Einsiedeln MS. (C.I.L. vi. 944). A
plain travertine arch near the supposed palace of Commodus on
the Caelian is inscribed with the names of the Consul Publius
Cornelius Dolabella (A.D. 10) and of the flamen martialis, C. Junius
Silanus. It may have originally been used to carry the Aqua
Marcia; in later times the Aqua Claudia passed over it. The so-
called arch of Drusus by the Porta Appia also carries the specus of
an aqueduct that built by Caracalla to supply his great thermae.
Its composite capitals show, however, that it is later than the time
of Drusus, and it was very possibly the work of Trajan. Adjoining
the church of S. Giorgio in Velabro a rich though coarsely decorated
marble gateway with flat lintel still exists built, as its inscription
records, in honour of Severus and his sons by the argentarii (bankers
and silversmiths) and other merchants of the Forum Boarium in 204.
It formed an entrance from the Forum Boarium into the Velabrum.
The figure of Geta in the reliefs and his name have been erased by
Caracalla; the sculpture is poor both in design and execution (see
Bull. Inst., 1867, p. 217, and 1871, p. 233). Close by is a quadruple
arch, set at the intersection of two roads, such as was called by the
8 See Fea, Rom. Ant. Ixviii. 57, for an account of its discovery.
9 Suet. Aug. 29. See Man. Anc. 4, 22: " Theatrvm . ad . aedem.
Appllinis . in . solo . magna . ex . parte . a . [privatis .] empto .
feci . qvod . svb . nomine . M . Marcelli . generi . [me]i . esset." The
temple of Apollo here named was one of the most ancient and highly
venerated in Rome; it was dedicated to the Delphic Apollo in
431 B.C. by Cn. Julius (Liv. iv. 25); meetings of the Senate were
held in it; and it contained many fine works of art an ancient
cedar- wood statue of Apollo (Plin. H.N. xiii. n) and the celebrated
statues of the slaughter of the Niobids by Praxiteles or Scopas
(Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 28), of which many ancient copies exist.
10 Liv. xxxiii. 27.
11 This arch is the earliest known example of the so-called Composite
order, a modification of Corinthian in which the capitals combine
Ionic volutes with Corinthian acanthus leaves; in other respects
it follows the Corinthian order.
6o6
ROME
(TOMBS AND BRIDGES
Romans an arch of Janus Quadrifrons. Though partly built of
earlier fragments, it is late in style, and may be the Arcus Con-
stantini mentioned in the Xlth region. The finest existing arch
is that by the Colosseum erected by Constantine. It owes, however,
little of its beauty to that artistically degraded period. Not only
most of its reliefs but its whole design and many of its architectural
features were stolen from an earlier arch erected by Trajan as an
entrance to his forum (see above). The arch of Claudius, built in
43 to commemorate his supposed victories in Britain, stood across
the Via Lata (modern Corso) in the Piazza Sciarra. Its exact
position is shown in Bull. Comm. Arch. Rom., 1878, pi. iv. Its remains
were removed in the middle of the l6th century, 1 and nothing now
is left but half its inscription, preserved in the garden of the Barberini
palace. It is shown on both aurei and denarii of Claudius, with
an attic inscribed DE BRITANNIS, and surmounted by a quadriga
and trophies. A little to the N. of the Piazza Colonna was an
arch popularly called the Arco di Portogallo, destroyed in 1665,
whose reliefs are now in the Palazzo dei Conservatori. They appear
to date from the reign of Hadrian, but may have been used at a
later time to decorate this arch. An arch also stood opposite
S. Maria in Via Lata until 1498, which was probably erected by
Diocletian in A.D. 303. The central part of the once triple arch of
Gallienus still exists on the Esquiline; it took the place of the ancient
Porta Esquilina of the Servian wall. It is built of travertine, is
simple in design, with coarse details, and has an inscription on its
attic. The two side arches and pediment over the centre existed
in the l6th century, and are shown in the Mantuan oil-painting
of Rome, 2 and in several antiquarian works of the l6th century.
The inscription (C.I.L. yi. 1106) records that it was erected in
honour of Gallienus and his wife Salonina by Aurelius Victor. 8
The column of Antoninus Pius was a monolith of red granite,
erected after his death by his adopted sons M. Aurelius and L.
Verus. One fragment of it is preserved in the Vatican
Columns. w ; t jj an j n t cres tj n g quarry incription, recording that it
was cut in the ninth year of Trajan's reign, under the supervision
of Dioscurus and the architect Aristides. The rest of its fragments
were used by Pius VI. to repair the obelisk of Monte Citorio, set
up by Augustus in the Campus Martius as the gnomon of a sundial
(Plin. H.N. xxxvi. 72). The marble pedestal of the Antonine
column is now in the Vatican; it has reliefs representing the
apotheosis of Faustina and Antoninus Pius, and the decursio equitum
which formed part of the funeral ceremony. This and the column
of M. Aurelius were both surmounted by colossal portrait statues
of gilt bronze. The column of M. Aurelius is very similar in size
and design to that of Trajan. Its spiral reliefs represent victories
in Germany from 171-175, arranged in twenty tiers. Like the
column of Trajan, it is exactly 100 Roman ft. high, without the
pedestal. The pedestal was originally much higher than at present,
but is now partly buried; it is shown by Gamucci, Du Perac and
other 16th-century writers. This column stood in front of a temple
to M. Aurelius, and within a great peribolus, forming a forum
similar to that of Trajan, though much smaller; the remains of this
temple, amongst other buildings, probably form the elevation nw
called Monte Citorio. 4
For the catacombs, see CATACOMBS; for obelisks, see OBELISK
and EGYPT.
The prehistoric cemeteries of Rome are described above (Prehistoric
Rome). Few tombs exist of the Roman period earlier than the 1st
_ . century B.C., probably owing to the great extension of the
city beyond the Servian limits, which thus obliterated the
earlier burial-places. The tomb of the Cornelii Scipiones is the most
important of early date which still exists. It is excavated in the
tufa rock at the side of the Via Appia, outside the Porta Capena.
Interments of the Scipio family went on here for about 400 years,
additional chambers and passages being excavated from time to time.
The peperino sarcophagus of Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus
(Liv. x. 12, 13), consul in 298 B.C., is now in the Vatican; its inscrip-
tion, in rude Saturnian verse, is one of the most important existing
specimens of early Latin epigraphy. Many other inscribed slabs
were found in the I7th century, covering the loculi in which lay the
bodies of later members of the family. Those now existing in the
tomb are modern copies. 5 This burial-place of the Scipios is unlike
those of other families, owing to the gens Cornelia keeping up the
early custom of interment without burning; thus stone sarcophagi
or loculi (rock-cut recesses) were required instead of mere pigeon-
holes to hold the cinerary urns. The tomb of M. Bibulus, a few
yards outside the Porta Fontinalis, and remains of two recently
1 See Vacca, ap. Fea, Misc, p. 67.
2 Reproduced by De Rossi in his Piante di Roma Anteriori al
Sec. XVI. (1879).
' See Bellori, Veteres Arcus (1690), showing some now destroyed:
and Rossini, Archi Trionfali (1832).
4 On the Antonine column see Petersen in Amelung's Katalog
der vaticanischen Sculpturen, i. p. 883; on that of M. Aurelius see
Die Marcussdule, by Petersen, v. Domaszewski and Calderini
(Munich, 1896).
6 The inscriptions are given in C.I.L. \. 29-39 vi. 1284-94. On
the earlier ones see Woelfflin, Miinchener Sitzungsberichte ( 1 892), 1 88 ff .
discovered during the destruction of the Aurelian towers at the
Porta Salara, date from about the middle of the 1st century B.C., as
does also the curious tomb of the baker Eurysaces outside the Porta
Maggiore. In 1863 an interesting tomb of the Sempronia gens'
was discovered on the Quirinal, below the royal palace, near the site
of the Porta Salutaris. It is of travertine, with a rich entablature
and frieze sculptured with the Greek honeysuckle ornament (see
Bull. Comm. Arch., 1876, 126, pi. xii.). This also isof the last years
of the republic.
The mausoleum of Augustus, built 28 B.C., stood in the north
part of the Campus Martius, between the Tiber and the Via Flaminia.
It is a massive cylindrical structure of concrete, faced with
opus reticulatum ; according to Strabo, this was faced with " tttusolea -
" white stone," i.e. travertine; inside was a series of radiating
chambers, in plan like a wheel. On the top was a great mound of
earth, planted with trees and flowers (Tac. Ann. lii. 9). In the
middle ages it was converted into a fortess by the Colonna, which was
destroyed in 1167. In the i6th century the central portion was
occupied by a garden. 7 Only the bare core exists now, with its
fine opus reticulalum, best seen in the court of the Palazzo Valdam-
brini. The inside is concealed by modern seats, being now used as
a concert-hall (Anfiteatro Chorea). The sepulchral inscription in
honour of Augustus, engraved on two bronze columns at the entrance,
is preserved to us by its copy at Ancyra (q.v.). It records an almost
incredible amount of building: in addition to the long list of build-
ing mentioned by name Augustus says, DVO. ET. OCTAGINTA.
TEMPLA . DEVM . IN .VRBE . CONSVL . SEXTVM . REFECI. The
first burial in the mausoleum of Augustus was that of M.Claudius
Marcellus (died 23 B.C.), and it continued to be the imperial tomb
till the death of Nerva, A.D. 98, after whose interment there was no
more room.
The mausoleum of Hadrian, built by that emperor as a substitute
for that built by Augustus, and dedicated in A.D. 138 by his successor,
was a large circular building on a square podium; its walls, of
enormous thickness, were of tufa fared with Parian marble and
surrounded by a colonnade with rows of statues, a work of the
greatest magnificence. The splendour of the whole is described by
Procopius (Bell. Goth. i. 22), who mentions its siege by the Goths,
when the defenders hurled statues on to the heads of the enemy.
In the 7th century the church of S. Angelus inter Nubes was built
on its summit, and all through the middle ages it served as a papal
fortress. The interior chambers are still well preserved, but its
outside has been so often wrecked and refaced that little of the
original masonry is visible. 8
Several of the grander sepulchral monuments of Rome were built
in the form of pyramids. One of these still exists, included in the
Aurelian wall, by the Porta Ostiensis. It is a pyramid of
concrete, 118 feet high, faced with blocks of white marble, Se P ul ~
and contains a small chamber decorated with painted c '"" a '
stucco. An inscription in large letters on the marble Py ramlds -
facing records that it was built as a tomb for C. Cestius, a praetor,
tribune of the people, and septemvir of the epulones (officials who
supervised banquets in honour of the gods). It was erected,
according to Cestius's will, by his executors, in the space of 330 days.
It dates from the time of Augustus 9 (see Falconieri, in Nardini,
Roma Antica, iv. p. i, ed. 1818-20). Another similar pyramid,
popularly known as the tomb of Romulus, stood between the mau-
soleum of Hadrian and the basilica of St Peter. It was destroyed
at the close of the I5th century, during the rebuilding of the long
bridge which connects the former building with the Vatican.
The earliest bridge was a wooden drawbridge called the Pens
Sublicius from the piles (sublicae) on which it was built. The
river being an important part of the defence of Rome from
the Aventine to the Porta Flumentana (see plan of Servian
wall, fig. 8), no permanent bridges were made till the Romans were
strong enough not to fear attacks from without. The Pons Sublicius
had a sacred character, and was always restored in wood, even in the
imperial period. 10 Its exact site is doubtful, but it must be placed
some distance below the Ponte Rotto. The first stone bridge was
begun in 179 B.C. and completed in 142 B.C., when the conquest of
Etruria and the defeat of Hannibal had put an end to fears of
invasion ; it was called the Pons Aemilius, after the pontifex maxi-
mus 11 M. Aemilius Lepidus, its founder. It was also called Pons
This is shown by an inscription (C.I.L. vi. 26152) found on the
site in the 1 7th century.
7 See Du PeVac's Vestigj, pi. 36, which shows the garden on the top.
8 On the mausoleum of Hadrian, see Borgatti, Castel S. Angela
(1890).
9 Near the tomb of Cestius is that extraordinary mound of pot-
sherds called Monte Testaccio. These are mostly fragments of large
amphorae, not piled"* up at random, but carefully stacked, with
apertures at intervals for ventilation. It has been shown by Dressel
(Ann. dell' Inst., 1878, 118 ff.; C.I.L. xv. p. 492) that damaged or
imperfect vessels were thus disposed of.
"See Varro, L.L. v. 83; Ov. Fast. v. 622; Tac. Hist. i. 86;
Vila Antonini Pii, 8.
11 The bridges were specially under the care of the pontifex maxi-
mus, at least till the later years of the republic (Varro, L.L. v. 83).
REGIONES]
ROME
607
Lapideus, to distinguish it from the wooden Sublician bridge. The
modern Ponte Rptto represents this bridge ; but the existing arches
are mainly medieval. An ancient basalt-paved road still exists,
leading to the bridge from the Forum Boarium. The Pons Fabricius
united the city and the island (Insula Tiberina). 1 The bridge
derived its name from L. Fabricius, a curator viarum in 62 B.C ; its
inscription, twice repeated, is L, . FABRICIVS . C . F . CVR . VIAR .
FACIVNDVM . COERAVIT. Like the other existing bridges, it is
built of great blocks of peperino and tufa, with a massive facing
of travertine on both sides. Corbels to support centering were
built in near the springing of the arches, so that they could be
repaired or even rebuilt without a scaffolding erected in the
river-bed. The well-preserved Pons Cestius, probably named
after L. Cestius, praefectus urbi in 46 B.C., unites the island and
the Janiculan side; on the marble parapet is a long inscription re-
cording its restoration in 370 by Gratian, Valentinian, and Valens. 2
The next bridge, Ponte Sisto, is probably on the site of an ancient
bridge called in the Notitia Pons Aurelius. Marliano gives an
inscription (now lost) which recorded its restoration in the time of
Hadrian. About lop yards above this bridge have been found the
remains of sunken piers, which are proved by an inscription (C.I.L.
vi. 31545) to have belonged to the Pons Agrippac, not otherwise
known. The Pons Aelius was built in 134 by Hadrian, to connect
his mausoleum with the Campus Martius; it is still well preserved,
and is now called the Ponte S. Angelo (see Dante, Inferno, xviii.
28-33). It had eight arches, of which the three in the centre were
higher than the rest, so that the road sloped on both sides. The
material is peperino, with travertine facings. Its inscription, now
lost, is given in the Einsiedeln MS. IMP . CAESAR . Divi . TR AIANI .
PARTHICI . FILIVS .DIVI- NERVAE. NEPOS . TRAIANVS . HADRI-
ANVS AVG . PONT . MAX . TRIB . POT . XVIIII . COS . Ill . P . P . FECIT.
The Pons Aelius is shown on coins of Hadrian. A little below it are
the foundations of another bridge, probably the Pons Neronianus
of the H^irabilia, called also Vaticanus, built probably by Nero
as a way to his Vatican circus and the Horti Agrippinae. At the
foot of the Aventine, near the Marmorata, are the remains of
piers which seem to have belonged to the Pons Probi, mentioned in
the Notitia. It is uncertain whether this bridge is to be identified
with the Pons Theodosii, which was built in A.D. 381-387 (Symm.
Ep. 4, 70, 2; 5, 76, 3), and is mentioned in the Mirabilia. 1
Regiones of Augustus.
In spite of the extensive growth of the city under the republic
no addition was made to the four regiones of Servius till the
reign of Augustus, who divided the city and itssuburbs
into fourteen regiones. The lists in the Notitia and
Curiosum are the chief aids in determining the limits
of each, which in many cases cannot be done with any exact-
ness (see Preller, Die Regionen der Stadt Rom (1846) and Urlich's
Codex Topographicus (Wtirzburg, 1871)). Each regio was
divided into vici or parishes, each of which formed a religious
body, with its aedicula larum, and had magistri victorum.
The smallest regio (No. II.) contained seven vici, the largest
(No. XIV.) seventy-eight.
The list is as follows :
I. Porto, Capena, a narrow strip traversed by the Appian Way ; it
extended beyond the walls of Aurelian to the brook Almo.
II. Gaelemontium, the Caelian Hill.
III. Isis et Serapis, included the valley of the Colosseum and the
adjoining part of the Esquiline.
IV. Templum Pads, included the Velia, part of the Cispius, most
of the Subura, the fora of Nerva and Vespasian, the
Sacra Via, and also buildings along the north-east side of
the Forum Magnum.
V. Esquiliae, north part of the Esquiline and the Viminal.
VI. Alto, Semita, the Quirinal as far as the praetorian camp.
VII. Via Lata, the valley bounded on the west by the Via Lata,
and by the neighbouring hills on the east.
VIII. Forum Romanum, also included the imperial fora and the
Capitoline hill.
IX. Circus Flaminius, between the Tiber, the Capitol, and the
Via Flaminia.
X. Palatium, the Palatine hill.
XI. Circus Maximus, the valley between the Palatine and the
Aventine, with the Velabrum and Forum Boarium.
XII. Piscina Publica, the eastern part of. the Aventine, and the
districts south of and beyond the Via Appia, including the
site of Caracalla's thermae.
1 Livy (ii. 5) gives the fable of the formation of this island from the
Tarquins' corn, cut from the Campus Martius and thrown into the
river.
1 The two stone bridges connecting the island with the right and
left banks took the place of earlier wooden structures.
8 See Mayerhofer, Die Brucken i:n alien Rom, 1883.
XIII. Aventinus, the hill, and the bank of the Tiber below it.
XIV. Trans Tibenm, the whole district across the river and the
Tiber Island. 4
The walls of Aurelian (see fig. 7), more than 12 m. in circuit,
enclosed almost the whole of the regiones of Augustus, the greater
part of which were then thickly inhabited. This enormous
work was begun in 271, to defend Rome against sudden *""""
attacks of the Germans and other northern races when the "
great armies of Rome were fighting in distant countries.' After the
death of Aurelian the walls were completed by Probus in 280, and
about a century later they were restored and strengthened by the
addition of gate-towers under Arcadius and Honorius (A.D. 403).
in place of the earlier gateways of Aurelian; this is recorded by
existing inscriptions on three of the gates. 8 At many periods these
walls suffered much more from the attacks of the Goths (Procop.
Bell. Goth. iii. 22, 24), and were restored successively by Theodonc
(about 500), by Belisarius (about 560), and by various popes during
the 8th and gth centuries, and in fact all through the middle ages.
A great part of the Aurelian wall still exists in a more or less perfect
state; but it has wholly vanished where it skirted the river, and a
great part of its trans-Tiberine course is gone. The best-preserved
pieces are between Porta Pinciana and Porta Salaria (in which
breaches have lately been made for streets), and between the Lateran
and the Amphitheatrum Castrense. The wall, of concrete, has the
usual brick-lacing and is about 12 ft. thick, with a guard's passage
formed in its thickness. Fig. 13 shows its plan: on the inside the
FIG. 13. Aurelian's Wall; plan showing one of the towers
and the passage in thickness of wall.
passage has tall open arches, which look like those of an aqueduct,
and at regular intervals of about 45 ft. massive square towers are
built, projecting on the outside of the wall, in three storeys, the top
storey rising above the top of the wall. The height of the wall varies
according to the contour of the ground; in parts it was about 60 ft.
high outside and 40 inside. Necessaria, supported on two travertine
corbels, projected from the top of the wall on the outside beside
most of the towers. The Einsiedeln MS. gives a description of the
complete circuit, counting fourteen gates, as follows:
Porta S. Petri (at the Pons Aelius, destroyed); P. Flaminia
(replaced by P. del Popolo) ; P. Pinciana (in use) ; P. Salaria (now
P. Salara); P. Nomentana (replaced by P. Pia); P. Tiburtina
(now P. S. Lorenzo) ; P. Praenestina (now P. Maggiore) ; P. Asinaria
(replaced by P. San Giovanni); P. Metrovia or Metroni (closed);
P. Latina (closed) ; P. Appia (now P. S. Sebastiano) ; P. Ostiensis
(now P. S. Paolo). On the Janiculan side, P. Portuensis (de-
stroyed); P. Aurelia (now Porta San Pancrazio). Besides these
there was a gate, now closed (Porta Chiusa), to the south of the
Castra Praetoria ; and in all probability a gate on the right bank of
the Tiber, replaced by the modern Porta Settimiana.
These existing gates are mostly of the time of Honorius; each is
flanked by a projecting tower, and some are double, with a second
pair of towers inside. Several have grooves for a portcullis (cata-
racta) in the outer arch. The handsomest gate is the P. Appia,
with two massive outer towers, three stages high, the upper semi-
circular in plan. Many of the gates of Honorius have Christian
symbols or inscriptions. The general design of all these gates is
much the same a central archway, with a row of windows over it
and two flanking towers, some square, others semicircular in plan. In
many of the gates older materials are used, blocks of tufa, travertine,
or marble. The doors themselves swung on pivots, the bottom ones
let into a hole in the threshold, the upper into projecting corbels.
At many points along the line of the Aurelian wall older buildings
form part of the circuit near the Porta Asinaria a large piece of
4 The text of the Regionary Catalogues is printed by Richter,
Topographic der Stadt Rom? pp. 371 ff.
Vita Aurel. 21, 39; Zosimus, i. 37, 49; Eutrop. ix. 15.
* The inscriptions run thus: S. P. Q. R. IMPP . CAESS . D. D. IM-
VICTISSIMIS . PRINCIPIBVS . ARCADIO . ET . HONORIO . VICTOR-
IBVS . AC . TRIVMPHATORIBVS . SEMPER . AVGG . OB . INSTAVRA-
TOS . VRBIS . AETERNAE . MVROS . PORT AS . AC . TVRRES . EGES-
Tis . IMMENSIS . RVDERIBVS the rest refers to honorary statues
erected to commemorate this work.
6o8
ROME
[BIBLIOGRAPHY
the Domus Lateranorum, a house of the 3rd century which gave its
name to the Lateran basilica, and a little farther on, by S. Croce in
Gerusalemme, the Amphitheatrum Castrense; the latter, of about
the end of the 1st century A.D. , has two tiers of arches and engaged
columns of moulded brick on the outside. Between the P. Praenes-
tina and the P. Tiburtina comes a large castellum of the Aqua
Tepula. The Praetorian Camp forms a great projection near the
P. Nomentana. -Lastly, the angle near the Porta Flaminia, at the
foot of the Pincian Hill, is formed by remains of a lofty and enor-
mously massive building, faced with fine opus reticulatum of the
1st century B.C. Owing to the sinking of the foundation this is
very much out of the perpendicular, and was known as the " murus
tortus " at a very early time. 1 What this once important building
was is uncertain. Two archways which form gates in the Aurelian
wall are of much earlier date. The Porta Maggiore consists of a
grand double arch of the aqueducts Anio Novus and Claudia built
in travertine. The Porta S. Lorenzo enclosed a single travertine
arch, built by Augustus where the aqueduct carrying the Aqua
Marcia, Tepula, and Julia crossed the Via Tiburtina. The inner
gateway, built of massive travertine blocks by Honorius, was pulled
down by Pius IX., in i868. 2
Bibliography of Ancient Roman Topography. Amongst ancient
writers special mention is due to Varro (De Lingua Z,o/iKa),Dionysius
of Halicarnassus (Antiquitates Romanae), Ovid (Fasti), Vitruvius (De
Architectura) , Pliny the Elder (Naturalis Historia), Frontinus (De
Aquis) and the remains of ancient commentaries on Virgil, Horace,
&c. The inscriptions found in the city of Rome are contained in
vol. VI. of the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Many of them
are of the highest importance for Roman topography, e.g. the
Basis Capitolina, preserved in the Palazzo dei Conservator!, a
pedestal which once supported a statue of Hadrian, dedicated in
A.D. 136 by the vicomagistri of five regions; on the sides are inscribed
the names of the vici and their officials. Vol. XV. of the C.I.L.
contains the inscriptions stamped on tiles and water-pipes, which
are likewise of great importance. The Monumentum Ancyranum
(Res gestae dim Augusti, ed. 2 Mommsen, 1883) reproduces the bronze
tablets set up by Augustus on his mausoleum at Rome, and contains
a list of the buildings which he erected or restored. The marble
plan of Rome (Forma urbis Romae, ed. Jordan, 1874; the more
recently discovered fragments have only been published in periodicals)
dates from the reign oiSeptimius Severus, who restored the building
to which it belonged after the fire of 191 B.C. The plan which it
replaced was executed by order of Vespasian. The scale was gener-
ally l: 250; it was oriented with S.E. at the top, N.W^ at the
bottom. Buildings are of course frequently represented on coins
and works of art, and these may often be identified with existing
remains.
In the reign of Constantine the Great there was compiled a cata-
logue of the principal buildings of Rome, arranged according to
the fourteen regions of Augustus. This has been preserved in two
recensions, one made in A.D. 334 and known as the Notitia, the second
in or about A.D. 357, and known as the Curiosum urbis Romae.
These are called the Regionary Catalogues, and contain, besides
lists of buildings, statistics as to the number of vici, domus, insulae,
&c., in each region, which are of great value. (See Preller, Regionen
der Stadt Rom, Jena, 1846.)
In the middle ages, guide-books were written for the use of
pilgrims visiting Rome. Besides giving the routes for the principal
churches and cemeteries, they mention ancient buildings and give
current legends regarding them. The earliest is the Itinerary of
Einsiedeln, a MS. of the 8th century preserved in the monastery
of Einsiedeln in Switzerland (see C. Huelsen, L'ltinerario di Einsiedeln,
1908). In the I2th century was compiled the Mirabilia urbis
Romae, which became the foundation of later guide-books. The
last recension is contained in a MS. of the early I5th century.
These and other medieval documents are printed in Urlichs' Codex
Topographicus urbis Romae (1871). The Ordo Benedicti Canonici
(see Jordan, Topographie, II. I, 646, and Lanciani, Monumenti
Antichi, I. 437), which gives the route of papal processions, belongs
also to the 1 2th century, and was perhaps written by the author
of the Mirabilia. The Liber Pontificalis (ed. Duchesne, Paris, 1886;
ed. Mommsen, in Monumenta Germaniae historica, vol. i.), which
gives the biographies of the early popes and was continued throughout
the middle ages, is of value as illustrating the transition from pagan
to Christian Rome.
Several early views and plans of Rome exist, beginning with the
painting by Cimabue in the upper church of S. Francesco at Assisi
(1275). A collection of these was published by De Rossi, Piante
icnografiche e prospettiche di Roma anteriori al secolo XVI. (1879).
Many others have since come to light. (See Huelsen in Bull. Comm.
Arch., 1892, p. 38).
In Italian and other libraries are preserved large numbers of
1 Cf. Procop. Bell. Goth. i. 23.
2 On the walls of Aurelian, see (in addition to the general works
mentioned in the bibliography) Nibby and Cell, Le Mura di Roma
(1820); Quarenghi, Le Mura di Roma (1880); and especially Homo,
Essai sur le regne de I'empereur Aurelien (Paris, 1904), IV. partie,
ch. ii., " L'Enceinte de Rome."
plans and drawings from ancient remains by the architects of
the 15th and later centuries, e.g. Bramantino, Fra Giocondp, the
members of the families of Sangallo and Peruzzi, Pirro, Ligorio,
Palladio, &c. These are of immense value, since the monuments
which they drew have to a large extent been destroyed. Un-
fortunately they are not always trustworthy, especially those of
Ligorio. The drawings at Florence have been indexed by Ferri;
amongst recent publications may be noted those of the Codex
Escortalensis by Egger (Vienna, 1905), and of a sketch-book, pro-
bably by A. Coner, in the Soane Museum by Dr Ashby, in Papers
of the British School at Rome, vol. ii. (1903). Amongst the printed
works of the early Italian architects may be named Palladio,
Architettura (Venice, 1542), and Terme dei Romani (London, 1732),
Serlio, Architettura (Venice, 1545), and Labacco, 'Architettura ed
Antichita, (Rome 1557). Engravings of ancient remains in Rome
have been published in great numbers since the l6th century; the
most important of the earlier collections are the Speculum Romanae
Magnificentiae,a. series extending over many years in the l6th century,
and Du Perac's Vestigj di Roma (1575). To the i8th century belong
the etchings of Piranesi, published in several volumes, and still
reproduced from the copper-plates by the Calcografia.
The literature of Roman topography would in itself form a large
library; the best bibliographical guide is Mau's Katalog der Biblio-
thek des k. deutschen archdologischen Instiluts in Rom (1900). The
earliest modern work which can be called scientific is Flavio Biondo's
Roma instaurata, written under Eugenius IV. (1431-1447), first
dated edition, 1479. Biondo's work was based on the study of
ancient literary authorities; he was followed in his method and
results by the scholars of the I5th and early l6th centuries, e.g.
Pozzo, Leo Battista Alberti and Andrea Fulvio. In the l6th century
the study of ancient remains took its place beside that of ancient
literature. Marliani, who had followed Biondo in the first edition
of his Antiquae urbis Romae topographia (1538), issued a second
edition in 1544, which contained plans and illustrations. For more
than a century his book formed the foundation upon which such
writers as Fauno, G. Fabricius, Mauro, Panvinius, &c., raised their
works. Unfortunately the Regionary Catalogues were largely
interpolated during this period, and published in this form by
Panvinius. In 1666 Famiano Nardini's Roma antica appeared,
based upon the interpolated version of the Regionary Catalogues;
this was productive of disastrous errors, many of which remained
uncorrected until our own time. Nardini was followed in the l8th
century by such writers as Ficoroni and Vertuti; the most im-
portant works of this period were those produced by excavators
such as Bianchini (// palazzo dei Cesari, 1738), or independent
students of the monuments such as Raphael Fabretti (De Columna
Trajana, 1683; De Aquis et Aquaeductibus,_ 1680). In the i8th
century Winckelmann revived interest in ancient, including Roman,
art (especially by his Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthums, 1764),
and his follower, Carlo Fea, inaugurated the era of systematic
and scientific excavation, especially in the Forum. In 1829 there
was founded the international Institute di Corrispondenza Archeolpgica
(which in 1874 became the Kaiserlich deutsches archdologisches
Institut); in 1830-42 was issued the Beschreibung der Stadt Rom,
by Bunsen and others, in which the grosser errors which had passed
current since Nardini's time were corrected. To the same period
belong the magnificently illustrated works of Luigi Canina (Indica-
ziorx di Roma antica, 1830; Esposizione topografica, 1842; Archi-
tettura antica, 1834-44; F ro Romano, 1845; Edifizj di Roma
antica, 1848-56), the value of which is impaired by their inaccuracy
and the imaginative character of the restorations.
The books on Roman topography written in the early igth
century, such as those of Antonio Nibby, still pursued the uncritical
methods of Nardini; from 1830 onwards, however, we find a series
of writers whose work shows the influence of the new criticism.
Such were Becker (Topographie der Stadt Rom, 1843), Sir Wm. Cell
(Rome and its Vicinity, 1834; rev. ed. E. H. Bunbury, 1846),
Braun (Ruinen und Museen Roms, 1854), Reber (Die Ruinen Roms,
1862) and T. H. Dyer (The City of Rome, 1864).
Since 1861, when excavations were begun on the Palatine at
the instance of Napoleon III., under the direction of P. Rosa, the
discovery of ancient remains has made constant progress, and the
results have been incorporated in a number of works, of which only
the most important can be named here. These are: Jordan,
Topographie der Stadt Rom im Alterthum, of which three yols.
(Ii, 12, and II.) appeared in 1871-85, and a third (13) was written
after Jordan's death by C. Huelsen and published in 1907;
Gilbert, Geschichte und Topographie der Stadt Rom im Alterthum
(3 vols., 1883-90); the works of Lanciani, especially Ruins and
Excavations of Ancient Rome (1897) and Storia degli Scavi (in pro-
gress); O. Richter, Topographie der Stadt Rom (ed. 2, 1901);
Middleton, The Remains of Ancient Rome (2 vols., 1892). A short
handbook may be found in S. B. Platner's Topography and Monu-
ments of Ancient Rome (Boston, 1904). For the study of recent
discoveries (besides the special works referred to in the course of
this article) the following periodicals are the most important:
Notizie degli Scavi, published by the Accademia dei Lincei since
1876; Buttettino delta Commissions Archeologica comunale di Roma
(from 1872) ; Mittheilungen des k. deutschen archdologischen Instituts
CHRISTIAN ROME]
ROME
609
(from 1886) ; Papers of the British School at Rome (from 1903). Brief
reports of discoveries are published by Dr T. Ashby in the Classical
Review.
AH previous archaeological maps of Rome have been superseded
by Lanciani's Formae urbis Romae, in 46 sheets (Milan, 18931902).
The best recent maps are those in Kiepert's Formae orbis antiqui,
sheets 21 and 22. Kiepert and Huelsen's Formae urbis Romae
antiquae date from 1896; they are accompanied by a Nomenclator
topographicus. Homo, Lexique de topographie romaine (1900), is
also useful. (J. H. M.; H. S. J.)
CHRISTIAN ROME
From the 4th to the I2th Century
The era of church building in Rome may be said to begin
with the reign of Constantine and the peace of the church.
Before then Christian worship was conducted with various
degrees of secrecy either in private houses or in the catacombs
(q.t>.), according as the reigning emperor viewed the sect with
tolerance or dislike. The type of church which in the beginning
of the 4th century was adopted with certain modifications from
the pagan basilica, though varying much in size, had little
or no variety in its general form and arrangement. One fixed
model was strictly adhered to for many centuries, and, in spite
of numberless alterations and additions, can be traced in nearly
all the ancient churches of Rome. It is fully described and
illustrated in the article BASILICA.
The walls of these early churches were mostly built of concrete,
faced with brick, left structurally quite plain, and decorated only
_ with painted stucco or glass mosaics especially (intern-
ally) in the apse and on the face of its arch, and (externally)
on the east or entrance wall, the top of which was often
built in an overhanging curve to keep off the rain. The windows
were plain, with semicircular arches, and were filled with pierced
marble screens, or in some cases with slabs of translucent alabaster;
the latter was the case at S. Lorenzo fuori le Mura, and examples
of the former still exist in the very early church formed in the rooms
of some thermae on the Esquiline (possibly those of Trajan), below
the 6th-century church of S. Martino ai Monti. Almost the only
bit of external architectural ornament was the eaves cornice,
frequently (as at the last-named church) formed of marble cornices
stolen from earlier classical buildings. Internally the nave columns,
with their capitals and bases, were usually taken from some classical
building, and some churches are perfect museums of fine sculptured
caps and rich marble shafts of every material and design. 1 At first
the nave had no arches, the columns supporting a horizontal
entablature, as in old St Peter's, S. Clemente, and S. Maria Maggiore,
but afterwards, in order to widen the intercolumniation, simple
round arches of narrow span were introduced, thus requiring fewer
columns. The roof was of the simple tie-beam and kingpost con-
struction, left open, but decorated with painting or metal plates.
The floor was paved either with coarse mosaic of large tesserae (as
at S. Pudentiana) or with slabs of marble stripped from ancient
buildings. A later development of this plan added a small apse
containing an altar at the end of each aisle, as in S. Maria in Cosmedin
and S. Pietro in Vincoli. 2
The type of church above described was used as a model for by
far the majority of early churches not only in Rome, but also in
,.. . England, France, Germany, and other Western countries.
churches Another form was, however, occasionally used in Rome,
which appears to have been derived from the round temple
of pagan times. This is a circular building, usually domed and
surrounded with one or more rings of pillared aisles. To this class
belong the combined church and mausoleum of Costanza (see fig. 14)
and that of SS. Marcellinus and Petrus, both built by Constantine,
the former to hold the tomb of his daughters Constantia (or Con-
stantina) and Helena, the latter that of his mother Helena. The
latter is on the Via Labicana, about 2 m. outside Rome; it is a
circular domed building, now known as the Torre Pignattara, from
the pignatte or amphorae built into the concrete dome to lighten it.
The mausoleum of S. Costanza, close by S. Agnese fuori, is also
domed, with circular aisle, or rather ambulatory, the vault of the
latter decorated with mosaic of classical style (see MOSAIC, vol.
xviii. p. 885). The red porphyry sarcophagi, sculptured richly with
reliefs, from these mausolea are now in the Vatican. On a much
larger scale is the church of S. Stefano Rotondo on the Coelian, built
by Pope Simplicius (468-482), with a double ring of pillared aisles,
the outer one of which was pulled down and a new enclosure wall
built by Nicholas V. Other round churches are S. Teodoro (by the
Vicus Tuscus), restored in the 8th century, and S. Bernardo, which
1 S. Lorenzo and S. Agnese fuori, S. Maria in Trastevere, Ara
Coeli, and numberless other churches are very rich in this respect.
J See Heinrich Holtzinger, Die altchristliche Architectur (Stuttgart,
1889-99); Dehio and von Bezold, Die kirchliche Baukunst des
Abendlandes (Stuttgart, 1884-99).
is one of the domed halls of Diocletian's thermae, consecrated as a
church in 1598.
Space will not allow any individual description of the very
numerous and important churches in Rome which are built on the
basilican plan. The prin-
cipal examples are these:
S. Pudentiana, traditionally
the oldest in Rome, restored
in 398 ; S. Clemente, restored
under Siricius (384-399),
now forming the crypt of
an upper church built in
the I2th century; S. Sabina,
5th century; S. Vitale, sth
century, founded by Inno-
cent I. (401-417); S. Martino
ai Monti, c. 500; S. Balbina,
6th century; church of Ara
Coeli, founded by Gregory the
Great (590-604) as S. Maria
in Capitolio; S. Giorgio in
Velabro, rebuilt by Leo II.
(682-683); S. Cesareo, 8th
century; S. Maria in Via
Lata, restored by Sergius I.
(687-701); S. Crisogono, re-
built in 731 by Gregory III.; ^~
S. Maria in Cosmedin; S. FIG.
Pietro in Vincoli, and S.
Giovanni ad Portam Latinam,
rebuilt c. 772 by Adrian I.;
S. Maria in Dominica, rebuilt
by Paschal I. (817-824), who
14. Church and Mausoleum
of Costanza. A, Recess for altar.
B, Porphyry slab in floor where
the tomb stood. C, Modern altar.
D, D, Slabs of white marble, part
of ancient paving. E, E, Recesses
with mosaics. F, F, Ambulatory
with mosaic vault.
also rebuilt S. Cecilia m
Trastevere and S. Prassede;
S. Marco, rebuilt by Gregory
IV. in 833; S. Maria Nuova, rebuilt by Nicholas I. (858-867), now
called S. Francesca Romana; the church of the SS. Quattro Coronati,
rebuilt by Paschal II. about 1113; and S. Maria in Trastevere,
rebuilt by Innocent II. in 1130.*
Though the apses and classical columns of the naves in these
churches were built at the dates indicated, yet in many cases it is
difficult to trace the existence of the ancient walls; the alterations
and additions of many centuries have frequently almost wholly
concealed the original structure. Except at S. Clemente, the
early choir, placed as shown in fig. 26, has invariably been destroyed ;
the side walls have often been broken through by the addition of
rows of chapels; and the whole church, both within and without,
has been overlaid with the most incongruous architectural features
in stucco or stone. The open roof is usually concealed either by a
wooden panelled ceiling or by a stucco vault. The throne * and
marble benches in the apse have usually given place to more modern
wooden fittings, to suit the later position of the choir, which has
always been transferred from the nave to the apse. In many cases
the mosaics of the apse and the columns of the nave are the only
visible remains of the once simple and stately original church.'
From 1200 to 1450; and the Papal Palaces
The loth and nth centuries in Rome were extraordinarily
barren in the production of all branches of the fine arts, even
that of architecture; and it was not till the end of
the 1 2th that any important revival began. The I3th cbs/natf. "
century was, however, one of great artistic activity,
when an immense number of beautiful works, especially in
marble enriched with mosaic, were produced in Rome. This
revival, though on different lines, was very similar to the rather
later one which took place at Pisa (see PISANO), and, like that,
was in great part due to the great artistic talents of one family,
the Cosmati, 6 which, for four or five generations, produced
skilful architects, sculptors and mosaicists.
8 This list does not include the great basilicas of Rome, for which
see BASILICA. On the churches of Rome see Armellini, Le chiese
di Roma (2nd ed. 1891) ; Tuker and Malleson, Handbook to Christian
and Ecclesiastical Rome (1900); Marucchi, Basiliques el eglises de
Rome (1902); Frothingham, Monuments of Christian Rome (1910).
4 Some of these marble thrones which still exist are very interesting
relics of Hellenic art, much resembling the existing seats in the theatre
of Dionysius at Athens. Examples of these thrones exist at S.
Pietro in Vincoli, S. Stefano Rotondo, and in the Lateran cloister.
6 The interior of S. Maria in Cosmedin has in recent years been
restored according to primitive tradition.
6 On the Cosmati see Boito, Architettura del Media Evo (Milan,
1880, pp. 117-182); Clausse, Les Marbriers remains et le mobilier
presbyteral (Paris, 1897) ; Crowe and Cavalcaselle, History of Painting
in Italy (ed. Douglas, 1903), ch. iii.
XXIII. 20
6io
ROME
[CHRISTIAN ROME
The first member of the family of whom we have knowledge was
Lorenzo, who, with his son Jacopo, made the ambones of S. Maria
in Ara Coeli and an altar-canopy (ciborium) in SS. Apostoli. Jacopo
decorated the door of S. Saba in 1205 and, together with his son
Cosma (who gave his name to the family), that of S. Tommaso in
Formis; the father and son worked together at Civita Castellana
in 1210. Cosma made a ciborium for SS. Giovanni e Paolo in 1235,
and worked with his sons Luca and Jacopo at Anagni and Subiaco
during the first half of the I3th century. So far the inscriptions
enable us to trace the relationships of the Cosmati with certainty ;
it is not so clear whether the Cosma above mentioned is to be
identified with the master who decorated the chapel of the Sancta
Sanctorum belonging to the old Lateran palace which was rebuilt
by Nicholas III. (1277-1280). This Cosma was, however, almost
certainly the father of Giovanni, the last of the family, who made
the tombs of Cardinal Durand (died 1299) in S. Maria sopra Minerva,
Cardinal Rodriguez in S. Maria Maggiore, and Stefano de' Surdi
in S. Balbina. Another artist who seems to have belonged to this
family, Deodato, made the ciboria of S. Maria in Cosmedin and
(probably) of S. John Lateran; he is probably identical with the
Deodatus Jilius Cosmati who, together with another Jacopo, executed
a pavement at S. Jacopo alia Lungara. A large number of other
works of this school, but unsigned, exist in Rome. These are
mainly altars and baldacchini, choir-screens, paschal candlesticks,
ambones, tombs, and the like, all enriched with sculpture and glass
mosaic of great brilliance and decorative effect.
Besides the more mechanical sort of work, such as mosaic patterns
and architectural decoration, they also produced mosaic pictures
and sculpture of very high merit, especially the recumbent effigies,
with angels standing at the head and foot, in the tombs of Ara
Coeli, S. Maria Maggiore, and elsewhere. One of their finest works
is in S. Cesareo; this is a marble altar richly decorated with mosaic
in sculptured panels, and (below) two angels drawing back a curtain
(all in marble) so as to expose the open grating of the confessio.
Besides the Cosmati, other artists, such as Paulus Rpmanus and
his sons in the I2th century, and Petrus Vassallectus in the I3th,
contributed to the revival of art. The beautiful cloisters of
S. Paolo fuori le Mura, begun by " Magister Petrus," and those of
S. John Lateran, the work of Vassallectus, are the finest architectural
works of this school. In the latter part of the I3th century we find
the sculptor Arnolfo del Cambio at work in Rome. His altar-
canopy at S. Paolo fuori le Mura (1285) seems to have been imitated
by the Cosmati in their latest works; his tomb of Cardinal de Braye
(d. 1282) at Orvieto also shows his intimate connexion with that
school. Another artist of the same period, Petrus Oderisius,
worked in England; the shrine of the Confessor at Westminster
(1269) was made by him.
The earlier works of the Cosmati are Romanesque in style, but
in the I3th century Gothic elements were introduced, especially in
the elaborate altar-canopies, with their geometrical tracery. In
detail, however, they differ widely from the purer Gothic of northern
countries. The richness of effect which the English or French
architect obtained by elaborate and carefully worked mouldings
was produced in Italy by the beauty of polished marbles and jewel-
like mosaics, the details being mostly rather coarse and often
carelessly executed.
Chiefly to the i3th century belong the large number of
beautiful tampanili, which are the most conspicuous relics of
the medieval period in Rome. The finest of these are
attached to the churches of S. Francesca Romana,
SS. Giovanni e Paolo, and S. Maria Maggiore. Others
belong to the basilicas of S. Lorenzo fuori and S. Croce in Geru-
salemme, and to S. Giorgio in Velabro, S. Maria in Cosmedin,
S. Alessio, S. Giovanni ad Portam Latinam, S. Cecilia, S.
Crisogono, and S. Pudentiana. They occupy various positions
with regard to the church, being all later additions; that
of SS. Giovanni e Paolo stands at some distance from it.
In design they are very similar, consisting of many stages,
divided by brick and marble cornices; in the upper storeys are
from two to four windows on each side, with round arches
supported on slender marble columns. They are decorated
with brilliantly coloured ciotole or disks of earthenware, en-
amelled and painted in green or turquoise blue, among the
earliest existing specimens of the so-called majolica (see
CERAMICS). Sometimes disks or crosses made of red or green
porphyry are inlaid in the walls. In most cases on one face
of the top storey is a projecting canopied niche, which once con-
tained a statue or mosaic picture. The walls are built of fine
neat brickwork. The largest and once the handsomest of all,
that of S. Maria Maggiore, has string-courses of enamelled and
coloured terra-cotta. 1 The slender columns of the windows
1 This campanile was restored and enriched in 1376.
Cam-
paalll.
have often proved insufficient to support the weight, and so
many of the arches are built up. 2
Though but little used for churches, the Gothic style, in its
modified Italian form, was almost universally employed for
domestic architecture in Rome during the I3th and Domestic
1 4th centuries. Tufa* or brick was used for the anhltec-
main walls, the lowest storey being often supported ture '
on an arcade of pointed arches and marble columns. The
windows were usually formed of large marble slabs with trefoil-
shaped heads or cusped arches. As a rule the upper storeys
projected slightly over the lower wall, and were supported on
small ornamental machicolations. The top storey frequently
had an open loggia, with rows of pointed arches. When vaulting
was used it also was of the pointed form, usually in simple
quadripartite bays, with slightly moulded groin-ribs. The
finest existing specimen of this style is the palace built about
1300 by Boniface VIII. (Benedetto Gaetani), enclosing the
tomb of Cecilia Metella on the Via Appia, with a graceful little
chapel within the precincts of the castle. This building is well
worthy of study; the remaining part is well preserved. Many
houses of this period, though generally much injured by altera-
tions, still exist in Rome. They are mostly in out-of-the-way
alleys, and, not being mentioned in any books, are seldom
examined. The Ghetto (now destroyed) and the quarter near
the Ponte Rotto contained many of these interesting buildings,
as well as some of the most crowded parts of the Trastevere
district, but most have disappeared owing to the wholesale
destruction of old streets. Among those which may possibly
escape for a while is the 13th-century house where Giulio Romano
lived, near the Palazzo di Venezia, and the Albergo del Orso,
at the end of the Via di Tordinona, of the same period, which
was an inn in the i6th century and is one still; this has remains
of a fine upper loggia, with rich cornices in moulded terra-cotta;
the lowest storey has pointed vaulting resting on many pillars.
Another graceful but less stately house exists, though sadly
mutilated, opposite the entrance to the atrium of S. Cecilia in
Trastevere. 4 Few now remain of the once numerous lofty
towers built by the turbulent Roman barons for purposes of
defence. The finest, the Torre delle Milizie on the Viminal,
was built in the i3th century by the sons of Petrus Alexius;
of about the same date is the Torre dei Conti, near the forum
of Augustus, built by Marchione of Arezzo; both these were
once much higher than they are now; they are very simple and
noble in design, with massive walls faced with neat brickwork.
Till the I4th century the Lateran was the usual residence of
the pope; this was once a very extensive building, covering
four times its present area. The original house is said
to have belonged to the senator Plautius Lateranus in p a i ace ,
the reign of Nero; but the existing part on the line
of the Aurelian wall is of the 3rd century. This house, which
had become the property of the emperors, was given by Con-
stantine as a residence for S. Sylvester; it was very much
enlarged at many periods during the next ten centuries; in 1308
a great part was burnt, and in 1586 the ancient palace was
completely destroyed by Sixtus V., and the present palace built
by Domenico Fontana. The Cappella Sancta Sanctorum (see
list of Cosmati works) is the only relic of the older palace. 5
2 See De Montault, Les Cloches de Rome (Arras, 1874).
"For many centuries wall-facing of small tufa stones was used,
e.g. in the medieval part of the Capitol; this was called "opera
saracinesca " from its supposed adoption from the Saracens; it
is fargely employed in the walls and towers of the Leonine city,
built by Leo IV. (847-855) to defend the Vatican basilica and palace
against the inroads of the Moslem invaders. The greater part of
this wall is now destroyed and built over, but a long piece with
massive circular towers well preserved exists in the gardens of the
Vatican.
4 The house of Crescentius, popularly called the " house of Rienzi,"
near the Ponte Rotto, is perhaps the sole relic of the domestic
architecture of an earlier period the I2th century. Its archi-
tectural decorations are an extraordinary mixture of marble frag-
ments of the most miscellaneoussort, all taken from classical buildings;
it has an inscription over the doorway, from which we learn that it
was the property of " Crescentius, son of Nicolaus."
6 See Rohault de Fleury, Le Latran au moyen dge (Paris, 1877).
LATER DEVELOPMENT]
ROME
611
The present palace has never been used as a papal residence;
in the i8th century it was an orphan asylum, and is now a
museum of classical sculpture and early Christian remains.
The Vatican palace originated in a residence built by Sym-
machus (498-514) adjoining the basilica of S. Peter. This was
rebuilt by Innocent III. (c. 1200) and enlarged by
Vatican. Nicholas III. (1277-80). It did not, however, become
the fixed residence of the popes till after the return
from Avignon in 1377. In 1415 John XXIII. connected the
Vatican and the castle of S. Angelo by a covered passage carried
on arches. But little of the existing palace is older than the
1 5th century; Nicholas V. in 1447 began its reconstruction on
a magnificent scale, and this was carried on by Sixtus IV.
(Sistine chapel), Alexander VI. (Torre Borgia), Julius II. and
Leo X. (Bramante's cortile and Raphael's Loggie and Stanze),
and Paul III. (Sala Regia and Cappella Paolina by Antonio da
Sangallo). Sixtus V. and his successors built the lofty part
of the palace on the east of Bramante's cortile. The Scala
Regia was built by Bernini for Urban VIII. and Alexander VII.,
the Museo Pio-Clementino under Clement XIV. and Pius VI.,
the Braccio Nuovo under Pius VII., and lastly the grand stairs
up to the cortile were added by Pius IX. 1
The Quirinal palace, now occupied by the king of Italy, is
devoid of architectural merit. It stands on the highest part of
the hill, near the site of the baths of Constantine.
Oulrtnal This palace was begun in 1574, under Gregory XIII.,
by Flaminio Ponzio, and was completed by Fontana
and Maderna under subsequent popes.
The only important church in Rome which is wholly Gothic in
style is S. Maria sopra Minerva, the chief church of the Dominican
p l l order. This was not the work of a Roman architect, but
was designed by two Dominican friars from Florence Fra
Ristpri and Fra Sisto about 1289, who were also the
architects of their own church of S. Maria Novella. It much
resembles the contemporary churches of the same order in Florence,
having wide-spanned pointed arches on clustered piers and simple
quadripartite vaulting. Its details resemble the early French in
character. 2 It contains a large number of fine tombs; among them
that of Durandus, bishop of Mende (the author of the celebrated
Rationale divinorum officiorum), by Giovanni Cosma, c. 1300, and
the tomb of Fra Angelico, the great Dominican painter, who died
in Rome, 1455. The most elaborate specimen of ecclesiastical
Gothic in Rome is that part of S. Maria in Ara Coeli which was rebuilt
about 1300, probably by one of the Cosmati, namely, the south
aisle and transept. During the I4th century (chiefly owing to the
absence of the popes at Avignon) the arts were neglected at Rome,
and a period of decadence set in. The sculptured effigy and reredos
of Cardinal d'Alengon (d. 1403) in S. Maria in Trastevere, executed
by a certain Paulus Romanus, is a fair example of the works produced
during this period ; the effigy is a very clumsy and feeble copy of the
fine recumbent figures of the Cosmati.
Florentine Period, c. 1450-1550.
The long period of almost complete artistic inactivity in Rome
was broken in the isth century by the introduction of a number
of foreign artists, chiefly Florentines, who during this and the
succeeding century enriched Rome with an immense number
of magnificent works of art. The dawn of this brilliant epoch
may be said to have begun with the arrival of Fra Angelico (see
FIESOLE) in 1447, invited by Nicholas V. to paint the walls of
his small private chapel in the Vatican dedicated to S. Lorenzo.
In the latter half of the I5th century a large number of
sculptured tombs (as well as tabernacles, altar frontals, rere-
Fiorea- doses and the like) were made for Roman churches by
tine ana sculptors from Tuscany and north Italy. The earliest
Lombard o f these tombs is that of Eugenius IV. (d. 1447) in
S. Salvatore in Lauro, by Isaia da Pisa. It presents
the typical form of a life-sized recumbent effigy resting on a
richly ornamented sarcophagus over which is a canopy decorated
with reliefs and statuettes. The type was brought to perfection
by the Florentine Mino da Fiesole (see MINO DI GIOVANNI),
1 See Letarouilly, Le Vatican et le basilique de St Pierre A Rome
(Paris, 1882).
2 The absence of a triforium is one of the chief reasons why the
large Gothic churches of Italy are so inferior in effect to the cathe-
drals of France and England.
who worked in Rome under Pius II. and succeeding popes,
being assisted in some cases by another artist of almost equal
skill, Giovanni Dalmata. A Lombard sculptor, Andrea Bregno,
came to Rome under Paul II. and worked there until the closing
years of the century; his tomb is in S. Maria Sopra Minerva.
The works of these artists and their followers are to be found
in a great number of churches, notably S. Maria del Popolo.*
The architecture no less than the sculpture of the latter
part of the isth century was mainly the work of Florentines,
especially of Baccio Pontelli, who is said by Vasari to have
built S. Maria del Popolo, S. Agostino, 4 and S. Cosimato in
Trastevere. He also was the architect of S. Pietro in Montorio,
erected in 1500 for Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. Other
buildings were carried out by another Florentine, Giuliano da
Majano. The Palazzo di Venezia, begun for Cardinal Barbo,
afterwards Paul II., about 1455, a very massive and stately
building of medieval character, was built by Giuliano da Sangallo
and Francesco di Borgo San Sepolcro.
During the latter part of the i$th and the first few years of the
succeeding century Rome was enriched with a number of buildings
by Bramante (q.v.), one of the greatest architects the
world has ever seen. He combined the delicacy of detail
and the graceful lightness- of the Gothic style with the maate.
measured stateliness and rhythmical proportions of classic archi-
tecture. Though he invariably used the round arch and took
his mouldings from antique sources, his beautiful cloisters and
loggie are Gothic in their general conception. Moreover, he never
committed the prevalent blunder of the l6th century, which was
a fruitless attempt to obtain magnificence by mere size in a building,
without multiplying its parts. His principal works in Rome are the
Palazzo della Cancelleria, built for Cardinal Riario' (1495-1505), with
its stately church of S. Lorenzo in Damaso; the so-called Palazzo di
Bramante in the Governo Vecchio, built in 1500; and the Palazzo
Giraud, near St Peter's, once the residence of Cardinal Wolsey, *
built in 1503. He also built the cortile of S. Damaso in the Vatican,
the toy-like tempietto in the cloister of S. Pietro in Montorio (1502),
and the cloisters of S. Maria della Pace (1504).' In 1503 Bramante
was appointed architect to St Peter's, and made complete designs
for it, with a plan in the form of a Greek cross. The piers and arches
of the central dome were the only parts completed at the time of his
death in 1514, and subsequent architects did not carry out his design.*
Baldassare Peruzzi (g.i>.) of Siena was one of the most talented
architects of the first part of the l6th century; the Villa Farnesina
and the Palazzo Massimi alle Colonne are from his designs. Peruzzi.
His later works bear traces of that decadence in taste
which so soon began, owing mainly to the rapidly growing love for
the dull magnificence of the pseudo-classic style. This falling off in
architectural taste was due to Michelangelo (q.v.) more than to any
other one man. His cortile of the Farnese palace, though a work
of much stately beauty, was one of the first stages towards that lifeless
scholasticism and blind following of antique forms which were the
destruction of architecture as a real living art, and in the succeeding
century produced so much that is almost brutal in its coarseness
and neglect of all true canons of proportion and scale. During the
earlier stage, however, of this decadence, and throughout the l6th
century, a large number of fine palaces and churches were built in and
near Rome by various able artists, such as the Villa Madama by
Raphael, part of the Palazzo Farnese by Antonio da Sangallo the
younger, S. Giovanni de' Fiorentini by J. Sansovino, and many
others. 7 (J. H. M.; H. S. J.)
LATER DEVELOPMENT
The transformation of Roman architecture after the :6th
century was marked by the abandonment of classical models.
The works of Michelangelo were too grand to be accused of
exceeding the extreme limits of good taste, but his scholars
and imitators exaggerated his manner, and the barocco style,
8 On Mino da Fiesole, see Gnoli in Archivio Slorico dell' Arte (1890-
91) ; on Giovanni Dalmata, Fabriczy in Jahrb. der preuss-Kunstamm-
lungen (1901); on Andrea Bregno, Steinmann in the same periodical,
vol. xx.; many of the monuments are drawn in Tosi, Raccolta di
monumenti sacri e sepokrati scolpiti a Roma (1853).
4 These two churches were the first in Rome built with domes
after the classical period.
6 The upper storey of the latter is varied by having horizontal
lintels instead of arches on the columns.
6 See Geymuller, Projets primitifs pour le basilique de St Pierre a
Rome (Paris, 1875-85).
7 A valuable account of Raphael's architectural works is given
by Geymuller, Raffaello come Architetto (Milan, 1882). Drawings
of many of the finest palaces of Rome are given in the fine work by
Letarouilly, Edifices de Rome moderne (Brussels, 1856-66).
6l2
ROME
[LATER DEVELOPMENT
Anhl-
tecturc.
which had its cradle in Rome, was soon adopted throughout
Italy. Vignola (1507-1573) had done his best to bind the
art of building to strictly classic rules, but in spite
of his efforts the degeneration made progress during
his own lifetime and under Carlo Maderna (1556-1639),
and proceeded still more rapidly under Bernini (1598-1680).
The characteristics of the barocco are the reckless abuse of
curves and extravagantly broken lines, of contorted columns,
twisted tympanums and highly exaggerated ornaments; yet
we must confess that many monuments of this period of art
exhibit such exuberant life, such contrasts of relief and shadow,
and such a wonderful combination of variety and solidity as
cannot fail to please the many, even now, by the magnificence
of their general effect. In Rome, the numerous works of
Bernini, Borromini, Maderna, Rainaldi, Salvi, Fuga, Longhi
and others bear witness to the gifted activity of Italian
architects during that period; if genius necessarily creates,
those men showed more of it than their predecessors who
adhered to the classic and revered the teachings of Vitruvius.
Degeneration is tolerated and sometimes even pleases, under
the name of transformation, but there is nothing to be said
for the real decay which marks the iSth century. It was not
universal at first, for it is by nature a slow process; such men
as A. Galilei, Specchi, Peparelli, Marchionni, Morelli, Camporese
and Piranesi left works not altogether without value; but
the outrageous abuse of ornament increased with every year,
and was made more and more evident by the clumsy heaviness
of the pillars and pilasters that supported the whole. The
refined purity of the Renaissance disappeared as completely
as the delicate grace and exquisite ornamentation of the
Cosmatesque period. Many works of the greatest beauty were
destroyed outright, and many more were disfigured and often
wholly hidden by horrible stucco constructions and decorations;
or, on a larger scale, by the application of hideous stone
facades to churches of which the simple good taste had delighted
generations of mankind. The deformation of the noble old
Lateran basilica is a conspicuous instance of such deeds; another
is Santa Maria Maggiore, and the false fronts plastered upon
San Marcello and Santa Maria in Via Lata, both in the Corso,
give a very clear idea of what was generally done. The interiors
of old churches suffered quite as much, and even the frescoes
of early masters were not spared; those by Pinturicchio in
the third chapel (south) of S. Maria del Popolo were covered
with wretched stucco ornaments, only removed in 1850, and
numberless works of art by Giotto and other early painters
were wilfully destroyed.
The decline of architecture continued in the ipth century,
notwithstanding the laudable efforts of Valadier and a few
other painstaking imitators, who produced the so-called
"academic neo-classic " reaction; among them may be noted
the names of Canina, Poletti, Sarti and Azzurri. The futility
of their works invited the feeble eclecticism which soon after-
wards became so general that the architecture of the period
is wholly without individuality, good or bad. The chief
architectural work of the igth century was the rebuilding of
the great basilica of S. Paolo fuori le Mura, burnt in 1823, in a
style of cold splendour which is anything but devotional in
its general effect. The pillars are huge monoliths of grey
granite from the Alps; the confessio and transepts are lined
with rosso and verde antico from quarries then recently re-
discovered in Greece, and with Egyptian alabaster and lapis
lazuli and malachite adorn the bases of the columns round
the high altar in lavish profusion. Thirty years were required
for the rebuilding of the frigidly magnificent edifice, which
was reconsecrated in 1854. The east facade displays a quantity
of gaudy mosaics, and the projected quadriportico is wanting.
The belfry is nothing but a steeple, and has an unfortunate
resemblance to a lighthouse. In extenuation of the result it
must be admitted that the original building had been totally
destroyed by fire, but no such excuse can be found for the
barbarous assault on Christian art which was perpetrated by
Francesco Vespignani in the extension of the Lateran basilica.
i cc tioas
This work was begun under Pius IX. and finished under
Leo XIII.; it involved the destruction of the ancient tribune
and its ambulatory, the only parts of the church which had
so far escaped complete disfigurement, and the priceless
mosaics (1290), among the most beautiful in Rome, were taken
down and replaced in the new apse in a sadly mutilated and
restored form. (For the interesting discoveries made in
excavating for the new foundations, see Ann. 1st. 1877^.332.)
The Vatican contains the largest collection in the world of Greco-
Roman and Roman sculpture, with a few specimens of true Hellenic
art. It is also very rich in Greek vases and in objects _ .. .
from Etruscan tombs; this latter division is called the
Museo Gregoriano. There is also an Egyptian museum
which contains a few important curiosities. In the great
library are preserved a number of early glass chalices and other
rare objects from the catacombs, as well as many fine speci-
mens of later Christian art church plate and jewels. The picture
gallery, though not as large as some of the private collections in
Rome, contains few inferior pictures. The Lateran palace, still,
like the Vatican, in the possession of the pope, contains a fine
collection of classical sculpture, but is most remarkable as a museum
of Christian antiquities. The two capitoline museums are very
rich in classical sculpture, bronzes, coins, pottery and the contents
of early Etruscan and Latin tombs. A large hall has been added,
and is filled with sculptures found in Rome since 1870, of which the
arrangement was completed on the occasion of King Edward VII. 's
visit. The picture gallery contains a few masterpieces and a large
number of inferior works. The new Museo delle Tcrme has been
formed in the great cloister of S. Maria degli Angeli, to hold the
numerous fine examples of classical painting and sculpture found
along the Tiber during the excavations for the new embankment,
and in other places in Rome. The university of Rome possesses
fine collections of minerals, fossils and other geological specimens,
and examples of ancient marbles used in the buildings of Rome.
A Museo Artistico Industriale has been formed in a monastery in
the Capo le Case, to contain medieval works of art. It is, however,
a matter for regret that the few medieval works which Rome
possesses should be scattered in three small collections, namely, the
one last mentioned, the Capitol and the Castle of S. Angelo, where an
attempt is being made to form a real medieval museum; many
objects, too, are dispersed throughout the city, and will doubtless
disappear unless they are better protected. The Museo Kircheriano
contains an unrivalled collection of prehistoric objects of stone,
bronze, iron and pottery, found in Italy and the Italian islands, and
more particularly a number of ancient Latian urns, capanne and the
like. The collection of aes grave is the finest yet made; and the
museum also contains a large quantity of interesting classical
antiquities of various kinds. Another branch is the Ethnological
Museum. Unfortunately all these museums are badly adapted for
purposes of study, being neither well arranged nor well catalogued.
The Museo Baracco, presented to the city in 1905 by the senator
of that name, contains some ancient sculptures of great value. The
Museum of Etruscan and Faliscan antiquities in the Villa Giulia,
near Porta del Popolo, is of considerable importance, as is also the
Borgia Museum in the Propaganda palace, the latter for its ancient
geographical curiosities. The museum of plaster casts in the
Testaccio quarter contains reproductions of the principal ancient
sculptures possessed by foreign museums.
Among the private collections of pictures the Borghese is un-
rivalled. The next in importance is that in the Doria palace,
which, however, like most Italian collections, contains a
large proportion of very inferior works. The Corsini
picture gallery, bought by the government, is chiefly
rich in the works of the Bolognese and other third-rate
painters, but also possesses a fine collection of engravings and
etchings. There are a few fine paintings in the Barberini palace,
but the Sciarra gallery no longer exists. There are some good
pictures by Raphael and Guido Reni in the Academy of St Luke;
the Galleria d'Arte Moderna is a collection of modern paintings
acquired by the government.
The largest private collection of sculpture is that of the Villa
Albani, which, among a large mass of inferior Roman sculpture,
contains a few gems of Greek art. The original Albani collection
was stolen and brought to Paris by Napoleon I., and was there
dispersed; one relief, the celebrated Antinous, is the only piece of
sculpture from the original collection which was sent back from
Paris. This is in the collection of Prince Torlonia, which contains
several very fine works, but unfortunatejy the greater number are
much injured and falsified by restorations. The casino in the
Borghese gardens possesses a great quantity of sculpture, mostly
third-rate Roman works, the most important of which, however,
are executed in precious marbles. The small collection which
formerly existed in the Villa Ludovici has been bought by the
government and removed to the Museo delle Terme; it contained
a few works of Greek sculpture of great value, the most important
being the Pergamean group representing the suicide of a Gaulish
chief, a Medusa's head in relief and a male terminal figure. The
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Ifl.tilliiJiIJi
THE MODERN CITY]
ROME
613
Giustiniani collection, which was considerable, is now dispersed, but
many private residences, such as the Colonna palace, still contain
collections of sculpture and painting of a secondary order.
The principal libraries in Rome are, for old and modern works,
the Biblioteca Vittorio Emanuele and the library of the German
i ih* i Archaeological Institute; for manuscripts and early
' books, the Angelica, the Casanatense, the Alessandrina
and the Chigi libraries; but none of them can be compared with
that of the Vatican, which now contains also the former library of
the Barberini. Mention must also be made of the Corsiniana, now
belonging to the Accademia dei Lincei. The Biblioteca Sarti,
beside the Academy of S. Luke, contains works on art.
THE MODERN CITY
Great changes in the municipal and social conditions of Rome
followed the occupation of the city by the Italians (2oth
September 1870), and the rapid increase of population due to
immigration from other parts of Italy. It is a mistake, however,
to attribute all the works undertaken and executed since 1870
to the initiative of the new government. The first plan for
modernizing and improving Rome was that of Pope Julius II.,
who aimed at the enlargement of the lower city on both sides
of the Tiber. The modern Via Giulia shows in part what he
meant to do. Following him, Sixtus V. did his best to develop
the upper part of the city by laying out the Via Sistina, from
the Trinita dei Monti to S. Maria Maggiore and Porta S. Giovanni.
Almost in our own time a plan for the improvement of the
city was made, under the direction of Mgr. de Merode, during
the reign of Pius IX.; and although but a small portion of
the projected changes were carried out under the pope, the
general scheme was in most respects satisfactory, and proved
a good foundation for further extensive developments. He
was able to complete the construction of the beautiful ascent
to S. Pietro in Montorio, as well as that which leads up to the
Quirinal Palace; and the Via Nazionale, which was to have
been called Via De Merode, was also begun. His plan did
not include, however, the destruction of villas such as the
Ludovisi, nor the wholesale removal of trees, which is so
greatly to be deplored. These acts of barbarism were the
consequences of the reckless speculations in land and buildings
that accompanied and followed the active and excellent "work
done by the municipality, and might have been checked by
vigorous and timely action of the government. As it was,
a number of the most important Roman families were ruined.
At the outset, and as soon as'political circumstances admitted
the consideration of such matters, the municipality set to
work; and though a comprehensible love of the picturesque
has caused many persons to regret the result, altogether or in
part, it is not to be denied that the improvements carried
out have been of the highest advantage to the city, and that
the work is in many instances of creditable solidity
Two principal problems presented themselves. The more
important was the confinement of the Tiber in such a manner
as to render impossible the serious floods which had from time
to time inundated the city, often causing great damage to pro-
perty and rendering the lower streets more or less impassable.
There were floods which almost reached the level of the first
storey near San Carlo in the Corso, and it was common to see
the great Piazza. Navona and the neighbourhood of the Pan-
theon full of water for days together during the winter. The
interruption of traffic can be imagined, and the damage to
property was serious. The other urgent matter was one of
which the government of Pius IX. had been partially aware,
namely, the necessity for opening better thoroughfares between
different parts of the city. In the middle ages the population
of Rome had dwindled to twenty or thirty thousand inhabitants,
who lived huddled together about the strongholds of the barons,
and the modern city had slowly grown again upon the exiguous
foundation of a medieval town. The need for changing this
condition of things, which had been felt under Pius IX., became
overwhelmingly apparent as the population rapidly increased.
That which under a continuance of the old government might
have been done by degrees during a long period, had to be
accomplished in the shortest possible time, with means which,
though considerable, were far from adequate, and in the face of
opposition by many holders of real estate, the most important
of whom were conservatively attached to the papal govern-
ment, and resisted change for no other reason. In what was
now done it is necessary to distinguish clearly between the work
undertaken and carried out by the municipality, under con-
siderable pressure of circumstances, and that which was done
in the way of private speculation. The first was on the whole
good, and has proved enduring; the second was in many cases
bad, and resulted in great loss. As soon as the opening of such
streets as the Via Nazionale and the Via Cavour, the widening
and straightening of the Via dell' Angelo Custode, now the Via
del Tritone Nuovo, and similar improvements, such as the con-
struction of new bridges over the Tiber, had demonstrated that
the value of property could be doubled and quadrupled in a
short time, and as soon as the increase of population had caused
a general rise in rents, owners of property awoke to the situation
of affairs, and became as anxious as they had at first been disin-
clined to improve their estates by wholesale building.
The most important and expensive work executed by the
government with the assistance of the municipality was the
construction of the embankments along the Tiber. Though
damaged by the great flood of December 1900, their truly Roman
solidity saved the city from the disastrous consequences of a
wide inundation. It is impossible not to admire them, and not
to feel respect for a people able to carry out such a plan in such
a manner and in so short a time, in the face of such great diffi-
culties. But so far as the life of the city was concerned, the
cutting of new streets and the widening of old ones produced
a more apparent immediate result. The opening of such a
thoroughfare as the Via Nazionale could not but prove to be of
the greatest value. It begins at the Piazza, delle Terme, in
which the principal railway station is situated, and connects
the upper part of the city by a broad straight road, and then,
by easy gradients, with the Forum of Trajan, the Piazza dei
Santi Apostoli and the Piazza di Venezia, whence, as the Corso
Vittorio Emanuele, it runs through the heart of the old city,
being designed to reach St Peter's by a new bridge of the same
name, near the bridge of S. Angelo. It is true that, in order to
accomplish this, the Villa Aldobrandini had to be partially de-
stroyed, but this is almost the only point which lovers of beauty
can regret, and in compensation it opened to full view the
famous palace of the Massimo family, the imposing church of
S. Andrea della Valle, and the noble pile of the Cancelleria, one
of the best pieces of architecture in Rome. Another great
artery is the Via Cavour, which was intended to connect the
railway station with the south-western part of Rome, descending
to the Forum, and thence turning northwards to reach the
Piazza di Venezia on the east side of the monument to Victor
Emanuel II. These are only examples of what was done, for it
would be impossible to give a just idea of the transformation of
the city. Rome is now divided clearly into two parts, the old
and the new, of which the old is incomparably the more artistic
and the more beautiful, as it will always remain the more inter-
esting. Among the works carried out by the government and
municipality the fine tunnel under the Quirinal Hill (completed
in 1902) deserves mention; it forms a connecting channel for
the traffic between the streets at the north end of the old city,
the Corso, Babuino, &c., and the upper part of Rome, including
the Via Nazionale and the Esquiline. Another difficult under-
taking, successfully completed in April 1908, was the construc-
tion of the enormous causeway and bridge which now unite the
Pincio with the Villa Borghese, or, as it is now called, the Villa
Umberto Primo, to the immense advantage of the public. In
the same year the building for the new law courts was finished;
it stands near S. Angelo, and presents, on the whole, an imposing
appearance, though overloaded with clumsy stone ornamentation.
It is unnecessary to mention a number of public buildings and
government offices which have little architectural merit, but we
cannot overlook such a magnificent group of buildings devoted
to scientific purposes as the Policlinico, on the Macas, which is
admittedly one of the finest hospitals in Europe, and the military
614
ROME
[THE MODERN CITY
hospital on the Coelian. The rebuilding of the Palazzo dei
Parlamento is only second to the enormous monument of Victor
Emanuel II. The majority of the buildings erected by individ-
uals and corporations since 1870 present no original or charac-
teristic features, and the best of them are copies or imitations
of well-known models. The Cassa del Risparmio, in the Corso,
reproduces a Florentine palace; the Palazzo Negroni, near the
Piazza Nicotia, is modelled on the Cancelleria and the Palazzo
Giraud; many of the large residences in the new quarters
beyond the Tiber are fairly good copies of palaces in the Floren-
tine style, though the magnificent carved stone of earlier
centuries is disadvantageous^ replaced by stucco, a material
tvhich lasts tolerably well in the mild climate of Rome. Opposite
the beautiful and severe Palazzo di Venezia, what might have
been a faultless reproduction of it is marred by tasteless orna-
ment. Finally, so far as the construction of new streets is con-
cerned, which lovers of the picturesque so greatly deplore, it
must be admitted that they have been rendered necessary by
the great increase of traffic and population, and it should be re-
membered that after the i6th century the wisest of the popes
did their best to open up the city by widening and straightening
the thoroughfares.
Municipal Administration. After the taking of Rome, those
persons who remained loyal to Pius IX. took no part whatever
in public affairs, and the municipal administration was entirely
in the hands of the monarchists. The expression " ne eletti
He" elettori," meaning that Catholics are to be neither voters
nor candidates, which came to be regarded as a sort of rule
of the party, was invented at that time by an epigrammatic
journalist, and it seems at first to have been applied also to
municipal matters, whereas it was later understood to refer
only to parliamentary elections. Leo XIII. encouraged the
formation of a Catholic party in the municipal administration,
and the municipal government drifted largely into the hands
of Catholics, though circumstances make it necessary that
the Syndic (Mayor) should always be a royalist. Between
1870 and the end of the century the socialist party had no
great influence in Rome, which can never be a city of manu-
facturing interests. For purposes of municipal government the
division of the city into districts has been modified, but the
old division into fourteen rioni is adhered to in principle, the
new quarters of Castro Pretorio and the Esquiline having been
included in the first Rione, which still bears the name of " Monti."
The municipality consists of a mayor and eighty communal
councillors, of whom a large proportion were for many years mem-
bers of the aristocracy. Later, however, the three democratic
parties, known as the monarchist, socialist and republican,
united to form a popular coalition, and succeeded in completely
excluding the conservative, aristocratic and Catholic elements.
Population. The population in 1870 was 226,022, as against
462,743 in 1901 (communal population). It therefore more
than doubled in thirty years. The increase, however, did not
take place at a regular rate, owing to the changes in the rates
of immigration and emigration. The largest increase was in
1870, reaching 22,186; the next most important in 1884, 1885,
1886, 1887, in which years it constantly remained near 20,000.
The least increase in later years was 4417 in 1891. The garrison
of Rome is about 10,000 men. Careful inquiry has placed it
beyond doubt that there are in Rome about the same number
of ecclesiastics of all orders, including about 1500 students in
the theological seminaries. The average birth-rate is lower
in Rome than in the majority of great cities. The number of
births increased after 1870 very nearly in proportion with the
increase of population.
Climate and Hygiene. The climate of Rome is mild and
sunny, but the variation in temperature between day and night
is very great. December and February appear to be the coldest
months, the thermometer then averaging 47 F. ; the greatest
heat, which averages 75, is felt in July and August. The sur-
rounding Campagna is still not all habitable during the summer,
though the dangerous malaria has been checked by the planting
of numerous eucalyptus trees. A remarkable instance of the
effect produced upon the marshy soil by these plantations
may be studied at the Trappist monastery of the Tre Fontane,
situated on the Via Ardeatina, about 4 m. from Rome. Whereas
in former times it was almost always fatal to spend the whole
summer there, the monks have so far dried the soil by means
of the eucalyptus that they reside hi the monastery throughout
the year. The municipality has everywhere made strenuous
efforts to reduce the mortality due to malaria; in 1890, 14%
of all the deaths in Rome and the Campagna were attributed
to this cause; in 1905 the proportion had dropped to 3%.
Very large sums have been expended in a scientific system of
drainage and sub-drainage on both sides of the Tiber, and the
use of wire gauze mosquito nets for the doors and windows
of the humblest habitations in the Campagna has contributed
much to the present satisfactory result. The hygienic con-
ditions of Rome itself have greatly improved, largely through
the ceaseless efforts of Commendatore Baccelli, a distinguished
man of science, who repeatedly held office in the Italian
Ministry. The publication of exceedingly accurate graphic
tables in February 1900 shows the following facts. Ninety per
1000 deaths occurred in 1871 from typhoid (the so-called " Roman
fever "), and the average has now fallen to a low constant.
Deaths from small-pox, formerly of alarming frequency, can
be said not to occur at all, and their numbers diminished
suddenly after the introduction of compulsory vaccination.
Charities and Education. A great number of small charitable
institutions for children and old people have been founded, which
are organized on the most modern principles, and in many of these
charitable persons of the upper classes give their individual assist-
ance to the poor. There are also private hospitals for diseases of the
eye, in which poor patients are lodged and treated without payment.
There are two hospitals entirely maintained by private resources,
where infants are treated whose mothers fear to send them to a
public hospital, or in cases refused by the latter as not being serious
enough for admission. Of course, the numbers of the poor greatly
increased with the growth of population, especially after the failure
of building speculations between 1888 and 1890, though great
efforts were made by the municipality to send all persons then
thrown out of employment back to their homes. One of the diffi-
culties under which Rome labours is that while it attracts the
population of the country, as other capitals do, it possesses no great
mechanical industries in which the newcomers can be employed.
Efforts to create small industries in the populous quarters of the
poor met with little success. Before 1870 a society was formed, which
has since greatly developed as an intelligent private enterprise, to
provide the poor with sanitary tenements; but its success is much
hampered by the absence of employment, which again is partly
due to the heavy taxation of small industries. A number of trade
schools are also maintained by private funds, such as the Instituto
degli Artigianelli, managed by the Fratelli della Dottrina Cristiana,
and the Ricoverp pei Fanciulli Abbandonati (home for friendless
children), which is under lay management and has flourishing work-
shops. The character of official charities has certainly improved in
principle, so far as their educational and moral scope are concerned ;
for whereas in former times the limited number of the poor made
individual and almost paternal relief possible, that form of charity
had a pauperizing influence. If anything, the present tendency is
to go too far in the opposite direction, and to require too many
formalities before any relief is granted ; and while the union of
the principal charities under a central management on advanced
theories improved the methods of administration, it destroyed
numerous small sources of immediate relief on which the poor had
i traditional right to count, and was in that way productive of
hardship. At the same time, however, mutual benefit societies
(societa di mutuo soccorso) have been organized in great numbers
by the different crafts and professions, and are chiefly distinguish-
able by the political parties to which they belong. It is character-
-.stic of the modern Roman people that the most widely different
:lements subsist without showing any signs of amalgamating, yet
without attacking each other. Some of these societies have an
exclusively clerical character, others are merely conservative, some
consist of monarchists, and some of avowed republicans.
Popular education is principally in the hands of the municipality,
jut besides the public schools there are numerous religious institu-
:ions attended by the children of the lower classes; they follow
the curriculum prescribed by the government, and are under the
constant supervision of municipal inspectors, both as regards their
teaching and their hygiene. The pope also expends large sums in
:he maintenance of the people's schools, managed entirely by lay-
Tien, and also under government inspection. For education of the
ligher grade, besides the regular lyceums and gymnasiums, there
are many private schools similarly designated from which pupils
can present themselves for the regular government examinations,
ANCIENT HISTORY]
ROME
615
the privilege of conferring certificates and degrees having been
allowed only to very few private institutions.
Society, After 1870 both the aristocracy and the middle classes
were divided into hostile factions, each of which maintained a press
of its own and rallied round representative individuals. So far as
the middle classes were concerned, the common interest of commercial
operations soon concentrated political differences. The aristocracy,
however, kept rigidly aloof from all speculations for a time, and
maintained its traditional attitude of contemptuous superiority,
to which the middle class answered with its profound hatred. This
state of things lasted about ten years, until the time of the great
building speculations, in which a number of noble families were
tempted, and in which they soon found themselves hopelessly
involved, and brought into close contact with the middle class.
The two classes thus became necessary to each other, and the result
was a notable and salutary diminution of prejudice, soon leading
to alliances by marriage, which would formerly have seemed im-
possible, but which the redistribution of wealth rendered mutually
advantageous. The appearance at social gatherings of an official
element, almost exclusively taken from the middle class, also
tended to reduce inequalities of caste. Yet it must be admitted
that the parties composing Roman society were drawn together
mechanically, rather than fused into anything really homogeneous. It
is worth mentioning that the Jewish element, which is very strong
in business, in journalism, and in the administrations, had made no
attempt to enter Roman society. Rome and Genoa are practically
the only Italian cities in which Israelites are rigidly excluded from
social intimacy, and are only met on official occasions. (M. CR.)
ANCIENT HISTORY
I. The Beginnings of Rome and the Monarchy.
Both the city and the state of Rome are represented in tradition
as having been gradually formed by the fusion of separate com-
munities. The original settlement of Romulus is said to have
been limited to the Palatine Mount. With this were united
before the end of his reign the Capitoline and the Quirinal;
Tullus Hostilius added the Caelian, Ancus Martius the Aventine;
and finally Servius Tullius included the Esquiline and Viminal,
and enclosed the whole seven hills with a stone wall. The
growth of the state closely followed that of the city. To the
original Romans on the Palatine were added successively the
Sabine followers of King Tatius, Albans transplanted by Tullus,
Latins by Ancus, and lastly the Etruscan comrades of Caeles
Vibenna. This tradition is supported by other and more
positive evidence. The race of the Luperci on February 15
was in fact a purification of the boundaries of the " ancient
Palatine town," 1 the " square Rome " of Ennius ; 2 and the
course taken is that described by Tacitus as the " pomoerium "
of the city founded by Romulus. 3 On the Esquiline, Varro
mentions an " ancient city " and an " earthen rampart," 4 and
the festival of the Septimontium is evidence of a union between
this settlement and that on the Palatine. 5 The fusion of these
" Mounts " with a settlement on the Quirinal " Hill " is also
attested by trustworthy evidence; 6 and in particular the line
taken by the procession of the Argei represents the enlarged
boundaries of these united communities. 7 Lastly, the Servian
agger still remains as a witness to the final enclosure of the
various settlements within a single ring-wall. The united com-
munity thus formed was largely of Latin descent. Indications
of this are not wanting even in the traditions themselves:
King Faunus, who rules the Aborigines on the Palatine, is Latin;
" Latini " is the name ascribed to the united Aborigines and
Trojans; the immediate progenitors of Rome are the Latin
Lavinium and the Latin Alba. Much evidence in the language,
the religion, the institutions and the civilization of early Rome
points to the same conclusion. The speech of the Romans is
from the first Latin, 8 though showing many traces of contact
1 Varro, L.L. vi. 34. 2 Fest. 258; Varro ap. Solinus i. 17.
3 Tac. Ann. xii. 24. For a full discussion of the exact limits of
the Palatine city see Smith, Diet. Geog., s.v. "Roma"; Jordan,
Topog. d. Stadt Rom, i. cap. 2; Gilbert, Topog. u. Gesch. d. Stadt
Rom, i. caps. 1,2; and " Topography " below.
4 L.L. v. 48; cf. ibid. 50.
* Festus 348; Jordan i. 199; Gilbert i. 161. The seven " monies "
are the Palatine with the Velia and Germalus, the Subura, and the
three points of the Esquiline (Fagutal, Oppius and Cispius).
* See Mommscn, R.G. (7th ed.), i. 51.
7 Varro, L.L. v. 45, vii. 44; Jordan ii. 237.
8 See LATIN LANGUAGE.
with the neighbouring dialects of the Sabines and Volscians and
also of Etruscans; the oldest gods of Rome Saturn, Jupiter,
Juno, Diana are all Latin; "rex," "praetor," "dictator,"
" curia," are Latin titles and institutions.' The primitive
settlements, with their earthen ramparts and wooden palisades
planted upon them out of reach both of human foes and of the
malaria of the swampy low grounds, are only typical of the
mode of settlement which the conditions of life dictated through-
out the Latian plain. 10 But tradition insists on the admixture
of at least two non-Latin elements, a Sabine and an Etruscan.
The question as regards the latter will be more fully discussed
hereafter; it is enough to say here that while the evidence of
nomenclature (Schulze, Geschichte der Lai. Eigennamen, Leipzig,
1904, p. 579, with the modifications suggested in the Classical
Review, December 1907) shows that many Etruscan gentes
were settled within the bounds of the early city, there is rto
satisfactory evidence that there was any large Etruscan strain
in the Roman blood." With the Sabines it is otherwise. The
That union of the Palatine and Quirinal settlements Sabiae*
which constituted so decisive a stage in the growth '" Rome -
of Rome is represented as having been in reality a union
of the original Latins with a band of Sabine invaders who had
seized" and held not only the Quirinal Hill, but the northern
and nearest peak of the Capitoline Mount. The tradition was
evidently deeply rooted. The name of the god Quirinus, from
which that of the Quirinal Hill itself presumably sprang, was
popularly connected with the Sabine town of Cures. 11 The
ancient worships connected with it were said to be Sabine. 1 *
One of the three old tribes, the Tities, was believed to represent
the Sabine element; 14 the second and the fourth kings are both
of Sabine descent. By the great majority of modern writers
the substance of the tradition, the fusion of a body of Sabine
invaders with the original Latins, is accepted as historical; and
even Mommsen allowed its possibility, though he threw back
the time of its occurrence to an earlier period than that of the
union of the two settlements. 16 We cannot here enter into the
question at length, but some fairly certain points may be
mentioned. The probability of Sabine raids and a Sabine
settlement, possibly on the Quirinal Hill, in very early times
may be admitted. The incursions of the highland Apennine
tribes into the lowlands fill a large place in early Italian history.
The Latins were said to have originally descended from the
mountain glens near Reate. 18 . The invasions of Campania and
of Magna Graecia by Sabine (more correctly Safine) tribes are
matter of history (see SAMNITES), and the Sabines themselves
are represented as a restless highland people, ever seeking new
homes in richer lands. 17 In very early days they appear on the
borders of Latium, in close proximity to Rome, and Sabine
forays are familiar and frequent occurrences in the old legends.
But beyond these general considerations recent inquiry enables
us to advance to some few definite conclusions, (i) It may now
be regarded as established beyond question that the patrician
class at Rome sprang from a race other than that of the plebeians.
9 The title " rex " occurs on inscriptions at Lanuvium, Tusculum,
Bovillae; Henzen, Bullettino dell'Inst. (1868), p. 159; Orelli, 2279;
Corp. I. Lat. vi. 2125. For " dictator " and praetor," see Livy
i. 23, viii. 3; cf. Marquardt, Rom. Staatsverwaltung, i. 475: for
" curia," Serv. on Aen. i. 17; Marquardt i. 467.
10 B. Modestov, Introduction d. I'histoire romaine (translated from
the Russian by M. Delines), Paris, 1907, supersedes other authorities
such as Helbig, Die Italiker in d. Poebene; Pohlmann, Anfdnge
Roms, 40; Abeken, Miltel-Italien, 61 seq.
11 The existence of a Tuscan quarter (Tuscus yicus) in early Rome
may point to nothing more than the presence in Rome of Etruscan
artisans and craftsmen. But see ETRURIA, Language.
12 Varro, L.L. v. 51.
13 Ibid. v. 74; Schwegler i. 248 seq. 14 Ibid. v. 55; Livy i. 13.
15 Mommsen, R.G. i. 43. Schwegler (R.G. i. 478) accepted the
tradition of a Sabine settlement on the Quirinal, and considered that
in the united state the Sabine element predominated. _ Volquardsen
(Rhein. Mus. xxxiii. 559) believed in a complete Sabine conquest;
and so did Zoller (Latium u. Rom, Leipzig, 1878), who, however,
placed it after the expulsion of the Tarquins.
16 Cato ap. Dionys. ii. 48, 49.
17 Ibid. ii. 48, 49. For the institution of the " ver sacrum " see
Schwegler, Rom. Gesch. i. 240; Nissen, Templum iv.
6i6
ROME
[REGAL PERIOD
This was long ago recognized by Schwegler (see his Romische
Geschichte, passim) on the sufficient ground of the great religious
cleavage between the two orders. Such jealousy of mutual
contact in religious matters as is apparent all through the
history of the city very rarely, if ever, springs from any other
source than a real difference of race. This point was developed
by Professor W. Ridgeway in his Who were the Romans? (London,
1908), where he points out (a) that the deities tended by the
three greater or patrician flamens, namely, Dialis, Martialis,
Quirinalis, were all closely connected with the Sabines; (b)
further, that the patrician form of marriage, the highly religious
ceremony called Confarreatio, differed entirely from the other
forms, Usus and Coemptio, which there is reason to attribute to
a plebeian origin; (c) that the arms, especially the round
shfeld, carried by the first class in the originally military con-
stitution of Servius Tullius (see below), are characteristic of the
warriors of Central Europe in the Early Iron and Bronze Age,
whereas those of the remaining classes can be shown to have
been in general use during the immediately preceding period in
the Mediterranean lands.
For other archaeological evidence separating the patricians
from the plebeians, and connecting the patricians closely with
the Sabines the reader must be referred to Ridgeway's essay.
It is, however, well to make special mention here of the tradition,
which is given by Livy (ii. 16. 4), and is undated but not the less
probable for being a non-annalistic tradition, preserved in the
gens itself, of the prompt welcome given to the Sabine Appius
Claudius, the founder of the haughtiest of all the Roman noble
families, by the patricians of Rome and his immediate admission
to all their political privileges. Ridgeway points out that this
implies, at that early time, a substantial identity of race.
On the linguistic side of the question it is well to mention
for clearness" sake that this Safine or patrician class marked its
ascendancy all over Central and Southern Italy, from the
6th century B.C. onwards, by its preference for forming ethnic
names with the suffix -no- which it frequently imposed also
upon the communities whom it brought under its influence.
Sabini (earlier Safini), Romani, Latini, Sidicini, Aricini,
Marrucini, and the like are all names formed in this way (see
further SABINI).
2. It may also now be regarded as certain that what we may
call the Lower or Earlier Stratum (or Strata) of population in
Rome, themselves spoke a language which was as truly Indo-
European as the language of their Safine conquerors. In the
article VOLSCI will be found evidence for the conclusion that
the language of what has been there entitled the Co-Folk was
not less certainly Indo-European, and in some respects probably
a less modified form of Indo-European, than that of the Safines.
A number of the names formed with the -co- suffix and with
the -ati- suffix (which is frequent in the same districts) contain
unmistakably Indo-European words such as Graviscae, Marlca,
dea Marica, Volsci, Casinates, Soracte, Interamnites, Auxumates.
The fusion of this earlier population with the patricians is far
easier to imagine when it is recognized that the two parties
spoke kindred though by no means identical languages. It is
the essentially Indo-European character of the early inhabitants
of the Latin plain which has led many scholars to doubt that
there was any racial distinction at all between patricians and
plebeians, but the increase of knowledge of the dialects spoken
in the different regions of Italy has now enabled us to judge
this question with very much fuller evidence.
3. There arises, however, the important question or questions
as to the origin, or at least the ethnic connexions of this earlier
stratum. The task of the historic inquirer will not be completely
performed until at least some further progress has been made
in connecting this earlier population of the western coast of
Italy, on the one hand, with one or more of the early races
(see SICULI, VENETI, LIGURIA, PELASGIANS) whom tradition
declares to have once inhabited the soil of Latium; and on
the other, with the people or peoples whom archaeological
research reveals to us as having left behind them different strata
of remains, all earlier than the Iron or Roman Age, both in
Latium and in other parts of Italy. Professor Ridgeway has
taken a short way with these problems which may prove to be
the true one; he classes together as Ligurian all pre-Safine
inhabitants of Italy save such elements as, like the Etruscans,
can be shown to have invaded it over sea (see ETRURIA,
Language). This is one of the most promising fields of investi-
gation now open to scholars, but in view of the confused and
mutilated shape in which the traditions current in ancient
times have come down to us, it demands an exceedingly careful
scrutiny of the archaeological and the linguistic evidence, and
exceedingly cautious judgment in combining them. The point
of outstanding importance is to determine whether the earlier
Indo-European population is to be regarded as having been
in Italy from the beginning of human habitation. Archae-
ologists generally like W. Helbig (Die Italiker der Poebene) and
more recently B. Modestov (Introduction d I'histoire romaine,
Paris, 1907) have been inclined to regard the Ligurians as the
most primitive population of Italy, but to distinguish them
sharply from the people who built the Lake Settlement and
Pile Dwellings, which appear (with important variations of
type): (i) in the western half of the valley of the Po; (2) in
the eastern half of the same; (3) in Picenum; (4) in Latium;
and (5) as far south as Tarentum. One of the most important
points in the identification is the question of the method
of burial employed at different epochs by the different
communities. (See the works already cited, with that of
O. Montelius, La Civilisation primitive en Italie.)
The populus Romanus was, we are told, divided into
three tribes, Ramnes, Titles and Luceres, 1 and into thirty
curiae. The three names, as Schulze has shown
(Lot. Eigennamen, p. 580), are neither more nor less people.
than the names of three Etruscan gentes (whether
or not derived from Safine or Latin originals), and the tradition
is a striking result of the Etruscan domination in the 6th century
B.C., 2 which we shall shortly consider.
Of far greater importance is the division into curiae. In
Cicero's time there were still curies, curial festivals and curiate
assemblies, and modern authors are unquestionably right in
regarding the curia as the keystone of the primitive political
system. It was a primitive association held together by par-
ticipation in common sacra, and possessing common festivals,
common priests and a common chapel, hall and hearth. As
separate associations the curiae were probably older than the
Roman state, but, 3 however this may be, it is certain that of
this state when formed they constituted the only effective
political subdivisions. The members of the thirty curiae form
the populus Romanus, and the earliest known condition of
Roman citizenship is the communio sacrorum, partnership
in the curial sacra. Below the curia there was no further
political division, for there is no reason to believe that the curia
was ever formally subdivided into a fixed number of gentes
and families. 4
At their head was the rex, the ruler of the united people.
The Roman " king " is not simply either the hereditary and
patriarchal chief of a clan, the priestly head of a The
community bound together by common sacra, but the Uag.
elected magistrate of a state, but a mixture of all three. 5 In
'The tradition connecting the Ramnes with Romulus and the
Titles with Tatius is as old as Ennius (Varro, L.L. v. 55). The best
authorities on the question, earlier than Schulze's epoch-making
treatise, are Schwegler i. 505, and Volquardsen, Rhein. Mus.
xxxiii. 538.
2 They are traditionally connected only with the senate of 300
patres, with the primitive legion of 3000, with the vestal virgins, and
with the augurs (Varro, L.L. v. 81, 89, 91; Livy x. 6; Festus
344; Mommsen i. 41, 74, 75; Genz, Patncisch. Rom, 90).
3 It is possible that, the curiae were originally connected with
separate localities; cf. such names as Foriensis, Veliensis (Fest.
174; Gilbert i. 213).
4 Niebuhr's supposition of ten gentes in each curia has nothing in.
its favour but the confused statement of Dionysius as to the purely
military 5exa5 (Dionys. ii. 7; cf. Muller, Philologus, xxxiv. 96).
6 Rubino, Genz and Lange insisted on the hereditary patriarchal
character of the kingship, Ihne on its priestly side, Schwegler on its
elective. Mommsen came nearest to the view taken in the text, but
REGAL PERIOD]
ROME
617
later times, when no " patrician magistrates " were forthcoming
to hold the elections for their successors, a procedure was
adopted which was believed to represent the manner in which
the early kings had been appointed. 1 In this procedure the
ancient privileges of the old gentes and their elders, the
importance of maintaining unbroken the continuity of the
sacra, on the transmission and observance of which the wel-
fare of the community depended, and thirdly the rights of
the freemen, are all recognized. On the death of a king, the
auspicia, and with them the supreme authority, revert to the
council of elders, the patres, as representing the gentes.
By the patres an interrex is appointed, who in turn
nominates a second; by him, or even by a third or fourth
interrex, a new king is selected in consultation with the patres.
The king-designate is then proposed to the freemen assembled
by their curiae for their acceptance, and finally their formal
acceptance is ratified by the patres, as a security that the
sacra of which they are the guardians have been respected. 2
Thus the king is in the first instance selected by the representa-
tives of the old gentes, and they ratify his appointment. In
form he is nominated directly by a predecessor from whose
hands he receives the auspicia. But it is necessary also that
the choice of the patres and the nomination of the interrex
should be confirmed by a solemn vote of the community.
It is useless to attempt a precise definition of the prerogatives
of the king when once installed in office. Tradition ascribes
to him a position and powers closely resembling those of the
heroic kings of Greece. He rules for life, and he is the sole
ruler, unfettered by written statutes. He is the supreme judge,
settling all disputes and punishing wrongdoers even with death.
All other officials are appointed by him. He imposes taxes,
distributes lands and erects buildings. Senate and assembly
meet only when he convenes them, and meet for little else
than to receive communications from him. In war he is
absolute leader, 3 and finally he is also the religious head of the
community. It is his business to consult the gods on its behalf,
to offer the solemn sacrifices and to announce the days of the
public festivals. Hard by his house was the common hearth
of the state, where the vestal virgins cherished the sacred fire.
By the side of the king stood the senate, or council of elders.
In the descriptions left us of the primitive senate, as in those
of the rex, we can discover traces of a transition from
senate an ear ^ er state of things when Rome was only an as-
semblage of clans or village communities, allied indeed,
but each still ruled by its own chiefs and headmen, to one in
which these groups have been fused into a single state under
a common ruler. On the one hand the senate appears as a
representative council of chiefs, with inalienable prerogatives
of its own, and claiming to be the ultimate depositary of
the supreme authority and of the sacra connected with it.
The senators are the patres; they are taken from the leading
gentes; they hold their seats for life; to them the auspicia
revert on the death of a king; they appoint the interrex from
their own body, are consulted in the choice of the new king, 4
and their sanction is necessary to ratify the vote of the assembled
freemen. On the other hand, they are no longer supreme.
failed to bring out the nature of the compromise on which the
kingship rests.
1 Cic. De Legg. iii. 3 ; Livy iv. 7.
2 " Patres auctores facti," Livy i. 22; "patres fuere auctores,"
ibid. i. 32. In 336 B.C. (Livy viii. 12) the Publilian law directed that
this sanction should be given beforehand, " ante initum suffragium,"
and thus reduced it to a meaningless form (Livy i. n). It is
wrongly identified by Schwegler with the " lex curiata de imperio,"
which in Cicero's day followed and did not precede election. Accord-
ing to Cicero (De Rep. ii. 13, 21), the proceedings included, in addition
to the " creation " by the comitia curiata and the sanction of the
patres, the introduction by the king himself of a lex curiata confer-
ring the imperium and auspicia; but this theory, though generally
accepted, is probably an inference from the practice of a later time,
when the creatio had been transferred to the comitia centuriata.
3 For the references, see Schwegler i. 646 seq.
4 If the analogy of the rex sacrorum is to be trusted, the
" king " could only be chosen from the ranks of the patricii.
Cic. Pro Domo, 14; Gaius i. 122.
They cannot appoint a king but with the consent of the com-
munity, and their relation to the king when appointed is one
of subordination. Vacancies in their ranks are filled up by
him, and they can but give him advice and counsel when he
chooses to consult them.
The popular assembly of united Rome in its earliest days
was that in which the freemen met and voted by their curiae
(comitia curiata 6 ). The place of assembly was in
the Comitium at the north-east end of the Forum, 6
at the summons and under the presidency of the king
or, failing him, of the interrex. By the rex or the interrex
the question was put, and the voting took place curiatim, the
curiae being called up in turn. The vote of each curia was
decided by the majority of individual votes, and a majority of
the votes of the curiae determined the final result. But the
occasions on which the assembly could exercise its power must
have been few. Their right to elect magistrates was apparently
limited to the acceptance or rejection of the king proposed by
the interrex. Of the passing of laws, in the later sense of the
term, there is no trace in the kingly period. Dionysius's state-
ment 7 that they voted on questions of war and peace is im-
probable in itself and unsupported by tradition. They are
indeed represented, in one instance, as deciding a capital case,
but it is by the express permission of the king and not of right. 8
Assemblies of the people were also, and probably more frequently,
convened for other purposes. Not only did they meet to hear
from the king the announcement of the high days and holidays
for each month, and to witness such solemn .religious rites as the
inauguration of a priest, but their presence (and sometimes
their vote) was further required to authorize and attest certain
acts, which in a later age assumed a more private character.
The disposal of property by will 9 and the solemn renunciation
of family or gentile sacra 10 could only take place in the presence
of the assembled freemen, while for adoption" (adrogatio) not
only their presence but their formal consent was necessary.
A history of this early Roman state is out of the question.
The names, dates and achievements of the first four kings are
all too unsubstantial to form the basis of a sober Rome
narrative; 12 a few points only can be considered as under the
fairly well established. If we except the long event- ******
less reign ascribed to King Numa, tradition represents the first
kings as incessantly at war with their immediate neighbours.
The details of these wars are no doubt mythical; but the
implied condition of continual struggle, and The narrow range
within which the struggle is confined, may be accepted as true.
The picture drawn is that of a small community, with a few
square miles of territory, at deadly feud with its nearest neigh-
bours, within a radius of some 12 m. round Rome. Nor, in
spite of the repeated victories with which tradition credits
Romulus, Ancus and Tullus, does there seem to have been
any real extension of Roman territory except towards the sea.
Fidenae remains Etruscan; the Sabines continue masters up to
the Anio; Praeneste, Gabii and Tusculum are still untouched;
and on this side it is doubtful if Roman territory, in spite of the
possible destruction of Alba, extended to a greater distance
than the sixth milestone from Rome. 13 But along the course
6 Cic. De Rep. ii. 13; Dionys. ii. 14, &c.
Varro, L.L. v. 155. For the position of the Comitium, see
Smith, Diet. Geog., s.v. " Roma," and Jordan, Topog. d.Stadt Rom.
(Petersen).
7 Dionys. l.c. ' Livy i. 26; Dionys. iii. 22.
9 Gaius ii. 101. 10 Gell. xv. 27.
11 Gell. v. 19, " Comitia praebentur, quae curiata appellantur."
Cf. Cic. Pro Domo, 13, 14; and see ROMAN LAW.
n By far the most complete criticism of the traditional accounts
of the first four kings will be found in Schwegler's Rom. Geschichte,
vol. i.; compare also Ihne's Early Rome and Sir G. C. Lewis's
Credibility of Early Roman History. More recently, E. Pais (Storia
d" Italia) has subjected the early legends to learned and often sug-
gestive criticism, but without attaining very solid results.
13 The fossa Cluilia, 5 m. from Rome (Livy ii. 39), is regarded
by Schwegler (i. 585) and by Mommsen (i. 45) as marking the
Roman frontier towards Latium. Cf. Ovid. Fast. ii. 681 ; Strabo
230, " lura^it yovv TOV irf/iirrou <coi rov IKTOV \t8ov . . . riiros 4>ijoTOt . . .
opioc TTJS rbrt 'Puitalwv 7tjs."
6i8
ROME
[REGAL PERIOD
of the Tiber below the city there was a decided advance. The
fortification of the Janiculum, the building of the pans sub-
licius, the foundation of Ostia and the acquisition of the salt-
works near the sea may all be safely ascribed to this early period.
Closely connected, too, with the control of the Tiber from
Rome to the sea was the subjugation of the petty Latin com-
munities lying south of the river; and the tradition of the
conquest and destruction of Politorium, Tellenae and Ficana
is confirmed by the absence in historical times of any Latin
communities in this district.
With the reign of the fifth king Tarquinius Priscus a marked
change takes place. The traditional accounts of the last three
kings not only wear a more historical air than those of
^e first four, but they describe something like a trans-
formation of the Roman city and state. Under the rule
of these latter kings the separate settlements are for the first time
enclosed with a rampart of colossal size and extent. 1 The low
grounds are drained, and a forum and circus elaborately laid
out; on the Capitoline Mount a temple is erected, the massive
foundations of which were an object of wonder even to Pliny. 2
To the same period are assigned the redi vision of the city area into
four new districts and the introduction of a new military system.
The kings increase in power and surround themselves with new
splendour. Abroad, too, Rome suddenly appears as a powerful
state ruling far and wide over southern Etruria and Latium.
These startling changes are, moreover, ascribed to kings of
alien descent, who one and all ascend the throne in the teeth
of established constitutional forms. Finally, with the expulsion
of the last of them the younger Tarquin comes a sudden
shrinkage of power. At the commencement of the Republic
Rome is rnce more a comparatively small state, with hostile
and independent neighbours at her very doors. It is impossible
to. doubt the conviction that the true explanation of this pheno-
menon is to be found in the supposition that Rome during this
period passed under the rule of powerful Etruscan lords. 3 In
the 7th and 6th centuries B.C., and probably earlier still, the
Etruscans appear as ruling widely outside the limits of Etruria
proper. They were supreme in the valley of the Po until their
power there was broken by the irruption of Celtic tribes from
beyond the Alps, and while still masters of the plains of Lombardy
they established themselves in the rich lowlands of Campania,
where they held their ground until the capture of Capua by
the Samnite highlanders in 423 B.C. It is on the face of it
improbable that* a power which had extended its sway from
the Alps to the Tiber, and from the Liris to Surrentum, should
have left untouched the intervening stretch of country between
the Tiber and the Liris. And there is abundant evidence of
Etruscan rule in Latium. 4 According to Dionysius there was
a time when the Latins were known to the Greeks as Tyrrhen-
ians, and Rome as a Tyrrhenian city. 6 When Aeneas landed
in Italy the Latins were at feud with Turnus (Turrhenos?
Dionys. {.64) of Ardea.whoseclose ally was the rutnlessMezentius,
prince of Caere, to whom the Latins had been forced to pay a
tribute of wine. 6 Cato declared the Volsci to have been once
subject to Etruscan rule, 7 and Etruscan remains found at
Velitrae, 8 as well as the second name of the Volscian Anxur,
Tarracina (the city of Tarchon) , confirm his statement. Nearer
still to Rome is Tusculum, with its significant name, at Praeneste
we have a great number of Etruscan inscriptions and bronzes,
and at Alba we hear of a prince Tapxenos,' lawless and cruel like
Mezentius, who consults the " oracle of Tethys in Tyrrhenia."
Thus we find the Etruscan power encircling Rome on all sides,
and in Rome itself a tradition of the rule of princes of Etruscan
1 Livy i. 36. * Ibid. i. 38, 55 ; Plin. N.H. xxxvi. 15.
1 This was the view of O. Mtiller, and more recently of Deecke,
Gardthausen and Zoller.
4 W. Schulze, Gesch. d. Lai. Eigennamen, passim (esp. pp. 579 ff.) ;
Zoller, Latium u. Rom, 166, 189; Gardthausen, Ma.sta.rna (Leipzig,
1882).
f Dionys. i. 29. Livy i. 2; Dionys. i. 64, 65; Plut. Q.R. 18.
7 Cato ap. Serv. Aen. xi. 567. 8 Helbig, Ann. d. Inst. (1865).
* Plut. Rom. 2. vapavoti&TaTof KO.I fci/ujroToj \ cf. RutuHan
Tarquitius, Virg. Aen. x. 550.
origin. The Tarquinii come from south Etruria; their name
can hardly be anything else than the Latin equivalent of the
Etruscan Tarchon, and is therefore possibly a title ( = " lord "
or " prince ") rather than a proper name. 10 Even Servius Tullius
was identified by Tuscan chroniclers with an Etruscan " Mast-
arna." 11 Again, what we are told of Etruscan conquests does
not represent them as moving, like the Sabellian tribes, in large
bodies and settling down en masse in the conquered districts.
We hear rather of military raids led by ambitious chiefs who
carve out principalities for themselves with their own good
swords, and with their followers rule oppressively over alien
and subject peoples. 12 And so at Rome the story of the Tarquins
implies not a wave of Etruscan immigration so much as a rule
of Etruscan princes over conquered Latins.
The achievements ascribed to the Tarquins are not less char-
acteristic. Their despotic rule and splendour contrast with
the primitive simplicity of the native kings. Only Etruscan
builders, under the direction of wealthy and powerful Etruscan
lords, could have built the great cloaca, the Servian wall, or the
Capitoline temple, monuments which challenged comparison
with those of the emperors themselves. Nor do the traces of
Greek influence upon Rome during this period u conflict with the
theory of an Etruscan supremacy; on the contrary, it is at
least possible that it was thanks to the extended rule and wide
connexions of her Etruscan rulers that Rome was first brought
into direct contact with the Greeks, who had long traded with
the Etruscan ports and influenced Etruscan culture. 14
The Etruscan princes are represented, not only as having raised
Rome for the time to acommandingpositioninLatium and lavished
upon the city itself the resources of Etruscan civilization, The
but also as the authors of important internal changes. Servian
Theyarerepresentedasfavouringnewmenattheexpense relorms -
of the old patrician families, and as reorganizing the Roman army
on a new footing, a policy natural enough in military princes
of alien birth, and rendered possible by the additions which
conquest had made to the original community. From among
the leading families of the conquered Latin states a hundred
new members were admitted to the senate, and these gentes
thenceforth ranked as patrician, and became known as gentes
minores. The changes in the army begun, it is said, by the
elder Tarquin and completed by Servius Tullius were more
important. The basis of the primitive military system had
been three tribes, each of which furnished 1000 men to the legion
and 100 to the cavalry. 16 Tarquinius Priscus, we are told,
contemplated the creation of three fresh tribes and three addi-
tional centuries of horsemen with new names, 17 though in face of
the opposition offered by the old families he contented himself
with simply doubling the strength without altering the names
of the old divisions. 18 But the change attributed to Servius
Tullius went far beyond this. His famous distribution of all
freeholders (assidui) into tribes, classes and centuries, 19 though
subsequently adopted with modifications as the basis of the
10 Miiller- Deecke, i. 69, 70; Zoller, Latium u. Rom, 168; cf.
Strabo, p. 219; Serv. on Aen. x. 179, 198. The existence of an
independent " gens Tarquinia " of Roman extraction (Schwegkr,
i. 678) is unproven and unlikely. See now Schulze, Lai. Eigennamen,
pp. 95 and 402 n. 6.
11 See speech of Claudius, Tab. Lugd. App. to Nipperdey's edit ion
of the Annals of Tacitus, " Tusce Mastarna ei nomen erat." For
the painting in the Frangois tomb at Vulci, see Gardthausen,
Mastarna, 29 seg.; Annali dell. Instil. (Rome, 1859).
12 Cf. the traditions of Mezentius, of Caeles Vibenna, Porsena, &c.
13 Schwegler, R.G. i. 679 seq.
14 Ibid. i. 791, 792. He accepts as genuine, and as represent-
ing the extent of Roman rule and connexions under the Tarquins,
the first treaty between Rome and Carthage mentioned by Polybius
(iii. 22); see, for a discussion of the question, Vollmer, Rhein. Mus.
xxxii. 614 seq.; Mommsen, Rom. Chronologic, 20; Dyer, Journ. of
Philol. ix. 238.
16 Livy i. 35 ; Dionys. iii. 67 ; Cic. De Rep. ii. 20.
16 Varro, L.L. v. 89. Livy i. 36 ; Dionys. iii. 71 .
18 The six centuries of horsemen were thenceforward known as
" primi secundique Ramnes " (Fest. 344; cf. Schwegler, 1.685 seq.).
It is possible that the reforms of Tarquinius Priscus were limited
to the cavalry.
u Cic. De Rep. ii. 22 ; Livy i. 42 ; Dionys. iv. 16.
REPUBLIC]
ROME
619
political system, was at first exclusively military in its nature
and objects. 1 It amounted, in fact, to the formation of a new
and enlarged army on a new footing. In this force, excepting
in the case of the centuries of the horsemen, no regard was paid
either to the old clan divisions or to the semi-religious, semi-
political curiae. In its ranks were included all freeholders
within the Roman territory, whether members or not of any
of the old divisions, and the organization of this new army of
assidui was not less independent of the old system with its clannish
and religious traditions and forms. The unit was the centuria
or company of 100 men; the centuriae were grouped in " classes "
and drawn up in the order of the phalanx. 2 The centuries
in front were composed of the wealthier citizens, whose means
enabled them to bear the cost of the complete equipments
necessary for those who were to bear the brunt of the onset.
These centuries formed the first class. Behind them stood the
centuries of the second and third classes, less completely armed,
but making up together with those of the first class the heavy-
armed infantry. 3 In the rear were the centuries of the fourth
and fifth classes, recruited from the poorer freeholders, and
serving only as light-armed troops. The entire available body
of freeholders was divided into two equal portions, a reserve
corps of seniores and a corps of juniores for active ser-
vice. Each of these corps consisted of 85 centuries or 8500
men, i.e. of two legions of about 4200 men each, the normal
strength of a consular legion under the early Republic. 4 It
is noticeable also that the heavy-armed centuries of the
three first classes in each of these legions represented a total
of 3000 men, a number which agrees exactly with the number of
heavy-armed troops in the legion as described by Polybius.
Attached to the legions, but not included in them, were the
companies of sappers and trumpeters. Lastly, to the six
centuries of horsemen, which still retained the old tribal names,
twelve more were added as a distinct body, and recruited from
the wealthiest class of citizens. 5 The four " tribes " also
instituted by Servius were probably intended to serve as the
bases for the levy of freeholders for the new army. 6 As their
names show, they corresponded with the natural local divisions
of the city territory. 7
The last of these Etruscan lords to rule in Rome was Tarquin
the Proud. He is described as a splendid and despotic monarch.
Fall of His sway extended over Latium as far south as Circeii.
themon- Aristodemus, tyrant of Cumae, was his ally, and
archy. kinsmen of his own were princes at Collatia, at Gabii,
and at Tusculum. The Volscian highlanders were chastised, and
Signia with its massive walls was built to hold them in check.
In Rome itself the Capitoline temple and the great cloaca
bore witness to his power. But his rule pressed heavily
upon the Romans, and at the last, on the news of the foul
wrong done by his son Sextus to a noble Roman matron,
Lucretia, the indignant people rose in revolt. Tarquin,
who was away besieging Ardea, was deposed; sentence of
exile was passed upon him and upon all his race; and the
'This is recognized by Mommsen, Gen/, and Soltau, as against
Niebuhr, Schwegler and Ihne. Even in the later comitia centuriata
the traces of the originally military character of the organization
are unmistakable.
1 The century ceased to represent companies of one hundred
when the whole organization ceased to be military and became
exclusively political.
1 The property qualification for service in the first class is given
at 100,000 asses (Livy), for the second at 70,000, third 50,000,
fourth 25,000, fifth 11,000. It was probably originally a certain
number of cows, afterwards translated into terms of money; cf. W.
Ridgeway, The Origin of Coinage and Metallic Currency (Cambridge,
1892), p. 391. The same scholar, in his Who were the Romans? p. 17,
has pointed out the ethnical meaning of the varieties of armature
in the early army.
4 Pplyb. vi. 20; Mommsen, Rom. Trib. 132 seq.
6 Livy i. 43. Dionys. (iv. 18) and Cic. (De Rep. ii. 22) ascribe
the whole eighteen to Servius. But the six older centuries remained
distinct, as the "sex suffragia " of the comitia centuriata; Cic.
De Rep. ii. 22.
6 Dionys. iv. 14, ts ris (cara-ypa<<ls TUV arpaTiuTuv.
7 Livy i. 43. The four were Palatina, Suburana, Exquilina,
Collina.
people swore that" never again should a king rule in Rome.
Freed from the tyrant, they chose for themselves two yearly
magistrates who should exercise the supreme authority, and
thus the Republic of Rome was founded. Three times the
banished Tarquin strove desperately to recover the throne
he had lost. First of all the men of Veil and Tarquinii marched
to his aid, but were defeated in a pitched battle on the Roman
frontier. A year later Lars Porsena, prince of Clusium, at the
head of all the powers of Etruria, appeared before the gates of
Rome, and closely besieged the city, until, moved by the valour
of his foe, he granted honourable terms of peace and withdrew.*
Once again, by Lake Regillus, the Romans fought victoriously
for their liberty against Tarquin's son-in-law Mamilius, prince
of Tusculum, and chief of the Latin name. Mamilius was slain;
Tarquin in despair found a refuge at Cumae, and there soon
afterwards died.
So, in brief, ran the story of the flight of the kings, as it was
told by the chroniclers whose story Livy reports, though with
explicit and repeated notes of reserve. Its details are most
of them fabulous; it is crowded with inconsistencies and
improbabilities; there are no trustworthy dates; the names
even of the chief actors are probably fictitious, and the hand
of the improver, Greek or Roman, is traceable throughout. 9
But there is no room for doubting the main facts of the emancipa-
tion of Rome from the rule of alien princes and the final abolition
of the kingly office. (H. F. P. ; R. S. C.)
II. The Republic.
PERIOD A: 500-265 B.C. 10 (a) The Struggle between the Orders.
It is characteristic of Rome that the change from monarchy to
republic 11 should have been made with the least pos-
sible disturbance of existing forms. The title of king
was retained, though only as that of a priestly officer
(rex sacrorum) to whom some of the religious functions of the
former kings were transferred. The two annually elected consuls, or
praetores, were regarded as joint heirs of the full kingly authority,
and as holding the imperium, and the correlative right of taking
the auspices, by direct transmission from the founder of the city.
They were, it is true, elected or designated by a new assembly,
by the army of landholders voting by their classes and centuries
(comitia centuriata) , and to this body was given also the right
of passing laws; nevertheless it was still by a vote of the thirty
curiae (lex curiata) that the supreme authority was formally
conferred on the magistrates chosen by the centuries of land-
holders, and both the choice of magistrates and the passing of
laws still required the sanction of the patrician senators (patrum
auctoritas) . u Nor, lastly, were the legal prerogatives of the
senate altered, although it is probable that before long plebeians
were admitted to seats, if not to votes, and though its importance
was gradually increased by the substitution of an annual
magistracy for the lifelong rule of a single king. But the
8 Livy ii. 9-14. Pliny (N-H. 34, 14) and Tacitus (Ann. iii. 72)
imply the existence of a tradition, possibly that of " Tuscan annalists,"
according to which Porsena actually made himself master of Rome.
The whole story is fully criticized by Schwegler (ii. 181 seq.) and
Zoller (Latium u. Rom, p. 180).
9 See the exhaustive criticism in Schwegler (ii. pp. 66-203).
10 The traditional account of early republican history, given in
annalistic form by Livy, has been subjected to severe criticism in
recent times, notably by Pais in his Storia di Roma, vols. i. and ii.
It is true that the dearth of contemporary docu ments, especially for the
period before the sack of Rome by the Gauls (390 B.C.), must have
led to the filling of gaps by episodes drawn mainly from popular
traditions, and it is therefore impossible to guarantee the accuracy
of the narrative in details. Nevertheless, the general truth of the
story of Rome's early wars and constitutional growth cannot be
seriously impugned.
11 Schwegler (ii. 92) suggests that the dictatorship formed an
intermediate step between the monarchy and the consulate; cf.
Ihne, Rom. Forsch. 42.
a That the consuls were originally styled praetores is stated by
Varro, ap. Non. p. 23, and Liv. iii. 55; cf. Cic. Legg. viii. _3, 8.
When additional praetors were created, the two originally appointed
were called j>raetores maximi and hence aipantyol DTOTOI or
simply Birarot in Greek.
13 The view of the patrum auctoritas here adopted is that taken by
T. Mommsen (Forsch. i.).
620
ROME
[REPUBLIC
abolition of the monarchy brought with It a change of the
utmost importance in the actual working of the constitution.
Though the distinction between patricians and plebeians was
at least as old as the state itself, it is not until the establish-
ment of the Republic that it plays any part in the history of
Rome. No sooner, however, was the overshadowing authority
of the king removed than a struggle commenced between
the two orders which lasted for more than two centuries.
It was in no sense a struggle between a conquering and a
conquered class, or between an exclusive citizen body and an
unenfranchised mass outside its pale. Patricians and plebeians
were equally citizens of Rome, sprung of the same race and
speaking the same tongue (but see above). 1 The former
were the members of those ancient gentes which had possibly
been once the " chiefly " families in the small communities
which preceded the united state, and which claimed by hereditary
right a privileged position in the community. Only patricians
could sit in the council of patres, and hence probably the name
given to their order. 1 To their representatives the supreme
authority reverted on the death of the king; the due trans-
mission of the auspicia and the public worship of the state
gods were their special care; and to them alone were known
the traditional usages and forms which regulated the life of
the people from day to day. To the plebs (the multitude,
jrXfjflos) belonged all who were not members of some patrician
gens, whether independent freemen or attached as "clients" 3
to one of the great houses. The plebeian was a citizen, with
civil rights and a vote in the assembly of the curies, but he was
excluded by ancient custom from all share in the higher honours
of the state, and intermarriage with a patrician was not recog-
nized as a properly legal union 4 (see PATRICIANS).
The revolution which expelled the Tarquins gave the
patricians, who had mainly assisted in bringing it about, an
overwhelming ascendancy in the state. The plebs had indeed
gained something. Not only is it probable that the strictness
of the old tie of clientship had somewhat relaxed, and that
the number of the clientes was smaller and their dependence
on patrician patrons less complete, but the ranks of the plebs
had, under the later kings, been swelled by the admission of
conquered Latins, and the freeholders among these had with
others been enrolled in the Servian tribes, classes and centuries.
The establishment of the Republic invested this military levy
of landholders with political rights as an assembly, for by their
votes the consuls were chosen and laws passed, and it was the
plebeian landholders who formed the main strength of the
plebs in the struggle that followed. But these gains were
greater in appearance than in reality. The plebeian land-
holders commanded only a minority of votes in the comitia
centuriata. In their choice of magistrates they were limited
to the patrician candidates nominated by patrician presiding
magistrates, and their choice required confirmation not only
by the older and smaller assembly of the curiae, in which the
patricians and their clients predominated, but also by the
patrician patres. They could only vote on laws proposed by
patrician consuls, and here again the subsequent sanction of the
patres was necessary. The whole procedure of the comitia
was in short absolutely in the hands of their patrician pre-
sidents, and liable to every sort of interruption and suspension
from patrician pontiffs and augurs (for details see further
COMITIA and SENATE).
But these political disabilities did not constitute the main
grievance of the plebs in the early years of the Republic.
What they fought for was protection for their lives and liberties,
and the object of attack was the despotic authority of the
1 This is the view taken by the present writer, as against Schwegler
and others. For Ridgeway's theory, see above.
*Cf. aedilis, aediltcius, &c.; Cic. De Rep. ii. 12; Liyy i. 8;
for a full discussion of other views, see Soltau 179 seq. ; Christensen,
Hermes, ix. 196.
* For the clientela, see Mommsen (Forsch. i. 355 sqq. ; Staalsr.
iii. 54 sqq.); Schwegler (i. 638 sqq.); Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyklo-
padie, iv. 23 sqq. (von Premerstein).
4 The offspring of such a union ranked as plebeians.
patrician magistrates. The consuls wielded the full imperium o(
the kings, and against this " consular authority " the plebeian,
though a citizen, had no protection and no appeal, nor were
matters improved when for the two consuls was substituted
in some emergency a single, all-powerful, irresponsible
dictator.
The history of this struggle between the orders opens with
a concession made to the plebs by one of the consuls themselves,
a concession possibly due to a desire to secure the Lex
allegiance of the plebeian landholders, who formed Valeria
the backbone of the army. In the first year of deprovo-
the Republic, according to the received chronology, catloae -
P. Valerius Publicola or Poplicola carried in the comitia centuriata
his famous law of appeal. 6 It enacted that no magistrate,
saving only a dictator, should execute a capital sentence upon
any Roman citizen unless the sentence had been confirmed on
appeal by the assembly of the centuries. But, though the
" right of appeal " granted by this law was justly regarded
in later times as the greatest safeguard of a Roman's liberties,
it was by no means at first so effective a protection as it after-
wards became. For not only was the operation of the law
limited to the bounds of the city, so that the consul in the field
or on the march was left as absolute as before, but no security
was provided for its observance even within the city by consuls
resolved to disregard it. 6
It was by their own efforts that the plebeians first obtained
any real protection against magisterial despotism. The tradi-
tional accounts of the first secession are confused The first
and contradictory, 7 but its causes and results are secession
tolerably clear. The seceders were the plebeian ana the
legionaries recently returned from a victorious cam- trlbunate -
paign. Indignant at the delay of the promised reforms, they
ignored the order given them to march afresh against Volsci
and Aequi, and instead entrenched themselves on a hill across
the Anio, some 3 m. from Rome, and known afterwards as
the Mons Sacer. The frightened patricians came to terms,
and a solemn agreement (lex socrato) 8 was concluded between
the orders, by which it was provided that henceforth the
plebeians should have annual magistrates of their own called
tribunes (tribuni plebis), members of their own order, who
should be authorized to protect them against the consuls, 9 and
a curse was invoked upon the man who should injure or impede
the tribune in the performance of his duties. 10 The number of
tribunes was possibly at first two, then five; before 449 B.C. it
had been raised to ten.
The tribunate is an institution which has no parallel in history.
The tribune was not, and, strictly speaking, never became, a
magistrate of the Roman people. His one proper prerogative
was that of granting protection to the oppressed plebeian against
a patrician officer. This prerogative (jus auxilii) was secured
to him, not by the ordinary constitution, but by a special
compact between the orders, and was protected by the ancient
oath (vetus jusjurandum) , u which invoked a curse upon the
violator of a tribune. This exceptional and anomalous right
the tribunes could only exercise in person, within the limits of
the " pomoerium," and against individual acts of magisterial
oppression. 12 It was only gradually that it expanded into a wide
power of interference with the whole machinery of government,
and was supplemented by the legislative powers which ren-
dered the tribunate of the last century B.C. so formidable (see
TRIBUNE).
But from the first the tribunes were for the plebs not only
protectors but leaders, under whom they organized themselves
in opposition to the patricians. The tribunes convened Lex
assemblies of the plebs (concilia plebis), and carried Pubfflla.
resolutions on questions of interest to the order. This incipient
5 Livy ii. 8, lex Valeria de provocations, Cic. De Rep. ii.3i;
cf. Livy iii. 20.
6 Greenidge, Legal Procedure of Cicero's Time, pp. 344 sqq.
7 Schwegler ii. 226 seq. 8 Ibid. ii. 251 n. ; Livy i. 33.
9 Cic. De Rep. ii. 34, " contra consulare imperium creati."
Livy iii. 55. " Festus 318.
12 Gell. xiii. 12, " ut injuria quae coram fieret arceretur."
REPUBLIC]
ROME
621
plebeian organization was materially advanced by the Publilian
law of 471 B.C., 1 which appears to have formally re-
cognized as lawful the plebeian concilia, and established
also the tribune's right cum plebe agere, I.e. to propose and carry
resolutions in them. These assemblies were tributa, or, in other
words, the voting in them took place not by curies or centuries
but by tribes. In them, lastly, after the Publilian law, if not
before, the tribunes were annually elected. 2 By this law the
foundations were laid both of the powerful concilia plebis of
/ater days and also of the legislative and judicial prerogatives of
the tribunes. The patricians maintained indeed that resolutions
(plebiscita) carried by tribunes in the concilia plebis were not
binding on their order, but the moral weight of such resolutions,
whether they affirmed a general principle or pronounced sentence
of condemnation on some single patrician, was no doubt con-
siderable.
The next stage in the struggle is marked by the attempt to
substitute a public written law for unwritten usage.
The proposal of C. Terentilius Arsa (462 B.C.) to ap-
point a plebeian commission to draw up laws restricting
the powers of the consuls 3 was resolutely opposed by the patricians,
but after ten years of bitter party strife a compromise was
effected. A commission of ten patricians was appointed, who
rhe should frame and publish a code of law binding equally
Decem- on both the orders. These decemviri were to be the
viratc. s O i e an( j supreme magistrates for the year, and the law
of appeal was suspended in their favour. 4 The code which they
promulgated, the famous XII. Tables, owed little of its importance
to any novelties or improvements contained in its provisions.
For the most part it seems merely to have reaffirmed existing
usages and laws (see ROMAN LAW) . But it imposed, as it was intend-
ed to do, a check on the arbitrary administration of justice by
the magistrates. With the publication of the code the proper
work of the decemvirs was finished; nevertheless, for the next
year a fresh decemvirate was elected, and it is conceivable that
the intention was permanently to substitute government by
an irresponsible patrician " council of ten " for the old consti-
tution. 6 However this may have been, the tyranny of the
decemvirs themselves was fatal to the continuance of their
power. We are told of a second secession of the plebs, this time
to the Janiculum, and of negotiations with the senate, the
result of which was the enforced abdication of the decemvirs.
The plebs joyfully chose for themselves tribunes, and in the
comitia centuriata two consuls were created. But this restora-
tion of the old regime was accompanied by legislation which
Valeria- made it an important crisis in the history of the
Horatian struggle between the orders. With the fall of the
laws. decemvirate this struggle enters upon a new phase.
The tribunes appear as at once more powerful and more strictly
constitutional magistrates; the plebeian concilia take their
place by the side of the older assemblies; and finally this im-
proved machinery is used not simply in self-defence against
patrician oppression but to obtain complete political equality.
This change was no doubt due in part to circumstances outside
legislation, above all to the expansion of the Roman state,
which swelled the numbers and added to the social importance
of the plebs as compared with the dwindling forces of the close
corporation of patrician geni.es. Still the legislation of 449
clearly involved more than a restoration of the old form of
government. The Valerio-Horatian laws, besides reaffirming
the right of appeal and the inviolability of the tribunes, im-
proved the position of the plebeian assemblies by enacting
that plebiscita passed in them, and, as seems probable, approved
by the palres, should be binding on patricians as well as plebeians. 6
1 Livy ii. 56, 60; Dionys. ix. 41; Schwegler ii. 541; Soltau
493-
2 For theories as to the original mode of appointing tribunes
see Mommsen, Forsch. i. 185, Staatsr. ii. 274 sqq.
' Livy iii. 9. 4 Ibid. iii. 32.
6 On the disputed question of the date of the XII. Tables see Pais,
Storia di Roma, vol. i. chap, iv., and Greenidge, Eng. Hist. Review
(1905), pp. I sqq.
* Livy iii. 55, " quum veluti in controverso jure esset, tenerenturne
310-88.
By this law the tribunes obtained a recognized initiative in
legislation. Henceforth the desired reforms were introduced
and carried by tribunes in what were now styled comitia
tributa, and, if sanctioned by the patres, became laws of the
state. From this period, too, must be dated the legalization
at any rate of the tribune's right to impeach any citizen before
the assembly of the tribes. 7 Henceforward there is no question
of the tribune's right to propose to the plebs to impose a fine,
or of the validity of the sentence when passed. The efficiency
of these new weapons of attack was amply proved by the subse-
quent course of the struggle. Only a few years after the Valerio-
Horatian legislation came the lex Canuleia, itself a plebiscitum
(445 B.C.) , by which mixed marriages between patricians /.
and plebeians were declared lawful, and the social Caauieia.
exclusiveness of the patriciate broken down. In the 309 ~
same year with this measure, and like it in the interests primarily
of the wealthier plebeians, a vigorous attack commenced on the
patrician monopoly of the consulate, and round this L eges
stronghold of patrician ascendancy the conflict raged i.iCiniae
until the passing of the Licinian laws in 367. The Sextiae.
original proposal of the tribune Gaius Canuleius. in
445, that the people should be allowed to elect a plebeian consul
was evaded by a compromise. The senate resolved that for
the next year, in the stead of consuls, six military tribunes
with consular powers should be elected, 8 and that the new
office should be open to patricians and plebeians alike. The
consulship was thus for the time saved from pollution, as the
patricians phrased it, but the growing strength of the plebs is
shown by the fact that in fifty years out of the seventy-eight
between 444 and 366 they succeeded in obtaining the
election of consular tribunes rather than of consuls.
Despite, however, these discouragements, the patricians fought
on. Each year they strove to secure the creation of consuls rather
than consular tribunes, and failing this strained every nerve to
secure for their own order at least a majority among the latter.
Even the institution of the censorship (435), though
rendered desirable by the increasing importance and
complexity of the census, was, it is probable, due in part to their
desire to discount beforehand the threatened loss of the consul-
ship by diminishing its powers. 9 Other causes, too, helped to
protract the struggle. Between the wealthier plebeians, who
were ambitious of high office, and the poorer, whose minds were
set rather on allotments of land, there was a division of interest
of which the patricians were not slow to take advantage, and
to this must be added the pressure of war. The death struggle
with Veii and the sack of Rome by the Gauls absorbed for the
time all the energies of the community. In 377, how-
ever, two of the tribunes, C. Licinius Stolo (see LJCJNITJS
STOLO, GAIUS) and L. Sextius,came forward with proposals which
united all sections of the plebs in their support. Their proposals
were as follows: 10 (i) that consuls and not consular tribunes
be elected; (2) that one consul at least should be a plebeian;
(3) that the priestly college, which had the charge of the
Sibylline books, should consist of ten members instead of
two, and that of these half should be plebeians; (4) that no
single citizen should hold in occupation more than 500 acres
of the common lands, or pasture upon them more than 100 head
of cattle and 500 sheep; (5) that all landowners should employ
a certain amount of free as well as slave labour on their estates;
(6) that interest already paid on debts should be deducted
from the principal, and the remainder paid off in three years.
The three last proposals were obviously intended to meet the
patres plebiscitis legem comitiis centuriatis tulere, ut quod tributim
plebs jussisset populum teneret, qua lege tribuniciis rogationibus
telum acerrimum datum est." What were the precise conditions
under which a plebiscitum became law can only be conjectured.
The control of the patres over legislation certainly remained effective
until 287 B.C. (See below.)
7 After the decemvirate, the tribunes no longer pronounce capital
sentences. They propose fines, which are confirmed by the comitia
tributa.
8 Livy iv. 6; cf. Mommsen, Staatsrecht, ii. 181.
9 Mommsen, Staatsrecht, ii. 331."
10 Livy vi. 35, 42; Appian, B.C. i. 8.
319.
377.
622
ROME
[REPUBLIC
387.
demands of the poorer plebeians, and to secure their support
for the first half of the scheme. Ten years of bitter conflict
followed, but at last, in 367 B.C., the Licinian rogations
became law, and one of their authors, L. Sextius, was
created the first plebeian consul. For the moment it was some
consolation to the patricians that they not only succeeded in
detaching from the consulship the administration of civil law,
which was entrusted to a separate officer, praetor urbanus, to
be elected by the comitia of the centuries, with an understand-
ing apparently that he should be a patrician, but also obtained
the institution of two additional aediles (aediles curules), who
were in like manner to be members of their own order. 1 With
the opening of the consulship, however, the issue of the long con-
test was virtually decided, and the next eighty years witnessed
a rapid succession of plebeian victories. Now that a plebeian
consul might preside at the elections, the main difficulty
Opening in the way of the nomination and election of plebeian
of the candidates was removed. The proposed patrician
Irarfcs monopoly of the new curule aedileship was almost
instantly abandoned. In 356 the first plebeian
398. 404. was ma( j e dictator; in 350 the censorship, and in
417 ' 337 tne praetorship were filled for the first time by
4S4. plebeians; and lastly, in 300, by the lex Ogulnia, even
the sacred colleges of the pontiffs and augurs, the old
strongholds of patrician supremacy, were thrown open to the
plebs? The patricians lost also the control they had exercised
so long over the action of the people in assembly. The patrum
auctoritas, the sanction given or refused by the patrician
senators to laws and to elections, had hitherto been a powerful
415. weapon in their hands. But in 339 a law of Q. Publilius
Pubiuiaa Philo, a plebeian dictator, enacted that this sanction
laws. should be given beforehand to laws enacted in the
comitia centuriata? and a lex Maenia of uncertain date extended
the rule to elections in the same assembly. Livy ascribes
to the same Publilius a law emancipating the concilium plebis
Lex from the control of the patres ; but this seems in reality
Horteasia, to have been effected by the famous lex Hortensia,
467 - carried by another plebeian dictator. 4 Henceforward
the patrum auctoritas sank into a meaningless form, though as
such it still survived in the time of Livy. From 287 onwards
it is certain that measures passed by the plebs, voting by their
tribes, had the full force of laws without any further conditions
whatsoever. The legislative independence of the plebeian
assembly was secured, and with this crowning victory ended
the long struggle between the orders.
(b) Conquest of Italy. Twelve years after the passing of the
lex Hortensia, King Pyrrhus, beaten at Beneventum, withdrew
from Italy, and Rome was left mistress of the peninsula. The
steps by which this supremacy had been won have now to be
traced. 6
The expulsion of the Tarquins from Rome, followed as it
seems to have been by the emancipation from Etruscan suprem-
acy of all the country between the Tiber and the Liris, entirely
altered the aspect of affairs. North of the Tiber the powerful
Etruscan city of Veii, after a vain attempt to restore the Tar-
quins, relapsed into an attitude of sullen hostility towards Rome,
which, down to the outbreak of the final struggle in
407, found vent in constant and harassing border
forays. The Sabines recommenced their raids across the Anio;
from their hills to the south-east the Aequi pressed forward as
far as the eastern spurs of the Alban range, and ravaged the low
country between that range and the Sabine mountains; the
Volsci overran the coast-lands as far as Antium, established them-
1 Livy vi. 42.
2 Ibid. vii. 17, 22; viii. 15; x. 6.
* Ibid. viii. 12, " ut . . . ante initum suffragium patres auc tores
fierent," cf. Livy. i. 17. For the lex Maenia, see Cic. Brut. 14,
55; Soltau 112.
4 Plin. N.H. xyi. 10; Cell. xv. 27; Gaius i. 3, " plebiscita lege
Hortensia non minus valere quam leges."
6 For details of these wars see articles on the various cities, districts
and tribes. For ethnographic and philological evidence see ITALY,
Ancient Peoples.
347.
selves at Velitrae and even wasted the fields within a few miles
of Rome. But the good fortune of Rome did not leave her to
face these foes single-handed, and it is a significant League
fact that the history of the Roman advance begins, * the
not with a brilliant victory, but with a timely alliance. ^ad'tter-
According to Livy, it was in 493, only a few years after oicaas.^
the defeat of the prince of Tusculum at Lake Regillus, 261.
that a treaty was concluded between Rome and the Latin com-
munities of the Campagna. 6 The alliance was in every respect
natural. The Latins were the near neighbours and kinsmen of
the Romans, and both Romans and Latins were just freed from
Etruscan rule to find themselves as lowlanders and dwellers in
towns face to face with a common foe in the ruder hill tribes on
their borders. The exact terms of the treaty cannot, any more
than the precise circumstances under which it was concluded,
be stated with certainty (see LATIUM), but two points seem
clear. There was at first a genuine equality in the relations
between the allies; Romans and Latins, though combining for
defence and offence, did so without sacrificing their separate
freedom of action, even in the matter of waging wars indepen-
dently of each other. 7 But, secondly, Rome enjoyed from the
first one inestimable advantage. The Latins lay between her
and the most active of her foes, the Aequi and Volsci, and served
to protect her territories at the expense of their own. Behind
this barrier Rome grew strong, and the close of the Aequian and
Volscian wars left the Latins her dependents rather than her
allies. Beyond the limits of the Campagna Rome found a
second ally, hardly less useful than the Latins, in the tribe of
the Hernici (" the men of the rocks "), in the valley of the
Trerus, who had equal reason with the Romans and Latins to
dread the Volsci and Aequi, while their position midway between
the two latter peoples made them valuable auxiliaries to the
lowlanders of the Campagna.
The treaty with the Hernici is said to have been concluded
in 486,* and the confederacy of the three peoples
Romans, Latins and Hernicans lasted down to the
great Latin war in 340. Confused and untrustworthy
as are the chronicles of the early wars of Rome, it is
clear that, notwithstanding the acquisition of these allies, Rome
made but little way against her foes during the first fifty years
of the existence of the Republic. In 474, it is true, an
end was put for a time to the harassing border feud
with Veii by a forty years' peace, an advantage due not so much
to Roman valour as to the increasing dangers from other
quarters which were threatening the Etruscan states. 9 But
this partial success stands alone, and down to 449 the
raids of Sabines, Aequi and Volsci continue without
intermission, and are occasionally carried up to the very walls
of Rome.
Very different is the impression left by the annals of the next
sixty years (449-390). During this period there is an
unmistakable development of Roman power on all
sides. In southern Etruria the capture of Veii (396) capture
virtually gave Rome the mastery as far as the Ciminian of Veil.
forest. Sutrium and Nepete, " the gates of Etruria," 3Sg
became her allies and guarded her interests against
any attack from the Etruscan communities to the north, while
along the Tiber valley her suzerainty was acknowledged as
far as Capena and Falerii. On the Anio frontier we hear of no
disturbances from 449 until some ten years after the sack of
Rome by the Gauls. In 446 the Aequi appear for
the last time before the gates of Rome. After 418 30S -
they disappear from Mount Algidus, and in the same 336.
year the communications of Rome and Latium with
the Hernici in the Trerus valley were secured by the capture and
colonization of LabicHm. Successive invasions, too, broke the
strength of the Volsci, and in 393 a Latin colony was
founded as far south as Circeii. In part, no doubt,
these Roman successes were due to the improved condition of
Livy ii. 33 ; Cic. Pro Balbo, 23.
7 Livy viii. 2.
268.
414.
305.
1 From the Celts in the north especially.
8 Ibid. ii. 41.
REPUBLIC]
ROME
623
affairs in Rome itself, consequent upon the great reforms carried
304-312 Between 450 and 442; but it is equally certain that
now, as often afterwards, fortune befriended Rome by
weakening, or by diverting the attention of, her opponents. In
particular, her rapid advance in southern Etruria was
Decline of f ac ii; tate( i by the heavy blows inflicted upon the
poiven 111 Etruscans during the sth century B.C. by Celts, Greeks
and Samnites. By the close of this century the Celts
had expelled them from the rich plains of what was afterwards
known as Cisalpine Gaul, and were even threatening to advance
across the Apennines into Etruria proper. The Sicilian Greeks,
headed by the tyrants of Syracuse, wrested from them their
mastery of the seas, and finally, on the capture of Capua by the
Samnites in 423, they lost their possessions in the fertile
Campanian plain. These conquests of the Samnites
were part of a great southward movement of the highland
Sabellian peoples, the immediate effects of which upon the
fortunes of Rome were not confined to the weakening of the
Etruscan power. It is probable that the cessation of the Sabine
raids across the Anio was partly due to the new outlets which were
opened southwards for the restless and populous hill tribes which
had so long disturbed the peace of the Latin lowlands. We may
conjecture, also, that the growing feebleness exhibited by Volsci
and Aequi was in some measure caused by the pressure upon
their rear of the Sabellian clans which at this time established
themselves near the Fucine lake and along the course of the Liris.
But in 390, only six years after the great victory over her
ancient rival Veii, the Roman advance was for a moment
Sac* of checked by a disaster which threatened to alter the
Rome by course of history in Italy, and which left a lasting
the aauis. impress on the Roman mind. In 391 a Celtic horde
363 ' left their newly won lands on the Adriatic, and, cross-
ing the Apennines into Etruria, laid siege to the Etruscan
city of Clusium (Chiusi). Thence, provoked, it is said, by the
conduct of the Roman ambassadors, who, forgetting their
sacred character, had fought in the ranks of Clusium and slain a
Celtic chief, the barbarians marched upon Rome. On July the
i8th of 390 B.C., only a few miles from Rome, was
fought the disastrous battle of the Allia. The defeat
of the Romans was complete, and Rome lay at the mercy of her
foe. But in characteristic fashion the Celts halted three days to
enjoy the fruits of victory, and time was thus given to put the
Capitol at least in a state of defence. The arrival of the bar-
barians was followed by the sack of the city, but the Capitol
remained impregnable. For seven months they besieged it,
and then in as sudden a fashion as they had come they dis-
appeared. The Roman chroniclers explain their retreat in their
own way, by the fortunate appearance of M. Furius Camillus
with the troops which he had collected, at the very moment
when famine had forced the garrison on the Capitol to accept
terms. More probably the news that their lands across the
Apennines were threatened by the Veneti, coupled with the
unaccustomed tedium of a long siege and the difficulty of obtain-
ing supplies, inclined the Celts to accept readily a heavy ransom
as the price of their withdrawal. But, whatever the reason,
it is certain that they retreated, and, though during the next
fifty years marauding bands appeared at intervals in the neigh-
bourhood of Rome, and even once penetrated as far south as
Campania (361-60), the Celts never obtained any
footing in Italy outside the plains in the north which
they had made their own.
Nor, in spite of the defeat on the Allia and the sack of the city,
was Rome weakened except for the moment by the Celtic
Annexa- attack. The storm passed away as rapidly as it had
tion of come on. The city was hastily rebuilt, and Rome dis-
southern m ayed the enemies who hastened to take advantage
ra * of her misfortunes by her undiminished vigour. Her
conquests in southern Etruria were successfully defended
against repeated attacks from the Etruscans to the north. The
creation in 387 of four new tribes (Stellatina, Sabatina,
Tromentina, Arnensis) marked the final annexation of
the territory of Veii and of the lands lying along the Tiber valley.
401.
A few years later Latin colonies were established at Sutrium
and Nepete for the more effectual defence of the frontier, and
finally, in 353, the subjugation of South Etruria was
completed by the submission of Caere (q.v.) and its
partial incorporation with the Roman state as a " municipium
sine suffragio " the first, it is said, of its kind. 1
Next to the settlement of southern Etruria, the most im-
portant of the successes gained by Rome between 390 and
343 B.C. were those won against her old foes the Aequi
and Volsci, and her old allies the Latins and Hernicans.
The Aequi indeed, already weakened by their long Aequi'and
feud with Rome, and hard pressed by the Sabellian Voitci.
tribes in their rear, were easily dealt with, and after 364-411
the campaign of 389 we have no further mention of
an Aequian war until the last Aequian rising in 304.
The Volsci, who in 389 had advanced to Lanuvium,
were met and utterly defeated by Camillus, the conqueror of
Veii, and this victory was followed up by the gradual sub-
jugation to Rome of all the lowland country lying between the
hills and the sea as far south as Tarracina. Latin colonies
were established at Satricum (385), at Setia (379), and 36g 37J
at Antium and Tarracina some time before 348. In
358 two fresh Roman tribes (Pomptina and Publilia)
were formed in the same district. 2
Rome had now nothing more to fear from the foes who a
century ago had threatened her very existence. The lowland
country, of which she was the natural centre, from e .
the Ciminian forest to Tarracina, was quiet, and orgaoiza-
within its limits Rome was by far the strongest 'power, tion of
But she had now to reckon with the old and faithful the Ltttla
allies to whose loyal aid her present position was '**""'
largely due. The Latini and Hernici had suffered severely in
the Aequian and Volscian wars; it is probable that not a few
of the smaller communities included in the league had either
been destroyed or been absorbed by larger states, and the
independence of all alike was threatened by the growing power
of Rome. The sack of Rome by the Celts gave them an oppor-
tunity of reasserting their independence, and we are conse-
quently told that this disaster was immediately followed by
the temporary dissolution of the confederacy, and this again
a few years later by a series of actual conflicts between Rome
and her former allies. Between 383 and 358 we hear
of wars with Tibur, Praeneste, Tusculum, Lanuvium,
Circeii and the Hernici. But in all Rome was successful. In
382 Tusculum was fully incorporated with the Roman 372 ^
state by the bestowal of the full franchise; 3 in 358, '
according to both Livy and Polybius, the old alliance
was formally renewed with Latini and Hernici. We cannot,
however, be wrong in assuming that the position of the allies
under the new league was far inferior to that accorded them
by the treaty of Spurius Cassius. 4 Henceforth they were the
subjects rather than the equals of Rome, a position which it is
evident that they accepted much against their will, and from
which they were yet to make one last effort to escape.
We have now reached the close of the first stage in Rome's
advance towards supremacy in Italy. By 343 B.C. she was
already mistress both of the low country stretching
from the Ciminian forest to Tarracina and Circeii and
of the bordering highlands. Her own territory had largely
increased. Across the Tiber the lands of Veii, Capena and
Caere were nearly all Roman, while in Latium she had carried
her frontiers to Tusculum on the Alban range and to the
southernmost limits of the Pomptine district. And th'S territory
was protected by a circle of dependent allies and colonies reach-
ing northward to-Sutrium and Nepete, and southward to Sora
on the upper Liris, and to Circeii on the coast. Already, too,
she was beginning to be recognized as a power outside the
1 For the status of Caere and the " Caerite franchise," see
Marquardt, Staatsverw. i. 28 seq ; Madvig, R. Verf. i. 39; Beloch,
/to/. Bund, 120; Mommsen, Sta'atsr. iii. 583 sqq.
1 Livy vii. 15. * Ibid. vi. 26.
4 Mommsen, R.G. i. 347 n ; Beloch, /to/. Bund, cap. ix.
371-96.
411.
624
ROME
[REPUBLIC
limits of the Latin lowlands. The fame of the capture of Rome
by the Celts had reached Athens, and her subsequent victories
over marauding Celtic bands had given her prestige in South
jgg Italy as a bulwark against northern barbarians. In
354 she had formed her first connexions beyond the
Liris by a treaty with the Samnites, and in 348 followed
a far more important treaty with the great maritime state of
Carthage. 1
Rome had won her supremacy from the Ciminian forest to
the Liris as the champion of the comparatively civilized com-
Advaace munities of the lowlands against the rude highland
beyond tribes which threatened to overrun them, and so, when
lad't'in' her legions first crossed the Liris, it was in answer to
Samaite an appeal from a lowland city against invaders from
Wars. the hills. While she was engaged in clearing Latium
of Volsci and Aequi, the Sabellian tribes of the central
Apennines had rapidly spread over the southern half of the
peninsula. Foremost among these- tribes were the Samnites,
a portion of whom had captured the Etruscan city of Capua in
331 334 4 2 3> ^ e Greek Cumae in 420, and had since then ruled
as masters over the fertile Campanian territory. But
in their new homes the conquerors soon lost all sense of re-
lationship and sympathy with their highland brethren. They
dwelt in cities, amassed wealth, and inherited the civilization
of the Greeks and Etruscans whom they had dispossessed; 2
above all, they had before long to defend themselves in their
turn against the attacks of their ruder kinsmen from the hills,
and it was for aid against these that the Samnites of Campania
appealed to the rising state which had already made herself
known as the bulwark of the lowlands north of the Liris, and
which with her Latin and Hernican allies had scarcely less
interest than the Campanian cities themselves in checking the
raids of the highland Samnite tribes.
The Campanian appeal was listened to. Rome with her
confederates entered into alliance with Capua and the neigh-
First bouring Campanian towns, and war was formally
declared (343) against the Samnites. 3 While to the
Latins and Hernicans was entrusted apparently the
defence of Latium and the Hernican valley against
the northerly members of the Samnite confederacy, the Romans
themselves undertook the task of driving the invaders out of
Campania. After two campaigns the war was ended in
341 by a treaty, and the Samnites withdrew from the
lowlands, leaving Rome the recognized suzerain of the
Campanian cities which had sought her aid. 4
There is no doubt that the check thus given by Rome to the
advance of the hitherto invincible Sabellian highlanders not
only made her the natural head and champion of the low
countries, south as well as north of the Liris, but also consider-
ably added to her prestige. Carthage sent her congratulations,
and the Etruscan city of Falerii voluntarily enrolled herself
among the allies of Rome. Of even greater service, however,
was the fact that for fifteen years the Samnites remained quiet,
for this inactivity, whatever its cause, enabled Rome triumph-
antly to surmount a danger which threatened for the moment
to wreck her whole position. This danger was nothing less
than a desperate effort on the part of nearly all her allies and
dependants south of the Tiber to throw off the yoke of her supre-
The Latin mac y- The way was led by her ancient confederates
War. the Latini, whose smouldering discontent broke into
open flame directly the fear of a Samnite attack was
removed. From the Latin Campagna and the Sabine hills
the revolt spread westward and southward to Antium and
Tarracina, and even to the towns of the Campanian plain,
1 Livy vii. 27. For the whole question of the early treaties with
Carthage, see Polybius iii. 22 ; Mommsen, vol. ii. Appendix (p. 523) ;
Strachan-Davidson, Polybius, pp. 50 ff. ; Pais, Storia di Roma, i. 2,
305, n. i ; also article CARTHAGE.
* For the Samnites in Campania, see Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, i. 453 ;
Schwegler-Clason, R.G. v. 98 seq.; Beloch, Campanien (Berlin, 1879).
8 Livy vii. 32.
4 For the difficulties in the traditional accounts of this war, see
Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, i. 459 n. ; Schwegler-Clason, R.G. v. 14 seq.
War.
411.
413.
where the mass of the inhabitants at once repudiated the
alliance formed with Rome by the ruling class. The struggle
was sharp but short. In two pitched battles* the strength of
the insurrection was broken, and two more campaigns sufficed
for the complete reduction of such of the insurgent communities
as still held out. The revolt crushed, Rome set herself de-
liberately to the task of re-establishing on a new and firmer
basis her supremacy over the lowlands, and in doing Settle-
so laid the foundations of that marvellous organization meat of
which was destined to spread rapidly over Italy, Latium;
and to withstand the attacks even of Hannibal. The old
historic Latin league ceased to exist, though its memory was
still preserved by the yearly Latin festival on the Alban Mount.
Most if not all of the common land of the league became Roman
territory; 6 five at least of the old Latin cities were compelled
to accept the Roman franchise 7 and enter the pale of the Roman
state. The rest, with the Latin colonies, were ranked as Latin
allies of Rome, but on terms which secured their complete
dependence upon the sovereign city. The policy of isolation,
which became so cardinal a principle of Roman rule, was now
first systematically applied. No rights of conubium or com-
mercium were any longer to exist between these communities.
Their federal councils were prohibited, and all federal action
independent of Rome forbidden. 8
In Campania and the coast-lands connecting Campania with
Rome, a policy of annexation was considered safer than that
of alliance. Of the two frontier posts of the Volsci, an( / /
Antium and Velitrae, the former was constituted a Cam-
Roman colony, its long galleys burnt and their pania.
prows set up in the Forum at Rome, while the walls of
Velitrae were razed to the ground, its leading men banished
beyond the Tiber, and their lands given to Roman settlers.
Farther south on the route to Campania, Fundi and Formiae
were, after the precedent set in the case of Caere, declared
Roman and granted the civil rights of Roman citizenship, while
lastly in Campania itself the same status was given to Capua,
Cumae, and the smaller communities dependent upon them.'
During the ten years from 338 to 328 the work of 410-26
settlement was steadily continued. Tarracina, like
Antium, was made a Roman colony. Privernum, the last
Volscian town to offer resistance to Rome, was subdued ^
in 330, part of its territory allotted to Roman citizens,
and the state itself forced to accept the Roman franchise.
Lastly, to strengthen the lines of defence against the Sabellian
tribes, two colonies with the rights of Latin allies were estab-
lished at Cales (334) and at Fregellae (328). The ^g 426
settlement of the lowlands was accomplished. As a
single powerful and compact state with an outer circle of
closely dependent allies, Rome now stood in sharp contrast
with the disunited and degenerate cities of northern Etruria,
the loosely organized tribes of the Apennines, and the decaying
and disorderly Greek towns of the south.
The strength of this system was now to be tried by a struggle
with the one Italian people who were still ready and able to
contest with Rome the supremacy of the peninsula, second
The passive attitude of the Samnites between 342 and Samaite
327 was no doubt largely due to the dangers which Y 2 V'o4-
had suddenly threatened them in South Italy. But 427-so7
the death of Alexander of Epirus, in 332, 10 removed 412-27.
their only formidable opponent there, and left them 422 -
free to turn their attention to the necessity of checking the
steady advance of Rome. In 327, the year after the
ominous foundation of a Roman colony at Fregellae,
a pretext for renewing the struggle was offered them. The
6 At the foot of Mount Vesuvius, Livy viii. 9 ; at Trifanum, ibid,
viii. II. Livy viii. II.
' Livy viii. 14; Lanuvium, Aricia, Momentum, Pedum, Tusculum.
8 Ibid. loc. cit., " ceteris Latinis populis conubia commerciaque et
concilia inter se ademerunt."
9 For the controversy as to the precise status of Capua and the
" equites Campani " (Livy viii. 14), see Beloch, Ital. Bund, 122 seq.;
idem, Campanien, 317; Mommsen, Staatsr. iii. 574.
10 Livy viii. 3, 17, 24.
427.
REPUBLIC]
ROME
625
433, 436.
Cumaean colony of Palaepolis 1 had incurred the wrath of
Rome by its raids into her territory in Campania. The Samnites
sent a force to defend it, and Rome replied by a declaration
of war. The two opponents were not at first sight unequally
matched, and had the Sabellian tribes held firmly together the
issue of the struggle might have been different. As it was,
however, the Lucanians to the south actually joined Rome
from the first, while the northern clans, Marsi, Vestini, Paeligni,
Frentani, after a feeble and lukewarm resistance, subsided into
a neutrality which was exchanged in 304 for a formal
alliance with Rome. An even greater advantage to
Rome from the outset was the enmity existing between the
Samnites and the Apulians, the latter of whom from the first
joined Rome and thus gave her a position in the rear of
her enemy and in a country eminently well fitted for
maintaining a large military force. These weaknesses on the
Samnite side were amply illustrated by the events of the
war.
The first seven or eight years were marked by one serious
disaster to the Roman arms, the defeat at the Caudine Forks
(321), but, when in 318 the Samnites asked for
and obtained a two years' truce, Rome had suc-
ceeded not only in inflicting several severe blows upon
her enemies but in isolating them from outside help. The
Lucanians to the south were her allies. To the east, in the rear
of Samnium, Apulia acknowledged the suzerainty of Rome, and
Luceria, captured in 320, had been established as a base
of Roman operations. Finally to the north the Romans
had easily overcome the feeble resistance of the Vestini and
Frentani, and secured through their territories a safe passage
for their legions to Apulia. On the renewal of hostilities in
316, the Samnites, bent on escaping from the net which
was being slowly drawn round them, made a series of
desperate efforts to break through the lines of defence which
protected Latium and Campania. Sora and Fregellae on the
upper Liris were captured by a sudden attack; the Ausones
in the low country near the mouth of the same river were
encouraged to revolt by the appearance of the Samnite army;
and in Campania another army, attracted by rumours of dis-
turbance, all but defeated the Roman consuls under the very
walls of Capua. But these efforts were unavailing. Sora and
Fregellae were recovered as quickly as they had been lost, and
the frontier there was strengthened by the establishment of
a colony at Interamna. The Ausones were punished by the
confiscation of their territory, and Roman supremacy further
secured by the two colonies of Suessa and Pontia (312). The
construction of the famous Via Appia, 2 the work of the censor
Appius Claudius Caecus, opened a safe and direct route to
Campania, while the capture of Nola deprived the Samnites of
their last important stronghold in the Campanian lowlands.
The failure of these attempts broke the courage even of the Sam-
nites. Their hopes were irtdeed raised for a moment by the news
that Etruria had risen against Rome (310), but their daring
scheme of effecting a union with the Etruscans was frustrated
by the energy of the Roman generals. Five years
later (305) the Romans revenged a Samnite raid into
Campania by an invasion of Samnium itself. Arpinum on
.the frontier was taken, and at last, after a twenty-two
years' struggle, the Second Samnite War was
closed by a renewal of the ancient treaty with
Rome (304).*
The six years of peace which followed (304-298) were
employed by Rome in still further strengthening her position.
Already, two years before the peace, a rash revolt of
the Hernici 4 had given Rome a pretext for finally
annexing the territory of her ancient allies. The tribal con-
federacy was broken up, and all the Hernican communities,
with the exception of three which had not joined the revolt,
were incorporated with the Roman state as municipia, with the
civil rights of the Roman franchise. Between the Hernican
1 Livy viii. 22.
1 Ibid. ix. 45.
2 Ibid. ix. 29; see APPIA, VIA.
4 Ibid. ix. 43.
valley and the frontiers of the nearest Sabellian tribes lay what
remained of the once formidable people of the Aequi. In
their case, too, a revolt (304) was followed by the 4SO
annexation of their territory, which was marked in this
case by the formation there (301) of two Roman tribes
(Aniensis and Teretina). 6 Not content with thus carrying the
borders of their own territory up to the very frontiers of the
Sabellian country, Rome succeeded (304) in finally detaching
from the Sabellian confederacy all the tribes lying' between
the north-east frontier of Latium and the Adriatic Sea.
Henceforward the Marsi, Paeligni, Vestini, Marrucini and
Frentani were enrolled among the allies of Rome, and not
only swelled her forces in the field but interposed a useful
barrier between her enemies to the north in Etruria and Umbria
and those to the south in Samnium, while they connected her
directly with the friendly Apulians. Lastly, as a security for
the fidelity at least of the nearest of these allies, colonies
were planted in the Marsian territories at Alba Fucentia
(303) and at Carsioli (298). A significant indication
of the widening range of Rome's influence in Italy,
and of the new responsibilities rapidly pressing upon her,
is the fact that when in 302 the Spartan Cleonymus
landed in the territory of the Sallentini, far away
in the south-east, he was met and repulsed by a Roman
force. 7
Six years after the conclusion of the treaty which ended
the Second Samnite War, news arrived that the Samnites were
harassing the Lucanians. Rome at once interfered to Third
protect her allies. Samnium was invaded in force, Samnite
the country ravaged and one stronghold after another War,
captured. Unable any longer to hold their own in a ***
position where they were hedged round by enemies,
the Samnite leaders turned as a last hope to the com-
munities of northern Etruria, to the free tribes of Umbria
and to the once dreaded Celts. With a splendid daring they
formed the scheme of uniting all these peoples with them-
selves in a last desperate effort to break the power of
Rome.
For some forty years after the final annexation of
southern Etruria (351 B.C.) matters had remained unchanged
in that quarter. Sutrium and Nepete still guarded Romans
the Roman frontier; the natural boundary of the I" N.
Ciminian forest was still intact; and up the valley of Etruria.
the Tiber Rome had not advanced beyond Falerii, a 403 ~
few miles short of the most southerly Umbrian town Ocriculum.
But in 311, on the expiry, apparently of the long
truce with Rome, concluded in 351, the northern
Etruscans, alarmed no doubt by the rapid advances which Rome
was making farther south, rose in arms and attacked Sutrium.
The attack, however, recoiled disastrously upon the heads
of the assailants. A Roman force promptly relieved Sutrium,
and its leader, Q. Fabius Rullianus, without awaiting orders
from home, boldly plunged into the wilds of the Ciminian forest,
and crossing them safely swept with fire and sword over the
rich lands to the north. Then turning southward he met and
utterly defeated the forces which the Etruscans had hastily raised
in the hopes of intercepting him at the Vadimonian Lake. 8
This decisive victory ended the war. The Etruscan cities, dis-
united among themselves, and enervated by long years of peace,
abandoned the struggle for the time, paid a heavy indemnity
and concluded a truce with Rome (309-8). In the 445-46
same year the promptitude of Fabius easily averted
a threatened attack by the Umbrians, but Rome proceeded
nevertheless to fortify herself in her invariable fashion against
future dangers on this side, by an alliance with Ocriculum,
which was followed ten years later (299) by a colony at Nequinum,'
and an alliance with the Picentes, whose position in the rear
6 Liyy x. 9- * Ibid. ix. 45. r Ibid. x. 2.
8 Ibid. ix. 39. Ihne (Romische Geschichte, i. 2 394 seq.) throws
some doubts on the traditional accounts of this war and of that
in 296.
9 It received the name of Narnia (Livy x. 10).
626
ROME
[REPUBLIC
464.
of Umbria rendered them as valuable to Rome as the Apulians
had proved farther south.
Fourteen years had passed since the battle on the Vadimonian
Lake, when the Samnites appeared on the borders of Etruria and
Battle of ca U e d on tne peoples of northern Italy to rise against
Sen- the common enemy. Their appeal, backed by the
i inuin. presence of their troops, was successful. The Etruscans
29S-4S9. ounc j coura g e to f ace the Roman legions once more;
a few of the Umbrians joined them; but the most valuable
allies to the Samnites were the Celts, who had for some time
threatened a raid across the Apennines, and who now marched
eagerly into Umbria and joined the coalition. The news that
the Celts were in motion produced a startling effect at Rome,
and every nerve was strained to meet this new danger. While
two armies were left in southern Etruria as reserves, the two
consuls, Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus and P. Decius Mus the
younger, both tried soldiers, marched northwards up the valley
of the Tiber and into Umbria at the head of four Roman legions
and a still larger force of Italian allies. At Sentinum, on the
further side of the Apennines, they encountered the united
forces of the Celts and Samnites, the Etruscans and Umbrians
having, it is said, been withdrawn for the defence of their own
homes. The battle that followed was desperate, and the
Romans lost one of their consuls, Decius, and more than 8000
men. 1 But the Roman victory was decisive. The Celts were
annihilated, and the fear of a second Celtic attack on Rome
removed. All danger from the coalition was over. The
Etruscan communities gladly purchased peace by the payment
of indemnities. The rising in Umbria, never formidable, died
away, and the Samnites were left single-handed to bear the
whole weight of the wrath of Rome. During four years
more, however, they desperately defended their highland
homes, and twice at least, in 293 and 292, they
461, 462. mana g e d to place in the field a force sufficient to
meet the Roman legions on equal terms. At last,
in 290, the consul M'.Curius Dentatus finally ex-
hausted their power of resistance. Peace was concluded, and
it is significant of the respect inspired at Rome by their
indomitable courage that they were allowed to become the
allies of Rome, on equal terms and without any sacrifice of
independence. 2
Between the close of the Third Samnite War and the land-
ing of Pyrrhus in 281 B.C. we find Rome engaged, as
her wont was, in quietly extending and consolidating
her power. In southern Italy she strengthened her hold on
Apulia by planting on the borders of Apulia and Lucania the
strong colony of Venusia. 3 In central Italy the annexation
of the Sabine country (290) carried her frontiers
eastward to the borders of her Picentine allies on the
Adriatic. 4 Farther east, in the territory of the Picentes them-
selves, she established colonies on the Adriatic coast at Hadria
and Castrum (285-83).* North of the Picentes lay
the territories of the Celtic Senones stretching inland
to the north-east borders of Etruria, and these too now fell into
her hands. Ten years after their defeat at Sentinum (285-84)
a Celtic force descended into Etruria, besieged Arretium
and defeated the relieving force despatched by Rome. In
283 the consul L. Cornelius Dolabella was sent to avenge
the insult. He completely routed the Senones. Their lands
were annexed by Rome, and a colony established at Sena
on the coast. This success, followed as it was by the
decisive defeat of the neighbouring tribe of the Boii, who
had invaded Etruria and penetrated as far south as the
Vadimonian Lake, awed the Celts into quiet, and for more
than forty years there was comparative tranquillity in northern
Italy. 6
In the south, however, the claims of Rome to supremacy
1 Livy x. 27.
* Livy, Epit. xi., " pacem petentibus Samnitibus foedus quarto
renovatum est."
3 Dion. Hal. Exc. xvi. xvii. 5 ; Veil. Pat. i. 14.
4 Livy, Epit. xi. ; Veil. Pat. i. 14.
Livy, Epit. x. Ibid. xii. ; Polyb. ii. 20.
473.
464.
469-71.
473-74.
were now to be disputed by a new and formidable foe. At
the close of the Third Samnite War the Greek cities War wlth
on the southern coast of Italy found themselves once Pyrrhus,
more harassed by the Sabellian tribes on their borders, 281-75=
whose energies, no longer absorbed by the long struggles 473 ~ 79 -
in central Italy, now found an attractive opening southward.
Naturally enough the Greeks, like the Capuans sixty years
before, appealed for aid to Rome (283-82), and like
the Capuans they offered in return to recognize the
suzerainty of the great Latin Republic. In reply a Roman
force under C. Fabricius Luscinus marched into south Italy,
easily routed the marauding bands of Lucanians, Bruttians and
Samnites, and established Roman garrisons in Locri, Croton,
Rhegium and Thurii. At Tarentum, the most powerful and
flourishing of the Greek seaports, this sudden and rapid advance
of Rome excited the greatest anxiety. Tarentum was already
allied by treaty (301) with Rome, and she had now
to decide whether this treaty should be exchanged
for one which would place her, like the other Greek communities,
under the protectorate of Rome, or whether she should find
some ally able and willing to assist in making a last stand for
independence. The former course, in Tarentum, as before at
Capua, was the one favoured by the aristocratic party ; the
latter was eagerly supported by the mass of the people and their
leaders. While matters were still in suspense, the appearance,
contrary to the treaty, of a Roman squadron off the harbour
decided the controversy. The Tarentines, indignant at the
insult, attacked the hostile fleet, killed the admiral and sunk
most of the ships. Still Rome, relying probably on her partisans
in the city, tried negotiation, and an alliance appeared likely
after all, when suddenly the help for which the Tarentine demo-
crats had been looking appeared, and war with Rome
was resolved upon (281-80).'
King Pyrrhus, 8 whose timely appearance seemed for the
moment to have saved the independence of Tarentum, was the
most brilliant of the military adventurers whom the disturbed
times following the death of Alexander the Great had brought
into prominence. High-spirited, generous and ambitious, he
had formed the scheme of rivalling Alexander's achievements
in the East, by winning for himself an empire in the West. He
aspired not only to unite under his rule the Greek communities
of Italy and Sicily, but to overthrow the great Phoenician
state of Carthage the natural enemy of Greeks in the West, as
Persia had been in the East. Of Rome it is clear that he knew
little or nothing; the task of ridding the Greek seaports of
their barbarian foes he no doubt regarded as an easy one;
and the splendid force he brought with him was intended
rather for the conquest of the West than for the preliminary
work of chastising a few Italian tribes, or securing the sub-
mission of the unwarlike Italian Greeks. He defeated the
Roman consul, M. Valerius Laevinus, on the banks of the
Liris (280), and gained the support of .the Greek cities
as well as that of numerous bands of Samnites, ' *
Lucanians and Bruttians. But, to the disappointment of his
new allies, Pyrrhus showed no anxiety to follow up his advan-
tage. His heart was set on Sicily and Africa, and his imme-
diate object was to come to terms with Rome. But though he
advanced as near Rome as Anagnia (279), nothing could
shake the resolution of the senate, and in the next year 475 '
(278) he again routed the legions at Asculum (Ascoli), but only to
find that the indomitable resolution of the enemy was strength-
ened by defeat. He now crossed into Sicily, where, though at
first successful, he was unable to achieve any lasting result.
Soured and disappointed, Pyrrhus returned to Italy
(276) to find the Roman legions steadily moving
southwards, and his Italian allies disgusted by his desertion
of their cause. In 275 the decisive battle of the war
was fought at Beneventum. The consul, M'. Curius
Dentatus, the conqueror of Samnium, gained a complete victory,
7 Livy, Epit. xii.; Plut. Pyrrh. 13.
8 For his career and for the story of his wars with Rome, see the
article PYRRHUS.
REPUBLIC]
ROME
627
484.
48S.
481, 491.
481, 486,
491.
486.
and Pyrrhus, unable any longer to face his opponents in the
field, and disappointed of all assistance from his allies, retreated
to disgust to Tarentum and thence crossed into Greece. 1
A few years later (272) Tarentum was surrendered
to Rome by its Epirot garrison; it was granted a
treaty of alliance, but its walls were razed and its fleet handed
over to Rome. In 270 Rhegium also entered the
ranks of Roman allies, and finally in 269 a single
campaign crushed the last efforts at resistance in
Samnium. Rome was now at leisure to consolidate the position
she had won. Between 273 and 263 three new colonies
were founded in Samnium and Lucania Paestum
in 273, Beneventum in 268, Aesernia in 263. In
central Italy the area of Roman territory was increased
by the full enfranchisement (268) of the Sabines, 2
and of their neighbours to the east, the people of Picenum.
4 86 To guard the Adriatic coast colonies were established
49 g at Ariminum (268), at Firmum and at Castrum
Novum (264), while to the already numerous maritime
colonies was added that of Cosa in Etruria. 3
Rome was now the undisputed mistress of Italy. The limits
of her supremacy to the north were represented roughly by a
Rome the line drawn across the peninsula from the mouth of
mistress the Arno on the west to that of the Aesis on the east. 4
of Italy. Beyond this line lay the Ligurians and the Celts; all
south of it was now united as "Italy" under the rule of Rome.
But the rule of Rome over Italy, like her wider rule over
the Mediterranean coasts, was not an absolute dominion over
conquered subjects. It was in form at least a confederacy under
Roman protection and guidance; and the Italians, like the pro-
vincials, were not the subjects, but the " allies and friends " of
the Roman people. 5 In the treatment of these allies Rome con-
sistently followed the maxim, divide et impera. In every possible
way she strove to isolate them from each other, while binding them
closely to herself. The old federal groups were in most cases
broken up, and each of the members united with Rome by a
special treaty of alliance. In Etruria, Latium, Campania and
Magna Graecia the city state was taken as the unit ; in central Italy
where urban life was non-existent, the unit was the tribe. The
northern Sabellian peoples, for instance the Marsi, Paeligni,
Vestini, Marrucini, Frentani were now constituted as separate
communities in alliance with Rome. In many cases, too, no
freedom of trade or intermarriage was allowed between the allies
themselves, a policy afterwards systematically pursued in the
provinces. Nor were all these numerous allied communities
placed on the same footing as regarded their relations with Rome
herself. To begin with, a sharp distinction was drawn between
the " Latini" and the general mass of Italian allies. The
" Latins " of this period had little more than the name
in common with the old thirty Latin peoples of the
days of Spurius Cassius. With a few exceptions, such as Tibur
and Praeneste, the latter had either disappeared or had been
incorporated with the Roman state, and the Latins of 268 B.C.
were almost exclusively the " Latin colonies," that is to say,
communities founded by Rome, composed of men of Roman
blood, and whose only claim to the title " Latin " lay in the fact
that Rome granted to them some portion of the rights and
privileges formerly enjoyed by the old Latin cities under the
Cassian treaty. 6 Though nominally allies, they were in fact
offshoots of Rome herself, bound to her by community of race,
language and interest, and planted as Roman garrisons among
alien and conquered peoples. The Roman citizen who joined
a Latin colony lost his citizenship to have allowed him to
retain it would no doubt have been regarded as enlarging too
rapidly the limits of the citizen body; but he received in
1 Livy, Epit. xiv. ; Plut. Pyrrh. 26.
2 Veil. Pat. i. 14, " suffragii ferendi jus Sabinis datum."
'Ibid.; Livy, Epit. xv.
4 Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, ii. 60, note I ; Nissen, /to/. Landeskunde,
i. p. 71.
6 Beloch, Ital. Bund, 203; Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, ii. 60, note 2.
s For the coloniae Latinos founded before the First Punic War, see
Beloch, 136 seq.
The
Latins.
486.
exchange the status of a favoured ally. The member of a Latin
colony had the right of commercium and down to 268 7
of conubium also with Roman citizens. Provided
they left sons and property to represent them at home, they
were free to migrate to Rome and acquire the Roman franchise.
In war-time they not only shared in the booty, but claimed a
portion of any land confiscated by Rome and declared " public."
These privileges, coupled with their close natural affinities
with Rome, successfully secured the fidelity of the Latin colonies,
which became not only the most efficient props of Roman
supremacy, but powerful agents in the work of Romanizing
Italy. Below the privileged Latins stood the Italian The
allies; and here again we know generally that there Italian
were considerable differences of status, determined allies.
in each case by the terms of their respective treaties with Rome.
We are told that the Greek cities of Neapolis and Heraclea
were among the most favoured; 8 the Bruttii, on the other hand,
seem, even before the Hannibalic War, to have been less gener-
ously treated. But beyond this we have no detailed information.
Rome, however, did not rely only on this policy of isolation.
Her allies were attached as closely to herself as they were clearly
separated from each other, and from the first she took every
security for the maintenance of her own paramount authority.
Within its own borders, each ally was left to manage its own
affairs as an independent state. 9 The badges which marked
subjection to Rome in the provinces the resident magistrate
and the tribute were unknown in Italy. But in all points
affecting the relations of one ally with another, in all questions
of the general interests of Italy and of foreign policy, the
decision rested solely with Rome. The place of a federal
constitution, of a federal council, of federal officers, was filled
by the Roman senate, assembly and magistrates. The main-
tenance of peace and order in Italy, the defence of the coasts
and frontiers, the making of war or peace with foreign powers,
were matters the settlement of which Rome kept entirely in
her own hands. Each allied state, in time of war, was called
upon for a certain contingent of men, but, though its contingent
usually formed a distinct corps under officers of its own, its
numerical strength was fixed by Rome, it was brigaded with the
Roman legions, and was under the orders of the Roman consul. 10
This paramount authority of Rome throughout the peninsula
was confirmed and justified by the fact that Rome herself was
now infinitely more powerful than any one of her The
numerous allies. Her territory, as distinct from that Romaa
of the allied states, covered something Eke one-third * tate '
of the peninsula south of the Aesis. Along the west coast
it stretched from Caere to the southern borders of Campania.
Inland, it included the former territories of the Aequi and
Hernici, the Sabine country, and even extended eastward into.
Picenum, while beyond these limits were outlying districts,
such as the lands of the Senonian Celts, with the Roman colony
of Sena, and others elsewhere in Italy, which had been con-
fiscated by Rome and given over to Roman settlers. Since the
first important annexation of territory after the capture of
Veii (396), twelve new tribes had been formed, 11 and the
number of male citizens registered at the census had
risen from 152,000 to 2f)o,ooo. n Within this enlarged Roman
7 The year of the foundation of Ariminum, the first Latin colony
with the restricted rights; Cic. Pro Coec. 35, 202; Mommsen,
Hist, of Rome, ii. 52 n.; Staatsr. iii. 624; Marquardt, Staatsverw.
i. 54; Beloch, 155-58, takes a different view.
8 Beloch, Camp. 39; Cic. Pro Balbo, 8, 21, 22, 50.
9 For the relation of the socii Italici to Rome, see Mommsen,
Hist, of Rome, ii. 53 ff. ; Beloch, Ital. Bund, cap. x.
10 Beloch, 203. The importance of this duty of the allies is ex-
pressed in the phrase, " socii nominisve Latini quibus ex formula
togatorum milites in terra Italia imperare solent."
11 Four in South Etruria (387), two in the Pomptine territory (358),
two in Latium (332), two in the territory of the southern Volsci and
the Ager Falernus (313), two in the Aequian and Hernican territory
(299). The total of thirty-five was completed in 241 by formation of
the Velina and Quirina, probably in the Sabine and Picentine dis-
tricts, enfranchised in 268. See Beloch, 32.
12 Livy, Epit. xvi. ; Eutrop. ii. 18; Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, iu
55 n. ; Beloch, cap. iv. pp. 77 seq.
ROME
[REPUBLIC
state were now included numerous communities with local
Coioakt institutions and government. At their head stood
and the Roman colonies (colonioe civium Romanorum),
ci"!a' founded to guard especially the coasts of Latium and
Campania. 1 Next to these eldest children of Rome
came those communities which had been invested with the full
Roman franchise, such, for instance, as the old Latin towns of
Aricia, Lanuvium, Tusculum, Nomentum and Pedum. Lowest
in the scale were those which had not been considered ripe for
the full franchise, but had, like Caere, received instead the
civitas sine suffragio, the civil without the political rights. 2
Their members, though Roman citizens, were not enrolled in the
tribes, and in time of war served not in the ranks of the Roman
legions but in separate contingents. In addition to these
organized town communities, there were also the groups of
Roman settlers on the public lands, and the dwellers in the
village communities of the enfranchised highland districts in
central Italy.
The administrative needs of this enlarged Rome were obviously
such as could not be adequately satisfied by the system which
had done well enough for a small city state with a few square
miles of territory. The old centralization of all government in
Rome itself had become an impossibility, and the Roman states-
men did their best to meet the altered requirements of the time.
The urban communities within the Roman pale, colonies and
municipia, were allowed a large measure of local self-govern-
ment. In all we find local assemblies, senates and magistrates,
to whose hands the ordinary routine of local administration
was confided, and, in spite of differences in detail, e.g. in the
titles and numbers of the magistrates, the same type of consti-
tution prevailed throughout. 3 But these local authorities were
carefully subordinated to the higher powers in Rome. The local
constitution could be modified or revoked by the Roman senate
and assembly, and the local magistrates, no less than the
ordinary members of the community, were subject to the para-
mount authority of the Roman consuls, praetors and censors.
In particular, care was taken to keep the administration of
justice well under central control. The Roman citizen in a
colony or municipium enjoyed, of course, the right of appeal to
the Roman people in a capital case. We may also assume that
from the first some limit was placed to the jurisdiction of the
local magistrate, and that cases falling outside it came before
the central authorities. But an additional safeguard for the
. , equitable and uniform administration of Roman law,
Prefects. . ^
in communities to many of which the Roman code
was new and unfamiliar, was provided by the institution of
prefects (praefecti juri dicundo), 4 who were sent out annually,
as representatives of the Roman praetor, to administer justice
. in the colonies and municipia. To prefects was, moreover,
assigned the charge of those districts within the Roman pale
where no urban communities, and consequently no organized local
government, existed. In these two institutions, that of municipal
government and that of prefectures, we have already two of the
cardinal points of the later imperial system of government.
Lastly, the changes which the altered position and increased
responsibilities of Rome had effected in her military system 5
The tended to weaken the intimate connexion between
military the Roman army in the field and the Roman people
system. at home, and thus prepared the way for that com-
plete breach between the two which in the end proved fatal
to the Republic. It is true that service in the legion was still
the first duty and the highest privilege of the fully qualified
citizen. But this service was gradually altering in character.
Though new legions were still raised each year for the summer
1 Ostia, Antium, Tarracina, Minturnae, Sinuessa, and, on the
Adriatic, Sena and Castrum Novum.
2 To both these classes the term municipia was applied.
' For details, see Beloch, /to/. Bund, caps, v., vi., vii. The enfran-
chised communities in most cases retained the old titles for their
magistrates, and hence the variety in their designations.
4 For the praefecti, see Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, ii. 49, 67, and
Staatsr. ii. 608; Beloch, 130-35.
6 Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, ii. 72 seq. ; Livy viii. 8 ; Polyb. vi. 17-42.
campaigns, this was by no means always accompanied, as
formerly, by the disbandment of those already on foot, and
this increase in the length of time during which the citizen was
kept with the standards had, as early as the siege of Veii,
necessitated a further deviation from the old theory of military
service the introduction of pay.* Moreover, while in the
early days of the Republic the same divisions served for the
soldier in the legion and the citizen in the assembly, in the
new manipular system, 7 with its three lines, no regard was paid
to civic distinctions, but only to length of service and military
efficiency, while at the same time the more open order of fighting
which it involved demanded of each soldier greater skill, and
therefore a more thorough training in arms than the old phalanx.
One other change resulted from the new military Thepro ,
necessities of the time, which was as fruitful of results ^,,,^1^,
as the incipient separation between the citizen and
the soldier. Under the early Republic, the chief command of
the legions rested with the consuls of the year. But, as Rome's
military operations increased in area and in distance from
Rome, a larger staff became necessary, and the inconvenience
of summoning home a consul in the field from an unfinished
campaign became intolerable. The remedy found, that of
prolonging for a further period the imperium of the consul,
was first applied in 327 B.C. in the case of Q. Publilius Philo, 8
and between 327 and 264 instances of this prorogatio
imperil became increasingly common. This proconsular
authority, originally an occasional and subordinate one, was
destined to become first of all the strongest force in the Republic,
and ultimately the chief prop of the power of the Caesars.
PERIOD B: ROME AND THE MEDITERRANEAN STATES, 265-
146 B.C. (a) Conquest of the West. Though marked out by
her geographical position as the natural centre of
the Mediterranean, Italy had hitherto played no active
part in Mediterranean politics, but, now that she was for the first
time united, it was felt throughout the Mediterranean world
that a new power had arisen, and Rome, as the head and
representative of Italy, found herself irresistibly drawn into
the vortex of Mediterranean affairs. Egypt sought her alliance,
and Greek scholars began to interest themselves keenly in
the history, constitution, and character of the Latin Republic
which had so suddenly become famous. But Rome looked
naturally westward rather than eastward. The western coasts
of the peninsula were the most fertile and populous and wealthy;
and it was in this direction that the natural openings for Italian
commerce were to be found. It was, however, precisely on
this side that Rome had serious ground for anxiety. Carthage
was now at the height of her power. Her outposts were
threateningly near to Italy in Sardinia and in Sicily, while her
fleets swept the seas and jealously guarded for the benefit of
Carthage alone the hidden treasures of the West. In the east
of Sicily, Syracuse still upheld the cause of Greek independence
against the hereditary foe of the Greek race; but Syracuse
stood alone, and her resources were comparatively small.
What Rome had to fear was the establishment, and that at no
distant date, of an absolute Carthaginian domination over the
Western seas a domination which would not only be fatal to
Italian commerce, but would be a standing menace to the safety
of the Italian coasts.
It was above all things essential for Rome that the Cartha-
ginians should advance no farther eastward. But already
in 272 Tarentum had almost fallen into their grasp, plrst
and seven years later Rome was threatened with the p u aic
establishment of Carthaginian rule at Messana, within War,
sight of the Italian coast. The intervention of both 26S g? s ',~,
powers in a quarrel between the Mamertines, a body of
Campanian mercenaries who had occupied Messana, and Hiero II.
8 Livy iv. 59.
7 This system was probably introduced in order to meet the charge
of the Celtic swordsmen, but it was perfected during the Samnite
wars. See Marquardt, Staatsverw. iii. 350 seq.; Daremberg-Saglio,
Dictionnaire des antiquites, s.v. " Legio " (Cagnat).
8 Livy viii. 23, " ut pro consule rem gereret quoad debellatum
esset."
REPUBLIC]
ROME
629
of Syracuse, led to the outbreak of war between Rome and
Carthage in 264 B.C. The military history of the
struggle which followed is treated in the article PUNJC
WARS; it will suffice to note here that the war lasted until
241 B.C., when the Carthaginians were compelled to cede Sicily
and the Lipari islands to Rome, and to pay an indemnity of
3200 talents (about 800,000).
The struggle was one in which both Rome and Carthage were
serving an apprenticeship in a warfare the conditions of which
were unfamiliar to both. The Roman legions were foes very
unlike any against which the Carthaginian leaders had ever
led their motley array of mercenaries, while Rome was called
upon for the first time to fight a war across the sea, and to fight
with ships against the greatest naval power of the age. The
novelty of these conditions accounts for much of the vacillating
and uncertain action observable on both sides. It is possible
that Hamilcar had already made up his mind that Rome must
be attacked and crushed in Italy, but his government attempted
nothing more than raids upon the coast. There are indications
also that some in the Roman senate saw no end to the struggle
but in the destruction of Carthage; yet an invasion of Africa
was only once seriously attempted, and then only a half-hearted
support was given to the expedition. But these peculiarities
in the war served to bring out in the clearest relief the strength
and the weakness of the two contending states. The chief
dangers for Carthage lay obviously in the jealousy exhibited at
home of her officers abroad, in the difficulty of controlling her
mercenary troops, and in the ever-present possibility of dis-
affection among her subjects in Libya dangers which even the
genius of Hannibal failed finally to surmount. Rome, on the
other hand, was strong in the public spirit of her citizens,
the fidelity of her allies, the valour and discipline of her legions.
What she needed was a system which should make a better use
of her splendid materials than one under which her plans were
shaped from day to day by a divided senate, and executed by
officers who were changed every year, and by soldiers most of
whom returned home at the close of each summer's campaign.
The interval between the First and Second Punic Wars was
employed by both Rome and Carthage in strengthening their
respective positions. The eastern end of Sicily was still left
under the rule of Hiero as the ally of Rome, but the larger
western portion of the island became directly subject to Rome,
and a temporary arrangement seems to have been made for its
government, either by one of the two praetors, or possibly by a
quaestor. 1 Sardinia and Corsica had not been surrendered to
Rome by the treaty of 241, but three years later (230),
on the invitation of the Carthaginian mercenaries
stationed in the islands, a Roman force occupied them; Carth-
age protested, but, on the Romans threatening war, she gave
way, and Sardinia and Corsica were formally ceded to Rome,
though it was some seven or eight years before all resistance
on the part of the natives themselves was crushed.
In 227, however, the senate considered matters ripe
for the establishment of a separate administration in her
oversea possessions. In that year two additional praetors
were elected; to one was assigned the charge of western Sicily,
to the other that of Sardinia and Corsica, 2 and thus the first
stones of the Roman provincial system were laid. Of at least
equal importance for the security of the peninsula was the
subjugation of the Celtic tribes in the valley of the Po. These,
headed by the Boii and Insubres and assisted by levies from
the Celts to the westward, had in 225 alarmed the
whole of Italy by invading Etruria and penetrating to
Clusium, only three days' journey from Rome. Here, however,
their courage seems to have failed them. They retreated
northward along the Etruscan coast, until at Telamon their
way was barred by the Roman legions, returning from Sardinia
to the defence of Rome, while a second consular army hung
upon their rear. Thus hemmed in, the Celts fought desperately,
1 Marquardt, Staatsverw. i. 243 ; Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, ii. 209 ;
Appian, Sic. 2.
* Livy, Epit. xx.
S2S.
S26.
but were completely defeated and the flower of their tribesmen
slain. The Romans followed up their success by invading the
Celtic territory. The Boii were easily reduced to submission.
The Insubres, north of the Po, resisted more obstinately, but by
222 the war was over, and all the tribes in the rich M2
Po valley acknowledged the supremacy of Rome. The
conquered Celts were not enrolled among the Italian allies
of Rome, but were treated as subjects beyond the frontier.
Three colonies were founded to hold them in check Placentia
(218) and Cremona in the territory of the Insubres, Mutina (183)'
in that of the Boii; and the great northern road (Via Flaminia)
was completed as far as the Celtic border at Ariminum.
On the Adriatic coast the immediate interests of Rome were
limited to rendering the sea safe for Italian trade. It was with
this object that, in 229, the first Roman expedition
crossed the Adriatic, and inflicted severe chastisement
on the Illyrian pirates of the opposite coast. 3 This expedition
was the means of establishing for the first time direct political
relations between Rome and the states of Greece proper, to
many of which the suppression of piracy in the Adriatic was of
as much importance as to Rome herself. Alliances were con-
cluded with Corcyra, Epidamnus, and Apollonia; and em-
bassies explaining the reasons which had brought Roman
troops into Greece were sent to the Aetolians, the Achaeans,
and even to Athens and Corinth. Everywhere they were well
received, and the admission of the Romans to the Isthmian
games 4 (228) formally acknowledged them as the
natural allies of the free Greek states against both
barbarian tribes and foreign despots. Meanwhile Carthage
had acquired a possession which promised to compensate her
for the loss of Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica. The genius of
her greatest citizen and soldier, Hamilcar Barca, had appreciated
the enormous value of the Spanish peninsula, and conceived
the scheme of founding there a Carthaginian dominion which
should not only add to the wealth of Carthage, but supply her
with a base of operations for a war of revenge with Rome.
The conquest of southern and eastern Spain, begun
by Hamilcar (236-28) and carried on by his kinsman
Hasdrubal (228-21), was completed by his son
Hannibal, who, with all his father's genius, inherited also
his father's hatred of Rome, and by 219 the authority g^g
of Carthage had been extended as far as the Ebro
(see SPAIN, History). Rome had not watched this rapid ad-
vance without anxiety, but, probably owing to her troubles
with the Celts, she had contented herself with stipu-
lating (226) that Carthage should not carry her arms
beyond the Ebro, so as to threaten Rome's ancient ally, the
Greek Massilia (mod. Marseilles), and with securing the inde-
pendence of the two nominally Greek communities, Emporiae
and Saguntum, 5 on the east coast.
But these precautions were of no avail against the resolute
determination of Hannibal, with whom the conquest of Spain
was only preliminary to an attack upon Italy, and who could
not afford to leave behind him in Spain a state allied to Rome.
In 219, therefore, disregarding the protests of a Roman embassy,
he attacked and took Saguntum, an act which, as he had fore-
seen, rendered a rupture with Rome inevitable, while it set
his own hands free for a further advance.
For the details of the war which followed, the reader may
be referred to the articles PUNJC WARS, HANNIBAL, and SCIPJO.
From the outbreak of hostilities until the crowning second
victory of Cannae in 216 Hannibal's career of success Punk
was unchecked; and the annihilation of the Roman
army in that battle was followed by the defection
of almost the whole of southern Italy, with the ex-
ception of the Latin colonies and the Greek coast towns. In
215, moreover, Philip V. of Macedon formed an alliance 538.
with Hannibal and threatened to invade Italy; in
214 Syracuse revolted, and in 212 the Greek cities
in S. Italy went over to Hannibal. But the indomitable spirit
Pplyb. ii. 8 seq. ' Ibid. ii. 12.
6 Livy xxi. 2, 5; Polyb. Hi. 15, 31.
518-26.
526-33.
528.
630
ROME
[REPUBLIC
551.
5S2.
of the Romans asserted itself in the face of these crushing
misfortunes. In 212 Syracuse was recovered; in 211
Capua fell after a long siege which Hannibal failed
to raise, even by his famous march up to the gates of Rome,
and in the same year a coalition was formed in Greece against
Philip V. of Macedon, which effectually paralysed his offensive
action. Hannibal was now confined to Lucania and Bruttium;
and his brother Hasdrubal, marching from Spain to join him,
was defeated and slain on the river Metaurus (207).
The war in Italy was now virtually ended, for, though
during four years more Hannibal stood at bay in a corner of
Bruttium, he was powerless to prevent the restoration of Roman
authority throughout the peninsula. Sicily was once more
,.g secure; and finally in 206, the year after the victory
' on the Metaurus, the successes of the young P. Scipio
in Spain (211-6) were crowned by the complete
expulsion of the Carthaginians from the peninsula. On his
return from Spain Scipio eagerly urged an immediate invasion
of Africa. The senate hesitated; but Scipio gained
the day. He was elected consul for 205, and given
the province of Sicily, with permission to cross into Africa
if he thought fit. Voluntary contributions of men, money, and
supplies poured in to the support of the popular hero; and
by the end of 205 Scipio had collected in Sicily a sufficient
force for his purpose. In 204 he crossed to Africa,
where he was welcomed by the Numidian prince
Massinissa, whose friendship he had made in
Spain. In 203 he twice defeated the Carthaginian forces,
and a large party at Carthage were anxious to accept
his offer of negotiations. But the advocates of resistance
triumphed.
Hannibal was recalled from Italy, and returned to fight his
last battle against Rome at Zama, where Scipio, who had
been continued in command as proconsul for 202 by a
special vote of the people, won a complete victory.
The war was over. The Roman assembly voted that the
Carthaginian request for peace should be granted, and en-
trusted the settlement of the terms to Scipio and a com-
mission of ten senators. Carthage was allowed to retain her
territory in Africa; but she undertook to wage no wars
outside Africa, and none inside without the consent of Rome.
She surrendered all her ships but ten triremes, her elephants,
and all prisoners of war, and agreed to pay an indemnity of
10,000 talents in fifty years. The Numidian Massinissa
(q.v.} was rewarded by an increase of territory, and was
enrolled among the " allies and friends " of the Roman
people.
The battle of Zama decided the fate of the West. The power
of Carthage was broken and her supremacy passed to Rome.
The West Henceforth Rome had no rival to fear westward of
under Italy, and it rested with herself to settle within what
Roman limits her supremacy should be confined and what form
it should take. For the next fifty years, however, Rome
was too deeply involved in the affairs of the East to think of
63f extending her rule far beyond the limits of the rich
inheritance which had fallen to her by the defeat
of Carthage; but within this area considerable advance was
made in the organization and consolidation of her rule. In
Sicily and Spain, the immediate establishment of a Roman
Sicily government was imperatively necessary, if these
and possessions were not either to fall a prey to internal
Spain. anarchy, or be recovered for Carthage by some second
Hamilcar. Accordingly, we find that in Sicily the former
dominions of Hiero were at once united with the western
half of the island as a single province, 1 and that in Spain.
SS3. after nine years of a provisional government (206-197),
S48-S7. two P rov i nc es were in 197 2 definitely established,
and each, like Sicily, assigned to one of the praetors
for the year, two additional praetors being elected for the
' Liyy xxvi. 40. The union was apparently effected in 210.
! Ibid, xxxii. 27 ; cf . Marquardt, Stoatsverw. i. 252, and h
in Hermes, i. 105 seq.
Hubner
618.
574-JS.
621.
purpose. But here the resemblance between the two cases
ends. From 201 down to the outbreak of the Slave ^^
War in 136 there was unbroken peace in Sicily, and
its part in the history is limited to its important
functions in supplying Rome with corn and in provisioning
and clothing the Roman legions. 3 It became every year a more
integral part of Italy; and a large proportion even of the land
itself passed gradually into the hands of enterprising Roman
speculators. The governors of the two Spains had very
different work to do from that which fell to the lot of the
Sicilian praetors. The condition of Spain required that year
after year the praetors should be armed with the consular
authority, and backed by a standing force of four legions, while
more than once the presence of the consuls themselves was
found necessary. Still, in spite of all difficulties, the work
of pacification proceeded. To M. Porcius Cato, the censor, and
to Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (praetor and pro- SS9
praetor, 180-79), father of the two tribunes, is mainly
due the credit of quieting the Celtiberian tribes of
central Spain, and the government of Gracchus was followed
by thirty years of comparative tranquillity. The insurrection
headed by Viriathus in 149 was largely caused byexac- MS
tions of the Roman magistrates themselves, while
its obstinate continuance down to the capture of Numantia,
in 133, was almost as much the result of the incapacity
of the Roman commanders. 4 But the re-settlement of
the country by Scipio Africanus the younger in that year left
all Spain, with the exception of the highland Astures and
Cantabri in the north-west, finally and tranquilly subject to
Rome. Roman traders and speculators flocked to the sea-
port towns and spread inland. The mines became centres
of Roman industry; the Roman legionaries quartered in
Spain year after year married Spanish wives, and when
their service was over gladly settled down in Spain in pre-
ference to returning to Italy. The first Roman com-
munities established outside Italy were both planted in
Spain, and both owed their existence to the Roman
legions. 5
In Africa there was no question at first of the introduction
of Roman government by the formation of a province (see
AFRICA, ROMAN). Carthage, bound hand and foot by Africa
the treaty of 201, was placed under the jealous watch Third
of the loyal prince of Numidia, who himself willingly w r
acknowledged the suzerainty of Rome. But it was 153-46=
impossible for this arrangement to be permanent. 605-8.
Every symptom of reviving prosperity at Carthage was
regarded at Rome with feverish anxiety, and neither the
expulsion of Hannibal in 195 nor his death in 183 did
much to check the growing conviction that Rome
would never be secure while her rival existed. It was
therefore with grim satisfaction that many in the Roman senate
watched the increasing irritation of the Carthaginians under the
harassing raids and encroachments of their favoured neighbour
Massinissa, and waited for the moment when Carthage should,
by some breach of the conditions imposed upon her, supply
Rome with a pretext for interference. At last in 151 ,
came the news that Carthage, in defiance of treaty
obligations, was actually at war with Massinissa. The anti-
Carthaginan party in the senate, headed by M. Porcius Cato,
eagerly seized the opportunity, and war was declared, and
nothing short of the destruction of their city itself was demanded
from the despairing Carthaginians. The demand was refused,
and in 149 the siege of Carthage begun. During the next two
years little progress was made, but in 147 P. Cornelius MJ
Scipio Aemilianus, grandson by adoption of the con-
queror of Hannibal; was, at the age of thirty-seven, and though
3 Livy xxvii. 5, " pace ac bello fidissimum annonae subsidium " ;
cf. xxxii. 27.
4 Some fresh light has been thrown upon the later campaigns in
Spain by the recently discovered fragment of an epitome of Livy
(Oxyrhynchus Papyri, iv. 668; Kornemann, Die neue Liviusepitome
aus Oxyrhynchos (1904).
6 Italica (206), Appian, Iber. 38; Carteia (171), Livy xliii. 3.
REPUBLIC]
ROME
631
574.
only a candidate for the aedileship, elected consul, and given the
command in Africa. In the next year (146) Carthage
was taken and razed to the ground. Its territory
became the Roman province of Africa, while Numidia, now
ruled by the three sons of Massinissa, remained as an allied
state under Roman suzerainty, and served to protect the
new province against the raids of the desert tribes (see
CARTHAGE).
In Italy itself the Hannibalic war had been followed by im-
portant changes. In the north the Celtic tribes paid for their
sympathy with Hannibal by the final loss of all separ-
ate political existence. Cispadane Gaul, studded with
colonies and flooded with Roman settlers, was rapidly
Romanized. Beyond the Padus (Po) in Polybius's time Roman
civilization was already widely spread. In the extreme north-
east the Latin colony of Aquileia, the last of its kind, was
founded in 181, to control the Alpine tribes, while in
S73 - the north-west the Ligurians were held in check by
the colony of Luna (180), and by the extensive settle-
ments of Roman citizens and Latins made on Ligurian
581. territory in I73. 1 In southern Italy the depression of
the Greek cities on the coast, begun by the raids of the
Sabellian tribes, was completed by the repeated blows inflicted
upon them during the Hannibalic struggle Some of them lost
territory; 2 all suffered from a decline of population and loss
of trade; and their place was taken by such new Roman settle-
ments as Brundusium (Brindisi) and Puteoli (Pozzuoli). 3 In
the interior the southern Sabellian tribes suffered scarcely less
severely. The Bruttii were struck off the list of Roman allies,
and nearly all their territory was confiscated. 4 To the Apulians
and Lucanians no such hard measure was meted out; but their
strength had been broken by the war, and their numbers
dwindled; large tracts of land in their territories were
seized by Rome, and allotted to Roman settlers, or occu-
pied by Roman speculators. That Etruria also suffered
from declining energy, a dwindling population, and the
spread of large estates is clear from the state of
621 ' things existing there in 133. It was indeed in
central Italy, the home of the Latins and their nearest
kinsmen, and in the new Latin and Roman settlements
throughout the peninsula that progress and activity were
henceforth concentrated.
553-608 W Rome in the East > 200-133. Ever since the repulse
of Pyrrhus from Italy, Rome had been slowly drifting
554-621. j nto closer con tact with the Eastern states. With one
of the three great powers which had divided between them the
empire of Alexander, with Egypt, she had formed an alliance
in 273, and the alliance had been cemented by the growth
of commercial intercourse between the two countries. 6 In
S26 228 her chastisement of the Illyrian pirates had led
naturally enough to the establishment of friendly re-
540 ' lations with some of the states of Greece proper. In 2 1 4
the alliance between Philip V. and Hannibal, and the former's
threatened attack on Italy, forced her into war with Macedon,
at the head of a coalition of the Greek states against him, which
effectually frustrated his designs against herself; at the first
opportunity, however (205), she ended the war by a
peace which left the position unchanged. The results
of the war were not only to draw closer the ties which bound
Rome to the Greek states, but to inspire the senate with a
genuine dread of Philip's restless ambition, and with a bitter
resentment against him for his union with Hannibal. The
1 Livy xlii. 4.
2 E.g. Tarentum, Livy xliv. 16. A Roman colony was established
at Croton in 194, and a Latin colony (Copia) at Thurii in 193
(Livy xxxiv. 45, 53).
* Brundusium was established in 246 (Liv. Epit. xix.) or
245 (Veil. i. 14). Puteoli was fortified during the Second
Punic War and became a Roman colony in 194 (Livy xxxiv.
45 'Appian, Hann. 61 ; Aul. Cell. x. 3; cf. Beloch, ltd.
* Egypt had supplied corn to Italy during the Second Punic War
(Polyb. ix. 44).
549.
553.
554.
events of the next four years served to deepen both these
feelings. In 205 Philip entered into a compact with
Antiochus III. of Syria for the partition between them
of the dominions of Egypt,* now left by the death of Ptolemy
Philopator to the rule of a boy-king. Antiochus was to take
Coele-Syria and Phoenicia, while Philip claimed for his share the
districts subject to Egypt on the coasts of the Aegean and the
Greek islands. Philip no doubt hoped to be able to secure these
unlawful acquisitions before the close of the Second Punic War
should set Rome free to interfere with his plans. But the
obstinate resistance offered by Attalus of Pergamum and the
Rhodians upset his calculations. In 201 Rome made
peace with Carthage, and the senate had leisure to
listen to the urgent appeal for assistance which reached her from
her Eastern allies. With Antiochus indeed the senate was not
yet prepared to quarrel; but with Philip the senate had no
thoughts of a peaceful settlement. Their animosity against him
has been deepened by the assistance he had recently rendered to
Carthage. Always an unsafe and turbulent neighbour, he
would, if allowed to become supreme in the Aegean, prove as
dangerous to her interests in the East as Carthage had been in
the West. To cripple or at least to stay the growth of Philip's
power was in the eyes of the senate a necessity; but it was only
by representing a Macedonian invasion of Italy as imminent
that they persuaded the assembly, which was longing
for peace, to pass a declaration of war 7 (200).
The war began in the summer of 200 B.C., and, though the
landing of the Roman legions in Epirus was not followed, as
had been hoped, by any general rising against Philip, Second
yet the latter had soon to discover that, if they were Maam
not enthusiastic for Rome, they were still less inclined w"'*"
actively to assist himself. Neither by force nor 20&-197
by diplomacy could he make any progress south of 554-57.
Boeotia. The fleets of Pergamum and Rhodes, now the
zealous allies of Rome, protected Attica and watched the
eastern coasts. The Achaeans and Nabis of Sparta were
obstinately neutral, while nearer home in the north the Epirots
and Aetolians threatened Thessaly and Macedonia. His own
resources both in men and in money had been severely
strained by his constant wars, 8 and the only ally who could have
given him effective assistance, Antiochus, was fully occupied
with the conquest of Coele-Syria. It is no wonder then that,
in spite of his dashing generalship and high courage, he made
but a brief stand. T. Quinctius Flamininus (consul
198), in his first year of command, defeated him on
the Aous, drove him back to the pass of Tempe, and in the next
year utterly routed him at Cynoscephalae. Almost at the same
moment the Achaeans, who had now joined Rome, took Corinth,
and the Rhodians defeated his troops in Caria.' Further
resistance was impossible; Philip submitted, and early the
next year a Roman commission reached Greece with instruc-
tions to arrange terms of peace. These were such as effectually
secured Rome's main object in the war, the removal of all
danger to herself and her allies from Macedonian aggression. 10
Philip was left in possession of his kingdom, but was degraded
to the rank of a second-rate power, deprived of all possessions
in Greece, Thrace and Asia Minor, and forbidden, as Carthage
had been in 201, to wage war without the consent of
Rome, whose ally and friend he now became.
The second point in the settlement now effected by Rome
was the liberation of the Greeks. The " freedom of Greece "
was proclaimed at the Isthmian games amid a scene of The
wild enthusiasm, 11 which reached its height when two liberation
years later (194) Flamininus withdrew his troops even otare t.'
from the "three fetters of Greece" Chalcis, Demetrias
and Corinth. 12 There is no reason to doubt that, in acting thus,
not only Flamininus himself, but the senate and people at home
were influenced, partly at any rate, by feelings of genuine
' Polyb. iii. 2, xv. 20; Livy xxxi. 14.
7 Ibid. xxxi. 6, 7. Ibid, xxxiii. 3. Ibid. 18.
10 Polyb. xviii. 44-47; Livy xxxiii. 30^34.
11 Ibid, xxxiii. 32, 33. u Ibid, xxxiv. 48-52.
556.
553.
632
ROME
[REPUBLIC
sympathy with the Greeks and reverence for their past. It is
equally clear that no other course was open to them. For
Rome to have annexed Greece, as she had annexed Sicily and
Spain, would have been a flagrant violation of the pledges she
had repeatedly given both before and during the war; the
attempt would have excited the fiercest opposition, and would
probably have thrown the Asiatic as well as the European
Greeks into the arms of Antiochus. But a friendly and inde-
pendent Greece would be at once a check on Macedon, a barrier
against aggression from the East, and a promising field for
Roman commerce. Nor while liberating the Greeks did Rome
abstain from such arrangements as seemed necessary to secure
the predominance of her own influence. In the Peloponnese,
for instance, the Achaeans were rewarded by considerable
accessions of territory; and it is possible that the Greek states,
as allies of Rome, were expected to refrain from war upon each
other without her consent. 1
Antiochus III. of Syria, Philip's accomplice in the proposed
partition of the dominions of their common rival, Egypt,
War with ret urned from the conquest of Coele-Syria (198) to learn
first of all that Philip was hard pressed by the Romans,
and shortly afterwards that he had been decisively
beaten at Cynoscephalae. It was already too late to
assist his former ally, but Antiochus resolved at any rate
to lose no time in securing for himself the possessions of the
Ptolemies in Asia Minor and in eastern Thrace, which Philip
had claimed, and which Rome now pronounced free and inde-
557-58. pendent. In 197-96 he overran Asia Minorand crossed
into Thrace. 2 But Antiochus was pleasure-loving,
S62 ' irresolute, and no general, and it was not until 102
that the urgent entreaties of the Aetolians, and the withdrawal
of the Roman troops from Greece, nerved him to the decisive
step of crossing the Aegean; even then the force he took with
him was so small as to show that he completely failed to appre-
ciate the nature of the task before him. 3 At Rome the prospect
of a conflict with Antiochus excited great anxiety, and it was
not until every resource of diplomacy had been exhausted that
war was declared, 4 and the real weakness which lay behind the
once magnificent pretensions of the " king of kings " was revealed.
Had Antiochus acted with energy when in 192 he landed in
Greece, he might have won the day before the Roman
legions appeared. As it was, in spite of the warnings
of Hannibal, 5 who was now in his camp, and of the Aetolians,
he frittered away valuable time between his pleasures at Chalcis
and useless attacks on petty Thessalian towns. In 191
Glabrio landed at the head of an imposing force; and a
single battle at Thermopylae broke the courage of Antiochus, who
hastily recrossed the sea to Ephesus, leaving his Aetolian allies
to their fate. But Rome could not pause here. The safety
of her faithful allies, the Pergamenes and Rhodians, and of the
Greek cities in Asia Minor, as well as the necessity of chastising
Antiochus, demanded an invasion of Asia. A Roman fleet had
already (191) crossed the Aegean, and in concert with the fleets of
S64 Pergamum and Rhodes worsted the navy of Antiochus.
In 190 the new consul L. Scipio, accompanied by his
famous brother, the conqueror of Africa, led the Roman legion
for the first time into Asia. At Magnesia ad Sipylum, in Lydia,
he met and defeated the motley and ill-disciplined hosts of the
great king. 6 For the first time the West, under Roman leader-
ship, successfully encountered the forces of the East, and
the struggle began which lasted far on into the days of the
Settle- emperors. The terms of the peace which followed
men tot the victory at Magnesia tell their own story clearly
western enough. There is no question, any more than in
Greece, of annexation ; the main object in view is that
of securing the predominance of Roman interests and influence
1 For the conflicting views of moderns on the action of Rome, see
Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, ii. 442; Holm, Hist, of Greece, iv. 349; and
on the other side Ihne, Hist, of Rome, iii. 76 ff ., and C. Peter, Studien
zur rom. Gesch. (Halle, 1863), pp. 158 seq.
1 Livy xxxiii. 38; Polyb. xviii. 50.
3 Livy xxxv. 43. * Ibid. xxxv. 20, xxxvi. I. 6 Ibid, xxxvi. 7.
6 Livy (xxxvii. 40) describes the composition of Antiochus's army.
S54 65.
.
throughout the peninsula of Asia Minor, and removing to a safe
distance the only eastern power which could be considered
dangerous. 7 The line of the Halys and the Taurus range, the
natural boundary of the peninsula eastward, was established
as the boundary between Antiochus and the kingdoms, cities
and peoples now enrolled as the allies and friends of Rome. This
line Antiochus was forbidden to cross; nor was he to send ships
of war farther west than Cape Sarpedon in Cilicia. Immediately
to the west of this frontier lay Bithynia, Paphlagonia and the
immigrant Celtic Galatae, and these frontier states, now the
allies of Rome, served as a second line of defence against attacks
from the east. The area lying between these " buffer states "
and the Aegean was organized by Rome in such a way as should
at once reward the fidelity of her allies and secure both her own
paramount authority and safety from foreign attack. Pergamum
and Rhodes were so strengthened the former by the gift of the
Chersonese, Lycaonia,Phrygia,Mysia and Lydia, thelatter by that
of Lycia and Caria as not only amply to reward their loyalty,
but to constitute them effective props of Roman interests and
effective barriers alike against Thracian and Celtic raids in the
north and Syrian aggression in the south. Lastly, the Greek cities
on the coast, except those already tributary to Pergamum, were
declared free, and established as independent allies of Rome.
In a space of little over eleven years (200-189)
Rome had broken the power of Alexander's successors
and established throughout the eastern Mediterranean a
Roman protectorate.
It was in the western half of this protectorate that the first
steps in the direction of annexation were taken. The enthusiasm
provoked by the liberation of the Greeks had died Third
away, and its place had been taken by feelings of dis- /Mace-
satisfied ambition or sullen resentment. Internecine doaian
feuds and economic distress had brought many parts
of Greece to the verge of anarchy, and, above all, the
very foundations of the settlement effected in 197 were
threatened by the reviving power and aspirations of
Macedon. Loyally as Philip had aided Rome in the war
with Antiochus, the peace of Magnesia brought him nothing
but fresh humiliation. He was forced to abandon all hopes of
recovering Thessaly, and he had the mortification to see the
hated king of Pergamum installed almost on his borders as
master of the Thracian Chersonese. Resistance at the time
was unavailing, but from 189 until his death (179) he
laboured patiently and quietly to increase the internal re-
sources of his own kingdom, 8 and to foment, by dexterous intrigue,
feelings of hostility to Rome among his Greek and barbarian
neighbours. His successor, Perseus, his son by a left-handed
alliance, continued his father's work. He made friends among
the Illyrian and Thracian princes, connected himself by mar-
riage with Antiochus IV. of Syria and with Prusias of Bithynia,
and, among the Greek peoples, strove, not without success,
to revive the memories of the past glories of Greece under the
Macedonian leadership of the great Alexander. 9 The senate
could no longer hesitate. They were well aware of the rest-
lessness and discontent in Greece; and after hearing from
Eumenes of Pergamum, and from their own officers, all details
of Perseus's intrigues and preparations, they declared war."
The struggle, in spite of Perseus's courage and the incapacity at
the outset of the Roman commanders, was short and decisive.
The sympathy of the Greeks with Perseus, which had been
encouraged by the hitherto passive attitude assumed by Rome,
instantly evaporated on the news that the Roman legions were
on their way to Greece. No assistance came from Prusias ot
Antiochus, and Perseus's only allies were the Thracian king Cotys
and the Illyrian Genthius. The victory gained by L. Aemilius
Paulus at Pydnaji68) ended the war. 11 Perseus fg6
became the prisoner of Rome, and as such died in
Italy a few years later. 12 Rome had begun the war with the
7 Livy xxxvii. 55, xxxviii. 38; Polyb. xxi. 17.
8 Livy xxxix. 24 seq. Ibid. xlii. 5. l Ibid. xlii. 19, 36.
1 Ibid. xliv. 36-41 ; Plut. Aemil. 15 seq.
12 Diod. xxxi. 9 ; Livy xlv. 42 ; Polyb. xxxvii. 16.
REPUBLIC]
ROME
633
fixed resolution no longer of crippling but of destroying the
Macedonian state. Perseus's repeated proposals for peace
during the war had been rejected; and his defeat was followed
by the final extinction of the kingdom of Philip and Alexander. 1
Macedonia, though it ceased to exist as a single state, was not,
however, definitely constituted a Roman province. 2 On the
contrary, the mistake was made of introducing some of "the
main principles of the provincial system taxation, disarma-
ment and the isolation of the separate communities without
the addition of the element most essential for the maintenance
of order that of a resident Roman governor. The four petty
republics now created were each autonomous, and each separated
from the rest by the prohibition of commercium and conubium,
but no central controlling authority was substituted for that
of the Macedonian king. The inevitable result was confusion
6os-8. an d disorder, resulting finally (140-48) in the attempt
Mace- f a pretender, Andriscus, who claimed to be a son
doniaa of Perseus, to resuscitate the ancient monarchy. 3
Roman Qn his defeat in 148 the senate declared Macedonia
province, & R oman province, and placed a Roman magis-
trate at its head. 4
From 189 to the defeat of Perseus in 168 no formal change of
importance in the status of the Greek states had been made by
Affairs la Rome. The senate, though forced year after year to
Greece, listen to the mutual recriminations and complaints of
S6S-87. r j ya j commun iti es an( j factions, contented itself as
a rule with intervening just enough to remind the Greeks that
their freedom was limited by its own paramount authority,
and to prevent any single state or confederacy from raising
itself too far above the level of general weakness which it was
the interest of Rome to maintain. After the victory at Pydna,
however, the sympathy shown for Perseus, exaggerated as it
seems to have been by the interested representations of the
romanizing factions in the various states, was made the pre-
text for a more emphatic assertion of Roman ascendancy.
All those suspected of Macedonian leanings were removed to
Italy, as hostages for the loyalty of their several communities, 5
and the real motive for the step was made clear by the excep-
tionally severe treatment of' the Achaeans, whose loyalty was
not really doubtful, but whose growing power in the Pelopon-
nese and independence of language had awakened alarm at
Rome. A thousand of their leading men, among them the
historian Polybius, were carried off to Italy (see POLYBIUS).
In Aetolia the Romans connived at the massacre by their so-
called friends of five hundred of the opposite party. Acarnania
was weakened by the loss of Leucas, while Athens was re-
warded for her unambitious loyalty by the gift of Delos and
Samos.
But this somewhat violent experiment only answered for a
time. In 148 the Achaeans rashly persisted, in spite of warn-
Settle- i"S s ' in attempting to compel Sparta by force of
meat of arms to submit to the league. When threatened by
Greece, Rome with the loss of all that they had gained since
146=608. Cyrioscephalae, they madly rushed into war. 6 They
were easily defeated, and a " commission of ten," under the presi-
dency of L. Mummius, was appointed by the senate thoroughly
to resettle the affairs of Greece. 7 Corinth, by orders of the
senate, was burnt to the ground and its territory confiscated.
Thebes and Chalcis were destroyed, and the walls of all towns
which had shared in the last desperate outbreak were razed to
the ground. All the existing confederacies were dissolved; no
commercium was allowed between one community and another.
Everywhere an aristocratic type of constitution, according to
the invariable Roman practice, was established, and the pay-
1 Liyy xlv. 9.
a Ibid, xlv. 17, 29; Plut. Aemil. 28; Mommsen, Hist, of Rome,
ii. 508; Ihne, Hist, of Rome, iii. 258; Marquardt, Staatsverw. i. 316.
3 Polyb. xxxvii. 2 ; Livy, Epit. 1.
* For the boundaries of the province, see Ptolemy iii. 13; Mar-
quardt, loc. cit, 318 f.
6 Livy xlv. 31. Ibid. Epit. li., Hi.
7 Ibid. Epit. Iii.; Polyb. xl. 9 seq.; Pausanias vii. 16; Momm-
sen, Hist, of Rome, iii. 270.
587.
ment of a tribute imposed. Into Greece, as into Macedonia
in 167, the now familiar features of the provincial
system were introduced disarmament, isolation and
taxation. The Greeks were still nominally free, and no separate
province with a governor of its own 8 was established, but the
needed central control was provided by assigning to the neigh-
bouring governor of Macedonia a general supervision over the
affairs of Greece. From the Adriatic to the Aegean, and as far
north as the river Drilo and Mount Scardus, the whole penin-
sula was now under direct Roman rule. 9
Beyond the Aegean the Roman protectorate worked no better
than in Macedonia and Greece, and the quarrels and disorders
which flourished under its shadow were aggravated by The
its longer duration and by the still more selfish view Roman
taken by Rome of her responsibilities. 10 At one period fj^orato
indeed, after the battle of Pydna, it seemed as if inAsfa*
the more vigorous, if harsh, system then initiated 189-46-
in Macedon and Greece was to be adopted farther 66S-608.
east also. The levelling policy pursued towards Macedon
and the Achaeans was applied with less justice to Rome's
two faithful and favoured allies, Rhodes and Pergamum.
The former had rendered themselves obnoxious to Rome
by their independent tone and still more by their power
and commercial prosperity. On a charge of complicity with
Perseus they were threatened with war, and though this danger
was averted " they were forced to exchange their equal alliance
with Rome for one which placed them in close dependence upon
her, and to resign the lucrative possessions in Lycia and Caria
given them in 189. Finally, their commercial pros- .
perity was ruined by the establishment of a free port
at Delos, 12 and by the short-sighted acquiescence of Rome in the
raids of the Cretan pirates. With Eumenes of Pergamum no
other fault could be found than that he was strong and success-
ful; but this was enough. His brother Attalus was invited,
but in vain, to become his rival. His turbulent neighbours,
the Galatae, were encouraged to harass him by raids. Pam-
phylia was declared independent, and favours were heaped upon
Prusias of Bithynia. These and other annoyances and humilia-
tions had the desired effect. Eumenes and his two successors
his brother and son, Attalus II. and Attalus III. contrived
indeed by studious humility and dexterous flattery to retain
their thrones, but Pergamum (q.v.) ceased to be a powerful state,
and its weakness, added to that of Rhodes, increased the pre-
valent disorder in Asia Minor. During the same period we have
other indications of a temporary activity on the part of Rome.
The frontier of the protectorate was pushed forward to the
confines of Armenia by alliances with the kings of Pontus and
Cappadocia beyond the Halys. In Syria, on the death of
Antiochus Epiphanes (164), Rome intervened to place
a minor, Antiochus Eupator, on the throne, under
Roman guardianship. 13 In 168 Egypt formally ac- sgi \
knowledged the suzerainty of Rome, 14 and in 163 the
senate, in the exercise of this new authority, restored Ptolemy
Philometor to his throne, but at the same time weakened his
position by handing over Cyrene and Cyprus to his brother
Euegertes. 15
But this display of energy was shortlived. From the death
of Eumenes in 159 down to 133 Rome, secure in the S9S-621
absence of any formidable power in the East, and busy
with affairs in Macedonia, Africa and Spain, relapsed into an
8 Mommsen, loc. cit. note; Marquardt, Staatsverw. i. 321 seq.;
Niese, Geschichte der griechischen und makedonischen Staaten, iii. 358.
9 North of the Drilo the former kingdom of Perseus's ally Gentmus
had been treated as Macedon was in 167 (Livy xlv. 26) ; cf. Zippel,
Rom. Herrschaft in Illyrien (Leipzig, 1877). Epirus, which had been
desolated after Pydna (Livy xlv. 34), went with Greece; Marquardt
i- 3I9-
10 Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, ii. 510 ff., iii. 274 ff.
11 Livy xiv. 20; Polyb. xxx. 5.
13 Polyb. xxxi. 7. The Rhodian harbour dues suffered severely.
18 Rome had already intervened between Syria and Egypt : Livy
xlv. 12; Polyb. xxix. ii, xxxi. 12.
14 Livy xlv. 13, " Regni maximum ipraesidium in fide populi
Romani." " Ibid. Epit. xlvi., xlvii.
634
ROME
[REPUBLIC
inactivity the disastrous results of which revealed themselves
in the next period, in the rise of Mithradates of Pontus, the
spread of Cretan and Cilician piracy, and the advance of
Parthia.
Both the western and eastern Mediterranean now acknow-
ledged the suzerainty of Rome, but her relations with the two
were from the first different. The West fell to her as the prize
of victory over Carthage, and, the Carthaginian power broken,
there was no hindrance to the immediate establishment in
Sicily, Sardinia, Spain, and finally in Africa, of direct Roman
rule. To the majority, moreover, of her western subjects
she brought a civilization as well as a government of a higher
type than any before known to them. And so in the West she
not only formed provinces but created a new and wider Roman
world. To the East, on the contrary, she. came as the liberator
of the Greeks; and it was only slowly that in this part of the
Empire her provincial system made way. In the East, moreover,
the older civilization she found there obstinately held its ground.
Her proconsuls governed and her legions protected the Greek
communities, but to the last the East remained in language,
manners and thought Greek and not Roman.
PERIOD C: THE PERIOD or THE REVOLUTION (146-49
B.C.). In the course of little more than a century, Rome had
60S-TOS become the supreme power in the civilized world. By
all men, says Polybius, it was taken for granted that
nothing remained but to obey the commands of the Romans. 1
For the future the interest of Roman history centres in her
attempts to perform the two Herculean tasks which this unique
position laid upon her, the efficient government of the subject
peoples, and their defence against the barbarian races which
swarmed around them on all sides. They were tasks under
which the old republican constitution broke down, and which
finally overtaxed the strength even of the marvellous organiza-
tion framed and elaborated by Augustus and his successors.
Although in its outward form the old constitution had under-
gone little change during the age of war and conquest from
Consti- 2 ^5 to I4 ^' 2 ^e causes > both internal and external,
tutionat which brought about its fall had been silently at work
changes, throughout. Its form was in strictness that of a
moderate democracy. The patriciate had ceased to
exist as a privileged caste, 3 and there was no longer
any order of nobility recognized by the constitution. The
senate and the offices of state were in law open to all, 4 and the
will of the people in assembly had been in the most explicit
and unqualified manner declared to be supreme alike in the
election of magistrates, in the passing of laws, and in all matters
touching the caput of a Roman citizen. But in practice the
Ascend- constitution had become an oligarchy. The senate,
ancy not the assembly, ruled Rome, and both the senate
of the and the magistracies were in the hands of a class
senate. which, in defiance of the law, arrogated to itself the
title and the privileges of a nobility. 5 The ascendancy of the
senate is too obvious and familiar a fact to need much illustra-
tion here. It was but rarely that the assembly was called upon
to decide questions of policy, and then the proposal was usually
made by the magistrate in obedience to the express directions
of the senate. 6 In the enormous majority of cases the matter
was settled by a senutus consultum, without any reference to
1 Polyb. iii. 4.
2 The most important change was the assimilation of the division
j^_ by classes and centuries with that by tribes, a change
possibly due to the censorship of Gaius Flaminius in 220
(Mommsen, Staalsr. iii. 270). On this point see COMITIA.
3 A few offices of a more or less priestly character were still filled
545. on ' y ky patricians, e.g. rex sacrorum, flamen Dialis. A
plebeian first became curio maximus in 209 (Livy xxvii. 8).
4 The lectio senatus was in the hands of the censors, but whether
before Sulla's time their choice was subject to legal restrictions is
doubtful (see SENATE).
6 Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, iii. 7; Lange, Rom. Alierth. ii. I ff.
" Ex auctoritate senatus." The lex Flaminia agraria of 232
was an exception (Cic. De senect. 4; Polyb. ii. 21). In 167 B.C. a
praetor brought the question of war with Rhodes directly before
the assembly, but this was condemned as unprecedented (novo
maloque exemplo, Liv. xlv. 21).
the people at all. The assembly decides for war or peace, 7 "
but the conduct of the war and the conditions of peace are
matters left to the senate (q.v.). Now and then the assembly
confers a command upon the man of its choice, or prolongs the
imperium of a magistrate, 8 but, as a rule, these and all questions
connected with foreign affairs are settled within the walls of
the' senate-house.* It is the senate which year after year
assigns the commands and fixes the number and disposition of
the military forces, w directs the organization of a new province,"
conducts negotiations, and forms alliances. Within Italy,
though its control of affairs was less exclusive, we find that,
besides supervising the ordinary current business of administra-
tion, the senate decides questions connected with the Italian
allies, sends out colonies, allots lands, and directs the suppres-
sion of disorders. Lastly, both in Italy and abroad it managed
the finances. 12 Inseparably connected with this monopoly of
affairs to the exclusion of the assembly was the control which
in practice, if not in theory, the senate exercised over the
magistrates. The latter had become what Cicero wrongly
declares they were always meant to be, merely the subordinate
ministers of the supreme council, 13 which assigned them their
departments, provided them with the necessary equipment,
claimed to direct their conduct, prolonged their commands,
and rewarded them with triumphs. It was now at once the
duty and the interest of a magistrate to be in auctoritate senatus,
" subject to the authority of the senate," and even the once
formidable tribuni plebis are found during this period actively
and loyally supporting the senate, and acting as its spokesmen
in the assembly. 14
The causes of this ascendancy of the senate are to be found
firstly in the fact that the senate was the only body capable
of conducting affairs in an age of incessant war. The
voters in the assembly, a numerous, widely scattered
body, could not readily be called together, and when
assembled were very imperfectly qualified to decide momentous,
questions of military strategy and foreign policy. The senate, on
the contrary, could be summoned in a moment, 15 and included in
its ranks all the skilled statesmen and soldiers of the common-
wealth. The subordination of the magistrates was equally
the result of circumstances, for, as the numbers of the magis-
trates, and also the area of government, increased, some central
controlling power became absolutely necessary to prevent
collisions between rival authorities, and to secure a proper
division of labour, as well as to enforce the necessary concert
and co-operation. 16 No such power could be found anywhere
in the republican system but in the senate, standing as it
necessarily did in the closest relations with the magistrate,
and composed as it was increasingly of men who were or had
been in office.
Once more, behind both senate and magistrates, lay the
whole power and influence of the new nobility. 17 These nobiles
were essentially distinct from the older and more legiti- fi, e
mate patrician aristocracy. Every patrician was of aobiles.
course noble, but the majority of the " noble families "
in 146 were not patrician but plebeian. 18 The title
had been gradually appropriated, since the opening of the
magistracies, by those families whose members had held
curule office, and had thereby acquired the ius imaginum. It
was thus in theory within the reach of any citizen who could,
win election even to the curule aedileship, and, moreover, it
carried with it no legal privileges whatsoever. Gradually,.
7 Livy xxxi. 5, xxxiii. 25, xxxvii. 55. 8 Ibid. xxx. 27, &c.
9 Polyb. (vi. 15) expressly includes the prorogation of a command
among the prerogatives of the senate.
10 Livy xxvi. I, " consules de republica, de administratione belli,,
de provmciis exercitib.usque patres consuluerunt."
11 Ibid. xlv. 18. a Ihne, Hist, of Rome, iv. 43; Polyb. vi. 13.
13 Pro Sestio 65, " quasi ministros gravissimi consilii."
14 Livy xxvii. 5, xxviii. 45.
15 Ibid. xxii. 7. In 191 the senators were forbidden to leave
Rome for more than a day, nor were more than five to be absent
at once (Livy xxxvi. 3).
16 Ibid, xxvii. 35. 17 Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, iii. 7 fi.
18 E.g. Livii, Sempronii, Caecilii. Licinii, &c.
REPUBLIC]
ROME
635
however, the ennobled plebeian families drew together, and
combined with the older patrician gentes to form a distinct
order. Office brought wealth and prestige, and both wealth
and prestige were liberally employed in securing for this select
circle a monopoly of political power, and excluding new men. 1
Already by the close of the period it was rare for any one but
a noble to find his way into high office or into the senate. The
senate and magistrates are the mouthpieces of this order, and
identified with it in policy and interest. Lastly, it must be
allowed that both the senate and the nobility had to some
extent justified their power by the use they made of it. It
was their tenacity of purpose and devoted patriotism which
had carried Rome through the dark days of the Hannibalic
War. The heroes of the struggle with Carthage belonged to
the leading families; the disasters at the Trasimene Lake and at
Cannae were associated with the blunders of popular favourites.
From the first, however, there was an inherent weakness in
this senatorial government. It had no sound constitutional
Weakness Das i s > an d w ith tne removal of its accidental supports
of the it fell to the ground. Legally the senate had no
senatorial positive authority. It could merely advise the magis-
govem- trate when asked to do so, and its decrees were strictly
"""*' only suggestions to the magistrate, which he was at
liberty to accept or reject as he chose. 2 It had, it is true,
become customary for the magistrate not only to ask the
senate's advice on all important points, but to follow it when
given. But it was obvious that if this custom were weakened,
and the magistrates chose to act independently, the senate was
powerless. It might indeed anathematize* the refractory
official, or hamper him if it could by setting in motion against
him a colleague or the tribunes, but it could do no more, and
these measures failed just where the senate's control was most
needed and most difficult to maintain in its relations with the
generals and governors of provinces abroad. The virtual in-
ggg^ dependence of the proconsul was before 146 already
exciting the jealousy of the senate and endangering its
supremacy. 4 Nor again had the senate any legal hold over the
assembly. Except in certain specified cases, it rested with the
magistrate to decide whether any question should be settled by
a decree of the senate or a vote of the assembly. 6 If he decided
to make a proposal to the assembly, he was not bound except
by custom to obtain the previous approval of the senate, 6 and
the constitution set no limits to the power of the assembly to
decide any question whatsoever that was laid before it.
gg 7 From 167, at least, onwards, there were increasing
indications that both the acquiescence of the people in
senatorial government and the loyalty of the magistrates to the
senate were failing. The absorbing excitement of the great wars
had died away; the economic and social disturbance and dis-
tress which they produced were creating a growing feeling of
discontent; and at the same time the senate provoked inquiries
into its title to govern by its failure any longer to govern well.
In the East there was confusion; in the West a single native
chieftain defied the power which had crushed ' Carthage. At
1 Livy xxii. 34, " plebeios nobiles . . . contemnere plebem, ex
quo contemni a patnbus desierint, coepisse"; cf. Sail, Jug. 41,
paucorum arbitrio belli domique agitabatur; penes eosdem
aerarium, provinciae, magistratus." Mommsen, Hist, of Rome,
iii. 15 n. The number of new families ennobled dwindles rapidly
after 200 B.C. ; Willems, Le S6nat de la rtpublique romaine, i. 366 seq.
(Paris, 1878).
4 The senators' whole duty is " sententiam dicere." The senator
was asked " quid censes?" the assembly "quid velitis jubeatis?"
Cf. also the saving clause, " Si eis videretur " (sc. consulibus, &c.) in
Seta., e.g. Cic. Phil. v. 19, 53.
3 By declaring his action to be " contra rempublicam." The
force of this anathema varied with circumstances. It had no legal
value.
4 Livy xxxviii. 42, of Cn. Manlius Vulso in Asia, 189 B.C.; cf.
also the position of the two Scipios.
6 Hence the same things, e.g. founding of colonies, are done. in
one year by a Sctum., in another by a lex; cf. Cic. De rep.
ii. 32, 56; Phil, i 2, 6, of Antony as consul," mutata omnia, nihil
per senatum, omnia per populum."
There was no legal necessity, before Sulla's time, for getting
.the senatus auctoritas for a proposal to the assembly.
home the senate was becoming more and more simply an organ
of the nobility, and the nobility were becoming every year more
exclusive, more selfish, and less capable and unanimous. 7
But if the senate was not to govern, the difficulty arose of find-
ing an efficient substitute, and it was this difficulty that mainly
determined the issue of the struggles which convulsed Rome from
133 to 49. As the event showed, neither the assembly 62I-70S
nor the numerous and disorganized magistracy was
equal to the work; the magistrates were gradually pushed aside
in favour of a more centralized authority, and the former became
only the means by which this new authority was first encouraged
in opposition to the senate and finally established in a position
of impregnable strength. The assembly which made Pompey and
Caesar found out too late that it could not unmake them. .
It is possible that these constitutional and administrative
difficulties would not have proved so rapidly fatal to the Effects ol
Republic had not its very foundations been sapped conquest
by the changes which followed more or less directly on on Roman
the conquests of the 3rd and 2nd centuries B.C. For society.
the opening of the world to Rome, and of Rome to
the world, produced a radical change in the structure
of Roman society. The subjugation of the Mediterranean
countries, by placing at the disposal of Rome the vast natural
resources of the West and the accumulated treasures of the
East, caused a rapid rise in the standard of wealth and a marked
change in its distribution. The Roman state was enabled to
dispense with the direct taxation of its citizens, 8 since it derived
all the revenue which it needed from the subject countries. But
the wealth drawn from the provinces by the state was trifling
in amount compared with that which flowed into the pockets of
individual citizens. Not only was the booty taken in war
largely appropriated by the Roman commanders and their
men, but a host of money-makers settled upon the conquered
provinces and exploited them for their profit. The nobles
engaged in the task of administration, the contractors (publicani)
who farmed the revenues, and the " men of business " (negolia-
lores) who, as money-lenders, merchants or speculators, pene-
trated to every corner of the Empire, reaped a rich harvest at
the expense of the provincials. Farming in Italy on the old
lines became increasingly laborious and unprofitable owing to
the importation of foreign corn and foreign slaves, 9 and capi-
talists sought easier methods of acquiring wealth. If this had
meant that capital was expended in developing the natural re-
sources of the provinces, the result would have been to increase
the prosperity of the countries subject to Rome; but it was not
so. The Roman negotiators, who were often merely the
agents of the great families of Rome, drained the accumulated
wealth of the provinces by lending money to the subject com-
munities at exorbitant rates of interest. Cicero, for example,
found when governor of Cilicia that M. Junius Brutus had lent
a large sum to the people of Salamis in Cyprus at 48% com-
pound interest; and we cannot suppose that this was an
exceptional case. Such practices as these, together with the
wasteful and oppressive system of tax-farming, and the de-
liberate extortions carried on by senatorial governors, reduced
the flourishing cities of the Greek East, within the space of two
generations, to utter economic exhaustion.
But the reaction of the same process on Rome herself had far
more important consequences. The whole structure of Roman
society was altered, and the equality and homogeneity Accent-
which had once been its chief characteristics were nation at
destroyed. The Roman nobles had not merely ceased, clas * **
as in old days, to till their own farms; they had found tjactl01 "-
a means of enriching themselves beyond the dreams of avarice,
7 See generally Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, i. bk. iii. cap. 6;Lange,
Rom. Alterth. vol. ii.; Ihne, bk. v. cap. i. The first law against
bribery at elections was passed in 181 B.C. (Livy xl. 19), and against
magisterial extortion in the provinces in 149 (Lex Calpurnia de
pecuniis repetundis). The senators had special seats allotted to them
in the theatre in 194 B.C.; Livy xxxiv. 44, 54.
8 The tributum was no longer levied after 167 B.C. (Cic. Off. u. 22;
Plin. H.N. xxxiii. 56).
9 See, however, p. 637, note I and reff.
6 3 6
ROME
[REPUBLIC
and when they returned from the government of a province it
was to build sumptuous villas, filled with the spoils of Greece
and Asia, to surround themselves with troops of slaves and
dependents, and to live rather as princes than as citizens of
a republic. The publicani and negolialores formed a second
order in the state, which rivalled the first in wealth and coveted
a share in its political supremacy; while the third estate, the
plebs urbana, was constantly increasing in numbers and at the
same time sinking into the condition of an idle proletariat. The
accentuation of class distinctions is indeed inevitable in a
capitalist society, such as that of Rome was now becoming.
But the process was fraught with grave political danger owing
to the peculiarities of the Roman constitution, which rested in
theory on the ultimate sovereignty of the people, who were in
practice represented by the city mob. To win the support of
the plebs became a necessity for ambitious politicians, and the
means employed for this end poisoned the political life of Rome.
The wealth derived from the provinces was freely spent in
bribery, 1 and the populace of Rome was encouraged to claim as
the price of its support a share in the spoils of empire.
It was not only the structure and composition of Roman
society that underwent a transformation. The victory of
The new Rome in her struggle for supremacy in the Medi-
learniag terranean basin had been largely due to the powerful
aD <* conservative forces by which her institutions were
manners. p reserve{ j from decay. Respect for the mos mojorum,
or ancestral custom, imposed an effective check on the desire
for innovation. Though personal religion, in the deeper sense,
was foreign to the Roman temperament, there was a genuine
belief in the gods whose favour had made Rome great in the
past and would uphold her in the future so long as she
trod in the old paths of loyalty and devotion. Above all,
the healthy moral traditions of early Rome were maintained
by the discipline of the family, resting on the supreme authority
of the father the patria potestas and the powerful influence
of the mother, to whom the early training of the child was
entrusted. 2 Finally, the institution of the censorship, backed
as it was by the mighty force of public opinion, provided a
deterrent which prevented any flagrant deviation from the
accepted standard of morals. All this was changed by the
influence of Greek civilization, with which Rome was first
brought face to face in the 3rd century B.C. owing to her
relations with Magna Graecia. At first the results of contact
with the older and more brilliant culture of Hellas were on the
whole good. In the and century B.C., when constant intercourse
was established with the communities of Greece proper and
of Asia Minor, " philhellenism " became a passion, which was
strongest in the best minds of the day and resulted in a quickened
intellectual activity, wider sympathies and a more humane
life. But at the same time the "new learning" was a disturb-
ing and unsettling force. The Roman citizen was confronted
with new doctrines in politics and religion, and initiated into
the speculations of critical philosophy. 3 Under the influence
of this powerful solvent the fabric of tradition embodied in the
mos majorum fell to pieces; a revolt set in against Roman
discipline and Roman traditions of self-effacement, and the
craving for individual distinction asserted itself with irresistible
vehemence. As it had been in the days of the " Sophistic "
movement at Athens, so it was now with Rome; a higher
education, which, owing to its expense, was necessarily confined
to the wealthier classes, interposed between the upper and lower
ranks of society a barrier even more effectual than that set up
by differences of material condition, and by releasing the indi-
vidual from the trammels of traditional morality, gave his
ambition free course. The effect on private morals may be
gauged by the vehemence with which the reactionary opposi-
1 From 181 B.C. onwards a succession of laws de ambitu were
passed to prevent bribery, but without effect.
2 Cf. Tacitus's account of Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi,
and Aurelia, the mother of Julius Caesar, in the dialogue De oratoribus,
c. 28.
1 It is to be noted that these subjects were, generally speaking,
taught by freedmen or slaves.
tion, headed by M. Porcius Cato (consul, 195 B.C.; censor, 184
B.C.), inveighed against the new fashions, and by the
list of measures passed to check the growth of luxury
and licence, and to exclude the foreign teachers of the new
learning. 4 It was all in vain. The art of rhetoric, which was
studied through the medium of Greek treatises and Greek
models, furnished the Roman noble with weapons of attack
and defence of which he was not slow to avail himself in the
forum and the senate-house. In the science of money-making,
which had been elaborated under the Hellenistic monarchies,
the Roman capitalists proved apt pupils of their Greek teachers.
Among the lower classes, contact with foreign slaves and freed-
men, with foreign worships and foreign vices, produced a love
of novelty which no legislation could check. Even amongst
women there were symptoms of revolt against the old order,
which showed itself in a growing freedom of manners and im-
patience of control, 5 the marriage tie was relaxed, 6 and the
respect for mother and wife, which had been so powerful a
factor in the maintenance of the Roman standard of morals,
was grievously diminished. Thus Rome was at length brought
face to face with a moral and economic crisis which a modern
historian has described in the words: " Italy was living through
the fever of moral disintegration and incoherence which assails
all civilized societies that are rich in the manifold resources of
culture and enjoyment, but tolerate few or no restraints on
the feverish struggle of contending appetites." In this struggle
the Roman Republic perished, and personal government took
its place. The world had outgrown the city-state and its
political machinery, and as the notions of federalism (on any
large scale) and representative government had not yet come
into being, no solution of the problem was possible save that
of absolutism. But a far stronger resistance would have been
opposed to political revolution by the republican system had not
public morals been sapped by the influences above described.
Political corruption was reduced to a science 7 for the benefit
of individuals who were often faced with the alternatives of
ruin or. revolution; 8 there was no longer any body of sound
public opinion to which, in the last resort, appeal could be made;
and, long before the final catastrophe took place, Roman society
itself had become, in structure and temper, thoroughly un-
republican.
The first systematic attack upon the senatorial government
is connected with the names of Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus
(q.v.), and its immediate occasion was an attempt to The
deal with no less a danger than the threatened dis- Gracchi,
appearance of the class to which of all others Rome 133-21=
owed most in the past. 9 The small landholders 62 '- 33 -
throughout the greater part of Italy were sinking deeper into
ruin under the pressure of accumulated difficulties. The
Hannibalic war had laid waste their fields and thinned their
numbers, nor when peace returned to Italy did it bring with it
any revival of prosperity. The heavy burden of military
service still pressed ruinously upon them, 10 and in addition
they were called upon to compete with the foreign corn
4 In 161 B.C. a decree of the senate was passed against " philosophi
et rhetores Latini, uti Romae ne essent " (Cell. xv. n). In 155 B.C.
the philosopher Carneades was expelled from Rome (Plut. Cato. 22).
'The elder Cato complained of this as early as 195 B.C. (Liv.
xxxiv. 2).
6 Divorce was unknown at Rome until 231 B.C. (Dionys. ii. 25).
In the last century of the Republic it was of daily occurrence.
7 In the Ciceronian period the lower classes of Rome, with whom
the voting power in the comitia. rested, were openly organized for
purposes of bribery by means of collegia and sodalicia, nominally-
religious bodies. t
8 Caesar had accumulated debts amounting to 800,000 by the
time of his praetorship. Catiline and his fellow-bankrupts, amongst
whom were several women, including a certain Sempronia who, as
we are told by Sallust, " danced and played better than an honest
woman need do," hoped to bring about a cancelling of debts (novae
tabulae).
* For authorities, see under GRACCHUS.
10 To Spain alone more than 150,000 men were sent between 196
and 169 (Ihne iii. 319); compare the reluctance of the people to
declare war against Macedon in 200 B.C., and also the case of Spurius
Ligustinus in 171 (Livy, xlii. 34).
REPUBLIC]
ROME
6 37
574.
594.
imported from beyond the sea, and with the foreign slave-labour
purchased by the capital of, wealthier men. 1 Farming became
unprofitable, and the hard laborious life with its scanty returns
was thrown into still darker relief when compared with the
stirring life of the camps with its opportunities of booty, or
with the cheap provisions, frequent largesses and gay spectacles
to be had in the large towns. The small holders went off to
follow the eagles or swell the proletariat of the cities, and their
holdings were left to run waste or merged in the vineyards,
oliveyards and above all in the great cattlefarms of the rich,
and their own place was taken by slaves. The evil was worst
in Etruria and in southern Italy; but everywhere it was serious
enough to demand the earnest attention of Roman statesmen.
Of its existence the government had received plenty of warning
in the declining numbers of able-bodied males returned at the
census, 2 in the increasing difficulties of recruiting for the
legions, 3 in servile outbreaks in Etruria and Apulia, 4 and
554-94 between 200 and 160 a good deal was attempted by
way of remedy. In addition to the foundation of
twenty colonies, 5 there were frequent allotments of land to
veteran soldiers, especially in Apulia and Samnium. 6 In
1 80, 40,000 Ligurians were removed from their homes
and settled on vacant lands once the property of a
Samnite tribe, 7 and in 160 the Pomptine marshes
were drained for the purpose of cultivation. 8 But these efforts
were only partially successful. The colonies planted in
Cisalpine Gaul and in Picenum flourished, but of the others
the majority slowly dwindled away, and two required re-
colonizing only eight years after their foundation. 9 The
veterans who received land were unfitted to make good farmers;
and large numbers, on the first opportunity, gladly returned
saA as volunteers to a soldier's life. Moreover, after 160
even these efforts ceased, and with the single exception
of the colony of Auximum in Picenum (157) nothing
was done to check the spread of the evil, until in 133
Tiberius Gracchus, on his election to the tribunate, set his hand
to the work.
The remedy proposed by Gracchus 10 amounted in effect to
the resumption by the state of as much of the " common land "
as was not held in occupation by authorized persons
and conformably to the provisions of the Licinian
law, 11 and the distribution in allotments of the land
thus rescued for the community from the monopoly of a few.
It was a scheme which could quote in its favour ancient pre-
cedent as well as urgent necessity. Of the causes which led
to its ultimate failure something will be said later on; for the
present we must turn to the constitutional conflict which it
provoked. The senate from the first identified itself with the
interests of the wealthy occupiers, and Tiberius found himself
forced into a struggle with that body, which had been no part
of his original plan. He fell back on the legislative sovereignty
of the assembly; he resuscitated the half-forgotten powers of
interference vested in the tribunate in order to paralyse
the action of the senatorial magistrates, and finally lost his
life in an attempt to make good one of the weak points in the
tribune's position by securing his own re-election for a second
year. But the conflict did not end with his death. It was
1 Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, iii. 75 seq. Ihne, Hist, of Rome, iv. 364,
argues that Mommsen has exaggerated the depressing effects of
foreign competition; cf. Salvioli, Le Capitalisme dans le monde
antique, chaps, v.-vii.
2 Beloch, Ital. Bund. 80 seq.
'Livy xliii. 14; Epit. xlviii., Iv. During the period the
minimum qualification for service in the legion was reduced from
1 1 ,oop to 4000 asses.
4 Livy xxxii. 26, xxxiii. 36, xxxix. 29, 41.
6 Sixteen Roman and four Latin colonies. See Marquardt,
Staatsverw, i. 6 E.g. Livy xxxi. 4, 49, xxxii. I.
7 Livy xl. 38. 8 Livy, Ep it. xlvi.
9 Sipontum and Buxentum in 186; Livy xxxix. 23.
10 Plut. T. G. 9-14; Appian, B.C. i. 9-13; Livy, Epit. Iviii.
Compare also Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, iii. 320 seq.; Lange, Rom.
Alterth. iii. 8 seq.; Nitzsch, Gracchen, 294; Greenidge, Hist, of
Rome, i. (1904), pp. no seq.
11 For the details, see the article AGRARIAN LAWS.
renewed on a wider scale, and with a more deliberate aim by his
brother Gaius, who on his election to the tribunate ( 1 23) aai tt *
at once came forward as the avowed enemy of the Ormcchu*.
senate. 12 The latter suddenly found its control of **'
the administration threatened at a variety of points. On
the invitation of the popular tribune the assembly proceeded
to restrict the senate's freedom of action in assigning the pro-
vinces. 13 It regulated the taxation of the province of Asia 14
and altered the conditions of military service. 16 In home
affairs it inflicted two serious blows on the senate's authority
by declaring the summary punishment of Roman citizens by
the consuls on the strength of a senatus consultum to be a
violation of the law of appeal, 16 and by taking out of the senate's
hands the control of the newly established court for the trial
of cases of magisterial misgovernment in the provinces. 17
Tiberius had committed the mistake of relying too exclusively
on the support of one section only of the community; his
brother endeavoured to enlist on the popular side every avail-
able ally. The Latins and Italians had opposed an agrarian
scheme which took from them land which they had come to
regard as rightfully theirs, and gave them no share in the
benefit of the allotments. 18 Gaius not only removed this latter
grievance, 19 but ardently supported and himself brought forward
the first proposals made in Rome for their enfranchisement. 20
The indifference of the city populace, to whom the prospect of
small holdings in a remote district of Italy was not a tempting
one, was overcome by the establishment of regular monthly
doles of corn at a low price. 21 Finally, the men of business
the publicans, merchants and money-lenders were conciliated
by the privilege granted to them of collecting the tithes of the
new province of Asia, and placed in direct rivalry with the
senate by the substitution of men of their own class as judges
in the " quaestio de repetundis," in place of senators. 22 The
organizer of this concerted attack upon the position of the
senate fell, like his brother, in a riot.
The agrarian reforms of the two Gracchi had little permanent
effect. 23 Even in the lifetime of Gaius the clause in his brother's
law rendering the new holdings inalienable was re-
pealed, and the process of absorption recommenced.
In 118 a stop was put to further allotment of occupied tempt at
lands, and finally, in in, the whole position of the agrarian
agrarian question was altered by a law which con-
verted all land still held in occupation into private
land. 24 The old controversy as to the proper use of
the lands of the community was closed by this act of alienation.
The controversy in future turns, not on the right of the poor
12 On the legislation of C. Gracchus, see Warde Fowler in Eng.
Hist. Review (1905), pp. 209 seq., 417 sea.
13 Lex Sempronia de provinciis consularibus; Cic. Pro domo, 9,
24; De Prov. Cons. 2, 3; Sallust, Jug. 27.
x de provincia Asia; Cic. K<
ii. 125.
14 Lex de provincia Asia; Cic. Verr. 3, 6, 12; Pronto, Ad Ver.
16 Plut. C.G. 5 ; Diod. xxxiv. 25.
16 Plut. C.G. 4; Cic. Pro domo, 31, 82; Pro Rab. Perd. 4, 12.
"Quaestio de repetundis, est. 149 B.C. See Plut. C.G. 5; Livy,
Epit. Ix. ; Tac. Ann. xii. 60; App. B.C. i. 22. For the lex
Acilia, see C.I.L. i. 189; Wordsworth, Fragm. 424; Bruns,
Fontes juris Romani, ed. 6, pp. 56 seq.
18 They had succeeded in 129 in suspending the operations of the
agrarian commission. App. B.C. i. 18; Livy, Epit. lix.; Cic. De
Rep. iii. 29, 41.
19 Lange, R.A. iii. 32; Lex Agr. line 21.
10 The rogatio Fulvia, 125 B.C.; Val. Max. ix. 5, i; App. B.C.
i. 21.
21 Plut. C.G. 5; App. i. 21 ; Livy, Epit. Ix.; Festus, 290. _
22 Hence Gaius ranked as the founder of the equestrian order.
Plin. N.H. xxxiii. 34, " judicum appellatione separare eum
ordinem . . . instituere Gracchi "; Varro ap. Non. 454, "bicipitcm
civitatem fecit."
23 Traces of the work of the commission survive in the Miliarium
Popilianum, C.I.L. i. 551, in a few Gracchan "termini," ib. 552,
553. 554- 555> m the " limites Gracchani," Liber Colon., ed. Lachmann,
pp. 209, 210, 211, 229, &c. Compare also the rise in the numbers of
the census of 125 B.C.; Livy, Eptt. Ix.
24 See App. i. 27. The lex agraria, still extant in a fragmentary
condition in the museum at Naples, is that of in. See Mommsen,
C.I.L. i. 200; Wordsworth, 441 seq.; Bruns, Pontes juris Rom.
ed. 6, pp. 74 seq., and cf. the article AGRARIAN LAWS.
6 3 8
ROME
[REPUBLIC
118 100
636-54.
642.
643.
citizens to the state lands, but on the expediency of purchasing
other lands for distribution at the cost of the treasury. 1
But, though the agrarian reform failed, the political conflict
it had provoked continued, and the lines on which it was waged
were in the main those laid down by Gaius Gracchus. The
sovereignty of the assembly continued to be the watchword
of the popular party, and a free use of the tribunician powers
of interference and of legislation remained the most effective
means of accomplishing their aims.
Ten years after the death of Gaius the populares once more
summoned up courage to challenge the supremacy of the
senate; but it was on a question of foreign administra-
tion that the conflict was renewed. The course of
affairs in the client state of Numidia since Micipsa's
death in 118 had been such as to discredit a stronger
government than that of the senate. 2 In defiance of Roman
authority, and relying on the influence of his own well-spent
gold, Jugurtha had murdered both his legitimate rivals, Hiemp-
sal and Adherbal, and made himself master of Numidia. The
declaration of war wrung from the senate (112) by
popular indignation had been followed by the corrup-
tion of a consul 3 (in) and the crushing defeat of
the proconsul Albinus. 4 On the news of this crowning dis-
grace the storm burst, and on the proposal of the tribunes a
commission of inquiry was appointed into the conduct of the
war. 6 But the popular leaders did not stop here. Q. Caecilius
Metellus, who as consul (109) had succeeded to the com-
mand in^umidia, was an able soldier but a rigid
aristocrat; and they now resolved to improve their success by
entrusting the command instead to a genuine son of the people.
Their choice fell on Gaius Marius (see MARIUS), an experienced
officer and administrator, but a man of humble birth, wholly
illiterate, and one who, though no politician, was by tempera-
ment and training a hater of the polished and effeminate nobles
who filled the senate. 6 He was triumphantly elected, and, in
spite of a decree of the senate continuing Metellus as proconsul,
he was entrusted by a vote of the assembly with the charge of
the war against Jugurtha (<?..). 7
Jugurtha was vanquished; and Marius, who had been a
second time elected consul in his absence, arrived at Rome in
6SO January 104, bringing the captive prince with him in
chains. 8 But further triumphs awaited the popular
hero. The Cimbri and Teutones were at the gates of Italy;
they had four times defeated the senatorial generals, and Marius
was called upon to save Rome from a second invasion of the
barbarians. 9 After two years of suspense the victory at Aquae
Sextiae (102), followed by that on the Raudine plain
(101), put an end to the danger by the annihilation of
the invading hordes; and Marius, now consul for the
fifth time, returned to Rome in triumph. There the popular
party welcomed him as a leader with all the prestige of a success-
ful general. Once more, however, they were destined to a brief
success followed by disastrous defeat. Marius became for the
sixth time consul; 10 of the two popular leaders Glaucia became
Satur- praetor and Saturninus tribune. But Marius and his
ninus allies were not statesmen of the stamp of the Gracchi ;
and the anc j the laws proposed by Saturninus had evidently
no serious aim in view other than that of harassing
the senate. His corn law merely reduced the price
fixed in 123 for the monthly dole of corn, and the
main point of his agrarian law lay in the clause appended
to it requiring all senators to swear to observe its pro-
1 Cic. Agr. ii. 25, 65. * Sallust, Jug. 5 seq.; Livy, Epit. Ixii., Ixiv.
3 L. Calpurnius Bestia, tribune 121 ; Sail. Jug. 28.
4 Ibid. 38, 39. 6 i bid- 40 .
6 Sallust, Jug. 63; Plut. Marius, 2, 3. For the question as to
the position of his parents, see Madvig, Verf. i. 170; Diod. xxxiv. 38.
7 Sallust, Jug. 73.
8 Ibid. 114. For the chronology of the Jugurthine war, see
Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, iii. 398; Pelham, Journ. of Phil. vii. 91 ;
Meinel, Zur Chronologie des jugurthinischen Kriegs (1883).
'Livy, Epit. Ixvii.; Plut. Mar. 12; Mommsen, Hist, of Rome,
iii. 414 seq.
10 Livy, Epit. Ixix. ; Appian, B.C. i. 28 seq.
652.
653.
631
visions. 11 The laws were carried, but the triumph of the popular
leaders was short-lived. Their recklessness and violence had
alienated all classes in Rome; and their period of office was
drawing to a close. At the elections fresh rioting took place,
and Marius as consul was called upon by the senate to protect
the state against his own partisans. Saturninus and Glaucia
surrendered, but while the senate was discussing their fate they
were surrounded and murdered by their opponents.
The popular party had been worsted once more in their
struggle with the senate, but none the less their alliance with
Marius, and the position in which their votes placed him, marked
an epoch in the history of the revolution. The transference
of the political leadership to a consul who was nothing if
not a soldier was at once a confession of the insufficiency of
the purely civil authority of the tribunate and a dangerous en-
couragement of military interference in political controversies.
The consequences were already foreshadowed by the special
provisions made by Saturninus for Marius's veterans, and in
the active part taken by them in the passing of his laws.
Indirectly, too, Marius, though no politician, played an
important part in this new departure. His military /unitary
reforms 12 at once democratized the army and attached reforms
it more closely to its leader for the time being. He of
swept away the last traces of civil distinctions of rank Mariu*.
or wealth within the legion, admitted to its ranks all classes, and
substituted voluntary enlistment under a popular general for the
old-fashioned compulsory levy. The efficiency of the legion was
increased at the cost of a complete severance of the ties which
bound it to the civil community and to the civil authorities.
The next important crisis was due partly to the rivalry which
had been growing more bitter each year between the senate and
the commercial class, and partly to the long-impending question
of the enfranchisement of the Italian allies. The publicani,
negotiatores and others, who constituted what was now becoming
known as the equestrian order (see EQUITES), had made un-
scrupulous use of their control of the courts and especially of
the quaestio de repetundis against their natural rivals, the
official class in the provinces. The threat of prosecution before
a hostile jury was held over the head of every governor, legate
and quaestor who ventured to interfere with their operations in
the provinces. The average official preferred to connive at
their exactions; the bolder ones paid with fines and even exile
for their courage. In 92 the necessity for a reform was 662.
proved beyond a doubt by the scandalous condemnation o/, coo .
of P. RutiliusRuf us, 13 ostensibly on a charge of extortion, teat of
in reality as the reward of his efforts to check the the
extortions of the Roman equites in Asia. The diffi- Italian
culties of the Italian question were more serious. That allies.
the Italian allies were discontented was notorious. After
nearly two centuries of close alliance, of common dangers and
victories, they now eagerly coveted as a boon that complete
amalgamation with Rome which they had at first resented as
a dishonour. But, unfortunately, Rome had grown more ex-
clusive in proportion as the value set upon Roman citizenship
increased. During the last forty years feelings of hope and
disappointment had rapidly succeeded each other; Marcus
Fulvius Flaccus, Gaius Gracchus, Saturninus, had all held out
promises of relief and nothing had yet been done. On each
occasion they had crowded to Rome, full of eager expectation,
only to be harshly ejected from the city by the consul's orders. 14
The justice of their claims could hardly be denied, the danger of
continuing to ignore them was obvious yet the difficulties in
the way of granting them were formidable in the extreme, and
from a higher than a merely selfish point of view there was much
11 For the leges Appuleioe, see SATURNINUS, L. APPULEIUS, and
authorities there quoted.
12 Sallust, Jug. 86, " ipse interea milites scribere, non more majorum
neque ex classibus, sed uti cujusque cupido erat, capite censos
plerosque." For details, cf. Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, iii. 456 seq.;
Madvig, Verf. ii. 468, 493; Marquardt, Stoatsv. iii. 430 seq.
13 Livy, Epit. Ixx.; Veil. ii. 13.
14 Z,e* Junta, Cic. De Off. iii. ii, 47; lex Licinia Mucia, Cic.
Pro Corn. fr. 10; Ascon. p. 60.
REPUBLIC]
ROME
6 39
to be said against the revolution involved in so sudden and
enormous an enlargement of the citizen body.
Marcus Livius Drusus (q.v.), who as tribune gallantly took up
the task of reform, is claimed by Cicero 1 as a member of that
Manas party of the centre to which he belonged himself.
Livius Noble, wealthy and popular, he seems to have hoped
Drusus, t be able by the weight of his position and character
663. ^ o rescue t^e burning questions of the day from the
grasp of extreme partisans and to settle them peacefully and
equitably. But he, like Cicero after him, had to find to his
cost that there was no room in the fierce strife of Roman politics
for moderate counsels. His proposal to reform the law courts
excited the equestrian order and their friends in the senate to
fury. The agrarian and corn laws which he coupled with it 2
alienated many more in the senate, and roused the old anti-
popular party feeling; finally, his known negotiations with the
Italians were eagerly misrepresented to the jealous and excited
people as evidence of complicity with a widespread conspiracy
against Rome. His laws were carried, but the senate pronounced
The them null and void. 3 Drusus was denounced in the
Social senate house as a traitor, and on his way home was
War, struck down by the hand of an unknown assassin. His
90-89= assassination was the signal for an outbreak which
had been secretly prepared for some time before.
Throughout the highlands of central and southern Italy the
flower of the Italian peoples rose as one man. 4 Etruria and
Umbria held aloof; the isolated Latin colonies stood firm; but
the Sabellian clans, north and south, the Latinized Marsi and
Paeligni, as well as the Oscan-speaking Samnites and Lucanians,
rushed to arms. No time was lost in proclaiming their plans
for the future. A new Italian state was to be formed. The
Paelignian town of Corfinium was selected as its capital and re-
christened with the proud name of Italica. All Italians were to
be citizens of this new metropolis, and here were to be the place
of assembly and the senate house. A senate of 500 members
and a magistracy resembling that of Rome completed a constitu-
tion which adhered closely to the very political traditions which
its authors had most reason to abjure.
Now, as always in the face of serious danger, the action of
Rome was prompt and resolute. Both consuls took the field ; 6
with each were five legates, among them the veteran Marius and
his destined rival L. Cornelius Sulla, and even freedmen were
pressed into service with the legions. But the first year's
campaign opened disastrously. In central Italy the northern
Sabellians, and in the south the Samnites, defeated the forces
opposed to them. And though before the end of the year Marius
and Sulla in the north, and the consul Caesar himself in Cam-
pania, succeeded in inflicting severe blows on the enemy, and on
the Marsi especially, it is not surprising that, with an empty
treasury, with the insurgents' strength still unbroken, and with
rumours of disaffection in the loyal districts, opinion in Rome
should have turned in the direction of the more liberal policy
which had been so often scornfully rejected and in favour of
some compromise which should check the spread of the revolt, and
possibly sow discord among their enemies. Towards the
close of the year 90 the consul L. Julius Caesar (killed
Lex Julia by Fimbria in 87) carried the lex Julia, 6 by which
t ' le R man franchise was offered to all communities
which had not as yet revolted; early in the next year
(89) the Julian law was supplemented by the lex
Plautia Papiria, introduced by two of the tribunes,
M. Plautius Silvanus and C. Papirius Carbo Arvina, which
1 Cic. De oral. i. 7, 24 f., and De domo, 19, 50; Appian, B.C.
i. 35; Diod. Sic. xxxvii. 10; Ihne, bk. vii. cap. xiii.
2 For the provisions of the leges Liviae, see App. B.C. \. 35;
Livy, Epit. Ixxi. They included, according to Pliny, N.H. xxxiii. 3,
a proposal for the debasement of the coinage.
3 Cic. Pro domo, 16, 41.
4 For the Social War, see, besides Mommsen, Ihne and Lange,
Kiene, Der romische Bundesgenossenkrieg (Leipzig, 1845).
6 App. B.C. i. 39-49; Livy, Epit. Ixxii.-lxxvi.
6 For the lex Julia, see Cicero, Pro Balbo, 8, 21 ; Cell. iv. 4; App.
B.C. i. 49. For the lex Plautia Papiria, see Cic. Pro Archia, 4, 7,
andSchol. Bob. p. 353.
p"au'/a
665.
enacted that any citizen of an allied community then domiciled
in Italy might obtain the franchise by giving in his name to a
praetor in Rome within sixty days. A third law (lex Calpurnia),
apparently passed at the same time, empowered Roman magis-
trates in the field to bestow the franchise there and then upon
all who were willing to receive it. This sudden opening of the
closed gates of Roman citizenship was completely successful,
and its effects were at once visible in the diminished vigour of
the insurgents. By the end of 89 the Samnites and 66g
Lucanians were left alone in their obstinate hostility
to Rome, and neither, thanks to Sulla's brilliant campaign
in Samnium, had for the moment any strength left for active
aggression.
The termination of the Social War brought with it no peace
in Rome. The old quarrels were renewed with increased
bitterness, and the newly enfranchised Italians themselves
complained as bitterly of the restriction 7 which robbed them
of their due share of political influence by allowing them to vote
only in a specified number of tribes. The senate itself was dis-
tracted by violent personal rivalries and all these feuds, ani-
mosities and grievances were aggravated by the widespread
economic distress and ruin which affected all classes. 8 Lastly,
war with Mithradates VI. had been declared; it was notorious
that the privilege of commanding the force to be sent against
him would be keenly contested, and that the contest would lie
between the veteran Marius and L. Cornelius Sulla.'
It was in an atmosphere thus charged with- the elements
of disturbance that P. Sulpicius Rufus as tribune 10 brought
forward his laws. He proposed (i) that the com- p.sai-
mand of the Mithradatic war should be given to picius
Marius, (2) that the new citizens should be distributed Rutu*,
through all the tribes, (3) that the freedmen should
no longer be confined to the four city tribes, (4) that any
senator owing more than 2000 denarii should lose his seat,
(5) that those exiled on suspicion of complicity with the Italian
revolt should be recalled. These proposals inevitably provoked
a storm, and both sides were ominously ready for violent
measures. The consuls, in order to prevent legislation, pro-
claimed a public holiday. Sulpicius replied by arming his
followers and driving the consuls from the forum. The pro-
clamation was withdrawn and the laws carried, but Sulpicius's
triumph was short-lived. From Nola in Campania, where lay
the legions commanded by him in the Social War, Sulla advanced
on Rome, and for the first time a Roman consul entered the
city at the head of the legions of the Republic. Resistance was
hopeless. Marius and Sulpicius fled, 11 and Sulla, summoning
the assembly of the centuries, proposed the measures he con-
sidered necessary for the public security, the most important
being a provision that the sanction of the senate should be
necessary before any proposal was introduced to the assembly. 12
Then, after waiting in Rome long enough to hold the 66T
consular elections, he left for Asia early in 87.
Sulla had conquered, but his victory cost the Republic dear.
He had first taught political partisans to look for final success,
not to a majority of votes in the forum or campus, Marius
but to the swords of the soldiery. The lesson was well aoa
learnt. Shortly after his departure L. Cornelius
Cinna as consul revived the proposals of Sulpicius; 13 his
colleague, Gnaeus Octavius, at the head of an armed force
fell upon the new citizens who had collected in crowds to vote,
7 Veil. ii. 20; App. B.C. i. 49, 53. It is impossible to reconcile in
detail the statements of these authors.
8 App. B.C. i. 54, and Mithr. 22; Oros. v. 18; Livy, Epit.
Ixxiv.
It had been already declared a consular province for 87, and
early in 88 seems to have been assigned to Sulla by decree of the
senate.
10 See SULPICIUS RUFUS, P.
"Marius finally escaped to Africa (see MARIUS); Sulpicius was
taken and killed ; App. i. 60.
12 App. B.C. i. 59, lofilrtn &irpo0o<!\ivrov it T&V Srjitov kr&ptoQai.
For the other laws mentioned by Appian, see Mommsen, Hist, of
Rome, iii. 541 f.
u Livy, Epit. Ixxix. ; Veil. ii. 20.
640
ROME
(REPUBLIC
* '
and the forum was heaped high with the bodies of the slain. 1
Cinna fled, but fled, like Sulla, to the legions. When the senate
declared him deposed from his consulship, he replied by invoking
the aid of the soldiers in Campania in behalf of the violated
rights of the people and the injured dignity of the consulship,
and, like Sulla, found them ready to follow where he led. The
neighbouring Italian communities, who had lost many citizens
in the recent massacre, sent their new champion men and
money; 2 while from Africa, whither he had escaped after
Sulla's entry into Rome, came Marius with 1000 Numidian
horsemen. The senate had prepared for a desperate defence,
but fortune was adverse, and after a brief resistance they gave
way. Cinna was acknowledged as consul, the sentence of out-
lawry passed on Marius was revoked and Cinna and Marius
entered Rome with their troops. Marius's thirst for revenge
was gratified by a frightful massacre, and he lived long enough
to be nominated consul for the seventh time. But he held his
Ofig consulship cnly a few weeks. Early in 86 he died, and
for the next three years Cinna ruled Rome. Constitu-
' ' ' tional government was virtually suspended. For 85 and
84 Cinna nominated himself and a trusted colleague as consuls. 3
The state was, as Cicero 4 says, without lawful authority. 6 One
important matter was carried through the registration in all
the tribes of the newly enfranchised Italians, 6 but beyond this
little was done. The attention of Cinna and his friends was in
truth engrossed by the ever-present dread of Sulla's return
from Asia. The consul of 86, L. Valerius Flaccus (who
had been consul with Marius in 100 B.C.), sent out to
supersede him, was murdered by his own soldiers at Nicomedia. 7
In 85 Sulla, though disowned by his government, con-
cluded a peace with Mithradates. 8 In 84, after settling
affairs in Asia and crushing Flaccus's successor, C. Flavius
The Fimbria, he crossed into Greece, and in the spring of
nturn of 83 landed at Brundusium with 40,000 soldiers and a
large following of Imigr6 nobles. Cinna was dead, 9
murdered like Flaccus by his mutinous soldiers; his
most trusted colleague, Cn. Papirius Carbo, was commanding
as proconsul in Cisalpine Gaul; and the resistance offered to
Sulla's advance was slight. At Capua, Sulla routed the forces
of one consul, Gaius Norbanus; at Teanum the troops of the
other went over in a body to the side of the outlawed proconsul.
After a winter spent in Campania he pressed forward to Rome,
defeated the younger Marius (consul, 82) near Praeneste,
and entered the city without further opposition. In
north Italy the success of his lieutenants,Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius
(son of Metellus Numidicus), Cn. Pompeius and Marcus Crassus,
had been fully as decisive. Cisalpine Gaul, Umbria and Etruria
had all been won for Sulla, and the two principal leaders on the
other side, Carbo and Norbanus, .had each fled, one to Rhodes,
the other to Africa. Only one foe remained to be conquered.
The Samnites and Lucanians whom Cinna had conciliated, and
who saw in Sulla their bitterest foe, were for the last time in
arms, and had already joined forces with the remains of
the Marian army close to Rome. The decisive battle was
fought under the walls of the city, and ended in the complete
defeat of the Marians and Italians (battle of the Colline Gate). 10
For a period of nearly ten years Rome and Italy had been
distracted by civil war. Sulla was now called upon to heal
1 Cic. Pro Sestio, 36, 77; Catil. iii. 10, 24.
2 Tibur and Praeneste especially.
3 The consuls of 86, 85, 84 were all nominated without election.
Livy, Epit. Ixxx. Ixxxiii. ; App. i. 75.
4 Brut. 227.
5 The nobles had fled to Sulla in large numbers; Veil. ii. 23.
6 This work was accomplished apparently by the censors of 86;
but cf. Lange iii. 133; Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, iv. 70; Livy,
Epit. Ixxxiv.
7 Livy, Epit. Ixxxii ; Appian, Mithr. 52 ; Plut. Sulla, 23.
8 Livy, Epit. Ixxxiii. ; Veil. ii. 23 ; Plut. Sulla, 24.
8 In 84; App. B.C. \. 78; Livy, Epit. Ixxxiii.
10 Livy, Epit. Ixxxviii., " cum Samnitibus ante portam Collinam
debellavit "; Plut. Sulla, 29, and Crassus, 6. According to App. i.
93, and Livy, loc cit., 8000 captives were massacred. Florus, iii. 21,
gives 4000. Praeneste surrendered, was razed to the ground, and
its population put to the sword.
672.
the divisions which rent the state asunder, to set in working
again the machinery of civil government and above suti's
all so to modify it as to meet the altered conditions, dictator-
and to fortify it against the dangers which visibly *t>ip,
threatened it in the future. The real charge against 8I ~ 673 -
Sulla 11 is not that he failed to accomplish all this, for to do so
was beyond the powers even of a man so able, resolute and
self-confident as Sulla, armed though he was with absolute
authority and backed by overwhelming military strength and
the prestige of unbroken success. He stands convicted rather
of deliberately aggravating some and culpably ignoring others
of the evils he should have tried to cure, and of contenting
himself with a party triumph when he should have aimed at
the regeneration and confirmation of the whole state. His
victory was instantly followed, not by any measures of con-
ciliation, but by a series of massacres, proscriptions and con-
fiscations, of which almost the least serious consequence was the
immediate loss of life which they entailed. 12 From this time
forward the fear of proscription and confiscation
recurred as a possible consequence of every political ,///,/
crisis, and it was with difficulty that Caesar himself Suiiaa
dissipated the belief that his victory would be followed proscrip-
by a Sullan reign of terror. The legacy of hatred and a as -
discontent which Sulla left behind him was a constant source
of disquiet and danger. In the children of the proscribed,
whom he excluded from holding office, and the dispossessed
owners of the confiscated lands, every agitator found ready and
willing allies. 13 The moneyed men of the equestrian order
were more than ever hostile to the senatorial government,
which they now identified with the man who cherished towards
them a peculiar hatred, 14 and whose creatures had hunted them
down like dogs. The attachment which the new Italian citizens
might in time have learnt to feel for the old republican con-
stitution was nipped in the bud by the massacres at Praeneste
and Norba, by the harsh treatment of the ancient towns of
Etruria, and by the ruthless desolation of Samnium and
Lucania. 15 Quite as fatal were the results to the economic
prosperity of the peninsula. Sulla's confiscations, following
on the civil and social wars, opened the doors wide for
a long train of evils. The veterans whom he planted on the
lands he had seized 16 did nothing for agriculture, and swelled
the growing numbers of the turbulent and discontented. 17 The
" Sullan men " became as great an object of fear and dislike as
the "Sullan reign." 18 The latif undid increased with startling
rapidity whole territories passing into the hands of greedy
partisans. 19 Wide tracts of land, confiscated but never allotted,
ran to waste. 20 In all but a few districts of Italy the free popula-
tion finally and completely disappeared from the open country;
and life and property were rendered insecure by the brigandage
which now developed unchecked, and in which the herdsmen
slaves played a prominent part. The outbreaks of Spartacus in
73, and of Catiline ten years later, were significant
commentaries on this part of Sulla's work. 21 His con-
stitutional legislation, while it included many useful
administrative reforms, is marked by as violent a
spirit of partisanship, and as apparently wilful a tlon of
blindness to the future. There-establishment on a legal Su " a '
basis of the ascendancy which custom had so long accorded to the
11 Compare especially Mqmmsen's brilliant chapter, which is,
however, too favourable (bk. iv. cap. x.),and also Lange (iii. 146 seq.).
Further references will be found in the article SULLA (q.v.).
12 App. i. 95 seq.; Dio Cassius, fr. 109; Plut. Sulla, 31. The
number of the proscribed is given as 4700 (Val. Max.), including,
according to Appian, 2600 members of the equestrian order.
13 .E.g. Catiline, in 63. Sail. Cat. 21, 37. For the liberi pro-
scriptorum, see Veil. ii. 28. " Cic. Pro. Cluent. 55, 151.
15 Cic. Phil. v. 16, 43, " tot municipiorum maximae calamitates."
Cic. Pro Domo, 30, 79; Cic. Ad Alt. i. 19; Florus iii. 21; Strabo,
223, 254.
16 Livy, Epit. Ixxxix.; App. B.C. {. 100; Cicero, Catil. ii. 79. 20.
17 Sail. Cat. 28. w Cic. Agr. ii. 269.
19 Cic. Agr. ii. 26, 69 seq.; 28, 78; iii. 2, 8 the territories of
Praeneste and of the Hirpini. 20 Ibid. iii. 4, 14.
21 See especially Cicero's oration Pro Tullio. For the pastores of
Apulia, Sail. Cat. 28.
6g/
REPUBLIC]
666.
650.
senate was his main object. With this purpose he had already,
when consul in 88, made the senatus auctoritas legally
necessary for proposals to the assembly. He now as
dictator 1 followed this up by crippling the power of the magis-
tracy, which had been the most effective weapon in the hands of
the senate's opponents. The legislative freedom of the tribunes
was already hampered by the necessity of obtaining the senate's
sanction; in addition, Sulla restricted their wide powers of
interference (intercessio) to their original purpose of protecting
individual plebeians, 2 and discredited the office by prohibiting
a tribune from holding any subsequent office in the state.* The
control of the courts (quaestiones perpetuae) was taken from the
equestrian order and restored to the senate. 4 To prevent the
people from suddenly installing and keeping in high office a
second Marius, he re-enacted the old law against re-election, 6
and made legally binding the custom which required a man
to mount up gradually to the consulship through the lower
offices. 6 His increase of the number of praetors from six to
eight, 7 and of quaestors to twenty, 8 though required by adminis-
trative necessities, tended, by enlarging the numbers and
further dividing the authority of the magistrates, to render
them still more dependent upon the central direction of the
senate. Lastly, he replaced the pontifical and augural colleges
in the hands of the senatorial nobles, by enacting that vacancies
in them should, as before the lex Domitia (104), be
filled up by co-optation. 9 It cannot be said that
Sulla was successful in fortifying the republican system
against the dangers which menaced it from without. He
accepted as an accomplished fact the enfranchisement of the
Italians, 10 but he made no provision to guard against the con-
sequent reduction of the comilia to an absurdity, 11 and with them
of the civic government which rested upon them, or to organize
an effective administrative system for the Italian communities. 12
Of all men, too, Sulla had the best reason to appreciate the
dangers to be feared from the growing independence of governors
and generals in the provinces, and from the transformation of
the old civic militia into a group of professional armies, devoted
1 For Sulla's dictatorship as in itself a novelty, see App. i. 98 ;
Plut. Sulla, 33; Cic. Ad Alt. 9, 15; Cic. De Legg. i. 15, 42.
2 Cic. De Legg. iii. 9, 22, " injuriae faciendae potestatem ademit,
auxilii ferendi reliquit." Cf. Cic. Verr. i. 60, 155; Livy, Epit.
Ixxxix.
>Cic. Pro Cornel, fr. 78; Ascon. In Corn. pp. 59, 70; Appian
i. 100.
4 Veil. ii. 32; Tac. Ann. xi. 22; Cic. Verr. Act. i. 13, 37-
6 App. B.C. i. 100; cf. Livy vii. 42 (3^2 B.C.), " ne quis eundem
magistratum intra decem annos caperet.'
8 The custom had gradually established itself. Cf . Livy xxxn. 7.
The " certus ordo magistratuum " legalized by Sulla was quaestor-
ship, praetorship, consulate; App. i. 100.
7 Pompon. De orig. juris (Dig. \. 2, 2, 32); Veil. ii. 89. Com-
pare also Cicero, In Pison. 15, 35 with Cic. Pro Milone, 15, 39.
The increase was connected with his extension of the system of
quaestiones perpetuae, which threw more work on the praetors as
the magistrates in charge of the courts.
Tac. Ann. xi. 22. The quaestorship henceforward carried with
it the right to be called up to the senate. By increasing the number
of quaestors, Sulla provided for the supply of ordinary vacancies
in the senate and restricted the censors' freedom of choice in filling
them up. Fragments of the lex Cornelia de XX quaestoribus
survive. See C.I.L. i. 108; Bruns, Fontes juris Romani (ed. 6),
p. 91.
Dio xxxvii. 37; Ps. Ascon. 102 (Orelli). He also increased
their numbers; Livy, Epit. Ixxxix.
10 He did propose to deprive several communities which had
joined Cinna of the franchise, but the deprivation was not carried
into effect; Cic. Pro domo, 30, 79.
11 The inadequacy of the comilia as a representative body was
increased by the unequal distribution of the new citizens amongst
the thirty-five tribes, each of which formed a single voting unit.
Some tribes represented only a thinly populated district in the
Campagna with one or two outlying communities, others included
large and populous territories. See Mommsen, Staatsr. iii. 187;
Hermes, xxii. 101 sqq. . .
u Sulla does not appear to have passed any general municipal
law; the necessary resettlement of the local constitutions after
the Social War was seemingly carried out by commissioners. The
fragment of a municipal charter found at Tarentum (Ephem. epigr.
ix. i, Dessau, Inscr. Lai. sel. 6086) is probably a specimen of such
leges datae.
XXIII. 21
677.
ROME 641
only to a successful leader, and with the weakest possible sense
of allegiance to the state. He had himself, as proconsul of
Asia, contemptuously and successfully defied the home govern-
ment, and he, more than any other Roman general, had taught
his soldiers to look only to their leader, and to think only of
booty. 13 Yet, beyond a few inadequate regulations, there is no
evidence that Sulla dealt with these burning questions, the
settlement of which was among the greatest of the achievements
of Augustus. 14 One administrative reform of real importance
must, lastly, be set down to his credit. The judicial procedure
first established in 149 for the trial of cases of magisterial
extortion in the provinces, and applied between 149 605-673
and 81 to cases of treason and bribery, Sulla extended
so as to bring under it the chief criminal offences, and thus laid
the foundations of the Roman criminal law. 1 *
The Sullan system stood for nine years, and was then over-
thrown as it had been established by a successful soldier.
It was the fortune of Cn. Pompeius, a favourite officer over-
of Sulla, first of all to violate in his own person throw
the fundamental principles of the constitution re- of the
established by his old chief, and then to overturn it. ^""MU.
In Spain the Marian governor Q. Sertorius (see tioa.
SERTORIUS) had defeated one after another of the pro- 70-664.
consuls sent out by the senate, and was already in 77
master of all Hither Spain. To meet the crisis,
Pompey, who was not yet thirty, and had never held even
the quaestorship, was sent out to Spain with proconsular
authority. 16 Still Sertorius held out, until in 73 he was
foully murdered by his own officers. The native tribes 681.
who had loyally stood by him submitted, and Pompey 6gJ
early in 71 returned with his troops to Italy, where,
during his absence in Spain, an event had occurred which had
shown Roman society with startling plainness how near it stood
to revolution. In 73 Spartacus, 17 a Thracian slave, fg^
escaped with seventy others from a gladiators' training
school at Capua. In an incredibly short time he found himself
at the head of 70,000 runaway slaves, outlaws, brigands and
impoverished peasants, and for two years terrorized Italy,
routed the legions sent against him, and even threatened
Rome. He was at length defeated and slain by the praetor,
M. Licinius Crassus, in Apulia. In Rome itself the various
classes and parties hostile to the Sullan system had, 676f
ever since Sulla's death in 78, been incessantly agi-
tating for the repeal of his most obnoxious laws, and needed only
"Sail. Cat. ii. " L. Sulla exercitum, quo sibi fidum faceret,
contra morem majorum luxuriose nimisque liberaliter habuerat."
14 There was a lex Cornelia de prmnnciis ordinandis, but only
two of its provisions are known; (l) that a magistrate sent out
with the imperiam should retain it till he re-entered the city (Cic. Ad
Fam. i. 9, 25), a provision which increased rather than diminished
his freedom of action; (2) that an outgoing governor should leave
his province within thirty days after his successor's arrival (Cic.
Ad Fam. iii. 6. 3). A lex Cornelia de majestate contained, it is
true, a definition of treason evidently framed in the light of recent
experience. The magistrate was forbidden " exire de provincia,
educere exercitum, bellum sua sponte gerere, in regnum injussu
populi ac senatus accedere," Cic. Pis. 21, 50. Sulla also added
one to the long list of laws dealing with extortion in the provinces.
But the danger lay, not in the want of laws, but in the want of
security for their observance by an absolutely autocratic proconsul.
The present writer cannot agree with those who would include
among Sulla's laws one retaining consuls and praetors in Rome for
their year of office and then sending them out to a province._ This
was becoming the common practice before 81. After 81 it is invari-
able for praetors, as needed for the judicial work, and invariable
but for two exceptions in the case of consuls; but nowhere
is there a hint that there had been any legislation on the subject,
and there are indications that it was convenience and not law
which maintained the arrangement.^ Mommsen, Hist, of Rome,
iv. 118 sqq.; Marquardt, Staatsverui. i. 518; cf. also Cic. All. 8, 15;
" consules, quibus more majorum concessum est vel omnes adire
provincias."
16 For this, the most lasting of Sulla's reforms, see Mommsen, Htst.
of Rome, iv. 127 sqq. ; Rein, Criminal- Recht; Zumpt, Criminal-Profess
d. Romer; Greenidge, Legal Procedure of Cicero's Time, p. 415 sqq-
16 Plut. Pomp. 17; Livy, Epit. xci. For Pompey's earlier life,
see POMPEY.
" For the Slave War, see SPARTACUS.
642
ROME
[REPUBLIC
a leader in order successfully to attack a government discredited
by failure at home and abroad. With the return of Pompey
Pom e f rom Spain their opportunity came. Pompey, who
a* consul, understood politics as little as Marius, was anxious
to obtain a triumph, the consulship for the next
year (70), and as the natural consequence of this
an important command in the East. The opposition
wanted his name and support, and a bargain was soon
struck. Pompey and with him Marcus Licinius Crassus, the real
conqueror of Spartacus, were elected consuls, almost in the
presence of their troops, which lay encamped outside the gates
in readiness to assist at the triumph and ovation granted to
their respective leaders. Pompey lost no time in performing
his part of the agreement. The tribunes regained their pre-
rogatives. 1 The " perpetual courts " (quaestiones perpetuae)
were taken out of the hands of the senatorial judices, who had
outdone the equestrian order in scandalous corruption, 2 and
finally the censors, the first since 86 B.C., purged the senate of
the more worthless and disreputable of Sulla's partisans. 3
The victory was complete; but for the future its chief signifi-
cance lay in the clearness with which it showed that the final
decision in matters political lay with neither of the two great
parties in Rome, but with the holder of the military authority.
The tribunes ceased to be political leaders and became lieu-
tenants of the military commanders, and the change was fatal
to the dignity of politics in the city. Men became conscious
of the unreality of the old constitutional controversies, in-
different to the questions which agitated the forum and the
curia, and contemptuously ready to alter or disregard the
constitution itself when it stood in the way of interests nearer
to their hearts.
When his consulship ended, Pompey impatiently awaited
at the hands of the politicians he had befriended the further
Oablaiaa && f a foreign command. He declined an ordinary
and province, and from the end of 70 to 67 he remained
Maniiian at R ome j n a somewhat affectedly dignified seclusion. 4
But in 67 and 66 the laws of Gabinius and Manilius
gave him all and more than all that he expected (see
687, 688. p OMPEY ). By the former he obtained the sole com-
mand for three years against the Mediterranean pirates. 6 He
was to have supreme authority over all Roman magistrates
in the provinces throughout the Mediterranean and over the
coasts for 50 miles inland. Fifteen legati, all of praetorian
rank, were assigned to him, with two hundred ships, and as
many troops as he thought desirable. The Maniiian law trans-
ferred from Lucullus and Glabrio to Pompey the conduct of the
Mithradatic War in Asia, and with it the entire control of Roman
policy and interests in the East. 6 The unrepublican character
of the position thus granted to Pompey, and the dangers of the
precedent established, were clearly enough pointed out by
such moderate men as Q. Lutatius Catulus, the " father of the
senate," and by the orator Hortensius but in vain. Both
laws were supported, not only by the tribunes and the populace,
but by the whole influence of the publicani and negotiatores,
whose interests in the East were at stake.
Pompey left Rome in 67. In a marvellously short space
of time he freed the Mediterranean from the Cilician pirates
and established Roman authority in Cilicia itself. He then
crushed Mithradates, added Syria to the list of Roman provinces,
1 The exact provisions of Pompey's law are nowhere given ;
Livy, Epit. xcvii., " tribuniciam potestatem restituerunt." Cf.
Veil. ii. 30. A lex Aurelia, in 75, had already repealed the law
disqualifying a tribune for further office; Cic. Corn. fr. 78.
2 This_was the work of L. Aurelius Cotta, praetor in this year.
The judices were to be taken in equal proportions from senators,
equites and tribuni aerarii. For the latter and for the law generally,
see Lange, R. Alt. iii. 193; Greenidge, Legal Procedure of Cicero's
Time, pp. 443 sqq. ; and article AERARIUM. Compare also Cicero's
language, In Verr., Act. i. i. The prosecution of Verres shortly
preceded the lex Aurelia.
8 Livy, Epit. xcviii. Sixty-four senators were expelled. Cf.
Plut. Pomp. 22.
4 Veil. ii. 31 ; Plut. Pomp. 23.
6 Plut. Pomp. 25; Dio xxxvi. 6; Livy, Epit. c.
6 Cic. Pro Lege Manilla; Dio xxxvi. 25; Plut. Pomp. 30.
687, 692.
689.
and led the Roman legions to the Euphrates and the Caspian,
leaving no power capable of disputing with Rome the sovereignty
of western Asia. 7 He did not return to Italy till
towards the end of 62. The interval was marked
in Rome by the rise to political importance of Caesar and
Cicero, and by Catiline's attempt at revolution. As Caesar
the nephew of Marius and the son-in-law of Cinna,
Caesar possessed a strong hereditary claim to the
leadership of the popular and Marian party. 8 He had already
taken part in the agitation for the restoration of the tribunate;
he had supported the Maniiian law; and, when Pompey's
withdrawal left the field clear for other competitors, he stepped
at once into the front rank on the popular side.' He took upon
himself, as their nearest representative, the task of clearing
the memory and avenging the wrongs of the great popular
leaders, Marius, Cinna and Saturninus. He publicly reminded
the people of Marius's services, and set up again upon the
Capitol the trophies of the Cimbric War. He endeavoured to
bring to justice, not only the ringleaders in Sulla's bloody work
of proscription, but even the murderers of Saturninus, and vehe-
mently pleaded the cause of the children of the proscribed.
While thus carrying on in genuine Roman fashion the feud of
his family, he attracted the sympathies of the Italians by his
efforts to procure the Roman franchise for the Latin communities
beyond the Po, and won the affections of the populace in Rome
and its immediate neighbourhood by the splendour of the
games which he gave as curule aedile (65), and by his
lavish expenditure upon the improvement of the
Appian Way. But these measures were with him only means
to the further end of creating for himself a position such as that
which Pompey had already won; and this ulterior aim he
pursued with an audacious indifference to constitutional forms
and usages. His coalition with Crassus, soon after Pompey's
departure, secured him an ally whose colossal wealth and wide
financial connexions were of inestimable value, and whose
vanity and inferiority of intellect rendered him a^ willing tool.
The story of his attempted coup d'etat in January 65 is
probably false, 10 but it is evident that by the beginning
of 63 he was bent on reaping the reward of his exertions
by obtaining from the people an extraordinary command
abroad, which should secure his position before Pompey's
return; and the agrarian law proposed early that year by the
tribune P. Servilius Rullus had for its object the creation,
in favour of Caesar and Crassus, of a commission with powers
so wide as to place its members almost on a level with Pompey
himself. 11 It was at this moment when all seemed going well,
that Caesar's hopes were dashed to the ground by Catiline's
desperate outbreak, which not only discredited every one
connected with the popular party, but directed the suspicions
of the well-to-do classes against Caesar himself, as a possible
accomplice in Catiline's revolutionary schemes. 12
The same wave of indignation and suspicion which for the
moment checked Caesar's rise carried Marcus Tullius Cicero to
the height of his fortunes. Cicero, as a politician, has
been equally misjudged by friends and foes. That
he was deficient in courage, that he was vain, and that he
attempted the impossible, may be admitted at once. But he
was neither a brilliant and unscrupulous adventurer nor an
aimless trimmer, nor yet a devoted champion merely of senatorial
* See POMPEY and MITHRADATES.
8 For his early life, see CAESAR.
9 Prof. Beesly has vainly endeavoured to show that Catiline and
not Caesar was the popular leader from 67 to 63. That this is the
inference intentionally conveyed by Sallust, in order to ' screen
Caesar, is true, but the inference is a false one.
10 The story is so told by Suetonius, Jul. 8. In Sallust, Cat. 18,
it appears as an mtrigue originating with Catiline, and Caesar's
name is omitted.
11 Cic. Agr. ii. 6, 15, " nihil aliud act urn nisi ut decem reges
constit uerentur. ' '
12 That Caesar and Crassus had supported Catiline for the consul-
ship in 65 is certain, and they were suspected naturally enough of
favouring his designs in 63, but their complicity is in the highest
degree improbable.
REPUBLIC]
ROME
643
ascendancy. 1 He was a representative man, with a numerous
following, and a policy which was naturally suggested to him
by the circumstances of his birth, connexions and profession,
and which, impracticable as it proved to be, was yet consistent,
intelligible and high-minded. Born at Arpinum, he cherished
like all Arpinates the memory of his great fellow-townsman
Marius, the friend of the Italians, the saviour of Italy and the
irreconcilable foe of Sulla and the nobles. A " municipal "
himself, his chosen friends and his warmest supporters were
found among the well-to-do classes in the Italian towns. 2 Un-
popular with the Roman aristocracy, who despised him as a
peregrinus, 3 and with the Roman populace, he was the trusted
leader of the Italian middle class, " the true Roman people,"
as he proudly styles them. It was they who carried his election
691 696 ^ or * ne consulship 4 (63), who in 58 insisted on his recall
7gs from exile, 5 and it was his influence with them which
made Caesar so anxious to win him over in 49. He
represented their antipathy alike to socialistic schemes and
to aristocratic exclusiveness, and their old-fashioned simplicity
of life in contrast with the cosmopolitan luxury of the capital. 6
By birth, too, he belonged to the equestrian order, the foremost
representatives of which were indeed still the publicani and
negolialores, but which since the enfranchisement of Italy
included also the substantial burgesses of the Italian towns and
the smaller " squires " of the country districts. With them,
too, Cicero was at one in their dread of democratic excesses
and their social and political jealousy of the nobiles. 7 Lastly,
as a lawyer and a scholar, he was passionately attached to the
ancient constitution. His political ideal was the natural
outcome of these circumstances. He advocated the mainten-
ance of the old constitution, but not as it was understood by
the extreme politicians of the right and left. The senate was
to be the supreme directing council, 8 but the senate of Cicero's
dreams was not an oligarchic assemblage of nobles, but a body
freely open to all citizens, and representing the worth of the
community. 9 The magistrates, while deferring to the senate's
authority, were to be at once vigorous and public-spirited;
and the assembly itself which elected the magistrates and passed
the laws was to consist, not of the " mob of the forum," but
of the true Roman people throughout Italy. 10 For the realiza-
tion of this ideal he looked, above all things, to the establishment
of cordial relations between the senate and nobles in Rome
and the great middle class of Italy represented by the equestrian
order, between the capital and the country towns and districts.
This was the concordia ordinum, the consensus Italiae, for which
he laboured. 11
Cicero's election to the consulship for 63 over the heads
of Caesar's nominees, Antonius and Catiline, was mainly
The the work of the Italian middle class, already
coa . rendered uneasy both by the rumours which were
rife of revolutionary schemes and of Caesar's boundless
dJ='<S9/' ambition, and by the numerous disquieting signs of dis-
turbance noticeable in Italy. The new consul vigorously
set himself to discharge the trust placed in him. He defeated the
insidious proposals of Rullus for Caesar's aggrandizement and
assisted in quashing the prosecution of Gaius Rabirius (q.i>.).
But with the consular elections in the autumn of 63 a fresh
danger arose from a different quarter. The " conspiracy of
Catiline" (see CATILINE) was not the work of the popular
1 Mommsen is throughout unfair to Cicero, as also are Drumann
and Professor Beesly. The best estimates of Cicero's political position
are those given by Mr Strachan- Davidson in his Cicero (1894),
and by Professor Tyrrell in his Introductions to his edition of Cicero's
Letters.
* Cic. Ad Alt. i. 19, 4, " noster exercitus . . . locupletium."
3 Cic. Pro Sulla, 7, 22; Sail. Cat. 31, " inquilinus urbis Romae."
4 See the De petitione consulates, passim.
6 De Domo, 28, 75; Pro Plancio, 41, 97.
Cic. Pro Quinctw, 8, 31 ; Pro Cluentio, 46, 153.
7 Cic. In Verr. ii. 73; De Pet. Cons. i. He shared with them
their dislike of Sulla, as the foe of their order; Pro Cluentio, 55,
151-
8 De Legg. iii. 12. Pro Sestio, 65. 136; De Legg. iii. 4.
10 Pro Sestio, 45. u Ad Alt. i. 18.
party, and still less was it an unselfish attempt at reform;
Catiline himself was a patrician, who had held high office, and
possessed considerable ability and courage; but he was bank-
rupt in character and in purse, and two successive defeats in
the consular elections had rendered him desperate. To retrieve
his broken fortunes by violence was a course which was only
too readily suggested by the history of the last forty years,
and materials for a conflagration abounded on all sides. The
danger to be feared from his intrigues lay in the state of Italy,
which made a revolt against society and the established govern-
ment only too likely if once a leader presented himself, and it
was such a revolt that Catiline endeavoured to organize. Bank-
rupt nobles like himself, Sullan veterans and the starving
peasants whom they had dispossessed of their holdings, outlaws of
every description, the slave population of Rome, and the wilder
herdsmen-slaves of the Apulian pastures, were all enlisted under
his banner, and attempts were even made to excite disaffection
among the newly conquered people of southern Gaul and the
warlike tribes who still cherished the memory of Sertorius in
Spain. In Etruria, the seat and centre of agrarian distress
and discontent, a rising actually took place headed by a Sullan
centurion, but the spread of the revolt was checked by Cicero's
vigorous measures. Catiline fled from Rome, and died fighting
with desperate courage at the head of his motley force of old
soldiers, peasants and slaves. His accomplices in Rome were
arrested, and, after an unavailing protest from Caesar, the senate
authorized the consuls summarily to put them to death.
The Catilinarian outbreak had been a blow to Caesar, whose
schemes it interrupted, but to Cicero it brought not only popu-
larity and honour, but, as he believed, the realization of his
political ideal. But Pompey was now on his way home, l2 and
again as in 70 the political future seemed to depend Ketura of
on the attitude which the successful general would Pompey
assume; Pompey himself looked simply to the attain- tram
ment by the help of one political party or another of A * la ~
his immediate aims, which at present were the ratification
of his arrangements in Asia and a grant of land for his troops.
It was the impracticable jealousy of his personal rivals in the
senate, aided by the versatility of Caesar, who presented him-
self not as his rival but as his ally, which drove Pompey once
more, in spite of Cicero's efforts, into the camp of
what was still nominally the popular party. In 60, c atl -
on Caesar's return from his propraetorship in Spain, the Pbmpey,
coalition was formed which is known by the somewhat Caesar
misleading title of the First Triumvirate. 11 Pompey aad
was ostensibly the head of this new alliance, and in 6o69j'
return for the satisfaction of his own demands he under-
took to support Caesar's candidature for the consulship. The
wealth and influence of Crassus were enlisted in the same
cause, and the publicani were secured by a promise of release
from their bargain for collecting the taxes of Asia. Cicero was
under no illusions as to the significance of this coalition. It
scattered to the winds his dreams of a stable and conservative
republic. The year 59 saw the republic powerless
in the hands of three citizens. Caesar as consul pro-
cured the ratification of Pompey's acts in Asia, granted to the
publicani the relief refused by the senate, and carried an agrarian
law of the new type, which provided for the purchase of lands
for allotment at the cost of the treasury and for the assign-
ment of the rich ager Campanus. 1 ' But Caesar aimed at more
than the carrying of laws in the teeth of the senate or any party
victory in the forum. An important military command Caesar**
was essential to him. An obedient tribune, P. Vatinius, command
was found, and by the lex Vatinia he was given for to a "" 1 '
five years the command of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum, to which
11 For the history of the next eighteen years, the most important
ancient authority is Cicero in his letters and speeches.
13 Misleading, because the coalition was unofficial. The "triumvirs"
of 43 were actual magistrates, " Illviri reipublicae constituendae
causa."
14 For the lex Julia Agraria and the lex Campana, see Dio Cass.
xxxviii. i; App. B.C. ii. 10; Suet. Jul. 20; Cic. Ad Att. ii.
16, 18.
ROME
[REPUBLIC
was added by a decree of the senate Transalpine Gaul also. 1
This command not only opened to him a great military career,
but enabled him, as the master of the valley of the Po, to keep
an effective watch on the course of affairs in Italy.
Early the next year the attack upon himself which Cicero
had foreseen was made. P. Clodius (q.v.) as tribune brought
Baaish- forward a law enacting that any one who had put a
went and Roman citizen to death without trial by the people
2^^ 0/ should be interdicted from fire and water. Cicero,
ss'sr- finding himself deserted even by Pompey, left Rome in
696-97. a panic, and by a second Clodian law he was declared
to be outlawed. 2 With Caesar away in his province, and
Cicero banished, Clodius was for the time master in Rome.
But, absolute as he was in the streets, and recklessly as he
parodied the policy of the Gracchi by violent attacks on the
senate, his tribunate merely illustrated the anarchy which now
inevitably followed the withdrawal of a strong controlling
hand. A reaction speedily followed. Pompey, bewildered
and alarmed by Clodius's violence, at last bestirred himself.
Cicero's recall was decreed by the senate, and early in August
57 in the comitia cenluriata, to which his Italian supporters
flocked in crowds, a law was passed revoking the sentence of
outlawry passed upon him.
Intoxicated by the acclamations which greeted him, and
encouraged by Potnpey's support, and by the salutary effects
Renewal ^ Clodius's excesses, Cicero's hopes rose high. 3 With
of the indefatigable energy he strove to reconstruct a solid
coalition, constitutional party, but only to fail once more.
65-698. Pompey was irritated by the hostility of a powerful
section in the senate, who thwarted his desires for a fresh
command and even encouraged Clodius in insulting the con-
queror of the East. Caesar became alarmed at the reports
which reached him that the repeal of his agrarian law was
threatened and that the feeling against the coalition was grow-
ing in strength; above all, he was anxious for a renewal of his
five years' command. He acted at once, and in the celebrated
conference at Luca (56) the alliance of the three self-
constituted rulers of Rome was renewed. Cicero suc-
cumbed to the inevitable and withdrew in despair from public life.
Pompey and Crassus became consuls for 55. Caesar's
command was renewed for another five years, and to
each of his two allies important provinces were assigned for a
similar period Pompey receiving the two Spainsand Africa, and
Crassus Syria. 4 The coalition now divided between them the
control of the empire. For the future. the question was, how
long the coalition itself would last. Its duration proved to be
short. In 53 Crassus was defeated and slain by the
Crassus Parthians at Carrhae, and in Rome the course of
53=701. events slowly forced Pompey into an attitude of
hostility to Caesar. The year 54 brought with it a
renewal of the riotous anarchy which had disgraced
Rome in 58-57. Conscious of its own helplessness, the senate,
with the eager assent of all respectable citizens, dissuaded
Pompey from leaving Italy; and he accordingly left his pro-
vinces to be governed by his legates. But the anarchy and
confusion only grew worse, and even strict constitutionalists
like Cicero talked of the necessity of investing Pompey with some
extraordinary powers for the preservation of order. 5 At last
'Suet. Jttl. 22; Dio Cass. xxxviii. 8; App. B.C. ii. 13; Plut.
Caes. 14.
2 Both laws were carried in the concilium plebis. The first merely
reaffirmed the right of appeal, as the law of Gaius Gracchus had done.
The second declared Cicero to be already by his own act in leaving
Rome " interdicted from fire and water " a procedure for which
precedents could be quoted. Clodius kept within the letter of the
law.
Cicero's speech Pro Sestio gives expression to these feelings; it
contains a passionate appeal to all good citizens to rally round the
old constitution. The acquittal of Sestius confirmed his hopes.
See Ad Q. Fr. ii. 4.
4 Livy, Epit. cv. ; Dio Cass. xxxix. 33. For Cicero's views, see
Ep. ad Fam. \. 9; Ad Alt. iv. 5.
6 A dictatorship was talked of in Rome; Plut. Pomp. 54; Cic.
Ad Q. Fr. iii. 8. Cicero himself anticipated Augustus in his picture
of a princeps civitatis sketched in a lost book of the De republica,
698.
700.
705.
706.
in 52 he was elected sole consul, and not only so, but
his provincial command was prolonged for five years pom
more, and fresh troops were assigned him. 6 The r61e , / e fey
of " saviour of society " thus thrust upon Pompey was coatui,
one which flattered his vanity, but it entailed conse- S2-702.
quences which it is probable he did not foresee, for it brought
him into close alliance with the senate, and in the senate there
was a powerful party who were resolved to force him into head-
ing the attack they could not successfully make without him
upon Caesar. It was known that the latter, whose command
expired in March 49, but who in the ordinary course
of things would not have been replaced by his successor
until January 48, was anxious to be aljpwed to stand
for his second consulship in the autumn of 49 without coming
in person to Rome. 7 His opponents in the senate proposed
were equally bent on bringing his command to an end recall of
at the legal time, and so obliging him to disband his C****r.
troops and stand for the consulship as a private person,
or, if he kept his command, on preventing his standing for
the consulship. Through 51 and 50 the discussions
in the senate and the negotiations with Caesar con-
tinued, but with no result. On ist January 49 Caesar
made a last offer of compromise. The senate replied by requir-
ing him on pain of outlawry to disband his legions. Two
tribunes who supported him were ejected from the senate-house,
and the magistrates with Pompey were authorized to take
measures to protect the republic. Caesar hesitated no longer;
he crossed the Rubicon and invaded Italy. The Caefar
rapidity of his advance astounded and bewildered crosses
his foes. Pompey, followed by the consuls, by the the
majority of the senate and a long train of nobles, K " bl ^"'
abandoned Italy as untenable, and crossed into
Greece. 8 At the end of March Caesar entered Rome as the
master of Italy. Four years later, after the final victory of
Munda (45), he became the undisputed master of the
Roman world. 9
The task which Caesar had to perform was no easy one.
It came upon him suddenly; for there is no sufficient reason
to believe that Caesar had long premeditated revolu- Dlctator .
tion, or that he had previously aspired to anything t hipof
more than such a position as that which Pompey had Caesar,
already won, a position unrepublican indeed, but
accepted by republicans as inevitable. 10 War was
forced upon him as the alternative to political suicide, but
success in war brought the responsibilities of nearly absolute
power, and Caesar's genius must be held to have shown
itself in the masterly fashion in which he grasped the situa-
tion, rather than in the supposed sagacity with which he is
said to have foreseen and prepared for it. In so far as he failed,
his failure was mainly due to the fact that his tenure of power
was too short for the work which he was required to perform.
From the very first moment when Pompey 's ignominious
retreat left him master of Italy, he made it clear that he was
neither a second Sulla nor even the reckless anarchist which
many believed him to be. 11 The Roman and Italian public were
written about this time, which was based upon his hopes of what
Pompey might prove to be; Ad Att. viii. ii ; August. Deciv. Dei, v. 13.
\ Plut. Pomp. 54; App. B.C. ii. 24.
7 For the rights of the question involved in the controversy between
Caesar and the senate, see Mommsen, Rechtsfrage zw. Caesar und d.
Senat; Guiraud, Le Difftrend entre Cesar et le Senat (Paris, 1878),
and the article CAESAR.
8 Cicero severely censures Pompey for abandoning Italy, but
strategically the move was justified by the fact that Pompey's
strength lay in the East, where his name was a power, and in his
control of the sea. Politically, however, it was a blunder, as it
enabled Caesar to pose as the defender of Italy.
9 For the Civil Wars, see CAESAR; CICERO; and POMPEY.
10 On this, as on many other points connected with Caesar, diver-
gence has here been ventured on from the views expressed by
Mommsen in his brilliant chapter on Caesar (Hist, of Rome, bk. v.
cap. xi.). _Too much stress must not be laid on the gossip retailed
by Suetonius as to Caesar's early intentions.
__ 11 Cicero vividly expresses the revulsion of feeling produced by
Caesar's energy, humanity and moderation on his first appearance
in Italy. Compare Ad Att. vii. n, with Ad Att. viii. 13.
'
REPUBLIC]
ROME
645
first startled by the masterly rapidity and energy of his move-
ments, and then agreeably surprised by his lenity and modera-
tion. No proscriptions or confiscations followed his victories,
and all his acts evinced an unmistakable desire to effect a sober
and reasonable settlement of the pressing questions of the
hour; of this, and of his almost superhuman energy, the long
list of measures he carried out or planned is sufficient proof.
The " children of the proscribed " were at length restored to
their rights, 1 and with them many of the refugees 2 who had found
shelter in Caesar's camp during the two or three years immediately
preceding the war; but the extreme men among his supporters
soon realized that their hopes of novae tabulae and grants of
land were illusory. In allotting lands to his veterans, Caesar
carefully avoided any disturbance of existing owners and
occupiers, 3 and the mode in which he dealt with the economic
crisis produced by the war seems to have satisfied all reason-
able men. 4 It had been a common charge against Caesar in
former days that he paid excessive court to the populace of
Rome, and now that he was master he still dazzled and delighted
them by the splendour of the spectacles he provided, and by
the liberality of his largesses. But he was no indiscriminate
flatterer of the mob. The popular clubs and gilds which had
helped to organize the anarchy of the last few years were dis-
solved. 6 A strict inquiry was made into the distribution of the
monthly doles of corn, and the number of recipients was reduced
by one-half; 6 finally, the position of the courts of justice was
raised by the abolition of the popular element among the
judices. 7 Nor did Caesar shrink from the attempt, in which
so many had failed before him, to mitigate the twin evils which
were ruining the prosperity of Italy the concentration of a
pauper population in the towns, and the denudation and desola-
tion of the country districts. His strong hand carried out the
scheme so often proposed by the popular leaders since the days
of Gaius Gracchus, the colonization of Carthage and Corinth.
Allotments of land on a large scale were made in Italy; decay-
ing towns were reinforced by fresh drafts of settlers; on the
large estates and cattle farms the owners were required to
find employment for a certain amount of free labour; and a
slight and temporary stimulus was given to Italian industry
by the reimposition of harbour dues upon foreign goods. 8
The reform of the calendar, which is described elsewhere, 9
completes a record of administrative reform which entitles
Caesar to the praise of having governed well, whatever may be
thought of the validity of his title to govern at all. But how
did Caesar deal with what was after all the greatest problem
which he was called upon to solve, the establishment of a
satisfactory government for the Empire? One point indeed
was already settled. Some centralization of the executive
authority was indispensable, and this part of his work Caesar
thoroughly performed. From the moment when he seized the
moneys in the treasury on his first entry into Rome 10 down to
the day of his death, he recognized on other authority but his
throughout the Empire. He alone directed the policy of Rome in
foreign affairs; the legions were led, and the provinces governed,
not by independent magistrates, but by his "legates"; 11
and the title Imperator which he adopted was intended to
express the absolute and unlimited nature of the imperium he
claimed, as distinct from the limited spheres of authority
possessed by republican magistrates. 12 In so centralizing the
executive authority over the Empire at large, Caesar was but
1 Dio xli. 1 8. 2 App. ii. 48; Dio xli. 36.
3 Plut. Caes. 51; Suet. 38, " adsignavit agrps, sed non continues,
ne quis possessorum expelleretur." Cf. App. ii. 94.
4 For the lex Julia de pecuniis mutuis, see Suet. Jul. 42 ;
Caesar, B.C. iii. i; Dio xh. 37; App. ii. 48. The faeneratores
were satisfied; Cic. Ad Fam. viii. 17. But the law displeased
anarchists like M. Caelius Rufus and P. Cornelius Dplabella.
6 Suet. Jul. 42. Ibid. 41 ; Dio xliii. 21.
7 Suet. Jul. 41 ; Dio xliii. 25. * Suet. Jul. 42, 43.
9 See CALENDAR ; Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, v. 438, and Fischer,
Rom. ZeiUafeln, 292 seq.
10 Plut. Caes. 35. " Dio xliii. 47.
12 Dio xliii. 44. For this use of the title Imperator, see Mommsen,
Hist of Rome. v. 332, and note.
developing the policy implied in the Gabinian and Manilian
laws, and the precedent he established was closely followed by
his successors. It was otherwise with the more difficult ques-
tion of the form under which this new executive authority
should be exercised and the relation it should hold to the
republican constitution. We must be content to remain in
ignorance of the precise shape which Caesar intended ultimately
to give to the new system. The theory that he contemplated
a revival of the old Roman kingship 13 is supported by little
more than the popular gossip of the day, and the form under
which he actually wielded his authority can hardly have been
regarded by so sagacious a statesman as more than a provisional
arrangement. This form was that of the dictatorship; and
in favour of the choice it might have been urged that the
dictatorship was the office naturally marked out by republican
tradition as the one best suited to carry the state safely through
a serious crisis, that the powers it conveyed were wide, that it
was as dictator that Sulla had reorganized the state, and that
a dictatorship had been spoken of as the readiest means of
legalizing Pompey's protectorate of the Republic in 53- nl _ 2
52. The choice nevertheless was a bad one. It was
associated with those very Sullan traditions from which Caesar
was most anxious to sever himself; it implied necessarily the
suspension for the time of all constitutional government; and,
lastly, the dictatorship as held by Caesar could not even plead
that it conformed to the old rules and traditions of the office.
The " perpetual dictatorship " granted him after his crowning
victory at Munda (45) was a contradiction in terms rg9f
and a repudiation of constitutional government
which excited the bitterest animosity. 14
A second question, hardly less important, was that of the
position to be assigned to the old constitution. So far as
Caesar himself was concerned, the answer was for the time
sufficiently clear. The old constitution was not formally
abrogated. The senate met and deliberated; the assembly
passed laws and elected magistrates; there were still consuls,
praetors, aediles, quaestors and tribunes; and Caesar himself,
like his successors, professed to hold his authority by the will
of the people. But senate, assembly and magistrates were
all alike subordinated to the paramount authority of the
dictator; and this subordination was, in appearance at least,
more direct and complete under the rule of Caesar than under
that of Augustus. Caesar was by nature as impatient as
Augustus was tolerant of established forms; and, dazzled by
the splendour of his career of victory and by his ubiquitous
energy and versatility, the Roman public, high and low, pros-
trated themselves before him and heaped honours upon him
with a reckless profusion which made the existence of any
authority by the side of his own an absurdity. 16 Hence under
Caesar the old constitution was repeatedly disregarded, or
suspended in a way which contrasted unfavourably with the
more respectful attitude assumed by Augustus. For months
together Rome was left without any regular magistrates, and
was governed like a subject town by Caesar's prefects. 18 At
another time a tribune was seen exercising authority outside
the city bounds and invested with the imperium of a praetor. 17
At the elections, candidates appeared before the people backed
by a written recommendation from the dictator, which was
equivalent to a command. 18 Finally, the senate itself was
18 See Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, v. 333, and Ranke, Weltgcschichte,
ii. 319 seq. According to Appian ii. no, and Plutarch, Caes. 64,
the title rex was only to be used abroad in the East, as likely to
strengthen Caesar's position against the Parthians.
14 Cicero, Phil. i. 2, 4, praises Antony, " quuin dictatoris nomen
. . . propter perpetuae dictaturae recentem memoriam funditus
ex republica sustulisset."
16 For the long list of these, see Appian ii. 106; Dio xliii. 43-45:
Plut. Caes. 57 ; Suet. Jul. 76. Cf. also Mommsen, Hist, of Rome,
v. 329 ff. ; Watson, Cicero's Letters, App. x. ; Zumpt, Sludia
Romana, 199 seq. (Berlin, 1859).
19 Zumpt, Stud. Rom. 241 ; Suet. Jul. 76.
17 Cic. Ad Alt. x. 8a.
18 Suet. Jul. 41, "Caesar dictator ... commendo vobis ilium
et ilium, ut vestro suffragio suam dignitatem teneant."
6 4 6
ROME
[REPUBLIC
673.
transformed out of all likeness to its former self by the raising
of its numbers to 900, and by the admission of old soldiers,
sons of freedmen and even " semi-barbarous Gauls." * But,
though Caesar's high-handed conduct in this respect was not
imitated by his immediate successors, yet the main lines of
their policy were laid down by him. These were (i) the muni-
cipalization of the old republican constitution, and (2) its
subordination to the paramount authority of the master of
the legions and the provinces. In the first case he only carried
further a change already in progress. Of late years the senate
had been rapidly losing its hold over the Empire at large. Even
the ordinary proconsuls were virtually independent potentates,
ruling their provinces as they chose, and disposing absolutely
of legions which recognized no authority but theirs. The
consuls and praetors of each year had since 81 been
stationed in Rome, and immersed in purely municipal
business; and, lastly, since the enfranchisement of Italy,
the comitia, though still recognized as the ultimate source of
all authority, had become little more than assemblies of the
city populace, and their claim to represent the true Roman
people was indignantly questioned, even by republicans like
Cicero. The concentration in Caesar's hands of all authority
outside Rome completely and finally severed all real connexion
between the old institutions of the Republic of Rome and the
government of the Roman Empire. But the institutions of the
Republic not merely became, what they had originally been,
the local institutions of the city of Rome; they were also
subordinated even within these narrow limits to the para-
mount authority of the man who held in his hands the army
and the provinces. Autocratic abroad, at home he was the
chief magistrate of the commonwealth; and this position was
marked, in his case as in that of those who followed him, by a
combination in his person of various powers, and by a general
right of precedence which left no limits to his authority but
such as he chose to impose upon himself. During the greater
part of his reign he was consul as well as dictator. In
48, after his victory at Pharsalia, he was given the
tribunicia. potestas for life, 2 and after his second success
at Thapsus the praefectura morum for three years. 3 As chief
magistrate he convenes and presides in the senate, nominates
candidates, conducts elections, carries laws in the assembly
and administers justice in court. 4 Finally, as a reminder
that the chief magistrate of Rome was also the autocratic
ruler of the Empire, he wore even in Rome the laurel wreath
and triumphal dress, and carried the sceptre of the victorious
imperator. 6
Nor are we without some clue as to the policy which Caesar
had sketched out for himself in the administration of the
Empire, the government of which he had centralized in his
own hands. The much-needed work of rectifying the frontiers 6
he was forced, by his premature death, to leave to other hands,
but within the frontiers he anticipated Augustus in lightening
the financial burdens of the provincials, 7 and in establishing a
stricter control over the provincial governors, 8 while he went
beyond him in his desire to consolidate the Empire by extending
the Roman franchise 9 and admitting provincials to a share
in the government. 10 He completed the Romanization of Italy
by his enfranchisement of the Transpadane Gauls," and by
establishing throughout the peninsula a uniform system of
municipal government, which under his successors was gradu-
ally extended to the provinces. 12
1 Suet. Jul. 41, 76; Dio xliii. 47. * Dio xlii. 20.
* Dio xliii. 14; Suet. Jul. 76. The statement is rejected by
Mommsen; see CAESAR.
4 Suet. Jul. 43, " jus laboriosissime ac severissime dixit."
6 App. ii. 1 06; Dio xliii. 43.
6 Plut. Goes. 58, "awiol/a.i T&V K.<IK\OV TTJS f/yfiMrlat " ; Suet. Jul. 44;
Dio xliii. 51.
' Plut. Goes. 48 ; App. v. 4.
8 He limited the term of command to two years in consular and
one year in praetorian provinces; Cicero, Phil. i. 8, 19; Dio xliii. 25.
' Suet. Jul. 42; Cic. Ad. Alt. xiv. 12.
10 Suet. Jul. 76. " Dio xli. 36; Tac. Ann. xi. 24.
"Lex Julia municipalis; see CAESAR.
On the eve of his departure for the East, to avenge the
death of Crassus and humble the power of Parthia, Attempted
Caesar fell a victim to the wounded pride of the re- re*tora-
publican nobles; and between the day of his death tloa '' he
(March 15, 44) and that on which Octavian defeated "f^j '
Antony at Actium (September 2, 31) lies a dreary 710-n.
period of anarchy and bloodshed." Tl -
For a moment, in spite of the menacing attitude of 723.
Caesar's self-constituted representative Marcus Antonius (Mark
Antony), it seemed to one man at least as if the restoration
of republican government was possible. With indefatigable
energy Cicero strove to enlist the senate, the people, and above
all the provincial governors in support of the old constitution.
But, though his eloquence now and again carried all before it
in senate-house and forum, it was powerless to alter the course
of events. By the beginning of 43 civil war had re-
commenced; in the autumn Antony was already
threatening an invasion of Italy at the head of seventeen
legions. Towards the end of October Antony and his ally M.
Aemilius Lepidus coalesced with the young Octavian, who had
been recently elected consul at the age of twenty, in spite of
senatorial opposition; and the coalition was legalized The
by the creation of the extraordinary cemmission for the second
" reorganization of the commonwealth" known as the tiium-
" Second Triumvirate." 14 It was appointed for a
period of five years, and was continued in 37 for five
years more. 15 The rule of the triumvirs was inaugur-
ated in the Sullan fashion by a proscription, foremost
among the victims of which was Cicero himself. 18 In the next
year the defeat of M. Junius Brutus and C. Cassius Longinus
at Philippi, by the combined forces of Octavian and Antony,
destroyed the last hopes of the republican party. 17 In
40 a threatened rupture between the two victors
was avoided by the treaty concluded at Brundusium. Antony
married Octavian's sister Octavia, and took command of the
eastern half of the empire; Octavian appropriated Italy and
the West; while Lepidus was forced to content himself with
Africa. 18 For the next twelve years, while Antony was indulging
in dreams of founding for himself and Cleopatra an empire in
the East, and shocking Roman feeling by his wild excesses and
his affectation of oriental magnificence, 19 Octavian was patiently
consolidating his power. Lepidus his fellow-triumvir was in
36 ejected from Africa and banished to Circeii, while
Sextus Pompeius, who had since his defeat at Munda
maintained a semi-piratical ascendancy in the western Medi-
terranean, was decisively defeated in the same year, and his death
in 35 left Octavian sole master of the West. The Tlg
inevitable trial of strength between himself and Antony
was not long delayed. In 32 Antony openly challenged
the hostility of Octavian by divorcing Octavia in favour of
the beautiful and daring Egyptian princess, with whom, as the
heiress of the Ptolemies, he aspired to share the empire of the
Eastern world. By a decree of the senate Antony was declared
deposed from his command, and war was declared against
Queen Cleopatra. 20 On the 2nd of September 31
was fought the battle of Actium. 21 Octavian's victory 723 '
was complete. Antony and Cleopatra committed 724.
suicide (30), and the Eastern provinces submitted in 725.
20. Octavian returned to Rome to celebrate his
triumph and mark the end of the long-continued anarchy
13 For this period see Merivale, Romans under the Empire, vol. iii. ;
Lange, Rom. Alterth. iii. 506 seq.; Gardthausen, Augustus, bk. i.
14 The triumvirate was formally constituted in Rome (Nov. 27th)
by a plebiscitum; App. iv. 7; Dio xlvi, 56, xlvii. 2; Livy, Epit. cxx.,
" ut Illviri reipublicae constituendae per quinquennium essent."
16 Dio xlviii. 54; App. y. 95. For the date, cf. Mommsen, Staatsr.
ii. 718. 16 Livy> Epit. cxx. ; App. iv. 7; and article CICERO.
17 Dio xlvii. 35-49; App. iv. 87-138.
18 Veil. ii. 76; Dio xlviii, 28; App. v. 65.
19 For Antony's policy and schemes in the East, see Ranke,
Weltgeschichte, ii. 381-85; Mommsen, Provinces of the Roman
Empire, ii. p. 24 sqq.; Lange, Rom. Alterth. iii. 573 sqq.
'"Suet. Aug. 17; Dio 1. 1-8; Plutarch, Anton. 53.
21 Dio Ii. I ; Zonaras x. 30.
EMPIRE: 27 B.C.-A.D. 284]
ROME
64.7
by closing the temple of Janus; 1 at the end of the next
year he formally laid down the extraordinary powers which
he had held since 43, and a regular government was
established.
Til.
III. The Empire.
PERIOD I.: THE PRINCIPATE, 27 B.C.-A.D. 284 (a) The
Constitution of the Principate. The conqueror of Antonius at
Actium, the great-nephew and heir of the dictator Caesar, was
now summoned, by the general consent of a world wearied out
with twenty years of war and anarchy, 2 to the task of establish-
ing a government which should as far as possible respect the
forms and traditions of the Republic, without sacrificing that
centralization of authority which experience had shown to be
necessary for the integrity and stability of the Empire. It was
a task for which Octavian was admirably fitted. To great
administrative capacity and a quiet tenacity of purpose he
united deliberate caution and unfailing tact; while his bourgeois
birth 3 and genuinely Italian sympathies enabled him to win
the confidence of the Roman community to an extent impos-
sible for Caesar, with his dazzling pre-eminence of patrician
descent, his daring disregard of forms and his cosmopolitan
tastes.
The new system which was formally inaugurated by Octavian
in 28-27 B - c -' 1 assumed the shape of a restoration of the republic
The under the leadership of a princeps. & Octavian volun-
Augustan tarily resigned the extraordinary powers which he had
system, held since 43, and, to quote his own words, " handed
28-27= over the republic to the control of the senate and
726 ~ 27 - people of Rome." 6 The old constitutional machinery
was once more set in motion; the senate, assembly and magis-
trates resumed their functions; 7 and Octavian himself was
hailed as the " restorer of the commonwealth and the champion
of freedom." 8 It was not so easy to determine what relation
he himself, the actual master of the Roman world, should occupy
towards this revived republic. His abdication, in any real
sense of the word, would have simply thrown everything back
into confusion. The interests of peace and order required that
he should retain at least the substantial part of his authority;*
and this object was in fact accomplished, and the rule of the
emperors founded, in a manner which has no parallel in history.
Any revival of the kingly title was out of the question, and
Octavian himself expressly refused the dictatorship. 10 Nor was
any new office created or any new official title invented for his
benefit. But by senate and people he was invested according
to the old constitutional forms with certain powers, as many
citizens had been before him, and so took his place by the side
of the lawfully appointed magistrates of the republic; only,
to mark his pre-eminent dignity, as the first of them all, the
senate decreed that he should take as an additional cognomen
that of " Augustus," 11 while in common parlance he was hence-
forth styled princeps, a simple title of courtesy, familiar to re-
publican usage, and conveying no other idea than that of a
I He celebrated his triumph on the I3th, I4th and I5th of August;
Dio li. 21 ; Livy, Epit. cxxxiii. For the closing of the temple of
Janus, see Livy i. 19; Veil. ii. 38; Suet. Aug. 22.
- Tac. Ann. i. 2, " cunctos dulcedine otii pellexit."
3 Suet. Aug. i. His grandfather was a citizen of Velitrae;
" municipalibus magisteriis contentus."
4 Mommsen, Staatsrecht, ii. 745 ff . ; Man. Ancyranum (ed.
Mommsen, Berlin, 1883), vi. 13-23, pp. 144-53; Herzog, Gesch. u.
System d. rom. Verfassung, ii. p. 126 sqq.
'Tac. Ann. iii. 28, " sexto demum consulatu . . . quae Illviratu
jusserat abolevit, deditque jura quis pace et principe uteremur";
Ibid. i. 9, " non regno neque dictatura sed principis nomine con-
stitutam rempublicam."
6 Man. Anc. vi. 13.
7 Veil. ii. 89, " pnsca et antiqua reipublicae forma revocata."
8 Ovid, Fasti, i. 589. On a coin of Asia Minor Augustus is styled
" libertatis P. R. vindex." The I3th of January, 27 B.C., was
marked in the calendar as the day on which the republic was restored
(C.I.L. i. p. 384).
9 Dio Cassius describes Augustus as seriously contemplating abdica-
tion (Iii. i; liii. I-Il); cf. Suet. Aug. 28.
10 Suet. Aug. 52; Man. Anc. i. 31.
II Man. Anc. vi. 16, 21-23.
recognized primacy and precedence over his fellow-citizens. 12
The ideal sketched by Cicero in his De ReptMica, of a constitu-
tional president of a free republic, was apparently realized;
but it was only in appearance. For in fact the special prero-
gatives conferred upon Octavian gave him back in substance
the autocratic authority he had resigned, and as between the
restored republic and its new princeps the balance of power was
overwhelmingly on the side of the latter.
Octavian had held the imperium since 43; in 33, it '" al -
is true, the powers of the triumvirate had legally Jjjfc.
expired, but he had continued to wield his authority, meat /
as he himself puts it," " by universal consent." In 27 2T-T27.
he received a formal grant of the imperium from the T27 -
senate and people for the term of ten years, and his provincia
was denned as including all the provinces in which military
authority was required and legions were stationed. 14 He was
declared commander-in-chief of the Roman army, and granted
the exclusive right of levying troops, of making war and peace,
and of concluding treaties. 16 As consul, moreover, he not only
continued !o be the chief magistrate of the state at home, but
took precedence, in virtue of his majus imperium, over the
governors of the " unarmed provinces," which were still nomin-
ally under the control of the senate. Thus the so-called " re-
storation of the republic " was in essence the recognition by law
of the personal supremacy of Octavian, or Augustus, as he
must henceforth be called.
In 23 an important change was made in the formal basis of
Augustus's authority. In that year he laid down the consul-
ship which he had held each year since 31, and could The
therefore only exert his imperium pro console, like n-*ettie-
the ordinary governor of a province. He lost his meat at
authority as chief magistrate in Rome and his 23=731.
precedence over the governors of senatorial pro-
vinces. To remedy these defects a series of extraordinary
offices were pressed upon his acceptance; but he refused
them all, 16 and caused a number of enactments to be
passed which determined the character of the principate for
the next three centuries. 17 Firstly, he was exempted from the
disability attaching to the tenure of the imperium by one who
was not an actual magistrate, and permitted to retain and
exercise it in Rome. Secondly, his imperium was declared
to be equal with that of the consuls, and therefore superior to
that of all other holders of that power. Thirdly, he was granted
equal rights with the consuls of convening the senate and
introducing business, of nominating candidates at elections, 1 *
and of issuing edicts. 19 Lastly, he was placed on a level with the
consuls in outward rank. Twelve lictors were assigned to him
and an official seat between those of the consuls themselves
(Dio liv. 10).
Thus the proconsular authority 20 was for the first time
admitted within the walls of Rome; but Augustus was too
cautious a statesman to proclaim openly the fact that Tribaa-
the power which he wielded in the city was the same kt '
as that exercised in camps and provinces by a Roman P te * ta *-
military commander. Hence he sought for a title which should
disguise the nature of his authority, and found it in the
12 The explanation of princeps as an abbreviated form of
princeps senatus is quite untenable. For its real significance,
see Mommsen, Staatsrecht, ii. 774; Pelham, Journ. of Phu. vol. viii.
It is not an official title.
13 Man. Anc. 6, 14, " per consensum universorum."
14 Dio liii. 12; Suet. Aug. 47. " Dio, l.c.
16 He was offered the dictatorship, a life-consulship, a " cura legum
et morum." It is stated by Suetonius (Aug. 53) and Dio (liv. 10)
that he accepted the last named; but this is disproved by his own
language in the Man. Anc. (i. 31); cf. Pelham, Journ. of Philol.
xvii. 47.
17 Dio liii. 32. Part of the law by which the rights essential
to the principate were conferred upon Vespasian is extant; see
Rushforth, Latin Historical Inscriptions, No. 70 (the Lex de imperio
Vespasiani).
18 Tac. Ann. i. 81. " Lex de imperio, 11. 17-21.
20 The term proconsulate imperium, which we find used, e.g., by
Tacitus, was not employed in republican times, and Augustus
himself speaks of his considare impsrium (Man. Anc. 2, 5, 8).
6 4 8
ROME
[EMPIRE: 27 B.C.-A.D. 284
710.
731.
" tribunician power," which had been conferred upon him for life
in 36, and was well suited, from its urban and demo-
cratic traditions, to serve in Rome as " a term to ex-
press his supreme position." ' From 23 onwards the
tribunicia potestas appears after his name in official inscriptions,
together with the number indicating the period during which it
had been held (also reckoned from 23) ; it was in virtue
of this power that Augustus introduced the social re-
forms which the times demanded; 2 and, though far inferior to the
imperium in actual importance, it ranked with or even above it as
a distinctive prerogative of the emperor or his chosen colleague. 3
The .imperium and the tribunicia potestas were the two
pillars upon which the authority of Augustus rested, and the
other offices and privileges conferred upon him were
749 752. ^ secondary importance. After 23 he never held the
consulship save in 5 and 2 B.C., when he became the
colleague of his grandsons on their introduction to public life.
He permitted the triumvir Lepidus to retain the chief ponti-
ficate until his death, when Augustus naturally became pontifex
maximus (12 B.C.). 4 He proceeded wifh the like
caution in reorganizing the chief departments of the
public service in Rome and Italy. The cura annonae, i.e. the
supervision of the corn supply of Rome, was entrusted to him in
22 B.C., 6 and this important branch of administration
thus came under his personal control; but the other
boards (curae), created during his reign to take charge of the
roads, the water-supply, the regulation of the Tiber and the
public buildings, were composed of senators of high rank, and
regarded in theory as deriving their authority from the senate. 6
Such was the ingenious compromise by which room was
found for the master of the legions within the narrow limits of
the old Roman constitution. Augustus could say with truth that
he had accepted no office which was " contrary to the usage
of our ancestors," and that it was only in dignity that he took
precedence of his colleagues. Nevertheless, as every thinking
man must have realized, the compromise was unreal, and its
significance was ambiguous. It was an arrangement avowedly
of an exceptional and temporary character, yet no one could
suppose that it would in effect be otherwise than permanent.
The powers voted to Augustus were (like those conferred upon
^ Pompey in 67 B.C.) voted only to him, and (save the
727 \ tribunicia potestas) voted only for a limited time; in 27 he
received the imperium for ten years, and it was afterwards
renewed for successive periods of five, five, ten and ten years. 7
In this way the powers of the principate were made coextensive
in time with the life of Augustus, but there was absolutely no
provision for hereditary or any other form of succession, and
various expedients were devised in order to indicate the destined
successor of the princeps and to bridge the gap created by his
death. Ultimately Augustus associated his stepson Tiberius
with himself as co-regent. The imperium and the tribunicia
potestas were conferred upon him, and he was thus marked
out as the person upon whom the remaining powers of the
principate would naturally be bestowed after the death of his
stepfather. But succeeding emperors did not always indicate
their successors so clearly, and, in direct contrast to the maxim
that " the king never dies," it has been well said that the Roman
principate died with the death of the princeps?
In theory, at least, the Roman world was governed according
to the " maxims of Augustus" (Suet. Ner. 10), down to the
Change* time of Diocletian. Even in the 3rd century there is
wnsfttu- sti11 in name at least > a republic, of which the emperor
tionofthe * s ' n strictness only the chief magistrate, deriving
princi- his authority from the senate and people, and with
pate. prerogatives limited and defined by law. The case
is quite different when we turn from theory to practice. The
*Tac. Ann. iii. 56; " summi fastigii vocabulum."
2 Mon. Anc. Grace. 3, 19.
3 Tac. Ann. i. 3 (of Tiberius), "collega imperii, consors tribuniciae
potestatis "; cf. Mommsen, Staatsr. ii. 1160.
4 Suet. Aug. 31. 6 Mon. Anc. I, 32; Dio liv. i.
'See Hirschfeld, Verwaltungsgesch. i. 173.
7 Dio liii. 13, 16. * Mommsen, Staatsr. ii. 1143.
division of authority between the republic and its chief magis-
trate became increasingly unequal. Over the provinces the
princeps from the first ruled autocratically; and this autocracy
reacted upon his position in Rome, so that it became every
year more difficult for a ruler so absolute abroad to maintain
even the fiction of republican government at home. The
republican institutions, with the partial exception of the senate,
lose all semblance of authority outside Rome, and even as the
municipal institutions of the chief city of the empire they retain
but little actual power. The real government even of Rome
passes gradually into the hands of imperial prefects and com-
missioners, and the old magistracies become merely decorations
which the emperor bestows at his pleasure. At the same time
the rule of the princeps assumes an increasingly personal char-
acter, and the whole work of government is silently concen-
trated in his hands and in those of his own subordinates. Closely
connected with this change is the different aspect presented by
the history of the empire in Rome and Italy on the one hand
and in the provinces on the other. Rome and Italy share in
the decline of the republic. Political independence and activity
die out; their old pre-eminence and exclusive privileges gradually
disappear; and at the same time the weight of the overwhelm-
ing power of the princeps, and the abuses of their power by
individual principes, press most heavily upon them. On the
other hand, in the provinces and on the frontiers, where the
imperial system was most needed, and where from the first it
had full play, it is seen at its best as developing or protecting
an orderly civilization and maintaining the peace of the
world.
The decay of the republican institutions had commenced
before the revolutionary crisis of 49. It was accelerated by
the virtual suspension of regular government between Decay
49 and 28; and not even the diplomatic deference
towards ancient forms which Augustus displayed
availed to conceal the unreality of his work of tioas.
restoration. The comitia received back from him 70S > 726 -
" their ancient rights " (Suet. Aug. 40), and during his
lifetime they continued to pass laws and to elect
magistrates. But after the end of the reign of Tiberius
we have only two instances of legislation by the
assembly in the ordinary way, 9 and the law-making of the empire
is performed either by decrees of the senate or by imperial edicts
and constitutions. Their prerogative- of electing magistrates
was, even under Augustus, robbed of most of its importance
by the control which the princeps exercised over their choice by
means of his rights of nomination and commendation, which
effectually secured the election of his own nominees. 10 By
Tiberius this restricted prerogative was still further curtailed.
The candidates for all magistracies except the consulship were
thenceforward nominated and voted for in the senate-house
and by the senators, 11 and only the formal return of the result
(renuntiatio) took place in the assembly (Dio Iviii. 20). And,
though the election of consuls was never thus transferred to
the senate, the process of voting seems to have been silently
abandoned. In the time of the younger Pliny we hear only
of the nomination of the candidates and of their formal re-
nuntiatio in the Campus Martius. 12 The princeps himself as
long as the Principate lasted, continued to receive the tribunicia
potestas by a vote of the assembly, and was thus held to derive
his authority from the people. 13
'The plebiscita of Claudius, Tac. Ann. xi. 13, 14, and the lex
agraria of Nerva; Digest, xlvii. 21, 3; Dio Ixviii. 2; Plin. Epp.
vii. 31.
10 On these rights, the latter of which was not exercised in the case
of the consulship until the close of Nero's reign, see Mommsen,
Staatsr. ii. 916-28; -Tac. Ann. i. 14, 15, 81 ; Suet. Aug. 56; Dio
Iviii. 20.
u Tac. Ann. i. 15, "comitia e campo ad patres translata sunt ";
compare Ann. xiv. 28. The magistracy directly referred to is the
praetprship, but that the change affected the lower magistracies
also is certain; see, e.g., Pliny's Letters, passim, especially iii. 20,
vi. 19.
u Plin. Paneg. 92.
11 Gaius i. 5, " cum ipse imperator per legem imperium accipiat."
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EMPIRE: 27 B.C.-A.D. 284]
ROME
649
This almost complete effacement of the comitia was largely
due to the fact that they had ceased to represent anything but
The the populace of Rome, and the comparatively greater
magis- vitality shown by the old magistracies is mainly
trade*. attributable to the value they continued to possess
in the eyes of the Roman upper class. But, though
they were eagerly sought (Plin. Epp. ii. 9, vi. 6), and conferred
on their holders considerable social distinction, the magistrates
ceased, except in name, to be the popularly chosen executive
officers of the Roman state. In the administration of the
empire at large they had no share, if we except the subordinate
duties still assigned to the quaestor in a province. In Rome,
to which their sphere of work was limited, they were over-
shadowed by the dominant authority of the princeps, while their
range of duties was increasingly circumscribed by the gradual
transference of administrative authority, even within the city,
to the emperor and his subordinate officials. And their de-
pendence on the princeps was confirmed by the control he
exercised over their appointment. For all candidates the
approval, if not the commendation, of the princeps became
the indispensable condition of success, and the princeps on
his side treated these ancient offices as pieces of preferment with
which to reward his adherents or gratify the ambition of Roman
nobles. The dignity of the office, too, was impaired by the
practice, begun by Caesar and continued by Augustus and his
Consul- successors, of granting the insignia to men who had not
ship. held the actual magistracy itself. 1 The consulship was
still the highest post open to the private citizen, and consular
rank a necessary qualification for high office in the provinces; 2
but the actual consuls have scarcely any other duties than those
of presiding in the senate and occasionally executing its decrees,
while their term of office dwindles from a year to six and finally
to two months. 3 In the age of Tacitus and the younger Pliny,
the contrast is striking between the high estimate set on the
dignity of the office and the frankness with which its limited
powers and its dependence on the emperor are
ship."' acknowledged. 4 The praetors continued to exercise
their old jurisdiction with little formal change down
at least to the latter half of the second century, but only as
subordinate to the higher judicial authority of the
ship."' emperor. 6 The aediles retained only such petty police
duties as did not pass to one or another of the imperial
prefects and commissioners. The tribunate fared
still worse, for, by the side of the tribunicia poteslas
wielded by the princeps, it sank into insignificance. 6
The quaestorship suffered less change than any other of the old
offices. It kept its place as the first step on the ladder
f promotion, and there was still a quaestor attached to
each governor of a senatorial province, to the consuls
in Rome, and to the princeps himself. 7
The senate alone among republican institutions retained
some importance and influence, and it thus came to be regarded
The as sharing the government of the Empire with the
Senate. princeps himself. It nominally controlled the adminis-
tration of Italy and of the " public provinces," whose governors
1 On the permission to use the ornamenta consularia, praetoria,
&c., see Mommsen, Staatsr. i. 455 sqq.; Suet. Jul. 76; Claud,
y. 24; Tac. Ann. xii. 21, xv. 72 ; Dio Cass. Ix. 8. Cf. also Friedlander,
i. 691.
2 For a consular senatorial province and for the more important
of the imperial legateships.
* Mommsen, Staatsr. ii. 82 sqq. Six months was the usual term down
to the death of Nero; we have then four or two months; in the
3rd century two is the rule. The consuls who entered on office
on the ist of January were styled consules ordinarii, and gave their
name to the year, whilst the others were distinguished as consules
suffecti or minores; Dio Cass. xlviii. 35.
4 Plin. Paneg. 92; Tac. Hist. i. i, Agric. 44.
6 Mommsen, Staatsr. ii. 225.
Plin. Epp. i. 23, " inanem umbram et sine honore nomen."
There are a few instances of the exercise by the tribunes of their
power of interference within the senate; Tac. Ann. i. 77, vi. 47,
xvi. 26; Plin. Epp. ix. 13.
7 Mommsen, Staatsrecht, ii. 567-69. Pliny was himself " quaestor
Caesaris," Epp. vii. 16.
Tribu
nate.
it appointed. It is to the senate, in theory, that the supreme
power reverts in the absence of a princeps. It is by decree of
the senate that the new princeps immediately receives his
powers and privileges, 8 though he is still supposed to derive
them ultimately from the people. ^After the cessation of all
legislation by the comitia, the only law-maku:g authority, other
than that of the princeps by his edicts, was that of the senate by
its decrees.' Its judicial authority was co-ordinate with that
of the emperor, and at the close of the ist century we find
the senators claiming, as the emperor's " peers," to be exempt
from his jurisdiction. 10 But in spite of the outward dignity
of its position, and of the deference with which it was frequently
treated, the senate became gradually almost as powerless in
reality as the comitia and the magistracies. The senators
continued indeed to be taken as a rule from the ranks of the
wealthy, and a high property qualification was established
by Augustus as a condition of membership; but this merely
enabled the emperors to secure their own ascendancy by sub-
sidizing those whose property fell short of the required standard,
and who thus became simply the paid creatures of their imperial
patrons. 11 Admission to the senate was possible only by favour
of the emperor, both as controlling the elections to the magis-
tracies, which still gave entrance to the curia, and as invested
with the power of directly creating senators by adleclio, a power
which from the time of Vespasian onwards was freely used. 12
As the result, the composition of the senate rapidly altered.
Under Augustus and Tiberius it still contained many represen-
tatives of the old republican families, whose prestige and
ancestral traditions were some guarantee for their independence.
But this element soon disappeared. The ranks of the old
nobility were thinned by natural decay and by the jealous fears
of the last three Claudian emperors. Vespasian u flooded the
senate with new men from the municipal towns of Italy and
the Latinized provinces of the West. Trajan and Hadrian, both
provincials themselves, carried on the same policy, and by
the close of the 2nd century even the Greek provinces of the
East had their representatives in the senate. Some, no doubt,
of these provincials, who constituted the great majority of the
senate in the 3rd century, were men of wealth and mark, but
many more were of low birth, on some rested the stain of a
servile descent, and all owed alike their present position and
their chances of further promotion to the emperor. 14 The pro-
cedure of the senate was as completely at the mercy of the
princeps as its composition. He was himself a senator and
the first of senators; 15 he possessed the magisterial prerogatives
of convening the senate, of laying business before it, and of
carrying senatus consulta;" above all, his tribunician power
enabled him to interfere at any stage, and to modify or reverse
its decisions. The share of the senate in the government was
in fact determined by the amount of administrative activity
which each princeps saw fit to allow it to exercise, and this
share became steadily smaller. The jurisdiction assigned it
by Augustus and Tiberius was in the 3rd century limited to
the hearing of such cases as the emperor thought fit to send
for trial, and these became steadily fewer in number. Its
control of the state treasury, as distinct from the imperial
fiscus, was in fact little more than nominal, and became increas-
ingly unimportant as the great bulk of the revenue passed
8 Mommsen, Staatsrecht, ii. 842; Tac. Ann. xii. 69, Hist. i. 47.
In the 3rd century the honours, titles and powers were conferred
en bloc by a single decree; Vit. Sev. Alex. i.
' Gaius i. 4; Ulrjian, Dig. i. 3, 9.
10 Under Domitian ; Dio Cass. Ixvii. 2. Even Septimius Severus
caused a decree to be passed " ne liceret imperatori inconsulto
senatu occidere senatorem "; Vita Severi, 7.
11 Suet. Nero, 10, Vesp. 17.
12 Mommsen, Staatsrecht, ii. 939 sqq. The power was derived from
the censorial authority. Domitian was censor for life ; Suet. Dom.
8. After Nerva it was exercised as falling within the general
authority vested in the princeps; Dio liii. 17.
18 Suet. Vesf. 90; Tac. Ann. iii. 55.
14 See on this point Friedlander, Sittengeschichte Roms, i. 237 sqq.
l * Man. Ancyr. Gr. iv. 3, Tcpurrov &ta>piarot rbieoi>.
" Lex de imp. Vesp., C.I.L. vi. 930: " Senatum habere, relationem
facere, remittere; Seta, per relationem discessionemque facere."
650
ROME
[EMPIRE: 27 B.C.-A.U. 284
into the hands of the emperor. Even in Rome and Italy
its control of the administration was gradually transferred to
the prefect of the city, and after the reign of Hadrian to imperial
officers (juridici) charged with the civil administration. 1 The
part still played by its decrees in the modification of Roman
law has been dealt with elsewhere (see SENATE), but it is clear
that these decrees did little else than register the expressed
wishes of the emperor and his personal advisers.
The process by which all authority became centralized in the
hands of the princeps and in practice exercised by an organ-
Ceatrai- ized bureaucracy 2 was of necessity gradual; but it
'author-" 1 ^ & ^ ' ts Beginnings under Augustus, who formed the
"ty: the equestrian order (admission to which was henceforth
imperial granted only by him) into an imperial service, partly
iervice. civil and partly military, whose members, being im-
mediately dependent on the emperor, could be employed
on tasks which it would have been impossible to assign
to senators (see EQUITES). From this order were drawn
the armies of " procurators " the term was derived from
the practice of the great business houses of Rome who ad-
ministered the imperial revenues and properties in all parts of
the empire. Merit was rewarded by independent governor-
ships such as those of Raetia and Noricum, or the com-
mand of the naval squadrons at Misenum and Ravenna;
and the prizes of the knight's career were the prefectures
of the praetorian guard, the corn-supply and the city police,
and the governorship of Egypt. The household offices and
imperial secretaryships were held by freedmen, almost always
of Greek origin, whose influence became all-powerful under such
emperors as Claudius. 3 The financial secretary (a rationibus)
and those who dealt with the emperor's correspondence (ab
epislulis) and with petitions (a libellis) were the most important
of these.
This increase of power was accompanied by a corresponding
elevation of the princeps himself above the level of all other
Outward citizens. The comparatively modest household and
splea- simple life of Augustus were replaced by a more than
dour. regal splendour, and under Nero we find all the out-
ward accessories of monarchy present, the palace, the palace
guards, the crowds of courtiers, and a court ceremonial. In
direct opposition to the republican theory of the principate,
members of the family of the princeps share the dignities of his
position. The males bear the cognomen of Caesar, and are in-
vested, as youths, with high office; their names and even those
of the females are included in the yearly prayers for the safety of
the princeps; 4 their birthdays are kept as festivals; the praetorian
guards take the oath to them as well as to the princeps himself.
The logical conclusion was reached in the practice of Caesar-
worship, 5 which was in origin the natural expression of a wide-
spread sentiment of homage, which varied in form in different
parts of the empire and in different classes of society, but was
turned to account by the statecraft of Augustus to develop
something like an imperial patriotism. The official worship of
the deified Caesar, starting from that of the " divine Julius,"
gave a certain sanctity and continuity to the regular succession
of the emperors, but it was of less importance politically than
the worship of " Rome and Augustus," first instituted in Asia
Minor in 29 B.C., and gradually diffused throughout the provinces,
as a symbol of imperial unity. It must be observed that living
emperors were not officially worshipped by Roman citizens;
yet we find that even in Italy an unauthorized worship of
Augustus sprang up during his lifetime in the country towns. 6
1 Vit. Hadr. 22; " Juridici " were appointed by Marcus Aurelius,
Vit. Ant. ii ; Marquardt i. 224.
1 On the growth of the imperial bureaucracy see Hirschfeld, Die
kaiserlichen Verwaltungsbeamten bis auf Diocletian (1905).
3 For the position of the imperial freedmen under Claudius, see
Friedlander i. 88 sqq.; Tac. Ann. xii. 60, xiv. 39, Hist. ii. 57, 95.
* Acta Fr. Arval. (ed. Henzen), 33, 98, 99.
' For Caesar-worship, see Mommsen, Staatsr. ii. 755 sqq. ; Wissowa,
Religion und Kultus der Romer, p. 283 sqq., and Kornemann in Beitrdge
zur alien Geschichte, i.
See Rushforth, Roman Historical Inscriptions, Nos. 38 sqq. and
notes.
On the accession of Augustus, there could be little doubt as
to the nature of the work that was necessary, if peace and pros-
perity were to be secured for the Roman world. He was called
upon to justify his position by rectifying the frontiers and
strengthening their defences, by reforming the system of pro-
vincial government, and by reorganizing the finance; and his
success in dealing with these three difficult problems is sufficiently
proved by the prosperous condition of the empire for a century
and a half after his death. To secure peace it was necessary to
establish on all sides of the empire really defensible
frontiers; and this became possible now that for the
first time the direction of the foreign policy of the state
and of its military forces was concentrated in the hands of a
single magistrate. To the south and west the generals of the re-
public, and Caesar himself, had extended the authority of Rome
to the natural boundaries formed by the African deserts and
the Atlantic Ocean, and in these two directions Augustus's task
was in the main confined to the organization of a settled Roman
government within these limits. In Africa the client state of
Egypt was ruled by Augustus as the successor of the Ptolemies,
and administered by his deputies (praefecti), and the kingdom of
Numidia (25 B.C.) was incorporated with the old province of
Africa. In Spain the hill-tribes of the north-west were finally
subdued and a third province, Lusitania, established. 7 In Gaul
Augustus (27 B.C.) established in addition to the " old province "
the three new ones of Aquitania, Lugdunensis and Belgica, 8
which included the territories conquered by Julius Caesar.
Towards the north the republic had left the civilized
countries bordering on the Mediterranean with only a North
very imperfect defence against the threatening mass
of barbarian tribes beyond them. The result 9 of Augustus's
policy was to establish a protecting line of provinces running from
the Euxine to the North Sea, and covering the peaceful districts
to the south, Moesia (A.D. 6), Pannonia (A.D. 9), Noricum
(15 B.C.), Raetia (15 B.C.) and Gallia Belgica. Roman rule was
thus carried up to the natural frontier lines of the Rhine and
the Danube. It was originally intended to make the Elbe the
frontier of the empire; but after the defeat of P. Quintilius
Varus (A.D. 9) the forward policy was abandoned. Tiberius
recalled Germanicus as soon as Varus had been avenged; and
after the peace with Maroboduus, the chief of the Marcomanni
on the upper Danube, in the next year (A.D. 17), the defensive
policy recommended by Augustus was adopted along the whole
of the northern frontier. The line of the great rivers was held
by an imposing mass of troops. Along the Rhine lay the armies
of Upper and Lower Germany, consisting of four legions each;
eight more guarded the Danube and the frontiers of Pannonia
and Moesia. At frequent intervals along the frontier were the
military colonies, the permanent camps and the smaller inter-
vening castella. Flotillas of galleys cruised up and down the
rivers, and Roman roads opened communication both along the
frontiers and with the seat of government in Italy.
In the East, Rome was confronted with a well-organized and
powerful state whose claims to empire were second only to her
own. The victory of Carrhae (53 B.C.) had encouraged
among the Parthians the idea of an invasion of Syria and ^ st
Asia Minor, while it had awakened in Rome a genuine
fear of the formidable power which had so suddenly arisen in
the East. Caesar was at the moment of his death preparing to
avenge the death of Crassus by an invasion of Parthia, and
Antony's schemes of founding an Eastern empire which should
rival that of Alexander included the conquest of the kingdom
beyond the Euphrates. Augustus, however, adhered to the
policy which he recommended to his successors of " keeping
the empire within its bounds"; and the Parthians, weakened
by internal feuds and dynastic quarrels, were in no mood for
vigorous action. Roman pride was satisfied by the restoration
of the standards taken at Carrhae. Four legions guarded the
line of the Euphrates, and, beyond the frontiers of Pontus and
7 Marquardt i. 257 ; Mommsen, Provinces, i. 64.
8 Marquardt i. 264; Mommsen, Provinces, \. 84 seq.
9 See especially Mommsen, Provinces, i. caps. 4 and 6.
EMPIRE: 27 B.C.-A.D. 284]
ROME
651
Cappadocia, Armenia was established as a " friendly and inde-
pendent ally." 1
Next in importance to the rectification and defence of the
frontiers was the reformation of the administration, and the
Admiais- restorat ion of prosperity to the distracted and exhausted
trattve provinces. The most serious defect of the republican
reforms system had been the absence of any effective control
over the Roman officials outside Italy. This was
vtoces. now supplied by the general proconsular authority
vested in the emperor. The provinces were for the
first time treated as departments of a single state, while
their governors, from being independent and virtually irre-
sponsible rulers, became the subordinate official? of a higher
authority. 2 Over the legali of the imperial provinces the
control of the emperor was as complete as that of the republican
proconsul over his staff in his own province. They were ap-
pointed by him, held office at his good pleasure, and were
directly responsible to him for their conduct. The proconsuls
of the senatorial provinces were in law magistrates equally with
the princeps, though inferior to him in rank; it was to the
senate that they were as of old responsible; they were still
selected by lot from among the senators of consular and
praetorian rank. But the distinction did not seriously interfere
with the paramount authority of the emperor. The provinces
left nominally to the senate were the more peaceful and settled
districts in the heart of the empire, where only the routine work
of civil administration was needed, and where the local municipal
governments were as yet comparatively vigorous. The sena-
torial proconsuls themselves were indirectly nominated by the
emperor through his control of the praetorship and consulship.
They wielded no military and only a strictly subordinate
financial authority, and, though Augustus and Tiberius, at any
rate, encouraged the fiction of the responsibility of the senatorial
governors to the senate, it was in reality to the emperor that
they looked for direction and advice, and to him that they were
held accountable. Moreover, in the case of all governors
this accountability became under the empire a reality. Prose-
cutions for extortion (de pecuniis repetundis), which were now
transferred to the hearing of the senate, are tolerably frequent
during the first century of the empire; but a more effective
check on maladministration lay in the appeal to Caesar from the
decisions of any governor, which was open to every provincial,
and in the right of petition. Finally, the authority both of the
legate and the proconsul was weakened by the presence of the
imperial procurator, to whom was entrusted the administration
of the fiscal revenues; while both legate and proconsul were
deprived of that right of requisitioning supplies which, in spite
of a long series of restrictive laws, had been the most powerful
instrument of oppression in the hands of republican governors.
The financial reforms of Augustus 3 are marked by
reforms the same desire to establish an equitable, orderly
and economical system, and by the same centralization
of authority in the emperor's hands. The institution of an
imperial census, or valuation of all land throughout the empire,
and the assessment upon this basis of a uniform land tax, in
place of the heterogeneous and irregular payments made under
the republic, were the work of Augustus, though the system
was developed and perfected by the emperors of the 2nd century
and by Diocletian. The land tax itself was directly collected,
either by imperial officials or by local authorities responsible to
them, and the old wasteful plan of selling the privilege of
collection to publicani was henceforward applied only to such
indirect taxes as the customs duties. The rate of the land tax
was fixed by the emperor, and with him rested the power of
remission even in senatorial provinces. 4 The effect of these
reforms is clearly visible in the improved financial condition of
1 Mommsen, Provinces, cap. 9. Armenia, however, long continued
to be a debatable ground between Rome and Parthia passing
alternately under the influence of one or the other.
2 For 'the provincial reforms of Augustus, see Marquardt, Staats-
verw., i. 544 sqq.
" Marquardt, ii. 204 sqq.; Hirschfeld, Verwaltungsbeamten, 55 sqq.
4 Tac. Ann. ii. 47.
the empire. Under the republic the treasury had been nearly
always in difficulties, and the provinces exhausted and im-
poverished. Under the emperors, at least throughout the ist
century, in spite of a largely increased expenditure on the
army, on public works, on shows and largesses, and on the
machinery of government itself, the better emperors, such as
Tiberius and Vespasian, were able to accumulate large sums,
while the provinces show but few signs of distress. Moreover,
while the republic had almost entirely neglected to Ltbtral
develop the internal resources of the provinces, policy
Augustus set the example of a liberal expenditure toward*
on public works, in the construction of harbours,
roads and bridges, the reclamation of waste lands,
and the erection of public buildings.* The crippling re-
strictions which the republic had placed on freedom of inter-
course and trade, even between the separate districts of a single
province, disappeared under the empire. In the eyes of the
republican statesmen the provinces were merely the ltaly aad
estates of the Roman people, but from the reign of (Ac pro-
Augustus dates the gradual disappearance of the old vioce*
pre-eminence of Rome and Italy. It was from the " e ^ e [ r g he
provinces that the legions were increasingly recruited;
provincials rose to high rank as soldiers, statesmen and men
of letters; 6 and the methods of administration, formerly
distinctive of the provinces, were adopted even in Rome and
Italy. From Augustus himself, jealous as he was of the tradi-
tions and privileges of the ruling Roman people, date the rule
of an imperial prefect 7 in the city of Rome, the division of
Italy into regiones in the provincial fashion, 'and the permanent
quartering there of armed troops. 8
Augustus founded a dynasty which occupied the throne for
more than half a century after his death. The first and by far
the ablest of its members was Tiberius (A.D. 14-37). The Julio-
He was undoubtedly a capable and vigorous ruler, Ciaudiaa
who enforced justice in the government of the pro- ""'
vinces, maintained the integrity of the frontiers and husbanded
the finances of the empire, but he became intensely unpopular
in Roman society, and was painted as a cruel and odious tyrant.
His successor, Gaius (A.D. 37-41), generally known as Caligula,
was the slave of his wild caprices and uncontrolled passions,
which issued in manifest insanity. He was followed by his
uncle, Claudius (A.D. 41-54), whose personal uncouthness made
him an object of derision to his contemporaries, but who was
by no means devoid of statesmanlike faculties. His reign left
an abiding mark on the history of the empire, for he carried
forward its development on the lines intended by Augustus.
Client-states were absorbed, southern Britain was conquered,
the Romanization of the West received a powerful impulse,
public works were executed in Rome and Italy, and the organ-
ization of the imperial bureaucracy made rapid strides. Nero
(A.D. 54-68), the last of the Julio-Claudian line, has been handed
down to posterity as the incarnation of monstrous vice and
fantastic luxury. But his wild excesses scarcely affected the
prosperity of the empire at large; the provinces were well
governed, and the war with Parthia led to a compromise in the
matter of Armenia which secured peace for half a century. 9
5 Suet. Aug. 18, 47.
6 Jung, Die romanischen Landschaften (Innsbruck, 1881); Budin-
sky, Die Ausbreitung d. lateinischen Sprache (Berlin, 1881).
7 The praefectus urbi, unlike the other imperial prefects, was always
a senator. He commanded the three cohortes urbanae, which pre-
served order in the city, and possessed a power of jurisdiction which
tended to increase in importance. The office, which was only tem-
porary under Augustus, became a permanent one under his successor.
8 Besides the cohortes urbanae mentioned above, the nine regiments
of the imperial guard (cohortes praetorianae) were quartered in Rome.
The guards were not at first concentrated but billeted in Rome and
the neighbouring towns; the praetorian barracks on the Esquiline
were built under Tiberius (Tac. Ann. iv. 2). Augustus also formed
the quasi-military police force of the vigiles (in seven cohorts),
which performed the duties of a fire brigade and night watch.
Police duties in those parts of Italy which were subject to brigandage
were performed by stationes militum (Suet. Aug. 32).
9 For an estimate of the Julio-Claudian Caesars, based on the
results of recent research, see Pelham in Quarterly Review (April
652
ROME
[EMPIRE: 27 B.C.-A.D. 284
The fall of Nero and the extinction of the " progeny of
the Caesars " was followed by a war of succession which
revealed the military basis of the Principate and the
weakness of the tie connecting the emperor with Rome.
Galba, Otho, Vitellius and Vespasian represented in turn
the legions of Spain, the household troops, the army of
the Rhine, and a coalition of the armies of the Danube
and the Euphrates; and all except Otho were already
de facto emperors when they entered Rome. The final
survivor in the struggle, Vespasian (A.D. 69-79), was a man f
comparatively humble origin, and as the Principate ceased to
possess the prestige of high descent it became imperatively
rfle necessary to remove, as far as possible, the anomalies
Flavian of the office and to give it a legitimate and permanent
a " a form. Thus we find an elaborate and formal system
of titles substituted for the personal names of the
Julio-Claudian emperors, an increasing tendency to
insist on the inherent prerogatives of the Principate (such as
the censorial power), and an attempt to invest Caesarism with
an hereditary character, either by natural descent or by adop-
tion, while the worship of the Divi, or deified Caesars, was made
the symbol of its continuity and legitimacy. The dynasty of
Vespasian and his sons (Titus, A. D. 79-81, Domitian, A.D. 81-96)
became extinct on the murder of the last named, whose high-
handed treatment of the senate earned him the name of a tyrant;
his successor, Nerva.(A.D. 96-98), opened the series of " adop-
tive " emperors (Trajan, A.D. 98-117, Hadrian, 117-38,
Antoninus Pius, 138-61, Marcus Aurelius, 161-80) under
whose rule the empire enjoyed a period of internal tranquillity
and good government. Its boundaries were extended by the
subjugation of northern Britain (by Agricola, A.D. 78-84; see
BRITAIN, Roman), by the annexation of the districts included
in the angle of the Rhine and Danube under the Flavian
emperors, and by the conquest of Dacia (the modern Transyl-
vania) under Trajan (completed in A.D. 106). Trajan also
annexed Arabia Petraea and in his closing years invaded
Parthia and formed provinces of Armenia, Mesopotamia
and Assyria; but these conquests were surrendered by his
successor, Hadrian, who set himself to the task of consoli-
dating the empire and perfecting its defences. To him is
due the system of permanent limites or frontier fortifications,
such as the wall which protected northern Britain and the
palisade which replaced the chain of forts established by
the Flavian emperors from the Rhine to the Danube. 1 The
construction of these defences showed that the limit of
expansion had been reached, and under M. Aurelius the
tide began to turn. A great part of his reign was occupied
with wars against the Marcomanni, Quadi, Sarmatians, &c.,
whose irruptions seriously threatened the security of Italy.
Henceforth Rome never ceased to be on the defensive.
Coam Within the frontiers the levelling and unifying
ditioa of process commenced by Augustus had steadily pro-
thepro- ceeded. A tolerably uniform provincial system
viaces. covered the whole area of the empire. The client
states had one by one been reconstituted as provinces, and even
the government of Italy had been in many respects assimilated
to the provincial type. The municipal system had
of the spread widely; the period from Vespasian to Aurelius
muni- witnessed the elevation to municipal rank of an im-
mense number of communities, not only in the old
provinces of the West, in Africa, Spain and Gaul, but
in the newer provinces of the North, and along the line of the
northern frontier; and everywhere under the influence of the
central imperial authority there was an increasing uniformity
1905). It is now generally admitted that Tacitus's picture is over-
drawn.
1 On the limes imperil, see Pelham, " A Problem of Roman
Frontier Policy " (Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 1906),
and Kornemann, " Die neueste Limesforschung " (Klio, 1907, pp.
73 ff.). The limes connecting the Rhine with the Danube has been
systematically excavated in recent years; for the results see Der
obergermanisch-ratische Limes (Heidelberg, 1894- ), and Der rdmische
Limes in Osterreich (Vienna, 1900- ).
in the form of the local constitutions, framed and granted as
they all were by imperial edict. 2 Throughout the Bxteasloa
empire again the extension of the Roman franchise of the
was preparing the way for the final act by which Roman
Caracalla assimilated the legal status of all free-born traachlsf -
inhabitants of the empire, 3 and in the west and north
this was preceded and accompanied by the complete Roman-
izing of the people in language and civilization. Yet, in spite
of the internal tranquillity and the good government which have
made the age of the Antonines famous, we can detect signs of
weakness. It was in this period that the centralization of
authority in the hands of the princeps was completed; the " dual
control " established by Augustus, which had been unreal
enough in the ist century, was now, though not formally
abolished, systematically ignored in practice. The senate
ceased to be an instrument of government, and became an
imperial peerage, largely composed of men not qualified by
election to the quaestorship but directly ennobled by the
emperor. 4 The restricted sphere of administration left by
Augustus to the old magistracies was still further narrowed;
their jurisdiction, for example, tended to pass into the hands
of the Greek officers appointed by Caesar the prefect of the
city and the prefect of the guards. The complete organization
of Caesar's own administrative service, and its recognition as a
state bureaucracy, was chiefly the work of Hadrian, who took
the secretaryships out of the hands of freedmen and entrusted
them to procurators of equestrian rank. 5 All these changes,
inevitable, and in some degree beneficial, as they were, brought
with them the attendant evils of excessive centralization.
Though these were hardly felt while the central authority was
wielded by vigorous rulers, yet even under Trajan, Hadrian and
the Antonines we notice a failure of strength in the empire as a
whole, and a corresponding increase of pressure on the imperial
government itself. The reforms of Augustus had given free
play to powers still fresh and vigorous. The ceaseless labours
of Hadrian were directed mainly to the careful husbanding of
such strength as still remained, or to attempts at reviving it by
the sheer force of imperial authority. Among the symptoms of
incipient decline were the growing depopulation, especially of the
central districts of the empire, the constant financial difficulties,
the deterioration in character of the local governments in the
provincial communities, 6 and the increasing reluctance ex-
hibited by all classes to undertake the now onerous burden of
municipal office.
It is to such facts as these that we must look in passing a
final judgment on the imperial government, which is admittedly
seen in its best and most perfect form in the Antonine period.
In our review of the conditions which brought about the fall
of the Roman Republic, we saw that the collapse of the city-
state made Caesarism inevitable, since the extension of federal
and representative institutions to a world-empire lay beyond
the horizon of ancient thought. The benefits which Caesarism
conferred upon mankind are plain. In the first place, the
Roman world, which had hitherto not been governed in the
true sense of the word, but exploited in the interests of a
dominant clique, now received an orderly and efficient govern-
ment, under which the frightful ravages of misrule and civil
strife were repaired. The financial resources of the empire
were husbanded by skilled and, above all, trained administrators,
to whom the imperial service offered a carriere ouverte aux
talents; many of these were Greeks, or half -Greek Orientals,
whose business capacity formed an invaluable asset hitherto
2 Marquardt, i. 132 ff . ; cf. especially the leges Salpensanae et
Malacitanae] Bruns, Fontes Juris Romani (ed. 6, p. 142).
3 Dio Ixxvii. 9 (A.D. 212).
* For the use of adlectio see Mommsen, Staatsr. ii. 877.
' Vit. Hadr. 21. Besides Hirschfeld's Verwaltungsbeamten
reference may be made to Liebenam, Die Laufbahn der Procuratoren
(Jena, 1886), and Schurz, De mutationibus in imperio Romano
ordinando ab imperatore Hadriano factis (Bonn, 1883).
6 This led to the appointment of the curatores and correctores in the
2nd century. The younger Pliny was one of these imperial com-
missioners, and his correspondence with Trajan throws much light
on the condition of the provinces.
EMPIRE: 27 B.C.-A.D. 284]
ROME
653
neglected. Augustus caused an official survey of the empire
to be made, and a scientific census of its resources was gradually
carried out and from -time to time revised; thus the balance
of revenue and expenditure could be accurately estimated and
adjusted, and financial stability was established. The system
of tax-farming was gradually abolished and direct collection
substituted; commerce was freed from vexatious restrictions,
and large customs-districts were formed, on whose borders
duties were levied for revenue only. The government took
even more direct measures for the encouragement of industry
and especially of agriculture. The most remarkable of these
were the " alimentary " institutions, originally due to Nerva
and developed by succeeding emperors. Capital was advanced
at moderate rates of interest to Italian landowners on the
security of their estates, and the profits of this system of land-
banks were devoted to the maintenance and education of poor
children. The foundation of colonies for time-expired soldiers,
who received grants of land on their discharge, contributed
something to the formation of a well-to-do agricultural class;
and although the system was not successful in lower Italy,
where economic decline could not be arrested, there can be
no doubt that central and northern Italy, where the vine and
olive were largely cultivated, and manufacturing industries
sprang up, enjoyed a considerable measure of prosperity. The
extension of the Roman municipal system to the provinces,
and the watchful care exercised by the imperial government
over the communities, together with the profuse liberality of
the emperors, which was imitated by the wealthier citizens of
the towns, led to the creation of a flourishing municipal life still
evidenced by the remains which in districts such as Asia Minor
or Tunis stand in significant contrast with the desolation
brought about by centuries of barbaric rule. Mommsen 1
has, indeed, expressed the opinion that " if an angel of the Lord
were to strike the balance whether the domain ruled by Severus
Antoninus were governed with the greater intelligence and the
greater humanity at that time or in the present day, whether
civilization and national prosperity generally had since that
time advanced or retrograded, it is very doubtful whether the
decision would prove in favour of the present."
But there is another side to the picture. The empire brought
into being a new society and a new nationality, due to the
fusion of Roman ideas with Hellenic culture, beside which
other elements, saving only, as we shall see, those contributed
by the Oriental religions, were insignificant. This new nation-
ality grew in definition through the gradual disappearance of
distinctions of language and manners, the assimilating influence
of commercial and social intercourse, and the extinction of
national jealousies and aspirations. But the cosmopolitan
society thus formed was compacted of so many disparate
elements that a common patriotism was hard to foster, and
doubly hard when the autocratic system of government pre-
vented men from aspiring to that true political distinction
which is attainable only in a self-governing community. It
is true that there was much good work to be done, and
that much good work was done, in the service of the
emperors; true, also, that the carrilre ouverte aux talents was
in large measure realized. Distinctions of race were slowly
but steadily effaced by the grant of citizen rights to provincials
and by the manumission of slaves; and the career open to
the Romanized provincial or the liberated slave might culminate
in the highest distinctions which the emperor could bestow.
In the hierarchy of social orders senate, eguites and plebs
ascent was easy and regular from the lower grade to the higher ;
and the more enlightened of the emperors especially Hadrian
made a genuine endeavour to give a due share in the work of
government to the various subject races. But nothing could
compensate for the lack of self-determination, and although
during the first century and a half of imperial rule a flourishing
local patriotism in some degree filled the place of the wider
sentiment, this gradually sank into decay and became a pretext
under cover of which the lower classes in the several communities
1 Provinces, \. p. 5.
took toll of their wealthier fellow-citizens in the shape of public
works, largesses, amusements, &c., until the resources at the
disposal of the rich ran dry, the communities themselves in
many cases became insolvent, and the inexorable claims of the
central government were satisfied only by the surrender of
financial control to an imperial commissioner. Then the organs
of civic life became atrophied, political interest died out, and
the whole burden of administration, as well as that of defence,
fell upon the shoulders of the bureaucracy, which proved unequal
to the task.
In a world thus governed the individual was thrown more
and more upon his own resources the pursuit of wealth* and
pleasure, or the satisfaction of intellectual interests. Under
the rule of the Caesars much was done for education. Julius
Caesar bestowed Roman citizenship on " teachers of the liberal
arts"; Vespasian endowed professorships of Greek and Latin
oratory at Rome; 3 and later emperors, especially Antoninus
Pius, extended the same benefits to the provinces. Local
enterprise and munificence were also devoted to the cause of
education; we learn from the correspondence of the younger
Pliny that public schools were founded in the towns of northern
Italy. But though there was a wide diffusion of knowledge
under the empire, there was no true intellectual progress.
Augustus, it is true, gathered about him the most brilliant
writers of his time, and the debut of the new monarchy coincided
with the Golden Age of Roman literature; but this was of brief
duration, and the beginning of the Christian era saw the triumph
of classicism and the first steps in the decline which awaits all
literary movements which look to the pasj. rather than the
future. Political oratory could not exist under an absolute
ruler; public life furnished no inspiring theme to poet or
historian; and literature became didactic or imitative, while
rhetoric degenerated into declamation. It is true that for
some time both literature and philosophy maintained an alliance
with the old republican aristocracy and voiced the undercurrent
of opposition to the empire; but both had ceased to be irre-
concilable before the time of Hadrian. Under his rule classicism
gave way to the archaism of which Fronto and Apuleius furnish
the most notable examples, and which preferred Cato and
Ennius to Cicero and Virgil. But this return to the past was
not followed by any renewed creative energy. It was a con-
fession of weakness and little more; and the widely diffused
culture of the Antonine period, though outwardly brilliant, had
no progressive energy and presented but a feeble resistance to
the dissolving forces of barbarism.
To strike the balance of loss and gain in the field of morals
is an exceedingly difficult task. The denunciations of the
satirists, especially of Juvenal, might lead us to believe that an
appalling state of depravity existed in the society of the early
empire; but satirists notoriously paint in glaring colours
for literary effect, and whatever may be said of the morality
of Rome which was probably no better and no worse than
that of any cosmopolitan capital there were sound and
healthy elements in plenty amongst the population of Italy
and the provinces. Doubtless the craving for amusement
especially for the shows of the amphitheatre and the chariot-
races of the circus infected the idle masses of the populace
in Rome and the larger towns, and was fostered by the policy
of despotism, which always aims at securing cheap popularity
with the proletariat; but the tendency of the time, not only in
the higher ranks, but also amongst humbler folk, was towards
a broader humanity and a more serious view of life and its
problems. Greek philosophy, especially the Stoic system,
in order to appeal to the practical Roman intelligence, found
itself obliged to elaborate a rule of conduct, and in many
1 Immense fortunes were accumulated under the early empire,
especially by imperial freedmen, such as Pallas, who is said to have
possessed the equivalent of 3,000,000 sterling; and there were
instances of extravagant luxury, which was encouraged by Nero.
But we are told that there was a return to simpler habits of life
under the Flavian dynasty.
1 Quintilian occupied the chair of Latin rhetoric, and received the
ornamenta consular-la.
654
ROME
[EMPIRE: 27 B.C.-A.D. 284
households the philosopher, generally a Greek, played the part
of a director of consciences. The influence of these doctrines is
shown in the humane provisions of the civil law as elaborated
in the Antonine period, which did much to mitigate the lot of
the slave and to smooth the process by which freedom might
be attained. 1 Above all, a religious movement which drew its
motive power not from Greek philosophy, but from Oriental
mysticism, carried the human race far from its old moorings,
and culminated in the triumph of Christianity. All the Eastern
cults whether of Cybele, of Isis, of the Syrian Baalim or of
the Persian Mithras had this in common, that they promised
to their adherents redemption from the curse of the flesh and a
glorious immortality after death; and this fact gave them an
irresistible attraction for the disillusioned and overburdened
subjects of the emperors. The religion of Mithras, whose
doctrines were specially suited to the military temperament,
made its way wherever the armies of the empire were stationed,
and seemed likely at one moment to become universal; but
it was forced to yield to Christianity, which refused to tolerate
any rival, faced the empire with a claim to absolute dominion
in the spiritual sphere, and at length made that claim good
(see ROMAN RELIGION; MITHRAS; GREAT MOTHER or THE
GODS).
Marcus Aurelius died in 180, and the reign of his worthless son,
Commodus (A.D. 180-93), was followed by a century of war
The and disorder, during which nothing but the stern rule
empire of soldier emperors saved the empire from dissolution.
from The first and ablest of these was Septimius Severus
180-284. (153-211), whose claims were disputed by Clodius
Albinus in the West, and by Pescennius Niger in the East;
in these struggles rival Roman forces, for the first time since the
accession of Vespasian, exhausted each other in civil war. 2
Severus emphasized strongly the military character of the
Principate; he abstained from seeking confirmation for his
authority from the senate, and deprived that body of most of
the share in the government which it still retained; he assumed
the title of proconsul in Rome itself, made the prefect of the
guard the vicegerent of his authority, and heaped privileges
upon the army, which, although they secured its entire devotion
to his family, impaired its efficiency as a fighting force and
thus weakened Rome in face of the barbarian invader. 3 He
succeeded in founding a short-lived dynasty, which ended with
the attempt of the virtuous but weak Alexander (222-35) to
restore the independence of the senate. This led to a military
reaction, and the elevation of the brutal Maximinus, a Thracian
peasant, to the throne. The disintegration of the empire was
the natural result; for the various provincial armies put forward
their commanders as claimants to the purple. A hundred ties
bound them closely to the districts in which they were stationed;
their permanent camps had grown into towns, they had families
and farms; the unarmed provincials looked to them as their
natural protectors, and were attached to them by bonds of
intermarriage and by long intercourse. Now that they found
themselves left to repel by their own efforts the invaders from
without, they reasonably enough claimed the right to ignore the
central authority which was powerless to aid them, and to choose
for themselves imperatores whom they knew and trusted.
These " tyrants, " as they were called when unsuccessful, sprang
up in ever-increasing numbers, and weakened Rome's power
of resistance to the new enemies who were threatening her
frontiers the Alamanni and Franks, who broke through the
German limes in 236; the Goths, who crossed the Danube in
247, raided the Balkan provinces, and defeated and slew the
emperor, Decius, in 251, and the restored Persian kingdom of
1 The massacre of the slaves of Pedanius Secundus, who had been
murdered by some person unknown (Tac. Ann. xiv. 42), was, it is
true, decreed by the senate; but it was a highly unpopular act, and
is chiefly significant as showing that the senatorial aristocracy was
out of harmony with the spirit of the time.
Gibbon (ed. Bury), i. chap. v. ; Schiller, Gesch. d. Kaiserzeit, \.
(2) 660.
1 The common soldier was now permitted to marry, and ceased to
live in camp (Herodian iii. 8. 5).
the Sassanidae (see PERSIA), whose rulers laid claim to all
the Asiatic possessions of Rome and in 260 captured Antioch
and made the emperor, Valerian, a prisoner. During the
reign of Gallienus, the son of Valerian (260-68), the evil
reached its height. The central authority was para- Reign nt
lysed; the Romanized districts beyond the Rhine Oaliienu*,
were irrevocably lost; the Persians were threatening 260 ~ 268 -
to overrun the Eastern provinces; the Goths had iormed a
fleet of 500 sail which harried Asia Minor and even Greece
itself, where Athens, Corinth, Sparta and Argos were sacked;
and the legions on the frontiers were left to repel the enemies
of Rome as best they could. A provincial empire was
established by M. Cassianius Latinius Postumus in Gaul and
maintained by his successors, M. Piavonius Victorinus and
C. Pius Esuvius Tetricus. 4 Their authority was acknowledged,
not only in Gaul and by the troops on the Rhine, but by the
legions of Britain and Spain; and under Postumus at any rate
(259-69) the existence of the Gallic Empire was justified by
the repulse of the barbarians and by the restoration of peace
and security to the provinces of Gaul. On the Danube, in
Greece and in Asia Minor none of the " pretenders " enjoyed
more than a passing success. In the Far East, the Syrian
Odaenathus, prince of Palmyra 5 (<?..), though officially only
the governor of the East (dux Orientis) under Gallienus, Odaena
drove the Persians out of Asia Minor and Syria, t i, us aatf
recovered Mesopotamia, and ruled Syria, Arabia, Zenobia
Armenia, Cappadocia and Cilicia with all the inde- at
pendence of a sovereign. Odaenathus was murdered
in 266. His young son Vaballathus (Wahab-allath) succeeded
him in his titles, but the real power was vested in his
widow Zenobia, under whom not only the greater part of Asia
Minor but even the province of Egypt was forcibly added to
the dominions governed by the Palmyrene prince, who ceased
to acknowledge the supremacy of Rome.
Gallienus was murdered at Milan in 268, and after the brief
reign of Claudius II. (A.D. 268-70), who checked the advance
of the Goths, Aurelian (270-75) restored unity to Wes/ora .
the distracted empire. Palmyra was destroyed and ,/ on of
Zenobia led a prisoner to Rome (in 273) and in the next unity by
year the Gallic empire came to an end by the surrender Aurelian,
of Tetricus. Aurelian, it is true, abandoned the pro-
vince of Dacia, but the defences of the Danube were
strengthened, and in 276 Probus repulsed the Franks and
Alamanni, who had been pressing on the Rhine frontier for
some forty years. Finally, Carus (282) recovered Armenia and
Mesopotamia from the Persians and restored the frontier fixed
by Septimius Severus.
Although any serious loss of territory had been avoided,
the storms of the 3rd century had told with fatal effect upon the
general condition of the empire. The " Roman State
peace " had vanished; not only the frontier terri- ofthe
lories, but the central districts of Greece, Asia Minor, (tose'
and even Italy itself, had suffered from the ravages of the 3rd
of war, and the fortification of Rome by Aurelian century.
was a significant testimony to the altered condition of
affairs. War, plague and famine had thinned the population
and crippled the resources of the provinces. On all sides,
land was running waste, cities and towns were decaying, and
commerce was paralysed. Only with the greatest difficulty
were sufficient funds squeezed from the exhausted taxpayers
to meet the increasing cost of the defence of the frontiers. The
old established culture and civilization of the Mediterranean
world rapidly declined, and the mixture of barbaric rudeness,
with Oriental pomp and luxury which marked the court, even
of the better emperors, such as Aurelian, was typical of the
general deterioration, which was accelerated by the growing:
practice of settling barbarians on lands within the empire,
and of admitting them freely to service in the Roman
army.
4 Gibbon, i. chap. x. ; Mommsen, Provinces, i. 164; Schiller, L
(2) 827.
5 Gibbon, i. chap. x. ; Mommsen, Provinces, ii. 103; cf. PALMYRA.
EMPIRE: 284-476]
ROME
655
PERIOD II.: THE DOMINATE, A.D. 284-476. (a) From the
Accession of Diocletian to the Death of Theodosius (A.D. 284-395).
The The work of fortifying the empire alike against internal
reforms of sedition and foreign invasion, begun by Aurelian and
Diocietiaa Probus, was completed by Diocletian and Constantino
staatiae' ^ Great, whose system of government, novel as it
appears at first sight, was in reality the natural and
inevitable outcome of the history of the previous century. 1 Its
object was twofold, to give increased stability to the imperial
authority itself, and to organize an efficient administrative
Augusti machinery throughout the empire. In the second year
and of his reign Diocletian associated Maximian with him-
Caesares. se j as co lleague, and six years later (293) the hands of
the two " Augusti " were further strengthened by the pro-
clamation of Constantius and Galerius as "Caesares." Prece-
dents for such an arrangement were to be found in the earlier
history of the Principate 2 ; and it divided the burdens and
responsibilities of government, without sacrificing the unity of
the empire; for, although to each of the Augusti and Caesars a
separate sphere was assigned, the Caesars were subordinate to
the higher authority of the Augusti, and over all his three
colleagues Diocletian claimed to exercise a paramount control.
It also reduced the risk of a disputed succession by establishing
in the two Caesars the natural successors to the Augusti,
and it satisfied the jealous pride of the rival armies by
giving them imperutores of their own. The distribution of
power between Diocletian and his colleagues followed those
lines of division which the feuds of the previous century
had marked out. The armies of the Rhine, the Danube and
of Syria fell to the lot respectively of Constantius, Galerius
and Diocletian, the central districts of Italy and Africa to
Maximian. 3
In the new system the imperial authority was finally
emancipated from all constitutional limitation and control and
Altered t ^ le ' ast traces f ^s republican origin disappeared.
character The emperors from Diocletian onwards were autocrats
of the in theory as well as in practice. This avowed
imperial despotism Diocletian, following in the steps of Aurelian,
hedged round with all the pomp and majesty of
Oriental monarchy. The final adoption of the title dominus,
the diadem on the head, the robes of silk and gold, the replace-
ment of the republican salutation of a fellow-citizen by the
adoring prostration even of the highest in rank before their lord
and master, were all significant marks of the new regime. 4 In
Levelling *&* hands of this absolute ruler was placed the entire
policy of control of an elaborate administrative machinery.
Diocie- Most of the old local and national distinctions, privi-
leges and liberties which had once flourished within
the empire had already disappeared under the levelling
influence of imperial rule, and the process was now completed.
Degrada- Roman citizenship had, since the edict of Caracalla,
tloa of ceased to be the privilege of a minority. Diocletian
Italy and finally reduced Italy and Rome to the level of the
Rome. provinces: the provincial land-tax and provincial
government were introduced into Italy, 5 while Rome ceased to
1 See Gibbon (ed. Bury), ii. chap. xvii. 158 ff. ; Marquardt,
Stoatsverw. i. pp. 81, 336, 337, ii. 217 seq,; Madvig, Verf. d. Rom.
Reichs, i. 585; Bocking, Notitia dignitatum (Bonn, 1853); Hodgkin,
Italy and her Invaders (ed. 2), bk. i. chap, xii.; Preuss, Diocletian
(Leipzig, 1869) ; Seeck, Untergang der antiken Welt, vols. i., ii. (1897-
1902).
1 Mommsen, Staatsrecht, ii. 1168 seq. Verus was associated with
Marcus Aurelius as Augustus; Severus gave the title to his two
sons. The bestowal of the title " Caesar ' on the destined successor
dates from Hadrian. Mommsen, op. cit. 1139.
The division was as follows: (i) Diocletian Thrace, Egypt,
Syria, Asia Minor; (2) Maximian Italy and Africa; (3) Galenus
Illyricum and the Danube; (4) Constantius Britain, Gaul, Spain.
See Gibbon, i. 354; Aurelius Victor, c. 39.
'Aurel. Victor, 39; Eutror>. ix. 26.
6 Marquardt, Staatsverw. i. 233 ff. Italy, together with Sicily,
Sardinia and Corsica, was divided into 17 provinciae. Each had its
own governor; the governors were subject to the two vicarii (vie.
urbis, vie. Italiae), and they in turn to the prefect of Italy, whose
prefecture, however, included as well Africa and Western Illyricum.
be even in name the seat of imperial authority. 6 Throughout
the whole area of the empire a uniform system of The new
administration was established, the control of which admiai*-
was centred in the imperial palace. 7 Between the civil trmOn
and military departments the separation was com- V*' e/n -
plete. At the head of the former were the praetorian prefects,'
next below them the vicarii, who had charge of the
dioceses; below these again Jhe governors of the separate
provinces (praesides, correctores, considares), 9 under each cf
whom was a host of minor officials. Parallel with this civil
hierarchy was the series of military officers, from the magislri
militant, the ducts, and comites downwards. 10 In both there is
the utmost possible subordination and division of authority.
The subdivision of provinces, begun by the emperors of the 2nd
century, was systematically carried out by Diocletian, and
each official, civil or military, was placed directly under the
orders of a superior; thus a continuous chain of authority con-
nected the emperor with the meanest official in his service.
Finally, the various grades in these two imperial services were
carefully marked by the appropriation to each of distinctive
titles, the highest being that of illustris, which was confined to
the prefects and to the military magislri and comites, and to the
chief ministers. 11
There can be little doubt that on the whole these reforms
prolonged the existence of the empire, by creating a machinery
which enabled the stronger emperors to utilize effect- Effect*
ively all its available resources, and which even to some of the*e
extent made good the deficiencies of weaker rulers, reform*.
But in many points they failed to attain their object.
Diocletian's division of the imperial authority among colleagues,
subject to the general control of the senior Augustus, was effectu-
ally discredited by the twenty years of almost constant conflict
which followed his own abdication (305-23). Constantine's
partition of the empire among his three sons was not more
successful in ensuring tranquillity, and in the final division of the
East and West between Valens and Valentinian (364) the
essential principle of Diocletian's scheme, the maintenance of
a single central authority, was abandoned. The " tyrants,"
the curse of the 3rd century, were far from unknown in the 4th.
The system, moreover, while it failed altogether to remove some
of the existing evils, aggravated others. The already over-
burdened financial resources of the empire were strained still
further by the increased expenditure necessitated by the substi-
tution of four imperial courts for one, and by the multiplication
in every direction of paid officials. The gigantic bureaucracy
of the 4th century proved, in spite of its undoubted services,
an intolerable weight upon the energies of 'the empire.
Diocletian and Maximian formally abdicated their high office
in 305. Nineteen years later Constantine I., the Great, the
sole survivor of six rival emperors, united the whole constan-
empire under his own rule. His reign of fourteen tine the
years was marked by two events of first-rate import- G/ *' t
ance, the recognition of Christianity as the religion of the
* The seats of government for Diocletian and his three colleagues
were Mediolanum, Augusta Treyirorum, Sirmium, Nicomedia.
7 For these last, see Gibbon, ii. chap. xvii. p. 188; cf. also Notitia
Dignitatum and Bocking's notes.
8 At first the number of these varied and there was no fixed division
of provinces between them; but by the close of the 4th century
there were four prefectures, viz. Onens, Illyricum, Italia, Gallia, to
which must be added the prefectures of Rome and Constantinople.
See Mommsen in Hermes, xxxvi. 204 ff.
9 There were 12 dioceses and 101 provinces; cf., in addition to the
authorities mentioned above, Bethmann-Hollweg, Civil-Prozess, iii. ;
Kuhn, Die stadtische und biirgerlicht Verfassung des romischen
Reichs (1877).
10 The army was completely remodelled, and the old frontier
garrisons (now called Limitanei) were supplemented by a field force
attached to the persons of the Augusti and Caesares, and hence called
Comitatenses. The change was accompanied by the subdivision of
the old legions into units of about 2000 men. For these reforms see
Seeck, Untergang der antiken Welt, bk. iii. chap. v. ; Mommsen in
Hermes, xxiv. 225 ff.
11 The grades were as follows: illustres, spectabiles, clarissimi,
perfectissimi, egregii. For the other insignia, see Madvig, ii. 590.
and the Notitia Dignitatum.
6 5 6
ROME
[EMPIRE: 284-476
empire, and the building of the new capital at Byzantium.
Recogal- The alliance which Constantine inaugurated between
Uoaot the Christian church and the imperial government,
Christ!- while it enlisted on the side of the state one of the most
""*' powerful of the new forces with which it had to reckon,
imposed a check, which was in time to become a powerful one,
on the imperial authority. The establishment of the new
" City of Constantine/' as a second Rome paved the
wav f r tne ^ na ^ se P ara tion f East and West by
providing the former for the first time with a
suitable seat of government on the Bosphorus. The
death of Constantine in 337 was followed, as the abdication
of Diocletian had been, by the outbreak of quarrels among
rival Caesars. Of the three sons of Constantine who in
337 divided the empire between them, Constantine the
eldest fell in civil war against his brother Constans; Con-
stans himself was, ten years afterwards, defeated and slain
by Magnentius; and the latter in his turn was in 353 van-
quished by Constantine's only surviving son Constantius.
Cons/an- Thus for the second time the whole empire was united
tius ii., under the rule of a member of the house of Constantine.
351-63. j{ u t i n 355 Constantius granted the title of Caesar to
his cousin Julian and placed him in charge of Gaul, where
the momentary elevation of a tyrant, Silvanus, and still
more the inroads of Franks and Alamanni, had excited alarm.
But Julian's successes during the next five years were such
as to arouse the jealous fears of Constantius. In order to
weaken his suspected rival the legions under Julian in Gaul
were suddenly ordered to march eastward against the Persians
(360). They refused; and when the order was re-
peated, replied by proclaiming Julian himself emperor
and Augustus. Julian, with probably sincere reluc-
tance, accepted the position, but the death of Constantius in
361 saved the empire from the threatened civil war. Julian's
attempted restoration of pagan and in especial of Hellenic
worships had no more permanent effect than the war which he
courageously waged against the multitudinous abuses which
had grown up in the luxurious court of Constantius. 1 But his
vigorous administration in Gaul undoubtedly checked the
barbarian advance across the Rhine, and postponed the loss
of the Western provinces; on the contrary, his campaign in
Persia, brilliantly successful at first, ended in his own death
(363), and his successor, Jovian, immediately sur-
rendered the territories beyond the Tigris won by
Diocletian seventy years before. Jovian died on the
1 7th of February 364; and on the 26th of February Valentinian
Vaien- was acknowledged as emperor of the army at Nicaea.
tiaiaa /., In obedience to the wish of the soldiers that he should
364-rs. associate a colleague with himself, he conferred the
Division tit' 6 of Augustus upon his brother Valens, and the
of the division of the empire was at last effected, Valen-
empire, tinian became emperor of the West, Valens of the East.
364. Valentinian maintained the integrity of the empire
until his death (in 375), which deprived the weaker Valens of
Valens, a trusted counsellor and ally, and was followed by a
364-78. serious crisis on the Danube. In 376 the Goths,
Revolt of hard pressed by their new foes from the eastward, the
the Goths. Huns, sought and obtained the protection of the Roman
Empire. They were transported across the Danube and settled
in Moesia, but, indignant at the treatment they received, they
rose in arms against their protectors. In 378 at Adrianople
Valens was defeated and killed, and the victorious Goths ad-
vanced eastward to the very walls of Constantinople. Once
more, however, the danger passed away. The skill and tact
Theo- of Theodosius, who had been proclaimed emperor of
the East by Gratian, 2 conciliated the Goths; they
were g ran ted an allowance, and in large numbers
entered the service of the Roman emperor. The remaining
1 In especial against the overweening influence of the eunuchs, an
jnfluence at once greater and more pernicious than even that of the
imperial freedmen in the days of Claudius.
1 The son of Valentinian and ruler of the West.
378-9S.
years of Theodosius's reign (382-95) were mainly engrossed
by the duty of upholding the increasingly feeble authority of
his western colleague against the attacks of pretenders. Maxi-
mus, the murderer of Gratian (383), was at first recognized by
Theodosius as Caesar, and left in undisturbed command of
Gaul, Spain and Britain; but, when in 386 he proceeded to
oust Valentinian II. from Italy and Africa, Theodosius marched
westward, crushed him, and installed Valentinian as emperor
of the West. In the very next year, however, the murder of
Valentinian (392) by Arbogast, a Frank, was followed by the
appearance of a fresh tyrant in the person of Eugenius, a
domestic officer and nominee of Arbogast himself. DMtion
Once more Theodosius marched westward, and near oftne
Aquileia decisively defeated his opponents. But
his victory was quickly followed by his own illness
and death (395), and the fortunes of East and West and
passed into the care of his two sons Arcadius and Hoaoriu*.
Honorius.
(b) From the Death of Theodosius to the Extinction of the
Western Empire (395-476). Through more than a century
from the accession of Diocletian the Roman Empire Fall of the
had succeeded in holding at bay the swarming hordes Western
of barbarians. But, though no province had yet Empire.
been lost, as Dacia had been lost in the century before, and
though the frontier lines of the Rhine and the Danube were
still guarded by Roman forts and troops, there were signs in
plenty that a catastrophe was at hand.
From all the writers who deal with the 4th century we have
one long series of laments over the depression and misery of
the provinces. 3 To meet the increased expenditure Distress
necessary to maintain the legions, to pay the hosts of of the
officials, and to keep up the luxurious splendour of provinces
the imperial courts, not only were the taxes raised '" tne 4th
in amount, but the most oppressive and inquisitorial '
methods were adopted in order to secure for the imperiaf
treasury every penny that could be wrung from the wretched
taxpayer. The results are seen in such pictures as that
which the panegyrist Eumenius 4 draws of the state of
Gaul (306-12) under Constantine, in the accounts of the
same province under Julian fifty years later, in those given
by Zosimus early in the 5th century, and in the
stringent regulations of the Theodosian code, dealing with
the assessment and collection of the taxes. Among the
graver symptoms of economic ruin were the decrease of popu-
lation, which seriously diminished not only the number of
taxpayers, but the supply of soldiers for the legions;* the
spread of infanticide; the increase of waste lands whose owners
and cultivators had fled to escape the tax collector; the de-
clining prosperity of the towns; and the constantly recurring
riots and insurrections, both among starving peasants, as in
Gaul, 6 and in populous cities like Antioch. 7 The distress was
aggravated by the civil wars, by the rapacity of tyrants, such
as Maxentius and Maximus, but above all by the raids of the
barbarians, who seized every opportunity afforded by the
dissensions or incapacity of the emperors to cross the frontiers
and harry the lands of the provincials. Constantine (306-12),
Julian (356-60) and Valentinian I. (364-75) had each to
give a temporary breathing-space to Gaul by repelling the
Franks and Alamanni. Britain was harassed by Picts and
Scots from the north (367-70), while the Saxon pirates swept
the northern seas and the coasts both of Britain and Gaul.
On the Danube the Quadi, Sarmatae, and above all the Goths,
poured at intervals into the provinces of Pannonia and Moesia,
and penetrated to Macedon and Thrace. In the East, in
addition to the constant border feud with Persia, we hear of
ravages by the Isaurian mountaineers, and by a new enemy,
the Saracens. 8
8 F. Dill, Roman Society in the Last C,entifry of the Western Empire
(2nd ed., 1899).
4 Eumenius, Paneg. Vet. vii. ' Gibbon ii. 179.
* For the Bagaudae, see Jung, Die romanischen Landschaften, p. 264,
where the authorities are given.
7 In 387; Hodgkin i. 483. Amra. Marc. xiv. 4.
EMPIRE: 284-476]
ROME
657
Even more ominous of coming danger was the extent to
which the European'half of the empire was becoming barbarized.
The policy which had been inaugurated by Augustus
himself of settling barbarians within the frontiers
within had been taken up on a larger scale and in a more
systematic way by the Illyrian emperors of the 3rd
century, and was continued by their successors in
the 4th. In Gaul, in the provinces south of the Danube, even in
Macedon and Italy, large barbarian settlements had been made
Theodosius in particular distinguishing himself by his liber-
ality in this respect. Nor did the barbarians admitted
during the 4th century merely swell the class of half-
servile coloni. On the contrary, they not only constituted
to an increasing extent the strength of the imperial forces,
but won their way in ever-growing numbers to posts of
dignity and importance in the imperial service. Under
Constantine the palace was crowded with Franks. 1 Julian
led Gothic troops against Persia, and the army with
which Theodosius defeated the tyrant Maximus (388)
contained large numbers of Huns and Alans, as well as of
Goths. The names of Arbogast, Stilicho and Rufinus are
sufficient proof of the place held by barbarians near the
emperor's person and in the control of the provinces and
legions of Rome; and the relations of Arbogast to his nominee
for the purple, Eugenius, were an anticipation of those which
existed between Ricimer and the emperors of the latter half
of the sth century.
It was by barbarians already settled within the empire that
the first of the series of attacks which finally separated the
western provinces from the empire and set up a bar-
lavastons. baric ruler in Italy were made, and it was in men of
barbarian birth that Rome found her ablest and most
successful defenders. The Visigoths whom Alaric led into
Aiaric Italy had been settled south of the Danube as the
and the allies of the empire since the accession of Theodosius.
Visigoths. jj ut ijke t he Germans of the days of Caesar,
they wanted land for their own, and Alaric himself aspired to
raise himself to the heights which had been reached before him
by the Vandal Stilicho at Ravenna and the Goth Rufinus
at Constantinople. The jealousy which existed between the
rulers of the western and eastern empires furthered his plans.
In the name of Arcadius, the emperor of the east, or at least
with the connivance of Arcadius's minister Rufinus, he occupied
the province of Illyricum, and from thence ravaged Greece,
which, according to the existing division of provinces, belonged
to the western empire. Thence in 396 he retreated before
Stilicho to Illyricum, with the command of which he was now
formally invested by Arcadius; he thus gained a base of opera-
tions against Italy. 2 In 400 he led his people, with their wives
and families, their wagons and treasure, to seek lands for
themselves south of the Alps. But in this first invasion he
penetrated no farther than the plains of Lombardy, and after
the desperate battle of Pollentia (402 or 403) he slowly with-
drew from Italy, his retreat being hastened by the promises
of gold freely made to him by the imperial government. Not
until the autumn of 408 did Alaric again cross the Alps.
Stilicho was dead; the barbarian troops in Honorius's service
had been provoked into joining Alaric by the anti-Teutonic
policy of Honorius and his ministers, and Alaric marched .un-
opposed to Rome. The payment of a heavy ransom, however,
saved the city. Negotiations followed between Alaric and
the court of Ravenna. Alaric's demands were moderate,
but Honorius would grant neither lands for his people nor the
honourable post in the imperial service which he asked for him-
self. Once more Alaric sat down before Rome, and the citizens
were forced to agree to his terms. Attalus, a Greek, the prefect
of the city, was declared Augustus, and Alaric accepted the
post of commander-in-chief. But after a few months Alaric
formally deposed Attalus, on account of his incapacity, and
renewed his offers to Honorius. Again they were declined,
1 Amm. Marc. xv. 5.
1 Hodgkin op. cit. i. 661.
and Alaric marched to the siege and sack of Rome (410).*
His death followed hard on his capture of Rome. Two
years later (412) his successor Ataulf led the Visi- rAe
goths to find in Gaul the lands which Alaric had visigotn*
sought in Italy. It is characteristic of the anarchical * * al -
condition of the west that Ataulf and his Goths should
have fought for Honorius in Gaul against the tyrants, 4
and in Spain against the Vandals, Suebi and Alani; and
it was with the consent of Honorius that in 419 Wallia.
who had followed Ataulf as king of the Visigoths, finally
settled with his people in south-western Gaul and founded
the Visigothic monarchy. 6
It was about the same period that the accomplished fact
of the division of Spain between the three barbarian tribes of
Vandals, Suebi and Alani was in a similar manner vaaaai*.
recognized by the paramount authority of the emperor Suebi
of the west. 6 These peoples had crossed the Rhine 'ndAiaai
at the time when Alaric was making his first attempt '" Soala -
on Italy. A portion of the host led by Radagaisus 7
actually invaded Italy, but was cut to pieces by Stilicho
near Florence (405); the rest pressed on through Gaul, crossed
the Pyrenees, and entered the as yet untouched province of
Spain.
Honorius died in 423. With the single exception of Britain,*
no province had yet formally broken loose from the empire.
But over a great part of the west the authority of the Death of
emperors was now little more than nominal; through- Hoaortus,
out the major part of Gaul and in Spain the barbarians ***
had settled, and barbarian states were, growing up which
recognized the supremacy of the emperor, but were in all
essentials independent of his control.
The long reign of Valentinian III. (423-55) is marked by
two events of first-rate importance the conquest of Africa by
the Vandals and the invasion of Gaul and Italy by Valea .
Attila. The Vandal settlement in Africa was closely tiaiaa in.,
akin in its origin and results to those of the Visi- *^3-5S.
goths and of the Vandals themselves in Gaul and vandal
Spain. Here, as there, the occasion was given by conquest
the jealous quarrels of powerful imperial ministers, of Africa.
The feud between Boniface, count of Africa, and Aetius, the
" master-general " or " count of Italy," opened the way to
Africa for the Vandal king Gaiseric (Genseric), as that between
Stilicho and Rufinus had before set Alaric in motion west-
ward, and as the quarrel between the tyrant Constantine and
the ministers of Honorius had paved the way for the Vandals,
Suebes and Alans into Spain. In this case, too, land-hunger
was the impelling motive with the barbarian invader, and in
Africa, as in Gaul and Spain, the invaders' acquisitions were
confirmed by the imperial authority which they still professed
to recognize. In 429 Gaiseric, king of the Vandals, crossed
with his warriors, their families and goods, to the province
of Africa, hitherto almost untouched by the ravages of war.
Thanks to the quarrels of Boniface and Aetius, their task
was an easy one. The province was quickly overrun. In
43 5 w a formal treaty secured them in the possession of a
large portion of the rich lands which were the granary of
Rome, in exchange for a payment probably of corn and oil.
Carthage was taken in 439, and by 440 the Vandal kingdom
was firmly established.
* For the treatment of Rome by Alaric, see Hodgkin i. 798 ;
Gibbon iii. 321 sqq.; Ranke iv. 246. Allowance must be made
for the exaggerations of the ecclesiastical writers.
4 For these tyrants, see Freeman in the Eng, Hist. Rev. i. 53-86.
6 The capital of the new state was Tolosa (Toulouse).
* Jung, Die Romanischen Landschaften, 73 seq.
7 For the connexion between his movement and those of
Alaric and of the Vandals, see Hodgkin i. 711; Gibbon iii.
262 seq.
8 The Roman troops were withdrawn from Britain by Constantine
in 407 ; Mommsen, Chron. ntin. i. 465.
* Hodgkin vol. ii. bk. iii. chap, ii.; Gibbon ii. 400 sqq.; Jung, 183.
The leading ancient authority is Procopius. See Ranke iv. (2) 285 ;
Papencordt, Gesch. d. Vandal. Herrschaft in Africa.
Prosper 659; Ranke iv. (i) 282.
6 5 8
ROME
[EMPIRE: 284-476
in Gaul,
Battle of
Chalons.
Sack of
Home
by the
Vandals.
Ricimer
supreme
la Italy,
Orestes,
the Pan-
aoalau.
Eleven years later (451) Attila invaded Gaul, but this Hunnish
movement was in a variety of ways different from those of the
Attna Visigoths and Vandals. Nearly a century had passed
and the since the Huns first appeared in Europe, and drove the
Hun*. Goths to seek shelter within the Roman lines. Attila
was now the ruler of a great empire in central and northern
Europe and, in addition to his own Huns, the German tribes
along the Rhine and Danube and far away to the north owned
him as king. He confronted the Roman power as an equal; and,
unlike the Gothic and Vandal chieftains, he treated with the
emperors of east and west as an independent sovereign. His
advance on Gaul and Italy threatened, not the establishment
of one more barbaric chieftain on Roman soil, but the sub-
jugation of the civilized and Christian West to the rule of a
heathen and semi-barbarous conqueror. But the Visigoths
Christian and already half Romanized, rallied to the
aid of the empire against a common foe. Attila,
defeated at Chalons * by Aetius, withdrew into Pannonia
(451). In the next year he overran Lombardy, but
penetrated no farther south, and in 453 he died. With the
murder of Valentinian III. (455) the western branch of the
house of Theodosius came to an end, and the next twenty
years witnessed the accession and deposition of nine em-
perors.
Under the three-months' rule of Maximus, the Vandals under
Gaiseric invaded Italy and sacked Rome. From 456-7 2 the actual
ruler of Italy was Ricimer, the Suebe. Of the four
emperors whom he placed on the throne, Majorian
(457-61) alone played any imperial part outside
Italy. 2 Ricimer died in 472, and two years later a
Pannonian, Orestes, attempted to fill his place. He
deposed Julius Nepos and proclaimed as Augustus
his own son Romulus. But the barbarian mercenaries
in Italy determined to secure for themselves a position
there such as that which their kinsfolk had won in
Gaul and Spain and Africa. Their demand for a third
of the lands of Italy was refused by Orestes, 3 and they instantly
rose in revolt. On the defeat and death of Orestes they pro-
claimed their leader, Odoacer the Rugian, 4 king of Italy. Rom-
Romaius u l us Augustulus laid down his imperial dignity, and
Augus- the court at Constantinople was informed that there
talus. was no i on g er an emperor of the West. 6
The installation of a barbarian king in Italy was the
natural climax of the changes which had been taking place
in the West throughout the 5th century. In Spain,
Gaul and Africa barbarian chieftains were already
established as kings. In Italy, for the last twenty
years, the real power had been wielded by a barbarian officer.
Odoacer, when he decided to dispense with the nominal authority
of an emperor of the West, placed Italy on the same level of
independence with the neighbouring provinces. But the old
ties with Rome were not severed. The new king of Italy
formally recognized the supremacy of the one Roman emperor
at Constantinople, and was invested in return with the rank of
" patrician," which had been held before him by Aetius and
Ricimer. In Italy too, as in Spain and Gaul, the laws, the
administrative system and the language remained Roman. 6
But the emancipation of Italy and the Western provinces from
direct imperial control, which is signalized by Odoacer's acces-
sion, has rightly been regarded as marking the opening of a new
epoch. It made possible in the West the development of a
Romano-German civilization; it facilitated the growth of
new and distinct states and nationalities; it gave a new impulse
l For the battle of Chalons, see Gibbon iv. 464; Hodgkin ii. 124
n. 6, 143, where the topography is discussed.
2 Majorian was the last Roman emperor who appeared in person in
Spain and Gaul.
5 Hodgkin ii. 520.
4 The nationality of Odoacer is a disputed point. Hodgkin ii.
516; Ranke iv. (l) 372.
' Gibbon iv. 50 seq. The authority for the embassy to Zeno is
Malchus (Muller, Fragm. Hist. Cr. iv. 119).
6 Gibbon iv. 54 seq.; Jung 66 seq.; Bryce, Holy Roman Empire,
24-33. See also ROMAN LAW.
King
Odoacer.
to the influence of the Christian church, and laid the foundations
of the power of the bishops of Rome.
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF THE ROMAN EMPERORS
B.C.
27. Augustus.
A.D.
14. Tiberius.
37. Gaius.
41. Claudius.
54. Nero.
fGalba.
68, 69. J Otho.
[Vitellius.
69. Vespasian.
79. Titus.
81. Domitian.
96. Nerya.
98. Trajan.
117. Hadrian.
138. Antoninus Pius.
161. Marcus Aurelius.
1 80. Commodus.
[ Pertinax.
193. J. Didius Julianus.
[Septimius Severus.
211. Caracalla.
217. Macrinus.
218. Elagabalus.
222. Alexander Severus.
235. Maximinus.
("The two Gordiani.
238. -< Pupienus and Balbinus.
iGordian III.
A.D.
244. Philip.
249. Decius.
251. Gallus.
253. Aemilianus.
>hn 4 Valerian.
' [Gallienus.
268. Claudius.
Quintillus.
284.
305-
3"-
324-
337-
350.
361.
363-
275- "lacitus.
276. Probus.
282. Carus.
283. Carinus and Numerian.
[Diocletian (Maximian
i associated with him,
I 286).
Constantius and Galerius.
( Licinius.
) Constantino I.
Constantine I.
[Constantine II.
J Constantius II.
LConstans.
Constantius II., sole em-
peror.
Julian,
ovian.
Division of the Empire.
A.D.
364. Valens.
379. Theodosius I.
East.
A.D. West.
364. Valentinian I.
375. Gratian and Valentinian 1 1.
383. Valentinian II.
Theodosius I.
395. Arcadius.
408. Theodosius II.
450. Marcian.
392
395
423
455
455
457
Honorius.
Valentinian III.
Maximus.
Avitus.
Majorian. 457. Leo I.
461. Severus.
467. Anthemius.
472. Olybrius.
473. Glycerius.
474. Julius Nepos. 474. Leo II.
475. Romulus Augustulus.
(H. F. P.;H.S. J.)
AUTHORITIES. I. REPUBLICAN PERIOD: Ancient Sources. The
writing of history, like other branches of literature, was a late
growth amongst the Romans, and it is very difficult to determine
how far authentic records were preserved of the earlier republican
period. It seems that the calendars issued yearly by the pontifices
and posted on the walls of the Regia were inscribed with brief
notices of important events (" digna memoratu . . . domi militiaeque
terra marique gesta per singulos dies," Serv. Ad Aen. i. 373)
these tabulae were preserved and edited in 80 books by P. Mucms
Scaevola (pontifex maximus, 130-?! 14 B.C.) under the name of
Annales Maximi. The Commentarii preserved in the archives of
the various priestly colleges and official boards (e.g. consuls and
censors), which appear to have consisted mainly of instructions
as to official procedure, doubtless furnished historical material in
the shape of precedents and decisions. It is hard to say how much
of this documentary evidence survived the burning of Rome by
the Gauls; the fact that the earliest solar eclipse mentioned in the
Annales Maximi was that of the 5th of June, 351 B.C., casts doubt
on the completeness of the earlier records.
Many modern scholars have supposed that these meagre official
records were supplemented by (a) popular poetry, more or less
legendary in content; (b) family chronicles, the substance of
which was worked up into the funeral orations (laudationes funebres)
pronounced at the grave of distinguished Romans. The existence
of the former class of documents is, however, quite unsupported
by evidence; as to family tradition, we cannot say more than
that it has probably left a deposit in the accounts of republican
history handed down tonis, and caused the exploits of the members
of illustrious houses to be exaggerated in importance.
Setting aside the works of Greek historians who incidentally
touched on Roman affairs, such as Hieronymus of Cardia, who
wrote of the wars of Pyrrhus as a contemporary, and Timaeus of
Tauromenium (c. 345-250 B.C.), who treated of the history of Sicily
and the West down to 272 B.C., the earliest writers on Roman history
AUTHORITIES]
ROME
659
were Q. Fabius Pictor J and L. Cincius Alimentus, who lived during
the Second Punic War and wrote in Greek. We are told by Dionysius
that they treated the earlier history summarily, but wrote more
fully of their own times. They were followed in their use of the
Greek language by C. Acilius (introduced a Greek embassy to the
senate, 155 B.C.) and A. Postumius Albinus (consul, 151 B.C.). In
the meantime, however, M. Porcius Cato the Elder (234-149 B.C.),
the leader of the national party at Rome and a vigorous opponent
of Greek influence, had treated of Roman antiquities in his Origines.
This work was not purely annalistic, but treated of the ethnography
and customs of the Italian peoples, &c. Cato founded no school
of antiquarian research, but his use of the Latin language as the
medium of historical writing was followed by the annalists of the
Gracchan period, L. Cassius Hemina, L. Calpurnius Piso (consul,
133 B.C.), C. Semprpnius Tuditanus (consul, 129 B.C.), Cn. Gellius,
Vennonius, C. Fannius (consul, 122 B.C.), and L. Caelius Antipater. 2
By these writers some attempt was made to apply canons of criticism
to the traditional accounts of early Roman history, but they did
little more than rationalize the more obviously mythical narratives ;
they also followed Greek literary models and introduced speeches,
&c., for artistic effect. Where they wrote as contemporaries,
however, e.g. Fannius in his account of the Gracchan movement,
their works were of the highest value. About the beginning of
this period Polybius (q.v.) had published his history, which originally
embraced the period of the Punic wars, and was afterwards con-
tinued to 146 B.C. His influence was not fully exerted upon Roman
historians until the close of the 2nd and early part of the 1st century
B.C., when a school of writers arose who treated history with a
practical purpose, endeavouring to trace the motives of action and
to point a moral for the edification of their readers. To this school
belonged Sempronius Asellio, Claudius Quadrigarius, Valerius
Antias and C. Licinius Macer (d. 66 B.C.). Their writings were
diffuse, rhetorical and inaccurate; Livy complains of the gross
exaggerations of Valerius (whom he followed blindly in his earlier
books), and Macer seems to have drawn much of his material from
sources of very doubtful authenticity. Contemporary history was
written by Cornelius Sisenna (l 19-67 B.C.), and the work of Polybius
was continued to 86 B.C. by the Stoic Posidonius (c. 135-45 B.C.),
a man of encyclopaedic knowledge. From the Gracchan period
onwards the memoirs, speeches and correspondence of distinguished
statesmen were often published; of these no specimens are extant
until we come to the Ciceronian period, when the Speeches and Letters
of Cicero (q.v.) and the Commentaries of Julius Caesar (q.v.) the
latter continued to the close of the Civil War by other hands furnish
invaluable evidence for the history of their times. We possess
examples of historical pamphlets with a strong party colouring in
Sallust's tracts on the Jugurthine War and the conspiracy of Catiline.
During the same period Roman antiquities, genealogy, chronology,
&c., were exhaustively treated by M. Terentius Varro (116-27 B.C.)
(q.v.) in his Antiquitates (in 41 books) and other works. Cicero's
friend, M. Ppmponius Atticus, also compiled a chronological table
which was widely used, and Cornelius Nepos (q.v.) wrote a series of
historical biographies which have come down to us.
In the Augustan age the materials accumulated by previous
generations were worked up by compilers whose works are in some
cases preserved. The work of Livy (q.v.) covered the history of
Rome from its foundation to 9 B.C. in 142 books; of these only
35 are preserved in their entirety, while the contents of the rest
are known in outline from an epitome (periochae) and from the
compendia of Florus and later authors. Diodorus Siculus (q.v.)
of Agyrium in Sicily followed the earlier annalists in the sections
of his Universal History (down to Caesar) which dealt with Roman
affairs; Dionysius of Halicarnassus (q.v.), in his Roman Archaeology
(published in 7 B.C.), treated early Roman history in a more ambitious
and rhetorical style, with greater fulness than Livy, whose work he
seems to have used. Universal histories were also written in the
Augustan age by Nicolaus of Damascus, a protege of Herod the Great,
and Trogus Pompeius, whose work is known to us from the epitome
of Justin (2nd century A.D.). Juba, the learned king of Mauretania
installed by Augustus, wrote a History of Rome as well as antiquarian
works. Strabo (q.v.), whose Geography is extant, was the author
of a continuation of Polybius's history (to 27 B.C.). The learning of
the time was enshrined in the encyclopaedia of" Verrius Flaccus, of
which we possess part of Festus's abridgment (2nd century A.D.),
together with an Epitome of Festus by Paulus Diaconus (temp.
Charlemagne). An official list of the consuls and other chief magis-
trates of the republic was inscribed on the walls of the Regia
(rebuilt 36 B.C.), followed somewhat later by a similar list of trium-
phatores; the former of these is known as the Fasti Capitolini,
(C.I. L.I?, I sqq.), since the fragments which have been recovered
are preserved in the Palace of the Conservator! on the Capitol.
The Forum of Augustus (see ROME, section A rchaeology) was decorated
with statues of famous Romans, on the bases of which were inscribed
short accounts of their exploits; some of these elogia are preserved
(cf. Dessau, Inscr. Lat. sel. 50 sqq.).
Amongst writers of the imperial period who dealt with republican
1 For these writers see further under ANNALISTS and Livy.
1 Caelius's work dealt only with the Second Punic War.
history the most important are Velleius Paterculus, whose com-
pendium of Roman history was published in A.D. 30; Plutarch
(c. A.D. 45-125), in whose biographies much contemporary material
was worked up; Appian, who wrote under the Antonlnes and
described the wars of the republic under geographical headings
(partly preserved) and the civil wars in five books, and Dio Cassius
(. infra), of whose history only that portion which deals with events
from 69 B.C. onwards is extant. The date of Granius Licinianus,
whose fragments throw light on the earlier civil wars, is not certain.
The evidence of inscriptions (qv.) and coins (q.v.) begins to be of
value during the 150 years of the republic. A series of laws and
Senatus consulta (beginning with the Senutus consultum de Bacchana-
libus, 189 B.C.) throws light on constitutional questions, while the
coins struck from about 150 B.C. onwards bear types illustrative
of the traditions preserved by the families to which the masters
of the mint (/// vtri monetales) belonged.
MODERN AUTHORITIES. The principles of historical criticism may
be said to have been formulated by Giambattista Vice (q.v.), whose
principi di scienza nuova were published in 1725. The credibility
of the traditional account of Roman republican history was called
in question by Louis de Beaufort (Dissertation sur I' incertitude des
cinq premiers siecles de I'histoire romaine, 1738); but the modern
critical movement dates from Niebuhr, two volumes of whose
Romische Geschichte appeared in 1811-12 (the third was published
after his death in 1832, his lectures in 1846). The early history of
Rome was fully treated by Niebuhr's follower, F. C. A. Schwegler,
whose Romische Geschichte in 3 vols. (1853-58) was continued to
327 B.C. by O. Clason (vols. 4 and 5, 1873-76). A reaction against the
negative criticism of Niebuhr was headed by J. Rubino, who showed
in his Untersuchungen ilber romische Verfassung und Geschichte
(1839) that the growth of the Roman constitution might be traced
with some approach to certainty by the analysis of institutions.
It was left for Theodor Mommsen (Romische Geschichte, ist ed.,
185456; Eng. trans, new ed. in 5 vols., 1894; Romische Forschungen,
1864-79; Romisches Staatsrecht, 1st ed., 1872-75 [in the Hand-
buck der romischen Alterthiimer, begun by Becker in 1843 and con-
tinued under the supervision of J. Marquardt]; Romisches Strafrecht,
1899, and many other works) to reduce Roman constitutional
history to a science. Mommsen substituted for the detailed
criticism of the traditional narrative a picture of the growth of
Italian civilization based on linguistic, literary and monumental
evidence. W. Ihne (Romische Geschichte, 8 vols., 1868-90) dealt
more fully with the course of events as related by ancient historians.
L. Lange's Romische Alterthiimer (185671), 3 vols., treated con-
stitutional history in a narrative form. In more recent times
Eduard Meyer has treated of early Italian history in his Geschichte
des Alterthums, vols. ii.-y. (1893-1902); and Ettore Pais, in his
Storia di Roma, vols. i.-ii. (1898-99), has subjected the narratives
of Roman history down to the Samnite wars to a searching and in
many cases exaggerated criticism. De Sanctis, in his Storia dei
Romani (2 vols., 1907) (down to the establishment of the Roman
hegemony in Italy), combines radical criticism of tradition with
a constructive use of archaeological and other evidence. Heitland's
Roman Republic (3 vols., 1909) is a fresh and independent work.
The last century of the republic has been the subject of many works
(see reff. in text and biographical articles). W. Drumann (Geschichte
Roms, 183444; new e d- by Groebe in progress) gave an exhaustive
biographical account of the contemporaries of Caesar and Cicero;
A. H. J. Greenidge's History of Rome from 133 B.C. to A.D. 70 (vol. i.
1904) was unfortunately cut short by the author's early death in
1906; G. Ferrero's Grandezza e Decadenza di Roma (in progress, Eng.
trans, of vols. i., ii., 1907; iii.-v., 1909) is ambitious but unsound.
II. IMPERIAL PERIOD -.Ancient Sources. The memoirs of Augustus
as well as those of his contemporaries (Messalla, Agrippa, Maecenas,
&c.) and successors (Tiberius, Agrippina the younger, &c.) have
perished, but we possess the Res gestae divi Augusti inscribed on the
walls of his temple at Ancyra (ed. Mommsen, 1883). Few historical
works were produced undei the earlier Julio-Claudian emperors;
Cremutius Cprdus lost his life under Tiberius for the freedom with
which his opinion of the triumvirs was expressed. Aufidius Bassus
wrote the history of the civil wars and early empire, perhaps
to A.D. 49, and this was continued by Pliny the Elder (q.v.) in
31 books, probably to the accession of Vespasian. 3 These works,
together with those of Fabius Rusticus, a friend of Seneca, and
Cluvius Rufus, a courtier under Nero, were amongst the authorities
used by Tacitus (q.v.), whose Annals (properly called ab excessu divi
Augusti) and Histories, when complete, carried the story of the
empire down to A.D. 96.* Tacitus wrote under Trajan, upon whom
the younger Pliny pronounced his Panegyric; Pliny's correspondence
with Trajan about the affairs of Bithynia, which he administered in
A.D. 111-13, is of great historical value. Suetonius (q.v.), who was
for some time secretary of state to Hadrian, wrote biographies of the
emperors from Julius Caesar to Domitian, which contain much
interesting gossip. Arrian, a Bithynian Greek promoted by Hadrian
The Jewish Antiquities and Jewish War of Josephus (q.v.),
composed under the Flavian dynasty, are of great value for the
events of the writer's time.
4 The Histories (A.D. 69-96) were written before the Annals.
66o
ROME
[MIDDLE AGES
to important posts, wrote on Rome's policy and wars in the East.
Appian (. supra) dealt with the wars waged under the early empire
in the closing books of his work, which have not been preserved.
Dio Cassius, a Bithynian who attained to the dignity of a second
consulship as the colleague of Severus Alexander, wrote a history
of Rome to the death of Elagabalus in 80 books. We possess
only epitomes and excerpts of the portion dealing with events from
A.D. 46 onwards, except for parts of the 78th and 79th books, in
which Dio's narrative of contemporary events is especially valuable.
Herodian, a Syrian employed in the imperial service, wrote a history
of the emperors from Commodus to Gordian III., which as the work
of a contemporary is not without value, although the author had no
historical insight. L. Marius Maximus compiled biographies of the
emperors from Nerva to Elagabalus which, like those of Suetonius,
contained much worthless gossip. His work was amongst the
sources used in the compilation of the Historic. Augusta (see further
AUGUSTAN HISTORY), upon which we are obliged to rely for the
history of the 3rd century A.D. This work consists in a series of
lives of the emperors (including most of the pretenders to that title)
from Hadrian to Carinus, professedly written by six authors,
Spartianus, Vulcacius Gallicanus, Capitolinus, Lampndius, Trebellius
Pollio, and Vopiscus, under Diocletian and Constantine. Modern
criticism has shown that (at least in its present form) it is a com-
pilation made towards the close of the 4th century; it is not even
certain that any of the above-named writers really existed, and the
documents inserted in the text are palpable forgeries. The earlier
biographies, however, contain much authentic information, which
seems to have been derived from a good contemporary source. The
fragments of Dexippus, an Athenian who successfully defended his
native town against the Goths, throw much light on the barbaric
invasions of the 3rd century. Under Diocletian and his successors
(A.D. 289-321) were delivered twelve Panegyrics by Eumenius and
other court rhetoricians which possess slight historical value. The
history of the final struggle between church and empire is told from
the Christian point of view by the author of the De mortibus per-
secutorum perhaps Lactantius, the tutor of Crispus. Eusebius's
Ecclesiastical History and Life of Constantine give an ex parte
version of the events which they relate; the first of two tracts
published under the name of the Anonymus Valesianus furnishes
a brief contemporary narrative of the period 305-37, without
Christian prepossessions; while the lost work of Praxagoras treated
the history of Constantine from the pagan standpoint. The most
important historian of the 4th century was Ammianus Marcellinus,
a native of Antioch and an officer in the imperial guard, who con-
tinued the work of Tacitus (in Latin) to the death of Valens. We
possess the last eighteen books of his history which cover the years
A.D. 353-78. Two compendia of imperial history pass under the
name of Aurelius Victor, the Caesares, or lives of the emperors from
Augustus to Julian, and the Epitome de Caesaribus (not by the same
author,) which goes down to Theodosius I. Similar works are the
Breviarum of Eutrppius (secretary of state under Valens) and the
still more brief epitome of Festus. The writings of the Emperor
Julian and of the rhetoricians Libanius, Themistius and Eunapius
the last-named continued the history of Dexippus to A.D. 404 are
of great value for the latter part of the 4th century A.D. They wrote
as pagans, while the. Christian version of events is given by the
three orthodox historians Socrates, Sozomen and Theodoret, and
the Arian Philostorgius, all of whom wrote in the 5th century. An
imperial official, Zosimus, writing in the latter half of that century,
gave a sketch of imperial history to A.D. 410; the latter part is
valuable, being based on contemporary writings, e.g. those of the
Egyptian Olympiodorus, of whose work some fragments are pre-
served. The bishops Synesius and Palladius, who lived under
Arcadius and Theodosius II., furnish valuable information as to
their own times; while the fragments of Priscus tell us much of
Attila and the Hunnish invasions. Mention must also be made of
the poets and letter-writers of the 4th and 5th centuries Ausonius,
Claudian, Symmachus, Paulinus of Nola, Sidonius Apollinaris,
Prudentius, Merobaudes and others from whose writings much
historical information is derived. Cassiodorus, the minister of
Theodoric, wrote a history of the Goths, transmitted to us in the
Historia Gothorum of Jordanes (c. A.D. 550), which gives an account
of the earlier barbaric invasions.
Several chronological works were compiled in the 4th and 5th
centuries. It will suffice to name the Chronology of Eusebius
(to A.D. 324), translated by Jerome and carried down to A.D. 378;
the Chronicle of Prosper Tiro, based on Jerome and continued
to A.p. 455; the Chronography of A.D. 354, an illustrated calendar
containing miscellaneous information; and the works based on the
so-called Chronica Constantinopolitana (not preserved), such as the
Fasti of Hydatius (containing valuable notices of the period A.D.
379-468). Some minor chronological works such as the Chronicon
Ravennae are published in Mommsen's Chronica Minora. The
Chronicon Paschale, primarily a table giving the cyle of Easter
celebrations, was compiled in the 7th century A.D.
The Codes of Law, especially the Codex Theodpsianus (A.D. 438)
and the Code of Justinian, as well as the Army List of the early 5th
century, known as the Notitia Dignitatum, possess great historical
value. For the inscriptions of the empire, which are of incalculable
importance as showing the working of the imperial system in its
details, see INSCRIPTIONS; the coins (o.v.)also throw much light on
the dark places of history in the lack of other authorities. Egyptian
papyri are not only instructive as to legal, economic and adminis-
trative history, but also (by the formulae employed in their dating)
contribute to our general knowledge of events. The Zeitschrift fur
Papyrusforschung, edited by U. Wilcken, gives an account of pro-
gress in this branch of study.
MODERN AUTHORITIES. Tillemont'sHistoiredesempereurs(6 vols.,
1690-1738), supplemented by his Memoires pour servir a I'histoire
ecclesiastique, a laborious and erudite compilation, furnished Gibbon
with material for his Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776-
1788), which has never been superseded as a history of the entire
imperial period, and has been rendered adequate for the purposes
of the modern reader by Professor J. B. Bury s edition (1897-1900).
The history of the empire has yet to be written in the light of recent
discoveries. Mommsen's fifth volume (Eng. tr., as Provinces of the
Roman Empire, 1886) is not a narrative, but an account of Roman
culture in the various provinces. C. Merivale's History of the
Romans under the Empire (8 vols., 1850-62, to Marcus Aurelius) is
literary rather than scientific. H. Schiller's Geschichte der romischen
Kaiserzeit (1883-88) is a useful handbook. For the later period
we have Bury's History of the Later Roman Empire (1889), beginning
from A.D. 395, and T. Hodgkin's Italy and her Invaders (8 vols.,
1880-99), which tells the story of the barbaric invasions at great
length. The imperial constitution is described by Mommsen in the
second volume of his Staatsrecht (v. supra) ; divergent views will be
found in Herzog's Geschichte und System der romischen Staatsver-
fassung (1884-91); the working of the imperial bureaucracy is
treated by O. Hirschfeld, Die romischen Verwaltungsbeamten (1905).
The Prosopographia Imferii Romani, compiled by Dessau and Klebs
(1897-98), is a mine of information, as is the new edition of Pauly's
Realencyklopddie der classischen Alterthumsunssenschaft (in progress).
Von Domaszewski's Geschichte der romischen Kaiser (2 vols., 1909)
is popularly written and gives no references to authorities. See
further the articles on individual emperors and provinces.
A general history of Rome to the barbarian invasions, popular in
character and richly illustrated, was written in French by Victor
Duruy (Eng. tr. in 6 vols., 1883-86). The 2nd, 3rd and 4th vols. of
Leopold von Ranke's Weltgeschichte deal with Roman history. An
outline of Roman history is given by B. Niese in the 3rd vol. of
M filler's Handbuch der klassischen Alterthumswissenschaft (3rd ed.,
1906). A. H. J. Greenidge's Roman Public Life (1901) is an excel-
lent guide to Roman institutions. The principal authorities on
Roman chronology are: Ideler, Handbuch der mathematischen und
technischen Chronologie (1825-26); Fynes-Clinton, Fasti Romani
(1845) (a continuation of the same author's Fasti Hellenici, 1830-41,
which goes down to A.D. 14); Fischer, Romische Zeittafeln (1846);
Mommsen, Romische Chronologie (2nd ed., 1859); Matzat, Romische
Chronologie (1883-84) and Romische Zeittafeln (1889); Holzapfel,
Romische Chronologie (1885); Soltau, Romische Chronologie (1889) ;
linger, " Romische Zeitrechnung " in the 1st vol. of Miiller's Hand-
buch der klassischen A Iterthumswtssen schafl (2nd ed., 1892). Goyau's
Chronologie de I 'empire remain (Paris, 1891) is a useful handbook.
(H. S. J.)
IV. The Roman Republic in the Middle Ages
The history of the Roman commune as distinguished from
the papacy during the middle ages has yet to be written, and
only by the discovery of new documents can the difficulties of
the task be completely overcome. Although very different in
its origin, the Roman Republic gradually assumed the same
form as the other Italian communes, and with almost identical
institutions. But, owing to the special local conditions amid
which it arose, it maintained a distinct physiognomy and
character. The deserted Campagna surrounding the city
checked any notable increase of trade or industry, and prevented
the establishment of the gilds on the solid footing that elsewhere
made them the basis and support of the commune. There was
also the continual and oppressive influence of the empire, and,
above all, the presence of the papacy, which often appeared to
absorb the political vitality of the city. At such moments the
commune seemed annihilated, but it speedily revived and
reasserted itself. Consequently there are many apparent gaps
in its history, and we have often extreme difficulty in discovering
the invisible links connecting the visible fragments.
Even the aristocracy of Rome had a special stamp. In
the other republics, with the exception of Venice, it was feudal,
of German origin, and in perpetual conflict with the popular
and commercial elements which sought its destruction. The
history of municipal freedom in Italy lay in this struggle. But
the infiltration of Teutonic and feudal elements broke up the
MIDDLE AGES]
ROME
66 1
The
Ooths.
ancient aristocracy of Rome, gave it a special character and
left it at the mercy of the people. Then the popes, by the
bestowal of lucrative offices, rich benefices and vast estates,
and, above all, by raising many nobles to the purple, introduced
new blood into the Roman aristocracy, and endued it with
increasing strength and vitality. Always divided, always
turbulent, this irrepressible body was a continual source of
discord and civil war, of permanent confusion and turmoil.
Amidst all these difficulties the commune struggled on, but never
succeeded in preserving a regular course or administration for
long. What with continual warfare, attacks on the Capitol
and consequent slaughter, pillage and incendiarism, it is no
wonder that so few original documents are left to illustrate the
history of the Roman Republic. Nor have chroniclers and his-
torians done much to supply this want, since, in treating of
Roman affairs, their attention is mainly devoted to the pope
and the emperor. Nevertheless, we will attempt to connect
in due order all the facts gleaned from former writers and pub-
lished records.
The removal of the seat of the empire to Constantinople
effected a radical change in the political situation of Rome;
nor was this change neutralized by the formation of the weak
Western empire soon to be shattered by the Germanic invasions.
But we still find Roman laws and institutions; and no sign
is yet manifest of the rise of a medieval municipality. The
earliest germ of this new type of municipality is seen during
the barbarian invasions. Of these we need only enumerate the
four most important those of the Goths, Byzantines (who,
however, were not mere barbarians but civilized and corrupt),
Lombards and Franks. The Gothic rule merely superimposed
upon the Roman social order a Teutonic stratum, that never
penetrated beneath its surface. The Goths always
remained a conquering army; according to the
German custom, they took possession of one-third of
the vanquished territory, but, while forbidding the Romans
to bear arms, left their local administration intact. The senate,
the curiae, the principal magistrates, both provincial and
municipal, the prefect of the city, and the Roman judges
enforcing the enactments of the Roman law, were all preserved.
Already, under the empire, the civil power had been separated
from the military, and this separation was maintained. Hence
there was no visible change in the constitution of the state.
Only, now there were conquered and conquerors. All real and
effective power was on the side of brute force, and the Goths
alone bore arms. In every province they had their comites,
or heads of the army, who had judicial power over their country-
men, especially in criminal cases. Here, then, was a combina-
tion of civil and military jurisdiction altogether contrary to
Roman ideas. Nor can it be denied that the comites, as chiefs
of the armed force, necessarily exerted a direct or indirect
influence on the civil and administrative power of the provinces,
and especially upon the collection of the imposts. The civil
arm, being virtually subordinate to the military, suffered un-
avoidable change. Notwithstanding the praise lavished on
Theodoric, the kingdom founded by him in Italy had no solid
basis. It was composed of two nations differing in race and
traditions and even in religion, since the Goths were Arians and
the Romans Catholics. The latter were sunk in degeneracy
and corruption; their institutions were old and decrepit. It
was necessary to infuse new life into the worn-out body. This
was difficult, perhaps impossible; and at any rate Theodoric
never attempted the task. Little wonder then if the Gothic
kingdom succumbed to the Byzantine armies from Constanti-
nople.
The wars of Belisarius and Narses against the Goths lasted
twenty years (535-55 A.D.), caused terrible slaughter and
The devastation in Italy, and finally subjected her to
Byzaatlae Constantinople. In place of a Gothic king she was
rufe - now ruled by a Greek patrician, afterwards entitled
the exarch, who had his seat of government at Ravenna
as lieutenant of the empire. In the chief provincial
cities the ruling counts were replaced by dukes, sub-
ordinate to the exarch; and the smaller towns were governed
by military tribunes. Instead of dukes, we sometimes find
magislri militant, apparently of higher rank. The praefeclus
praetorio of Italy, likewise a dependent of the exarch, was at
the head of the civil administration. The pragmatic sanction
(554), promulgating the Justinian code, again separated the
civil from the military power, which was no longer allowed to
intervene in the settlement of private disputes, and, by conferring
on the bishops the superintendence of and authority over the
provincial and municipal government, soon led to the increase
of the power of the church, which had already considerable
influence.
The new organization outwardly resembled that of the Goths:
one army had been replaced by another, the counts by dukes;
there was an exarch instead of a king; the civil and military
jurisdictions were more exactly defined. But the army was
not, like that of the Goths, a conquering nation in arms; it was
a Graeco-Roman army, and did not hold a third of the territory
which was now probably added to the possessions of the state
(fisc). The soldiery took its pay from Constantinople, whence
all instructions and appointments of superior officers likewise
proceeded. In Rome we find a magister mtiitum at the head of
the troops. The Roman senate still existed, but was reduced
to a shadow. Theodoric had left it intact until he suspected it
of hostile designs and dealings with the Byzantines, but then
began to persecute it, as was proved by the wretched fate of
Boetius and Symmachus. Nevertheless the senate survived,
added the functions of a curia or municipal council to those of
a governmental assembly, and took part -in the election of
the pope already one of the chief affairs of Rome. So many
senators, however, were slaughtered during the Byzantine War
that it was commonly believed to be extinct. The pragmatic
sanction, conferring on senate and pope the superintendence of
weights and measures in Italy, might seem a convincing proof to
the contrary, although, in the general chaos, now that Rome
was a mere provincial city, constantly exposed to attack, we
may imagine to what the senate was reduced.
All Roman institutions were altered and decayed; but their
original features were still to be traced, and no heterogeneous
element had been introduced into them. The first dawn of a
completely new epoch can only be dated from the invasion of
the Lombards (568-72). Their conquest of a large
portion of Italy was accompanied by the harshest t,ards"
oppression. They abolished all ancient laws and
institutions, and not only seized a third of the land,
but reduced the inhabitants almost to slavery. But, in the
unsubdued parts of the country namely, in Ravenna, Rome
and the maritime cities a very different state of things pre-
vailed. The necessity for self-defence and the distance of the
empire, now too worn out to render any assistance, compelled
the inhabitants to depend solely on their own strength. Thus,
certain maritime cities, such as Naples, Amalfi, Pisa and Venice,
soon attained to a greater or less degree of liberty and inde-
pendence.
This is the moment in which ancient society seems to disappear
completely and a new one begins to rise. Ancient customs
disappear, Christian processions take the place of the ancient
games, ancient temples are transformed into churches and
dedicated to new saints. If Roman tradition in Italy can ever
be said to have been completely broken, this could only be
during the Longobard domination. It is certain, however, that
soon the elements of ancient culture began to revive once more.
A special state of things now arose in Rome. We behold
the rapid growth of the papal power and the continual increase
of its moral and political influence. This had already
begun under Leo I., and been further promoted by the popes.
pragmatic sanction. Not only the superintendence
but often the nomination of public functionaries and judges was
now in the hands of the popes. And the accession to St Peter's
chair of a man of real genius in the person of Gregory I.,
surnamed the Great, marked the beginning of a new
era. By force of individual character, as well as by historic
662
ROME
[MIDDLE AGES
necessity, this pope became the most potent personage in Rome.
Power fell naturally into his hands; he was the true representa-
tive of the city, the born defender of church and state. His
ecclesiastical authority, already great throughout Italy, was
specially great in the Roman diocese and in southern Italy.
The continual offerings of the faithful had previously endowed
the church with enormous possessions in the province of Rome,
in Sicily, Sardinia and other parts. The administration of all
this property soon assumed the shape of a small government
council in Rome. In the middle ages the owner of the land
was also master of the men who cultivated it, and exercised
political authority as well; these administrators therefore
protected and succoured the oppressed, settled disputes, nomin-
ated judges and controlled the ecclesiastical authorities. The
use made by the pope of his revenues greatly contributed
to the increase of his moral and political authority. When
the city was besieged by the Lombards, and the emperor left
his army unpaid, Gregory supplied the required funds and
thus made resistance possible. And, when the defence could
be no longer maintained, he alone, by the weight of his personal
influence and the payment of large sums, indu:ed the Lom-
bards to raise the siege. He negotiated in person with Agilulph,
and was recognized by him as the true representative of the
city. Thus Rome, after being five times taken and sacked
by the barbarians, was, on this occasion, saved by its bishop.
The exarch, although unable to give any help, protested against
the assumption of so much authority by the pope; but Gregory
was no usurper; his attitude was the natural result of events.
" For twenty-seven years " so wrote this pontiff to the im-
perial government of Constantinople " we lived in te.Tor of
the Longobards, nor can I say what sums we had to pay them.
There is an imperial treasurer with the army at Ravenna;
but here it is I who am treasurer. Likewise I have to provide
for the clergy, the poor and the people, and even to succour
the distress of other churches."
It was at this moment that the new Roman commune began
to take shape and acquire increasing vigour owing to its dis-
The tance from the seat of the empire and its resistance
Roman to the Lombard besiegers. Its special character
commune. was now to jjg t race( j m tjj e preponderance of the
military over the civil power. A Roman element had pene-
trated into the army, which was already possessed of con-
siderable political importance. The prefect of Rome loses
authority and seems almost a nullity compared with the magister
militum. Hardly anything is heard of the senate. " Quia
enim Senatus deest, populus interiit," exclaims Gregory in a
moment of despair. The popes now make common cause with
the people against the Lombards on the one hand and the
emperor on the other. But they avoid an absolute rupture
with the empire, lest they should have to face the Lombard
power without any prospect of help. Later, when the growing
strength of the commune becomes menacing, they remain
faithful to the empire in order not to be at the mercy of the
people. It was a permanent feature of their policy never to
allow the complete independence of the city until they should
be its sole and absolute masters. But that time was still in
the future. Meanwhile pope and people joined in the defence
of their common interests.
This alliance was cemented by the religious disputes of the
East and the West. First came the Monothelite controversy
regarding the twofold nature of Christ. Later a long and
violent struggle ensued, in which the people of Rome and of
other Italian cities sided so vigorously with the popes that
John VI. (701-5) had to interpose in order to release the
exarch from captivity and prevent a definitive rupture with
the empire. Then (710-11) Ravenna revolted against the
emperor, organized its armed population under twelve flags,
and almost all the cities of the exarchate joined in a resistance
that was the first step towards the independence of the Italian
communes. A still fiercer religious quarrel then broke out
concerning images. Pope Gregory II. (713-31) opposed the
celebrated edict of the iconoclastic emperor Leo the Isaurian.
Venice and the Pentapolis took up arms in favour of the pope,
and elected dukes of their own without applying to the emperor.
Again public disorder rose to such a pitch that the pope was
obliged to check it lest it should go too far.
In the midst of these warlike tumults a new constitution,
almost a new state, was being set up in Rome. During the
conflict with Philippicus, the Monothelite and heretical
emperor who ascended the throne in 711, the Liber
Pontificalis makes the first mention of the duchy
of Rome (ducatus Romanae urbis), and we find the
people struggling to elect a duke of their own. In the early
days of the Byzantine rule the territory appertaining to the
city was no greater than under the Roman Empire. But,
partly through the weakness of the government of Constanti-
nople, and above all through the decomposition of the Italian
provinces under the Lombards, who destroyed all unity of
government in the peninsula, this dukedom was widely ex-
tended, and its limits were always changing in accordance with
the course of events. It was watered by the Tiber, and stretched
into Tuscia to the right, starting from the mouth of the Marta,
by Tolfa and Bleda, and reaching as far as Orte. Viterbo
was a frontier city of the Lombards. On the left the duchy
extended into Latium as far as the Garigliano. It spread very
little to the north-east and was badly defended on that side,
inasmuch as the duchy of Spoleto reached to within fourteen
miles of the Salara gate. On the other side, towards Umbria,
the river Nera was its boundary line.
The constitution of the city now begins to show the results
of the conditions amid which it took shape. The separation
of the civil from the military power has entirely dis- _.
appeared. This is proved by the fact that, after the consul-
year 600, there is no further mention of the prefect, tloa of
His office still survived, but with a gradual change '* com '
of functions, until, in the 8th century, he once more
appears as president of a criminal tribunal. The con-
stitution of the duchy and of the new republic formed during
the wars with the Lombards and the exarch was substantially
of an aristocratico-military nature. At its head was the duke,
first appointed by the emperor, then by the pope and the
people, and, as his strength and influence grew with those of
the commune, he gradually became the most respected and
powerful personage in Rome. The duke inhabited the palace
of the Caesars on the Palatine Hill, and had both the civil and the
military power in his hands; he was at the head of the army,
which, being composed of the best citizens and highest nobility
of Rome, was a truly national force. This army was styled the
felicissimus or florens exercitus Romanus or also the militia
Romano, Its members never lost their citizen stamp; on the
contrary they formed the true body of the citizens. We find
mention of other duces in Rome, but these were probably other
leaders or superior officers of the army. Counts and tribunes
are found in the subject cities bound to furnish aid to the
capital. In fact during the pontificate of Sergius II. (844),
when the duchy was threatened by a Saracenic invasion, they
were requested to send troops to defend the coast, and as many
soldiers as possible to the city.
At that time the inhabitants of Rome were divided into four
principal classes clergy, nobles, soldiers and simple citizens.
The nobles were divided into two categories, first the The
genuine optimates, i.e. members of old and wealthy different
families with large estates, and filling high, and often classes of
hereditary, offices in the state, the church and the *<*i*ty
army. These were styled proceres and primates. The '" Kome-
second category comprised landed proprietors, of moderate
means but exalted position, mentioned as nobiles by Gregory I.,
and constituting in fart a numerous petty nobility and the bulk
of the army. Next followed the citizens, i.e. the commercial
class, merchants and craftsmen, who, having as yet no fixed
organization and but little influence, were simply designated
as honesti cities. These, however, were quite distinct from the
plebeians, plebs, vulgus populi, mri humiles, who in their turn
ranked above bondsmen and slaves. The honesti cives did not
MIDDLE AGES]
ROME
663
usually form part of the army, and were only enrolled in it in
seasons of emergency. Nevertheless the army was not only
national, but became increasingly democratic, so that in the
loth century it included every class of inhabitants except
churchmen and slaves. At that period we sometimes find the
whole people designated as the exercitus, those actually under
arms being distinguished as the militia exercitus Ro-
miiitum. mani. This again was divided into bands or "numbers,"
i.e. regiments, and also, in a manner peculiar to Rome,
into scholae militum. These scholae were associations derived
from antiquity, gaining strength and becoming more general
in the middle ages as the central power of the state declined.
There were scholae of notaries, of church singers, and of nearly
every leading employment; there were scholae of foreigners
of diverse nationalities, of Franks, Lombards, Greeks, Saxons,
&c. Even the trades and crafts began to form scholae. These
were at first very feeble institutions, and only later gained
importance and became gilds. As early as the 8th century there
were scholae militum in the army, which was thus doubly
divided. But we have no precise definition of their functions.
They were de facto corporations with separate property, churches
and magistrates of their own. The latter were always optimates,
and guarded the interests of the army. But the real chiefs of
the bands or numeri were the duces or tribunes, and under the
Franks the latter became comites. These chiefs were styled
magnifici consules, optimates de militia, often too judices de
militia, since, as was the custom of the middle ages, they wielded
political and judicial as well as military authority. The title of
consul was now generally given to superior officers, whether
civil or military. The importance of the scholae mililum
began to decline in the loth century; towards the middle
of the 1 2th they disappeared altogether, and, according to
Felix Papencordt, were last mentioned in 1145. It is probable
that the scholae militum signified local divisions of the army,
corresponding with the city wards, which were twelve in number
during the loth and nth centuries, then increased to thirteen,
and occasionally to fourteen. It is certain that from the be-
ginning the army was distributed under twelve flags; after the
scholae had disappeared, we find it classified in districts, which
were subdivided into companies. The division of cities into
quarters, sestieri or rioni, corresponding with that of the army,
and also with that of the municipal government, was the
common practice of Florence, Siena and almost all the Italian
communes. But, while usually losing importance as the gilds
acquired power, in Rome the insignificance of the gilds added
to the strength of the regioni or rioni, which not only became
part of the army but finally grasped the reins of government.
This was a special characteristic of the political constitution
of the Roman commune.
We now come to a question of weightier import for all desiring
to form a clear idea of the Roman government at that period.
_. What had become of the senate ? It had undoubtedly
senate lost its original character now that the empire was
in the extinct. But, after much learned discussion, historical
middle authorities are still divided upon the subject. Certain
Italian writers of the i8th century Vendettini, for
example asserted with scanty critical insight that the
Roman senate did not disappear in the middle ages. The
same opinion backed by much learned research was maintained
by the great German historian Savigny. And Leo, while
denying the persistence of the curia in Lombard Italy, adhered
to Savigny's views as regarded Rome. Papencordt did the
same, but held the Roman senate to be no more than a curia.
This judgment was vigorously contested, first by Hegel and
Giesebrecht, then by Gregorovius. These writers believe that
after the middle of the 6th century the senate had a merely
nominal existence. According to Gregorovius its last appear-
ance was in the year 579. After that date it is mentioned in no
documents, and the chroniclers are either equally silent or
merely allude to its decay and extinction. In the 8th century,
however, the terms senator, senatores, senatus again reappear.
We find letters addressed to Pippin, beginning thus: Omnis
senatus atque universi populi generalitas. When Leo III. re-
turned from Germany he was met by tarn proceres clericorum
cum omnibus clericis, quamque optimates el senatus, cunctaque
militia (see Anastasius, in Muratori, vol. iii. igSc). But it has
been noted that the senate was never found to act as a political
assembly; on occasions when it might have been mentioned
in that capacity we hear nothing of it, and only meet with it in
ceremonials and purely formal functions. Hence the conclusion
that the term senator was used in the sense of noble, senatus
of nobility, and no longer referred to an institution but only to a
class of the citizens. Even when we find that the emperor
Otto III. (who sought to revive all the ancient institutions of
Rome) addressed an edict to the " consuls and senate of Rome,"
and read that the laws of St Stephen were issued senatus decrelo,
the learned Giesebrecht merely remarks that no important
changes in the Roman constitution are to be attributed to
the consuls and senate introduced by Otto III. Thus for the
next glimpse of the senate we must pass to the I2th century,
when it was not only reformed, as some writers believe, but
entirely reconstituted.
But in this case a serious difficulty remains to be disposed
of. Gregorovius firmly asserts that the nobles acquired great
power between the yth and loth centuries, not only filling the
highest military, judicial and ecclesiastical offices, " but also
directing the municipal government, presumably with the
prefect at their head." He further adds: " Notwithstanding
the disappearance of the senate, it is difficult to suppose that
the city was without governing magistrates, or without a
council." Thus, after the 7th century, the optimates at the
head of the army were also at the head of the citizens, and
" formed a communal council in the same manner in which
it was afterwards formed by the banderesi." ' Now, if the nobles
were called senatores and the nobility senatus, and if this body
of nobles met in council to administer the affairs of the republic,
there is no matter for dispute, inasmuch as all are agreed that
the original senate must have had a different character from
the senate of the middle ages. And, since the absence of all
mention of a prefect after the 7th century is not accepted as a
proof of his non-existence, and we find him reappear under
another form in the 8th century, so the silence as to the senate
after the year 579, the fresh mention of it in the 8th century,
and its reappearance in the I2th as a firmly reconstituted body
reasonably lead to the inference that, during that time, the
ancient senate had been gradually transformed into the new
council. Its meetings must have been held very irregularly,
and probably only in emergencies when important affairs had
to be discussed, previously to bringing them before the parlia-
ment or general assembly of the people. Historians
are better agreed as to the significance of the term
consul. At first this was simply a title of honour
bestowed on superior magistrates, and retained that meaning
from the 7th to the nth century, but then became as in other
Italian cities a special title of the chief officers of the state.
During this period the Roman constitution was very simple.
The duke, commanding the army, and the prefect, presiding
over the criminal court, were the chiefs of the republic; the
armed nobility constituted the forces, filled all of superior offices,
and occasionally met in a council called the senate, although it
had, as we have said, no resemblance to the senate of older times.
In moments of emergency a general parliament of the people
was convoked. This constitution differed little from that of
the other Italian communes, where, in the same way, we find all
the leading citizens under arms, a parliament, a council, and one
or more chiefs at the head of the government.
But Rome had an element that was lacking elsewhere. We
have already noted that, in the provinces, the administrators
of church lands were important personages, and exercised
during the middle ages, when there was no exact division of
power, both judicial and political functions. It was very
natural that the heads of this vast administration resident in
Rome should have a still higher standing, and in fact, from the
J Gregorovius, Geschichte, vol. ii. pp. 427-28 and note (and ed.).
The
consuls.
ROME
[MIDDLE AGES
6th century, their power increased to such an extent that in the
times of the Franks they already formed a species of papal
cabinet with a share and sometimes a predominance
m tne a ^^ IS f tne republic. There were seven principal
administrators, but two of them held the chief power
the primicerius notariorum and the secundicerius, i.e. the first
and under secretaries of state. When, on the constitution of
the new empire, these ministers were declared to be palatine
or imperial as well as papal officials, the primicerius and the
secundicerius were also in waiting on the emperor, who sat
in council with them when in Rome. Next came the arcarius,
or treasurer ; the sacellarius, or cashier ; the protoscriniarius,
who was at the head of the papal chancery; the primus defensor,
who was the advocate of the church and administered its
possessions. Seventh and last came the nomendator, or
adminiculator, who pleaded the cause of widows, orphans and
paupers. There were also some other officials, such as the
vestiarius, the vicedominus or steward, the cubicularius or
major-domo, but these were of inferior importance. They were
ecclesiastics, but not bound to be in priest's orders. The first
seven were those specially known as proceres clericorum and
oftener still as judices de clero, since they speedily assumed
judicial functions and ranked among the chief judges of Rome.
But as ecclesiastics they did not give decisions in criminal
cases. Thus Rome had two tribunals, that of the judices de
clero, or ordinarii, presided over by the pope, and that of the
judices de militia, leaders of the army, dukes and tribunes, also
bearing the generic title of consuls. First appointed by the
exarch and then frequently by the pope, these decided both civil
and criminal cases. In the latter they were sole judges under the
presidency of the prefect.
The pope was thus at the head of a large administrative
body with judicial and civil powers that were continually on
the increase, and, in addition to his moral authority
and The over Christendom, was possessed of enormous revenues.
pai wer So in course of time he considered himself the real
representative of the Roman Republic. Gregory II.
(715-31) accepted in the name of the republic the sub-
mission of other cities, and protested against the conquest
by the Lombards of those already belonging to Rome. He
seemed indeed to regard the territory of the duchy as the patri-
mony of the church. The duke was always at the head of
the army, and, officially, was always held to be an imperial
magistrate. But the empire was now powerless in Italy.
Meanwhile the advance of the Lombards was becoming more
and more threatening; they seized Ravenna in 751, thus putting
an end to the exarchate, and next marched towards Rome,
which had only its own forces and the aid of neighbouring
cities to rely upon. To avoid being crushed by the brute
force of a foreign nation unfit to rule, and only capable of
oppression and pillage, it was necessary to make an energetic
stand.
Accordingly, the reigning pope, Stephen II. (752-57), ap-
pealed to Pippin, king of the Franks, and concluded with that
monarch an alliance destined to inaugurate a new
appeal 1 " 18 e P ocn f tne world's history. The pope consecrated
Pippin king of the Franks, and named him palricius
'fo'trid. Romanorum. This title, as introduced by Constantine,
had no longer the ancient meaning,but now became asign
of lofty social rank. When, however, it was afterwards conferred
on barbarian chieftains such as Odoacer and Theodoric, and then
on the representative of the Byzantine empire in Italy, it ac-
quired the meaning of a definite dignity or office. In fact, the
title was now given to Pippin as defender of the church, for
the pope styled him at the same time patricius Romanorum
and defensor or protector ecclesiae. And the king pledged
himself not only to defend the church but also to wrest
the exarchate and the Pentapolis from the Lombards and
give them to Rome, or rather to the pope, which came to
the same thing. This was considered as a restitution made
to the head of the church, who was also the representative of
the republic and the empire. And, to preserve the character
of a restitution, the famous " donation of Constanline " was
invented during this period (752-77). Pippin brought his
army to the rescue (754-55) and fulfilled his promise.
The pope accepted the donation in the name of St
Peter, and as the visible head of the church. Thus
in 755 central Italy broke its connexion with the empire and
became independent; thus was inaugurated the temporal
power of the papacy, the cause of so much subsequent warfare
and revolution in Rome.
Its first consequences were speedily seen. In 767 the death
of Paul I. was followed by a fierce revolt of the nobles under
Duke Toto (Theodoro) of Nepi, who by violent means raised
his brother Constantine to the chair of St Peter, although
Constantine was a layman and had first to be ordained. For
more than a year the new pontiff was a pliable tool in the hands
of Toto and of the nobles. But the genuine papal faction,
headed by a few judices de clero, asked the aid of the Lombards
and made a formidable resistance. Their adversaries were
defeated, tortured and put to death. Toto was treacherously
slain during a fight. The pope was blinded and left half dead
on the highway. Fresh and no less violent riots ensued, owing
to the public dread lest the new pope, Stephen III. (768-72),
elected by favour of the Lombards, should give them the city
in return. But Stephen went over to the Franks, whom he had
previously deserted, and his successor, Adrian I. (772-95),
likewise adhered to their cause, called the city to arms to resist
King Desiderius and his Lombard hordes, and besought the
assistance of Charlemagne. This monarch accordingly made a
descent into Italy in 773, and not only gained an chaHe-
easy victory over Desiderius, but destroyed the marnein
Lombard kingdom and seized the iron crown. Entering
Rome for the first time in 774, he confirmed and augmented
the donation of Pippin by the addition of the dukedom of
Spoleto. He returned several times to Italy and Rome, making
new conquests and fresh concessions to Adrian I., until the
death of the latter in 795.
The position of Rome and of the pope is now substantially
changed. Duke, prefect, militia and the people exist as
heretofore, but are all subordinate to the head of Tfle
the church, who, by the donations of Pippin and papacy,
Charlemagne, has been converted into a powerful 'public
temporal sovereign. Henceforth all connexion with and the
Byzantium is broken off, but Rome is still the
mainspring of the empire, the Roman duchy its sole sur-
viving fragment in Italy, and the pope stands before the
world as representative of both. And, although it is difficult
to determine how this came about, the pope is now regarded
and regards himself as master of Rome. In the year 772 he
entrusts the vestiarius with judicial powers over the laity,
ecclesiastics, freemen and slaves noslrae Romanae reipublicae.
He writes to Charlemagne that he has issued orders for the
burning of the Greek ships employed in the slave trade,
" in our city of Civita Vecchia " (Centumcellae), and he always
speaks of Rome and the Romans as " our city," " our republic,"
" our people." The donations of Pippin and Charlemagne are
restitutions made to St Peter, the holy church and the re-
public at the same time. It is true that Charlemagne held
the supreme power, had an immensely increased authority and
actively fulfilled his duties as patricius. But his power was
only occasionally exercised in Rome; it was the result of ser-
vices rendered to the church, and of the church's continual
need of his help; it was, as it were, the power of a mighty and
indispensable ally. The pope, however, was most tenacious of
his own authority in Rome, made vigorous protest whenever
rebels fled to Charlemagne or appealed to that monarch's
arbitration, and contested the supremacy of the imperial
officials in Rome. Yet the pope was no absolute sovereign,
nor, in the modern sense of the term, did any then exist. He
asserted supremacy over many lands which continually rebelled
against him, and which, for want of an army of his own, he was
unable to reduce to obedience without others' help. Neither
did the republic acknowledge him as its head. It profited by
MIDDLE AGES]
ROME
665
the growing power of the pope, could not exist without him,
respected his moral authority, but considered that he usurped
undue power in Rome. This was specially the feeling of the
nobles, who had hitherto held the chief authority in the republic,
and, being still the leaders of the army, were by no means
willing to relinquish it. The Roman nobles were very different
from other aristocratic bodies elsewhere. They were not as
they pretended, descendants of the Camilli and the Scipios,
but neither were they a feudal aristocracy, inasmuch as the
Teutonic element had as yet made small way among them.
They were a mixture of different elements, national and foreign,
formed by the special conditions of Rome. Their power was
chiefly derived from the high offices and large grants of money
and land conferred on them by the popes; but, as no dynasty
existed, they could not be dynastic. Every pope aggrandized
his own kindred and friends, and these were the natural and
often open adversaries of the next pontiff and his favourites.
Thus the Roman nobility was powerful, divided, restless and
turbulent; it was continually plotting against the pope,
threatening not only his power, but even his life; it continually
appealed to the people for assistance, stirred the militia to
revolt and rendered government an impossibility. Hence,
notwithstanding his immense moral authority, the pope was
the effective head neither of the aristocracy, the army nor of
the as yet unorganized lower classes. The lord of vast but
often insubordinate territories, the recognized master of a
capital city torn by internecine feud and plots against himself,
he needed the support of an effective force for his own preserva-
tion and the maintenance of the authority proffered him from
all quarters. Hence the necessity of creating an empire of the
West, after having snapped every link with that of the East.
Thus the history of Rome is still, as in the past, a history of
continual strife between pope, emperor and republic; and the
city, while imbibing strength from all three, keeps them in
perpetual tumult and confusion.
Leo III. (796-816) further strengthened the ties between
Charlemagne and the church by sending the former a letter
with the keys of the shrine of St Peter and the banner of
Rome. Charlemagne had already joined to his office of
patrician the function of high justice. The new symbols now
sent constituted him miles of Rome and general of the church.
The pope urged him to despatch an envoy to receive the oath
of fealty, thus placing himself, the representative of the republic,
in the subordinate position of one of the bishops who had
received the immunities of counts. And all these arrangements
took place without the slightest reference to the senate, the
army or the people. Much resentment was felt, especially
by the nobles, and a revolution ensued headed by the
primicerius Paschalis and the secundicerius Campulus, and
backed by all who wished to liberate the city from the papal
rule. During a solemn procession the pope was attacked and
barbarously maltreated by his assailants, who tried to tear
out his eyes and tongue (799). He was thrown into prison,
escaped and overtook Charlemagne at Paderborn, and
returned guarded by ten of the monarch's envoys, who con-
demned to death the leaders of the revolt, reserving, however,
to their sovereign the right of final judgment. Charlemagne
arrived in December 800, and as high justice assembled a
tribunal of the clergy, nobles, citizens and Franks; he pro-
nounced Leo to be innocent, and confirmed the capital sentence
passed on the rebels. But through the intercession of the
pope, who dreaded the wrath of the nobles, this was presently
Charts- commuted into perpetual exile. And finally on
magae Christmas day, in St Peter's, before an assemblage
of Roman and Prankish lords, the clergy and the
people, the pontiff placed the imperial crown on
Charlemagne's head and all proclaimed him emperor.
Thus the new emperor was elected by the Romans and
consecrated by the pope. But he was their real master and
supreme judge. The pope existed only by his will, since he
alone supplied the means for the maintenance of the temporal
power, and already pretended to the right of controlling the
papal elections. Yet Charlemagne was not sovereign of
Rome; he possessed scarcely any regalia there, and was not
in command of the army; he mainly represented a principle,
but this principle was the law which is the basis of the state.
The pope still nominated the Roman judges, but the emperor
or his missi presided over them, together with those of the
pope, and his decision was appealed to in last resort. During
the Carolingian times no mention is found of the prefect, and
it would seem that his office was filled by the imperial missus,
or legate, the judices de clero and judices de militia. The power
of the pope was now entangled with that of the republic on
the one hand and that of the empire on the other. The con-
sequent confusion of sacred and secular functions naturally
led to infinite complications and disputes.
The death of Charlemagne in 814 was the signal for a fresh
conspiracy of the nobles against the pope, who, discovering
their design, instantly put the ringleaders to death, and was
severely blamed by Louis for this violation of the imperial
prerogative. While the matter was under discussion the
nobles broke out in fiercer tumults, both in Rome and the
Campagna. At last, in 824, the emperor Lothair came to re-
establish order in Rome, and proclaimed a new and note-
worthy constitution, to which Pope Eugenius II. (824-27)
gave his oath of adherence. By this the partnership of pope
and emperor in the temporal rule of Rome and the states
of the church was again confirmed. The more direct power
appertained to the pope; the supreme authority, presidence
of the tribunals, and final judgment on appeal to the emperor.
The new constitution also established the right of contending
parties to select either the Roman or the Teutonic code for
the settlement of their disputes.- During the Carolingian
period it is not surprising that the commune should have been,
as it were, absorbed by the church and the empire. In fact,
it is scarcely mentioned in history throughout that time.
And when, no longer sustained by the genius of its Decline
founder, the Prankish empire began to show signs of the
of dissolution, the popes, finding their power thereby "/>''*
strengthened, began to assume many of the imperial attri-
butes. Soon, however, as a natural consequence of the
loss of the main support of the papacy, the nobles regained
vigour and were once more masters of the city. Teutonic and
feudal elements had now largely penetrated into their organiza-
tion. The system of granting lands, and even churches and
convents, as benefices according to feudal forms, became more
and more general. It was vain for the popes to offer opposition,
and they ended by yielding to the current. The faU of the
Prankish empire left all Italy a prey to anarchy, and torn by
the faction fights of Berengar of Friuli and Guido of Spoleto,
the rival claimants to the crowns of Italy and the empire. The
Saracens were advancing from the south, the Huns from
the north; the popes had lost all power; and in the midst
of this frightful chaos a way was opened for the rise of the
republics. Anarchy was at its climax in Rome, but the laity
began to overpower the clergy to such an extent that the
judices de militia prevailed over the indices de clero. For a
long time no imperial missi or legates had been seen, and the
papacy was incredibly lowered. The election of the popes
had positively fallen into the hands of certain beautiful women
notorious for their evil life and depravity. The
aristocracy alone gained strength; now freed from "**"**
the domination of the emperor, it continually wrested >/ the
fresh privileges from the impotent pontiffs, and JJ^f. 05 "
became organized as the ruling force of the republic.
Gregorovius, notwithstanding his denial of the continuation of
the senate after the 6th century, is obliged to acknowledge
that it appeared to have returned to life in the power of this
new baronage. And, although this body was now permeated
with the feudal principle, it did not discard its ancient traditions.
The nobles claimed to be the main source of the empire; they
wished to regain the dignity and office of palricius, and to
make it, if possible, hereditary in some of their families.
Nothing is known of their system of organization, but it seems
666
ROME
[MIDDLE AGES
that they elected a chief bearing the title of consul, senator,
princeps Romanorum, who was officially recognized by the
pope, as a patricius presided over the tribunals, and was the
head of the commune.
Theophylact was one of the first to assume this dignity. His
wife Theodora, known as the senatrix, was one of the women
then dominating Rome by force of their charms and licentious-
ness. She was supposed to be the concubine of Pope John X.
(914-28), whose election was due to her influence. Her
daughter Marozia, in all things her worthy rival, was married to
Alberic, a foreign mercenary of uncertain birth who rose to a
position of great influence, and, although an alien, played a
leading part in the affairs of the city. He helped to increase
the power of Theophylact, who seemingly shared the rule of the
city with the pope. In the bloody war that had to be waged
against the Saracens of southern Italy, and at the defeat of the
latter on the Garigliano (916), Theophylact and Alberic were
the Roman leaders, and distinguished themselves by their
valour. They disappeared from the scene after this victory,
but Marozia retained her power, and bore a son, Alberic, who
was destined to greater deeds. The pope found himself caught
in this woman's toils, and struggled to escape, but Marozia,
gaining fresh influence by her marriage with Hugo, margrave
of Tuscany, imprisoned the pontiff himself in the castle of St
Angelo (928). This fortress was the property of Marozia and
the basis of her strength. The unfortunate John died within
its walls. Raised to the chair by Theodora, he was deposed
and killed by her daughter. The authority of the latter reached
its Culminating point in 931, when she succeeded in placing her
son John XI. on the papal throne. On the death of her second
husband she espoused Hugh of Provence, the same who in 928
had seized the iron crown at Pavia, and now aspired to the
empire. Dissolute, ambitious and despotic, he came to Rome
in 932, and, leaving his army outside the walls, entered the
castle of St Angelo with his knights, instantly began to play
the tyrant, and gave a blow to Alberic his stepson, who detested
j he him as a foreign intruder. This blow proved the
revolt cause of a memorable revolution; for Alberic rushed
of the from the castle and harangued the people, crying that
A/fcer/"*" tne t * me was come to shake off the tyrannous yoke of
at the a woman and of barbarians who were once the slaves
head of Rome. Then, putting himself at the head of the
populace, he closed the city gates to prevent Hugh's
troops from coming to the rescue, and attacked the
castle. The king fled; Marozia was imprisoned, Alberic pro-
claimed lord of the Romans, and the pope confined to the
Lateran in the custody of his own brother. Rome was again an
independent state, a republic of nobles. Rid of the temporal
dominion of emperor and pope, and having expelled the
foreigners with great energy and courage, it chose Alberic for its
chief with the title of princeps atque omnium Romanorum senator.
The tendency of the Roman Republic to elect a supreme author-
ity, first manifested in the case of Theophylact, was repeated
in those of Alberic, Brancaleone, Crescenzio, Cola di Rienzo
and others. One of the many causes of this tendency may be
traced to the conception of the new empire of which Rome was
the original and enduring fountainhead. As Rome had once
transferred the empire from Byzantium to the Franks, so Rome
was surely entitled to reclaim it. The imperial authority was
represented by the office of patrician, now virtually assumed by
Alberic. That he gave the name of Octavian to his son is an
additional proof of this fact. In the Eternal City the medieval
political idea has always the aspect of a resurrection or trans-
formation of classic antiquity. This is another characteristic
of the history of the Roman commune.
Alberic's strength was due to his connexion with the nobility,
to his father's valiant service against the Saracens at the battle
of Garigliano, and to the militia under his command, on which
everything depended amid the internal and external dangers
now threatening the new state. As yet no genuine municipal
constitution was possible in Rome, where neither the people
nor the wealthy burghers engaged in industry and commerce
had any fixed organization. All was in the hands of the nobles,
and Alberic. as their chief, frequently convened them in council,
although obliged to use pressure to keep them united and avoid
falling a prey to their disputes. Hence the whole power was
concentrated in his grasp; he was at the head of the tribunals
as well as of the army. The judices de clero and judices de
militia still existed, but no longer met in the Lateran or the
Vatican, under the presidency of emperor and pope or their
missi. Alberic himself was their president; and, a still more
significant fact, their sittings were often held in his private
dwelling. There is no longer any mention of prefect or patricius.
The papal coinage was inscribed with Alberic's name instead of
the emperor's. His chief attention was given to the militia,
which was still arranged in scholae, and it is highly probable that
he was the author of the new division of the city into twelve
regions, with a corresponding classification of the army in as
many regiments under twelve flags and twelve banderesi, one
for every region. The organization of the scholae could not
have been very dissimilar, but doubtless Alberic had some
important motive for altering the old method of classification.
By means of the armed regions he included the people in the
forces. It is certain that after his time we find the army much
changed and far more democratic. It was only natural that so
excellent a statesman should seek the aid of the popular element
as a defence against the arrogance of the nobles, and it was
requisite to reinforce the army in order to be prepared for the
attacks threatened from abroad. This change effected, Alberic
felt prepared for the worst, and began to rule with energy,
moderation and justice. His contemporaries award him high
praise, and he seems to have been exempt from the vices of his
mother and grandmother.
In 933 Hugh made his first attack upon the city, and was
repulsed. A second attempt in 936 proved still more unfortu-
nate, for his army was decimated by a pestilence. Thoroughly
disheartened, he not only made peace, but gave his daughter in
marriage to Alberic, thus satisfying the latter's desire to ally
himself with a royal house. But this union led to no conciliation
with Hugh. For Alberic, finding his power increased, marched
at the head of his troops to consolidate his rule in the Cam-
pagna and the Sabine land. On the death of his brother, Pope
John XL, in 936, he controlled the election of several successive
popes, quelled a conspiracy formed against him by the clergy
and certain nobles instigated by Hugh, and brilliantly repulsed,
in 941, another attack by that potentate. At last, however,
this inveterate foe withdrew from Rome, being summoned to the
north by the victories of his rival Berengarius. But Alberic,
after procuring the election of various popes who were docile
instruments of his will, experienced a check when Agapetus II.
(946-55), a man of firmness and resource, was raised to the
papal throne. The fortunes of Berengarius were now in the
ascendant. In 950 he had seized the iron crown, and ruled
in the Pentapolis and the exarchate. This being singularly
painful to the pope, he proceeded to make alliance with all
those enemies of Berengarius preferring a distant emperor to a
neighbouring and effective sovereign, with the Roman nobles
who were discontented with Alberic, and with all who foresaw
danger, even to Rome, from the extended power of Berengarius.
And Agapetus recurred to the old papal policy, by making
appeal to Otto I., whose rule in Germany was distinguished by a
prestige almost comparable with that of Charlemagne.
Otto immediately responded to the appeal and descended into
Italy; but his envoys were indignantly repulsed by Alberic,
and, being prudent as well as firm, he decided to wait a more
opportune moment for the accomplishment of his designs.
Meanwhile Alberic died in 954, and the curtain fell on the first
great drama of the Roman Republic. He had reigned for
twenty-two years with justice, energy and prudence; he had
repelled foreign invaders, maintained order and authority. He
seems, however, to have realized that the aspect of affairs was
about to change, that the work he had accomplished would be
exposed to new dangers. These dangers, in fact, had already
begun with the accession of an enterprising pope to the Holy
MIDDLE AGES]
ROME
667
See. The name of Octavian given by Alberic to his son leads
to the inference that he meant to make his power hereditary.
But, suddenly, he began to educate this son for the priesthood,
and, assembling the nobles in St Peter's shortly before his
death, he made them swear to elect Octavian as pope on the
decease of Agapetus II. They kept their word, for in this way
they freed themselves from a ruler. Possibly Alberic trusted
that both offices might be united, and that his son would be
head of the state as well as the church. But the nobles knew
this to be a delusion, especially in the case of a nature such as
Octavian's. The lad was sixteen years old when his father
died, received princely honours until the death of Agapetus,
and was then elected pope with the name of John XII. He
had inherited the ungoverned passions of his grandmother
Marozia and great-grandmother Theodora, but without their
intelligence and cunning. His palace was the scene of the most
scandalous licence, while his public acts were those of a baby
tyrant. He conferred a bishopric on a child of ten, consecrated
a deacon in a stable, invoked Venus and Jupiter in his games,
and drank to the devil's health. He desired to be both pope
and prince, but utterly failed to be either. Before long,
realizing the impossibility of holding in check Berengarius,
who still ruled over the exarchate, he sought in 960 the aid of
Otto I., and promised him the imperial crown. Thus the new
ruler was summoned by the son of the man by whom he had
otto I. been repulsed. Otto vowed to defend the church, to
crowned restore her territories, to refrain from usurping the
emperor. p Owe r of the pope or the republic, and was crowned
on the 2nd of February 962 with unheard-of pomp and display.
Accordingly, after being extinct for thirty-seven years, the
empire was revived under different but no less difficult con-
ditions. The politico-religious unity founded by Charlemagne
had been dissolved, partly on account of the heterogeneous
elements of which it was composed, and partly because other
nations were in course of formation. Now too the feudal
system was converting the officers of the empire into inde-
pendent princes, and the new spirit of communal liberty was
giving freedom to the cities. Otto once more united the empire
and the church, Italy and Germany, in order to combat these
new foes. But the difficulties of the enterprise at once came
to light. John XII., finding a master in the protector he had
invoked, now joined the discontented nobles who were conspiring
with Berengarius against the emperor. But the latter hastened
to Rome in November 963, assembled the clergy, nobles and
heads of the people, and made them take an oath never again
to elect a pope without his consent and that of his son. He
also convoked a synod presided over by himself in St Peter's,
which judged, condemned and deposed Pope John and elected
Leo VIII. (863-65), a Roman noble, in his stead. All this
was done at the direct bidding of the emperor, who thus deprived
the Romans of their most valued privilege, the right of choosing
Risia tne ' r own PP e - ^ ut tne P e pl e na d now risen to
import- considerable importance, and, for the first time, we
ance find it officially represented in the synod by the
ofthe plebeian Pietro, surnamed Imperiola, together with
peope. ^ | ea( j ers O f tne militia, which had also become a
popular institution since Alberic's reign. It was no longer easy
to keep the lower orders in subjection, and by their junction
with the malcontent nobles they formed a very respectable
force. On the 3rd of January 964 they sounded the battle-
peal and attacked the Vatican, where the emperor was lodged.
The German knights repulsed them with much slaughter, and
this bloodshed proved the beginning of an endless feud. Otto
departed in February, and John XII., as the chosen pope of
the Romans, returned with an army of followers and com-
pelled the defenceless Leo VIII. to seek safety in flight. Soon
afterwards Leo was deposed and excommunicated by a new
synod, and many of his adherents were cruelly murdered.
But on the I4th of May 964 John suddenly expired; the
Romans, amid violent struggles and tumults, resumed their
rights, elected Benedict V., and procured his consecration in
spite of the emperor's veto. Otto now appeared at the head
of an army, committed fresh slaughter, besieged the city, re-
duced it by famine, and, after holding a council which deposed
Benedict and sent him a prisoner to Hamburg, restored
Leo VIII. to the papal throne.
But, although the emperor thus disposed of the papacy at
his will, his arbitrary exercise of power roused a long and
obstinate resistance, which had no slight effect upon Another
the history of the commune. Leo VIII. died in 965, revotu-
and the imperial party elected John XIII. (965-72). tloa -
Upon this the nobles of the national party joined the
people and there was a general revolt. The nobles were led
by Pietro, prefect of Rome. As we have noted, this office
seemed to be extinct during the Carolinian rule, but we
again meet with it in 955, after an interval of a century and a
half. The leaders of the people were twelve decarconi, a term
of unknown derivation, but probably indicating chiefs of the
twelve regions (dodecarchi, dodecarconi, decarconi). The new
pope was seized and confined, first in the castle of St Angelo,
then in a fortress in the Campagna. But the emperor quickly
marched an army against Rome, and this sufficed to produce
a reaction which recalled the pope (November 966), sent the
prefect into exile, and put several of the rebellious nobles to
death. And shortly after the emperor sacked the city. Many
Romans were exiled, some tortured, others, including the twelve
decarconi, killed. John XIII. died in 972 and Otto in 973.
All these events clearly prove how great a change had now
taken place in the conditions of Rome. The people (plebs)
had made its appearance upon the stage; the army had become
democratic; the twelve regions were regularly organized under
leaders. Opposed to them stood the nobles, headed by the
prefect, also a noble, precisely as in Florence the nobles and
the podesta were later opposed to the gilds and the people.
So far, it is true, nobles and people had made common cause
in Rome; but this harmony was soon to be interrupted. The
feudal spirit had made its way among the Roman aristocrats,
had split them into two parties and diminished their strength.
It was now destined to spread, and, as it was always vigorously
detested and opposed by the people elsewhere in Italy, so the
same consequence was inevitable in Rome. Another notable
change, and a subject of unending controversy, had
aLo occurred in the administration of justice. So
far there were the judices de clero, also known as
ordinary or palatine judges, and the judices de militia, also
r-tyled consules or duces. These judges generally formed a
court of seven, three being de clero, four de militia, or vice versa,
under the presidency of the papal or imperial missi. In
criminal cases the judices de militia had the prefect or the
imperial missus for their president. But there was a third
order of judges called pedanei, a consulibus creati. It seems
clear that the duces, being distributi per judicatus, found them-
selves isolated in the provinces, and to obtain assistance nomin-
ated these pedanei, who were legal experts. In Rome, with
its courts of law, they were less needed, but possibly in those
sections of the city where cases of minor importance were
submitted to a single magistrate reference was made to the
pedanei. But many changes were made under the Franks,
and when the edict of Lothair (824) granted free choice of
either the Roman or Germanic law, and the duces were replaced
by comites and gaslaldiones, chiefly of German origin, the use
of legal experts became increasingly necessary. And the
custom of employing them was the more easily diffused by
being already common among the Franks, whose scabini were
legal experts acting as judges, though not qualified to pass
sentence. Thus the pedanei multiplied, came to resemble the
scabini, and were designated judices dativi (a magistralu dati)
or simply dativi. These were to be found in the exarchate in
838, but not in Rome until 961, when the judices de militia
had ceased to exist. The great progress of the German legal
procedure may then have contributed to the formation of the
new office.
Meanwhile Pope John XIII. had been succeeded by Bene-
dict VI. (973-74) and Otto I. by his son Otto II., a youth
668
ROME
[MIDDLE AGES
of eighteen married to the Byzantine princess Theophano.
Thereupon the Romans, who had supported the election of
another pope, and were in no awe of the new emperor, rose to
arms under the command of Crescenzio, a rich and power-
ful noble. They not only seized Benedict VI. by force, but
strangled him in the castle of St Angelo. The national and
imperial parties then elected several popes who were either
exiled or persecuted, and one of them was said to be murdered.
In 985 John XV. was elected (985-96). During this turmoil,
alovaaal the national party, composed of nobles and people,
cnt- led by Giovanni Crescenzio, son of the other Crescenzio
tcazio. mentioned above, had taken complete possession
of the government. This Crescenzio assumed the title of
patrician, and sought to imitate Alberic, although far his
inferior in capacity. Fortunately for him, the reigning pope
was a detested tyrant, and the emperor a child entirely guided
by his mother. But the new emperor Otto III. was backed
by a powerful party, and on coming to Rome in 996 was able,
although only aged fifteen, to quell the rebellion, oust Crescenzio
from public life, and elect as successor to John XV. his own
cousin, Pope Gregory V. (996-99). But this first German
pope surrounded himself with compatriots, and by raising them
to lofty posts even in the tribunals excited a revolt that drove
him from the throne (29th September 999). Crescenzio, being
master of the castle of St Angelo, resumed the title of patrician
or consul of the Romans, expelled the German judges, recon-
stituted the government, prepared his troops for defence, and
created a new pope. But the following year Otto III. came
to Rome, and his party opened the gates to him. Although
deserted by nearly all his adherents, Crescenzio held the castle
valiantly against its besiegers. At last, on the 2gth of April
998, he was forced to make terms, and the imperialists, violating
their pledges, first put him to torture and then hurled him
from the battlements. Gregory V. dying shortly after these
events, Sylvester II., another native of southern France, who
had been tutor to the emperor Otto III., was raised to the
papacy (999-1003).
Thus Otto III. was enabled to establish his mastery of Rome.
But, as the son of a Greek mother, trained amid Greek influ-
0^ m ences, his fantastic and contradictory nature seemed
only to grasp the void. He wished to reconstitute
a Romano-Byzantine empire with Rome for his capital. His
discourse always turned on the ancient republic, on consuls
and senate, on the might and grandeur of the Roman people;
and his edicts were addressed to the senate and the people.
The senate is now constantly mentioned, and its heads bear
the title of consuls. The emperor also gave renewed honour
to the title of patrician, surrounded himself with officials bearing
Greek and Roman designations, and raised the prestige of the
prefect, who, having now almost the functions of an imperial
vicar, bore the eagle and the sword as his insignia. Neverthe-
less Otto III. was thoroughly German, and during his reign
all Germanic institutions made progress in Rome. This was
particularly the case with feudalism, and Sylvester II. was
the first pope to treat it with favour. Many families of real
feudal barons now arose. The Crescenzii held sway in the
Sabine hills, and Praeneste and Tusculum were great centres
of feudalism in the nth century. The system of feudal bene-
fices was recognized by the church, which made grants of lands,
cities and provinces in the feudal manner. The bishops, like
feudal barons, became actual counts. And, in consequence of
these changes, when the emperor, as head of the feudal system,
seeks to impose his will upon the church (which has also become
feudal) and control the papal elections, he is met by the great
question of the investitures, a question destined to disturb
the whole world. Meanwhile the Roman barons were growing
more and more powerful, and were neither submissive nor
faithful to the emperor. On the contrary, they resented his
attitude as a master of Rome, and, when he subjected Tivoli
to the Holy See, attacked both him and the pope with so much
vigour as to put both to flight (i6th February 1001). There-
upon Rome again became a republic, headed by Gregory of
Tusculum, a man of a powerful family claiming descent from
Alberic.
By the emperor's death in January 1002 the race of the
Ottos became extinct, the papacy began to decline, as at the
end of the Carolingian period, and the nobles, divided into
an imperial and a national party, were again predominant.
They reserved to themselves the office of patrician, and, electing
popes from their own ranks, obtained enlarged privileges and
power. At the time when Ardoin, marquis of Ivrea, profiting
by the extinction of the Ottos and the anarchy of Germany,
was stirring Italy in the vain hope of constituting a national
kingdom, the Roman Republic was being consolidated The
under another Giovanni Crescenzio, of the national tecoad
faction. He was now elected patrician; one of alovaaal
his kinsmen was invested with the office of prefect, '
and the new pope John XVIII. (1003-9) wa s
one of his creatures. Although the power of Henry of
Bavaria was then gaining ascendancy in Germany, and giving
strength to the imperialist nobles, Crescenzio still remained
supreme ruler of the city and the Campagna. Surrounded by
his judges, the senators and his kinsman the prefect, he
continued to dispense justice in his own palace until his death
in 1012, after ten years' rule. And, Pope Sergius IV. having
died the same year, the counts of Tusculum compassed the
election of Benedict VIII. (1012-24), one of their own kin.
This pope expelled the Crescenzii, changed the prefect and
reserved the title of patrician for Henry II., whom he con-
secrated emperor on the i4th February 1014. A second
Alberic, bearing the title of " eminentissimus consul et dux,"
was now at the head of the republic and dispensed placila in
the palace of his great ancestor, from whom the counts of
Tusculum were also descended.
The new emperor endeavoured to re-establish order in Rome,
and strengthen his own authority together with that of the
pope. But the nobles had in all things the upper
hand. They were regularly organized under leaders,
held meetings, asserted their right to nominate both pope
and emperor, and in fact often succeeded in so doing. Even
Henry II. himself was obliged to secure their votes before his
coronation. The terms senate and senator now recur still
more frequently in history. Nevertheless, Benedict VIII.
succeeded in placing his own brother, Romano, at the head
of the republic with the title of " consul, dux and senator,"
thus making him leader of the nobles, who met at his bidding,
and chief of the militia and the tribunals. The prefect still
retained his authority, and the emperor was by right supreme
judge. But, a violent revolt breaking out, the emperor only
stayed to suppress it and then went to Germany in disgust.
The pope, aided by his brother, conducted the government
with energy; he awed the party of Crescenzio, and waged
war against the Saracens in the south. But he died in 1024,
and in the same year Henry II. was succeeded by Conrad II.
There was now beheld a repetition of the same strange event
that had followed the death of Alberic, and with no less fatal
consequences. Benedict's brother Romano, head of the
republic, and still retaining office, was, although a layman,
elected pope. He took the name of John XIX. (1024-33),
and in 1027 conferred the imperial crown on Conrad the Salic,
who, abolishing the Lothairian edict of 824, decreed that
throughout Rome and its territory justice should be henceforth
administered solely by the Justinian code. Thus, notwith-
standing the spread of feudalism and Germanic procedure,
the Roman law triumphed through the irresistible force of the
national character, which was already manifested in many
other ways.
Meanwhile John XIX. was succeeded by his nephew,
Benedict IX. (1033-45^, a lad of twelve, who placed his own
brother at the head of the republic. Thus church and state
assumed the aspect of hereditary possessions in the powerful
house of the counts of Tusculum. But the vices and excesses
of Benedict were so monstrous that the papacy sank to the
lowest depth of corruption; there followed a series of tumults
MIDDLE AGES]
ROME
669
and reactionary attempts, and so many conflicting elections
that in 1045 three popes were struggling for the tiara in the
midst of scandal and anarchy. The streets and neighbourhood
of Rome swarmed with thieves and assassins; pilgrims were
plundered; citizens trembled for their lives; and a hundred
petty barons threatened the rival popes, who were obliged to
defend themselves by force. This state of things lasted until
Henry III. came to re-establish order. He appointed a synod
to depose the three popes, and then, with the consent of the
wearied and anarchy-stricken Romans, assuming the right
of election, proposed a German, Clement II., who was con-
secrated at Christmas 1046. Henry III. was then crowned,
and also took the title of patrician. Thus the emperor was
lord over church and state. This, however, stirred both
people and pope against him, and led to the terrible contest
of the investitures, although for the moment the Romans,
being exhausted by past calamities, seemed not only resigned
but contented.
In fact, the idea of reform and independence was already
germinating in the church and was soon to become tenacious
Hiidc- and irresistible. Hildebrand was the prompter and
bnnd nero o { this idea. He sought to abolish the simony
question an( ^ concubinage of the priesthood, to give the papal
of in vet- elections into the hands of the higher ecclesiastics,
titure. and to emancipate the church from all dependence
on the empire. Henry III. procured the election of four
German popes in succession, and Hildebrand was always at
hand to inspire their actions and dominate them by his
strength of intellect and still greater strength of will. But
the fourth German pope, Victor II., died in 1057, and Henry III.
had been succeeded in 1056 by the young Henry IV. under
the regency of a weak woman, the empress Agnes. Hildebrand
seized this favourable moment for trying his strength and
procured the election of Stephen IX. (1057-58), a candidate
he had long had in view. Stephen, however, died in 1058;
the nobles instantly rose in rebellion; and Gregory of Tusculum,
who had assumed the patriciate, caused an incapable cousin
to be named pope (Benedict X.). Upon this Hildebrand
postponed his design of maintaining the papacy by the help
of Italian potentates and had recourse to the empress. In a
synod held at Siena with her consent Benedict was deposed
and Nicholas II. (1050-61) elected in his stead. This pope
entered Rome escorted by the troops of Godfrey of Tuscany,
and, when also assured of help from Naples, assembled a
council of one hundred and thirteen bishops (1059), who con-
demned the deposed pontiff and renewed the prohibition of
simony and concubinage among the priesthood. Finally
Nicholas instituted the college of cardinals, entrusting it with
the election of the pope, who was in future to be chosen from
its ranks. The assent of the clergy and people was left purely
formal. The decree also contained the proviso " saving the
honour and reverence due to the emperor "; but this too was
an empty expression.
The new decree was a master-stroke of Hildebrand's genius,
for by means of it he placed the papal election in the hands
of a genuine ecclesiastical senate and gave a monarchical form
to the church. Backed by the Normans who were in Rome,
and whose commander, Richard of Capua, did not scruple to
strike off the heads of many recalcitrant nobles, Hildebrand
and the pope could now pursue their work of reform. Never-
theless the nobles again revolted on the death of Nicholas II.
in 1061, and declared their purpose of restoring to Henry IV.
the patriciate and right of election; but Hildebrand, by
speedily convoking the cardinals, procured the election of
Alexander II. (1061-73). This pope, although friendly to
the empire, did not await the imperial sanction, but, protected
by the Romans, at once entered the Lateran and put some
other riotous nobles to death. The German bishops, however,
elected Honorius II., who had the support of the barons. Thus
the city was split into two camps and a deadly civil war ensued,
terminating, despite the vigorous resistance of the nobility,
in the defeat of Honorius II. But the nobles persevered in
the contest and were the real masters of Rome. By conferring
the patriciate on the emperor, as their feudal chief, they
hoped to organize themselves under the prefect, who now,
with greatly increased authority, presided over both thi-
civil and criminal courts in the absence of the pope's
representative. In a general assembly the Romans elected
their prefect, whose investiture was granted by the emperor,
while the pope elected another. Thus disorder was brought
to a climax.
Alexander died on the aist April 1073, and thereupon Hilde-
brand was at last raised to the chair as pope Gregory VII.
(1073-85). He reconfirmed his predecessors' decrees,
dismissed all simoniacal and non-celibate priests,
and then in a second council (1075) forbade the clergy
to receive investiture at the hands of laymen. No bishop
nor abbot was again to accept ring or crozier from king or
emperor. Now, as ecclesiastical dignities included the possession
of extensive benefices, privileges and feudal rights, this decree
gave rise to tremendous dispute and to fierce contest between
the empire and the church. The nobles took a very decided
part in the struggle. With Cenci, their former prefect, at their
head, they rose in revolt, assailed the pope on Christmas day
1075, and threw him into prison. But their fear of the popular
wrath compelled his speedy release; and he then decreed the
excommunication and deposition of the emperor who had
declared him deposed. That monarch afterwards made
submission to Gregory at Canossa (1077), but, again turning
against him, was again excommunicated. And in 1081 he
returned to Italy bringing the antipope .Clement III., and
besieged Rome for forty days. Assembling the nobles in
his camp, he there arranged a new government of the city
with prefect and senate, palatine judges and other magistrates,
exactly similar to the existing government within the walls.
He then took his departure, returned several times in vain,
but at last forced his way into the city (March 1084) and
compelled Gregory VII. to seek refuge in the castle of St
Angelo. The emperor was then master of Rome, established
the government he had previously arranged and, calling a
parliament of nobles and bishops, procured the deposition of
Gregory and the consecration of Clement III., by whom he
was crowned in 1084. He then attacked and seized the
Capitol, and assaulted the castle in order to capture the pope.
But Robert Guiscard brought his army to the rescue. Emperor
and antipope fled; the city was taken, the pope liberated 'and
Rome reduced to ruin by fire and pillage. Upon this Gregory
VII., broken with grief, went away with the Normans, and
died at Salerno on the 25th May 1085. He had separated
the church from the people and the empire by a struggle that,
as Gregorovius says, disturbed the deep sleep of the middle
ages.
Pope Paschal II. (1099-1118) found himself entirely at the
mercy of the tyrannous nobles who were alike masters of Rome,
of its government, and its spiritual lord. As they paschal
were divided among themselves, all the pope could "' the
do was to side with one party in order to overcome " oble *-
the other. With the help of his own nephew Gualfredo, the
prefect Pietro Pierleone, and the Frangipani, he was able to
keep down the Corsi, and hold the Colonna in check. Being
compelled to repair to Benevento in 1108, he left Gualfredo
to command the militia, Tolomeo of Tusculum to guard the
Campagna, and the consuls Pierleone and Leone Frangipani,
together with the prefect, in charge of the government. The
consulship was no longer a mere title of honour. The consuls
seem to have been elected, as at Ravenna, in imitation of those
of the Lombard cities, and were at the head of the nobles and
senate. The expressions " praefectus et consules," " de sena-
toribus et consulibus," are now of frequent occurrence. We
have no precise knowledge of the political organization of the
city at this moment; but it was an aristocratic government,
similar to that originally formed in Florence, as Villani tells
us, with a senate and consuls. The nobles were so completely
the masters that the pope, in spite of having trusted them
670
ROME
[MIDDLE AGES
of the
people.
with the government, could only return to Rome with the aid
of the Normans. Being now absorbed in the great investiture
question, he had recourse to a daring plan. He proposed to
Henry V. that the bishops should resign all property derived
from the crown and depend solely on tithes and donations,
while the empire should resign the right of investiture. Henry
seemed disposed to accept the suggestion, but, suddenly chang-
ing his mind, took the pope prisoner and forced him to yield
the right of investiture and to give him the crown (mi). But
the following year the party of reform annulled in council this
concession, which the pope declared to have been extorted by
force. By the death of Countess Matilda in 1115 and the
bequest of her vast possessions to the Holy See, the pope's
dominions were greatly enlarged, but his authority as a ruler was
nowise increased. Deeds of violence still continued in Rome;
and then followed the death of the prefect Pietro. The nobles
of the imperial party, joined with the people, wished to elect
Pietro's son, also nephew to Tolomeo of Tusculum, who then
held the position of a potent imperial margrave, had territories
stretching from the Sabine mountains to the sea, was the
dictator of Tusculum, master of Latium and consul of the
Romans. The pope opposed this election to the best of his
strength; but the nobles carried the day, and their new prefect
received investiture from the emperor. Upon this the pope
again quitted Rome, and on his return, two years later, was
compelled to shut himself up in the castle of St Angelo, where
he died in 1118.
The popes were now the sport of the nobles whom they had
aggrandized by continual concessions for the sake of peace.
flew And peace seemed at hand when Innocent II. (1130-43),
power after triumphing over two antipopes, came to terms
with Roger I., recognized him as king of Sicily, and
gained his friendship and protection. But now still
graver tumults took place. In consequence of the division of
the nobles neither party could overcome its foes without the
aid of the people, which thus became increasingly powerful.
Throughout upper and central Italy the cities were being
organized as free and independent communes on a democratic
basis. Their example soon followed in the ancient duchy of
Rome and almost in the immediate neighbourhood of the
city. Even Tivoli was converted into a republic. This excited
the deepest jealousy in the Romans, and they became furious
when this little city, profiting by its strong position in the Tever-
one valley, not only sought to annex Roman territory, but
dared to offer successful resistance to the descendants of the
conquerors of the world. In 1141 Tivoli openly rebelled
against the mother city, and the pope sent the Romans to
subdue it. They were not only repulsed, but ignominiously
pursued to their own gates. Afterwards, returning to the
assault in greater numbers, they conquered the hostile town.
Its defenders surrendered to the pope, and he immediately
concluded a treaty of peace without consulting either the
people or the republic. The soldiery, still flushed with victory,
were furious at this slight. They demanded not only sub-
mission of Tivoli to the Roman people, but also permission to
demolish its walls and dwellings and expel its population.
Innocent II. refused consent to these excesses, and a memorable
revolution ensued by which the temporal power of the papacy
was entirely overthrown.
In 1143 the rebellious people rushed to the Capitol, pro-
claimed the republic, reconstituted the senate, to the almost
Popular entire exclusion of the nobles, declared the abolition
revolu- of the temporal power, issued coin inscribed to the
wc"on- senate, the people and St Peter, and began to reckon
structloa iime f rom the day of the restoration of liberty. Arnold
of senate of Brescia was not, as has been incorrectly stated, the
and author of this revolution, for he had not yet arrived in
republic. R ome j t was t j, e outcome o f an historic necessity
above all, of the renewed vigour of the people and its detesta-
tion of the feudal aristocracy. This body, besides being divided
into an imperial and a national party, had almost excluded
from the government the powerful baronage of the Campagna
and the provinces. Also, as we have before noted, the Roman
aristocracy was by no means an exclusive caste. Between the
great aristocrats and the people there stood a middle or new
nobility, which made common cause with the people, whose
chief strength now lay in the army. This, divided into twelve
and then into thirteen or fourteen regions, assembled under its
banners all arm-bearing citizens. Thus the exercitus was also
the real populus Romanus, now bent on the destruction of the
temporal power. This purpose, originating in the struggle of
the investitures, was the logical and inevitable result of the
proposals of Paschal II., which, despite their rejection, found
a Joud echo in Italy. Lucius II. (1144-45) iried to withstand
the revolution by seeking Norman aid and throwing himself into
the arms of the feudal party, but this only precipitated the
course of events. The people, after having excluded nearly
all aristocrats from the senate, now placed at its head the noble
Giordano dei Pierleoni, who had joined the revolutionary party.
They named him patrician, but without prejudice to the
authority of the empire, still held by them in respect, and also
conferred on him the judicial powers appertaining to the aristo-
cratic and imperial office of prefect. The pope was requested
to resign the temporal power, the regalia and every other
possession, and content himself with the tithes and offerings of
the faithful according to the scheme of Paschal II. He indig-
nantly refused, marched at the head of the nobles against the
Capitol, but was violently repulsed, and received a blow on the
head from a stone, which is supposed to have occasioned his
speedy death on the isth February 1145. Eugenius III. was
then elected (1145-53), but soon had to fly to Viterbo in quest
of armed assistance, in consequence of the senate's resolve to
prevent his consecration by force until he recognized the new
state of things in the Eternal City.
It was at this moment that Arnold of Brescia arrived in
Rome. His ideas, already well known in Italy, had inspired
anJ promoted the Roman revolution, and he now
came to determine its method and direction. Born Brescia.
at Brescia in the beginning of the I2th century, Arnold
had studied in France under the celebrated Abelard, who had
instructed him in theology and philosophy, inspired him with
a great love for antiquity, and stimulated his natural independ-
ence of mind. On returning to his native land he assumed the
monkish habit, and proved the force and fervour of his character
by taking part in all struggles for liberty. And, together with
political reform, he preached his favourite doctrine of the
necessary renunciation by the clergy of all temporal wealth.
Expounded with singular eloquence, these doctrines had a
stirring effect on men's minds, spread throughout the cities of
northern Italy, and were echoed on all sides. It seems un-
doubted that they penetrated to Rome and helped to promote
the revolution, so that Arnold was already present in spirit
before he arrived there in person. It is known that at the
Lateran council of 1 139 Innocent II. had declared these doctrines
to be inimical to the church and enjoined silence on their author.
And, as at that time the party hostile to liberty was triumphant
in Brescia, Arnold left his native place, crossed the Alps and
returned to France, where other struggles awaited him. He
professed no anti-Catholic dogmas, only maintaining that
when the pope and the prelacy deviated from the gospel rule of
poverty they should not be obeyed, but fearlessly opposed. In
France, finding his master, Abelard, exposed to the per-
secutions of St Bernard, he assumed his defence with so
much ardour that St Bernard directed the thunders of
his eloquence against the disciple as well as the master,
saying of the former, " He neither eats nor drinks, suffers
hunger, and, being leagued with the devil, only thirsts for
the blood of souls." In 1142 we find Arnold a wanderer in
Switzerland, and then, suddenly reappearing in Italy, he
arrived in Rome.
Three different elements entered into his nature and inspired
his eloquence an exalted and mystic temperament, a great and
candid admiration for classic antiquity added to an equal
admiration for republican freedom independent of the church
MIDDLE AGES]
ROME
671
and the empire, and a profound conviction, derived from the
Vaudois and Paterine doctrines, that the church could only
be purified by the renunciation of temporal wealth. Finding
Rome already revolutionized in accordance with his own ideas,
he immediately began to preach there. His mystic exhorta-
tions against the riches of the church had an inflammatory
effect, while his classical reminiscences aroused the enthusi-
asm of the Romans, and his suggestion that they should imitate
the republican institutions of upper Italy met the necessities
of the time that had created the revolution. He urged the
reconstitution of the ancient senate and senatorial order, which
indeed was already partially accomplished, and of the ancient
equestrian order, and the reconstruction and fortification of the
Capitol. His proposed senate was a body somewhat resembling
the communal councils of upper Italy, his equestrian order a
mounted force composed of the lesser nobility, since at Rome,
as elsewhere, the lower classes had neither time nor means to
form part of it. All his suggestions were accepted; the citizens
laboured strenuously on the fortification of the Capitol. The
pope soon beheld the revolution spread beyond the walls, and
several cities of the state proclaimed their independence. The
barons of the Campagna profited by the opportunity to act as
independent sovereigns. Thus the whole domain of the church
was threatened with dissolution. The pope marched towards
Rome with his newly gathered army, but hoped to come to
terms. The Romans in fact recognized his authority, and
he in his turn recognized the republic. The office of patrician
was abolished, and seems to have been replaced by that
of gonfalonier, and the prefect, answering to the podesta
of the other republics, was revived. The senators received
investiture from the pope, who returned to Rome at Christmas
H4S-
There public now seems to have been fully constituted. The
senate was drawn from the lower classes and the petty nobility,
and this was the special characteristic of the new revolution.
In 1144 there were fifty-six senators, probably four to each of
the fourteen regions, but the number often varied. By the few
existing documents of the period we notice that the senators
were divided into senatores consiliarii and ordinary senators.
The former constituted a smaller council, which, like the
credenza or lesser council found in other cities, consulted with
the head or heads of the republic on the more urgent and secret
affairs of the state. And, conjointly with the rest of the
senators, it formed the greater council. Thus classic traditions
were identified with new republican usages, and the common-
wealth of Rome resembled those in other parts of Italy. But,
of course, every republic had special local customs of its own.
So the Roman senate had judicial as well as political attributes,
and there was a curia senatus composed of senators and legal
experts.
As was easily to be foreseen, the agreement with the pope
was of short duration. The revolution could not be checked;
the Romans desired independence, and their spiritual lord fled
to France, whence, in 1147, he proclaimed a new crusade, while
the Romans were employed in demolishing Tivoli, banishing its
inhabitants, and waging war on other cities. Giordano Pier-
leone was gonfalonier and head of the republic, and Arnold,
supported by the popular favour and the enthusiasm of the
lower clergy, was preaching with even greater fervour than
before. But the pope now re-entered Italy, proclaimed Arnold
a schismatic, and then advancing to Tusculum assembled an
army in order to attack Rome. In this emergency the Romans
applied to Conrad III., the first emperor of the house of Hohen-
staufen; and their urgent letters are clearly expressive of
Arnold's theories and his medley on ancient and modern, sacred
and profane, ideas. " Rome," so they said, " is the fountain
of the empire confided to you by the Almighty, and we seek to
restore to Rome the power possessed by her under Constantine
and Justinian. For this end we conquered and destroyed the
strongholds of the barons who, together with the pope and the
Normans, sought to resist us. These are now attacking us on
all sides. Haste to Rome, the capital of the world, thus to
establish thy imperial sway over the Italian and German
lands."
After long hesitation the king of the Romans at last replied
to these appeals, stating that he would come " to re-establish
order, reward the faithful, and punish the rebellious." These
words promised ill. In fact Conrad had already arranged terms
with the pope; but his life came to an end on the i$th of
February 1152.
He was succeeded by Frederick I. surnamed Barbarossa, who
took no notice of the numerous letters urging him to come and
receive the empire from the Roman people, which
alone had the right of conferring it. In accordance P naerlck
with his design of subduing all the independent cities,
he made an agreement with the pope, in which he vowed to give
no truce to the Romans, but subject them to their spiritual
lord, whose temporal power should be restored. The pope, on
his side, promised to crown him emperor. Thereupon the
people again rose to arms, and Arnold broke off all negotiations
with Eugenius III. The senate was reorganized, formed of
one hundred members, and, according to the old Roman pre-
cedent, had two consuls, one for internal and the other for
external affairs. Frederick was a daring statesman, a valiant
soldier in command of a powerful army, and was no friend of
half measures. Accordingly the nobles ventured on reaction.
Finally, to increase the gravity of the situation, an English pope,
Adrian IV., was elected (1154-59), who was also a man of strong
and resolute temper. In fact, even before being able to take
possession of the Lateran, he requested the Romans to banish
Arnold, who, with greater eloquence than ever, was directing
his thunders against the papacy. These utterances increased
the wrath of Adrian, who, encouraged by the knowledge that
Frederick and his host were already in Italy, at last launched an
interdict against Rome. It was the first time that a pope had
ventured to curse the Eternal City. The interdict put a sum-
mary stop to the religious life of the inhabitants. Men's minds
were seized with a sudden terror, and a fierce tumult broke out.
Thereupon the senators, whose opposition to the pope was less
courageous than that of the fallen magnates, prostrated them-
selves at his feet and implored pardon. But Adrian demanded
the expulsion of Arnold before consenting to raise the interdict.
Arnold was therefore obliged to leave Rome. After having for
nine years preached successfully in favour of liberty, after having
been the moving spirit of the new revolution, the new con-
stitution, he was now abandoned by all, and forced to wander
from castle to castle, in the hope of reaching some independent
city capable of shielding him from the fierce enmity of the pope.
Meanwhile Frederick I. had achieved his first victories in Lojn-
bardy, and, leaving ruined cities and bloodshed in his track,
was rapidly advancing towards central Italy. The pope sent
three cardinals to him, with a request for the capture and con-
signment of Arnold, who had taken refuge in the castle of the
Visconti of Campagnatico. Frederick without delay caused
one of the Visconti to be seized and kept prisoner until Arnold
was given up, and then consigned the latter to the papal legates.
The pope in his turn gave the reformer into the hands of the
prefect, Pietro di Vico, who immediately hanged his Arnold's
prisoner, burnt his body at the stake and cast his exetu-
ashes into the Tiber. The execution took place in June **"'
1155. The exact date and place of it are unknown ; we only know
that Arnold met his fate with great serenity and firmness.
But the Romans who had so basely deserted their champion
would not give up their republic. Their envoys went to meet
Frederick near Sutri, and made an address in the usual fantastic
style on the privileges of the Roman people and its sole right to
confer the imperial crown. But Frederick indignantly cut short
their harangue, and they had to depart full of rage. He then
continued his march, and, entering Rome on the i8th of June
1155, was forthwith crowned in St Peter's by the pope. There-
upon the Romans rushed to arms, and made a furious attack on
the Leonine city and the imperial camp. A desperate battle
went on throughout the day; and the knights proved that the
equestrian order instituted at Arnold's suggestion was no empty
672
ROME
[MIDDLE AGES
sham. About a thousand Romans perished by the sword or by
drowning, but their fellow-citizens made such determined pre-
parations to continue the struggle that Frederick, on the igth of
June, hastily retreated, or rather fled, and was escorted as far
as Tivoli by the pope and the cardinals. After all, the temporal
power of the papacy was not restored, and the republic still sur-
The vived in the form bestowed on it by Arnold of Brescia.
republic Its existence was in truth favourable rather than
"" injurious to Frederick, whose aim was to rule over
nmtta*. Rome g^ treat tne bishops as his vassals. He had
not yet discerned that his best policy would have been to use
the republic as a lever against the pope. The latter, with
keener acumen, while remaining faithful to the feudal party in
Rome, made alliance with the communes of Lombardy and en-
couraged them in their resistance to the emperor. Adrian IV.
died in 1159, and the national party elected Alexander III.
(1159-81), who energetically opposed the pretensions of
Frederick, but, having to struggle with three antipopes success-
ively raised against him by the imperial party, was repeatedly
driven into exile. During these schisms the senate quietly
carried on the government, administered justice, and made war
on some neighbouring cities and barons. An army comprising
many nobles of the national party marched against Tusculum,
but found it defended by several valiant officers and a strong
band of German soldiery, who, on the 29th of May 1167, inflicted
on the Romans so severe a defeat that it is styled by Gregorovius
the Cannae of the middle ages. Shortly afterwards the emperor
arrived in Rome with his antipope Paschal III., and Alexander
had to fly before him to Benevento. Then, at last, Frederick
came to terms with the republic, recognized the senate, which
accepted investiture at his hands, re-established the prefecture
as an imperial office, and bestowed it on Giovanni, son of Pietro
di Vico. He then hastily departed, without having advanced
outside the Leonine city.
Meanwhile Pope Alexander continued the crafty policy of
Adrian and with better success, for the Lombard cities had
Agree- now formed a league and inflicted a signal defeat on
meat be- the emperor at Legnano on the zpth of May 1176. One
'npZbiic" of the results of tm ' s battle was the conclusion of
ana the an agreement between the pope and the emperor, the
pope. latter resigning his pretensions on Rome and yielding
all that he had denied to Adrian. And by the treaty of Venice
(ist of August 1177) the antipope was forsaken, Alexander III.
recognized and hailed as the legitimate pontiff, and the prefect of
Rome again nominated by the pope, to whom the emperor
restored the temporal power, acknowledging him the in-
dependent sovereign of Rome and of the ecclesiastical state,
from Acquapendente to Ceprano. Frederick's troops accom-
panied the pope to Rome, where the republic was forced
to make submission to him. But, proudly conscious as
it still was of its strength, its surrender wore the aspect of a
voluntary concession, and its terms began with these words:
" Totius populi Romani consilio et deliberatione statutum est,"
&c. The senators, elected yearly in September, had to swear
fealty to the pope, and a certain proportion of nobles was in-
cluded in their number. On his return to Rome, Alexander
received a solemn welcome from all, but he had neither ex-
tinguished nor really subdued the republic. On the contrary,
men's minds were more and more inflamed by the example of
freedom displayed in the north of Italy. He died on the 3oth
of August 1181. The fact that between 1181 and 1187 there were
three popes always living in exile proves that the republic was
by no means crushed. During the same period another blow
was inflicted on- the papacy by the marriage of Henry VI.,
son and successor to Frederick I., with Constance, sole heiress
of the Norman line in Naples. For thus the kingdom was
joined to the empire, and the popes were more than ever in the
latter's power. On the 2oth of December 1187 Clement III.
(1187-91), being raised to the pontificate, made a solemn agree-
ment with the government of the Capitol before coming to
Rome. And this peace or concordia had the air of a treaty
between potentates of equal importance. Rome confronted
the pope from the same standpoint from which the Lombard
cities had confronted the emperor after Legnano. This treaty,
the basis of the new constitution, was confirmed on the last day
of May 1 1 88 (Anno XLIV. of the senate). It begins with these
words: " Concordia inter Dominum Papam Clementem III.
et senatores populumque Romanum super regalibus et aliis
dignitatibus urbis." The pope was recognized as supreme lord,
and invested the senators with their dignity. He resumed the
privilege of coinage, but allowed one-third of the issue to
be made by the senate. Almost all the old pontifical rights
and prerogatives were restored to him. The pope might employ
the Roman militia for the defence of his patrimony, but was to
furnish its pay. The rights of the church over Tivoli and
Tusculum were confirmed; but the republic reserved to itself
the right of making war on those cities, and declared its resolve
to dismantle and destroy the walls and castle of Tusculum.
In this undertaking the pope was to co-operate with the
Romans, even should the unhappy city make surrender to him
alone.
From all this it is clear that the church had been made inde-
pendent of the empire, and that the republic, despite its numerous
concessions, was by no means subject to the church. # ome i a .
The pope, in fact, had obtained liberty of election, and dependent
Frederick I., by resigning the investiture of the pre- fthe
feet, had virtually renounced his claim to imperial emp '
power in Rome. The republic had no patrician nor any
other imperial magistrate, and preserved its independence
even as regarded the pope, who merely granted investiture
to magistrates freely chosen by the people, and had no
legislative nor administrative power in the city. His temporal
dominion was limited to his great possessions, to his regalia,
to a supreme authority that was very indefinite, and to a
feudal authority over the barons of the Campagna and many
cities of a state that seemed ever on the point of dissolution.
The senate continued to frame laws, to govern, and to administer
justice. The army carried on the wars of the republic,
as we see by the tragic fate of Tusculum, which was razed to
the ground on the igth of April 1191. Thus the powerful
counts of Tusculum disappeared; they sought refuge in the
Campagna, and according to all probability the no less potent
family of the Colonna sprang from their line. In consequence
of these events, the nobles realized that the papacy sought
to reduce them to vassalage. And, seeing that the _..
republic remained firmly established and able to help noble*
them, they began to adhere to it and succeeded in re-eater
obtaining admission to the new senate. In fact, the
whereas since 1143 plebeians and petty nobles
had prevailed in its ranks, nobles of ancient descent are
now found outnumbering the knights and burghers.
But in 1191 this state of things caused a sudden popular
outbreak which abolished the aristocratic senate popular
and gave the headship of the republic to a single revoiu-
senator, summus senator, named Benedetto " Carissi- "" *"*
mus " or " Carus Homo " or " Carosomo," of un- ^""f
known, but undoubtedly plebeian, origin. During tionot
the two years he remained in office this personage **e arts-
stripped the pope of his revenues, despatched tocrac y-
justitiarii even to the provinces, and with the aid of the parlia-
ment and other popular assemblies promulgated laws and
statutes. But he was overthrown by a counter-revolution, and
Giovanni Capoccio of the party of the nobles became senator
for two years, and had been succeeded by one of the Pierleoni
when, in 1197, a fresh revolution re-established a senate of
fifty-six members, chiefly consisting of feudal barons in high
favour with Henry VI., who had revived the imperial faction
in Rome. But this emperor's life ended the same year as the
pope's, in 1198, and the new pontiff, Innocent III. (1198-1216),
began to make war on the nobles, who were again masters of
the republic. Their leader was the prefect Pietro di Vico.
Owing to the revolution of 1143, most of the prefectorial attri-
butes were now vested in the senate; nevertheless, Pietro
still retained a tribunal of police both within and without the
MIDDLE AGES]
ROME
6 73
city. But his main strength was derived from the vast posses-
The sions of the Vico family, in which the office of prefect
office of now became hereditary. Very soon, however, these
fit-tomes prefects of Vico were chiefly regarded as the great
heredi- feudal lords of Tuscia, and the independent municipal
tary. office lost its true character. Then the popes made a
point of according great pomp and dignity to this nominal
prefect, in order to overshadow the senator, who still re-
presented the independence of the republic and had assumed
many of the attributes wrested from the prefect.
But Innocent III., dissatisfied with this state of things,
contrived by bribing the people to arrogate to himself the
laaocent r '8 n t of electing the senator, who had now to swear
///, elects fealty and submission to the pope, and also that of
tae nominating the provincial justitiarii, formerly chosen
* e ' by the government of the Capitol. This was a
deadly blow to the republic, for the principal rights of the
people i.e. the election of pope and emperor, prefect and
senate were now lost. The general discontent provoked fresh
revolutions, and Innocent III. employed all his political dexterity
to ward off their effects. But shortly afterwards the people
made a loud outcry for a senate of fifty-six members ; and
the pope, again making a virtue of necessity, caused that number
to be chosen by twelve mediani specially named by him for the
purpose. Even this did not calm the popular discontent,'
which was also stirred by other disputes. The consequence
was that when, six months later, the pope again elected a
single senator the Romans rose to arms, and in 1204 formed
a government of Buoni Uomini in opposition to that created
by the pope. But an amicable arrangement being con-
cluded, the pope once more nominated fifty-six senators;
and when, soon after, he again reduced them to one, the
people were too weary to resist (1205). Thus the Capitol
was subdued, and Innocent III. spent his last years in
tranquillity.
On the 22nd of November 1220 Honorius III. (1216-27)
conferred the imperial crown on Frederick II., who confirmed
to the church the possession of her former states, of those
bequeathed to her by Countess Matilda, and even of the March
of Ancona. But it was soon seen that he sought to dominate
all Italy, and was therefore a foe to be dreaded. The suc-
The cessor of Honorius, Pope Gregory IX. (1227-41), was
republic speedily insulted and put to flight by the Ghibelline
regains nobles, whose courage had revived, and the republic
began to subdue the Latian cities on its own account.
Peace was several times made and unmade by pope
and people; but no enduring harmony was possible between
them, since the former wished to subject the entire state to
the church, and the latter to escape from the rule of the church
and hold sway over " the universal land from Ceprano to
Radicofani " formerly belonging to the duchy. Accordingly,
the Roman people now appointed judges, imposed taxes, issued
coin, and made the clergy amenable to secular tribunals. In
1234 the senator Luca Savelli published an edict declaring
Tuscia and Campania territories of the republic, and sent judges
thither to exact an oath of obedience. He also despatched
the militia to the coast, where it occupied several cities and
erected fortresses; and columns were raised everywhere in-
scribed with the initials S. P. Q. R. The pope, unable to
prevent but equally unable to tolerate these acts, fled from
Rome, hurling his anathema against Savelli, " et omnes illos
consiliarios urbis quorum consilio," &c. The Romans sacked
the Lateran and the houses of many cardinals, and marched
on Viterbo, but were driven back by the papal troops.
republic When Savelli left office and Angelo Malabranca was
submits elected in his stead, the people made peace and sub-
mission in 1235, and were obliged to give up their
pretensions of subjecting the clergy to ordinary tribu-
nals and the urban territory to the republic. Thus matters
were virtually settled on the footing established by Innocent
III., thanks to the aid given to the pope by Frederick II., who
had been one of the promoters of the rebellion.
XXIII. 22
It may appear strange that, at this period of their history,
the Romans, after showing such tenacious adherence to the
republic and senate, should have accepted the rule of a single
senator without rushing to arms, and passed and repassed
from one form of government to another with such surprising
indifference. But on closer examination it is plain that these
changes were greater in appearance than reality. We have
already seen, in treating of Carosomo, how the single senator
convoked the people in parliament to pass sanction Forma-
on the laws. But, whenever there is only one senator, tl "
we also continually meet with the expression " con- ^nater
silium vel consilia urbis." It is evident that when, and lesser
instead of laws to be approved in parliament by a councU*.
simple placet or rejected by a non-placet, matters requiring
consideration had to be discussed, the senator convoked a much
smaller council, consisting only of the leaders of the people.
These leaders were the heads of the twelve or thirteen regions
of the guilds, now becoming organized and soon to be also
thirteen in number, and of the militia. As in the other
Italian republics, all these associations had been formed in
Rome.
The senator therefore held consultation with the leading
men of the city; and, although, especially at first, these meet-
ings were rather loosely organized, it is clear that they took
the form of two councils one numerous (consiglio maggiore),
the other limited (consiglio minore or speciale), co-operating
with and forming part of the first. Such was the prevailing
custom throughout Italy at the time when Roman institutions
most nearly resembled those of the other republics. We
already know that, from the date of Arnold's reforms, the senate,
with its junta of counsellors, had been divided into two parts,
forming when united a species of greater council. Therefore
the transition from a senate divided into two parts to the
greater and lesser councils must have been very easy and
natural. And, seeing that later, when the nomination of a
single senator had become a constant practice, the meetings
of the two councils are frequently mentioned without the
slightest remark or hint as to their origin, it is clear that they
had been gradually formed and long established. Not long
after the revolution of 1143 the grandees sought to re-enter
the senate; and the popes themselves, partly from dread of
the people and partly to aggrandize their own kindred, con-
tributed to build up the power of a new and no less turbulent
nobility. This class, arising between the I2th and I3th centuries,
was composed of families newly created by the popes, together
with remnants of the old aristocracy, such as the Frangipani,
Colonna, &c. These nobles, regaining possession of the senate,
so completely eliminated the popular element that, when the
popes again opposed them, and, obtaining from the parlia-
ment the right of electing the senators, adopted the expedient
of appointing one only, the senator was always chosen from
the ranks of the nobles. And then the people, unable and
unwilling to renounce republican forms, replaced their sup-
pressed senate by a greater and a lesser council. This was an
easy task a natural consequence of the fact that the people
now began to constitute the real strength of the republic.
Later, with an increasing detestation for their nobility, the
Romans decreed that the single senator should be of foreign
birth, and, as we shall see, chose Brancaleone in the middle of
the I3th century.
Thus, after a long series of frequent changes and revolutions,
the Roman republic became a commonwealth, with an in-
creasing resemblance to those of the other Italian cities. The
people were organized and armed, the gilds almost established,
the two councils gradually constituted, and the aristocracy,
while retaining special local characteristics, assumed its
definitive shape. It is not surprising to find that The
Rome, like other Italian cities, now possessed statutes Roman
of its own. There has been much controversy on * tatatft -
this point. Certain writers had alluded to a statute of 1246.
As no one, however, could discover any statute of that date,
others decided that it had never existed. A statute of 1363
ROME
[MIDDLE AGES
was recently published by Professor Camillo Re, who asserted
it to be the first and most ancient that Rome had possessed.
But the still more recent researches of Messrs La Mantia and
Levi prove that Professor Re's assertions were somewhat too
bold. There is certain evidence of a statutum senatus existing
between 1212 and 1227, of a slatutum vel capitulare senatoris
vel senatus of 1233, followed in 1241 by a statutum urbis. This
brings us very near to the statute of 1246 mentioned by Vitale
and others. So it is well ascertained that, in the first half
of the I3th century, Rome possessed statutes at large composed
of older limited statutes. The consuls of the trade gilds were
from 1267 regular members of the councils; and the merchants'
gild held general meetings in 1255. Its statutes were confirmed
in 1296 by the senator Pandolfo Savelli, and the compila-
tion of these, published in 1880 by Signer Gatti, refers to
1317-
Meanwhile the struggle between Frederick II. and the pope
was once more renewed. The former sought to dominate
Frederick Italy, separate the state from the church, and repress
//. the republics. The latter, although really hostile to
and the the Roman free government, joined it against the
emperor, who on his side favoured the republic of
Rome and the nobles most adverse to the pope. Thus the new
nobility, composed, as we have seen, of two different elements,
was again split into a Guelph party headed by the Orsini and
a Ghibelline party under the Colonna. And in 1238 it was
deemed advisable to elect two senators instead of one, in the
hope of conciliating both factions by simultaneously raising
them to power. Afterwards one only was elected, alternately
an Orsini and a Colonna, then again two, and so on. But all
these changes failed in their aims, since the struggle between
emperor and pope exasperated party feeling in Rome. Fred-
erick was king of southern Italy and emperor; had he been
able to enforce the whole of his authority he would have been
absolute master of all Italy, a state of things which the popes
could not in any way tolerate. Hence the obstinate and unin-
terrupted struggle which proved injurious both to the papacy
and the empire. The political genius of Frederick might
have wrought great harm to the city had not his mind teemed
with contradictory ideas. Although desirous to emancipate
the state from the church, he was opposed to the communal
democracy, which was then the chief strength of the secular
state in Italy. While combating the church and persecuting
her defenders, he yet sent heretics to the stake; although
excommunicated, he undertook a crusade; he feasted at his
table philosophers, sceptic and atheist poets, bishops and
Mussulmans; he proclaimed anti-Christian the possession of
wealth by the church, yet made lavish gifts to altar and mon-
astery. Thus, although he had a strong party in Rome, it
seemed to dissolve at his approach, inasmuch as all feared that
he might abolish the statutes and liberties of the commune.
In fact, when he advanced towards Rome on the death of
Gregory IX. in 1241 he was energetically repulsed by the
people, and later even by Viterbo, a city that had always been
faithful to him. But after he had withdrawn, his adherents
gained strength and put to flight his opponent, Innocent IV.
(1243-54), the newly elected pope, who then from his asylum
at Lyons hurled an excommunication against him. Frederick's
death in December 1250 determined the fall of the Ghibelline
party and the close of the imperial epoch in Italy. The pope
instantly returned to Rome with the set purpose of destroying
the power of the Hohenstaufens. This was no longer difficult
when, by the decease of Conrad IV. (1254), the child Conradin
became the last legitimate representative of that line, and
negotiations were already on foot for placing the Angevins on
the Neapolitan throne.
The republic meanwhile preserved its independence against
the pope, who, among other concessions, had entirely given up
to it the right of coinage. Nevertheless, being much harassed
by the factiousness of the nobility, it was obliged in 1252 to
decide on the election of an alien senator armed with ample
powers, precisely as other communes gave the government into
the hands of a podesta. Accordingly a Bolognese noble,
Brancaleone degli Andalo, count of Casalecchio, and Branca-
a Ghibelline of much energy and talent, was invited leone
to Rome. But before accepting office he insisted on ^^uA
making definite terms. He desired to hold the the first
government for three years; and this, although con- foreign
trary to the statutes, was granted. Further, to en- senator.
sure his personal safety, he demanded that many scions
of the noblest Roman houses should be sent as hostages to
Bologna; and to this also the republic consented. Then, in
August 1252, he came with his judges and notaries, made oath
to observe justice and the laws, and began to govern. He was
head of the republic in peace and in war, supreme judge and
captain in chief. He nominated the podestas of subject terri-
tories, despatched ambassadors, issued coin, concluded treaties
and received oaths of obedience. The pope, who was then at
Perugia, was greatly afflicted by the arrival of this new master,
but, despairing of aid from any quarter, was forced to make a
virtue of necessity. Thus Brancaleone was able to seize the
reins of power with a firm grasp. The parliament still met in
the square of the Capitol, and the greater and lesser councils
in the church of Ara Coeli. There were besides frequent as-
semblies of the college of Capitoline judges or assectamentum.
Unfortunately, no records having been preserved of the proceed-
ings of the Roman councils and parliament, little can be said
of the manner in which affairs were conducted. Certainly
Brancaleone's government was not very parliamentary. He
convoked the councils as seldom as was possible, although he
frequently assembled the people in parliament. The chief
complaint made against him was of undue severity in the adminis-
tration of justice. He rendered the clergy amenable to secular
tribunals, subdued the neighbouring cities of Tivoli, Palestrina,
&c., and commanded in person the attacking force. But his
greatest energy was directed to the repression of the more
turbulent nobles who were opposed to him ; and he soon made
them feel the weight of his hand by hanging some, banishing
others, and persecuting several more. But he too recognized
the expediency of winning the popular favour. He was the
first senator to add to his title that of captain of the people
(" Almae Urbis Senator 111: et Romani Populi Capitaneus ").
He befriended the people by promoting the organization of
gilds after the manner of those of his native Bologna. There
were already a few in Rome, such as the merchants' gild and
that of the agriculturists, Bobacteriorum or Bovattari, who
must have resembled the so-called mercanti di campagna or
graziers of the present day, since no peasant gild existed
in Italian republics. The merchants' gild, definitely estab-
lished in 1255 under Brancaleone's rule, had four consuls
and twelve councillors, held meetings and made laws. The
other gilds, thirteen in all, were organized much on the same
plan. The admission of their heads into the councils of the
republic in 1267 shows how efficaciously their interests had
been promoted by Brancaleone.
The death of Innocent IV. and the election of Alexander IV.
(1254-61), who was milder and less shrewd than his predecessor,
were favourable events for Brancaleone; but he failed to check
the growing discontent of the clergy and the more powerful
nobles, who had received deadly injuries at his hands. And
when, on the expiration of his three years' term of office, his
re-election was proposed, his enemies rose against him, accused
him before the sindacato, threw him into prison, and vehem-
ently protested against the continuance of " foreign tyranny."
His life was only spared on account of the hostages sent to
Bologna. The next senator chosen was a Brescian Guelph,
Emanuele de Madio, a tool of the nobles, who were now masters
of the situation. But soon afterwards, in 1257, the gilds rose
in revolt, drove the noblesfrom power, put the pope to flight,
and recalled Brancaleone for another three years' term. He
ruled more sternly than before, hung several nobles, and made
alliance with Manfred, the representative of the Swabian party
in Italy. This rendered him increasingly odious to the pope
and procured his excommunication. But, disregarding the
MIDDLE AGES]
ROME
675
thunders of the church, he marched against Anagni, the pope's
birthplace, and Alexander was quickly obliged to humiliate
himself before the senator of Rome. Brancaleone next set to
work to destroy the fortified towers of the nobility, and in razing
them to the ground ruined many of the adjacent dwellings.
Accordingly, a considerable number of nobles became homeless
exiles. In 1258, while engaged on the siege of Corneto, Branca-
leone was attacked by a violent fever, and, being carried back
to Rome, died on the Capitoline Hill. Thus ended the career of
a truly remarkable statesman. He was succeeded by his uncle,
Castellano degli Andalo, who, lacking the political genius of his
nephew, only retained office until the following spring (1259),
in the midst of fierce and perpetual disturbances. Then the
people, being bribed by the pope, joined with the nobles and
drove him away. His life too was saved by having followed
his nephew's shrewd plan of sending hostages to Bologna. Two
senators of Roman birth were next elected; and on the death
of Alexander IV. a French pope was chosen, Urban IV. (i 261-64) >
thus giving fresh predominance in the church to the anti-
Swabian policy. But the internal disturbances of the city soon
drove Urban to flight.
At this period the fall of the empire had induced many Italian
republics to seek strength by placing their governments in the
hands of some prince willing to swear respect to their laws and
to undertake their defence against neighbouring states and the
pope. In Rome the Guelphs and Ghibellines proposed various
candidates for this office, and after many fierce quarrels ended
by electing a committee of boni homines, charged with the revision
of the statutes, reorganization of the city, and choice of a senator.
This committee sat for more than a year without nominating
any one, so, the Guelph party being now predominant, and all
being wearied of this provisional state of things, the majority
agreed on the election as senator of Charles of Anjou, who, at
Charles the pope's summons, was already preparing for the
of Anjou conquest of Naples. The Romans thought that he
senator. would defend Rome against the pope, and the pope
would defend Rome against him; and by thus taking advantage
of cither's jealousy the citizens hoped to keep their republic intact.
In fact, although Urban IV. had incited Charles to attack
Naples, he was by no means willing to see him established as
master in Rome. He accordingly declared that, if Charles
really wished to obtain the Neapolitan crown, he must only accept
the offered dignity pending the conquest of that kingdom.
And he must likewise promise to recognize the supremacy of
the pope over the senate. Charles soothed him with the amplest
verbal promises, but in fact accepted the senatorship for life. In
1265, when Urban was succeeded by Clement IV. (1265-68), who
as a Provencal was a subject of Charles, the latter entered Rome
and was immediately made senator. Seven days later (28th of
June) he received the investiture of the Neapolitan kingdom, and
in the following January its crown. On the 26th of February
1266 the battle of Benevento was fought, and, the valiant
Manfred being killed, the triumph of the Guelph Angevins in Italy
was assured. Then, at the urgent command of the pope,
Charles was forced to resign the senatorship in the May of
the same year. Two Romans were elected in his stead, but
soon fell out with the pope, because the Guelph nobles again tried
to exercise tyranny. The people, however, profited by these
disturbances to rise on its own account, and formed a democratic
government of twenty-six boni homines with Angelo Capocci,
Don a Ghibelline, as its captain. By this government Don
Henry of Henry, son of Ferdinand III. of Castile, was elected
Castile senator; and he came to Rome for the purpose of pro-
senator. mo ting a Ghibelline and Swabian policy in favour of
Conradin, who was preparing for conflict. The rule of the new
senator was very energetic, for he kept down the clergy, subdued
the Campagna, persecuted the Guelph nobles, made alliance with
the Tuscan Ghibellines, forcibly drove back the troops of King
Charles, who was advancing towards Rome, and gave a splendid
reception to Conradin. But the battle of Tagliacozzo (23rd of
August 1268), followed by the murder of Conradin, proved fatal
to the Ghibelline party. Charles was re-elected senator imme-
diately after the battle, and the pope confirmed his powers for
a term of ten years, after having already named him imperial
vicar in Tuscany. On the i6th of September Charles for the
second time took possession of the Capitol, and ruled Rome
firmly by means of vice-governors or vicars.
The Swabian line was now extinct, and in Charles's hands
the Neapolitan kingdom had become a fief of the church. The
empire had fallen so low as to be no longer formidable. Now
therefore was the moment for treating with it in order to restrain
Charles, and also for making use of the French king to keep the
empire in check. And this was the policy of Nicholas III.
(1277-80), who hastened to extract advantageous promises
from Rudolph of Habsburg, the new candidate for the imperial
crown. In 1278, the ten years' term having expired, he deprived
Charles of the senatorship and appointed Rudolph vicar of
Tuscany. After declaring that he left to the people the right of
electing the senator, he promulgated a new constitution (i8th of
July 1278) which, while confirming the rights of the church over
the city, prohibited the election of any foreign emperor, prince,
marquis, count or baron as senator of Rome. Thus the
Colonna, Savelli, Orsini, Annibaldi and other Roman nobles
again rose to power, and the republic was again endangered and
plunged in disorder. The Romans then gave the The
reconstitution of the city into the pope's hands by senate
yielding to him the right of nominating senators, de- ha'nds
claring, however, that this was a personal concession of the
to himself, and not to the popes in general. So pope*.
Nicholas proceeded to name senators, alternating a Colonna
with an Orsini, or simultaneously choosing one of each fac-
tion. The same power over the senate was granted with the
same restriction to Martin IV. (1281-85), and he at once re-
elected Charles of Anjou. Thus, greatly to the disgust of the
Romans, the Capitol was again invaded by French vicars,
notaries, judges and soldiery. But the terrible blow dealt at
Charles's power by the Sicilian Vespers (3ist of March 1282)
resounded even in Rome. The Orsini, backed by the people,
rose to arms, massacred the French garrison, and quickly
re-established a popular government. Giovanni Cencio, a
kinsman of the Orsini, was elected captain and defender of the
people, and ruled the city with the co-operation of the senator
and a council of priors of the gilds. This government was of
brief duration, for, although the pope had professed his willing-
ness to tolerate the experiment, he quickly arranged fresh
terms, and, forsaking Charles of Anjou, again nominated two
Roman senators. Pope and king both died in 1285, and
Nicholas IV. (1288-92), also holding sway over the senate,
favoured the Colonna in order to curb the growing mastery of
the Orsini. But thus there were two powerful houses instead of
one. In fact, Giovanni Colonna, when elected senator, ruled
from the Capitol as an independent sovereign, conducted in
person the campaign against Viterbo, and subjected that city
to the republic on the 3rd of May 1291.
When one of the Gaetani, Boniface VIII. (1294-1303), was
raised to the papal chair, the extent of the Colonnas' power
became evident to all. Boniface opposed them in
order to aggrandize his own kin, and they showed v ^ *
equal virulence in return. The Cardinals Colonna
refused to acknowledge him as the legitimate pope, and he
excommunicated them and proclaimed a crusade against their
house. Even after he had subdued them and destroyed
Palestrina, their principal fief, the drama did not yet come
to an end. Boniface had a very lofty conception of the church,
and desired to establish her supremacy over the state. The
king of France (Philip the Fair) believed, on the contrary,
that the Angevin successes entitled him to fill the place in
Italy vacated by the Swabians, and to play the master there.
This led to a tremendous contest in which all the French sided
with their king. And shortly afterwards a plot was hatched
against the pope by the agents of France and the Colonna.
These determined enemies of the pope met with much favour
in Rome, on account of the general irritation against the
Gaetani and the enormous power conferred on them by Boniface.
6 7 6
ROME
[MIDDLE AGES
Suffice it to say that they were now lords of the whole of lower
Latium, from Capo Circeo to Ninfa, from Ceprano to Subiaco.
Thus Sciarra Colonna and a Frenchman named Nogaret were
able to fall on the pope at Anagni, insult him, and take him
prisoner. The people rising to his rescue, the conspirators
were put to flight. But when Boniface returned to Rome
with the escort and protection of the Orsini, who had made
themselves masters of the city, he found that he was virtually
a captive in their hands. He felt this so keenly that he died
of rage and exhaustion on the nth of October 1303. The brief
pontificate of his successor Benedict XI. was followed by that
of Clement V. (1305-14), a Frenchman, who, instead of coming
to Rome, summoned the cardinals to France. This was the
beginning of the church's so called exile in Avignon, which,
although depriving Rome of a scource of wealth and influence,
left the republic to pursue its own course. It employed this
The freedom in trying to hold its own against the nobles,
republic whose power was much lessened by the absence of
'gala tne p O pe ; an d endeavoured to gain fresh strength
di-iiio- by organizing the thirteen regions, which, as we
cratic have shown, were associations of a much firmer
form. nature in Rome than the gilds. Accordingly, in
1305, a captain of the people was elected with thirteen elders
and a senator, Paganino della Torre, who governed for one
year. The pope was opposed to these changes at first, but
in 1310 he issued a brief granting Rome full permission
to select its own form of government. Thus, the first pope
in Avignon restored the rights of the Romans. But the
latter, even with church and empire so far removed, still
considered Rome the Eternal City, the source of all law, and
the only natural seat of the spiritual and temporal government
of the world. To their republic, they thought, appertained
a new and lofty destiny, nor could it ever be content to descend
to the level of other Italian municipalities.
On the 6th of January 1309 Henry VII. was crowned king
of the Romans at Aix-la-Chapelle; and so greatly were men's
minds changed in Italy that, throughout the land, he
was hailed as a deliverer. He wished to restore the
grandeur of the empire, and the Italians, above all
Dante Alighieri, beheld in him the champion of the state against
the church, who, after becoming the foe of communal liberty,
had forsaken Italy and withdrawn to France. The Roman
people shared these ideas, and awaited Henry with equal
impatience, but the nobles rose in opposition. The Orsini,
leaders of the Guelphs, and allied with Robert of Naples, took
possession of the castle of St Angelo and the Trastevere.
Hence, when Henry reached Rome in May 1312, after seizing
the iron crown at Milan, he was obliged to act on the offensive.
He took the Capitol by assault, but, failing in his attack on the
castle of St Angelo, was pursued by its Neapolitan garrison.
Forsaken by many discouraged adherents, he was forced to
recognize the expediency of departure. First, however, he
desired to be crowned at the Lateran, St Peter's being held
by his foes. The cardinals refused his request, but were com-
pelled to yield by the threats of the people, who, reasserting
their ancient rights, insisted that the coronation should take
place without delay. And the ceremony was performed on
the 2gth of June 1312. The emperor then resolved to depart
in spite of the popular protest against his leaving the natural
seat of the empire, and on -the 2oth of August started for
Tuscany, where worse fortune awaited him.
Their differences settled, the nobles expelled the captain
of the people left by Henry, and elected as senators Sciarra
Jacopo Colonna and Francesco Orsini. But this was the
AHotti, signal for a popular revolt. The Capitol was
captain attacked, the senators put to flight, and Jacopo
Arlotti elected captain with a council of twenty-six
worthies (buoni homini). The new leader instantly
summoned the chief nobles before his tribunal, had them
chained and cast into prison, and demolished many of their
houses and strongnolds. But, having thus humiliated their
pride, Arlotti dared not put them to death, and, releasing them
Henry
VII.
from confinement, banished them to their estates, where they
plunged into hostile preparations. Meanwhile the victorious
people convoked a parliament and decreed that, the aristocracy
being now overthrown, the tribunilia potestas alone should
invite the emperor to make his triumphal entry into the Capitol,
and receive his authority from the people of Rome. This
conception of the Roman power will now be seen to become
more and more definite until finding its last expression in
Cola di Rienzi. Pope Clement, resigning himself to necessity,
acknowledged the new government under the energetic rule
of Arlotti. The latter now joined the Ghibellines of the
Campagna against the Orsini and the Neapolitans, subdued
Velletri, and gave it a podesta. But then the Gaetani, who
were Guelphs, united with the Orsini and the Neapolitans,
and, giving battle to the Ghibellines in the Campagna, routed
them in such wise as to put an end to the popular government.
The nobles forced their way into the city, attacked the Capitol,
made Arlotti their prisoner, and re-elected the senators Sciarra
Colonna and Francesco Orsini. Close upon these reverses came
the death of Henry VII. (24th of August 1313) at Buonconvento
near Siena, which put an end to the Ghibelline party in Italy.
Thereupon King Robert of Naples, being named senator by
the pope, immediately appointed a vicar in Rome. Clement
likewise profited by the vacancy of the imperial throne to name
the king imperial vicar in Tuscany. And he died on the 2oth of
April 1314, well content to have witnessed the triumphs of
the Guelphs in Italy.
Affairs took a fresh turn under Pope John XXII. (1316-34).
Rome was still ruled by the vicars of King Robert; but,
owing to the continued absence of the popes, matters grew
daily worse. Trade and industry declined, revenue diminished,
the impoverished nobles were exceedingly turbulent, deeds
of murder and violence occurred on all sides; even by day
the streets of the city were unsafe. Hence there was universal
discontent. Meanwhile Louis the Bavarian, who in 1314 had
been crowned king of the Romans, having overcome his German
enemies at Miihldorf in 1322, turned against the pope, one
of his fiercest opponents. Louis was surrounded by Minorite
friars, supporters of the poverty of the church, and consequently
enemies to the temporal power. They were men of the stamp
of William of Occam, Marsilio of Padua, Giovanni Janduno,
and other philosophers favourable to the rights of the empire
and the people. Accordingly the Italian Ghibellines hailed
Louis as they had previously hailed Henry. Even the Roman
people were roused to action, and, driving out the representa-
tives and partisans of King Robert, in the spring of 1327,
seized on the castle of St Angelo, and again established a
democratic government. " Nearly all Italy was stirred to
new deeds," says G. Villani, "and the Romans rose to arms
and organized the people " (bk. x. c. 20). Regardless of the
reproofs of the pope, they elected a haughty Ghibelline, gciarra
Sciarra Colonna, captain of the people and general coioana,
of the militia, with a council of fifty-two popolani, captain
four to each region. Then, ranged under the standards **j e
of the militia, the Romans gave chase to the foes of
the republic, and Sciarra, returning victorious, ascended to
the Capitol and invited Louis the Bavarian to Rome.
The summons was obeyed; on the 7th of January Bavarian.
1328 the king was already encamped in the Neronian
Fields with five thousand horse and a considerable number
of foot soldiers, and, with better fortune than Henry VII.,
was able to enter the Vatican at once.
Encircled by a crowd of heretics, reformers and Minorite
brethren, he convoked a parliament on the Capitol, asking
that the imperial crown might be conferred upon him by the
people, from whon\ alone he wished to receive it. And the
people proclaimed him their captain, senator and emperor.
On the 1 7th of January his coronation took place in St Peter's.
But, as he had neither money nor practical sense, his method
of taxation and the excesses committed by himself and his
over-excited philosophers speedily aroused the popular dis-
content. His ecclesiastical vicar, Marsilio of Padua, and
MIDDLE AGES]
ROME
677
Giovanni Janduno placarded the walls with insulting manifestoes
against the pope, whom the Minorites stigmatized as a heretic
and wished to depose. In April Louis twice assembled the
parliament in St Peter's Square, and, after obtaining its sanction
to several anti-papal edicts, declared John XXII. degraded
and deposed as a heretic. This was a very strange and novel
spectacle, the more so that, as was speedily proved, the Romans
were stirred by no anti-Catholic spirit, no yearning for religious
reform. Jacopo Colonna, a canon of the Lateran, was able
to make his way into Rome with four masked companions, to
publicly read, at the top of his voice and before a great multitude,
the excommunication launched against the emperor by the
deposed pope, to traverse the entire city, and to withdraw un-
molested to Palestrina. Meanwhile the emperor contented
himself with decreeing that henceforth the popes must reside
in Rome, that if, when invited, they should fail to come
they would be thereby held deposed from the throne. As a
logical consequence, proceedings were immediately begun for
the election of the new pope, Nicholas V., who on the I2th of
May was proclaimed by the popular voice in St Peter's Square,
and received the imperial sanction. But this ephemeral
drama came to an end when the emperor departed with his
antipope on the 4th of August. This caused the immediate
downfall of the democratic government. Bertoldo Orsini, who
had returned to Rome with his Guelphs, and Stefano Colonna
were elected senators, and confirmed in the office by Cardinal
Giovanni Orsini in the name of the pope. A new parliament
cancelled the emperor's edicts, and had them burnt by the
public executioner. Later, Nicholas, the antipope, went with
a rope about his neck to make submission to John XXII., and
Louis promised to disavow and retract all that he had done
against the church, provided the sentence of excommunication
were withdrawn. This, however, was refused. Never had
the empire fallen so low. Meanwhile King Robert was again
supreme in Rome, and, being re-elected senator, appointed
vicars there as before. Anarchy reigned. The city was torn
by factions, and the provinces rebelled against the French
representatives of the pope, who, in their ignorance of Italian
affairs, were at a loss how to act.
And after the election of Benedict XII. (1334-42) confusion
reached so great a pitch that, on the expiration of Robert's
senatorial term, the Romans named thirteen heads of regions
to carry on the government with two senators, while the king
still sent vicars as before. The people, for the sake of peace,
once more granted the supremacy of the senate to the pope,
and he nominated two knights of Gubbio, Giacomo di Cante
dei Gabrielli and Bosone Novello dei Gabrielli, who were
succeeded by two other senators the following year. But in
Reconsti- *339 the Romans attacked the Capitol, named two
tution senators of their own choice, re-established a demo-
of the cratic government, and sent ambassadors to Florence
repu c. Q as k { or j. ne ordinances of justice (ordinamenti
della giustizia), by which that city had broken the power
of the nobles, and also that a few skilled citizens should lend
their help in the reconstitution of Rome. Accordingly some
Florentines came with the ordinamenti, some portions of which
may be recognized in the Roman statutes, and, after first re-
arranging the taxes, elected thirteen priors of the gilds, a gonfa-
lonier of justice, and a captain of the people after the Florentine
manner. But there was a dissimilarity in the conditions of the
two cities. The gilds having little influence in Rome, the
projected reform failed, and the pope, who was opposed to it, re-
elected the senators. Thereupon public discontent swelled,
and especially when, by the foundation of the papal palace of
Avignon, it was evident that Benedict XII. had no intention of
restoring the Holy See to Italy. This pope was succeeded in
1342 by Clement VI. (1342-52), and King Robert in 1343 by
his niece Joanna; and the latter event, while plunging the
kingdom in anarchy, likewise aggravated the condition of Rome.
For not only were the Neapolitan sovereigns still very powerful
there, but the principal Roman nobles held large fiefs across
the Neapolitan borders.
Cola dl
Rienzi.
Shortly before this another revolution in Rome had re-
established the government of the thirteen elders and the
two senators. The people, being anxious to show
their intention of respecting the papal authority, had
despatched to Avignon as ambassador of the republic,
in 1343, a man destined to make much noise in the world. This
was Cola di Rienzi, son of a Roman innkeeper, a notary, and
an impassioned student of the Bible, the fathers, Livy, Seneca,
Cicero, and Valerius Maximus. Thoroughly imbued with a
half pagan, half Christian spirit, he believed that he had a
divinely inspired mission to revive the ancient glories of Rome.
Of handsome presence, full of fantastic eloquence, and stirred
to enthusiasm by contemplation of the ruined monuments of
Rome, he harangued the people with a stilted oratory that en-
chanted their ears. He hated the nobles, because one of his
brothers had been killed by them; he loved the republic, and
in its name addressed a stately Latin speech to the astonished
pope, and, offering him the supreme power, besought his instant
return to Rome. He also begged him to allow the city to cele-
brate a jubilee every fifty years, and then, as a personal request,
asked to be nominated notary to the urban chamber. The
pope consented to everything, and Rienzi communicated this
good news to Rome in an emphatically worded epistle. After
Easter, in 1344, he returned to Rome, and found to his grief
that the city was a prey to the nobles. He immediately began
to admonish the latter, and then, draped in a toga adorned
with symbols, exhibited and explained allegorical designs to
the people, and announced the speedy restoration of the
past grandeur of Rome. Finally he and a few burghers and
merchants, whom he had secretly inflamed by his discourses,
made a solemn vow to overthrow the nobility and consolidate the
republic. The moment was favourable, owing to the anarchy
of Naples, the absence of the pope, the weakness of the empire
and the disputes of the barons, although the latter were still
very potent and constituted, as it were, a separate government
opposed to that of the people. Rienzi, having gained the pope's
ecclesiastical vicar to his side, passed in prayer the night of the
igth of May 1347, placing his enterprise under the protection
of the Holy Spirit, and the following day marched to the
Capitol, surrounded by his adherents, convoked a parliament
of the people, and obtained its sanction for the following pro-
posals: that all pending lawsuits should be at once decided;
that justice should be equally administered to all; that every
region should equip one hundred foot soldiers and twenty-five
horse; that the dues and taxes should be rearranged; that the
forts, bridges and gates of the city should be held by the rector
of the people instead of by the nobility; and that granaries
should be opened for the public use. On the same day, amid
general homage and applause, Rienzi was proclaimed head of
the republic, with the title of tribune and liberator of the Holy
Roman Republic, " by authority of the most merciful Lord
Jesus Christ." The nobles withdrew scoffing but alarmed.
Rienzi engaged a body-guard of one hundred men, and assumed
the command of thirteen hundred infantry and three hundred
and ninety light horse; he abolished the senators, retained the
Thirteen and the general and special councils, and set the
administration on a new footing. These measures and the
prompt submission of the other cities of the state brought an
instant increase of revenue to Rome.
This revolution, as will be noted, was of an entirely novel
stamp. For its leader despatched envoys to all the cities
of Italy, exhorting them to shake off the yoke of their tyrants,
and send representatives to the parliament convoked for the
ist of August, inasmuch as the liberation of Rome also implied
the " liberation of the sacred land of Italy." In Rienzi's
judgment the Roman revolution must be, not municipal, but
national, and even in some points universal. And this idea
was welcomed with general enthusiasm throughout the peninsula.
Solemn festivals and processions were held in Rome; and,
when the tribune went in state to St Peter's, the canons met
him on the steps chanting the Veni, Creator Spiritus. Even
the pope, willingly or unwillingly, accorded his approval to
6y8
ROME
[MIDDLE AGES
Rienzi's deeds. The provincial cities did homage to Rome
and her tribune, and almost all the rest of Italy gave him its
enthusiastic adherence. The ancient sovereign people seemed
on the point of resuscitation. And others besides the multitude
were fascinated and carried off their feet. Great men like
Petrarch were transported with joy. The poet lauded Cola
di Rienzi as a sublime and supernatural being, the greatest of
ancient and modern men. But it was soon evident that all
this enthusiasm was mainly factitious. On the 26th of July
a new parliament was called, and this decreed that all the rights
and privileges granted to the empire and church must now be
vested in the Roman people, from whom they had first emanated.
But on the convocation of the national parliament few repre-
sentatives obeyed the summons and the scheme was a failure.
All had gone well so long as principles only were proclaimed, but
when words had to be followed by deeds the municipal feeling
awoke and distrust began to prevail. Nevertheless, on the ist
of August Rienzi assumed the spurs of knighthood and passed
a decree declaring that Rome would now resume her old jurisdic-
tion over the world, invoking the Holy Spirit upon Italy, grant-
ing the Roman citizenship to all her cities, and proclaiming
them free in virtue of the freedom of Rome. This was a strange
jumble of the ancient Roman idea. combined with the medieval.
It was a dream of Rienzi's brain, but it was also the dream of
Dante and Petrarch. The conception of the empire and the
history of Italy, particularly that of ancient and medieval
Rome, were inevitably preparing the way for the national idea.
This Rienzi foresaw, and this constitutes the true grandeur
of his character, which in other respects was not exempt from
pettiness and infirmity. He pursued his course, therefore, un-
dismayed, and had indeed gone too far to draw back. On the
1 5th of August he caused himself to be crowned tribune with
great pomp, and confirmed the rights of Roman citizenship to
all natives of Italy. But practical matters had also to be taken
into account, and it was here that his weakness and lack of
judgment were shown. The nobles remained steadily hostile, and
refused to yield to the charm of his words. Hence conflict was
unavoidable; and at first Rienzi succeeded in vanquishing the
Gaetani by means of Giovanni Colonna. He next endeavoured
to suppress the Guelph and Ghibelline factions, and to restore
Italy to " holy union " by raising her from her present abase-
ment.
The pope, however, was weary of toleration, and, coming
to terms with the nobles, incited them to war. They accord-
ingly moved from Palestrina, and on the 3oth of -November
were encamped before Rome. Rienzi now put forth his
energy. He had already called the militia to arms, and a
genuine battle took place in which eighty nobles, chiefly of the
Colonna clan, were left dead. This was a real catastrophe to
them, and the aristocracy never again achieved the rule of the
republic. But Rienzi's head was turned by this sudden success.
In great need of money, he began to play the tyrant by levying
taxes and exacting instant obedience. The papal legate saw
his opportunity and seized it, by threatening to bring a charge
of heresy against the tribune. Rienzi was dismayed. He
declared himself friendly to the pope and willing to respect his
authority; and he even sought to conciliate the nobles. At
this moment certain Neapolitan and Hungarian captains, after
levying soldiers with the tribune's consent, joined the nobles
and broke out in revolt. On their proving victorious in a pre-
liminary encounter with some of Rienzi's guards, the tribune
suddenly lost heart, resigned the power he had held for seven
months, and took refuge with a few trusty adherents in the
castle of St Angelo on the I5th December 1347. Thence he
presently fled to Naples, vainly hoping to find aid, and after-
wards disappeared for some time from the scene.
Meanwhile the Romans remained tranquil, intent on making
money by the jubilee; but no sooner was this over than dis-
orders broke out and the tyranny of the baronage recommenced.
To remedy this state of things, application was made to the
pope. He consulted with a committee of cardinals, who sought
the advice of Petrarch, and the poet suggested a popular govern-
ment, to the complete exclusion of the nobles, since these,
he said, were strangers who ruined the city. The people had
already elected the Thirteen, and now, encouraged by these
counsels, on the z6th of December 1351 chose Giovanni Perrone
as head of the republic. But the new leader was unable to with-
stand the hostilities of the nobles; and in September 1353
Francesco Baroncelli was elected tribune. He was a follower
of Rienzi, had been his ambassador to Florence and did little
beyond imitating his mode of government and smoothing the
way for his return.
Rienzi had spent two years in the Abruzzi, leading a life of
mystic contemplation on Monte Maiella. Then, in 1350, he had
gone to Prague and endeavoured to convert to his ideas the yet
uncrowned emperor Charles IV. When apparently on the point
of success, he was sent under arrest to the new pope, Innocent VI.
(1352-62), a man of great shrewdness and practical sense. On
Rienzi's arrival at Avignon it became evident that his popularity
was still very great, and that it would be no easy task to dispose
of him. The Romans were imploring his return; Petrarch
lauded him as a modern Gracchus or Scipio; and the pope
finally released him from confinement. Innocent had decided
to send to Italy, in order to settle affairs and bring the state into
subjection to the church, that valiant captain and skilled
politician, Cardinal Albornoz. And, having no fear that the
latter's hand would be forced, he further decided that Rienzi
should be sent to give him the support of his own popularity in
Rome. In fact, directly the pair arrived Baroncelli was over-
thrown, the supremacy of the senate granted to the pope and
the government confided to Albornoz, who, without concerning
himself with Rienzi, nominated Guido Patrizi as senator. He
then marched at the head of his troops against Giovanni, prefect
of Vico, and forced him to render submission at Montefiascone
on the 5th of June 1354. With the same promptitude and skill
he reduced Umbria and the Tuscan and Sabine districts, con-
sented to leave the privileges of the cities intact in return for
their recognition of the papal authority and planted fortresses
in suitable positions. In the meantime Rienzi's popularity was
increasing in Rome; without either money or arms, the ex-
tribune succeeded by his eloquence in winning over the two
Provencal leaders, brothers of the famous free captain Fra
Monreale; and, seduced by his promises and hopes, they
supplied him with funds. Then, profiting by his prestige, the
apparent favour of the pope, and the sums received, he was able
to collect a band of five hundred soldiers of mixed nationalities
and returned towards Rome. On Monte Mario he was met by
the cavallerotti. On the ist of August 1354 he entered the
Castello gate, took possession of the government, named Mon-
reale 's two brothers his captains, and sent them to lay siege to
Palestrina, which was still the headquarters of the Colonna.
But then money ran short, and he again lost his head. Inviting
Fra Monreale to a banquet, he put him to death for the sake of
his wealth, and kept the two brothers in confinement. This act
excited general indignation. And when, after his ill-gotten
gains were spent, he again recurred to violence to fill his purse,
the public discontent was vented in a sudden revolt on the
8th of October. The people stormed the Capitol with cries of
" Death to the traitor." Rienzi presented himself at a window
waving the flag of Rome. But the charm was finally broken.
Missiles were hurled at him; the palace was fired. He hid
himself in the courtyard, shaved his beard and, disguised as a
shepherd with a cloth over his head, slipped into the crowd and
joined in their cries against himself. Being recognized, however,
by the golden bracelets he had forgotten to remove, he was
instantly stabbed. For two days his corpse was left exposed
to the insults of the mob, and was then burned. Such was the
wretched end of the" man who, at one moment, seemed destined
to fill the world with his name as the regenerator of Rome and
of Italy.
In all the Italian cities the overthrow of the aristocracy had
led to military impotence and pressing danger of tyranny. The
same thing had happened in Rome when the nobility, weakened
by the absence of church and empire, received its death-blow
MIDDLE AGES]
ROME
679
from Rienzi. But, whereas _ elsewhere tyrants were gradually
arising in the citizen class, Rome was always in danger of
oppression by the pope. Nor was any aid available from the
empire, which had never recovered from its abasement under
Louis the Bavarian. In fact, when Charles of Luxemburg
came to Rome to be crowned, he was obliged to promise the
pope that he would not enter the city. On Easter day 1355
The popes he received the crown, and departed after counselling
seek to j ne Romans to obey the pope. And the pontiffs had
'"Tea" greater need than ever of an established kingdom.
temporal Their position in France was much endangered by
kingdom, that country's disorder. New states were being
formed on all sides; the medieval unityv was shattered;
and the shrunken spiritual authority of the church increased
her need of material strength. As Italian affairs stood, it
would be easy for the popes to found a kingdom, but their
presence was required in Rome before it could be firmly estab-
lished. The blood-stained sword of Albornoz had prepared
the way before them. In 1355-56 he vanquished the lords or
tyrants of Rimini, Fano, Fossombrone, Pesaro, Urbino and
other cities. And all these places had^een so rudely oppressed
that the cardinal was often hailed as a liberator after subduing
their masters by fire and sword. But everywhere he had been
obliged to leave existing governments and rulers in statu quo
after exacting their oaths of fealty. Thus the state was still
dissevered, and it was impossible to bind it together with the
pope at Avignon and Rome a republic. Bologna was still in-
dependent, Ordelam still lord of Forll; Cesena and other cities
were still rebellious; and the Campagna was still in the hands
of the barons. Some places were ruled by rectors nominated
by the pope; at Montefiascone there was an ecclesiastical
rector, with a bench of judges, and a captain commanding a
mixed band of adventurers. Rome had submitted to the
haughty cardinal, but hated him mortally, and, on his departure
for Avignon in 1357 to assist the threatened pontiff, immediately
conceded to the latter the supremacy of the senate. And the
pope, instead of two senators, hastened to name a single one
of foreign birth. This was a shrewd device of Albornoz and
another blow to the nobles, with whom he was still at war.
Thus was inaugurated, by the nomination of Raimondo de'
Tolomei in 1358, a series of foreign senators, fulfilling
tne f unct i ns f a podesta, and changed every six
months, together with their staff of judges, notaries
and knights. The people approved of this reform as being
inimical to the nobles and favourable to the preservation of
liberty. Hitherto the senators had been assisted, or rather
kept in check, by the thirteen representatives of the regions.
These were now replaced by seven reformers, in imitation of
the priors of Florence, the better to follow that city's example.
The reformers were soon the veritable chiefs of the republic.
They first appeared in 1360, were either popolani or cavalier otti,
and were elected by ballot every three months. When Albornoz
returned to Italy, although desirous to keep Rome in the same
subjection as the other cities, he had first to vanquish Ordelam
and reduce Bologna. The latter enterprise was the more
difficult task, and provoked a lengthy war with Matteo Visconti
of Milan. Thus Rome, being left to herself, continued to be
governed by her reformers; and the nobles, already shut out
from power, were also excluded from the militia, which had been
reorganized, like that of Florence, on the democratic system.
Three thousand men, mostly archers, were enrolled
under the command of two banderesi, " in the like-
ness," says M. Villani, " of our gonfaloniers of the com-
panies, " with four anlepositi constituting a supreme council
of war. And the whole body was styled the " Felix Societas
Balestrariorum et Pavesatorum. " It was instituted to support
the reformers and re-establish order in the city and Campagna,
to keep down the nobles and defend the republic. It fulfilled
these duties with much, and sometimes excessive, severity.
Banderesi and antepositi had seats in the special council beside
those of the reformers, as, in Florence, the gonfaloniers of the
companies were seated beside the priors. Later these officials
The band-
eretl.
constituted the so-called signoria dei banderesi. In 1362, the
Romans having subjected Velletri, which was defended by the
nobles, the latter made a riot in Rome. Thereupon the banderesi
drove them all from the city, killed some of their kindred, and
did not even spare the cavallerotti. The fight became so furious
that from gate to gate all Rome was in arms, and even mercen-
aries were hired. But in the end renewed submission was made
to the pope.
On the death of Innocent VI. in 1362, an agreement was
concluded with his successor, Urban V. (1362-70), also a French-
man, who was obliged to give his sanction to the government
of the reformers and banderesi. And then, Albornoz being
recalled in disgrace to Avignon, and afterwards sent as legate
to Naples, these Roman magistrates were able, with or without
the co-operation of the foreign senator, to rule in their own
way. They did justice on the nobles by hanging a few more;
and they defended the city from the threatening attacks of
the mercenaries, who had now become Italy's worst foes. It
was at this period that the Roman statutes were revised and
rearranged in the compilation erroneously attributed by some
writers to Albornoz, which has come down to us supplemented
by alterations of a later date.
But now the popes, being no longer in safety at Avignon,
really decided to return to Italy. Even Urban V. had to pay
ransom to escape from the threatened attacks of the free com-
panies. The Romans implored his return, and he was further
urged to it by the Italian literati, with Petrarch at their head.
In April 1367 he finally quitted Avignon, and, entering Rome on
the 1 6th of October, was given the lordship of the city. Cardinal
Albornoz had fallen mortally ill at Viterbo, but, though unable
to accompany the pope to Rome, had, before dying, suggested
his course of action. Certainly Urban showed much y^,, v
acumen in profiting by the first burst of popular begins to
enthusiasm to effect quick and dexterous changes in destroy
the constitution of the republic. After naming a '* e
senator, he abolished the posts of reformers and re P abllc -
banderesi, substituting three conservators, or rather a species
of municipal council, alone charged with judicial and adminis-
trative powers, which has lasted to the present day. The
thirteen leaders of the regions and the consuls of the gilds still
sat in the councils, which were left unsuppressed. But all real
power was in the hands of the pope, who, in Rome, as in his
other cities, nominated the principal magistrates. Thus, by
transforming political into civil institutions and concentrating
the supreme authority in his own grasp, Urban V. dealt a
mortal blow to the liberties of Rome. Yet he felt no sense of
security among a people who, after the first rejoicings over the
return of the Holy See, were always on the brink of revolt.
Besides, he felt himself a stranger in Italy, and was so regarded.
Accordingly, in April 1370 he decided to return to France;
on the zoth of that month he wrote from Viterbo that no
change was to be made in the government; and he died in
Avignon on the ipth of December.
The Romans retained the conservators, conferring on them
the political power of the reformers; they re-established the
banderesi with the Florentine title of executores jus- # e -es/a6-
titiae and the four anlepositi with that of consiliarii. Ushmeat
Thus the " Felix Societas Balestrariorum et Pave- %,%
satorum Urbis " was restored, and the two councils aadthe
met as before. The new French pope, Gregory XI. ,**
(1370-78), had to be content with obtaining supremacy
over the senate and the possession of the castle of St Angelo.
It was a difficult moment for him. The Florentines had come
to an open rupture with his legates, and had adopted the
expedient of inviting all the cities of the Roman state to redeem
their lost freedom. Accordingly, in 1375 many of them rose
against the legates, who were mostly French and regarded
with dislike as foreigners. Florentine despatches, full of
classical allusions and chiefly composed by the famous scholar
Secretary Coluccio Salutati, were rapidly sent in all directions.
Those addressed to the Romans were specially fervid, and
emphatically appealed to their patriotism and memories of
68o
ROME
[MIDDLE AGES
the past. But the Romans received them with doubt and
mistrust, for they saw that the revolution threatened to dis-
member the state, by promoting the independence of every
separate city. Besides, while maintaining their republic, they
also desired the pope's presence in Rome. Nevertheless, they
went with the current to the extent of reforming their constitu-
tion. In February 1376 they nominated Giovanni Cenci
captain of the people, and gave him uncontrolled power over
the towns of the patrimony and the Sabine land. The con-
servators, with their new political authority, the executores,
the antepositi and the two councils were all preserved, and a
new magistracy was created, the " Tres Gubernatores Pacis
et Libertatis Reipublicae Romanae." This answered to the
Eight (afterwards Ten) of War in Florence, likewise frequently
called the Eight of Liberty and Peace. It was this Council
of Eight that was now directing the war against the pope and
braving his -sentence of excommunication; and their fiery
zeal had won them the title of the Holy Eight from the
Florentines.
Realizing that further absence would cost him his state,
Gregory XI. quitted Avignon on the I3th of September 1376,
and, reaching Corneto in December, despatched to Rome three
legates, who, on the 2ist of the month, concluded an agree-
ment with the parliament. The people gave up the gates, the
fortresses and the Trastevere, and promised that if the pope
returned to Rome he should have the same powers which had
been granted to Urban V. But, on his side, he must pledge
himself to maintain the executores and their council, and allow
the Romans the right of reforming the banderesi, who would
then swear fealty to him. The terms of this peace and the
pope's epistles clearly prove that the two councils still exercised
their functions, that the banderesi were still the virtual heads
of the government, and that their suppression was not con-
templated. In fact, when the pope made his entry on the
i7th of January 1377, accompanied by two thousand armed men,
he perceived that there was much public agitation, that the
Romans did not intend to fulfil their agreement, and that the
government of the banderesi went on as before. Accordingly,
after naming Gomez Albornoz, a nephew of the deceased
cardinal, to the office of senator, he retired to Anagni, and
remained there until November 1377. The Romans presently
waited on him with conciliating offers, and begged him to
negotiate a peace for them with the prefect of Vico. In fact,
the treaty was concluded at Anagni in October, and on the
loth of November confirmed in Rome by the general council.
The meeting was held in the great hall of the Capitol,
ubi consilia generalia urbis fieri solent, in the presence of
all the members of the republican government. But the
pope was enraged by the survival of this government, and,
being worn out by the persistent hostility of the Florentines,
which reduced his power to a low ebb, had determined to
make peace, when surprised by death on the 27th of March
1378.
The next pope, Urban VI. (1378-89), a Neapolitan, was
the spirit of discord incarnate. His election was not altogether
regular: the French party among the cardinals was against
him; and the people were ripe for insurrection. But, regardless
of all this, Urban threatened the cardinals in his first con-
sistory, saying that church reform must begin with them;
and he used the same tone with the people, reproving them
for failing to suppress the banderesi. In consequence of this
the cardinals of the French party, assembling at Fondi, elected
the antipope Clement VII. (1378-94) and started a long and
painful schism in the church. Clement resided in Avignon,
while Urban in Rome was engaged in opposing Queen
Joanna I. of Naples and favouring Charles of Durazzo, who,
on conquering the Neapolitan kingdom, was made gonfalonier
of the church and senator of Rome, where he left a vicar as
his deputy. Shortly afterwards the pope went to Naples,
and made fierce war on the king. Then, after many .ad ventures,
during which he tortured and put to death several cardinals
whom he suspected of hostile intentions, he returned to Rome,
where the utmost disorder prevaijed. The conservators and
the banderesi were still at the head of the govern- urban vi.
ment, and, the pope speedily falling out with them, under-
a. riot ensued, after which he excommunicated the *"*" the
banderesi. These at last made submission to him, t ^ a
and Urban VI. became master of Rome before his of the
death in 1389. He was succeeded by Boniface IX. npubiie.
(1389-1404), another Neapolitan, but a man of greater shrewd-
ness and capacity. His first act was to crown Ladislaus
king of Naples, and secure the friendship and protection of
this ambitious and powerful prince. In all the principal
cities of the state he chose the reigning lords for his vicars.
But he allowed, Fermo, Ascoli and Bologna the privilege
of assuming their own vicariate for twenty-five years. And,
as . these different potentates and governments had only to
pay him an annual tribute, all parties were satisfied, and
the pope was able to bestow at least an appearance of order
and unity on his state. But fresh tumults soon arose, partly
because the conservators and banderesi sought to govern on
their own account, and especially because the pope seems
for a time to have omitted naming the senator. Boniface was
a prudent man; he saw that events were turning in his favour,
now that throughout Italy liberty was tottering to its fall, and
bided his time. He was satisfied for the moment by obtaining
a recognition of the immunities of the clergy, rendering them
solely amenable to ecclesiastical tribunals, and thus distinguish-
ing the powers of the church from those of the state in Rome.
The republic also pledged itself neither to molest the prelates
nor to levy fresh contributions on them towards repairing
the walls, to aid in recovering the estates of the church in
Tuscia, and to try to conciliate the baronage. This concordat,
concluded with the conservators and banderesi on the nth of
September 1391, was also confirmed on the sth of March
1392 by the heads of the regions, together with a fresh treaty
binding both parties to furnish a certain number of armed
men to combat the prefect of Vico and the adherents of the
antipope at Viterbo. With the exception of this city, Orchi
and Civita Vecchia, all other conquered territory was to belong
to the republic. But the Romans soon discovered that they
were playing into the hands of the pope, who kept everything
for himself, without even paying the troops. Upon this a riot
broke out; Boniface fled to Perugia in October 139 2, and resolved
to exact better terms when next recalled to Rome. Meanwhile
the Romans subdued the prefect, captured Viterbo, and, being
already repentant, handed it over to the pope and implored
his return. He then proposed his own terms, which were
approved, not only by the conservators, banderesi Boaitace
and four councillors, but also by the special council IX - co -
and by the unanimous vote of a general assembly, ^"^^ e
composed of the above-mentioned authorities, heads tion
of regions, other officials and a hundred citizens of the
(Sth August 1393). These terms prescribed that the />"**
pope was to elect the senator, and that, on his failing
so to do, the conservators would carry on the government
after swearing fealty to him. The senatorial function was
to be neither controlled nor hampered by the banderesi. The
immunities of the clergy were to be preserved, and all church
property was to be respected by the magistrates. The expenses
of the pope's journey were to be paid, and he was to be escorted
to Rome in state. Boniface tried to complete his work by
abolishing the banderesi, the last bulwarks of freedom; but
the people, although weakened and weary, made efforts to
preserve them and, although their fall was inevitable, the
struggle went on for some time.
During the spring of 1394 the banderesi provoked an insurrec-
tion in which the pope's life was endangered; it was only
saved by the arrival of King Ladislaus, who came from Naples
with a large force in the early autumn. But for the Neapolitan
soldiery Boniface could not have withstood the long series of
revolts that continually exposed him to fresh perils and the
anxiety caused by the persistent schism of the church. The
death of Clement VTI. in 1394 was followed by the election of
MIDDLE AGES]
ROME
68 1
another antipope, Benedict XIII. But a new jubilee was in
prospect for the year 1400, and this was always an efficacious
Fall of means of bending the will of the Romans. Depending
the band- upon this and the assistance of Ladislaus, Boniface
ere si and not only demanded full powers to nominate senators
rtf/Mfc. ( none having been recently elected), but insisted on
the suppression of the banderesi. Both requests
were granted; but, directly Angelo Alaleoni was made senator,
a conspiracy was hatched for the re-establishment of the
banderesi. However, the pope felt sure of his strength; the
plot was discovered and the conspirators were beheaded on
the stairs of the Capitol. This proved the end of the banderesi
and of the liberties of Rome. The government [was again
directed by an alien senator together with three conservators;
but the latter were gradually deprived of their political
attributes, and became mere civil officers. The militia, regions,
gilds and other associations now rapidly lost all political
importance, and before long were little more than empty names.
Thus in 1398 the Romans submitted to the complete sway
of the pope, and in July of the same year the senator chosen
by him was Malatesta dei Malatesti of Rimini, one of a line of
tyrants, a valiant soldier, who was also temporal vicar and
captain-general of the church. Boniface continued to appoint
foreign senators during the rest of his life; he fortified the
castle of St Angelo, the Vatican and the Capitol; he stationed
galleys at the mouth of the Tiber, and proved himself in all
things a thoroughly temporal prince. He aggrandized all
his kindred, especially his brother, and, with the aid of his
senator, his armed force and the protection of Ladislaus,
succeeded in keeping down all the surviving nobles. In 1400,
however, these made an attempt to upset the government.
Niccolo Colonna forced his way into the city with cries of
" Popolo, popolo! death to Boniface! " But the Romans
had grown deaf to the voice of liberty; they refused to rise,
and the senator, a Venetian named Zaccaria Trevisan, behaved
with much energy. Colonna and his men had to beat a swift
retreat to Palestrina. A charge of high treason was immediately
instituted against him, and thirty-one rebels were beheaded.
The pope then proclaimed a crusade against all the Colonna,
and sent a body of two thousand men and some of the Neapolitan
soldiery to attack them. Several of their estates were seized
and devastated, but Palestrina continued to hold out, and on
the 7th of January 1401 the Colonna finally made submission
to the pope. Nevertheless, they obtained advantageous terms,
for Boniface left them their lands, appointed them vicars of
other territories, and made similar agreements with the Gaetani
and Orsini. In this way he became absolute master of Rome.
One chronicler remarks that " Romanis tanquam rigidus
imperator dominabatur," and the same tone is taken by
others. But he did not succeed in putting an end to the
schism of the church, which was still going on when he died
in the Vatican on the ist of October 1404.
Innocent VII. (1404-6) was the next pope. He too was a
Neapolitan, and on his election the people again rose in revolt
and refused to acknowledge him unless he consented to resign
the temporal power. But Ladislaus of Naples hastened to his
help, and an agreement was made which, under the cover of ap-
parent concessions, really riveted the people's chains. Rome was
recognized as the seat of the temporal and spiritual sovereignty
of the pope, and the pope continued to appoint the senator.
The people were to elect seven governors of the city, who were
to swear fealty to the pope and carry on the government in
conjunction with three other governors chosen by the pontiff
or Ladislaus. The stipulations of Boniface IX. concerning
ecclesiastical immunities were again confirmed. The barons
were forbidden to place more than five lances each at the service
of the people, and which was the real gist of the covenant
the people were henceforth forbidden to make laws or statutes
without the permission of the pope. The captain of the people,
deprived of his political and judicial functions and reduced to
a simple judge, was also to be chosen by the pope. But this
treaty, drawn up on the 27th of October 1404, was not signed
at the time, and many difficulties and disturbances arose when
its terms were to be put into effect. The Romans nominated
the seven governors, but, without waiting until the pope had
chosen three more, placed the state in their hands, and styled
them " governors of the liberty of the Roman Hepublic." They
were, in fact, banderesi or reformalori under a new name. But
the attempt proved inefficacious, for, at the pope's first threat
of departure, the Romans made their submission, and the treaty
of October was subscribed on the isth of May 1405. Never-
theless, as it only bears the signatures of the " seven governors
of the liberty of the Roman Republic," the pope would seem
to have made some concessions. His position was by no means
assured. Ladislaus was known to aspire to absolute dominion
in Italy, and, although willing to aid in suppressing the republic,
tried to prepare the way for his own designs, and frequently
held out a helping hand to the vanquished. On the 6th of
August fourteen influential citizens of Rome boldly presented
themselves at the Vatican, and in a threatening manner called
the pope to account for giving his whole attention to worldly
things, instead of endeavouring to put a stop to the schisms of
the church. But, on leaving his presence, they were attacked
by Luigi Migliorati, the pope's nephew, and notorious for his
violence, who killed eleven of their number, including several
heads of the regions and two of the governors. An insurrection
ensued, and the pope and his nephew fled to Viterbo. The
Colonna tried to profit by these events, and applied to Ladis-
laus, who, hoping that the moment had come to make himself
master of Rome, sent the count of Troia thither with a troop
of three thousand horse. But the people', enraged by this
treachery, and determined not to fall under the yoke of Naples,
awoke for an instant to the memory of their past glories, and
bravely repulsed the Colonna and the Neapolitans. And, on
the speedy arrival of the Orsini with some of the papal troops,
the people voluntarily restored the papal government, and,
assembling the parliament, besought the pope to return on his
own terms. Accordingly, after first naming Francesco Pancia-
tichi of Pistoia to the senatorship, the pope came back on the
I3th of March 1406, bringing his whole curia with him, and also
the murderer Migliorati, who, triumphing in impunity, became
more arrogant than before. Here indeed was a proof that the
Romans were no longer worthy of liberty! And now, by means
of the Orsini, Innocent had only to reduce the Colonna and
other nobles raised to power by Ladislaus; nor was this very
difficult, seeing that the king, in his usual fashion, abandoned
them to their fate, and, making terms with the pope, was named
gonfalonier of the church and again protected her cause.
Innocent, dying in 1406, was succeeded by Gregory XII.,
a Venetian, who, as we shall presently see, resigned the chair
in 1415. On his accession, finding his state firmly established,
he seemed to be seriously bent on putting an end to the Great
Schism, and for that purpose arranged a meeting with the
antipope Benedict XIII. at the congress of Savona in 1408.
But Gregory and Benedict only used the congress as a pretext
for making war upon each other, and were urged on by Ladis-
laus, who hoped by weakening both to gain possession of Rome,
where, although opposed by the Orsini, he had the support of
the Colonna. Gregory, who had then fled from Rome, made
a momentary attempt to win the popular favour by restoring
the government of the banderesi; but Ladislaus marched into
Rome in June 1408 and established a senator of his Ladislaus
own. Meanwhile the two popes were continuing matter of
their shameful struggle, and the council of Pisa (March Wo'-
1409), in attempting to check it, only succeeded in raising up
a third pontiff, first in the person of Alexander V. (1409-10),
and then in the turbulent Baldassare Cossa, who assumed the
name of John XXIII. The latter began by sending a large
contingent to assist Louis of Anjou against Ladislaus. But the
enterprise failed, and, seeing himself deserted by all, Pope John
next embraced the cause of his foe by naming him gonfalonier
of the church. Thereupon Ladislaus concluded a sham peace,
and then, seizing Rome, put it to the sack and established his
own government there. Thus John, like the other two popes,
68 2
ROME
[MIDDLE AGES
became a wanderer in Italy. In August 1414 Ladislaus died,
and was succeeded by the scandalous Queen Joanna II. The
Roman people promptly expelled the Neapolitans, and Cardinal
Isolani, John's legate, succeeding in rousing a reaction in favour
of the church, constituted a government of thirteen " conser-
vators" on the igth of October.
In November 1414 the council of Constance assembled,
and at last ended the schism by deposing all the popes
Bad and incarcerating John XXIII., the most lurbulent
of the o f the three. On the nth of November 1417 Oddo
"aad^ec- c l nna was unanimously elected to the papal chair;
t ion of he was consecrated in the cathedral on the 27th as
Martin v. Pope Martin V., and, being acknowledged by all,
hastened without delay to take possession of his see. Mean-
while disorder was at its height in Rome. The cardinal legate
Rome la Isolani governed as he best could, while the castle
a state of of St Angelo remained in the hands of the Nea-
anarchy. politans, who still had a party in the city. In
this divided state of affairs, Braccio, a daring captain of
adventurers, nicknamed Fortebraccio, was inspired with the
idea of making himself master of Rome. Overcoming the feeble
resistance opposed to him, he succeeded in this on the i6th
of June 1416, and assumed the title of " Defensor Urbis."
But Joanna of Naples despatched Sforza, an equally valiant
captain, against him, and, without offering battle, Fortebraccio
withdrew on the z6th of August, after having been absolute
master of the Eternal City for seventy days. Sforza marched
in on the 2 7th and took possession of the city in the name of
Joanna. Martin V. instantly proved himself a good states-
man. He confirmed the legate Isolani as his vicar and
Giovanni Savelli as senator. Leaving Constance on the i6th of
May 1418, he reached Milan on the 1 2th of October, and slowly
proceeded on his journey. While in Florence he despatched
his brother and nephew to Naples to make alliance with Joanna,
and caused her to be crowned on the 28th of October 1419 by
his legate Morosini. Upon this she promised to give up Rome
to the pope. Her general, Sforza, then entered the service of
Martin V., and compelled Fortebraccio, who was lingering in
a threatening attitude at Perugia, to make peace with the
pope. The latter entrusted Fortebraccio with the conduct
of the campaign against Bologna, and that city was reduced
to submission on the isth of July 1420. The Romans had
already yielded to Martin's brother the legate, and now
earnestly besought the arrival of their pope. Accordingly,
he left Florence on the igth of September 1420, and entered the
Vatican on the 28th. Rome was in ruins; nobility and burghers
were equally disorganized, the people unable to bear arms and
careless of their rights, while the battered walls of the Capitol
recorded the fall of two republics.
Martin V. had now to fulfil a far more difficult task than that
of taking possession of Rome. Throughout Italy municipal
The popes freedom was overthrown, and the Roman Republic
ofthe had ceased to exist. The Middle Ages were ended;
Reaais- the Renaissance was beginning. The universal unity
both of church and of empire was dissolved; the
empire was now Germanic, and derived its principal strength
from direct dominion over a few provinces. Independent
and national states were already formed or forming on all sides.
The papacy itself had ceased to claim universal supremacy
over the world's governments, and the possession of a temporal
state had become essential to its existence. In fact, Martin V.
was the first of the series of popes who were real sovereigns,
and more occupied with politics than religion. Involved in
all the foreign intrigues, falsehoods and treacheries of Italian
diplomacy in the 1 5th century, their internal policy was imbued
with all the arts practised by the tyrants of the Renaissance,
and nepotism became necessarily the basis of their strength.
It was natural that men suddenly elected sovereigns of a new
country where they had no ties, and of which they had often
no knowledge, should seek to strengthen their position by
aggrandizing so-called nephews who were not unfrequently
their sons.
Martin V. reduced the remains of the free Roman govern-
ment to a mere civil municipality. Following the method
of the other despots of Italy, the old republican The
institutions were allowed to retain their names temporal
and forms, their administrative and some of their kingdom
judicial attributes, while all their political functions '
were transferred to the new government. Order ra&ttfon
was re-established, and justice rigidly observed, the ruins
Many rebellious places were subdued by the sword, ftne
and many leaders of armed bands were hanged. The npu '
pope, however, was forced to lean on his kinsmen the
Colonna and again raise them to power by grants of
vast fiefs both in his own state and the Neapolitan territory.
And, after first supporting Joanna II., who had assisted his
entry into Rome, he next sided with her adversary, Louis of
Anjou, and then with Alphonso of Aragon, the conqueror of
both and the constant friend of the pope, who at last felt safe
on his throne. Rome now enjoyed order, peace and security,
but had lost all hope of liberty. And when Martin died
(20th February 1431) these words were inscribed on his tomb,
" Temporum suorum felicitas. "
Eugenius IV. (1431-47) leant on the Orsini, and was fiercely
opposed by the Colonna, who excited the people against him.
Accordingly on the 2gth of May 1434 the Romans rose A nvo i u .
in revolt to the old cry of " Popolo e popolo, " and tioa
again constituted the rule of the seven governors expels the
of liberty. The pope fled by boat down the Tiber, pope -
and, being pursued with stones and shots, narrowly escaped
with his life. On reaching Florence, he turned his energies
to the recovery of the state. It was necessary to quell
the people; but, first of all, the Colonna and the clan of the
prefects of Vico, with their renewed princely power, had to
be overthrown. The Orsini were still his friends. Eugenius
entrusted the campaign to Patriarch (afterwards Cardinal)
Vitelleschi, a worthy successor of Albornoz, and of greater
ferocity if less talent. This leader marched his army towards
Rome, and, instantly attacking Giovanni, prefect of Vico,
captured and beheaded him. The family was now extinguished;
and its possessions reverting to the church, the greater part of
them were sold or given to Count Everso d'Anguillara, of the
house of Orsini. The prefecture, now little more than an
honorary title, was bestowed at will by the popes. Eugenius
gave it to Francesco, founder of the powerful line of the Gravina-
Orsini. Thus one noble family was raised to greatness while
another perished by the sword. Vitelleschi had already begun
to persecute the Colonna and the Savelli, and committed terrible
slaughter among them. Many castles were demolished, many
towns destroyed; and their inhabitants, driven to wander
famine-stricken over the Campagna, had to sell themselves as
slaves for the sake of bread. Finally the arrogant patriarch
marched into Rome, as into a conquered city, at the head of
his men, and the Romans crouched at his feet. The pope now
began to distrust him, and sent Scarampo, another prelate
of the same stamp, to take his place. This new com-
mander soon arrived, and, perceiving that Vitelleschi
proposed to resist, had him surrounded by his soldiers, Eugenia*
who were obliged to use force to compel his surrender, resumes
Vitelleschi was carried bleeding to the castle of St
Angelo, where he soon afterwards died. The pope
at last returned to Rome in 1443, and remained there quietly
till his death in 1447.
His successor Nicholas V. (1447-55) was a scholar solely
devoted to the patronage of literati and artists. During his
reign there was a fresh attempt to restore the republic, but it
was rather prompted by literary and classical enthusiasm
than by any genuine patriotic ardour. Political passions
and interests had ceased to exist. The conspiracy Coum
was headed by Stefano Porcari, a man of the people, soiracyol
who claimed to be descended from Cato. He had pg^rf.
once been captain of the people in Florence, and was
made podesta of Bologna by Eugenius IV. He was a
caricature of Cola di Rienzi, and extravagantly proud of his
POST-MEDIEVAL ROME]
ROME
683
Latin speeches in honour of ancient republican liberty. The
admiration of antiquity was then at its height, and Porcari
found many enthusiastic hearers. Directly after the death of
Eugenius IV. he made a first and unsuccessful attempt to pro-
claim the republic. Nevertheless Nicholas V., with the same
indulgence for scholars that had prompted him to pardon
Valla for denying the temporal power of the papacy and laughing
to scorn the pretended donation of Constantine, freely pardoned
Porcari and named him podesta of Ariagni. He filled this
office with credit, but on his return to Rome again began to
play the agitator, and was banished to Bologna with a pension
from the pope. Nicholas V. had conferred all the state offices
upon priests and abbots, and had erected numerous fortresses.
Hence there were many malcontents in Rome, in communica-
tion with Porcari at Bologna, and ready to join in his plot.
Arms were collected, and on the day fixed he presented himself
to his fellow-conspirators adorned with rich robes and a gold
chain, and harangued them in Latin on the duty of freeing
their country from the yoke of the priests. His design was to
set fire to the Vatican on the 6th of January 1453, the feast of
the Epiphany; he and his followers were to seize the pope,
the cardinals and the castle of St Angelo. But Nicholas
received timely warning; the conspirators' house was sur-
rounded; and Porcari himself was seized while trying to escape,
confined in the castle of St Angelo, and put to death with nine
of his companions on the 9th of January. Others shortly
suffered the same fate.
Under Calixtus III. and Pius II. affairs went on quietly
enough, but Paul II. (1464-71) had a somewhat troubled
reign. Yet he was a skilled politician. He re-ordered the
finances and the courts of justice, punished crime with severity,
was an energetic foe to the Malatesta of Rimini, put an
end to the oppression exercised in Rome by the wealthy and
arrogant house of Anguillara, and kept the people in good
humour with continual festivities. But and this was a grave
defect at that period he extended no favour to learning, and,
by driving many scholars from the curia to make room for his
own kinsmen, brought a storm about his ears. At that time
the house of Pomponio Leto was the rendezvous of learned
men and the seat of the Roman Academy. Leto was an
enthusiast of antiquity; and, as the members of the Academy
all assumed old Latin names, they were suspected of a design
Meaof to re-establish paganism and the republican govern-
learniag ment. It is certain that they all inveighed against
perse- the pope; and, as the latter was no man of half
sus C< /con measures > during the carnival of 1468 he suddenly
ot re . imprisoned twenty Academicians, and even subjected
publican a few of them to torture. Pomponio Leto, although
te "~ absent in Venice, was also arrested and tried; but he
exculpated himself, craved forgiveness, and was set
at liberty. His friends were also released, for the charge of
conspiracy proved to be unfounded. Certain members of
the Academy, and notably Platina in his Lives of the
Popes, afterwards revenged themselves by stigmatizing Paul II.
as the persecutor of philosophy and letters. But he was no more
a persecutor than a patron of learning; he was a politician,
the author of some useful reforms, and solely intent on the
consolidation of his absolute power. Among his reforms may
be classed the revision of the Roman statutes in 1469, for the
purpose of destroying the substance while preserving the form
of the old Roman legislation, and entirely stripping it of all
political significance. In fact the pope's will was now ab-
solute, and even in criminal cases he could trample unhindered
on the common law.
There was still a senator of Rome, whose nomination was
entirely in the hands of the pope, still three conservators, the
heads of the rioni, and an elected council of twenty-six citizens.
Now and then also a shadowy semblance of a popular assembly
was held to cast dust in the eyes of the public, but even this was
not for long. All these officials, together with the judges of the
Capitol, retained various attributes of different kinds. They
administered justice and gave sentence. There were numerous
tribunals all with undefined modes of procedure, so that it was
very difficult for the citizens to ascertain in which court justice
should be sought. But in last resort there was always the
supreme decision of the pope. Thus matters remained to the
time of the French Revolution.
For the completion of this system a final blow had to be dealt
to the aristocracy, whose power had been increased by nepotism;
and it was dealt by bloodshed under the three following popes
Sixtus IV. (1471-84), Innocent VIII. (1484-92) and Alexander
VI. (1492-1503) each of whom was worse than his predecessor.
The first, by means of his nephews, continued the slaughter of
the Colonna, sending an army against them, devastating their
estates at Marino, and beheading the protonotary Lorenzo
Colonna. Innocent VIII. was confronted by the power of the
Orsini, who so greatly endangered his life by their disturbances
in the city that he was only saved by an alliance with Naples.
Neither peace nor order could be lastingly established until
these arrogant barons were overthrown. This task was accom-
plished by the worst of the three pontiffs, Alexander VI. All
know how the massacre of the Orsini was compassed, almost
simultaneously, by the pope in Rome and his equally iniquitous
son, Caesar Borgia, at Sinigaglia (1502). This pair dealt the
last blow to the Roman aristocracy and the tyrants of Romagna,
and thus the temporal dominion of the papacy was finally
assured. The republic was now at an end; it had shrivelled
to a civil municipality. Its institutions, deprived of all practical
value, lingered on like ghosts of the past, subject from century
to century to unimportant changes. The history of Rome is
henceforth absorbed in that of the papacy. '
Nevertheless the republic twice attempted to rise from its
grave, and on the second occasion gave proofs of heroism
worthy of its most glorious past. It was first resus- Poglf
citated in February 1798, by the influence of the medieval
French Revolution, and the French constitution of Rome.
the year III. was rapidly imitated. Rome had again two
councils the tribunate and the senate, with five consuls con-
stituting the executive power. But in the following year,
owing to the military reverses of the French, the government
of the popes was restored until 1809, when Napoleon I. annexed
to his empire the States of the Church. Rome was then
governed by a consulta straordinaria a special commission
with the municipal and provincial institutions of France. In
1814 the papal government was again reinstated, and the old
institutions, somewhat modified on the French system, were
recalled to life. Pius IX. (1846-77) tried to introduce political
reforms, and to improve and simplify the old machineiy of state;
bat the advancing. tide of the Italian revolution of 1848 drove
him from Rome; the republic was once more proclaimed, and
had a brief but glorious existence. Its programme was dictated
by Giuseppe Mazzini, who with Saffi and Armellini formed the
triumvirate at the head of the government. United Italy was
to be a republic with Rome for her capital. The rhetorical idea
of Cola di Rienzi became heroic in 1849. The constituent
assembly (gth February 1849) proclaimed the fall of the tem-
poral power of the popes, and the establishment of a republic
which was to be not only of Rome but of all Italy. France,
although then herself a republic, assumed the unenviable task
of re-establishing the temporal power by force of arms. But
the gallant defence of Rome by Garibaldi covered the republic
with glory. The enemy was repulsed, and the army of the
Neapolitan king, sent to restore the pope, was also driven off.
Then, however, France despatched a fresh and more powerful
force; Rome was vigorously besieged, and at last compelled
to surrender. On the 2nd of July 1849 the heroic general
departed from the city with some thousands of his followers.
Almost at the same time the constituent assembly proclaimed
in the Capitol the constitution of the Roman Republic. Immedi-
ately afterwards the French restored the government of Pius IX.,
whose reign down to 1870 was that of an absolute sovereign.
Then the Italian government entered Rome (2oth September
1870), proclaimed the national constitution (gth October 1870),
and the Eternal City became the capital of Italy. Thus the
68 4
ROME
scheme of national unity, the natural outcome of the history
of Rome and of Italy, impossible of accomplishment under the
rule of the popes, was finally achieved by the monarchy of
Savoy, which, as the representative and personification of
Italian interests, abolished the temporal power of the papacy
and made Rome the seat of government of the united country
(see ITALY).
AUTHORITIES. The history of the commune of Rome in the middle
ages has to be collected from the scattered materials in special
treatises, or from the general histories of the papacy. The greater
part of the facts are to be found in the Liber Pontificahs, edited by
the Abb<5 Duchesne (2 vols., Paris, 1886-92), and in the excellent
histories of Rome by Felix Papencordt and Gregorovius (see below).
Vitale, Storia diplomatica de Senatori di Roma (2 vols., Rome,
i TO i ) ; Galletti, Del primicerio della Santa Seda A postolica e di altri
umciali maggiori del sagro palazzo Lateranense (Rome, 1776);
Vendettini, Del Senate Romano (Rome, 1782); Baronius, Annales
Ecclesiastici, continued by Raynaldus (42 vols. fol., 1738-56), and
the recent continuations of Theiner relating to the years 1572-85 ;
J. Picker, Forschungen zur Reichs- tmd Rechtsgeschichte Italiens
(4 vols., Innsbruck, 1868-74); Sayigny, Geschichte des romischen
Rechts im Mittelalter (frequently reprinted and translated into all the
principal languages); Leo, Entwickelung der Verfassung der lom-
bardischen Slddte (Hamburg, 1824); M. A. von Bethmann-Hollweg,
Ursprung der lombardischen Stadtefreiheit (Anhang: Schicksale der
romischen Stadtver fas sung im Exarchat und in Rom) (Bonn, 1846) ;
Hegel, Geschichte der Stddteverfassung von Italien (Leipzig, 1847) ;
Giesebrecht, " Ueber die stadtischen Verhaltnisse im X. Jahrhun-
dert," at end of vol. i. of Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit (Brunswick,
1863) ; " Studi e documenti di Storia e Diritto," in Annuario di
Conferenze storico-giuridiche (Rome, 1880 seq.); Archivio della Reale
Societil Romana dt, Storia Patria (the other publications of the same
society, as, e.g. the Regesto di Farfa, may also be consulted with
advantage) ; F. Papencordt, Geschichte der Stadt Rom (Paderbprn,
1857); Id. Cola diRienzo (Hamburg, 1841); Gregorovius, Geschichte
der Stadt Rom (8 vols., Stuttgart, finished in 1872; 3rd ed.,
Stuttgart, 1875-81); A. von Reumont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom
(3 vols., Berlin, 1867-68).
Among more recent works see especially M. Creighton, History of
the Papacy (London, 1897) ; L. Pastor, Geschichte der Pdpste seit dem
Ansgang des Mitielalters (Freiburg i/B., 1886, &c.), a learned work,
but wrilten in an extremely clerical spirit; more impartial, although
written by a Jesuit, is P. H. Grisar's Storia di Roma e del Papi nel
Media Evo (Italian edition, Rome, 1899, &c., not yet completed).
For the history of the republic in 1849 accounts will be found in all
the histories of the Italian Risorgimento (see under ITALY). A very
important and complete work on the events of Rome in 1848-49 is
G. Trevelyan's Garibaldi's Defence of the Roman Republic (London,
1907), which contains a full bibliography. (P. V.)
, ROME, a province of modern Italy, co-extensive with the
compartimento of Lazio, but really covering a considerably
larger area than the ancient Latium, even including Latium
adjectum. On the S.E. and E. alone it does not extend so
far, the boundary being that between the former papal states
and the kingdom of Naples, running from a point S.E. of Ter-
racina along the eastern edge of the Volscian mountains to
Ceprano, and thence along the Liris valley. It then runs
N.E. through the mountains to Carsoli, being conterminous
with the Abruzzi; it then includes part of the ancient Sabine
country, reaching the Tiber near the railway station of Fara
Sabina, 25 m. N. of Rome. It follows the river for some dis-
tance, where it is conterminous with Umbria, and then runs
S.W. to the coast, where it is conterminous with the province
of Grosseto (Tuscany), thus including a considerable portion
of the ancient Etruria. The resident population in 1901 was
estimated at 1,196,909 (including Rome itself, 520,196), and
the floating population, Italian and foreign, 54,383. In 1907
the total number was calculated at 1,278,000. In 1871 the
aggregate population was only 836,704. Emigration rose from
2222 in 1896 to 18,507 in 1906, there being a great rise in 1905,
as over all Italy. The economic crisis in the United States in
1907, led, however, to a set-back, many emigrants being obliged
to return to Italy for lack of work. Alum is extracted from
the mines principally near Tolfa. At Filettino above Subiaco
asphaltic rock is obtained, and salt from a rocksalt mine near
Corneto Tarquinia. Chemical fertilizers are manufactured by
several firms. The main industries of the district are, however,
agricultural (see LATIUM).
ROME, a city and the county-seat of Floyd county, in the
N.W. part of Georgia, U.S.A., at the junction of the Etowah and
Oostanaula rivers, which here form the Coosa. Pop. (1900)
7291, of whom 2830 were negroes; (1910) 12,099. It is served by
the Central of Georgia, the Western & Atlantic (leased by the
Nashville, Chattanooga & St Louis), the Southern and the Rome
& Northern railways, and the Coosa river is navigable from this
i point to the falls of the river in Alabama. The city is the seat
1 of Shorter College (for women), which was established in 1873
as the Cherokee Female College, and received its present name in
1877, when it was rebuilt and endowed by Colonel Alfred Shorter;
and of the Berry Industrial School (1902), for mountain boys.
Rome is situated in a rich agricultural region producing cotton,
cereals, vegetables and fruits, for which it is a trading centre,
and is a shipping point for bauxite, mined in the vicinity.
Other mineral products of this region are iron, limestone,
cement rock, fire-brick clay, coal, slate and marble. Rome's
principal manufactures are cotton, cotton-seed oil, lumber,
foundry and machine-shop products, bricks and agricultural
implements. Its site was originally within the territory of the
Cherokee, and on the other side of the Oostanaula river there
is said to have been at one time an Indian village, which, like
several other Creek villages, was called Chiaha (or Chehaw).
Here, in October 1793, in his Etowah campaign, John Sevier,
with militia from Tennessee, crushed a party of marauding
Indians; the battle is commemorated by a monument in
Myrtle Hill cemetery. Floyd county was erected in 1833.
The first settlement of Rome was made in 1834, and immedi-
ately afterwards it became the county-seat. Rome was first
chartered as a city in 1847. In 1863 there were brilliant cavalry
manoeuvres in its vicinity, which resulted in the capture (May 3)
of Colonel Abel D. Streight (Federal) with 1800 men by General
Nathan B. Forrest (Confederate), with a force one-third the size
of that of his opponent. On the igth of May 1864 the city was
captured by a detachment of the Federal Army of General
William T. Sherman, then conducting his Atlanta campaign.
In 1848-75 Rome was the home of Charles Henry Smith (1826-
1903), a popular humorist, who wrote under the name " Bill
Arp." In 1906 East Rome (pop. 671 in 1900) and North Rome
(pop. 960 in 1900), which was formerly called Forestville, were
annexed to the city.
ROME, a city of Oneida county, New York, U.S.A., on the
Mohawk river and Wood Creek, and the Erie and the Black river
canals, 14 m. W.N.W. of Utica. Pop. (1890) 14,991; (1900)
15.343. of whom 2527 were foreign-born; (1910, census)
20,497. Rome is served by the New York Central & Hudson
River, the Rome, Watertown & Ogdensburg (controlled by the
New York Central), the New York, Ontario & Western, and the
Utica & Mohawk Valley (electric) railways. It is about 450 ft.
above sea-level. The city is the seat of the Academy of the Holy
Names (opened in 1865 as St Peter's Academy), of the State
Custodial Asylum for unteachable idiots, of the Central New
York Institution for Deaf Mutes (1875), and of the Oneida
County Home. The Jervis Public Library (1895), founded
by John Bloomfield Jervis (1795-1885), a famous railway
engineer, had in 1909 about 15,000 volumes. The surrounding
country is devoted largely to farming, especially vegetable
gardening, and to dairying. Among the manufactures are
brass and copper work, wire for electrical uses, foundry and
machine-shop products, locomotives, knit goods, tin cans
and canned goods (especially vegetables). In 1005 the value
of the factory products was $8,631,427 (55-6% more than in
1900).
The portage at this place between the Mohawk river and Wood
Creek, which are about i m. apart, gave the site its Indian name,
De-o-wain-sta, " place where canoes are carried from one stream
to another," and its earliest English name, " The Great (or
Oneida) Carrying-Place," and gave it strategic value as a key
between the Mohawk Valley and Lake Ontario. About 1725
there were built, to protect the carrying-place here, Fort Bull,
on Wood Creek, which was surprised and taken by French and
Indians in March 1756, and Fort Williams, on the Mohawk,
which, like Fort Craven, also on the Mohawk, was destroyed by
Colonel Daniel Webb after the reduction of Oswego by the French
ROME DE L'ISLE ROMILLY, IST BARON
685
in August 1756. General John Stanwix built Fort Stanwix here
at an expense of 60,000, and the first permanent settlement
dates from about this time. In October-November 1768, Sir
William Johnson and representatives of Virginia and Pennsyl-
vania met 3200 Indians of the Six Nations here and made
a treaty with them, under which, for 10,460 in money and
provisions, they surrendered to the crown their claims to what
is now Kentucky and West Virginia and the western part of
Pennsylvania. Of this cession the part which lay in Pennsyl-
vania was secured by purchase from the Indians for the pro-
prietors Richard and Thomas Penn (see PITTSBURG). The
fort was- dismantled immediately afterward. After 1776, when
it was partly repaired by Colonel Elias Dayton, it was called
by the continentals Fort Schuyler, in honour of General Philip
Schuyler, and so is sometimes confused with (old) Fort
Schuyler at Utica. The third regiment of the New York line
under Colonel Peter Gansevoort occupied the fort in April 1777
and completed the repairs begun in 1776; on the 3rd of August
in the same year (one month before the official announcement
by Congress of the design of the flag) the first flag of the
United States, made according to the enactment of the i4th
of June and used in battle, was raised here: it was made from
various pieces of cloth. On the 2nd of August an advance
party of Colonel Barry St Leger's forces coming from the west
arrived before the fort, and the main body (altogether about
650 whites, including loyalists the Royal Greens under Sir
John Johnson, and more than 800 Indians, some led by Joseph
Brant) arrived soon afterwards. The fort then contained about
750 men under Colonel Gansevoort, with Lieut. -Colonel Marinus
Willett as second in command. The danger to the fort roused
General Nicholas Herkimer to gather a force of between 700 and
1000 men (including some Oneida Indians), who during their
advance on the 6th of August were ambuscaded in a ravine
near Oriskany (<?..), about 8 m. E. of the fort; after heavy
losses to both sides, about 250 men from the fort under Willett
attacked the camp of the Indians who were supporting
St Leger, thus relieved Herkimer through the falling back
of the British and Indians to save their supplies, captured
five ensigns of the Royal Greens, and seized large quantities
of stores from the enemy's camp. The siege now lost force,
the Indians straggled away after the loss of their camp
supplies, and on the 23rd of August, St Leger, hearing ex-
aggerated reports of the immediate approach of large re-
inforcements under General Benedict Arnold, withdrew,
abandoning his camp and stores. The successful resistance
here to St Leger contributed greatly to the American success
at Saratoga. Fort Stanwix was the headquarters of Colonel
Gozen Van Schaick (1736-1789) in 1779 when he destroyed
the Onondaga villages. At the fort, on the 22nd of October
1784, a treaty was made by Oliver Wolcott, Richard Butler and
Arthur Lee, commissioners for the United States, with the
chiefs of the Six Nations. In 1796 a canal was built across the
old portage between Wood Creek and the Mohawk river. In
1796 the township of Rome was formed, receiving its name,
says Schoolcraft, " from the heroic defence of the republic
made here." The village of Rome, in the centre of the township,
was incorporated in 1819; and Rome was chartered as a city
in 1870.
See Pomroy Jones, Annals and Recollections of Oneida County
(Rome, 1851); W. M. Willett, A Narrative of the Military Actions
of Col. Marinus Willett (New York, 1831); and Orderly Book of
Sir John Johnson during the Oriskany Campaign (Albany, 1882),
with notes by W. L. Stone and J W. de Peyster.
ROM6 DE L'ISLE, JEAN BAPTISTE LOUIS (1736-1790),
French mineralogist, was born on the 26th of August 1736 at
Gray, in Haute-Sa&ne. As secretary of a company of artillery
he visited the East Indies, and was .taken prisoner by the
English in 1761 and held in captivity for three years. Subse-
quently he became distinguished for h : s researches on mineralogy
and crystallography. He was the author of Essai de Cristdlo-
graphie (1772), the second edition of which, regarded as his
principal work, was published as Cristallographie (3 vols. and
atlas, 1783). He died at Paris on the 7th of March 1790.
ROMESH CHANDRA MITRA, SIR (1840-1899), Indian
judge, was born in 1840. When the East India Company's
charter was renewed in 1853, the old supreme courts and sadr
courts in the presidency towns were changed into high courts,
and Roma Prasad Roy, son of the great reformer Raja Ram
Mohan Roy, was the first Indian who was appointed a judge
of the new high court of Calcutta. He did not live, however,
to take his seat on the bench, and was succeeded by Sambhu
Nath Pandit, and then by Dwarka Nath Mitra, perhaps the
most talented judge that India produced in the igth century.
Dwarka Nath's great ability and thorough insight into cases
were universally recognized in India; his decisions were
valued and often quoted; and his name was often mentioned
as an illustration of the judicial capacity of the natives of India.
Anukul Chandra Mukerji also sat on the bench for a time;
and on his death in 1871, Romesh Chandra Mitra was appointed
judge in his place. He maintained the high reputation of his
predecessors, and for a period of nearly twenty years, down to
1890, he performed his judicial duties with credit and distinction.
When the post of chief justice was temporarily vacant in 1882,
the marquis of Ripon, then viceroy of India, appointed Romesh
Chandra to officiate in that post the highest judicial position
in the Indian empire. Lord Dufferin, who succeeded Lord
Ripon as viceroy of India, appointed Romesh Chandra a
member of the Public Service Commission, and in this capacity
he did valuable work. Failing health compelled him to retire
from the high court in 1890, and he was then knighted and
appointed a member of the viceroy's legislative council. Till
he died in 1899, he continued to take interest in all social,
educational and political reforms in India.
ROMFORD, a market town in the Romford parliamentary
division of Essex, England; on the small river Rom, which
flows into the Thames; 123 m. E.N.E. from London by the
Great Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 13,656.
The ancient church of St Edward the Confessor was replaced
in 1850 by a structure in Decorated style. There is a large
brewery in the town, and extensive market gardens in the
neighbourhood. A grant of a market was obtained in 1247,
and this is still of importance as regards both cattle and corn.
Romford was included in the liberty of Havering-atte-Bower,
which until 1892 had a jurisdiction of its own distinct from
that of the county, with a high steward, magistrates, clerk of
the peace, coroner and quarter sessions. The name of Bower
was derived from a queen's residence attached to the ancient
royal hunting-lodge in the vicinity.
The fact that Romford (Rumford, Rotnpford) lies on the
high road between Colchester and London has determined its
history. Bronze implements have been found here, but no
notice of Romford occurs till the I2th century. It was in-
cluded in the liberty of Havering, and the chief business of the
liberty was conducted there. But the corporation which is
mentioned in medieval records is not that of the town of Rom-
ford, but of the liberty of Havering. Romford has only had a
separate constitution since a local board of health was formed
in 1894, under the act of 1875, after the abolition of the liberty
in 1892. In the middle ages Romford was rather a meeting-
place for merchants than an industrial centre. Brewing,
however, is mentioned in 1331, and one tanner at least carried
on business in Hare Street in 1467.
ROMILLY, JOHN ROMILLY, IST BARON (1802-1874), English
judge, was the second son of Sir Samuel Romilly, and was
born on the loth of January 1802. He was educated at
Trinity College, Cambridge, and was called to the bar at Gray's
Inn in 1827. He first entered parliament in 1832 as member
for Bridport, and in 1843 he became a queen's counsel. He
was elected M.P. for Devonport in 1847, and was appointed
solicitor-general in 1848 in Lord John Russell's administration
and attorney-general in 1850. In 1851 he was appointed
master of the rolls, and continued to sit for Devonport till the
general election in 1832, when he was defeated. He was the
last master of the rolls to sit in parliament. Romilly was
raised to the peerage as Baron Romilly of Barry in 1866, and
686
ROMILLY, SIR S. ROMNEY, G.
retired from the mastership of the rolls in 1873. He did much
to remove the restrictions which had long hampered research
among the public records and state papers. Lord Romilly
died in London on the 23rd of December 1874.
ROMILLY, SIR SAMUEL (1757-1818), English legal reformer,
was the second son of Peter Romilly, a watchmaker and jeweller
in London, whose father had emigrated from Montpellier after
the revocation of the edict of Nantes, and who had married
Margaret Garnault, a Huguenot refugee like himself, but of a
far wealthier family. Samuel Romilly was born in Frith
Street, Soho, on the ist of March 1757. He served for a time
in his father's shop; but his education was not neglected, and
he became a good classical scholar and particularly conversant
with French literature. A legacy of 2000 from one of his
mother's relations led to his being articled to a solicitor and
clerk in chancery with the idea of qualifying himself to pur-
chase the office of one of the six clerks in chancery. In 1778,
however, he determined to go to the bar, and entered himself
at Gray's Inn. He went to Geneva in 1781, where he made
the acquaintance of the chief democratic leaders, including
Etienne Dumont. Called to the bar in 1783, he went the mid-
land circuit, but was chiefly occupied with chancery practice.
On the publication of Madan's Thoughts on Executive Justice,
advocating the increase of capital punishments, he at once wrote
and published in 1786 Observations on Madan's book. Of more
general interest is his intimacy with the great Mirabeau, to
whom he was introduced in 1784. Mirabeau saw him daily
for a long time and introduced him to Lord Lansdowne, who
highly appreciated him, and, when Mirabeau became a political
leader, it was to Romilly that he applied for an account of the
procedure used in the English House of Commons. He visited
Paris in 1789, and studied the course of the Revolution there;
and in 1790 he published his Thoughts on the Probable Influ-
ence of the Late Revolution in France upon Great Britain, a work
of great power. His practice at the chancery bar continued
largely to increase, and in 1800 he was made a K.C. In 1798
he married Anne, daughter of Francis Garbett of Knill Court,
Herefordshire; and in 1805 he was appointed chancellor of
the county palatine of Durham. His great abilities were
thoroughly recognized by the Whig party, to which he attached
himself; and in 1806, on the accession of the ministry of " All
the Talents " to office, he was offered the post of solicitor-
general, although he had never sat in the House of Commons.
He accepted the office, and was knighted and brought into parlia-
ment for Queenborough. He went out of office with the
government, but remained in the House of Commons, sitting
successively for Horsham, Wareham and Arundel. It was now
that Sir Samuel Romilly commenced the greatest labour of his
life, his attempt to reform the criminal law of England, then
at once cruel and illogical. By statute law innumerable offences
were punished by death, but, as such wholesale executions
would be impossible, the larger number of those convicted and
sentenced to death at every assizes were respited, after having
heard the sentence of death solemnly passed upon them. This
led to many acts of injustice, as the lives of the convicts de-
pended on the caprice of the judges, while at the same time it
made the whole system of punishments and of the criminal law
ridiculous. Romilly saw this, and in 1808 he managed to repeal
the Elizabethan statute, which made it a capital offence to steal
from the person. This success, however, raised opposition, and in
the following year three bills repealing equally sanguinary statutes
were thrown out by the House of Lords under the influence of
Lord Ellenborough. Year after year the same influence prevailed,
and Romilly saw his bills rejected; but his patient efforts and
his eloquence ensured victory eventually for his cause by open-
ing the eyes of Englishmen to the barbarity of their criminal
law. The only success he had was in securing the repeal, in
1812, of a statute of Elizabeth making it a capital offence for
a soldier or a mariner to beg without a pass from a magistrate
or his commanding officer. Sir Samuel Romilly's efforts made
his name famous not only in England but all over Europe, and
in 1818 he had the honour of being returned at the head of the
poll for the city of Westminster. He did not long survive his
triumph. On the 29th of October 1818 Lady Romilly died in
the Isle of Wight. Her husband's grief was intense, and he
committed suicide in a fit of temporary insanity on the 2nd of
November. No man of his time was more loved than Sir
Samuel Romilly; his singularly sweet nature, his upright manli-
ness, his eloquence and his great efforts on behalf of humanity
secured him permanent fame.
See the Memoirs of the Life of Sir Samuel Romilly written by
himself, with a selection from his Correspondence, edited by his Sons
(3 vols., 1840); The Speeches of Sir Samuel Romilly in the House of
Commons (2 vols., 1820) ; " Life and Work of Sir Samuel Romilly, '
by Sir W. J. Collins, in Trans, of the Huguenot Society (1908).
ROMILLY-SUR-SEINE, a town of north-central France, in
the department of Aube, a mile from the left bank of the Seine
and 24 m. N.W. of Troyes, on the Paris-Belfort line. Pop.
(1906) 9777.
Romilly is an important industrial town, with extensive manu-
factures of cotton and woollen hosiery, and of the special
machinery and appliances required for the industry. The
Eastern Railway Company has large workshops here.
ROMINTEN, a village of Germany, in the province of East
Prussia, 12 m. N.E. from Goldap, situated in the Rominter
Heide, a fine tract of heath and forest country, 90 sq. m. in
extent, well stocked with game and affording excellent sport.
Here is a favourite hunting-box of the German emperor, with a
church adjacent, both in the Norwegian style. Pop. 1200.
See K. E. Schmidt, Die Rominter Heide (Danzig, 1898).
ROMNEY, GEORGE (1734-1802), English historical and
portrait painter, was born at Dalton-in-Furness, Lancashire,
on the 26th of December 1734. His father was a builder and
cabinet-maker of the place, and the son, having manifested a
turn for mechanics, was instructed in the latter craft, showing
considerable dexterity with his fingers, executing carvings
of figures in wood, and constructing a violin, which he spent
much time in playing. He was also busy with his pencil;
and some of his sketches of the neighbouring rustics having
attracted attention, his father was at length induced to
apprentice the boy, at the age of nineteen, to an itinerant
painter of portraits and domestic subjects named Steele, an
artist who had studied in Paris under Vanloo; but the erratic
habits of his instructor prevented Romney from making great
progress in his art. In 1756 he impulsively married a young
woman who had nursed him through a fever, and started as a
portrait painter on his own account, travelling through the
northern counties, executing likenesses at a couple of guineas,
and producing a series of some twenty figure compositions,
which were exhibited in Kendal, and afterwards disposed of
by means of a lottery.
Having, at the age of twenty-seven, saved about 100, he
left a portion of the sum with his wife and family, and started
to seek his fortune in London, never returning, except for brief
visits, till he came, a broken-down and aged man, to die. Credit
must, however, be given him for recognizing to some extent
his family responsibilities. He did not allow his wife and
children to fall into poverty, and he gave help to his brothers,
who seem to have resembled him in a kind of shiftlessness of
temperament. In London he rapidly rose into popular favour.
His " Death of General Wolfe " was judged worthy of the
second prize at the Society of Arts, but a word from Reynolds
in praise of Mortimer's " Edward the Confessor " led to the
premium being awarded to that painter, while Romney had
to content himself with a donation of 50, an incident which
led to the subsequent coldness between him and the president
which prevented him from exhibiting at the Academy or pre-
senting himself for its honours.
In 1764 he paid a brief visit to Paris, where he was befriended
by Joseph Vernet; and his portrait of Sir Joseph Yates, painted
on his return, bears distinct traces of his study of the works
of Rubens then in the Luxembourg Gallery. In 1766 he
became a member of the Incorporated Society of Artists, and
three years later he seems to have studied in their schools.
ROMNEY, EARL OF
687
Soon he was in the full tide of prosperity. He removed to
Great Newport Street, near the residence of Sir Joshua, whose
fame in portraiture he began to rival in such works as " Sir
George and Lady Warren " and " Mrs Yates as the Tragic
Muse"; and his professional income rose to 1200 a year.
But this marked increase in his popularity had the effect of
enlarging his ambitions, and he became anxious to attempt
subjects which required more experience than he possessed.
Realizing as he did the need for more thorough knowledge, he
was seized with a longing to study in Italy; and in the begin-
ning of 1773 he started for Rome in company with Ozias
Humphrey, the miniature painter. On his arrival he separated
himself from his fellow-traveller and his countrymen, and
devoted himself to solitary study, raising a scaffold to examine
the paintings in the Vatican, and giving much time to work
from the undraped model, of which his painting of a " Wood
Nymph " was a fine and graceful result. At Parma he con-
centrated himself upon the productions of Correggio, which
fascinated him and greatly influenced his practice.
In 1775 Romney returned to London, establishing himself in
Cavendish Square, and resuming his extensive and lucrative
employment as a portrait painter, which in 1785, according to
the estimate of his pupil Robinson, yielded him an income of
over 3600. The admiration of the town was divided between
him and Reynolds. " There are two factions in art," said
Lord Thurlow, " and I am of the Romney faction " and the
remark, and the rivalry which it implied, caused much annoy-
ance to Sir Joshua, who was accustomed to refer contemptu-
ously to the younger painter as "the man in Cavendish Square."
Alter his return from Italy Romney formed two friendships
which powerfully influenced his life. He became acquainted
with Hayley, his future biographer, then in the zenith of his
little-merited popularity as a poet. His influence on the
painter seems to have been far from salutary. Weak himself,
he flattered the weaknesses of Romney, encouraged his ex-
cessive and morbid sensibility, disturbed him with amateurish
fancies and suggestions, and tempted him to expend on slight
rapid sketches, and ill-considered, seldom-completed paintings
of ideal and poetical subjects, talents which would have found
fitter exercise in the steady pursuit of portraiture. About 1783
Romney was introduced to Emma Hart, afterwards celebrated
as Lady Hamilton, and she became the model from whom he
worked incessantly. Her bewitching face smiles from numerous
canvases; he painted her as a Magdalene and as a Joan of Arc,
as a Circe, a Bacchante, a Cassandra; and he has himself con-
fessed that she was the inspirer of what was most beautiful in
his art. But her fascinations seem to have been too much for
the more than middle-aged painter, and they had their own
share in aggravating that nervous restlessness and instability,
inherent in his nature, which finally ruined both health and
mind.
In 1786 Alderman Boydell started his great scheme of the
Shakespeare Gallery, apparently at the suggestion of Romney.
The painter at least entered heartily into the plan, and con-
tributed his scene from the Tempest, and his " Infant Shake-
speare attended by the Passions," the latter characterized by
the Redgraves as one of the best of his subject pictures. Gradu-
ally he began to withdraw from portrait painting, to limit the
hours devoted to sitters, and to turn his thoughts to mighty
schemes of the ideal subjects which he would execute. Already,
in 1792, he had painted " Milton and his Daughters," which
was followed by " Newton making Experiments with the
Prism." He was to paint the Seven Ages, Visions of Adam
with the Angel, " six other subjects from Milton three where
Satan is the. hero, and three from Adam and Eve, perhaps
six of each." Having planned and erected a large studio in
Hamsptead, he removed thither in 1797, with the fine collection
of casts from the antique which his friend Flaxman had gathered
for him in Italy. But his health was now irremediably shat-
tered, and the man was near his end. In the summer of 1799,
suffering from great weakness of body and the profoundest
depression of mind, he returned to the north, to Kendal, where
his deserted but faithful and long-suffering wife received and
tended him. He died on the isth of November 1802.
The art of Romney, especially his figure subjects, suffered
greatly from the waywardness and instability of the painter's
disposition, from his want of fixed purpose and sustained energy.
He lacked the steadfast perseverance needful to the accomplish-
ment of a great picture. Afflicted as he was throughout his
life by an unreasonable timidity and by a self-consciousness
which led him at one moment into assertive affectations and at
another into exaggerated humility, he avoided the society of
his brother artists and lost many opportunities of receiving
that frank professional criticism which might have stimulated
him to more serious effort. In unwholesome surroundings he
steadily deteriorated. His imagination flashed and flickered
fitfully upon him, like April sunshine. His fancy would be
captivated by a subject, which was presently embodied in a
sketch, but the toil of elaborating it into the finished complete-
ness of a painting too frequently overtaxed his powers; he
became embarrassed by technical difficulties which, through
defective early training, he was unable to surmount, and the
half-covered canvas would be turned to the wall. Even in the
pictures he finished he was unable to keep to any consistent
level of achievement. He produced some fine things, very
personal in style and very skilful in handling; but much that
he did seems too tentative and too plainly deficient in shrewd-
ness of insight to deserve serious consideration. His colour,
too, was often unpleasant, hot and monotonous, and his com-
position was apt to be stilted and artificial. It is in the best
of his portraits that we feel the painter's real ability. These,
especially his female portraits, are full of grace, charm, dis-
tinction, and sweetness. When we examine his heads of Cowper
and Wilkes, his delicate and dignified full-length of William
Beckford, his " Parson's Daughter " in the National Gallery,
and his group of the Duchess of Gordon and her Son, we can-
not deny his claim to rank as one of the notable portrait
painters of 18th-century England.
See the Memoirs by William Hayley (1809) and by the artist's
son, the Rev. John Romney (1830); Cunningham's Lives of the
Painters; George Romney and his Art, by Hilda Gamlin (1894).
In the fully illustrated George Romney, by Lord Ronald Suther-
land Gower (1904), pictures, mainly studies, are reproduced not
elsewhere to be found. But the great work upon the artist is
Romney, by Humphry Ward and Wl Roberts (1904), a monograph
of real importance, containing 70 illustrations, a biographical and
critical essay, and a catalogue raisonn& of the painter's works.
Arthur B. Chamberlain's Romney (1910) has 73 plates.
ROMNEY, HENRY SIDNEY, EARL OF (1641-1704), fourth
son of Robert, 2nd earl of Leicester, was born in Paris in 1641.
He and his nephew, Robert Spencer, afterwards 2nd earl of
Sunderland, his senior by a few months, were sent to travel
on the continent of Europe in charge of a Calvinist divine,
Dr Thomas Pierce. Sidney's handsome face helped his advance-
ment at court, but the favour in which he was held by the
duchess of York, to whom he was master of the robes, led to
his dismissal in 1666. His disgrace, however, was short-lived.
He was promoted captain in 1667, and colonel in 1678. In
1672 he was sent on a mission of congratulation to Louis XIV.,
and in 1677 became master of the robes to Charles II. He
entered parliament as member for Bramber in 1679, and became
a close political ally of his nephew Sunderland, with whose wife
he carried on an intrigue which caused considerable scandal.
Sunderland made this intimacy a means to further his political
ends, while Sidney's social reputation and his apparent frivolity
partly concealed his real capacity for intrigue. Sidney was sent
by Sunderland and others in 1679 on a special mission to urge
William of Orange to visit England, a task that he was able to
discharge while acting as the official envoy of Charles II. at the
Hague. He was recalled in 1682, but was again sent on a
special mission to Holland in the year of the accession of James
II. He returned to England in the spring of 1688, and set to
work, at William's desire, to obtain promises of support for the
prince of Orange in the event of his landing. He was presently
allowed to leave England on giving his word not to visit the
688
ROMNEY ROMSEY
Hague, but he broke his promise on getting clear of England,
and conveyed to William a duplicate of the invitation addressed
to him by the English nobility, together with intelligence of
affairs of state obtained through the countess of Sunderland.
He landed with William at Torbay, and received substantial
rewards for his undoubted services. Sworn of the privy
council in 1689, Sidney was made gentleman of the bedchamber
and colonel of the king's regiment of footguards, and received
the titles of Baron Milton and Viscount Sidney of Sheppey. In
1690 he received considerable grants of land from the confiscated
estates of the Irish supporters of James II., much of which he
lost, however, on the parliamentary investigation in 1699
into the distribution of the Irish lands. William made him
secretary of state in 1690, pending the discovery of a better
person. He was soon asked to resign, but was compensated
by his appointment, in 1692, as lord-lieutenant of Ireland. His
inability to cope with the difficulties of this position led to his
recall in the next year, when he became master-general of the
ordnance. He was created earl of Romney in May 1694, and
he retained William's confidence to the last, but on Anne's
accession he was dismissed from his various offices. He never
married, and his titles became extinct on his death on the 8th
of April 1704.
In 1801 the title of earl of Romney was revived in the family of
Marsham. Sir Robert Marsham, Bart. (1685-1724), of Cuxton in
Kent, was a member of parliament from 1708 to 1716, when he was
created Baron of Romney. His grandson Charles, the 3rd Baron
(1774-1811), was created earl of Romney in 1801, and from him
the present earl is descended.
ROMNEY (NEW ROMNEY), a municipal borough and one of
the Cinque Ports in the Ashford parliamentary division of Kent,
England, 75 m. S.E. by E. of London by the South-Eastern &
Chatham railway. Pop. (1901) 1328. It lies in the open, flat
and low tract of Romney Marsh, part of a level extending from
Winchelsea in the south-west to Hythe in the north-east, which
was within historic times in great part covered by an estuarine
inlet of the sea. The river Rother, which now has its mouth at
Rye Harbour, formerly entered the sea here, but had its course
wholly changed during a great storm in 1287, and the gradual
accretion of land led to the decay, not only of Romney, but of
Winchelsea and Rye as seaports. Romney Marsh itself, which
extends north of New Romney, is protected by a seawall of
great thickness, and its guardianship and drainage is in the
hands of a special ancient corporation. The level affords
pasturage for vast flocks of sheep. New Romney, which is now
over a mile from the sea, has large sheep fairs, but little other
trade. Of the five churches mentioned here in the Domesday
Survey only one remains, but this, dedicated to St Nicholas, is
a rich Norman building with later additions. Its Norman west
tower is among the finest in England, and it has a beautiful
Decorated east window with reticulated tracery. New Romney,
the name of which distinguishes it from the decayed village of
Old Romney, 2 m. W., is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and
twelve councillors. Area, 1351 acres. LITTLESTONE-ON-SEA, on
the coast E. of New Romney, is in some favour as a seaside
resort and has excellent golf-links.
Its fine harbour was the cause of the early importance of
Romney (Romenal, Romenhall). The annual assembly of the
Cinque Ports, called the Brodhull, was held here owing to its
central position. At the time of Domesday the archbishop of
Canterbury and the bishop of Bayeux were joint lords. Romney
also owed maritime service to the king, which consisted of sup-
plying five ships to serve for fifteen days in the year. A con-
firmation of liberties was granted by John in 1205. The town,
which was a borough by prescription, was governed " from time
immemorial " by twelve jurats; a bailiff was appointed by the
archbishop, but the rights of the overlord seem to have been
small, and in 1521 the inhabitants denied the bailiff the right
of presiding with the jurats over their court. Elizabeth changed
the style of incorporation to the mayor, jurats and commonalty,
and another charter was granted by James II. in 1686, which
remained the governing charter until 1835. The Cinque Ports
were first summoned to parliament in 1265; the first returns
for Romney are for 1266; it returned two members until it was
disfranchised in 1832.
ROMORANTIN, a town of central France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Loir-et-Cher, 31 m. S.E.
of Blois by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 6836; commune, 8374.
The town is situated on the Sauldre at its confluence with
the Morantin, whence its name (Rims Moranlini). A church
dating mainly from the I2th century, a gateway of the i6th
century and some old houses are the chief objects of interest.
The remains of a chateau rebuilt by Francis I. in the
Renaissance style are used as the sub-prefecture. Tribunals
of first instance and of commerce, and a communal college are
among the public institutions. The manufacture of flannel and
cloth especially for army clothing is carried on, together with
trade in wine, live stock, agricultural produce and the asparagus
of the vicinity.
In 1560 Romorantin gave its name to an edict which
prevented the introduction of the Inquisition into France.
The industrial importance of the town dates from the later
middle ages.
ROMSDAL, the valley of the river Rauma, in Norway. The
Rauma is a torrent descending from Lake Lesjekogen to the
Romsdal Fjord on the west coast (62 30' N.). The nearest
port is Molde, from which steamers run to Veblungsnaes (30 m.)
at the foot of the valley. A good road traverses the valley,
which is one of the finest in southern Norway, Sanked by steep
mountains terminating in abrupt peaks Vengetinder (5960 ft.),
Romsdalshorn (5105), Troldtinder (" witch-peaks," 6010) and
others. Several waterfalls are seen, such as the Mongefos, the
Vaermofos, falling nearly 1000 ft., and the Slettafos. Lake
Lesjekogen also drains from the opposite end by the Laagen
or Lougen river to the Glommen, and so to the Skagerrack, and
the road follows its valley, the Gudbrandsdal. The Romsdal
gives its name to an ami (county) extending from the promontory
of Stadt in the south to Ram Fjord in the north, including the
Stor, Molde, Halse and their branch fjords, the ports of Aale-
sund, Molde and Christiansund, and reaching inland to the
Dovrefjeld.
ROMSEY, a market town and municipal borough in the
New Forest parliamentary division of Hampshire, England,
7 m. N.W. of Southampton by the London & South-Western
railway. Pop. (1901) 4365. It is pleasantly situated in the
rich valley of the Test. The abbey church of SS. Mary and
Elfleda is one of the finest examples in England of a great
Norman church little altered by later builders. Its history
is not clear, but a house was founded here by Edward the
elder (c. 910), and became a Benedictine nunnery. The
church, which is the only important relic of the foundation, is
cruciform, with a low central tower. Building evidently began
in the first half of the i2th century, and continued through it,
as the western part of the nave shows the transition to the
Early English style, which appears very finely in the west
front. Decorated windows occur in the east end, beyond
which a chapel in this style formerly extended. Perpendicular
insertions are insignificant. The nave and choir have aisles,
triforium and clerestory. The transepts have eastern apsidal
chapels, as have the choir aisles, though the walls of these last
are square without. Foundations of the apse of a large pre-
Norman church have been discovered below the present build-
ing. In Romsey there are tanyards, ironworks and works of
the Berthon Boat Company. The borough is under a mayor,
4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 533 acres.
Romsey (Romesyg, Romeseie) probably owed its origin, as it
did its early importance, to the abbey. At the. time of the
Domesday Survey it Vfas owned by the abbey, which continued
to be the overlord until the dissolution. There is no evidence
to show that Romsey was a borough before the charter of
incorporation granted by James I. in 1608. This was con-
firmed by William III. in 1692, and the corporation was reformed
in 1835. Romsey has never been represented in parliament.
The right to hold a fair was granted to the abbey by Henry III.
ROMULUS ROND A
689
in 1271, and fairs were held on Easter Monday, on August 26
and November 8. The market now held on Thursday, formerly
on Saturday, dates from 1272. Every alternate Thursday is
a great market. In medieval times Romsey had a considerable
share of the woollen trade of Hampshire, but by the end of the
1 7th century this manufacture began to decline, and the in-
troduction of machinery and the adoption of steam led to its
subsequent transference to the northern coal centres. The
clothing trade was replaced by the manufacture of paper, an
industry which still exists.
ROMULUS, the legendary eponymous founder and first king
(753-716?) of Rome, represented as the son of Mars by the
Vestal Rhea Silvia or Ilia, daughter of Numitor, who had been
dispossessed of the throne of Alba by his younger brother
Amulius. Romulus and Remus, the twin sons of Silvia, were
placed in a trough and cast into the Tiber by their granduncle.
The trough grounded in the marshes where Rome afterwards
stood, under the wild fig tree (ficus ruminalis), which was still
holy in later days. The babes were suckled by a she-wolf and
fed by a woodpecker, and then fostered by Acca Larentia, wife
of the shepherd Faustulus. They became leaders of a warlike
band of shepherds on the Palatine, and in course of time were
recognized by their grandfather, whom they restored to his
throne, slaying the usurper Amulius. They now proposed to
found a city on the site where they had been nurtured; but a
quarrel for precedence broke out and Remus was slain. Romulus
strengthened his band by offering an " asylum " to outcasts
and fugitives, found wives for them by capture and waged war
with their kinsmen. His most formidable foe was Titus Tatius
(q.v.), king of the Sabines, but after an obstinate struggle he
and Romulus united their forces and reigned side by side till
Tatius was slain at Lavinium in the course of a blood-feud with
Laurentum. Romulus then reigned alone till he suddenly
disappeared in a storm. He was thereafter worshipped as a
god under the name of Quirinus, which, however, is really a
Sabine form of Mars. The story of Romulus, best preserved
in the first book of Livy (see also Dion. Halic. i. 75-ii. 56;
Plutarch, Romulus; Cicero, de Republica, ii. 2-10), belongs
throughout to legend. This was felt in later times by the
Romans themselves, who gave a rationalistic explanation of
the miraculous incidents. Thus, Mars was converted into a
stranger disguised as the god of war, and the she-wolf into a
woman of ill-fame (lupa); Romulus was not taken up into
heaven, but put to death and carried away piecemeal by the
patricians under their cloaks.
The whole story, probably first given by the annalists Fabius
Pictor and Cincius Alimentus, contains religious and aetiological
elements. The foundation of the city by twins may be ex-
plained by the worship of the Lares, who are generally represented
as a pair of brothers, especially as the mother of Romulus and
Remus was connected with the worship of the hearth of the
state. The introduction of the wolf may be of Greek or eastern
origin; it may have a totemistic significance; or may be due
to the ficus ruminalis, the fig tree near the Lupercal on the
Palatine, where the twins were first exposed. This tree was
sacred to a goddess Rumina (ruma, " breast," whence the
suckling incident), and the resemblance between Romulus and
ruminalis led to the fig tree and the founder of the city being
subsequently connected by the Roman antiquarians. The wolf
would then be suggested by the proximity of the Lupercal, the
grotto of Faunus Lupercus, with whom the shepherd Faustulus is
identical. According to Professor Ducati of Bologna, in a paper
on an old Etruscan stele, on which a she-wolf is represented
suckling a child, the wolf legend is an importation from Etruria,
the original home of which was Crete. Miletus, son of Apollo
and a daughter of Minos, having been exposed by his mother,
was suckled by she-wolves, being afterwards found and brought
up by shepherds. To escape the designs of Minos, Miletus
fled to Asia Minor, and founded the city called after him, where
the Etruscans first became acquainted with the legend. The
opening of the " asylum " is a Greek addition (as the name itself
suggests). Down to imperial times, the Romans seem to have
been ignorant of the Greek custom of taking sanctuary; further,
the idea was entirely opposed to the exclusive spirit of the ancient
Italians. The story was probably invented to give an explana-
tion of the sacred spot named " Inter duos lucos " between the
arx and the Capitol. Another Greek touch is the deification
of an eponymous hero. The rape of the Sabine women is clearly
aetiological, invented to account for the custom of marriage by
capture. Census, at whose festival the rape took place, was a
god of the earth and crops, the giver of fruitfulness in plants
and animals. It is generally agreed that the capture of the
Capitol by Titus Tatius may contain an historical element,
pointing to an early conquest of Rome by the Sabines, of which
there are some indications. Subsequently, to efface the recol-
lection of an event so distasteful to Roman vanity and national
pride, Sabine names and customs were accounted for by a
supposed union of Romans and Sabines during the regal period,
the result of a friendly league concluded between Romulus and
Tatius. According to E. Pais, Romulus is merely the eponym
of Roma; his life is nothing but the course of the sun, and the
institutions ascribed to him are the result of long historical
development.
Romulus, like his double Tullus Hostilius, is regarded as
the founder of the military and political (see ROME), as Numa
and his counterpart Ancus Marcius of the religious institutions
of Rome.
For a critical examination of the story, see Schwegler, Romische
Geschichte, bks. viii.-x. ; Sir George Cornewall Lewis, Credibility of
early Roman History, chap. 1 1 ; W. Ihne, History of Rome, \. ; Sir J.
Seeley, Introduction to his edition of Livy, bk. i.; E. Pais, Storia di
Roma (1898), i. pt. I, and Ancient Legends of Roman History (Eng.
trans., 1906) ; also O. Gilbert, Geschichte und Topographic der Stadt
Rom im Altertum (1883-1885).
RONCESVALLES (Fr. Roncevaux), a village of northern
Spain, in the province of Navarre; situated on the small river
Urrobi, at an altitude of 3220 ft. among the Pyrenees, and
within 5 m. from the French frontier. Pop. (1900) 152.
Roncesvalles is famous in history and legend for the defeat of
Charlemagne and the death of Roland (q.v.) in 778. The small
collegiate church contains several curious relics associated with
Roland, and is a favourite place of pilgrimage. The battle is
said to have been fought in the picturesque valley known
as Val Carlos, which is now occupied by a hamlet bearing the
same name, and in the adjoining defile of Ibaneta. Both of
these are traversed by the main road leading north from
Roncesvalles to St Jean Pied de Port, in France.
RONCONI, GIORGIO (1810-1890), Italian baritone vocalist,
was born in 1810. He learnt singing from his father
Domenico, who had been a celebrated tenor in his time, and
made his debut in 1831 at Pa via. After singing in Italy for
some years with ever-growing success, he appeared for the
first time in England, in 1842, as Henry Ashton in
Lucia di Lammermoor. His success was immediate, and he
continued to be one of the most popular artists on the lyric
stage until his retirement in 1866. His voice was neither
extensive in compass nor fine in quality, but the genius of his
acting and the strength of his personality fully atoned for his
vocal defects. He was equally at home in comedy and tragedy,
and the two parts by which he is best remembered, Rigoletto and
Figaro, show conclusively the range of his talent. In his later
years Ronconi founded a school of singing at Granada, and he
also accepted the post of professor of singing at the Madrid
Conservatoire. He died in 1890.
RONDA, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Malaga;
on the river Guadiaro and on the Algeciras-Bobadilla railway.
Pop. (1900) 20,995. Ronda is built on a high rock nearly
surrounded by the Guadiaro, which flows through an abrupt
chasm 530 ft. deep and 300 ft. wide, by which the old town
is separated from the new. Of the three bridges, one is said
to have been built by the Romans, another by the Moors; the
most modern (1761) spans the stream in a single arch at a
height of about 255 ft. On the edge of the chasm is the-alameda
or public promenade, commanding a wide and beautiful prospect
of the fertile valley or vega and the sierras beyond. The old
RONDEAU RONDO
part of the town has a Moorish aspect, with narrow, steep
and crooked lanes, and still retains some Moorish towers and
other medieval buildings. The Ronda bull-ring is one of the
finest in Spain, and can accommodate 10,000 spectators.
Ronda has a considerable trade in leather, saddlery, horses,
soap, flour, chocolate, wine and hats.
Some remains of an aqueduct and theatre, about 7 m. N. of
Ronda, are supposed to represent the Acinipo or Arunda of
ancient geographers. Ronda was taken from the Moors in
1485. It gives its name to the Sierra or Serrania de Ronda,
one of the main sections of the coast mountains which rise
between the great plain of Andalusia and the Mediterranean.
RONDEAU (Ital. Rondo), a structural form in poetry and
(in the form of " rondo ") in music. In poetry the rondeau
is a short metrical structure which in its perfect form consists
of thirteen eight- or ten-syllabled verses divided into three
strophes of unequal length, and knit together by two rhymes
and a refrain. In Clement Marot's time the laws of the rondeau
were laid down, and, according to Voiture, in the i7th century,
the following was the type of the approved form of the rondeau:
" Ma foy, c'est fait de moy, car Isabeau
M'a conjurfi de luy faire un Rondeau:
Cela me met en une peine extrlme.
Quoy treize yers, huit en eau, cinq en kme.
Je luy ferois aussi-t6t un bateau !
En voila cinq pourtant en un monceau :
Faisons en huict, en invoquant Brodeau,
En puis motions, par quelque stratageme,
Ma foy, c'est fait !
Si je pouvois encore de mon cerveau
Tirer cinq vers, 1'ouvrage seroit beau ;
Mais cependant, je suis dedans I'onziSme,
Et si je croy que je fais le douzi^me
En voila treize ajustez au niveau.
Ma foy, c'est fait !"
All forms of the rondeau, however, are alike in this, that
the distinguishing metrical emphasis is achieved by a peculiar
use of the refrain. Though we have a set of rondeaux in the
Rolliad (written by Dr. Lawrence the friend of Burke, according
to Edmund Gosse, who has given us an admirable essay upon
exotic forms of verse), it was not till recent years that the form
had any real vogue in England. Considerable attention, how-
ever, has lately been given in England to the form. Some
English rondeaux are as bright and graceful as Voiture's own.
Swinburne, who in his Century of Roundels was perhaps the
first to make the refrain rhyme with the second verse of the
first strophe, has brought the form into high poetry. In
German, ronrieaux have been composed with perfect correct-
ness by Weckherlin, and Vvith certain divergences from the
French type by Gotz and Fischart; the German name for
the form is rundum or ringel-gedicht.
Although the origin of the retrain in all poetry was no doubt
the improvisatore's need of a rest, a time in which to focus
bis forces and recover breath for future flights, the refrain has
a distinct metrical value of its own; it knits the structure
together, and so intensifies the emotional energy, as we see in
the Border ballads, in the Oriana of Lord Tennyson, and in
the Sister Helen of Rossetti. The suggestion of extreme arti-
ficiality of " difficulty overcome " which is one great fault
of the rondeau as a vehicle for deep emotion, does not therefore
spring from the use of the refrain, but from the too frequent
recurrence of the rhymes in the strophes for which there is
no metrical necessity as in the case of the Petrarchan sonnet.
The rondeau is, however, an inimitable instrument of gaiety
and grace in the hands of a skilful poet.
RONDEL, a form of verse closely allied to the rondeau (q.v.)
but distinguished from it by containing fourteen instead of
thirteen lines, and by demanding a slightly different arrange-
ment of rhymes. Moreover, the initial couplet is repeated in
the middle and again at the close. The arrangement of rhymes
is as follows: a, b b, a; a b, a b; a, b, b, a, a, b. This form,
which was invented in the i4th century, was largely used in
later medieval French poetry, but particularly by Charles
d'0r!6ans (1391-1465), the very best of whose graceful creations
are all rondels. One of the most famous of this prince's rondels
may be given here as a type of their correct construction:
" Le temps a laissi<i son manteau
De vent, de froidure et de pluye,
Et s'est yestu de brouderie
De souleil luisant, cler et beau.
II n'y a beste ne oyseau
Qu'en son jargon ne chante ou crie:
Le temps a laissi<5 son manteau
De vent, de froidure et de pluye.
Riviere, fontaine et ruisseau
Portent, en Hvr6e iolie,
Gouttes d 'argent d'or faverie;
Chascun s'abille de nouveau ;
Le temps a laisste son manteau
De vent, de froidure et de pluye."
The rondel, in French, may begin with either a masculine
or a feminine rhyme, but its solitary other rhyme must be of
the opposite kind. The rondel was introduced into English
in the i5th century, but the early specimens of it are very
clumsy. It was revised in the jgth century, but it appears
to suit the French better than any other language. Correct
examples are found in the poems of Robert Bridges, Dobson,
Gosse and Henley. The following, by Austin Dobson, gives an
exact impression of what an English rondel should be in all
technical respects :
" Love comes back to his vacant dwelling,
The old, old Love that we knew of yore !
We see him stand by the open door,
With his great eyes sad, and his bosom swelling.
He makes as though in our arms repelling
He fain would lie as he lay before ;
Love comes back to his vacant dwelling,
The old, old Love that we knew of yore !
Ah ! who shall help us from over-spelling
That sweet, forgotten, forbidden lore ?
E'en as we doubt, in our hearts once more,
With a rush of tears to our eyelids welling,
Love comes back to his vacant dwelling,
The old, old Love that we knew of yore !"
Theodore de Banville remarks that the art of the rondel consists
in the gay and natural reintroduction of the refrain, which
should always seem inevitable, while slightly changing the
point of view of the reader. If this is not successfully achieved,
" on ne fera que de la marqueterie et du placage, c'est-a-dire,
en fait de poesie, rien ! " In Germany, the rondel was intro-
duced, in the i8th century, under the name of ringel-gedicht,
by Johann Nikolaus Gotz (1731-1781), and was occasionally
used, in the course of the ipth century, by German poets.
RONDO, a musical form originally derived from the rondel
in verse; as may be seen, long before the development of in-
strumental forms, in some of the chansons of Orlando di Lasso.
The rondeau en couplets of Couperin and his contemporaries
shows both in name and form the same connexion with verse.
It consists of the alternation between a single neatly rounded
phrase and several slightly contrasted episodes (the couplets)
without any important change of key. Bach enriched it with
his wealth of epigram, but did not expand its range.
The later sense of the term covers an important series of
the sonata forms (q.v.), chiefly found in finales; but rondo-form
sometimes occurs in slow movements (e.g. Mozart, Haffner
Serenade, String Quintet in E flat; Beethoven, Fourth
Symphony; Quartet, Op. 74, &c.). The single-phrase ritornello
and short couplets of the old form are in the sonata style
replaced by a broadly designed melody and well-contrasted
episodes in different keys.
If the form of a Bach or Couperin rondo may be represented
byABACADA, &c., the various forms of the later rondo may
be represented somewhat as follows: placing on a horizontal
line those parts that are in the main key, and representing other
keys by differences of level:
(i) Sectional rondos; i.e. with little or no development or
RONSARD
691
transition between episode and main theme; very character-
istic of Haydn, who, however, often gives it more organization
B
than appears on the surface A A A coda; very rarely
C
with no change of key except between tonic major and minor, as
in Haydn's famous Gipsy Rondo. Frequently the episodes
are increased in number or made to recur. Beethoven most
clearly shows the influence of Haydn in his frequent use of
modifications of this type of rondo in his earlier works, e.g.
finales of Sonatas, Op. 10, No. 3, Op. 14, Nos. i and 2. He also
applied it very successfully to his early slow movements, as in
the Sonatas, Op. 2, No. 2, and Op. 13 (Pathetique). The sectional
rondo was modernized on a gigantic scale by Brahms in the
finale of his G minor Pianoforte Quartet, Op. 25; and Schumann's
favourite art-forms are various compounds between it and the
cognate idea of the dance-tune with one or more " trios," as in
the Novellettes, the Arabeske, and the Romance in B major.
(ii) Rondos influenced by the form of a first movement (for
which see SONATA FORMS). The normal scheme for this, which
B
is Mozart's favourite rondo-form, is A A ABA coda,
and it is easy to see how it may be applied to sectional
rondos, as in the finale of Beethoven's Sonata, Op. 13. But it
normally implies longer and weightier themes and a higher
degree of organization. If the second episode (C) is transformed
into an elaborate development of previous material in various
keys, the resemblance to first-movement form is increased; the
only external difference being the recurrence of A in full after
the first episode B (which is treated exactly like the " second
subject " of a first movement). As, however, many first move-
ments that do not repeat their exposition (corresponding to
A + B in the above rondo-scheme) make a feint of so doing
before beginning the development, it is obvious that the blend-
ing of rondo and first-movement form may become very com-
plete. In fact, the true criterion of a rondo is, as with all real
art-forms, a matter of style rather than of external shape. The
well rounded-off, self-repeating, tune-like character of the main
theme, and a sense of pleasure and importance in the mere fact
of its return (without absolute necessity for dramatic effect)
are the distinctive evidences of rondo form and style. This
rule is well proved by the case most frequently cited as an
exception, the rondo of Beethoven's Sonata in D, Op. 10, No. 3;
for nothing can be more significant than the way in which its
fragmentary opening figure is built up into a self-contained
musical epigram and ended with a full close, as contrasted with
the way in which the most tuneful of first-movement beginnings
(e.g. Beethoven's Quartet in F major, Op. 59, No. i, Trio in B
flat, Op. 97; Brahms's String Quintet in F major, Op. 88)
expand gradually into their further course.
The following are some of the more important of many modifica-
tions and applications of this form :
(a) Omission of return of main theme before recapitulation of
B
episode A A development ,m various keys, B A coda as in
Beethoven's G major Concerto, where, however, much happens
between the recapitulation of B and the following return of A , and
the coda is nearly as long as all that has gone before.
B
(6) A A B (A) like a first movement without a development.
Here A will be very large and the transition to B important, while
B will consist of a considerable number of themes. See the finales
of Mozart's E flat String Quartet and C major Quintet, most of his
greater slow movements, and many of Beethoven's.
In concertos the only modifying influence the balance between
solo and orchestra shows in rondo-form is in the tendency to give
the orchestra a large number of subsidiary themes at the outset,
which perhaps do not reappear until the coda, where, with the aid of
the solo, they can round off the design very effectively. Mozart's
use of this device is not confined to concertos. (D. F. T.)
RONSARD, PIERRE DE (1524-1585), French poet and
" prince of poets " (as his own generation in France called him),
was born at the Chateau de la Poissonniere, near the village of
Couture in the province of Venddmois (department of Loir-et-
Cher), on the nth of September 1524. His family are said to
have come from the Slav provinces to the south of the Danube
(provinces with which the crusades had given France much
intercourse) in the first half of the i4th century. Baudouin
de Ronsard or Rossart was the founder of the French branch of
the house, and made his mark in the early stages of the Hundred
Years' War. The poet's father was named Loys, and his
mother was Jeanne de Chaudrier, of a family not only noble in
itself but well connected. Pierre was the youngest son. Loys
de Ronsard was maltre d' hotel du roi to Francis I., whose captivity
after Pavia had just been softened by treaty, and he had to quit
his home shortly after Pierre's birth. The future Prince of Poets
was educated at home for some years and sent to the College
de Navarre at Paris when he was nine years old. It is said that
the rough life of a medieval school did not suit him. He had,
however, no long experience of it, being quickly appointed page,
first to the king's eldest son Francois, and then to his brother
the duke of Orleans. When Madeleine of France was married
to James V. of Scotland, Ronsard was attached to the king's
service, and he spent three years in Great Britain. The latter
part of this time seems to have been passed in England, though
he had, strictly speaking, no business there. On returning to
France in 1540 he was again taken into the service of the duke
of Orleans. In this service he had other opportunities of travel,
being sent to Flanders and again to Scotland. After a time a
more important employment fell to his lot, and he was attached
as secretary to the suite of Lazare de Baif, the father of his
future colleague in the Pleiade and his companion on this
occasion, Antoine de Baif, at the diet of Spires. Afterwards he
was attached in the same way to the suite of the cardinal du
Bellay-Langey, and his mythical quarrel with Rabelais dates
mythically from this period. His apparently promising diplo-
matic career was, however, cut short by an attack of deafness
which no physician could cure, and he determined to devote
himself to study. The institution which he chose for the pur-
pose among the numerous schools and colleges of Paris was the
College Coqueret, the principal of which was Daurat afterwards
the " dark star " (as he has been called from his silence in
French) of the Pleiade, and already an acquaintance of Ron-
sard's from his having held the office of tutor in the Baif house-
hold. Antoine de Baif, Daurat's pupil, accompanied Ronsard;
Belleau shortly followed; Joachim du Bellay, the second of
the seven, joined not much later. Muretus (Jean Antoine de
Muret), a great scholar and by means of his Latin plays a great
influence in the creation of French tragedy, was also a student
here.
Ronsard's period of study occupied seven years, and the first
manifesto of the new literary movement, which was to apply
to the vernacular the principles of criticism and scholarship
learnt from the classics, tame not from him but from Du Bellay.
The Defense et illustration de la langue franQaise of the latter
appeared in 1549, and the Pleiade (or Brigade, as it was first
called) may be said to have been then launched. It consisted,
as its name implies, of seven writers whose names are some-
times differently enumerated, though the orthodox canon is
beyond doubt composed of Ronsard, Du Bellay, Baif, Belleau,
Pontus de Tyard (a man of rank and position who had exempli-
fied the principles of the friends earlier), Jodelle the dramatist,
and Daurat. Ronsard's own work came a little later, and a
rather idle story is told of a trick of Du Bellay's which at last
determined him to publish. Some single and minor pieces, an
epithalamium on Antoine de Bourbon and Jeanne de Navarre
(1550), a " Hymne de la France " (1549), an " Ode a la Paix,"
preceded the publication in 1550 of the four first books (" first "
is characteristic and noteworthy) of the Odes of Pierre de
Ronsard. This was followed in 1552 by the publication of his
Amours de Cassandre with the fifth book of Odes. These books
excited a violent literary quarrel. Marot was dead, but he
left a numerous school, some of whom saw in the stricter
literary critique of the Pleiade, in its outspoken contempt of
merely vernacular and medieval forms, in its strenuous advice
692
RONSARD
to French poetry to " follow the ancients," and so forth, an
insult to the author of the Adolescence Cltmentine and his
followers. The French court, and indeed all French society
was just then much interested in literary questions, and a
curious story is told of the rivalry that ensued. Mellin de
Saint-Gelais, it is said, the chief of the " Ecole Marotique '
and a poet of no small merit, took up Ronsard's book and read
part of it in a more or less designedly burlesque fashion before
the king. It may be observed that if he did so it was a dis-
tinctly rash and uncourtier-like act, inasmuch as, from Ron-
Sard's father's position in the royal household, the poet was
personally known and liked both by Henry and by his family.
At any rate, Marguerite de Valois, the king's sister, after-
wards duchess of Savoy, is said to have snatched the book
from Saint-Gelais and insisted on reading it herself, with the
result of general applause. Henceforward, if not before, his
acceptance as a poet was not doubtful, and indeed the tradition
of his having to fight his way against cabals is almost entirely
unsupported. His popularity in his own time was overwhelm-
ing and immediate, and his prosperity was unbroken. He
published his Hymns, dedicated to Marguerite de Savoie, in 1 5 5 5 ;
the conclusion of the Amours, addressed to another heroine,
in 1556; and then a collection of QLmres completes, said to be
due to the invitation of Mary Stuart, queen of Francis II., in
1560; with Elegies, mascarades et bergeries in 1565. To this
same year belongs his most important and interesting Abrtge
de I'art poetique fran^ais.
The rapid change of sovereigns did Ronsard no harm.
Charles IX., who succeeded his brother after a very short time,
was even better inclined to him than Henry and Francis. He
gave him rooms in the palace; he bestowed upon him divers
abbacies and priories; and he called him and regarded him
constantly as his master in poetry. Neither was Charles IX.
a bad poet. This royal patronage, however, had its disagree-
able side. It excited violent dislike to Ronsard on the part
of the Huguenots, who wrote constant pasquinades against him,
strove (by a ridiculous exaggeration of the Dionysiac festival
at Arcueil, in which the friends had indulged to celebrate the
success of the first French tragedy, Jodelle's Cleopatre) to repre-
sent him as a libertine and an atheist, and (which seems to have
annoyed him more than anything else) set up his follower
Du Bartas as his rival. According to some words of his own,
which are quite credible considering the ways of the time, they
were not contented with this variety of argument, but attempted
to have him assassinated. During this period Ronsard's work
was considerable but mostly occasional, and the one work of
magnitude upon which Charles put him, the Frantfade (1572),
has never been Tanked, even by his most devoted admirers,
as a chief title to fame. The metre (the decasyllabic) which
the king chose could not but contrast unfavourably with
the magnificent alexandrines which Du Bartas and Agrippa
d'Aubigne were shortly to produce; the general plan is feebly
classical, and the very language has little or nothing of that
racy mixture of scholarliness and love of natural beauty which
distinguishes the best work of the Pleiade. The poem could
never have had an abiding success, but at its appearance it had
the singular bad luck almost to coincide with the massacre of
St Bartholomew, which had occurred about a fortnight before
its publication. One party in the state were certain to look
coldly on the work of a minion of the court at such a juncture,
the other had something else to think of. The death of Charles
made, indeed, little difference in the court favour which Ron-
sard enjoyed, but, combined with his increasing infirmities,
it seems to have determined him to quit court life. During
his last days he lived chiefly at a house which he possessed in
Vendome, the capital of his native province, at his abbey at
Croix-Val in the same neighbourhood, or else at Paris, where he
was usually the guest of Jean Galland, well known as a scholar,
at the College de Boncourt. It seems also that he had a town
house of his own in the Faubourg Saint-Marcel. At any rate
his preferments made him in perfectly easy circumstances,
and he seems neither to have derived nor wished for any profit
from his books. A half-jocular suggestion that his publisher
should give him money to buy " du bois pour se chauffer "
in return for his last revision of his CEuvres completes is the only
trace of any desire of the kind. On the other hand, he received
not merely gifts and endowments from his own sovereign but
presents from many others, including Elizabeth of England.
Mary, queen of Scots, who had known him earlier, addressed him
from her prison; and Tasso consulted him on the Gerusalemme.
His last years were, however, saddened not merely by the death
of many of his most intimate friends, but by constant and
increasing ill-health. This did not interfere with his literary
work in point of quality, for he was rarely idle, and some of
his latest work is among his best. But he indulged (what
few poets have wisely indulged) the temptation of constantly
altering his work, and many of his later alterations are by
no means for the better. Towards the end of 1585 his con-
dition of health grew worse and worse, and he seems to have
moved restlessly from one of his houses to another for some
months. When the end came, which, though in great pain, he
met in a resolute and religious manner, he was at his priory of
Saint-Cosme at Tours, and he was buried in the church of that
name on Friday, December 27.
The character and fortunes of Ronsard's works are among the
most remarkable in literary history, and supply in themselves a
kind of illustration of the progress of French literature during the
last three centuries. It was long his fortune to be almost always
extravagantly admired or violently attacked. At first, as has
been said, the enmity, not altogether unprovoked, of the friends
and followers of Marot fell to his lot, then the still fiercer antagonism
of the Huguenot faction, who, happening to possess a poet of great
merit in Du Bartas, were able to attack Ronsard in his tenderest
point. But fate had by no means done its worst with him in his
lifetime. After his death the classical reaction set in under the
auspices of Malherbe, who seems to have been animated with a sort
of personal hatred of Ronsard, though it is not clear that they ever
met. After Malherbe the rising glory of Corneille and his con-
temporaries obscured the tentative and unequal work of the Pleiade,
which was, moreover, directly attacked by Boileau himself, the
dictator of French criticism in the last half of the I7th century.
Then Ronsard was, except by a few men of taste, like La Bruyere
and Fe'nelon, forgotten when he was not sneered at. In this con-
dition he remained during the whole i8th century and the first
quarter of the igth. The Romantic revival, seeing in him a victim
of its special bete noire Boileau, and attracted by his splendid
diction, rich metrical faculty, and combination of classical and
medieval peculiarities, adopted his name as a kind of battle-cry,
and for the moment exaggerated his merits somewhat. The critical
work, however, first of Sainte-Beuye in his Tableau de la litlerature
franc,aise au ideme siede, and since of others, has established
Ronsard pretty securely in his right place, a place which may be
defined in a few sentences.
For the general position of the Pldiade, see FRENCH LITERATURE.
Ronsard, its acknowledged chief and its most voluminous poet,
was probably also its best, though a few isolated pieces of Belleau
excel him in airy lightness of touch. Several sonnets of Du Bellay
exhibit what may be called the intense and voluptuous melancholy
of the Renaissance more perfectly than anything of his, and the
finest passages of the Tragiques and the Divine Sepmaine surpass
his work in command of the alexandrine and in power _x>f turning
it to the purposes of satirical invective and descriptive narration.
But that work is, as has been said, very extensive (we possess at a
rough guess not much short of a hundred thousand lines of his),
and it is extraordinarily varied in form. He did not introduce the
sonnet into France, but he practised it very soon after its introduc-
tion and with admirable skill the famous " Quand vous serez bien
vieille " being one of the acknowledged gems of French literature.
His odes, which are very numerous, are also very interesting and in
their best shape very perfect compositions. He began by imitating
the strophic arrangement of the ancients, but very soon had the
wisdom to desert this for a kind of adjustment of the Horatian ode
:o rhyme, instead of exact quantitative metre. In this latter kind
!ie devised some exquisitely melodious rhythms of which, till our
own day, the secret died with the I7th century. His more sustained
work sometimes displays a bad selection of measure; and his
occasional poetry epistles, eclogues, elegies, &c. is injured by
ts vast volume. But the preface to the Franc.iade is a very fine
piece of verse, far superior (it is in alexandrines) to the poem itself,
generally speaking, Ronsard is best in his amatory verse (the long
series of sonnets and odes to Cassandre, Marie, Genevre, Helene
He'l&ne de Surgeres, a later and mainly " literary " love -&c.), and
n his descriptions of the country (the famous " Mignonne aliens
roir si la rose," the " Fontaine Bellerie," the " Foret de Gastine,"
and so forth), which have an extraordinary grace and freshness.
No one used with more art than he the graceful diminutives which
RONSDORF RONTGEN, D.
693
his school set in fashion. He knew well too how to manage the
gorgeous adjectives (" marbrine," " cinabrine," " ivoirine " and the
like) which were another fancy of the Pleiade, and in his hands
they rarely become stiff or cumbrous. In short, Ronsard shows
eminently the two great attractions of French 16th-century poetry
as compared with that of the two following ages magnificence of
language and imagery and graceful variety of metre.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The chief separately published works of Ronsard
are noted above. He produced, however, during his life a vast
number of separate publications, some of them mere pamphlets or
broadsheets, which from time to time he collected, often striking
out others at the same time, in the successive editions of his works.
Of these he himself published seven the first in 1560, the last in
1584. Between his death and the year, 1630 ten more complete
editions were published, the most famous of which is the folio of
1609. A copy of this presented by Sainte-Beuve to Victor Hugo,
and later in the possession of M. Maxime du Camp, has a place of
its own in French literary history. The work of C. Binet in 1586,
Discours de la vie de Pierre de Ronsard, is very important for early
information, and the author seems to have revised some of Ronsard's
work under the poet's own direction. From 1630 Ronsard was
not again reprinted for more than two centuries. Just before the
close of the second, however, Sainte-Beuve printed a selection of
his poems to accompany the above-mentioned Tableau (1828).
There are also selections by M. Noel (in the Collection Didot) and
Becq de Fouquidres. In 1857 M. Prosper Blanchemain, who had
previously published a volume of (Euvres inedites de Ronsard,
undertook a complete edition for the Bibliotheque Elzevirienne.
The eighth and last volume of this appeared ten years later. It is
practically complete; a few pieces of a somewhat free character
which are ascribed with some certainty to the poet are, however,
excluded. A later and better edition still is that of Marty-Layeaux
(1887-1893), and another that of B. Pifteau (1891). As for criticism,
Sainte-Beuve followed up his early work by articles in the Causeries
du lundi, and the chief later critics have dealt with him in their
collected works. Of books may be mentioned those of E. Gandar
(Metz, 1 854) .which considers him chiefly in his relation to the ancients,
Ronsard, imitateur d'Homere et de Pindare; the marquis de Rocham-
beau, La Famille de Ronsard (1868) ; G. Scheffler, Ronsard et sa reforme
litteraire (1874); G. Bizos, Ronsard (1891); the Abb6 Froger, Les
Premieres poesies de Ronsard (1892); L. Mellerio, Lexigue de Ron-
sard (1895); P. Perdrizet, Ronsard et la reforme (1902), with a still
more recent series of articles in different publications by M. Paul
Lemonnier. In English Mr A. Tilley's Literature of the French
Renaissance (1904) may be consulted, and on Ronsard's critical
standpoint Saintsbury's History of Criticism, vol. ii. (G. SA.)
RONSDORF, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine
province, situated on the Morsbach, a small affluent of the
Rhine, 18 m. E. of Dusseldorf and 5 m. S. of Elberfeld-Barmen
by rail. Pop. (1905) 14,005. It is the seat of iron, steel and
copper industries, besides carrying on extensive manufactures
of ribbons, trimmings and silk goods generally. It has also
breweries, distilleries and electrical works.
Founded in 1737 by the followers of Elias Eller, a religious
enthusiast, Ronsdorf received civic rights in 1745. The Rons-
dorf sect, the members of which called themselves Zionites, is
now extinct.
RONTGEN, DAVID, sometimes called DAVID DE LUNEVILLE
(1743-1807), German cabinet-maker, eldest son of Abraham
Rontgen, was born at Herrenhag. In 1753 his father migrated
to the Moravian settlement at Neuwied, near Coblenz, where
he established a furniture factory. He learned his trade in
his father's workshop, and succeeded to the paternal business
in 1772, when he entered into some kind of partnership with
the clock-maker Kintzing. At that time the name of the firm
appears already to have been well known, at all events in
France; but it is a curious circumstance that although he is
always reckoned as one of the little band of foreign cabinet-
makers and workers in marquetry who, like Oeben and Riesener,
achieved distinction in France during the superb floraison of
the Louis Seize style, he never ceased to live at Neuwied,
where apparently the whole of his furniture was made, and
merely had a shop, or show-room, in Paris. We have, as it
happens, a record of his first appearance there. The engraver
Wille enters in his journal of August 30, 1774, that " M. Rontgen,
c61ebre 6beniste, etabli a Nieuwied, pres de Coblenz, m'est
venu voir, en m'apportant une lettre de recommandation de
M. Zick, peintre a Coolenz . . . Comme M. Rontgen con-
naissait personne a Paris, je lui fus utile en lui enseignant
quelques sculpteurs et dessinateurs dont il avail besoin."
Rontgen was first and foremost an astute man of business and
it is not improbable that the moving cause of this opening up
of relations with Paris was the accession to the throne of Marie
Antoinette, whose Teutonic sympathies were only too well
known. Before very long she appointed him her ibtniste-
mtchanicien. He appears, indeed, to have acquired con-
siderable favour with the queen, for on several occasions she
took advantage of his journeys through Europe to charge him
with the delivery of presents and of dolls dressed in the Paris
fashions of the moment they were intended to serve as patterns
for the dressmakers to her mother and her sisters. He
appears at once to have opened a shop in Paris, but despite,
and perhaps because of, the favour in which he was held at
court, all was not plain sailing. The powerful trade corporation
of the maitres-ebenistes disputed his right to sell in Paris
furniture of foreign manufacture, and in 1780 he found that the
most satisfactory way out of the difficulty was to get himself
admitted a member of the corporation to which all his great
rivals belonged. By this time he had attracted a good deal of
attention by the introduction of a new style of marquetry, in
which light and shade, instead of being represented as hitherto
by burning, smoking or engraving the materials, were indicated
by small pieces of wood so arranged as to create the impression
of pietra dura. We have seen that Rontgen had been appointed
ebeniste-mechanicien to Marie Antoinette, and the appoint-
ment is explained by his fondness for and proficiency in con-
structing furniture in which mechanical devices played a great
part. The English cabinet-makers of the later eighteenth
century often made what was called, with obvious allusion to
its character, " harlequin furniture," especially little dressing-
tables and washstands which converted into something else or
held their essentials in concealment until a spring was touched.
David was a past master in this kind of work, and unquestion-
ably much of the otherwise inexplicable reputation he enjoyed
among contemporaries who were head and shoulders above
him is explained by his mechanical genius. The extent of his
fame in this direction is sufficiently indicated by the fact that
Goethe mentions him in Wilhelm Meister. He compares the
box inhabited by the fairy during her travels with her mortal
lover to one of Rontgen's desks, in which " at a pull a multitude
of springs and latches are set in motion." For a desk of this
kind Louis XVI. paid him 80,000 livres. Outwardly it was
in the form of a commode, its marquetry panels symbolizing
the liberal arts. A personification of sculpture was in the act
of engraving the name of Marie Antoinette upon a column to
which Minerva was hanging her portrait. Above a riot of
architectural orders was a musical clock (the work of the
partner Kintzing), surmounted by a cupola representing Par-
nassus. The interior of this monumental effort, n ft. high,
was a marvel of mechanical precision; it disappeared during
the First Empire. Rontgen did not confine his activities to
Paris, or even to France. It has been said that he travelled
about Europe accompanied by furniture vans, and undoubtedly
his aptitude as a commercial traveller was remarkable. He
had shops in Berlin and St Petersburg, and himself apparently
twice went to Russia. On one of these visits he sold to the
Empress Catherine furniture to the value of 20,000 roubles,
to which she added a personal present of 5000 roubles and a
gold snuff-box in recognition, it would seem, of his readiness
and ingenuity in surmounting a secretaire with a clock indicating
the date of the Russian naval victory over the Turks at Cheshme,
news of which had arrived on the previous evening. This suite
of furniture is believed still to be in the Palace of the Hermitage,
the hiding-place of so much remarkable and forgotten art. To
the protection of the queen of France and the empress of Russia
David added that of the king of Prussia, Frederick William II.,
who in 1792 made him a Commerzienrath and commercial agent
for the Lower Rhine district. The French Revolution and
the Napoleonic Wars which so speedily followed, eclipsed
Rontgen's star as they eclipsed those of so many other great
cabinet-makers of the period. In 1793 the Revolutionary
government, regarding him as an emigre, seized the contents
RONTGEN, W. K. RONTGEN RAYS
of his show-rooms and his personal belongings, and after that
date he appears neither to have done business in Paris nor to
have visited it. Five years later the invasion of Neuwied led
to the closing of his workshops; prosperity never returned, and
he died half ruined at Wiesbaden on the 1 2th of February 1807.
Rontgen was not a great cabinet-maker. His forms were often
clumsy, ungraceful ana commonplace; his furniture lacked the art-
istry of the French and the English cabinet-makers of the great period
which came to an end about 1790. His bronzes were poor in design
and coarse in execution his work, in short, is tainted by com-
mercialism. As a marqueteur, however, he holds a position of high
distinction. His marquetry is bolder and more vigorous than that
of Riesener, who in other respects soared far above him. As an
adroit deviser of mechanism he fully earned a reputation which
former generations rated more highly than the modern critic, with
his facilities for comparison, is prepared to accept. On the
mechanical side he produced, with the help of Kintzing, many
Jong-cased and other clocks with ingenious indicating and register-
ing apparatus. Rontgen delighted in architectural Forms, and his
marquetry more often than not represents those scenes from classical
mythology which were the dear delight of the i8th century. He is
well represented at South Kensington.
RONTGEN, WILHELM KONRAD (1845- ), German
physicist, was born at Lennep on the 27th of March 1845.
He received his early education in Holland, and then went to
study at Zurich, where he took his doctor's degree in 1869.
He then became assistant to Kundt at Wurzburg and after-
wards at Strassburg, becoming privat-docent at the latter uni-
versity in 1874. Next year he was appointed professor of
mathematics and physics at the Agricultural Academy of
Hohenheim, and in 1876 he returned to Strassburg as extra-
ordinary professor. In 1879 he was chosen ordinary professor
of physics and director of the Physical Institute at Giessen,
whence in 1885 he removed in the same capacity to Wurzburg.
It was at the latter place that he made the discovery for which
his name is chiefly known, the Rontgen rays. In 1895, while
experimenting with a highly exhausted vacuum tube on the
conduction of electricity through gases, he noticed that a paper
screen covered with barium platinocyanide, which happened
to be lying near, became fluorescent under the action of some
radiation emitted from the tube, which at the time was enclosed
in a box of black cardboard. Further investigation showed
that this radiation had the power of passing through various
substances which are opaque to ordinary light, and also of
affecting a photographic plate. Its behaviour being curious
in several respects, particularly in regard to reflection and
refraction, doubt arose in his mind whether it was to be looked
upon as light or not, and he was led to put forward the hypo-
thesis that it was due to longitudinal vibrations in the ether,
not to transverse ones like ordinary light; but in view of the
uncertainty existing as to its nature, he called it X-rays. For
this discovery he received the Rumford medal of the Royal
Society in 1896, jointly with Philip Lenard, who had already
shown, as also had Hertz, that a portion of the cathode rays
could pass through a thin film of a metal such as aluminium.
Rontgen also conducted researches in various other branches
of physics, including elasticity, capillarity, the conduction
of heat in crystals, the absorption of heat-rays by different
gases, piezo-electricity, the electromagnetic rotation of polarized
light, &c.
RONTGEN RAYS, W. K. Rontgen discovered in 1895
(Wied. Ann. 64, p. i) that when the electric discharge passes
through a tube exhausted so that the glass of the tube is
brightly phosphorescent, phosphorescent substances such as
potassium platinocyanide became luminous when brought
near to the tube. He found that if a thick piece of metal, a
coin for example, were placed between the tube and a plate
covered with the phosphorescent substance a sharp shadow
of the metal was cast upon the plate; pieces of wood or thin
plates of aluminium cast, however, only partial shadows, thus
showing that the agent which produced the phosphorescence
could traverse with considerable freedom bodies opaque to
ordinary light. He found that as a general rule the greater
the density of the substance the greater its opacity to this
agent. Thus while this effect could pass through the flesh
it was stopped by the bones, so that if the hand were held
between the discharge tube and a phosphorescent screen the
outline of the bones was distinctly visible as a shadow cast
upon the screen, or if a purse containing coins were placed
between the tube and the screen the purse itself cast but little
shadow while the coins cast a very dark one. Rontgen showed
that the cause of the phosphorescence, now called Rontgen
rays, is propagated in straight lines starting from places where
the cathode rays strike against a solid obstacle, and the direc-
tion of propagation is not bent when the rays pass from one
medium to another, i.e. there is no refraction of the rays.
These rays, unlike cathode rays or Canalstrahlen, are not
deflected by magnetic force; Rontgen could not detect any
deflection with the strongest magnets at his disposal, and later
experiments made with stronger magnetic fields have failed
to reveal any effect of the magnet on the rays. The rays affect
a photographic plate as well as a phosphorescent screen, and
shadow photographs can be readily taken. The time of ex-
posure required depends upon the intensity of the rays, and
this depends upon the state of the tube, and the electric current
going through it, as well as upon the substances traversed by
the rays on their journey to the photographic plate. In some
cases an exposure of a few seconds is sufficient, in others hours
may be required. The rays coming from different discharge
tubes have very different powers of penetration. If the pressure
in the tube is fairly high, so that the potential difference between
its electrodes is small, and the velocity of the cathode rays
in consequence small, the Rontgen rays coming from the tube
will be very easily absorbed; such rays are called " soft rays."
If the exhaustion of the tube is carried further, so that there
is a considerable increase' in the potential differences between
the cathode and the anode in the tube and therefore in the
velocity of the cathode rays, the Rontgen rays have much
greater penetrating power and aie called " hard rays." With
a highly exhausted tube and a powerful induction coil it is
possible to get appreciable effects trom rays which have passed
through sheets of brass or iron several millimetres thick. The
penetrating power of the rays thus varies with the pressure
in the tube; as this pressure gradually diminishes when the dis-
charge is kept running through the tube, the type of Rontgen
ray coming from the tube is continually changing. The lower-
ing of pressure due to the current through the tube finally
leads to such a high degree of exhaustion that the discharge
has great difficulty in passing, and the emission of the rays
becomes very irregular. Heating the walls of the tube causes
some gas to come off the sides, and by thus increasing the
pressure creates a temporary improvement. A thin-walled
platinum tube is sometimes fused on to the discharge tube to
remedy this defect; red-hot platinum allows hydrogen to pass
through it, so that if the platinum tube is heated, hydrogen
from the flame will pass into the discharge tube and increase
the pressure. In this way hydrogen may be introduced into
the tube when the pressure gets too low. When liquid air is
available the pressure in the tube may be kept constant by
fusing on to the discharge tube a tube containing charcoal;
this dips into a vessel containing liquid air, and the charcoal
is saturated with air at the pressure which it is desired to
maintain in the tube. Not only do bulbs emit different
types of rays at different times, but the same bulb emits at
the same time rays of different kinds. The property by which
it is most convenient to identify a ray is the absorption it
suffers when it passes through a given thickness of aluminium
or tin-foil. Experiments made by McClelland and Sir J. J.
Thomson on the absorption of the rays produced by sheets
of tin-foil showed that the absorption by the first sheets of
tin-foil traversed by -the rays was much greater than that by
the same number of sheets when the rays had already passed
through several sheets of the foil. The effect is just what
would occur if some of the rays were much more readily absorbed
by the tin-foil than others, for the first few layers would stop
all the easily absorbable rays while the ones left would be
those that were but little absorbed by tin-foil.
RONTGEN RAYS
695
The fact that the rays when they pass through a gas ionize it
and make it a conductor of electricity furnishes the best means of
measuring their intensity, as the measurement of the amount of
conductivity they produce in a gas is both more accurate and more
convenient than measurements of photographic or phosphorescent
effects. Rontgen rays when they pass through matter produce as
Perrin (Comptes rendus, 124, p. 455), Sagnac (Jour, de Phys., 1899,
(3), 8, and J. Townsend (Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc., 1899, 10, p. 217, have
shown secondary Rontgen rays as well as cathodic rays. A very
complete investigation of this subject has been made by Barkla
and Sadler (Barkla, Phil. Mag., June 1906, pp. 812-828; Barkla
one kind is of the same type as the primary incident ray and may be
regarded as scattered primary rays, the other kind depends only
on the matter struck by the rays their quality is independent of
that of the incident ray. When the atomic weight of the element
exposed to the primary rays was less than that of calcium, Barkla
and Sadler could only detect the first type of ray, i.e. the second-
ary radiation consisted entirely of scattered primary radiation;
elements with atomic weights greater than that of calcium gave
out, in addition to the scattered primary radiation, Rontgen rays
characteristic of the element and independent of the quality of the
primary rays. The higher the atomic weight of the metal the more
penetrating are the characteristic rays it gives out. This is shown
in the table, which gives for the different elements the reciprocal
of the distance, measured in centimetres, through which the rays
from the element can pass through aluminium before their energy
sinks to 1/2-7 f 'he value it had when entering the aluminium; this
quantity is denoted in the table by X.
Element. Atomic weight.
Chromium
Iron .
Cobalt .
Nickel
Copper .
Zinc .
Arsenic
Selenium .
Strontium
Molybdenum
Rhodium
Silver . .
Tin
52
55-9
59-o
58-7?
63-6
65-4
75-o
79-2
87-6
96-0
103-0
107-9
119-0
X.
367
239
193-2
159-5
128-9
106-3
60-7
51-0
35-2
12-7
8-44
6-75
4-33
The radiation from chromium cannot pass through more than a
few centimetres of air without being absorbed, while that from tin
is as penetrating as that given out by a fairly efficient Rontgen tube.
Barkla and Sadler found that the radiation characteristic of the metal
is not excited unless the primary radiation is more penetrating than
the characteristic radiation. Thus the characteristic radiation from
silver can excite the characteristic radiation from iron, but the
characteristic radiation from iron cannot excite that from silver.
We may compare this result with Stokes's rule for phosphorescence,
that the phosphorescent light is of longer wave-length than the
light which excites it.
The discovery that each element gives out a characteristic radia-
tion (or, as still more recent work indicates, a line spectrum of char-
acteristic radiation) is one of the utmost importance. It gives us, for
example, the means of getting homogeneous Rontgen radiation of
a perfectly definite type : it is also of fundamental importance in
connexion with any theory of the Rontgen rays. We have seen
that there is no evidence ol refraction of the Rontgen rays; it would
be interesting to try if this were the case when the rays passing
through the refracting substance are those characteristic of the
substance.
Secondary Cathodic Rays. The incidence of Rontgen rays
on matter causes the matter to emit cathodic rays. The
velocity of these rays is independent of the intensity of the
primary Rontgen rays, but depends upon the "hardness" of
the rays; it seems also to be independent of the nature of
the matter exposed to the primary rays. The velocity of the
cathodic rays increases as the hardness of the primary Rontgen
rays increases. Innes (Proc. Roy. Soc. 79, p. 442) measured
the velocity of the cathodic radiation excited by the rays from
Rontgen tubes, and found velocities varying from 6- 2 X io 9 cm./sec.
to 8-3 X io 9 cm./sec. according to the hardness of the rays given
out by the tube. The cathodic rays given out under the action
of the homogeneous secondary Roptgen radiation characteristic
of the different elements have been studied by Sadler (Phil.
Mag., March 1910) and Beatty (Phil. Mag., August 1910). The
following table giving the properties of the cathode rays excited
by the radiation from various elements is taken from Beatty's
paper; t t is the thickness of air at atmospheric pressure and
temperature required to absorb one-half of the energy of the
cathode particles, h is the corresponding quantity for hydrogen.
Radiator. ti h
Iron . . . . . . . -00804 -0410
Copper -0135 -0733
Zinc -0164 -0909
Arsenic '255
Tin . -1672 1-37
The properties of the cathode rays excited by the radiation from
tin correspond very closely with those produced in a discharge
:ube when the potential difference between the anode and cathode
is about 30,000 volts. When Rontgen rays pass through a thin
plate the cathodic radiation on the side the rays emerge is more
intense than on the side they enter. Kaye (Phil. Trans. 209, p. 123)
lias shown that when cathode rays fall upon a metal two kinds of
Rontgen rays are excited, one being the characteristic radiation
of the metal and the other a kind independent of the nature of the
metal and dependent only upon the velocity of the cathode rays.
The faster the cathode rays the harder the Rontgen rays they pro-
duce. It would be interesting to see if there is any connexion
between the velocity of the cathode rays required to excite Rontgen
rays as hard as those given out say by tin and the velocity of the
cathode rays which the radiation from tin produces when it falls upon
any metal. Sadler has shown that metals can give off cathodic
radiation even when the incident Rontgen rays are too soft to
excite the characteristic Rontgen radiation of the metal, but that
there is a large increase in the cathodic radiation as soon as the
characteristic Rontgen radiation is excited. It is possible that
the shock produced by the emission of these cathode particles
starts the vibrations which give rise to the characteristic rays;
the cathode particles emitted when the incident rays are too soft
to excite the characteristic radiation coming from a different source
from those tapped by the hard rays.
Absorption of Rontgen Rays. The wide ' variations in the
penetrating power of Rontgen rays from different sources is
shown by the above table of the penetrating power of the
characteristic rays of the different elements. Many experi-
ments have been made on the penetration of the same rays for
different substances. It is a rule to which there is no well-
established exception that the greater the density of the sub-
stance the greater is its power of absorbing the rays. The
connexion, however, between the absorption and the density
of the substance is not in general a simple one, though there is
evidence that for exceedingly hard rays the absorption is pro-
portional to the density.
The power of any material to absorb rays is usually measured by
a coefficient X, the definition of which is that a plate i/X centimetres
thick reduces the energy of the rays when they pass through it
normally to i/e of their original value, where e is the base of the
Napierian logarithms and equal to 2-7128. It has been shown
that however the physical state of a substance may alter, if, for
example, it changes from the liquid to the gaseous, X/D, where D
is the density of the substance, remains constant. It has also been
shown that if we have a mass M made up of masses MI, M 2 , M 8) . . .
of substances having coefficients of absorption Xi, X 2 , X 3 , ._. . and
densities Di, D 2 , D 3 , . . . then if X/D for the mixture is given by
the equation
MX/D = M I X 1 /D 1 +M 2 X 2 /D 2 +M 3 X S /D 3 + . . .
this equation is true whether the substances are chemically com-
bined or chemically mixed. From this equation, when we know
X/D for a binary compound and for one of its constituents, we can
find the value of X/D for the other constituent. By the use of
this principle we can find the value of X/D for the elements which
cannot be obtained in a free state. Benoist (Jour, de Phys. (7), 28,
p. 289) has shown that if the values of X/D are plotted against the
atomic weight we get a smooth curve; if we draw this curve it is
evident that we have the means of determining the atomic weight
of an element by measuring its transparency to Rontgen rays when
in combination with elements whose transparency is known. Benoist
has applied this method to determine the atomic weight of indium.
The value of X/D for any one substance depends upon the type
of ray used, and the ratio of the values of X/D for two substances
may vary very greatly with the type of ray; this is especially the
case when one of the substances is hydrogen. Thus Crowther
(Proc. Roy. Soc., March 1909) has shown that the ratio of X for air
to X for hydrogen varied from 100 for rays given out by a Rontgen
tube at a comparatively high pressure when the rays were very
soft to 5-56 when the pressure in the bulb was very low and the rays
very hard. Beatty (Phil. Mag., August 1910) found that this
ratio was as large as 175 for the characteristic rays given out by
iron, copper, zinc and arsenic, but fell to 25-0 for the rays from tin.
Polarization of Rontgen Rays. A great deal of attention has
been paid to a phenomenon called the polarization of the
6 9 6
ROOD
FIG. i.
Rontgen rays. The nature of this effect may be illustrated by
fig. i. Suppose that AB is a stream of cathode rays striking
against a solid obstacle B and
p giving rise to Rontgen rays, let
these rays impinge on a small
body P, P under these condi-
tions will emit secondary rays
in all directions. Barkla (Phil.
Trans., 1905, A, 204, p. 467;
Proc. Roy. Soc. 77, p. 247)
found that the intensity of
the secondary rays, tested by
the ionization they produced
in air, was less intense in the
plane ABP than in a plane through PB at right angles to this
plane, the distances from P being the same in the two cases;
the difference in the intensities amounting to about 15%.
Haga (Ann. d. Phys. 28, p. 439), who tried a similar ex-
periment but used a photographic method to measure the
intensity of the secondary rays, could not detect any difference
of intensity in the two planes, but experiments by Sassier
(Ann. der Phys. 28, p. 808) and Vegard (Proc. Roy. Soc. 83,
p. 379) have confirmed Barkla's original observations.
The " polarization " is much more marked if instead of exciting
the secondary radiation in P by the Rontgen rays from a discharge
tube we do so by means of secondary rays. If, for example, in the
case illustrated by fig. I we allow a beam of Rontgen rays to fall
upon B instead of the cathode rays, the difference between the
intensities in the plane ABP and in the plane at right angles to it
are very much increased. It is only the scattered secondary
radiation which shows this " polarization " ; the characteristic
secondary radiation emitted by the body at P is quite unpolarized.
The existence of this effect has a very important bearing on the
nature of Rontgen rays. Whether Rontgen rays are or are not a
form of light, i.e. are some form of electromagnetic disturbance
propagated through the aether, is a question on which opinion is
not unanimous. They resemble light in theirrectilinearpropagation ;
they affect a photographic plate and, Brandes and Dorn have shown,
they produce an effect, though a small one, on the retina, giving
rise to a very faint illumination of the whole field of view. They
resemble light in not being deflected by either electric or magnetic
forces, while the characteristic secondary radiation may be compared
with the phosphorescence produced by ultra-violet light, and the
cathodic secondary rays with the photo-electric effect. The
absence of refraction is not an argument against the rays being a
kind of light, for all theories of refraction make this property depend
upon the relation between the natural time of vibration T of the
refracting substance and the period t of the light vibrations, the
refraction vanishing when </T is very small. Thus there would be
no refraction for light of a very small period, and this would also be
true if instead of regular periodic undulations we had a pulse of
electromagnetic disturbance, provided the time taken by the light
to travel over the thickness of the pulse is small compared with the
periods of vibration of the molecules of the refracting substance.
Experiments on the diffraction of Rontgen rays are very difficult,
for, in addition to the difficulties caused by the smallness of the wave-
length or the thinness of the pulse, the secondary radiation produced
when the rays strike against a photographic plate or pass through
air might give rise to what might easily be mistaken for diffraction
effects. Rontgen has never succeeded in observing effects which
prove the existence of diffraction. Fomm (Wied. Ann. 59, p. 50)
observed in the photograph of a narrow slit light and dark bands
which looked like diffraction bands; but observation with slits of
different sizes showed that they were not of this nature, and Haga
and Wind (Wied. Ann. 68, p. 884) have explained them as contrast
effects. These observers, however, noticed with a very narrow
wedge-shaped slit a broadening of the image of the narrow part
which they are satisfied could not be explained by the causes.
Walter and Pohl (Ann. der Phys. 29, p. 331) could not observe
any diffraction effects, though their arrangement would have
enabled them to do so if the wave-length had not been smaller than
1-5 X io-cm. Sir George Stokes (Proc. Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc.,
1898) put forward the view that the disturbances which constitute
the rays are not regular periodic undulations but very thin pulses.
Thomson (Phil. Mag. 45, p. 172) has shown that when charged
particles are suddenly stopped, pulses of very intense electric and
magnetic disturbances are started. As the cathode rays consist of
negatively electrified particles, the impact of these on a solid would
give rise to these intense pulses. The electromagnetic theory
therefore shows that effects resembling light, inasmuch as they are
electromagnetic disturbances propagated through the aether, must
be produced when the cathode rays strike against an obstacle.
Since under these circumstances Rontgen rays are produced, it
seems natural, unless direct evidence to the contrary is obtained,
to connect the Rontgen rays with these pulses. This view explains
very simply the " polarization" of the rays; for, suppose the cathode
particle moving from A to B were stopped at its first impact with
the plate B (fig. i), the electric force transmitted along BP would
be in the plane ABP at right angles to BP. When this electric
force reached the body at P it would accelerate any electrified
particles in that body, the acceleration being parallel to AB. Each
of these accelerated particles would start electric waves. The
theory of such waves shows that their intensity vanishes along a
line through the particle parallel to the direction of acceleration,
while it is a maximum at right angles to this line; thus the intensity
of the rays along a horizontal line through P would vanish, while it
would be a maximum in the plane at right angles to this line. In
this case there would be complete polarization. In reality the
cathode particle is not stopped at its first encounter, but makes
many collisions, changing its direction between each; and these
collisions will send out electric disturbances which when they fall
on P are able to excite waves which send some energy along PC.
The polarization will therefore be only partial and will be of the
kind found by Barkla.
The velocity with which the waves travel has not yet been
definitely settled. Marx (Ann. der Phys. 20, p. 677) by an ingenious
but elaborate method came to the conclusion that they travelled
with the velocity of light; his interpretation of his experiments
has, however, been criticized by Franck and Pohl (Verh. d. D.
Physik Ges. 10, p. 489).
Another view of the nature of Rontgen rays has been advocated
by Bragg (Phil. Mag. 14, p. 429); he regards them as neutral
electric doublets consisting of a negative and a positive charge of
electricity which are usually held together by the attraction between
them, but which may be knocked asunder when the rays strike
against matter and turned into cathodic rays. On this view when
the rays pass through a gas only a few of the molecules of the gas
are struck by the rays and so we can easily understand why so few
of the molecules are ionized. On the ordinary view of an electric
wave all the molecules would be affected by the wave when it passed
through a gas, and to explain the small fraction ionized we must
either suppose that systems sensitive to the Rontgen rays are at
any time present only in a very small fraction of the molecule or
else that the front of an electric or light wave is not continuous but
that the energy is concentrated in patches which only occupy a
fraction of the wave front.
Apparatus for producing Rontgen Rays. The tube now used most
frequently for producing Rontgen rays is of the kind introduced by
Porter and known as a focus tube (fig. 2). The cathode is a
portion of a hollow sphere,
and the cathode rays come
to a point on or near a
metal plate A, called the
anti-cathode, connected
with the anode; this plate
is the source of the rays.
This ought to be made of
a very unfusible metal
such as platinum or, still
better, tantalum, and kept FIG. 2.
cool by a water-cooling
arrangement. The anti-cathode is generally set at an angle of
45 to the rays; it is probable . that the action of the tube
would be improved by putting the anti-cathode at right angles
to the cathode rays. The walls of the tube get strongly elec-
trified. This electrification affects the working of the tube,
and the production of rays can often be improved by having an
earth-connected piece of tin-foil on the outside of the bulb, and
moving it about until the best position is attained. To produce
the discharge an induction coil is generally employed with a mercury
interrupter. Excellent results have been obtained by using an
electrostatic induction machine to produce the current, the emission
of rays is more uniform than when an induction coil is used. The
rays are emitted pretty uniformly in all directions until the plane
of the anti-cathode is approached; in the neighbourhood of this
plane there is a rapid falling off in the intensity of the rays. After
long use the glass of the bulb often becomes distinctly purple.
This is believed to be due to the presence of manganese compounds
in the glass. (J. J- T.)
ROOD (O.E. rid, a stick, another form of " rod," O.E. rodd,
possibly cognate with Lat. r-udis, a staff), properly a rod or
pole, and so used as the name of a surface measure of land. The
rood varies locally but is generally taken as = 40 square rods,
poles or perches; 4 roods = i acre. The term was, however,
particularly applied, in O.E., to a gallows or cross, especially
to the Holy Cross on which Christ was crucified, the sense in
which the word survives. A crucifix, often accompanied by
figures of St John and the Virgin Mary, was usually placed in
churches above the screen, hence known as " rood screen "
ROOFS
697
(see SCREEN), which divides the chancel or the choir from the
nave. The rood was carried either on a transverse beam, the
" rood beam," or by a gallery, the " rood loft." Such a
gallery was also used as a place from which to read portions
of the service (see JUBE). It was reached by the " rood stair,"
a small winding stair or " vice." In English churches these
stairs generally run up in a small turret in the wall at the west
end of the chancel; often this also leads out on to the roof.
On the continent of Europe they often lead out of the interior
of the church and are enclosed with tracery, as at Rouen or
Strassburg. " Rood stairs " remain in many English churches
where the rood loft has been destroyed. A fine example of a
rood loft is at Charlton-on-Otmoor, Oxfordshire. The screen
might be separate from the rood beam or rood loft. The
general construction of wooden screens is close panelling be-
neath, on which stands screen- work composed of slender turned
balusters or regular wooden mullions, supporting tracery
more or less rich with cornices, crestings, &c., and often painted
in brilliant colours and gilded. The central tower of a church
over the intersection of the nave and chancel with the transepts
is sometimes called the " rood tower "; an example is that at
Notre Dame at Paris. In England rood lofts do not appear
to have been introduced before the i4th century, and were not
common till the isth. The "roods" themselves were not
The simplest form is the " flat roof " consisting of horizontal
wood joists laid from wall to wall as in floor construction.
The roof must not be quite flat, for a slight fall is
necessary in its upper surface to allow water to drain
away into gutters placed at convenient points. The
joists are covered with a waterproof material such as asphalt,
lead, zinc or copper, the three last materials being usually laid
upon boarding, which stiffens the structure and forms a good
surface to fix the weatherproof covering upon. Such roofs
are not suitable for cold climates, for accumulations of snow
might overburden the structure and would also cause the wet
to penetrate through any small crevices and under flashings.
With flat roofs the pressure exerted upon the supports is directly
vertical.
" Lean-to," " shed," or " pent " roofs are practically develop-
ments of the flat roof, one end of the joists (which are now
called " rafters ") being tipped up to form a decided slope,
which enables slates, tiles, corrugated iron and other materials
to be employed which cannot be used upon a " flat " roof.
Simple roofs in general use with a double slope are the
" coupled rafter roofs," the rafters meeting at the highest point
upon a horizontal ridge-piece which stiffens the framework and
gives a level ridge-line. In some old roofs the rafters are connected
without any intervening ridge-plate, with the result that after
Half elevation; 25' o* span.
Sectional elevation on AA.
FIGS. I and 2. King-post Roof Truss.
disturbed in Henry VIII. 's reign, but were generally removed
under Edward VI. and Elizabeth.
The legality of rood screens or rood lofts in the Church of
England depends on the law of the Church with regard to
images, i.e. " whether they do or do not, or will or will not,
encourage or lead to idolatrous or superstitious worship in the
place where they are, or are to be put " (Lindley, L. 7. in R. v.
Bishop of London, 1889, 24 Q.B.D. 213, 237; see also St
John Timberhill, Norwich, case, 1889 Prob. 71, and article
IMAGE).
ROOFS. A roof is a construction placed as a covering over
the upper portion of a building to exclude the weather and
preserve the contents dry and uninjured. Roofs are designed
to throw off rain and snow, and their slope or " pitch," as it is
generally termed, is governed to a great extent by the climate,
as well as by the material used and manner of laying. The
pitch may vary from an almost horizontal surface (as largely
adopted in dry countries and also in temperate climates for
roofs of metal or asphalt) to the steeply pitched roofs required
for the ordinary flai tiles which to be weatherproof must be laid
at an angle of from 45 to 80 with the horizon. Besides serving
the useful purpose of protection against inclement weather the
roof, both externally and internally, may be designed to form
an architectural feature in keeping with the character of he
building.
a time the ridge instead of remaining level takes on a wavy out-
line, due to the fact that some of the timbers have settled
slightly owing to decay or other causes, whilst others have
remained firm in their places. The lower ends of the rafters
should pitch on a wood plate bedded on the top of the wall;
this, as described under CARPENTRY, assists in spreading the
weight over a large area of the wall, and provides good fixing for
the timbers. The simple "couple roof " consists merely of two
sets of rafters pitched from plates on the walls on either side
of the building and sloping upwards to rest against a common
ridge-piece. There are no ties between the feet of the rafters,
which therefore exert a considerable thrust against the support-
ing walls. On account of this and of the lack of rigidity of the
framing this form of roof should only be used to cover small
spans of 10 to 12 ft. Generally the ends of the rafters are con-
nected by ceiling joists which form a level ceiling and at the
same time prevent any outward thrust on the supports. When
used for spans between 12 ft. and 18 ft. a binder supported
by an iron or wood "king" tie every 5 or 6 ft. should be run
along across the centres of the ceiling joists and the latter spiked
to it. Such roofs with the wood tie across the feet of the
rafters are termed " couple close roofs." When the ties are
fixed about half-way up the rafters it is called a " collar roof,"
and may be used for spans up to 16 ft. These are the type of
roof commonly used in ordinary dwelling-houses where the
698
ROOFS
framing, usually of rough northern pine or spruce, is generally I In such large spans the straining beam often becomes of such
hidden from view by the ceilings. The spans usually are not | a length as to require support and this is effected by con-
great, and extra support is obtained at various
points from partitions and cross walls. Where the
span is large, that is, above 20 ft. without intermediate
support, it is necessary to employ roofs with " prin-
cipals " and " purlins," sometimes called " double
rafter roofs." Principals are strong trusses of timber
rigidly framed together and placed at intervals of about
10 ft. to support the weight of the roof covering.
Purlins stout timbers running longitudinally are
FIG. 3. Queen-post Roof Truss ; half elevation, 38' o* span.
fixed on the principal rafters with intervals of about 8 ft., and
on these the common rafters are fastened. Principals, or
" roof trusses " as they are more often called, are framed
together in various ways, and the members may be entirely
of wood or reinforced by ties of iron rods or bars; the latter
are called "composite trusses."
The " king-post truss " may be used for spans up to 30 ft.
and is constructed as shown in figs, i and 2. It has a central
post sustaining the " tie-beam " in the centre with struts pro-
jecting from its base to support the principal rafters at their
centres at a point where the weight of the purlins renders
strutting necessary. The members are connected by wrought-
iron straps and bolts; the strap connects the king-post and
tie-beam and is often fitted with a gib-and-cotter arrangement
(really a pair of iron folding wedges) which allows the whole
truss to be tightened up should any settlement or shrinkage
occur. " Queen-post trusses " have, in place of the king-post
dividing the tie-beam into two, two queen-posts supporting
it at two points (fig. 3). The joints
between the members are made in a
similar manner to those of the king-
post principal with wrought-iron straps.
The purlins are two in number on each
slope, one supported at the top of each
" queen," the other half-way between that
point and the wall-plate and resting upon
the principal rafter at a point where
strutted from the base of the queen-
post. A stout straining beam connects
the heads of the queens. In fig. 4, a
and b are details at the foot of the
queen-post, and c at the head. Trusses
of this type are suitable for spans up to
45 ft. In roofs of a larger span than
this and up to 60 ft. the tie-beam requires
to be upheld at more than two points,
and additional posts called " princesses "
are introduced for this purpose. This
also entails extra struts and purlins.
tinuing the principal
rafters up to the ridge
and introducing a
short king-post to
sustain the beam in
the middle of its
length.
Open timber roofs
of various types but
principally Opea
of " ham- timber
mer - beam " rooft -
construction were used
in the middle ages
where stone vault-
ing was not em-
ployed. Many of
these old roofs still
exist in good pre-
servation and exhibit
the great skill of the
medieval carpenters
who designed and
erected them. Such
forms are still used,
chiefly for ecclesi-
astical buildings and
the roofs over large
halls. In the best
periods of Gothic
architecture the pitch
of these roofs was made very steep, sometimes as much
as 60 with the horizon. In the hammer-beam type of
roof the tie-beam at the foot of the rafters is omitted, a
collar being thrown across connecting the principal rafters at
a point about half-way in their length, the lower portion
of the principal consisting of a number of struts and
braces rigidly connected in such a manner as to throw as
little thrust as possible upon the walls serving as abutments.
There are two kinds of hammer beams, the arched and the
bracketed; the chief examples are Westminster Hall and
Middle Temple Hall (Plate I. figs. 24 and 25). The
" hammer beam " projects from the top of the wall and is
bracketed from a corbel projecting from the wall some
distance below. This form of roof has a style and dignity
of its own, and gives greater height in the upper part of
the building as well as being more ornamental and lighter
in effect than tie-beam trusses, which have a rather heavy
effect.
FIG. 4. a. Detail of queen-post truss at ft.
b. Vertical section through queen-post.
c. Detail of queen-post truss at head ; purlin and wrought-iron straps are
omitted for the sake of clearness.
ROOF
PLATE I.
Photo, G. W. Wilson & Co.
FIG. 24 WESTMINSTER HALL.
> \ '
* \mrnt' mm
XXIII. 698-
FIG. 25. -HALL OF THE MIDDLE TEMPLE.
PLATE II.
ROOF
o
Q
Z
s
b,
O
ROOFS
699
The Mansard roof (fig. 5) is a useful form of construction
which obtains its name from Francois Mansard, a distinguished
French architect who lived in the lyth century. This
kind of roof has been largely used, especially in France
and other European countries, as well as in America
in the old colonial days. It adapts itself well to some styles
of architecture, but should be very carefully applied, since it
Mansard
root.
Iron
root*.
FlG. 5. Mansard Roof Truss: detail of outline as A; other outlines
at B, C, D and E.
is apt to appear ungainly in some situations. By the use of
a Mansard roof extra rooms can be obtained at a small expense
without adding an additional storey to the building proper.
The outward thrust upon the supporting walls is not so great
as with an ordinary pitched roof, the load coming practically
vertically upon them. There is no recognized rule for the
proportion or pitch of a roof of this description, which should
be designed to suit the particular building it is intended to
cover. Fig. 5, A, B, C, D and E show various forms. A similar
type of curb roof is often used having a flat lead- or zinc-covered
top in place of the pitched slate- or tile-covered top of the
ordinary Mansard roof.
Composite roof trusses of wood and iron are frequently used
for all classes of buildings, and have proved very satisfactory.
They are built upon the same principles as wooden types of
roof trusses. The struts that is, those members subjected
to compressional stress are of wood, and iron bars or rods
are used for the ties, which have to withstand tensile forces.
When any shrinkage occurs to loosen the joints of the framing,
as usually happens in large trusses, the tie-rods are tightened
up by the bolts attached to them. Figs. 6, 7 and 8 are the
sections and plan of a simple method of constructing the roof
for an ordinary domestic building with plaster ceilings to the
top rooms. It is a simple construction of the couple close
order with the addition of a collar and struts and king-rod
to every fourth rafter. Trimming is necessary for openings
and where portions of the structure, such as chimney stacks,
cut into the roof. The trimming rafters are made an inch
thicker than the others. The dragon tie is framed in connexion
with the wall-plate at the hipped corners to take the thrust
of the hip rafters.
Steel and iron trusses in many cases follow the
wood models already described. The struts and
principal rafters are usually of T section, the
tensional members being rods or flat bars.
Flat plates and bolts or rivets are used to
form the connexions between the members, and a
means is provided in the tie-rod for tightening up
the truss should any of the members " give "
slightly under their load. Large trusses for very
spans are specially designed for their work and
be of many different types of design. Big roofs
on the tie-rod principle are now being discarded as being
more liable to failure, through deterioration or defect, than
those built on the girder principle in one form or another.
Fig. 9 is a queen-rod roof principal for a span of 50 ft., and
shows the sizes of the different members, a line diagram of the
truss and large details of the joints. Fig. 10 in a similar
manner shows the roof at Cardiff railway station, which has a
span of 43 ft.
The steel roof covering the great hall at Olympia, London,
is an example of a carefully designed and well-built roof which
combines with strength an extremely light and elegant appear-
ance. This is due to the fact that every member of the roof
is adapted to meet the particular stresses found by calculation
to affect it. By careful study of conditions the sections of
steelwork used for the various members have been reduced
0*1 BR.
FIGS. 6 and 7. Roof for Domestic Building.
to the smallest size compatible with safety. In this way any
unnecessary surplus of material is avoided, and so is the heavy,
overwhelming effect noticeable in many roofs of large span.
There is an entire absence of long wide plates and webs; the
various members" are composed wholly of flat bars and angle
irons riveted together, and plates are introduced only where re-
quired to cover joints. Some notes on its size and construction
yoo
ROOFS
A. Angle tie.
B. Boarding.
B.B. Barge board.
C. Collar.
C.J. Ceiling joist.
C.K. Common rafter.
D. Drip.
D.P. Dragon-piece.
F. Flue.
G. Gutter.
G.B. Gutter bearer.
H.R. Hip rafter.
J.R. Jack rafter.
K.B. King-bolt.
P. Purlin.
P.W. Parapet wall.
P.E. Projecting eaves.-
R. Ridge.
S. Strut.
T. Trimmer.
T.F. Tilting fillet.
T.R. Trimming rafter.
V. Valley.
W.P. Wall-plate.
will be interesting. The dimensions of the great hall are 440 ft.
long by 250 ft. wide, the height to the crown of the roof
being about 100 ft. The main ribs of the roof have a clear
span of 170 ft. and are placed 34 ft. apart. They are of box-
girder form and measure 7 ft. deep and 2 ft. wide. The gallery
around the hall is 40 ft. wide on three sides and 26 ft. wide
on the remaining side. It is covered by a lean-to roof which
abuts against the curved ribs on the north and south sides,
and is attached to horizontal members of the screens on the
east and west sides. The bricks walls of the building are not
called upon to resist any portion of the thrust from the roof,
as the side frames through which the gallery floor passes form
a self-contained system of steelwork in which the thrust is
ultimately conveyed to the ground. The screens which close
the semicircular ends of the roof are of vertical ridge and furrow
construction, as can be clearly seen in the illustrations, this
form offering great resistance to wind pressure while at the
same time requiring a minimum amount of material. Of the
two illustrations, fig. n is a detailed cross-section showing
fully the method of construction of the foot of the main
rib and column, and the arrangement of the side frames
above referred to is shown in fig. 12, which is a com-
plete cross-section view, and will convey to the reader some
idea of the vast size of the building and its general pro-
portions.
The following five roofs are examples of large span: Crystal
Palace (104 ft.); Olympia, London (170 ft.); t Enoch station,
Glasgow (198 ft.); Central station, Manchester (210 ft.); St
Pancras station, London (240 ft.).
Domes may be framed up with wood rafters cut to shape.
For small spans this construction is satisfactory, but when
the dome is of considerable size it is often framed
in steel as being stronger and more rigid than wood,
and therefore not exerting so great a thrust upon
the supporting walls. The outer dome of St Paul's cathedral
in London is of lead-covered wood, framed upon and supported
by a conical structure of brickwork which is raised above the
inner dome of brick. Concrete is a very suitable material for
use in the construction of domes, and may be employed simply
or with iron or steel reinforcement in the shape of wires, bars
or perforated plates. One of the best modern examples of
concrete vaulting and domical roofing without metal rein-
forcement occurs in the Roman Catholic cathedral at West-
minster, a remarkable building designed by Mr J. F. Bentley.
A few details of the roofs will be interesting. The circle
developed by the pendentives of the nave domes is 60 ft. in
diameter. The thickness of the domes at the springing is 3 ft.
gradually reduced to 13 in. at the crown; the curve of equi-
librium is therefore well within the material. The domes were
turned on closely boarded centring in a series of superimposed
rings of concrete averaging 4 ft. in width. The concrete is
not reinforced in any way. The independent external covering
of the domes is formed of 3 in. artificial stone slabs cast to
the curve. They rest on radiating ribs 5 in. deep of similar
material fixed on the concrete and rebated to receive the slabs;
thus an air space of 2 in. is left between the inner shell and
the outer covering, the object being to render the temperature
of the interior more uniform. At the springing and at the
ROOFS
701
FIG. 9. Queen-rod Roof Truss.
Roofing felt is an inexpen-
sive fabric of animal or vege-
table fibre treated _ .,
with asphalt to make
it capable of resisting the
weather. It is largely used
as a roofing material for tem-
porary buildings. When ex-
posed to the weather it should
be treated with an application
of a compound of tar and
slaked lime well boiled and
applied hot, the surface being
sprinkled with sand before it
becomes hard. Felt is also
used on permanent buildings
as a good non-conductor of
heat under slating and other
roof -covering materials. In
this case it is not tarred and
sanded. It is supplied in rolls
containing from 25 to 35 yds.
30 in. wide. The sheets should
In- laid with a lap of 2 in. at
the joints and secured to the
boarding beneath by large-
headed clout-nails driven in
about 2 in. apart.
Corrugated iron is supplied
either black or galvanized. It
is especially suited
for the roofs of out-
buildings and build-
ings of a more or less
temporary character,
to a large extent self-support-
ing, it requires a specially de-
signed roof framework of light
construction. If, as is usually
the case, the sheets are laid
wjth the corrugations running
with the slope of the roof,
they can be fixed directly on
purlins spaced 5 ft. to 10 ft.
apart according to the stiffness
and length of the sheets. In
Cor-
rugated
Iron.
Being
crown the spaces between the ribs
are left open for ventilation. The
sanctuary dome differs in several
respects from those of the nave.
Unlike the latter, which seem to
rest on the flat roofing of the
church, the dome of the sanctuary
emerges gradually out of the sub-
structure, the supporting walls on the
north and south being kept down so
as to give greater elegance to the
eastern turrets. The apsidal ter-
mination of the choir in the east
is covered in with a concrete vault
surmounted by a timber roof, in
striking contrast to the domes cover-
ing the other portions of the struc-
ture. Fig. 13 is a section through
the nave showing how the domes
are buttressed, fig. 14 is a section
through the sanctuary dome, and
figs. 15 and 1 6 a section and part
plan of the vaulting of the choir with
its wood span roof above the con-
crete vault.
Covering Materials for Roofs.- There
are a large number of different roof-
covering materials in common use, of
which short descriptions, giving the
principal characteristics, may be useful.
The nature of the material employed
as the outer covering affects the details
of roof construction very considerably.
A light covering such as felt or corru-
gated iron can be safely laid upon a much
lighter timber framing than is necessary
for a heavy covering of tiles or slates.
oar SHOES.
FIG. 10. Roof at Cardiff Station.
702
"V-i
ROOFS
MAIN RIB
FIG. II. Detail of Main Rib and
Column, Olympia.
pure air zinc coating of the
galvanized sheets is durable
for many years, but in large
cities and manufacturing
towns its life is short unless
protected by painting. In
such districts it has often
been found that plain un-
galvanized sheets well coated
with paint will last longer
than those galvanized, for
the latter are attacked by
corrosive influences through
minute flaws in the zinc
coating developed in the
process of corrugation or
resulting from some defect
in the coating. The stock
sizes of corrugated sheets
vary from 5 ft. to 10 ft. long,
and from 2 ft. to 2 ft. 9 in.
wide with corrugations mea-
suring 3 in. to 5 in. from
centre to centre. For roofing
purposes the sheets are
supplied in several thick-
nesses ranging from No. 16
to No. 22 Standard Wire
Gauge. No. 1 6 is for excep-
tionally strong work, No. 18
and No. 20 are used for good-
class work, and No. 22 for
the roofs of temporary build-
ings. The sheets when laid
should lap about 3 in. at
their side! and from 3 in.
to 6 in. at the ends. Rivet-
ing is the best method of
connecting the sheets, al-
though galvanized bolts,
which are not so satisfac-
tory, are frequently em-
ployed. The joints should
be made along the raised
corrugations to lessen the
risk of leakage. Holes can
be punched during the erec-
tion of the roof; their posi-
tions should first be deter-
mined by placing the sheets
in position and marking the
necessary point of fixing. Sheets are usually attached to
timber framework with galvanized screws, or nails with domed
washers placed under their heads. ^Fixing to a steel frame-
work is effected by means of galvanized hooked bolts clipping
the purlins passed through the sheet and held tight by nuts
FIG. 13. Westminster Cathedral: section through nave.
on the outside. Sheets corrugated in the Italian pattern
have raised half-rounds every 15 in. or so, the portions be-
tween being flat. Such sheets have a very neat appearance and
give a better effect .in some positions than the ordinary cor-
rugations
FIG. 12. Cross-Section of Olympia from the Drawings of the architect, A. T. Walmisley, Esq.
ROOFS
703
Zinc in sheets is a material largely used as a roof covering, and if
care be taken to ensure metal of good quality, it proves itself light,
strong and durable, as well as inexpensive. Zinc is
""" stronger weight for weight than lead, slate, tile and glass,
but weaker than copper, wrought-iron and steel, although with the
exception of the two last mentioned it is not so durable when
exposed to the weather. It is not
liable to easy breakage as are
slate, tile and glass. It is usually
supplied in flat sheets, although
it can also be had in the cor-
rugated form similar to corru-
gated sheet-iron. When exposed,
a thin coating of oxide _ is
formed on the surface which
FIG. 14. Westminster Cathe- FIGS. 15 and 16. Westminster
dral : diagonal section through Cathedral : choir-vaulting,
sanctuary dome.
protects the metal beneath from any further change, and obviates
the necessity of painting. In laying the sheets, the use of solder
and nails should be avoided entirely except for fixing clips and
tacks which do not interfere with the free expansion and con-
traction of the sheets. The reason for this is that zinc expands
freely, and sheets laid with soldered seams or fixed with nails are
liable to buckle and probably break away owing to movements set
up by changes of temperature. The usual sizes of zinc sheets are
7 ft. or 8 ft. long by 3 ft. wide. The thickness and weights of zinc
are shown in the following table, which compares the Vieille Mon-
tagne Gauge with the Old Belgian Gauge and the British Imperial
Standard Wire Gauge.
O.B.G. S.W.G.
approximately, approximately. Weight per sq. ft.
9 25 n^oz.
10 24 13$
11 23 15
12 22 17
13 21 18
14 20 21
15 19 24
The best method of laying a zinc flat roof is with the aid of wood
" rolls " of about 2 in. X2 in. in section, splayed at sides and spaced
2 ft. 8 in. apart and fixed to the roof boarding with zinc nails. Iron
nails should not be used as this metal affects the zinc. The sheets
of zinc are laid between the rolls with their sides bent up I \ in. or
2 in. against them, and held firmly in position by clips of zinc
attached to the rolls. A cap of the same metal is then slipped over
each roll and fastened down by tacks about 3 in. long soldered inside
it so as to hook under the same clips that hold the sheet down.
Drips of about 2j in. are made in the slope at intervals of 6 ft. or
7 f t . that is, the length of a sheet and special care must be taken at
these points to keep the work waterproof. The lower sheet is bent
up the face of the drip and under the projecting portion of the upper
sheet, which is finished with a roll edge to turn off the water. The
end of the roll has a specially folded cap which also finishes with a
curved or beaded water check, and this in conjunction with the
saddle piece of the roll beneath forms a weather-proof joint (figs. 17
and 18). The fall between the drips is usually made about ij in.,
V.M.G.
10
ii
12
13
H
15
16
Zirvt roll.
17 18
FIGS. 17 and 18. Details of Zinc Flats.
but where necessary it may be less, the least permissible fall being
about i in 80. Felt laid beneath zinc has the effect of lengthening
the life of the roof and should always be used, as the edges of the
boarding upon which it is laid are, when the latter warps, apt to cut
the sheets. It also forms a cushion protecting the zinc if there is
traffic across the roof.
Sheet-lead forms a much heavier roof covering than zinc, but it
lasts a great deal longer and more easily withstands the attacks of
impure air. Lead must be laid on a close boarding, for Lead
its great ductility prevents it from spanning even the
smallest spaces without bending and giving way. This character-
istic of the metal, however, conduces largely to its usefulness, and
enables it to be dressed and bossed into awkward corners without
the necessity of jointing. The coefficient of expansion for lead
is nearly as great as that for zinc and much higher than in the
case of iron, and this fact requires precautions similar to those
affecting zinc to be taken when laying the roofing. The manner of
laying is with rolls and drips as in the case of zinc, the details of the
work differing somewhat to suit the character of the material
(see figs. 19, 20 and 2l). Allowances must be made for expansion
19 2O 21
FIGS. 19, 20 and 21. Details of Lead Flats.
and contraction, and the use of nails and solder avoided as far as
possible. Contact with iron sets up corrosion in lead, and when
nails are necessary they should be of copper; screws should be of
brass. Lead is supplied in rolls of 25 to 35 ft. long and 6 ft. to 7 ft.
6 in. wide. That in general use varies from one-fourteenth to one-
seventh of an inch in thickness. The weights most suitable for
employment in roofing work are 7 or 8 Ib per square foot for flats
and gutters, 6 ft for ridges and hips, and 5 Ib for flashings.
As a roof covering copper is lighter, stronger and more durable
than either zinc or lead. It expands and contracts much less than
these metals, and although not so strong as wrought-iron coooer
and steel it is much more durable. From a structural
point of view these qualities enable it to be classed as the best
available metal for roof covering, although its heat-conducting
properties require it to be well- insulated by layers of felt and other
non-conducting material placed beneath the metal. _ On exposure
to the air copper develops a feature of great beauty in the coating
of green carbonate which forms upon its surface protecting it from
further decomposition. Perhaps the chief disadvantage in the use
of copper lies in its first cost, but against this must be set the almost
imperishable nature of the metal and the fact that by reason of its
light weight less substantial framework is required for its support.
Copper roofing should be laid in a similar manner to zinc, with wood
rolls at intervals of about 2 ft. 4 in. It is, however, often laid with
welted seams. The general stock sizes of sheets are from 4 ft. to
5 ft. 3 in. long and 2 ft. to 3 ft. 6 in. wide. The thickness almost
invariably used is known as 24 S.W.G. and weighs 16 pz. per square
foot. Thinner metal would suffice, but owing to the increased cost
of rolling very little would be gained by adopting the thinner
gauges.
In the United States of America " tin " roofs are quite commonly
used. Sheets of wrought-iron coated either. with tin or zinc are
used of a size usually 14 in. by 20 in., though they may ^ mfr i cma
be had double this size. Preparation for laying is made Ua rootSi
by fixing an insulating foundation of somewhat stout paper
or felt; this must be dry, else it is apt to spoil the impermeable
covering laid upon it by causing it to rust. Junctions between
the sheets are made by welted seams in which the four edges of the
sheets are turned over so as to lock together, thus forming one large
sheet of tin covering the roof. In high-class work of a permanent
nature the seams in addition are soldered, rosin only being used as a
flux. Each sheet also is secured to the roof with two or three tin
cleats. The life of such roofs may be practically doubled by the
application of a good coat of paint, which, however, adds consider-
ably to the cost.
Slate is a strong and very impermeable material, and these
qualities and the fact that it is easily split into thin plates suitable
for laying, as well as its low cost, cause it to be by far the slate.
most generally used of all materials for roof covering.
Some of the best known varieties of slates, classed according to their
colour, are as follows :
Blue . . North Wales (Penrhyn, Festiniog, Dinorwic, &c.),
France, Norway, Germany.
Blue-grey . Cornwall (Delabole).
Grey . . North Wales (Penrhyn, Dinorwic).
74
ROOFS
Purple . . North Wales (Bangor, Penrhyn, Dinorwic), New-
foundland, Germany.
Green . South Wales (Precelly), Cumberland, Westmorland,
Lancashire, Ireland, Newfoundland, Norway,
United States and Germany.
Slates are cut to many different sizes varying in length from
10 in. to 36 in. and in width from 5 in. to 24 in. There are
perhaps thirty or more recognized sizes, each distinguished by a
different name. In common practice those generally used are
"large ladies," 16 in. by 8 in.; " countesses, 20 in. by 10 in.;
and duchesses," 24 in. by 12 in. Generally speaking, the rule
governing the use of the different sorts is that the steeper the pitch
the smaller the slate, and vice versa. Buildings in very exposed
positions naturally require steeply pitched roofs.
Some of the technical terms used by the slater are as follows:
Bed, the under surface of a slab when laid.
Back, the upper surface of the slate.
Gauge, the distance between the lines of nailing. This depends
on the length of the slate and equals half the length of the slate
after the lap plus an inch for the nail-hole has been deducted.
This is for slates nailed near the top edge; for those fixed near the
middle the gauge would be half an inch more, as no allowance for
nail-holes is required.
Margin, the width of the exposed portion of each course which
equals the width apart of the nailing.
Head and tail, the top and bottom edges of the slate.
Lap, the lap of the tail of one course of slates over the head of
the second course below it. The lap is made from 2j in. to 4 in.
(usually 3 in.), and for this distance there are three thicknesses
of slate, namely, the tail of the top course, the middle of the next
and the head of the third course.
Slates may be fixed by nailing at the head (see fig. 22) or at about
the middle. The latter method is the stronger, as the levering effect
of the wind cannot attain so great a strength. There is a small
economy effected by centre nailing, as the margin is slightly larger
and fewer slates are required to cover a given space; longer nails,
however, are required, for as slates are laid at an angle with the
pitch of the roof their centres cannot be made to approach so near
FIG. 22. Detail of a Slated Roof.
to the slating battens or boarding as the head, which lies close on
the surface to which- it is fixed. Another point worth noticing is
that the nail-holes in the centre nailed slating are only covered by
3 in. of the tail (the amount of the " lap ") of the course of slates
above, and rain is very liable to be forced under by the wind and
cause the wood battens or other woodwork to rot. Head-nailed
slates, on the other hand, have their holes covered by two layers of
slate, and are removed from exposure by the length of the gauge
plus the lap, which in the case of " countess " slating equals II in.
" Open slating " is an economical method of laying slates that is
often adopted for the roofs of sheds and temporary buildings. The
slates in the same course are not laid edge to edge as in close slating,
but at a distance of two or more inches apart. This forms a roof
covering light in weight and inexpensive, which, although not
strictly weather-proof, is sufficiently so for the buildings upon which
it is used.
Slates are laid upon open battens fixed upon the rafters or upon
close boarding or upon battens fixed upon boarding. The battens
are \ in. or I in. thick and li in. to 3 in. wide, and are spaced to
suit the gauge of the slates. When close boarding is used it is often
covered with inodorous asphalted felt. While taking these pre-
cautions to make the roof sound and tight it should be borne in
mind that slate is liable to decay if not ventilated, and to effect
this the battens are sometimes fixed vertically, ridge ventilators
introduced and air inlets arranged at the eaves. ^The bed of slates
laid without provision for the admission of air will be found on
removal after some time to have rotted so as to scale off and easily
crumble into powder.
The nails used in slating are a very important item, and the
durability of the work depends to a large extent upon them. They
should have large flat heads. The most satisfactory are those made
of a composition of copper and zinc, but others of copper, zinc,
galvanized iron and plain iron are used. Those of copper are most
durable, but are soft and expensive. Zinc nails are soft and not
very durable; they will last about twenty years. Iron nails even
if galvanized are objectionable in permanent work, though they
may be used for temporary roofs. When the plain-iron nails are
employed they should be heated and plunged in boiled linseed oil.
The pitch of a roof intended for slating should not incline less than
25 with the horizontal, while 30 is a safer angle to adopt.
Tiles for roofing purposes are made from clay and burned in a
manner similar to bricks. The clay from which they are made is,
however, of a specially tenacious nature and prepared r/fe
with great care so as to obtain a result as strong and as
nearly non-porous as possible. Tilesare obtainable in many different
colours, and some of these have a very beautiful effect when fixed
and improve with age. They comprise a large number of tints from
yellowish red, red and brown to dark blue. As with bricks the
quality depends to a large extent upon the burning; underburnt
tiles are weak and porous, liable to early decay, while everburning,
though improving the tiles as regards durability, will cause them to
warp and will spoil colour. The usual shape is the " plain tile,"
but they are made in various other shapes with a view both to easier
fixing and lighter weight, and to ornamental effect. There are also
several patented forms on the market for which the makers claim
special advantages. The ordinary tiles are slightly curved in shape
to enable them to lie close one upon the other. Some of them have
small " nibs " moulded on at the head by which they may be hung
upon the battens and nailing avoided (see fig. 23). Nail-holes are
provided, and _ upon
steep slopes it is ad-
visable to make use
of them. Others are
made without the
nibs, and are fixed
either by nailing to
the battens or boarding
or hung by means
of oaken pegs wedged
in the holes to the bat-
tens, the pegs in the
latter case acting in
the same way as the
above-mentioned nibs.
Plain tiles are of rec-
tangular form, _the
standard dimensions
are loj in. long by
6J in. wide. They are
usually \ in. thick and
weigh about 2j Ib each.
FIG. 23. Detail of a Tiled Roof.
There are many forms of ornamental tiles, which are plain tiles
having their tails cut to various shapes instead of moulded square.
A number of patented forms of tiles also are on the market, some of
which possess considerable merit. Pantiles are suitable for tem-
porary and inferior buildings such as sheds and outhouses. They
are laid on a different principle from plain tiles, merely overlapping
each other at the edges, and this necessitates bedding in mortar and
pointing inside ana sometimes outside with mortar or cement.
This pointing plays an important part in keeping the interior of
the building free frbm the penetration of wind and water. Pantiles
are generally made to measure 135 in. long by gj in. wide, and weigh
from 5 Ib to si Ib each. Moulded on at the head of each tile is a
small projecting nib which serves for the purpose of hanging the tile
to the lath or batten. They are laid with a lap of 3? in., 2\ in. or
ij in., giving a gauge (and margin) of 10 in., II in. and 12 in.,
respectively. The side lap is generally ij in., leaving a width of
8 in. exposed face. There are many other forms based upon the
shape of the pantile, some of which are patented and claim to have
advantages which the original form does not possess. Among such
are " corrugated tiles," of the ordinary shape or with angular
flutes, and also the Italian pattern " double roll tiles," " Foster's
lock-wing tiles." Poole's bonding roll tiles are a development of
the Italian pattern tile.
Glass as a roof covering and the different methods of fixing it are
dealt with in the article GLAZING.
There are many other materials used for roof covering besides
those already described^ many of them of considerable value. Some
have in the past enjoyed considerable vogue, but have . _
practically died out of use owing to the development and ce ^^ laeoas
cheapening of other forms of roofing. Among these may materjals
be included thatch and wood shingles, the use of which in
these days is practically reduced to special cases. Other little used
roofing materials are those of recent invention, some of which perhaps
ROOK ROOKE
705
have a great future before them. Plates of asbestos used as slates
or tiles make a light, strong and fireproof covering. Large terra-
cotta tiles or slabs are much used in the United States of America.
A good form of flat roof is that in which concrete is used as a founda-
tion for a waterproof layer of asphalt, laid to slight falls to allow
the water to run off easily. This is the usual method adopted when a
roof garden is required. Shingles or thatch look extremely well on
a roof, but their use is debarred in a great many districts owing to
the danger of fire. Galvanized iron tiles, zinc tiles and copper tiles
may be employed on small areas with good effect. " Willesden
paper," often used as an insulating layer beneath slates and tiles,
is also at times used as a roof covering. It is cardboard chemically
treated to render it tough, waterproof and fire-resisting.
The weights of some of the various materials used in the con-
struction and covering of roofs are given in the following table. The
Welzht weights which are approximate are for a square foot of
roofing. The roof trusses are taken to be spaced I o f t. apart
and include the necessary purlins.
King-post wood truss 20 ft. to 30 ft. span .
Queen-post 30 ft. to 50 ft. .
Wood rafters
Ceiling joists and ceiling
J-in. boarding for roof covering ....
i-in.
ij-in.
2j-in.Xi in. slate battens for 8j-in. gauge .
Felt
Thatch
Slates (ordinary laid with 3-in. lap)
Tiles, plain flat
Pantiles . . . . ...
Zinc 12 to 16 gauge laid complete including rolls
Copper 25 to 19 gauge laid complete including rolls
Lead weighing 6 ft per square foot laid complete
including rolls
Corrugated iron 20 S.W. gauge ....
Wind pressure is usually calculated at 22 to 25 ft on a roof with
pitch of 30, and 27 to 30 Ib on a roof of 45 pitch.
From these particulars it is easy to calculate the weight of a square
(100 superficial ft.) of roofing material, this being the usual standard
of measurement for many roofing materials.
The London Building Act of 1894 and its amendments set forth
with regard to roofs erected in the London district that every
_ . structure on a roof is to be covered with slate, tile, metal
or other incombustible material, except wooden cornices
and barge boards to dormers not exceeding 12 in. in depth,
and doors and windows and their frames. Every dwelling-house
or factory above 30 ft. in height and having a parapet must have
means of access to the roof. The pitch of the roofs of warehouse
buildings must not exceed 47, and those of other buildings must
not exceed 75, but towers, turrets and spires are excepted. In
domestic buildings not more than two storeys are to be formed in
the roof, and if the floor is more than 60 ft. above the street level
fireproof materials must be used throughout and a sufficient means
of escape provided. The building by-laws of the municipality of
Johannesburg contain several clauses affecting the designing of
roofs and their method of construction. In the designing of build-
ings roof-slopes must be within a line drawn and produced from the
ground level at the opposice side of the street to the top of the eaves,
gutter or parapet. No roof in the municipal fire limit may be
constructed of thatch, reed or other inflammable material. With-
out the fire area they may be so constructed if the building stands
at least 20 ft. from the boundary of its site. Roofs having a pitch
of less than 225 must be constructed to bear safely a load of at least
28 Ib per square foot of surface. Roofs of steeper pitch must be
able to support a live load of 21 ft per square foot. The framing
of Mansard or other roofs of more than 60 pitch on a building
exceeding 45 ft. high must be constructed of approved fireproof
material at least 2 in. thick. No roofs except those of towers,
turrets or spires shall exceed 70 pitch for a Mansard or 60 for
an ordinary roof. Every fireproof roof, in addition to a door or
scuttle for access from below, must have a skylight or skylights with
metallic framing, having an area equal to at least one-sixtieth the
area of the roof. Skylights placed over rooms or areas to which
the public have access must be protected by wire netting below or
be glazed with wire-wove glass.
The Building and Health Laws and Regulations and Amendments
of 1905 affecting the city of New York are based, so far as the
construction of roofs goes, upon the same lines as those of London,
the principal exceptions being that they give very full working
details, under part 24, as to the strengths of materials required to
be used and the wind pressure to be provided against. In part 17
they provide that where a building exceeds three storeys or 40 ft.
in height and the roof has a pitch of over 60, it shall be constructed
of iron rafters and be lathed with iron or steel on the inside and
plastered or be filled in with fireproof material not less than 3 in.
thick and covered with metal, slate or tile. The provision as to
access to roof and fire escapes therefrom adopted by the London
xxiii. 23
County Council in 1907 under the London Building Act Amendment
Act 1905 were in operation in New York in 1899.
LITERATURE. The principal reference books on this subject
are the following: Thomas Tredgold, Elementary Principles of
Carpentry; J. Newland, Carpenter and Joiner's Assistant; G. L.
Sutcliffe, The Modern Carpenter, Joiner and Cabinet Maker; J.
Griffiths, Trusses in Wood and Iron; F. Bond, Gothic Architecture;
J. Gwilt, Encyclopaedia of Architecture; F. E. Kidder, Trussed Roofs
and Roof Trusses; J. Brandon, Analysis of Gothic Architecture;
A. Pugin, Ornamental Gables; M. Emy, L'Art de la charpenterie;
Viollet le Due, Dictionnaire; J. K. Colling, Details of Gothic Archi-
tecture. (J. BT.)
ROOK (O.E. Hr6c, Icel. Hrokr, 1 Swed. Rdka, Du. Roek,
Gael. Rocas), the Corvus frugilegus of ornithology, and through-
out a great part of Europe the commonest and best-known
of the crow-tribe, belonging to the Passerine family Corvidae.
Besides its pre-eminently gregarious habits, which did not
escape the notice of Virgil (Georg. i. 382)" and are so unlike
those of nearly every other member of the Corvidae, the rook
is at once distinguished from the rest by commonly losing at
an early age the feathers from its face, leaving a bare, scabrous
and greyish-white skin that is sufficiently visible at some
distance. In the comparatively rare cases in which these
feathers persist, the rook may be readily known from the black
form of crow (q.v.) by the rich purple gloss of its black plumage,
especially on the head and neck, the feathers of which are soft
and not pointed. In a general way the appearance and manners
of the rook are well known, and particularly its habit of forming
communities in the breeding-season, which it possesses in a
measure beyond that of any other land bird of the northern
hemisphere. Yet each of these communities, or rookeries,
seems to have some custom intrinsically its own. In a general
way the least-known parts of the rook's mode of life are facts
relating to its migration and geographical distribution. Though
the great majority of rooks in Britain are sedentary or only
change their abode to a very limited extent, it is now certain
that a very considerable number arrive in or towards autumn,
not necessarily to abide, but merely to pass onward, like most
other kinds of birds, to winter farther southwards; and, at
the same season or even a little earlier, it cannot be doubted
that a large proportion of the young of the year migrate in
the same direction. As a species the rook on the European
continent only resides during the whole year throughout the
middle tract of its ordinary range. Farther to the northward,
as in Sweden and northern Russia, it is a regular summer-
immigrant, while farther to the southward, as in southern
France, Spain and most parts of Italy, it is, on the contrary,
a regular winter-immigrant. The same is found to be the
case in Asia, where it extends eastward as far as the upper
Irtish and the Ob. It breeds throughout Turkestan, in the
cold weather visiting Afghanistan, Cashmere and the Punjab,
and Sir Oliver St John found a rookery of considerable size
at Casbin in Persia. In Palestine and in lower Egypt it is
only a winter- visitant, and H. B. Tristram noticed that it
congregates in great numbers about the mosque of Omar in
Jerusalem. The same writer (Proc. Zool. Soc., 1864, p. 444;
Ibis, 1866, pp. 68, 69) considered the Palestine rook entitled
to specific distinction as Corvus Agricola. The rook of China
has also been described as a distinct species, C. pastinalor
(Proc. Zool. Soc., 1845, P- J ) horn having the feathers of its
face only partially deciduous.
ROOKE, SIR GEORGE (1650-1709), English naval com-
mander, was born near Canterbury in 1650. Entering the navy
as a volunteer, he served in the Dutch Wars and became post-
captain in 1673. After the Revolution of 1688, he commanded
1 The bird, however, does not inhabit Iceland, and the language
to which the name belongs would perhaps be more correctly termed
Old Teutonic. From this word is said to come the French Freux.
There are many local German names of the same origin, such as
Rooke, Rouch, Ruck and others, but the bird is generally known in
Germany as the Saat-Krahe, i.e. seed-( = corn-)crow.
3 This is the more noteworthy as the district in which he was born
and educated is almost the only part of Italy in which the rook
breeds. Shelley also very truly speaks of the " legioned rooks "
to which he stood listening " mid the mountains Euganean."
yo6
ROOM ROORKEE
the squadron which raised the siege of Londonderry in 1689.
He became rear-admiral in 1690, and fought at the battle of
Beachy Head. In May of 1692 he served under Russell at
the battle of Barfleur, and he greatly distinguished himself in
a night attack on the French fleet at La Hogue, when he suc-
ceeded in burning six of their ships. Shortly afterwards he
received the honour of knighthood and a reward of 1000. In
1693 he commanded the Smyrna convoy, which was scattered
and partly taken by the French admiral Tourville near Lagos
Bay. Till the peace of Nymwegen(i697),he continued to serve
in the Channel and Mediterranean. In 1702 he commanded
the expedition against Cadiz, and on the passage home destroyed
the Plate fleet in Vigo. With Sir Cloudesley Shovel he took
part in the capture of Gibraltar on the 2ist of July 1704. On
the 1 3th of August of the same year he attacked the French
fleet off Malaga, the battle being drawn. On account of the
dissatisfaction expressed indirectly at the result of the contest,
he retired from the service in February 1705. He died on the
24th of January 1709.
Rooke's Journal for 1700-2 has been printed by 'the Navy Record
Society.
ROOM, originally a word meaning space or accommodation;
the ordinary meaning of an apartment in a building, one of the
interior divisions of a house, dates from the isth century. The
word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Du. ruim, Ger.
Raum, Swed. and Dan. rum, with the original meaning of space.
Skeat connects the word with the root seen in Lat. rus, open
country.
ROON, ALBRECHT THEODOR EMIL, COUNT VON (1803-
1879), Prussian general field-marshal, was born at Pleushagen,
near Colberg, in Pomerania, on the soth of April 1803. His
family was of Flemish origin, and was settled in Pomerania. His
father, an officer of the Prussian army, died in poverty during
the French occupation, and young von Roon was brought up, in
a country ravaged in the War of Liberation and in straitened
circumstances, by his maternal grandmother. He entered the
corps of cadets at Kulm in 1816, whence in 1818 he proceeded
to the military school at Berlin, and in January 1821 received a
commission in the I4th (3rd Pomeranian) regiment quartered
at Stargard in Pomerania. In 1824 he went through the three
years' higher course of study at the war school in Berlin, where
he also applied himself with the greatest energy to improving
his general education. In 1826 he was transferred to the i5th
regiment at Minden, but in the same year was appointed an
instructor in the military cadet school at Berlin, where he devoted
himself especially to the subject of military geography. He
published in 1832 the well-known Principles of Physical, National
and Political Geography, in three volumes (Gnmdziige der Erd-,
Volker- und Staaten-Kunde), which gained him a great reputation,
and of which over 40,000 copies were sold in a few years. This
work was followed in 1834 by Elements of Geography (Anfangs-
grtinde der Erdkunde), in 1837 by Military Geography of Europe
(Mililarische Landerbeschreibung von Europa), and in 1839 by
The Iberian Peninsula (Die Iberische Halbinsel).
Meantime, in 1832, he rejoined his regiment, and was after-
wards attached to the headquarters of General von MurHing's
corps of observation at Crefeld, when he first became alive to
the very inefficient state of the Prussian army. In 1833 he was
appointed to the Topographical Bureau at Berlin, in 1835 he
entered the General Staff, and in the following year was pro-
moted captain and became instructor and examiner in the
military academy at Berlin. In 1842, after an illness of two
years brought on by overwork, he was promoted to be major
and attached to the staff of the VII. corps, in which post he
was again impressed with the inefficiency of the organization of
the army, and occupied himself with schemes for its reform.
Two years later, as tutor to Prince Frederick Charles, he attended
him at Bonn university and in his European travels. In 1848
he was appointed chief of the staff of the VIII. Army Corps at
Coblenz. During the disturbances of that year he served under
the Crown Prince William (afterwards German emperor) in
the suppression of the insurrection at Baden, and distinguished
himself by his energy and bravery, receiving the 3rd class of the
order of the Red Eagle in recognition of his services. While
attached to the Crown Prince's staff at that time he broached
to him the subject of his schemes of army reform. In 1850
came the revelation of defective organization and efficiency
which led to the humiliating treaty of Olmiitz. In the same
year Roon was made a lieutenant-colonel, and in 1851 full colonel.
He now enjoyed the confidence of Prince William, and began
active work as reorganizer of the army.
Promoted to be major-general in 1856 and lieutenant-general
in 1859, Roon had held since 1850 several commands and had
been employed on important missions. Prince William became
regent in 1857, and in 1859 he appointed Roon a member of a
commission to report on the reorganization of the army. Sup-
ported by Manteuffel and Moltke, 'Roon was able to get his
plans seriously considered and generally adopted. His aim was
to create an armed nation, to extend Scharnhorst's system
and to adapt it to Prussia's altered circumstances. To attain
this he proposed a universal three years' service, and a reserve
(Landwehr) for the defence of the country when the army was
actively engaged. During the Italian War he was charged with
the mobilization of a division. At the end of 1859, though the
junior lieutenant-general in the army, he succeeded von Bonin as
war minister, and two years later the ministry of marine was
also entrusted to him. His proposals of army reorganization
met with the bitterest opposition, and it was not until after long
fighting against a hostile majority in the chambers that, with
Bismarck's aid, he carried the day. Even the Danish campaign
of 1864 did not wholly convince the country of the necessity
of his measures, and it required the war with Austria of 1866 to
convert obstinate opposition into enthusiastic support. After
that von Roon, from being the best-hated man in Prussia,
became the most popular, and his reforms were ultimately
copied throughout continental Europe. He was promoted
general of infantry at the outbreak of this war, was present
at the brilliant and decisive victory of Koniggratz, and received
the Black Eagle at Nikolsburg on the road to Vienna. His
system, adopted after 1866 by the whole North German Con-
federation, produced its inevitable result in the victorious
war with France 1870-71, throughout which von Roon was in
attendance on the German emperor. The fiftieth anniversary
of his entrance into the army was celebrated at Versailles on the
1 9th of January 1871, when the emperor expressed his grati-
tude for the great services he had rendered. He was created
a count, and in December 1871, having resigned the ministries
of war and marine, he succeeded Bismarck as president of the
Prussian ministry. Ill-health compelled him to resign in the
following year. He was promoted to be field-marshal on
the ist of January 1873. He died at Berlin on the 23rd of
February 1879.
After his death his son published the valuable Denkwurdigkeiten
aus dem Leben des Generalfeldmarschalls Kriegsministers Grafen
Roon (2 vols., Breslau, 1892), and Kriegsminister von Roon als Redner
politisch und militarisch erldutert (Breslau, 1895). His correspond-
ence with his friend Professor Cl. Perthes, 1864-67, was also pub-
lished at Breslau in 1895.
ROORKEE, or RURKI, a town of British India, in the Saharan-
pur district of the United Provinces, on the Oudh & Rohilkhand
railway, 22 m. E. of Saharanpur. Pop. (1901) 17,197. It is
the headquarters of the workshops of the Ganges canal, and
also of the Bengal Sappers and Miners. Two heavy batteries
of artillery are usually stationed in the cantonment. The
Thomason Civil Engineering College, founded in 1848, was
transferred from the Public Works to the Education Depart-
ment in 1895 and reorganized. It was instituted in order to
train natives in engineering, and students originally received
stipends. After 1875 the emoluments were limited, and became
in the nature of scholarships, but the education of all students
remained practically free till 1896, when fees began to be
charged. The college works in co-operation with the workshops
and foundry of the canal, and also trains in surveying, photo-
graphy and other subjects, having chemical, physical, electrical
and mechanical laboratories and workshops.
ROOSEVELT
707
ROOSEVELT, THEODORE (i&sS-l), twenty-sixth presi-
dent of the United States, was born in New York City on
the 27th of October 1858. The Roosevelt family 1 has been
prominent in the life of New York for many generations, and is
of Dutch origin. Mr Roosevelt's mother, Martha Bullock,
came from a family of Scotch-Irish and Huguenot origin equally
prominent in Georgia. Each family may lay just claims to a
history of more than ordinary social and political distinction.
Although born in New York, Mr Roosevelt spent much of
his boyhood' at Oyster Bay, the country home of his father,
on Long Island Sound, where he began with a distinct purpose,
unusual among boys of his age, to build up a naturally frail
physique by rowing and swimming in the waters of Long
Island Sound, and by riding over the hills and tramping through
the woods of Long Island. That his early outdoor life furnished
a definite training for his after career is indicated by the fact
that when he was about fourteen years of age he went with
his father on a tour up the Nile as far as Luxor, and on this
journey he made a collection of Egyptian birds found in the
Nile valley, which is now in the Smithsonian Museum in
Washington, B.C. Mr Roosevelt was educated at Harvard
University, where he graduated in the class of 1880; 2 his
record for scholarship was creditable, and his interest in sports
and athletics was especially manifest in his skill as a boxer. On
leaving college he made a short visit to Europe, was elected to
the London Alpine Club for climbing the Jungfrau and the
Matterhorn, and returning to New York studied law for a brief
period in the Law School of Columbia University and in the
office of his uncle Robert B. Roosevelt. Determining to enter
active politics, he gave up his legal studies without qualifying
for the bar, and in 1881 was elected to the New York legis-
lature as a regular Republican, although in opposition to the
" boss" of the assembly district for which he was a candidate.
He was elected again in 1882 and in 1883, and at the age
of twenty-four was his party's candidate for Speaker of the
Assembly. In 1884 he was a delegate of the Republican party
to the convention in Chicago which nominated James G. Blaine
for president. In the convention he opposed the nomination
of Mr Blaine, and in a speech which attracted considerable
1 Claas Martenszen van Roosevelt (or Rosenvelt) settled in
New Amsterdam in 1649; his son Claas (or Nicholas) in 1700-1
was a New York alderman of the Leislerian party; in the next
three generations, Johannes, Cornelius and Jacobus (James) were
merchants and (in 1748-67, 1785-1801 and 1797-99 an d 1809,
respectively) aldermen of New York; in the third generation the
family became allied with the Schuylers. Isaac Roosevelt was a
member of the Provincial Congress in 1775-77 and of the state
Senate in 1777-86 and in 1 788-^2; in the state Assembly
were James Roosevelt (1796-97), Cornelius C. Roosevelt (1803),
James I. Roosevelt, jun. (1835-40), and Clinton Roosevelt (1837-
40). James I. Roosevelt, jun. (1795-1875), was a Democratic
member of the national House of Representatives in 1841-43,
and a justice of the state Supreme Court in 1851-59. Nicholas
J. Roosevelt (1767-1854), with John Stevens, Robert R. Living-
stone and Robert Fulton, was prominent in the development of
steam navigation. His brother, Cornelius van Schaik Roosevelt
(1794-1871), was a founder of the Chemical National Bank of New
York, and the grandfather of the president. The president's uncle,
Robert Barnwell Roosevelt (1829-1906), was a New York lawyer,
New York state fish commissioner in 1866-68, a member of the
Committee of Seventy which exposed the corruption of Tammany
in New York City, a Democratic member of the national House
of Representatives in 1871-73, U.S. minister to the Netherlands
in 1888, and author of works on American game birds and fish.
R. B. Roosevelt's brother, the president's father, Theodore Roosevelt
(1831-1878), was a glass importer, prominent in city charities, an
organizer of the Union League Club, and the founder of the Ortho-
paedic Hospital. A cousin, James Henry Roosevelt (1800-1863),
was founder of the Roosevelt Hospital in New York City. The
president's mother, Martha Bullock, was of an old Georgia family
of Scotch-Irish and Huguenot extraction; her grandfather was
Archibald Bullock (1730-1777), first president (1776-77) of
Georgia; and her brother, James Dunwoody Bullock, often com-
pared by Theodore Roosevelt to Colonel Newcome, was in the
Confederate navy, and equipped in England vessels (including the
" Alabama ") as Confederate cruisers.
2 In the same year he married Alice Hathaway Lee of Boston,
who di"d in 1884 leaving one daughter. Later (in 1886) he married
Edith Kermit Carow of New York City, and by this marriage had
four sons and one daughter.
attention for its vigour and courage advocated the nomination
of Senator George F. Edmunds. After Mr Elaine's nomina-
tion, however, he supported him in the campaign as the chosen
candidate of the party, in spite of the fact that an important
wing of the Republican party " bolted " the nomination and
espoused the candidacy of Grover Cleveland, who was elected
president. In 1884, partly because his political life seemed at
least for the immediate present to be at an end, partly on account
of the freedom and activity of out-of-door life, he bought two
cattle ranches near Medora on the Little Missouri river in
North Dakota, where he lived for two years, becoming inti-
mately associated with the life and spirit of the western portion
of the United States.
In 1886 he was the Republican candidate for mayor of New
York City, but was defeated by Abram F. Hewitt, the Tammany
candidate, and received a smaller vote than Henry George,
the candidate of the United Labor party. Mr Roosevelt,
however, received a larger proportion of the total vote cast
than any mayoralty candidate of the Republican party had
previously received in New York City. In April 1889, on the
accession to the presidency of Benjamin Harrison, Mr Roose-
velt, then closely identified with the work of Civil Service
reform, was appointed a member of the United States Civil
Service Commission. In this office, until then one of minor
importance, he served for six years. He made it not only
nationally prominent, but instrumental in shaping the course
of legislative and executive action by introducing into the
work of the Commission an entirely new spirit and new methods.
The annual reports, of which he was the chief author, became
controversial pamphlets; he published bold replies to criticisms
upon the work of the Commission; he explained its purposes
to newspaper correspondents; when Congress refused to appro-
priate the amount which he believed essential for the work,
he made the necessary economies by abandoning examinations
of candidates for the Civil Service in those districts whose
representatives in Congress had voted to reduce the appropria-
tion, thus very shrewdly bringing their adverse vote into dis-
favour among their own constituents; and during the six
years of his commissionership more than twenty thousand
positions for government employes were taken out of the
realm of merely political appointment and added to the classified
service to be obtained and retained for merit only. In 1895
he resigned from the Civil Service Commission and became
President of the Board of Police Commissioners for the City of
New York. After a strenuous two years in this office, he was
appointed by President McKinley in 1897 assistant-secretary
of the navy. He was certain that war with Spain was
inevitable, and he did much to prepare the navy for hostilities,
framing an important personnel bill, collecting ammunition,
getting large appropriations for powder and ammunition used
in improving the marksmanship of the navy by gunnery practice,
buying transports and securing the distribution of ships and
supplies (especially in the Pacific) in such a way that, when
hostilities were declared, American naval victories would be
assured. He urged upon the administration the bold policy of
protesting against the sailing of Cervera's fleet, on the ground
that it would be regarded as a warlike measure not against
the Cuban revolutionaries, who had no navy, but against the
United States; and he advised that, if Cervera sailed, an Ameri-
can squadron be sent to meet him and to prevent his approach
to America. At the outbreak of the war with Spain he resigned
from the Navy Department and raised the first volunteer
regiment of cavalry, popularly known as the " Rough Riders,"
because many of its members were Western cowboys and
ranchmen expert in the handling of the rough and often un-
broken horses of the Western frontier. The regiment also
included college athletes, city clubmen and members of the
New York police force, every man possessing some special
qualification for the work in view. Mr Roosevelt declined
the colonelcy of the regiment, preferring to take the post of
lieutenant-colonel under his intimate friend Dr Leonard Wood,
who, while a surgeon in the United States army, had served
708
ROOSEVELT
in action with gallantry and skill against the Indians. On the
promotion of Colonel Wood to the command of the brigade,
Mr Roosevelt became colonel of the regiment, which took an
especially prominent part in the storming of San Juan Hill.
In this battle Colonel Roosevelt became the ranking officer and,
abandoning his horse, led the charge up the hill on foot under
severe fire at the head of his troops. This charge, in which
many of the " Rough Riders " were killed or wounded, drove
the Spaniards from the trenches and opened the way to the
surrender of Santiago. At the conclusion of the war, while
the troops were still in camp in the South, Mr Roosevelt joined
in a " round robin " of protest against the mismanagement
in the War Department, which had resulted in widespread
suffering among the troops from wretched food and bad sanitary
arrangements. This " round robin " created a sensation which
aroused public opinion and was instrumental in bringing about
some desirable reforms in the War Department.
When his regiment was mustered out of service in September
1898, Mr Roosevelt was nominated by the Republican party
for the governorship of New York State and was elected in
November by a substantial plurality. He was governor for
two years. He reformed the administration of the state canals,
making the Canal Commission non-partisan; he introduced
the merit system into many of the subordinate offices of the
state; and he vigorously urged the passage of and signed
the Ford Franchise Act (1899), taxing corporation franchises.
In various contests, in which he was almost uniformly victorious,
he showed himself to be independent of " boss " control. In
1900, although he wished to serve another term as governor
in order to complete and establish certain policies within the
state, he was nominated for the vice-presidency of the United
States on the ticket with President McKinley by the Republican
National Convention in Philadelphia in spite of his protest.
It was very commonly believed at the time that this nomination
for the vice-presidency was participated in and heartily approved
of by the machine politicians or " bosses " of the State of New
York in their belief that it would result in his elimination from
active political life. The office of vice-president of the United
States had so far in the history of the country been almost
purely a perfunctory one, and has rarely, if ever, led to political
promotion. The vice-president is ex officio president of the
Senate, but has little voice or part in shaping either legislation
or the affairs of the party. Mr Roosevelt never, however,
presided over the deliberations of the Senate, because before
the session following his inauguration convened he had ceased
to be vice-president.
Upon the assassination of McKinley, on the I4th of Sep-
tember 1901, he succeeded to the presidency. No previous
president had entered the office at so early an age as
forty-three. It was his frankly expressed wish to be nominated
and elected president in 1904, and he was nominated unani-
mously by the Republican National Convention at Chicago,
and was elected in November of that year by the largest
popular majority ever given to any candidate in any presi-
dential election. He received 7,623,486 popular votes and
336 electoral votes to 5,077,971 popular votes and 140 electoral
votes cast for Judge Alton B. Parker, the nominee of the
Democratic party. Immediately after his election he publicly
declared that he would not accept the nomination for the
presidency in 1908, and he adhered to that pledge in spite
of great popular pressure brought to bear upon him to
accept the nomination of the party for another term. The
nomination and election of President Taft, who had been
a member of Mr Roosevelt's cabinet, was very largely due
to the latter's great influence in the party. On March 23rd,
two weeks after he ceased to be president, Mr Roosevelt
sailed for Africa, to carry out a long-cherished plan of con-
ducting an expedition for the purpose of making a scientific
collection of the fauna and flora of the tropical regions of that
continent. Expert naturalists accompanied the party, which
did not emerge from the wilderness until the middle of the
following March, bringing with it a collection which scientists
pronounce of unusual value for students of natural history.
Most of the specimens were sent to the National Museum of
the Smithsonian Institution at Washington. The experiences
of his African journey were recorded by Mr Roosevelt in a
volume entitled African Game Trails: The Wanderings of an
American Hunter Naturalist. The spring and early summer
of 1910 were spent by Mr Roosevelt in travelling through
Egypt, the continent of Europe, and England, in acceptance
of invitations which he had received to make various public
speeches in these countries. Honorary academic degrees
were conferred upon him by the universities of Cairo, Christiania,
Berlin, Cambridge and Oxford, and he was given both popular
and official ovations of almost royal distinction ovations which
were repeated by his own countrymen on his return to America.
It may be said without exaggeration that no American
public man in the history of the country has achieved such
extraordinary popularity during his lifetime as Mr Roosevelt
had attained at fifty years of age, both at home and abroad.
Great popularity necessarily brings with it bitter enmity and
genuine criticism. To understand clearly his career as a public
man, and to appreciate the forces at work which caused both
the popularity and the enmity, two facts must be kept dis-
tinctly in mind: first, that at twenty-two years of age he
deliberately decided to make politics his life-work at a time
when in the United States the word " politics " had
a sinister sound in the ears of almost all of the so-called
cultivated classes; and secondly, that in making this deliberate
choice he recognized that the government of the United States
is primarily a party government. He therefore allied himself
with the Republican party, to which by tradition, by family
association, and by political principles he was naturally drawn.
In the history of the United States the politician has been
too often the man who, in connexion with some other trade
or profession, has taken up politics as a tool to carve out
some personal ambition or manufacture a financial profit.
Mr Roosevelt from the beginning apparently believed with
the lexicographers that politics is the science and practice
of government. He has himself told the story of an early
experience that illustrates his point of view. When in 1881
he decided to join the Republican Association of his assembly
district in New York City, members of his family were shocked.
" You will find at the meetings, " they said, " nobody but
grooms, liquor dealers and low politicians." " Well, " said
Mr Roosevelt in reply, " if that is so, they belong to the
governing class, and you do not. I mean if I can to be one of
the governing class. " He forthwith became an active member
of the political organization of his district. He also early
determined to work with his party as being the only way in
which a legislator can work. A free lance, an independent,
a journalist, or a preacher, without definite political affiliations,
may create public opinion, but a legislator or an administrator
must belong to a party. Mr Roosevelt was severely criticized
by many " independent Republicans " for having supported
the presidential candidacy of James G. Elaine in 1884, when
he had vigorously opposed his nomination in the convention on
moral grounds. The reply to this criticism is that Mr Blaine
was the choice of the majority of the party, and that while
Mr Roosevelt felt free to fight within the party vigorously
for reform, he did not feel that the nomination justified a
schism like that which occurred in the Democratic party over
the free silver issue in 1896 a schism which remained after-
wards a hopeless weakness in that party. His position in the
Blaine campaign, his attitude in tariff discussions and legisla-
tion, his relations with United States senators, congressional
representatives, and other party leaders, his methods in making
official appointments, were entirely consistent with his con-
stantly reiterated conviction that in politics permanent good
is achieved not by guerilla warfare, but by working through
and within the party. He was so often accused by political
purists for associating politically with men of discredited
reputation that his own picturesque statement of his con-
version to a belief that in legislative or administrative politics
ROOSEVELT
709
one must work with all sorts and conditions of men is
illuminating. This statement is related by his intimate friend
Jacob A. Riis, 1 to whom Mr Roosevelt made it in commenting
upon his first political success in the New York legislature.
" I suppose that my head was swelled. It would not be strange
if it was. I stood out for my own opinion alone. I took the
best ' mugwump ' stand my own conscience, my own judgment
were to decide in all things. I would listen to no argument, no
advice. I took the isolated peak on every issue, and my associates
left me. When I looked around, before the session was well under
way, I found myself alone. I was absolutely deserted. The people
didn't understand. The men from Erie, from Suffolk, from any-
where, would not work with me. ' He won't listen to anybody,
they said, and I would not. My isolated peak had become a
valley; every bit of influence I had was gone. The things I wanted
to do I was powerless to accomplish. I looked the ground over,
and made up my mind that there were several other excellent people
there, with honest opinions of the right, even though they differed
from me. I turned in to help them, and they turned to and gave
me a hand. And so we were able to get things done. We did not
agree in all things, but we did in some, and those we pulled at
together. That was my first lesson in real politics. It is just this:
if you are cast on a desert island with only a screw-driver, a hatchet
and a chisel to make a boat with, why, go make the best one you can.
It would be better if you had a saw, but you haven't. So with
men. Here is my friend in Congress who is a good man, a strong
man, but cannot be made to believe in some things in which I trust.
It is too bad that he doesn't look at it as I do, but he does not, and
we have to work together as we can. There is a point, of course,
where a man must take the isolated peak and break with all his
associates for clear principle: but until that time comes he must
work, if he would be of use, with men as they are. As long as the
good in them overbalances the evil, let him work with them for
the best that can be obtained."
In his successive offices Mr Roosevelt not merely exerted a
strong influence upon the immediate community, whose official
representative he was at the time being, but by reason both of
his forceful personality and of the often unconventional, although
always effective, methods of work which he employed he
achieved a national prominence out of ordinary proportion
to the importance of his official position. His record in the
Assembly was such that his party nominated him for the
mayoralty of the city of New York when he was absent on his
ranch in Dakota. Although defeated in the mayoralty election,
his work on behalf of the merit system, as opposed to the spoils
system of politics, was such that he was made a Civil Service
commissioner probably the last office a politician would wish
to hold who desired further promotion, for the conflict which a
Civil Service commissioner must have with members of Congress
and other party leaders on questions of patronage is usually, or,
at any rate, has been in the past history of American politics,
inevitably detrimental to further official advancement. He
was taken from the Federal service in Washington to New
York City by a reform mayor and put in charge of the police,
because he had shown both physical and moral courage in
fighting corruption of all sorts; and the New York police force
at that time was thoroughly tainted with corruption, not in its
rank and file, but among its superior officers, who used the power
in their hands to extort money bribes chiefly from saloon-
keepers, liquor-dealers, gamblers and prostitutes. As police
commissioner Mr Roosevelt brought to his side every honest man
on the force. By personal detective work, that is, by visiting
police stations at unexpected times and by making the rounds
at night of disorderly places which were suspected of violating
the law, he not only displayed personal courage in positions
of some danger, but aroused public opinion. The very sensation
created by the novelty of his methods set standards and started
reforms which have greatly improved the morale of the entire
force. The hopelessly vicious policemen hated him, but no man
ever had a stronger personal hold upon the great body of the
honest officers a hold which existed long after he left the police
department, and was frequently expressed by members of the force
as he passed through the city streets. When he became assistant-
secretary of the navy, his work was not so publicly conspicuous,
1 In a volume entitled Roosevelt the Citizen, which, while it is
frankly written as the enthusiastic tribute of a personal admirer,
may be relied upon for accuracy in its statement of historical or
biographical facts.
but in this office he gained an experience which was of great value
in his administration of naval affairs during his presidency. It
is doubtful if, without the experience of this secretaryship, he
could have successfully originated and carried out the plan of
sending the United States navy around the world in 1907. He
went to the Spanish War as a volunteer against the urgent
wishes of his political advisers, and in spite of the protests of
some of his best and most intimate friends. The conditions in
Cuba had long convinced him that war with Spain was inevit-
able, and that, for humane reasons alone, it was both right and
necessary to drive the Spanish power out from the Carribean
Sea. Having urged this view upon the country, when war was
declared he felt that it would be inconsistent for him not to
share personally in the perils of a conflict which he believed
to be a just one, and which he had done as much as he could to
bring about. His record in the war for efficiency and personal
gallantry no doubt contributed largely to his nomination and
election as governor of the state of New York; but he attained
the governorship not on this ground alone. There are many
instances in American politics of nominations made solely on a
war record which have led to hopeless defeat in election. His
work in the governorship brought him still more into prominence
as a national leader. His uncompromising antagonism to
political blackmail and bribery, and his determination to pursue
the right, as he saw the right, only in a common-sense fashion,
made bitter enemies on the one hand among the corrupt
politicians, and, on the other hand, among theoretical reformers,
and discussions raged in the newspapers about his executive
acts, his speeches, and his official messages much as they raged
during his seven years in the White House. If he had never/
reached the presidency he would probably have been a figure long
remembered in American political life. But it was his course
in the presidency that gave him his international reputation,
and it is as President Roosevelt that future historians of
American political life must chiefly discuss him.
Mr Roosevelt entered the presidency definitely committed
to two principles which profoundly affected his course as chief
executive of the United States. He had a well wrought-out
belief in centralized authority in government and a passionate
hatred of political and commercial corruption. He believed
the United States to be a unified republic, a sovereign nation,
and not a federation of independent states united only for
mutual benefit and protection. He not only hated corruption
per se, but he clearly saw that as efficiency has a greater
power for good, so corruption has a greater power for
evil in a strongly centralized government. He understood that
political materialism, selfishness and corruption in federal
administration afford the strongest possible argument for those
who advocate strengthening the independent power of the
separate states at the expense of nationalism. At the very
outset of his administration he therefore set himself to work, not
only to improve the personnel of the government service, but by
exhortations in his messages and public speeches to arouse a
sense of civic responsibility both among office-holders and among
all the citizens. His official messages to Congress, probably
more frequent, certainly much longer than those of any of his
predecessors, were quite as often treatises on the moral principles
of government as they were recommendations of specific legis-
lative or administrative policies. The effect of his exhortations,
as well as of his personal character and public acts, upon the
standards and spirit of official life in the United States, was a
pronounced one in attracting to the federal service a group of
men who took up their work of public office with the same spirit
of enthusiasm and self-sacrifice that actuates the military
volunteer in time of war. No American president has done so
much to discredit and destroy the old Jacksonian theory of
party government that " to the victors belong the spoils," and
to create confidence in the practical success as well as the moral
desirability of a system of appointments to office which rests
upon efficiency and merit only. Mr Roosevelt not only attacked
dishonesty in public affairs but in private business as well,
asserting that " malefactors of great wealth " endeavour to
ROOSEVELT
control legislation so as to increase the profits of monopolies or
" trusts," and that to prevent such control it is necessary to
extend the powers of the federal government. In carrying out
this policy of government regulation and supervision of cor-
porations he became involved in a great struggle with the
powerful financial interests whose profits were threatened, and
with those legislators who sincerely believed that government
should solely concern itself with protecting life and property,
and should leave questions of individual and social relations
in trade and finance to be settled by the operation of so-called
natural economic laws. In the struggle, although he was
bitterly accused of violating the written constitution, of arrest-
ing and destroying business prosperity and of attempting a
radical departure from the accepted social system of the
country, he was remarkably successful. By his speeches and
messages, and by his frank use of one of the greatest of modern
social engines the newspaper press he created a public
opinion which heartily supported him. Under his effective
influence laws were framed which were not merely in them-
selves measures of stringent regulation of business and the
accumulation of wealth, but which establish^ precedents, that
as time goes on will inevitably make the dqctrine of federal
control permanent and of wider application. The struggle
against some of the most powerful financial and political
influences of the time not unnaturally gave ri^ to the idea that
his work as president was destructive perhaps the necessarily
destructive work of the reformer but not ^ssentially con-
structive. Even those friendly to him sometimes felt it
necessary to defend his political course by sayingVhat he was
compelled to raze the old buildings and prepare the\ground on
which his successors might build new and better structures. A
brief consideration of some of the constructive achievwnents
of his administration will show that the " destructive" theory
of his political activities is not sustained by the facts.
Civil Service Reform. Some reference has already been made
to the fact that in every office which Mr Roosevelt held he constantly
dwelt upon the truism, often forgotten or ignored, that no govern-
ment can accomplish any permanent good unless its administrative
and legislative officers are chosen and maintained for merit only.
As assemblyman, as police commissioner, as naval secretary and as
president, he advocated this fundamental doctrine. When Federal
Civil Service commissioner he did more than any other single public
man in the United States has had either the ability or the oppor-
tunity to do, to promote the doctrine of service for merit only out
of the realm of theory into the realm of governmental practice.
While he was criticized by the friends of Civil Service Reform for
not going far enough during his presidency to protect the encroach-
ments of those who desire to have the offices distributed as political
rewards or for partisan ends, such specific acts as his transference
to the classified service of all fourth-class postmasters east of the
Mississippi and north of the Ohio rivers, his insistence upon a
thorough investigation of the scandals in the Post Office department,
and his order forbidding federal employes to use their offices for
political purposes in the campaign of 1908 are typical of his vigorous
support of the merit system.
Conservation of National Resources. If Mr Roosevelt did not
invent this term he literally created as well as led the movement
which made Conservation in 1910 the foremost political and
social question in the United States. The old theory was that the
general prosperity of the country depends upon the development
of its natural resources a development which can best be achieved
by private capital, acting under the natural incentive of financial
profits. Upon this theory public land was either given away or
sold for a trifle by the nation to individual holders. While it is
true that the building of railways, the opening of mines, the growth
of the lumber industry and the settlement of frontier lands by
hardy pioneers was rapidly promoted by this policy, it also resulted
naturally in the accumulation of great wealth in the hands of a
comparatively few men who were controlling lumber, coal, oil and
railway transportation in a way that was believed to be a menace
to the public welfare. Nor was the concentration of wealth the
only danger of this policy; it led to the destruction of forests,
the exhaustion of farming soils and the wasteful mining of coal
and minerals, since the desire for quick profits, even when they
entail risk to permanency of capital, is always a powerful human
motive. Mr Roosevelt not only framed legislation to regulate this
concentration of wealth and to preserve forests, water power,
mines and arable soil, but organized departments in his administra-
tion for carrying his legislation into effect (see IRRIGATION: United
States). His official acts and the influence of his speeches and
messages led to the adoption by both citizens and government of a
new theory regarding natural resources. It is that the government
acting for the people, who are the real owners of all public property,
shall permanently retain the fee in public lands, leaving their pro-
ducts to be developed by private capital under leases which are
limited in their duration and which give the government complete
power to regulate the industrial operations of the lessees.
Government Regulation of Corporations. The growth of the cor-
poration as an industrial machine had in recent 'years been very
rapid in the United States. The industrial and financial corpora-
tions had grown so powerful as to venture to contend for the first
place with the authority of the government itself. As Mr Roose-
velt often pointed out, no nation will live long in which the authority
of government especially in a democracy is supplanted by the
private interest of a real money power. Early in his political
career, Mr Roosevelt foresaw this conflict, and as president he
aroused public opinion so that the people understood it, and threw
his effective influence into the framing of legislation under which
the Federal government is now successfully combating the illegal
acts of the powerful trusts. He established the Federal Department
of Commerce and Labor, the secretary of which has a seat in the
cabinet, and in which there exists a bureau of corporations possessing
the specific function of inspecting and supervising interstate cor-
porations an entirely new feature in American government.
He strengthened the interstate commission for the regulation
of railroads, inaugurated successful suits against monopolies
notably the Standard Oil Company and the so-called Sugar Trust,
and achieved distinct practical results in favour of a system of
" industrial democracy " where all men shall have equal rights
under the law and where there shall be no privileged interests exempt
from the operation of the law. ,Both his friends and his enemies
agree that he did more than any other public man to effect these
changed relations of government and industry. There is, however,
a violent disagreement regarding the desirability and the results
of his course. His critics assert that he simply interrupted the
orderly course of business, inspired panic and dangerously arrested
prosperity. Mr Roosevelt and his supporters were convinced
that his policy was necessary to save the country from the social
and political dangers of plutocracy, and that in establishing a definite
system of government regulation not only were popular rights
preserved and justice promoted but industrialism and finance
were placed upon a basis of regularity and honesty that paved
the way for an era of general prosperity in the United States, un-
hampered by feverish speculation and shrewd scheming, such as the
country had so far in its history been unable to enjoy.
The Army and Navy. Mr Roosevelt was a pronounced advocate
of international peace but also an advocate of law and order. He
believed that international controversies would ultimately be settled
by judicial procedure, and in the Russo-Japanese War and the
establishment of the Hague Court he took an active part in pro-
moting the judicial settlement of disputes between nations. For
his efforts leading to the settlement of the Russo-Japanese War he
received the Nobel Peace Prize, and in May 1910 he delivered an
address on " International Peace " before the Nobel committee in
Christiania. But, with this advocacy of international peace, he
also advocated the maintenance by the United States of an efficient
and thoroughly equipped army and navy. To some of his critics
these two positions seem inconsistent. Mr Roosevelt argued not
only that they were consistent but that the one logically followed
the other. In his Nobel address he said: " In any community
of any size the authority of the courts rests upon actual potential
force; on the existence of a police or on the knowledge that the
able-bodied men of the country are both ready and willing to see
that the decrees of judicial and legislative bodies are put into effect ;"
and he expressed the opinion that until a recognized international
supreme court was firmly established, every nation must be prepared
to defend itself, and when it was established all the nations must
be prepared to maintain its decrees against any recalcitrant nation.
On this ground during his presidential administration Mr Roosevelt
was deeply concerned in many measures for improving the admini-
strative side of the War Department and educating, training and
strengthening the army. Although he himself served in the army
during the Spanish War his special interest was in the navy, springing
probably from his relationship with the navy during his brief term
as assistant secretary. The successful and dramatic voyage of
the American fleet around the world, undertaken in spite of pre-
dictions of disaster made by naval experts in Europe and the United
States, was conceived and inspired by him, and this single feat
would alone justify the statement that no American public man
had done so much since the Civil War as he to strengthen the
physical power and the moral character of the United States navy.
The Panama Canal. The greatest single material achievement
of Mr Roosevelt's presidency was the taking over by the United
States of the project to build a Panama Canal. The prtjject itself
is nearly four centuries old; for a century Great Britain and
the United States had been sometimes in friendly, sometimes
in acrimonious dispute as to how this was to be accomplished;
the French undertook the work and failed. Mr Roosevelt
recognized the new republic of Panama, and obtained from it for
ROOT, E.
711
the United States, in return for a commercial and military pro-
tection advantageous to Panama, the right to build a canal and
control it in perpetuity. His critics said that his course in this
matter was unconstitutional, although the question of constitution-
ality has never been raised before any national or international
tribunal. The fact remains that the construction of the Panama
Canal was undertaken to the practical satisfaction to the civilized
world. But for Mr Roosevelt's vigorous official action and his
characteristic ability to inspire associates with enthusiasm the
canal would still be a subject of diplomatic discussion instead of
a physical actuality.
Colonial Policy. Strictly speaking, the United States has no
colonial policy, for the Philippine Islands and Porto Rico can scarcely
be called colonies. It has, however, a policy of territorial expansion.
Although this policy was entered upon at the conclusion of the
Spanish War under the presidency of Mr McKinley it has been very
largely shaped by Mr Roosevelt. He determined that Cuba should
not be taken over by the United States, as all Europe expected
it would be, and an influential section of his own party hoped it
would be, but should be given every opportunity to govern
itself as an independent republic; by assuming supervision of the
finances of San Domingo, he put an end to controversies in that
unstable republic, which threatened to disturb the peace of Europe;
and he personally inspired the body of administrative officials in
the Philippines, m Porto Rico and (during American occupancy)
in Cuba, who for efficiency and unselfish devotion to duty compare
favourably with any similar body in the world. In numerous
speeches and addresses he expressed his belief in a strong colonial
government, but a government administered for the benefit of the
people under its control and not for the profit of the people at home.
In this respect, for the seven years of his administration at Washing-
ton, he developed a policy of statesmanship quite new in the history
of the United States.
No account of Mr Roosevelt's career is complete without
a reference to his literary work, which has been somewhat
overshadowed by his reputation as a man of public affairs.
He was all his life an omnivorous reader of the best
books in very varied fields of literature, and he developed to
an unusual degree the faculty of digesting and remembering
what he has read. His history of the War of 1812 between the
United States and Great Britain, written when he was twenty-
four years old, is still the standard history of that conflict,
and his Winning of the West is probably the best work which
has been written on American frontier life of the igth century,
a life that developed certain fundamental and distinctive Ameri-
can social and political traits. His African Game Trails, the
record of his scientific hunting expedition in Africa in 1900-10,
is much more than a narrative of adventures on a wild
continent. It is a study of social and ethnological conditions,
and contains many passages of literary charm, describing bird
life, animal life and natural scenery. An appendix that
gives some account of the " Pigskin Library" which he carried
with him for daily reading in the heart of Africa is a surprising
exposition of the wide range of his reading. As a public speaker
his style was incisive, forceful and often eloquent, although
he made no effort to practise oratory as an art. The volume
of his African and European addresses, published in the autumn
of 1910, not only presents an epitome of his political philosophy,
but discloses the wide range of his interest in life and the
methods by which he had striven to bring public opinion to
his point of view.
Personally of great physical and mental vigour, his work
was done at high pressure and he had the faculty of inspiring his
colleagues or his subordinates with his own enthusiasm for
doing things. The volume of his letters and his writings in
books, articles for the press and speeches and official messages,
is enormous, and yet this work was done in the midst of the
executive labours of a long political career. Besides being
famous as a hunter of big game, he was a skilful horseman and
a good tennis player. Regular physical exercise in the open
air contributed much to his abounding vitality. A man of
decisive action when his mind was made up on any given
question, his very decisiveness sometimes gave the impression
that his judgments were hasty. On the contrary, few men
were more deliberate in considering all sides of an important
problem. His long experience, his wide reading and his
thorough knowledge of all sorts and conditions of men, enabled
him to act quickly at a time of crisis, but his important speeches,
or a course of political action that might be far-reaching in its
effect, were not cast into their final form without careful con-
sultation with the best advisers he could obtain. The first
form of his written speeches was always painstakingly edited
and revised, and not infrequently entirely rewritten. He ex-
pressed his own judgment of his success as a public man by say-
ing that it was not due to any special gifts or genius, but to the
fact that by patience and laborious persistence he had developed
ordinary qualities to a more than ordinary degree. (L. F. A.)
The following is a list of his principal works : The Naval Opera-
tions of the War between Great Britain and the United States 1812-
1815 (1882), written to correct the history of James; Thomas Hart
Benton (1887) and Gouverneur Morris (1888), both in the American
Statesmen Series; New York City (1891; revised 1895) in the
Historic Towns Series; Hero Tales, from American History (1895)
with H. C. Lodge; Winning of the West (4 vols., 1889-96); a pit
of the sixth volume of the History of the Royal Navy of England
(1898) by W. L. Clowes; The Rough Riders (1899); Oliver Crom-
well (1901); the following works on hunting and natural history,
Hunting Trips of a Ranchman (1886), Ranch Life and Hunting
Trail (1888), The Wilderness Hunter (1893), Big Game Hunting in
the Rockies and on the Plains (1899; a republication of Hunting
Trips of a Ranchman and The Wilderness Hunter), The Deer Family
(1902), with other authors, and African Game Trails (1910) ; and the
essays, American Ideals (2 vols., 1897) and The Strenuous Life (1900) ;
and State Papers and Addresses (1905) and African and European Ad-
dresses (1910). Several of hjs works have been translated into French
and German. Uniform editions were published in 1900 and 1903.
Early in 1909 he became a "contributing editor" of the Outlook.
The biographical sketches by Jacob A. Riis (New York, 1904),
F. E. Leupp (ibid., 1904), G. W. Douglas (ibid., 1907), James Morgan
(ibid., 1907), and Murat Halstead (Akron, 1902) are personal or
political eulogies. John Burroughs's Camping and Tramping with
Roosevelt (Boston, 1907) is an appreciation of Roosevelt as a
naturalist. J. W. Bennett, Roosevelt and the Republic (New York,
1908), is bitterly hostile. There is a sketch by F. V. Greene in
Roosevelt's American Ideals.
ROOT, ELIHU (1845- ), American lawyer and political
leader, was born at Clinton, New York, on the isth of February
1845, the son of Oren Root (d. 1885), professor of mathe-
matics at Hamilton College from 1849-81. He graduated at
Hamilton College in 1864, taught at the Rome (N.Y.) Academy
in 1865, and graduated at the University Law School, New
York City, in 1867. As a corporation lawyer he soon attained
high rank and was counsel in many famous cases. Politically,
he became identified with the reform element of the Republican
party. He was United States attorney for the Southern
District of New York (1883-85), and a delegate to the State
Constitutional Convention of 1894, acting as chairman of its
judiciary committee. From August 1899 until February 1904
he was secretary of war in the cabinets of Presidents McKinley
and Roosevelt, and in this position reorganized the army and
created a general staff, and in general administered his depart-
ment with great ability during a period marked by the Boxer
uprising in China, whither troops were sent under General A. R.
Chaffee, the insurrection of the Filipinos, the withdrawal of
the United States troops from Cuba, and the establishment
of a government for the Philippines under a Philippine Com-
mission, for which he drew up the " instructions," in reality
comprising a constitution, a judicial code and a system of laws.
In 1903 he was a member of the Alaskan Boundary Tribunal.
In July 1905 he re-entered President Roosevelt's cabinet as
secretary of state. In the summer of 1906, during a visit to
the Pan-American Conference at Rio de Janeiro, he was elected
its honorary president, and during a tour through the Latin-
American republics, brought about a better understanding
between the United States and these republics. In general
he did much to further the cause of international peace, and
he concluded treaties of arbitration with Japan, Great Britain,
France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Austria-Hungary, Switzerland,
Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Holland and other countries.
Upon his resignation from the cabinet he was elected, in January
1909, as United States senator from New York. In 1910 he
was chief counsel for the United States before the Hague
tribunal for the arbitration of the long-standing dispute con-
cerning fisheries between his country and Great Britain (see
NEWFOUNDLAND). He received the degree of LL.D. from
712
ROOT
Hamilton, 1896; Yale, 1900; Columbia, 1904; New York
University, 1904; Williams, 1905; Princeton, 1906; Uni
versity of Buenos Aires, 1906; University of San Marcos
of Lima, 1906; and Harvard, 1907.
ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. anc
Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, repre-
sented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same
in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix), the underground part
of a plant. This is the popular meaning of the word. In its
botanical use the term is more restricted (see below). The
various other meanings have all developed from this, its primary,
significance. Of these the principal are: the source or origin
of a condition, state, quality, &c. ; the base or embedded part of
a structure of the body, such as a nail, tooth, the hair, &c.;
in mathematics, a number, quantity or dimension which
produces a given expression when multiplied by itself a
requisite number of times; and in philology an ultimate
element of language, incapable of further analysis. A par-
ticular extension of the primary meaning is that which applies
the word generally to a class of plants, such as the turnip
or carrot, whose root is fleshy, and edible either by man or
domestic animals.
The embryo of a typical plant, for instance a pea plant
(fig. i), has an ascending axis which will grow into the shoot,
and a descending axis or radicle which will grow into the root.
When the seed germinates, the
radicle is the first to appear;
it grows downwards, and its
primary function is to act as a
holdfast for the plant; its most
important function, however, is
the absorption of water and
,, ~, dissolved nutrient substances
1<IG. I. The Dicotyledonous ( .. , .. , ,
Embryo of the Pea laid open. from the " and jt also fre -
c, c, the two fleshy coty- quently serves for storage of food-
ledons, or seed-lobes, which stuffs. The root is distinguished
remain under ground when from underground shoots by not
the plant sprouts; r, the i i , , , .
radicular extremity of the bearm 8 leaves an d by having
axis which develops into its apex (growing point) pro-
the root; t, the axis bearing tected by a cap (root-cap), which
the young stalk and leaves can be clearly seen by mak-
e, which he in a depression j- ' ,
of the cotyledons/. m S a m ed >an vertical section
through the root-tip; the cap
protects it in its passage through the soil. The root also
generally bears root-hairs, slender unicellular outgrowths of
the outer layer, borne in the
region a little behind the root-
tip. It is by means of the
root - hairs especially that the
root is brought into close rela-
tion with the soil particles and
absorbs the nutrient materials in
solution in the water which sur-
rounds these particles. The
older root-hairs are continually
dying off, so that they are borne
only on a small part of the area
behind the apex. Branches of
the root, which repeat the form
From Vines's student's Botany, by and structure of the main root,
i , , .
a . re developed in regular succes-
Slon lrom above downwards
permission.
FIG. 2,-Lateral Roots n aris-
ing endogenously from the
pericycle of the Tap- Root (acropetal) , and owing to the fact
that they originate in a definite
the interior of the
(endogenous) they develop
in longitudinal rows and have
to break through the overlying
tissue of the parent root (fig. 2). True forking of the root
(dichotomy) occurs in the Lycopodiaceae (the shoots of which
also branch dichotomously), but is unknown in the higher
plants.
of Vicia Faba (longitudinal
c'ylinde'r && /' cSS
of main root; h, root-cap
of lateral root.
Roots which originate elsewhere than as acropetal out-
growths of a main root are known as adventitious, and may
From Green's Vegetable Physiology, by permission.
FIG. 3 a and b.
Root-hair in contact with par- I Ultimate root-branches, showing
tides of soil (highly magnified). I position of root-hairs.
arise on any part of a plant. They are especially numerous
on underground stems, such as the under side of rhizomes,
and also develop from stem nodes under favourable conditions,
such as moisture and absence of light ; a young shoot or a
cutting placed in moist soil quickly forms adventitious roots.
They may also arise from leaves under similar conditions, as,
for instance, from begonia leaves when planted in soil.
The forms of roots depend on their shape and mode of branching.
When the central axis goes deep into the ground in a tapering manner,-
without dividing, a tap-root is produced. This kind of root is some-
times shortened, and becomes swollen by storage of food-stuffs,
forming the conical root of carrot, or the fusiform or spindle-shaped
root of radish, or the napiform root of turnip. In ordinary forest
trees the first root protruded continues to elongate and forms a
long primary root-axis, whence secondary axes come off. In
primary plants, especially Monocotyledons, the primary axis soon
dies and the secondary axes take its place. When the descending
axis is very short, and at once divides into thin, nearly equal
fibrils, the root is called fibrous, as in many grasses (fig. 4) ; when
the fibrils are thick and succulent, the root is fasciculated, as in
Ranunculus Ficaria, Asphodelus luteus, and Oenanthe crocata; when
some of the fibrils are developed in the form of tubercules, the root
is tubercular, as in dahlia (fig. 5) ; when the fibrils enlarge in certain
'IG. 4. Fibrous
Root of a Grass.
Numerous fibrils
coming off from
one point.
From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Bolanit, by per-
mission of Gustav Fischer.
FIG. 5. Root-Tubers of Dahlia variabilis.
s, the lower portions of the cut stems
($ nat. size).
>arts only, the root is nodulose, as in Spiraea Filipendula, or monili-
orm, as in Pelargonium triste, or annulated, as in Ipecacuanha.
borne of these so-called roots are formed of a stem and root combined,
as in Urchis (fig. 6), where the tuber consists of a fleshy swollen
ROPE AND ROPE-MAKING
7 J 3
root bearing at the apex a stem bud. As in the case of the stem,
growth in length occurs only for a short distance behind the apex,
but in long-lived roots increase in diameter
occurs continually in a similar manner to
growth in thickness in the stem.
Roots are usually underground and colour-
less, but in some cases where they arise from
the stem they pass for some distance through
the air before reaching the soil. Such roots
are called aerial. They are well seen in the
screw-pine (Pandanus), the Banyan (Ficus
indica, fig. 7), and many other species of
Ficus, where they assist in supporting the
stem and branches. In the mangrove they
often form the entire support of the stem,
which has decayed at its lower part. In tree-
ferns they form a dense coating around, and
completely concealing, the stem; such is
also the case in some Dracaenas and palms.
In Epiphytes, or plants growing in the air,
attached to the trunks of trees,,such as orchids
of warm climates, the aerial roots produced
_ g ase Q f do not reach the soil ; they continue always
r n* f v,i* aerial and greenish, and they possess stomata.
showing tuber' Delicate hairs are often seen on these epi-
cufeTof tuberous PM al roots f - as * as , a peculiar spongy
t investment formed by the cells of the epi-
dermis which have lost their succulent con-
tents and are now filled with air. This layer is called the velamen,
and serves to condense the moisture contained in the air, on which
p IG
FIG. 7. Ficus indica, the Banyan tree, sending out numerous
aerial roots, which reach the soil, and prop the branches.
the plant is dependent for its water-supply. The aerial roots of the
ivy are not the nutritive roots of the plant, but are only intended
for mechanical support. The climbing roots of many orchids, aroids
and epiphytic ferns branch and form places of lodgment for humus
into which absorbent branches of the climbing roots penetrate.
Some leafless epiphytic orchids, such as species of Angraecum, depend
entirely upon their aerial roots for nourishment; the roots, which
are green, perform the functions both of leaves and roots. A
respiratory or aerating function is performed by roots of certain
mangroves growing in swampy soil or water and sending vertical
roots up into the air which are provided with aerating passages by
which the root system below can communicate with true outside air.
Parasitic plants, as the mistletoe ( Viscum), broom-rape (Orobanche)
and Rafflesia, send root-like processes into the substance of the plants
whence they derive nourishment. In the dodder (Cuscuta), the tissue
around the root swells into a kind of sucker (haustorium), which is
applied flat upon the other plant, and ultimately becomes concave,
so as to attach the plant by a vacuum. From the bottom of the
sucker the root protrudes, and penetrates the tissue of the host
plant. Leaf-buds are sometimes formed on roots, as in plum,
cherry and other fruit trees; the common elm affords an excellent
example, the young shoots which grow up in the neighbourhood
of a tree arising from the roots beneath the soil. In some plants
no roots are formed at all; thus in the orchid Corallorhiza, known
as coral-root, a stem-structure, the shortly branched underground
rhizome, performs all the functions of a true root which is absent.
In aquatic plants the root acts merely as a holdfast or is altogether
absent as in Salvinia, Utricularia and others.
ROPE AND ROPE-MAKING. All varieties of cordage having
a circumference of an inch or more are known by the general
name of " rope." Twisted cordages of smaller dimensions are
called cords, twines and lines, and when the sectional area
is still smaller, the article is known as thread or doubled yarn.
All these varieties of cordage are composed of a number of
separate yarns, each of which is made from some kind of textile
fibre by preparing and spinning machinery. The number of
separate yarns which ultimately form the rope or cord depends
upon the fineness of the yarn, and also upon the circumference
of the finished article. From thread and fine twine upwards
the whole art of manufacture is that of twisting together fibres
and yarns; but the comparative heaviness and coarseness of
the materials operated on in rope-making render necessary
the adoption of heavy machinery and modified processes which
clearly define this manufacture as a distinct calling. The
modern trade of rope-making is again divided into two distinct
branches dealing with vegetable fibres and metallic wire.
Many different vegetable fibres are used for rope-making,
but for the combined qualities of strength, flexibility and
durability, none can compete with the common hemp, which
is consequently the staple of the rope-maker. Cotton ropes
are, however, much more flexible, and in addition are strong
and durable; they are, therefore, much preferred for power
transmission in textile and other works. Manila hemp is a
fibre of remarkable tenacity, of unapproached value for heavy
cordage, but too stiff for small cords and twines. After these
in utility come Sisal hemp of Central America (Agava Sisalana),
Phormium hemp of New Zealand (Phormium lenax) and Sunn
hemp of the East Indies (Crotalaria juncea) all fibres of great
strength, and largely used by rope-makers. Jute (q.v.) of
India (Corchorus capsularis and C. olitorus) is now largely
used by rope-makers on account of its cheapness. When used
alone it is deficient in strength and durability, but when used
in conjunction with proper proportions of hemp it makes a
very satisfactory and useful rope. Among fibres more rarely
seen in rope-works are Jubbulpore hemp (Crotalaria tenuifolia),
boxstring hemp (Sanseviera zeylanica), and other hemps of the
East Indies, plantain fibre (Musa paradisica), and agave fibre
(Agave americana) of America. Coir and many other fibres
are used, but principally in the localities of their production.
A rope is composed of a certain number of " strands," the
strand itself being made up of a number of single threads or
yarns. Three strands laid or twisted together form a " hawser-
laid " rope, and three jsuch hawsers similarly laid make a
" cable-laid " rope or " cable." A " shroud-laid " rope usually
consists of four strands laid around a central strand or core.
The prepared fibre is twisted or spun to the right hand to form
yarn; the required number of yarns receive a left-hand twist
to make a strand; three strands twisted to the right make
a hawser; and three hawsers twisted to the left form a cable.
Thus the twist in each operation is in a different direction
from that of the preceding one, and this alternation of direction
serves, to some extent, to preserve the parallelism of the fibres.
The primary object of twisting fibres together in a rope is
that by mutual friction they may [be held together when a
strain is applied to the whole. Hard twisting has the further
advantage of compacting the fibres and preventing, to some
extent, the penetration of moisture when the ropes are exposed
to water; but the yield of rope from a given length of yarn
diminishes in proportion to the increase of twist. The proper
degree of twist given to ropes is generally such that the rope is
from three-fourths to two-thirds the length of yarn composing it.
Rope-walk Spinning. The sequence of operations in this
method of working is as follows: (i) hackling the fibre;
(2) spinning the yarn; (3) tarring the yarn when necessary;
(4) forming the strands; (5) laying the strands into ropes.
Hackling differs but slightly from the hand-hackling process
used in the preparation of flax. The hackle board consists
of a wooden block studded with strong, tapered and sharp-
pointed steel prongs. A series of such hackle boards is used
in the progressive hackling operation, the prongs diminishing
ROPE AND ROPE-MAKING
in size and being more closely set together. For the commoner
kinds of ropes, however, hackling through the coarsest board
is found to be sufficient, while in most other cases two hacklings
are adopted.
The hackler takes up a handful or "streak" 1 of hemp from
the bundle, wraps one end firmly round his hand, and with his
fingers distributes a little oil over the hemp. The oil softens
the material, keeps the hackle pins in good condition, and
facilitates generally the splitting up of the fibre as the streak
is drawn through the pins. In the first place, only the ' ends
of the streak are hackled; they are dashed into the pins and
drawn through them in order to separate the fibres and to
lay them parallel; but as the operation proceeds a gradually
increasing length of the streak is thrown on and drawn through
the pins. The process is indeed very similar to the combing
out of a head of human hair. When half the length of the
streak is thoroughly combed, the other half is treated in pre-
cisely the same manner. The hackled streak is then weighed,
doubled up to prevent any entanglement, and laid aside for
the process of spinning. During the hackling process a large
quantity of comparatively short fibres are retained in the
pins; the longest of these are separated, and the remainder
used for tow yarns. The above description refers entirely to
hand hackling; machine hackling of hemp is very similar to
flax hackling.
The spinning is done in what is termed the " rope-walk,"
and from the nature of hand-spinning, and the length of the
rope required, it is necessary that this walk should be from
300 to 400 yds. in length. It is sometimes completely covered
in with walls and roof; at other times only a roof is built;
while in exceptional cases the whole of the walk, with the
exception of a small hut at each end, is without shelter of any
kind. The operation of spinning is very important, as the
weight of the yarn and the appearance of the finished product
depend upon it. A description of spinning and laying as per-
formed by the aid of the hand-wheel will perhaps be the best
means of giving an idea of this useful branch of manufacture.
BD<&=
FIG. i.
FIG. 2.
The front and end elevations of one variety of spinning-wheel are
shown in figs. I and 2. The apparatus is fixed to some convenient
part of the 1 building, or to special supports. The wheel A, which is
turned by hand, and always in the same direction, communicates
motion to the rotating hooks or " whirls " B, C, D and E by means
of a listing band or strap F. The arrangement of the listing shows
clearly that the hook E will revolve in the opposite direction to
hooks B, C, and D. The spinner takes two streaks of the hackled
hemp, wraps them round his waist with the ends at his back, and
keeps the fibre in position by adjusting his apron partly round it.
From the middle of the streak that is, midway between the two ends
he takes hold of a quantity of fibre and hangs it on to one of the
1 See note in the article on JUTE for variations of spelling.
hooks B, C or D ; the assistant at the wheel begins to turn, and thus
a certain amount of twist is imparted to the material between the
spinner and the hook. The spinner now walks backwards down the
walk, drawing put the fibre with his left hand and adjusting it with
his right. A piece of flannel or woollen cloth held in his right hand
aids in the formation of the thread and protects his fingers from the
rough fibre. In some cases two threads are spun simultaneously;
when this is done, two of the hooks, say B and C, are used at the same
time. Since the revolutions of the hook divided by the length of
yarn spun give the amount of twist per inch or foot, it follows that
the ratio ofthe walking pace of the spinner to the revolutions of the
wheel A should be constant, otherwise the yarn will not be uniform.
The spinner calls to the assistant when there is any irregularity in
speed, or when, from any cause, he is obliged to stop walking.
At convenient intervals in the length of the walk, and projecting
from posts, are short horizontal bars ; the top of each bar is provided
with wires or pegs to form a number of vertical partitions something
like a very coarse comb. As the spinner proceeds down the walk,
he throws the spun yarn into one of these partitions, thus relieving
himself of the weight and keeping the yarn off the ground. When a
sufficient length of yarn has been spun, he breaks off the fibres and
fastens the yarn to a convenient peg or hook until he has spun a
sufficient number (usually three) to form a small rope or cord. The
person at the wheel hangs these three yarns one on each of the three
hooks B, C and D, while the spinner attaches the other ends to a
revolving hook termed a " looper." All is now ready for "laying "
the yarns. For small cords, this may be done, with or without a
" top." This top is a conical-shaped piece of hard wood provided
with three equidistant grooves which merge towards each other at
the thin end, and into which the yarns are laid. The thick end of the
top is nearest the wheel, so that the yarns may be kept separate on
that side. As the hooks twist the three threads, the spinner goes up
the walk with the top; the twist in the yarns causes the looping
hook to revolve in the opposite direction to the other hooks, and thus
it twists the three threads in the opposite direction to the original
twist.
FIG. 3.
Fig. 3 shows one form of top, the three yarns being shown in
distinctive marks so that the path of each may be more easily
followed by the reader ; a plan of the thick end of the top appears to
the left of the figure. If four yarns of strands are required, the top
would contain four grooves, as well as a hole through the centre to
admit of a core when such a thing is required. As soon as the
spinner, who carries the top, arrives at the wheel, the assistant takes
the yarns off hooks B, C and D (figs. I and 2), and puts them all on
hook E. The other ends of the strands are removed from the looper
and attached to a block of wood called a " drag." The wheel is then
rotated as before, which puts more twist into the cord. While
this operation, which is termed hardening, proceeds, a shrinkage in
the length of the cord takes place, and the drag is consequently
drawn up the walk. The drag, however, holds the cord taut, and
serves to retain the twist which is imparted by the hook E.
If the strands require tarring before they are laid, they are
separately taken off the hooks, after they have been spun, and tied
at both ends to pegs to keep them taut until a sufficient number has
collected to be conveniently handled at the tarring tank. The tar
is heated to about 220 F., and the strands are then passed through
it at a speed not greater than 15 ft. per minute. Before emerging
from the tank, the strands pass between squeezing rollers which
remove all superfluous tar. In a short time the strands are dry,
while in the space of a few days the tar is hard enough to allow the
strands to be formed into ropes.
Such is, in general, the hand process of forming ropes when they are
composed of only three or four single yarns. It very often happens,
however, that a number of single yarns are required to form each
strand of the rope. The single yarns may be spun by hand, as
described above, or by machinery. In the former case a group of
yarns is usually termed a " haul," while the machine-spun yarns
are formed into what is known as a " warp " or " chain. ' In any
case, the group of yarns is stretched down the rope-walk, at each
end of which is a " jack " twister. A few of the yarns taken from
the group the number depending upon the size of the yarn and
also upon the required diameter of the strand are then placed on
a hook of the jack twister and twisted together. When three such
strands are made they are laid into a rope in a similar manner to
that explained above. A simple form of hand jack twister is
illustrated in figs. 4 and 5. The wheel A gears with pinions B on the
shafts of the hooks or whirls, and this imparts the necessary motion
to the latter. At the other end of the walk is a similar machine
which moves upon rails as the twist is put into the strands. When
the hooks are empty, pinions B and wheel A (fig. 4) are out of gear,
but those hooks carrying yarn are drawn out, as shown at C, until
the pinion B gears with wheel A, when the hooks are rotated. The
ROPE AND ROPE-MAKING
PLATE I.
FIG. 9. ROPE-MAKIXG, POTTINGER MILL.
FIG. io. MANILA ROPE YARN PREPARING, POTTINGER MILL, OF THE BELFAST ROPEWORK CO. LTD.
XXIIL 714.
PLATE II.
ROPE AND ROPE-MAKING
FIG. ii. GOOD'S HACKLING AND SPREADING MACHINE.
FIG. 12 HEAVY SPIRAL OR SCREW-GILL DRAWING FRAME; ONE HEAD, SIX GILLS.
I
FIG. 13. SPINNER OR JENNY.
ROPE AND ROPE-MAKING
l-l
/
sequence of operations is very similar to that described for the
simple hand-wheel.
FIGS. 4 and 5.
Machine or Factory Rope-Making. The most modern methods
of rope-making are far superior to the foregoing, which, as
stated, have been introduced to show the principle. One of the
greatest drawbacks in the formation of a strand from a haul or
chain, even for a small number of yarns, is the irregularity
of the tension of the yarns at different parts of the strand.
If a large number of yarns be required for each strand, it would
be almost impossible to make a satisfactory rope by the above
system. If, however, the strand be made from bobbins, each
yarn bears its proper share of the tension, and an almost perfect
rope is obtained.
Two mechanical methods are in use for the spinning of long
vegetable fibres the ordinary and the special. When flax or
jute yarns are required, they are almost invariably spun on
the ordinary spinning frames, and the yarn rewound from the
spinning bobbins on warping bobbins, or else rewound in the
shape of rolls or cheeses. Hemp yarns, especially the finer
kinds, are sometimes treated in the same manner, but Manila
hemp, New Zealand hemp (Phormium), and similar fibres,
are invariably spun on bobbins by special machinery. The
strands for light ropes may then be made on the twisting frames,
and the rope finished on what is called a " house machine."
. When a large rope is desired, a slightly different method is
usually employed. The bobbins from the automatic spinner,
or the rolls from the winding frame, are placed upon pegs in
a frame which answers the same purpose as a bank or creel used
in conjunction with a warping machine. If the rope is to be
say 35 in. in ^circumference, there may be, with fine yarns,
300 or more individual threads in its composition. Suppose
that 300 threads are to be used, then 300 bobbins would be
placed on the pegs of the bobbin bank or creel, and divided
into three sets of 100 threads each for a three-strand rope.
The threads are passed separately through a register- plate,
which is simply a plate containing a sufficient number of holes
for the maximum quantity required, and arranged in a series
of concentric circles. There are three sets of concentric rings
used in the plate for a three-strand rope, and four sets for one of
four strands. As the threads emerge from the register plate
they are grouped together and passed through a tapered tube,
the sectional area of the smaller end of the tube being equal to
the sectional area of the strand. This operation is done for
each group of 100 threads, and finally the three or four groups
are attached to separate rotating hooks of the forming machine
or " traveller." As the latter moves down the walk on rails, it
draws the threads from the bobbins in the bank, and through
the register plate and tubes, while the hooks put in the twist.
A perfectly circular strand, without slack threads, is thus
formed; and, at the same time, a uniform strand is obtained,
since the ratio of the speed of the traveller to the number of
turns per inch of the hooks is constant. The process is con-
tinued until the desired length of strand is made about 150
fathoms (300 yds.) of each of the three strands are required
for too to 120 fathoms of rope then a little more twist is
introduced. Afterwards, all three strands are placed on one
hook of the traveller, and the ends from the shaping tubes
are cut off and put on the hooks of the fixed machine, called
the " fore-turn." The carriage containing the " top " is now
brought close to the traveller, and the strands are placed in the
grooves of the top as explained under hand-laying. Similar
means to those used in hand-spinning are adopted for keeping
the rope off the ground. The two machines are now started,
the three hooks of the fore-turn machine revolving in one direc-
tion and the single hook of the traveller revolving in the opposite
direction. Simultaneously the carriage with the laying top
moves forward towards the head of the walk.
Fig. 9, Plate I., shows many stages in the process of rope-making.
The most prominent part shows the carriage with the top in position
approaching the fore-turn machine at the head of the walk. The
person on the right of the carnage is holding a top in his left hand,
while the top in the carriage is laying a rope of four strands. _At
other parts of the figure appear three or four travellers, some twist-
ing the strands, others moving up the walk as the laying proceeds,
while on the extreme right one machine is laying two ropes, of three
strands each, at the same time.
We have already stated that the yarns for the above machine may
be prepared by two systems. When the hemp fibre is spun on the
ordinary frame, the method of preparation for such a frame is some-
what similar to that employed for flax, but since the fibre is harsher
than flax, it invariably requires softening. The softening machines
crush the streaks as in the case of jute, but the fluted rollers are
arranged to form part of a circle. The coarser fibres receive a
somewhat different treatment; the first process in the preparation
of Manila hemp and similar fibres used for rope yarn is illustrated in
fig. 10, Plate I. The streaks are clearly shown as being led between
fluted rollers on to the pins of the hackling and spreading machine;
the lanterns or skeleton rollers, seen on the extreme right, press the
fibres into the pins. A little oil is made to drop on to-the fibre in
order to soften it and to facilitate the operation. The oiling ap-
paratus is usually of a simple character, and consists of a revolving
roller partly immersed in an oil bath. The roller is driven as shown
in the figure, and the oil which it draws up is scraped off its surface
by a knife-edge, and led, by means of a sheet, upon the fibre between
the fluted rollers and the gill-pins. A view of a similar machine is
shown in fig. n, Plate II., from which it will be seen that there are
two sheets of revolving gill-pins. The sheet nearest the feed-cloth
revolves slightly quicker than the surface speed of the fluted feed
rollers, while the second sheet moves at a much higher rate. The
difference in the speeds of the gill-pins results in the fibre being
combed out and straightened, while the delivery rollers, the surface
speed of which is slightly greater than that of the second sheet of
gill-pins, help further to complete the process, and finally deliver the
fibre in the form of a broad ribbon, termed a sliver.
In general, three such machines are used for the process; the pins
in the gill-sheets are graded, those in the second machine being finer
and more closely set than those in the first machine, while a still
finer and closer arrangement obtains in the third machine. The
slivers from the third hackling and spreading machine are now placed
at the back of the first drawing frame, one type of which appears in
fig. 12, Plate II. Each sliver is passed separately over a guide pulley,
led upon the pins, drawn out and joined by others, and finally
delivered as a sliver ready for the second drawing frame. A similar
process is carried on in this machine, from which the sliver emerges
ready for the spinning frame. It will thus be seen that a system of
doubling, as well as of drawing, obtains in these processes as in flax-
preparing; such a system is adopted in order to obtain uniformity
of sliver and the correct weight.
The slivers are taken from the drawing frame to the automatic
spinner a beautiful piece of mechanism. Fig. 13, Plate II.,
illustrates the machine as it leaves the makers. Two sliver cans
from the second drawing frame are placed behind the machine, and
the slivers passed between the rollers. They are then deflected
and made to enter a trumpet-mouthed conductor which guides
them on to the pins of the chain-sheet. As the two slivers emerge
from these pins, each enters a separate self-feeding and adjusting
apparatus, the function of which is, as its name implies, to regulate
the delivery of the sliver to the nippers. The delivery is increased
or decreased according as the sliver is thin or thick. Consequently,
a very even yarn results; indeed, it is claimed that for uniformity
of yarn this system of spinning has no equal. The bobbins, which
ROPE AND ROPE-MAKING
are placed in a horizontal position, have a lateral movement, so
that the finished yarn may be wound on evenly. This machine is
made for ordinary rope yarn, and for binder twine for self-reaping
machines. When all three spreading machines are used in con-
junction with the spiral drawing frames, the automatic feeding
arrangement is sometimes considered unnecessary, because of the
uniformity of the slivers when delivered from the finishing drawing
frame.
Figs. 14 and 15, Plate III., show two sheds filled with preparing
machinery for the manufacture of binder twine. A complete
system of Manila machinery, as recommended by Messrs Lawsons,
Leeds, would consist of the following :
No. I spreading and hackling machine.
spiral 1st drawing frame, I head, 88 in. reach, 4 slivers per head.
2nd 2 heads, 88 in. ,, 6
20 improved automatic spinners or jennies of 2 spindles each.
The length of sliver from a given length of fibre is proportional
to the drafts and inversely proportional to the doublings. Thus, if
d\, dz, dz, d\, (1.,, </,,, tin- drafts,
si, Si, 5j, 54, 5 6 , 5 6 , = the number of slivers,
/ = the feet per ft on the feed-table of No. I spreading machine,
L = the feet per ft delivered at the automatic spinner, then:
4
it
i x
7 = L -
*t
No. I. No. 2. No. 3. No. I. No. 2. Auto-
Spreading Drawing matic
machines. frames. spinner.
A numerical example, showing the drafts, slivers, &c., used for
the production of No. 22" rope yarn of 330 ft. per ft appears below :
.15-5
12
/ X
X'J
X
12
X
Spreading Drawing Automatic
machines. frames. spinner.
Whence / = -536 ft., say -54 ft. per ft; that is to say, I ft of
Manila fibre, approximately 6 in. in length, spread on the feed-
table of No. I spreading and hackling machine, and subjected to
the above drafts and doublings, would produce yarn No. 22" of
330 ft. per ft from the automatic spinner.
The bobbins from these automatic spinners may be used in the
bank at the rope-walk as already indicated, or they may be taken
to what is termed a " house machine." These machines are of
two distinct kinds vertical and horizontal. They perform the
same work as the machines in the rope-walk, but take up much
less space.
Figs. 1 6 and 17, PJate IV., illustrate two types of horizontal
machines, each of which is capable of completing a rope in one
operation. The process is pretty clear in fig. 17, which shows that
eighteen threads are treated at once. On the right, and driven by
spur gearing, are three revolving carriages or creels, each containing
six bobbins. Each group revolves as the yarns are drawn off the
bobbins, and thus the threads are formed into three strands.' As
the strands emerge from the guides, they converge towards three
other guides, are laid together, and finally the finished rope is wound
on to the reel.
In principle the vertical machine is the same as the horizontal
machine, and the rope is, consequently, made in one operation.
Any number of bobbins, from 24 to 128, may be twisted at the same
time; the machine in fig. 18, Plate IV., is for making a rope of
three strands, each with 12 threads, or 36 threads in all. These
machines are also made to make ropes of four strands. The strands
are formed by the rotation of the carriages, from the top of which
each strand passes. The three strands then converge to, and pass
through, the top of the machine, where they are laid into a rope.
The latter passes over a series of guide pulleys, and is ultimately
wound on the large drum shown in front of the machine. Such a
machine for making a 128-thread, four-strand rope, occupies only
about 125 sq. ft. 8 ft. 9 in.Xi4 ft. 4 in.
In addition to the heavy rope there are many varieties of cord
and twine made by means of the preparing, spinning and
doubling machines. The fishing industry takes many different
types for lines and nets, while the variety of cord and twine
for other industrial and for household purposes is almost un-
limited. All yarn from long vegetable fibre is more or less
rough as it leaves the spinning frame, even after two or more
threads have been twisted together. It is therefore necessary,
for many uses, to impart a polish to the cord or twine. Special
machines are used for this purpose. A certain number of
bobbins, depending upon the capacity of the machine, are placed
in a bank, and the ends are collected and passed under a roller
which is immersed in hot starch. The yarns become saturated
with this starch, but, as they emerge from the starch-box,
the superfluous starch is removed by passing the yarns between
two rollers. The yarns now pass over a series of drying cylinders
and polishing rollers, and are finally rewound by the same
machine on bobbins. These machines are termed bobbin-to-
bobbin polishing machines. In some cases the hot drying
cylinders are replaced by a system of hot air drying. The
finished yarns are now made up by machinery into hanks,
balls or cheeses, according to which happens to be the best
state for future use and for transport.
Driving Ropes. It has already been stated that cotton driving
ropes are extensively applied in the transmission of motive power.
Although the mechanical efficiency of transmission by ropes is less
than that obtained by wheel gearing, rope driving has several
compensating advantages:
1. It is practically noiseless.
2. It occupies less space than belt driving, and the slip is not
so great.
3. The turning movement is better; machines therefore run more
steadily and production is increased.
4. Shafts may be run at higher speeds.
5. Greater range of drives; anything from 10 ft. to over 80 ft.,
and much greater distances when carrier pulleys are used.
6. The drive is usually obtained by a number of ropes; if one
should break, the rope may be removed and the machinery
run, in most cases, until stopping-time.
The number of ropes to be used depends upon the power to be
transmitted and upon the surface speed of the driving pulley. The
speed of the rope may vary from 2000 ft. to 6000 ft. or over
per minute. .In some few exceptional cases 60 ropes have been
used on one pulley; the number usually varies between 15 and 40.
(See also POWER TRANSMISSION, Mechanical.) Fig. 6 shows the
FIG. 6. Rope Race of a Lancashire Cotton-Spinning Mill, with
38 Lambeth Cotton Driving Ropes, if in. diameter; engine,
1700 H.P.
application of these ropes, which pass direct from the main driving
pulley to the different flats of the mill. Fig. 7 shows the construc-
tion of the Lambeth
four - strand cotton
rope. There are two
distinct systems of ar-
ranging the ropes on
the driver and the.
driven pulleys. In the
United Kingdom each
rope is independent of
all the others, and, as
it is unlikely for more FlG - 7- Lambeth Cotton Rope,
than one rope to break at a time, the stoppages are reduced to a
minimum. In America, where hemp ropes are largely employed,
ROPE AND ROPE-MAKING
PLATE III.
Fie. 14. BINDER TWINE PREPARING, CONNSWATER MILL, OF THE BELFAST ROPEWORK CO. LTD.
xxra. 716.
FIG. 15 BINDER TWINE SPINNING, CONNSWATER MILL,
PLATE IV.
ROPE AND ROPE-MAKING
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ROPE AND ROPE-MAKING
717
the continuous system is mostly used; here the rope is wound
round and round over driver and driven, and, except in rare
cases, is joined only at one place. Although the system has the
great advantage of the minimum number of joinings, it requires
tension pulleys to keep the ropes taut. It is also clear that
when the rope breaks at any point the machinery must stand
until the repair is completed.
Wire Ropes. Although the manufacture of ropes is of ancient
origin, the practice of making ropes from wire on a large scale is of
comparatively recent date. Since 1874, however, great develop-
ments have taken place in the manufacture of ropes from different
kinds of wire, and the uses to which they can be put have enormously
increased. This is owing almost entirely to the introduction of
flexible wire ropes which were invented about this time by Messrs
Bullivant & Co. Ltd., of 72 Mark Lane, London, E.G. Prior to that
date the uses at which wire ropes were put were limited to winding
ropes for collieries and hauling, and to cases in which flexibility was
not a great desideratum. The introduction of flexibility, however,
made possible the use of wire rope for ships' hawsers and rigging, for
cranes, derricks and other purposes for which hempen ropes were
formerly employed indeed it has almost entirely superseded hemp
for marine uses. The reason is that it is much stronger for the same
size than rope made from any other material, whilst for the same
strength its size and weight are only about one-third that of hempen
rope. Consequently, the required power may be obtained with a
wire rope of comparatively small bulk.
Wire rope is specially suited for aerial ropeways which provide
a means of conveying ore, metals, merchandise, &c., over ground
where it would be difficult to arrange transport by ordinary means.
Messrs Bullivant & Co. Ltd., to whom we are indebted for the table
of strengths and other particulars, as well as for the sectional
illustration of wire ropes, construct seven different systems of
aerial ropeways:
1. The endless running rope, with carriers hanging therefrom
and moving with it through frictional contact.
2. An endless rope, with the carriers hanging therefrom and
moving with it, being rigidly fixed in position on the
rope.
3. The fixed rope, in which the carriers are drawn along and
hang from a fixed rope which acts also as a rail, returning
on a parallel rope.
4. The single fixed rope, in which one carrier, hanging from a
fixed rope, is drawn to and fro by means of an endless
hauling rope.
5. The use of two fixed ropes with an endless hauling rope, in
which one carrier travels in one direction, while the other
travels on a parallel rope in the opposite direction. This
is a serviceable type of ropeway, capable of being used
over extremely long spans, and of carrying loads up to
5 tons.
Phe
6. The use of one fixed rope placed on an incline, on which the
carriers (uncontrolled by hauling ropes) with their suspended
loads are allowed to run down at a high speed. This is
generally called a " shoot."
7. Bullivant's system of aerial ropeway for raising, lowering,
and transporting heavy loads, by means of which a load can
be hoisted, traversed in either direction and deposited at
one operation.
The flexibility of a wire rope depends upon the number of wires
of which it is formed; consequently the use to which a rope is to
be put will partly determine the number of wires used in its con-
struction. In some cases nearly 400 individual wires are employed
in making one rope. Fig. 8 shows in section ten different types of
construction, the particulars of which appear below:
1. Laid rope made of 6 strands of 7 wires each. This is the
class of rope most frequently used for hauling ropes where the
size of the barrel and sheave will permit ; it is also the make
of rope in general use for standing rigging, and is such as is
required by Lloyd's regulations.
2. Hauling rope made of 6 strands, each strand being of 7 wires
covering 7 smaller ones.
3. Hauling rope made of 6 strands, each of 8 wires covering
7 smaller ones.
4. Hauling rope made of 6 strands, each of 10 wires covering
7 smaller ones.
5. Formed rope made of 6 strands of 19 wires each. In larger
sizes this make of rope is used for standing rigging on vessels.
In smaller sizes it is sometimes used for running rigging, and
it is the usual make of rope for trawl warps.
6. Flexible steel wire rope, made of 6 strands each of 12 wires,
with hemp heart and hemp centre in each strand. This is
the usual make of flexible steel wire rope, 4^ in. in circum-
ference and smaller; used for hawsers, running lifts, hoists,
&c.
7. Extra flexible steel wire rope made of 6 strands each of
24 wires.
8. Special extra flexible steel wire rope made of 6 strands each of
37 wires.
9. Special extra flexible steel wire rope made of 6 strands each of
61 wires. This is the make of rope usually adopted for large
ropes say over 10 in. in circumference which are largely
used for slipway and salvage purposes.
10. Cable-laid rope. This is an obsolete form of rope, which is
composed of six complete ropes twisted together.
The following table supplies particulars about wire ropes which
are used for general hauling purposes:
Breaking Strain in Tons.
Approxi-
Circum-
ference.
Dia-
meter.
"Cruci-
ble"
Steel.
Best
Selected
Improved
" Cruci-
ble"
Steel.
Best
Selected
" Mild
Plough "
Steel.
Best
Selected
" Extra
Plough "
Steel.
mate
Weight
per
Fathom.
ii in.
ifin.
4*
4i
51
5f
il ft
ij
1 ,
6
6i
7i
7t
2*
if
A,
81
8;
9s
10*
3l
2
I ,
II
iij
I2j
141
4
2 i
IS ,
J4j
15
165
18
5i
2j
1?
i 6 '
20
22*
6}
2 l
21 j
22j
24l
27 1
7i
3
If,'
24J
26J
29
9
3l
I ,
2 9 f
3'!
35 i
38 *
10*
3i
iJj ,
34 1
36?
44i
13
3J
4
If:
45?
4^
to"'
53
58*
Hi
I6J
4!
if ,
56
61 J
67
I7f
4l
4f
If:
57i
65
61
69
67
76
73
83
20
22
5
a -
72
76
83
92
25
The diameter of drums and sheaves should be about thirty times
the circumference of the rope.
For shaft winding at high speed one-tenth of the breaking strain
of a rope is sometimes taken as a fair working load. For inclines,
the proportion of load to breaking strain varies according to gradient
conditions, and friction should be allowed for.
The first requisite in the manufacture of wire ropes is the selection
and blending of the different iron ores. The different processes
through which the metal passes, and the hammering and drawing
into rods, require great experience, and give to it the peculiar pro-
perties that are essential for the finished article. The same remarks
apply to the annealing and hardening processes, during which the
rods are drawn through dies to the required gauge. The wire is
now subjected to special processes of galvanizing in order to make it
proof against atmospheric and other influences. Afterwards it is
wound on bobbins of suitable size, a definite number of which are
mounted on the forks or frames of the stranding machine. These
forks are swung or pivoted between disks, which are keyed on a
hollow main shaft, through which the wires or other material
7 i8
ROPES ROPS
intended for the core pass. This core is of such a size that the
aggregate number of wires that are mounted in the machine exactly
cover it in a spiral direction.
All the wires, including the centre core, are passed through their
individual hollow spindles, then led to the nose or head of the machine,
and finally passed through a stationary compression block to draw-
off wheels. The speed of these wheels is regulated in proportion
to the speed of the machine by means of suitable gearing. During
the revolutions of the machine each bobbin and fork is kept in a
vertical position, and floats thus, by means of an eccentric ring
behind the back disk. This ring is connected to the spindles of the
bobbin forks by means of small cranks, thus preventing any torsional
movement that would otherwise be imparted to the individual
wires.
Each bobbin is controlled by a brake which acts as a tensioning
device so that equal strain can be applied to each, allowing the
wires to unwind uniformly. The finished strands are wound in
turn upon large bobbins, and mounted in the flyers or disks_of the
rope closing machine. These machines are similar in design to
the stranding machine, but are naturally much heavier in construc-
tion, and therefore revolve at a proportionate speed. The speed
of the machines varies according to the weight of material, the
size of the strands and the construction of the finished rope. The
modern machine, or the type most generally used, makes about
fifty revolutions per minute, whilst three times this speed is often
obtained when spinning the strands.
The rapid strides made by electricity have furnished another
large branch of what may be termed wire rope manufacture. The
ropes used for electrical purposes are almost invariably termed
cables, and there are many different kinds and sizes of them. The
wire must necessarily possess good conducting power, and be com-
paratively cheap. Up to the present copper has proved to be the
chief material possessing these two important properties in com-
bination; hence it is the metal par excellence for electrical conduction.
Aluminium and alloys have been tried with varying degrees of
success.
The conductor itself consists of a strand of soft copper wires,
around which the dielectric or non-conducting material is placed.
The methods of forming the strands do not differ essentially from
those described above. The dielectric is usually paper, spun jute
fibre, vulcanized india-rubber or vulcanized bitumen. If the first
two dielectrics are used, a lead sheath is necessary to enclose the
insulated strand and so exclude moisture; if the cable is likely
to get damaged, it is further enclosed by steel tapes or steel wires,
and finally covered with yarn or braid. Vulcanized bitumen is
not only a dielectric, but is also absolutely impervious to moisture.
Hence in many instances where paper or fibre is employed as the
principal dielectric, a sheath of vulcanized bitumen is used instead
of lead to exclude moisture. Cables are also made with a single
central stand of copper wires in addition to one or more concentric
layers of copper wires, the layers being separated by some dielectric
material ; or there may be two or more strands, separately insulated,
and more or less elaborately clothed with the above-mentioned
substances. (T. Wo.)
ROPES, JOHN CODMAN (1836-1899), American military
historian and lawyer, was born at St Petersburg on the 28th of
April 1836, the son of a leading merchant of Boston who was
engaged in business in Russia. At the age of fourteen, his family
having meantime returned to Massachusetts, he developed an
affection of the spine which eventually became a permanent
deformity. His courage and energy, however, did not allow
him to yield to his affliction. He entered Harvard in 1853, and
graduated in 1857. His interests as a young man were chiefly
religious, legal and historical, and these remained with him
throughout life, his career as a lawyer being conspicuous and
successful. But it was the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861
which fixed his attention principally on military history. He
ceaselessly assisted with business and personal help and friend-
ship the officers and men of the 2oth Massachusetts regiment, in
which his brother, Henry Ropes, served up to his death at
Gettysburg, and after the war he devoted himself to the collec-
tion and elucidation of all obtainable evidence as to its incidents
and events. In this work his clear and unprejudiced legal
mind enabled him to sift the truth from the innumerable public
and private controversies, and the ill-informed allotment of
praise and blame by the popular historians and biographers.
The focus of his work was the Military Historical Society of
Massachusetts, which he founded in 1876. The work of this
society was the collection and discussion of evidence relating
to the great conflict. Although practically every member of
this society except himself had fought through the war, and
many, such as Hancock and W. F. Smith, were general officers
of great distinction, it was from first to last maintained and
guided by Ropes, who presented to it his military library
and his collection of prints and medals. He died at Boston
on the 28th of October 1899. His principal work is an
unfinished Story of the Civil War, to which he devoted most
of his later years; this covers the years 1861-62. The Army
under Pope is a detailed narration of the Virginia campaign of
August-September 1862, which played a great part in reversing
contemporary judgment on the events of those operations,
notably as regards the unjustly-condemned General Fitl John
Porter. Outside America, Ropes is known chiefly as the author
of The Campaign of Waterloo, which is one of the standard
works on the subject.
The greater part of his studies of the Civil War appears in the
Military Historical Society's publications. Papers on the Waterloo
campaign appeared in the Atlantic Monthly of June 1881, and in
Scribner's Magazine of March and April 1888. Amongst his mis-
cellaneous works is a paper on " The Likenesses of Julius Caesar "
in Scribner's Magazine (February 1887).
See Memoir of John Codman Ropes (Boston, privately printed.
1901).
ROPE-WALKING, the art of walking, dancing and perform-
ing tricks of equilibrium on a rope or wire stretched between
two supports. It has been popular with most Asiatic and
European peoples from the beginning of history. Before the
middle of the igth century a rope was invariably used, and
was stretched as tightly as possible, on which account the art
was called Tight-rope Walking. About the year 1875 the slack
wire, stretched loosely from support to support, was introduced,
and is now more commonly used. The performer is often
aided in keeping his balance by a Chinese umbrella or a long
pole.
ROPS, FELICIEN (1833-1898), Belgian painter, designer and
engraver, was born at Namur, in Belgium, on the 7th of July
1833; he spent his childhood in that town, and afterwards
in Brussels, where he composed in 1856, for his friends at the
university, the Almanack Crocodilien, his first piece of work.
He also biought out two Salons Illustres, and collaborated on the
Crocodile, a magazine produced by the students. The humour
shown in his contributions attracted the attention of publishers,
who offered him work. He designed, among other things,
frontispieces for Poulet-Malassis, and afterwards for Gay and
Douce. In 1859 he began to contribute to a satirical journal
in Brussels called Uylenspiegel, a sort of Charivari. The issue,
limited unfortunately to two years, included his finest litho-
graphs. About 1862 he went to Paris and worked at Jacque-
mait's. He subsequently returned to Brussels, where be
founded the short-lived International Society of Etchers. In
1865 he brought out his famous " Buveuse d'Absinthe," which
placed him in the foremost rank of Belgian engravers; and in
1871 the " Dame au Pantin." After 1874 Rops resided in
Paris. His talent, which commanded attention by its novel
methods of expression, and had been stimulated by travels
in Hungary, Holland and Norway, whence he brought back
characteristic sketches, now took a soaring flight. To say
nothing of the six hundred original engravings enumerated in
Ramiro's Catalogue of Raps' Engraved Work (Paris, Conquet,
1887), and one hundred and eighty from lithographs (Ramiro's
Catalogue of Raps' Lithographs, Paris, Conquet, 1891), besides a
large number of oil-paintings in the manner of Courbet, and of
pencil or pen-and-ink drawings, he executed several very re-
markable water-colour pictures, among which are " Le Scandale,"
1876; " Une Attrapade," 1877 (now in the Brussels Museum);
a " Tentation de St Antoine," 1878; and " Pornocrates,"
1878. Most of these have been engraved and printed in colours
by Bertrand. From 1880 to 1890 he devoted himself principally
to illustrating books ^ Les Rimes de joie, by Theo Hannon;
Le Vice supreme and Curieuse, by J. Peladan; and Les Dia-
boliques, by Barbey d'Aurevilly; L'Amante du Christ, by
R. Darzens; and Zadig, by Voltaire; and the poems of Stephane
Mallarme have frontispieces due to his fertile and powerful
imagination. Before this he had illustrated the LSgendes
Flamandes, by Ch. Decoster; Jeune France, by Th. Gautier;
ROQUELAURE RORSCHACH
719
and brought out a volume of Cent Croquis pour rejouir les
Honnctes Gens. His last piece of work, an advertisement of an
exhibition, was done in November 1896. Rops died on the
23rd of August 1898, at Essonnes, Seine-et-Oise, on the estate
he had purchased, where he lived in complete retirement with
his family. Scorning display, Rops almost always opposed
any exhibition of his works. However, he consented to join the
Art Society of the " XX.," formed at Brussels in 1884, as their
revolutionary views were in harmony with the independence of
his spirit. After his death, in 1899, the Libre Esthetique,
which in 1894 had succeeded the "XX.," arranged a retro-
spective exhibition, which included about fifty paintings and
drawings by Rops. Rops was a Chevalier of the Legion
of Honour. He excelled in these three
methods of artistic expression; but his
engraved work is the most important,
both as to mastery of technique and
originality of ideas, though in all his
talent was exceedingly versatile. Hardly
any artist of the igth century equalled
him in the use of the dry-point and soft
varnish. By his assured handling and admirable draughts-
manship, as well as the variety of his sometimes wildly fantastic
conceptions, he made his place among the great artists of his
time. " Giving his figures a character of grace which never
lapses into limpness," says his biographer, E. Ramiro, " he
has analysed and perpetuated the human form in all the elegance
and development impressed on it by modern civilization."
In 1896 La Plume (Paris) devoted a special number to this artist,
fully illustrated, by which the public were made aware how many of
his works are unsuitable for display in the drawing-room or boudoir.
E. Deman, the publisher at Brussels, brought out a volume in 1897
with the title, Felicien Rops el son auvre papers by various writers.
We may also mention a study of Felicien Rops, by Eugene Demolder
(Paris, Princebourde, 1894), and another by the same writer in
Trots Contemporains (E Deman, 1901); Les Ropsiaques, by Pierre
Gaume, brought out in London, 1898; and the admirable notice
by T. K. Huysmans in his volume called Certains. (O. M.*)
ROQUELAURE, a title derived from a small commune in
France (dep. of Gers), and borne by a French family of Armagnac,
one member of which was Antoine, baron de Roquelaure (1544-
1625), who was in the service of Henry IV. before he became
king, and after his accession was made master of the wardrobe,
lieutenant-general in Auvergne (1576) and Guienne (1610), and
marshal of France in 1614. His son, Gaston Jean Baptiste
de Roquelaure (1617-1683), a celebrated wit, was created duke
and peer of France in 1652, and was appointed governor of
Guienne in 1679. Gaston's son, Antoine Gaston Jean Baptiste
de Roquelaure (1656-1738), carried on the family reputation
for wit, and, in spite of his military incapacity, received the
marshal's baton in 1724.
RORQUAL, a whale of a long and elongated shape, with a
small back-fin and a number of longitudinal pleatings or folds
on the throat (see CETACEA). The name rorqual refers to these
folds, while the alternative title of finner, or fin- whale, marks
an important difference between these whales (for there are
several species) and right-whales. The furrows on the throat
are numerous and close-set, the flipper is comparatively small,
and the dorsal fin distinct. The head is relatively small, flat
and pointed in front, the whalebone short and coarse, the
body long and slender, and the tail much compressed before it
expands into the "flukes." Rorquals are the most abundant
and widely distributed of all whales, being found in all seas,
except the extreme Arctic and Antarctic regions. There are
four distinct species of this genus in British seas. Firstly,
Sibbald's rorqual, or blue whale (Balaenoptera sibbaldi), the
largest of all animals, attaining a length of 80 or even sometimes
85 ft. Its colour is dark bluish grey, with small whitish spots
on the breast; the whalebone is black; the flippers are larger
proportionally than in other rorquals, measuring one-seventh
of the total length of the body; and the dorsal fin is small and
placed far back. This whale has usually 64 vertebrae, of which
1 6 bear ribs. Like the others, this species seems to pass the
winter in the open seas, and approaches the coast of Norway
at the end of April or beginning of May. At this time its sole
food is a small crustacean (Euphausia inermis), which swarms in
the fjords. Secondly, we have the common rorqual (B. mus-
culus, or B. physalus) with a length of from 65 ft. to 70 ft.,
and of a greyish slate-colour above and white underneath, and
the whalebone slate-colour, variegated with yellow or brown.
It has usually 62 vertebrae, of which 15 bear libs. This is the
commonest of all the large whales on the British coasts; scarcely
a winter passing without the body of one being washed ashore,
usually after stormy weather, and frequently on the south coast,
as this species has a more southern range than the last, and enters
the Mediterranean. It feeds largely on fish, and is frequently
Common Rorqual (Balaenoptera muscidus).
seen feasting among shoals of herrings. Thirdly comes Rudolphi's
rorqual (B. borealis), a smaller species, scarcely attaining a
length of 50 ft. It is bluish black above, with oblong light-
coloured spots, whilst the under-parts are more or less white;
the whole of the tail and both sides of the flippers are black;
the whalebone is black, and the bristly ends fine, curling and
white; the flippers are very small, measuring one-eleventh of
the total length of the body. There are 56 vertebrae, with
14 pairs of ribs. This species, according to Dr. C. Collett, feeds
chiefly on minute crustaceans, mainly Calanus finmarchicus
and Euphausia inermis, and not on fish. Down to the last
quarter of the igth century it was considered the rarest of the
whales of European seas, and was only known from a few
individuals stranded on the coasts of northern Europe at long
intervals. The most southern point at which it has been met
with is Biarritz. Since the establishment of the whaling station
near the North Cape it has been shown to be a regular summer
visitor. Lastly, the lesser rorqual, B. rostrata, the sharp-nosed
finner of American whalers, is the smallest species found in
the northern seas, rarely exceeding 30 ft. in length. Its colour
is greyish black above, whilst the under-side is white, including
the whole of the lower side of the tail; the inner side of the flippers
is also white, and there is a broad white band across the outer
side, which is a very characteristic mark of the species; the
whalebone is yellowish white. The dorsal fin in this and the
preceding species is comparatively high, and placed far forwards
on the body. This whale has usually 48 vertebrae, of which
1 1 bear ribs. It is common in summer in the fjords of Norway,
and is often seen around the British Isles. It has been taken,
though rarely, in the Mediterranean, and ranges as far north as
Davis Strait.
Rorquals are met with in almost all seas, and nearly all the
individuals carefully examined, whether from the North Pacific,
the Australian seas or the Indian Ocean, come very near in
structure to one or the other of the Atlantic forms described
above, so much so that some zoologists believe that there are
but four species, with an almost cosmopolitan range. Other
naturalists, on the contrary, have described and named almost
every individual specimen captured as belonging to a different
species. See WHALE and HUMP-BACK WHALE. (R. L.*)
RORSCHACH, a busy commercial town in the Swiss canton
of St Gall, situated on the south-west shore of the Lake of Con-
stance, and by rail 62 m. N.E. of Zurich, 10 m. S.E. of Romans-
horn and 57 m. N. of Coire. In 1900 its population was 9140,
mostly German-speaking, while there were 5935 Romanists to
3139 Protestants. From 1408 to 1798 it belonged to the abbot
of St Gall, and then to the canton Santis (named canton of St
Gall in 1803) of the Helvetic Republic. It has always been a
great commercial centre, though now superseded by Romanshorn
as regards the corn trade. It has many industrial establish-
ments, of which the chief is one for the manufacture of lace and
ROS (FAMILY) ROSA, SALVATOR
720
muslin. Above the town is the old convent of Mariaberg,
originally built in the i$th century as a refuge for the monks
of St Gall against the turbulent citizens of that town, but now a
seminary for teachers. From Rorschach a cogwheel railway runs
south-east in 4Jt m. up to Heiden, a village in the canton of Appen-
zell well known for its goats' whey cure. (W. A. B. C.)
ROS, or DE Ros, the name of a noble English family. Robert
de Ros (d. 1227), a son of Everard de Ros (d. 1191) of Helmsley,
or Hamlake, in Yorkshire, possessed lands in Yorkshire, in-
cluding Ros, or Ross, in Holderness, and also in Normandy.
He served King John in several ways, both in England and
abroad, and obtained lands in Northumberland, where he
built a castle at Wark, or Werke. About 1215, however, he
deserted the king and became one of the leaders of the baronial
party, being one of the twenty-five executors of Magna Carta
and fighting against John when he repudiated this engagement.
He submitted to Henry III. and became a monk before he died
in 1227. His wife was Isabella, daughter of William the Lion,
king of Scotland, by whom he had two sons, William and
Robert. Robert de Ros the younger (d. 1274), was an itinerant
justice under Henry III., but later he was one of the barons
who fought against this king. He passed much of his time,
however, in Scotland, where he held a barony and where he
was one of the guardians of Margaret, the English bride of
King Alexander III. His son Robert was summoned to parlia-
ment as Lord Ros de Werke in 1295; just afterwards he revolted
against Edward I. and his lands were forfeited. William de
Ros (d. 1258), the elder son of the executor of Magna Carta,
had a son Robert (d. 1285), who was summoned to parliament
as a baron by Simon de Montfort in 1264; he was also summoned
to parliament by Edward I. His son William, 2nd baron
Ros of Helmsley, or Hamlake (d. 1317), obtained Belvoir Castle
in Leicestershire through his mother Isabel, daughter of William
d'Albini. He was one of the minor claimants for the crown of
Scotland in 1292, and soon afterwards he obtained the lands
in Northumberland which had been taken from his traitorous
cousin Robert de Ros. His second son, John de Ros (d. 1338),
was a courtier under Edward II. Later he joined Edward's
queen, Isabella, was summoned to parliament by Edward III.,
and distinguished himself on the sea. Another John de Ros
(d. 1332), bishop of Carlisle from 1325 to 1332, was doubtless
a member of this family.
The second baron's descendants retained the barony of Ros
until the death of Edmund de Ros, the nth baron, in October
1508. Edmund's nephew Sir George Manners (d. 1513), of
Belvoir and Helmsley, then claimed it, and was called Lord
Ros, or Roos. His son, Thomas Manners, the i3th baron
(d. 1543), was created earl of Rutland in 1525, but the barony
was separated from the earldom when Thomas's grandson
Edward died in 1387, leaving an only child, Elizabeth (d. 1591),
who, as heir general of the family, became Baroness Ros, or
Roos. Elizabeth married into the Cecil family, and when her
only child, William Cecil, died in 1618, the barony reverted
to the Manners family, Francis Manners, 6th earl of Rutland
(1578-1632), becoming the i8th baron. On his death the
barony again passed to a female, his daughter Katherine,
through whom it came to the family of Villiers. Then in 1806,
after a long abeyance, Charlotte (1769-1831), daughter of the
Hon. Robert Boyle, and a descendant of the Manners family,
was declared Baroness Ros, or Roos. She married Lord Henry
Fitzgerald, and their son, Henry William Fitzgerald-de-Ros
(1793-1839), became the 22nd baron on his mother's death.
In 1907, on her father's death, Mary Frances, wife of the Hon.
Anthony Dawson, became Baroness Ros, or rather, De Ros,
which is the present form of the title. For a long time after
they had ceased to hold the barony the earls and dukes of
Rutland continued to style themselves Lords Roos.
ROS, SIR RICHARD (b. 1429), English poet, son of Sir Thomas
Ros, lord of Hamlake (Helmsley) in Yorkshire and of Belvoir
in Leicestershire, was born on the 8th of March 1429. In
Harl. MS. 372 the poem of " La Belle Dame sanz Mercy, " first
printed in W. Thynne's Chaucer (1532), has the ascription
" Translatid out of Frenche by Sir Richard Ros." " La Belle
Dame sanz Mercy " is a long and rather dull poem from the French
of Alain Chartier, and dates from about the middle of the
1 5th century. It is written in the Midland dialect, and is
surprisingly modern in diction. The opening lines
" Half in a dreme, not fully wel awaked,
The golden sleep me wrapped under his wing,"
have often been quoted, but the dialogue between the very
long-suffering lover and the cruel lady does not maintain this
high level.
See W. W. Skeat, Chaucerian and Other Pieces (1897); and Dr.
H. Grohler, Ueber Richard Ros' mittelenglische Uebersetzung . . .
(Breslau, 1886).
ROSA, CARL AUGUST NICHOLAS (1843-1889), English
musical impresario, was born at Hamburg, his family name
(which he subsequently changed) being Rose. He started as
a solo violinist, studying at Leipzig and Paris, and also had
considerable success as a conductor both in England and
America; and it was at New York in 1867 that he met and
married the famous operatic soprano Madame Parepa (1836-
1874), at whose death he afterwards endowed a Parepa-Rosa
scholarship at the Royal Academy of Music in London. In
1875 he started the Carl Rosa Opera Company, for producing
the best operas in English versions, and both during his own
life and after his death this company had much to do with
popularizing good music in England, encouraging native com-
posers and training a number of excellent singers. Carl Rosa
married a second time in 1881, and died in Paris on the 3oth
of April 1889.
ROSA, MONTE, the name of a great glacier-clad mountain
mass (the name comes from the Aostan patois word roese,
meaning a glacier) which rises S.E. of Zermatt, and on the
frontier between Switzerland (canton of the Valais) and Italy.
Ten summits in this huge mass are distinguished by name, of
which four (the Nordend, 15,132 ft., the Zumsteinspitze, 15,004
ft, the Signalkuppe or Punta Gnifetti, 14,965 ft., and the
Parrotspitze, 14,643 ft.) rise on the frontier. The five lower
summits are on the Italian slope, but the highest of all, the
Dufourspitze, 15,217 ft. (so named by the Swiss government
in honour of General Dufour, the head of the great survey which
first accurately fixed the position of these points), rises W. of
the frontier ridge, on a buttress, and is thus entirely in Switzer-
land, of which it is the culminating peak (and not, as often
stated, the Dom, 14,942 ft., in the Mischabel group). The
loftiest point of the Dufourspitze was first attained in 1855 by
a large English party, which included Messrs G. and C. Smyth,
C. Hudson, Birkbeck and Stevenson. The Zumsteinspitze
was first climbed in 1820, the Signalkuppe (on top of which
there is now a club hut) in 1842, the Nordend in 1861 and the
Parrotspitze in 1863. The ascent of all the points named is not
difficult from the Swiss side, but excessively dangerous on the
east or Italian side. (W. A. B. C.)
ROSA, SALVATOR (1615-1673), Italian painter of the Nea-
politan school, was born in Arenella, in the outskirts of Naples,
in 1615: the precise day is given as the 2oth of June, and also
as the 2ist of July. His father, Vito Antonio de Rosa, a land
surveyor, was bent upon making the youth a lawyer, or else a
priest, and sent him to study in the convent of the Somaschi
fathers. Here Salvator began showing a turn for art: he went
in secret to his maternal uncle Paolo Greco to learn the practice
of painting, but soon found that Greco had little pictorial lore
to impart, so he transferred himself to his own brother-in-law
Francesco Fracanzaro, a pupil of Ribera, and afterwards had
some practice under Ribera himself. Above all he went to
nature, frequenting the Neapolitan coast, and keeping his eyes
open and his hand busy. At the age of seventeen he lost his
father; the widow was left unprovided for, with at least five
children, and Salvator found himself immersed in a sea of
troubles and perplexities, with nothing for the while to stem
them except a buoyant and adventurous temperament. He
obtained some instruction under the battle-painter Aniello
Falcone, but chiefly painted in solitude, haunting romantic
ROSA, SALVATOR
721
and desolate spots, beaches, mountains, caverns, verdure-clad
recesses. Hence he became in process of time the initiator of
romantic landscape, with a special turn for scenes of strange or
picturesque aspect often turbulent and rugged, at times grand,
and with suggestions of the sublime. He picked up scanty
doles when he could get them, and his early landscapes sold
for a few pence to petty dealers. The first person to discover
that Rosa's work was not as trumpery as it was cheap was the
painter Lanfranco, who bought some of the paintings, and
advised the youth to go to Rome. Hither in 1635, at 'he age
of twenty, Rosa betook himself; he studied with enthusiasm,
but, catching fever, he returned to Naples and Falcone, and for
a while painted nothing but battlepieces, and these without
exciting any attention. This class of work was succeeded by
the landscape art peculiarly characteristic of him wild scenes
wildly peopled with shepherds, seamen or especially soldiers.
He then revisited Rome, and was housed by Cardinal Bran-
caccio; this prelate being made bishop of Viterbo, Rosa painted
for the Chiesa della Morte a large and noticeable picture of the
" Incredulity of Thomas " the first work of sacred art which we
find recorded from his hand. At Viterbo he made acquaintance
with a mediocre poet named 'Abati, and was hence incited to try
his own faculty in verse. He then returned to Naples. Here
the monopolizing triumvirate Ribera, Caracciolo and Corenzio
were still powerful. Rosa was as yet too obscure to suffer from
their machinations; but, having painted a picture of " Tityus
Torn by the Vulture," which went to Rome and there produced
a great sensation, he found it politic to follow in the footsteps
of his fame, and once more, in 1638, resought the papal city.
Rosa was a man of facile and versatile genius, and had by
this time several strings to his bow. It is said that, still keeping
painting steadily in view as his real objective, he resolved to
secure attention first as a musician, poet, improvisatore and
actor his mother-wit and broad Neapolitan dialect (which
appears to have stuck to him through life) standing him power-
fully in stead. In the carnival he masqued as Formica and
Capitan Coviello, and bustled about Rome distributing satirical
prescriptions for diseases of the body and more particularly
of the mind. As Formica he inveighed against the farcical
comedies acted in the Trastevere under the direction of the
celebrated Bernini. Some of the actors, in one of their per-
formances, retaliated by insulting Rosa, but the public was
with him, and he now enjoyed every form of success social
prestige, abundant commissions and any amount of money,
which he was wont to throw about broadcast to the populace.
In 1646 he returned to Naples, and is said to have taken an
active part in the insurrection of Masaniello; certain it is that
he sympathized with and admired the fisherman autocrat, for a
passage in one of his satires proves this. His actual share in the
insurrection is, however, dubious; it appears only in recent
narratives, and the same is the case with the well-known story
that at one time he herded with a band of brigands in the
Abruzzi an incident which cannot be conveniently dove-tailed
into any of the known dates of his career. As regards the
popular revolt against Spanish tyranny, it is alleged that Rosa,
along with other painters Coppola, Porpora, Domenico Gar-
giuolo, Dal Po, Masturzo, the two Vaccari and Cadogna all
under the captaincy of Aniello Falcone, formed the Compagnia
della Morte, whose mission it was to hunt up Spaniards in the
streets and despatch them, not sparing even those who had
sought some place of religious asylum. He painted a portrait of
Masaniello probably from reminiscence rather than from life:
indeed, it is said that he painted him several times over in less
than life size. On the approach of Don John of Austria the
blood-stained Compagnia dispersed, Rosa escaping or at any
rate returning to Rome. Here he painted some important
subjects, showing the uncommon bent of his mind as it passed
from landscape into history " Democritus amid Tombs," the
" Death of Socrates," " Regulus in the Spiked Cask " (these two
are now in England), "Justice Quitting the Earth," and the
" Wheel of Fortune." This last work, the tendency of which
was bitingly satirical, raised a storm of ire and remonstrance.
Rosa, endeavouring at conciliation, published a description of
its meaning (probably softened down not a little from the real
facts); none the less an order for his imprisonment was issued,
but ultimately withheld at the instance of some powerful friends.
It was about this time that Rosa wrote his satire named Babylon,
under which name Rome was of course indicated.
Cardinal Giancarlo de' Medici now invited the painter to
leave Rome which had indeed become too hot to hold him
for Florence. Salvator gladly assented, and remained in the
Tuscan capital for the better part of nine years, introducing
there the new style of landscape; he had no pupils, but various
imitators. Lorenzo Lippi the painter poet, and other beaux
esprits shared with Rosa the hospitalities of the cardinal, and
they formed an academy named / Percossi (the Stricken),
indulging in a deal of ingenious jollity Rosa being alike ap-
plauded as painter, poet and musician. His chief intimate at
this time was Lippi, whom he encouraged to proceed with the
poem // Malmantile Racquislato. He was well acquainted
also with Ugo and Giulio Maffei, and housed with them more
than once in Volterra, where he wrote other four satires
Music, Poetry, Painting and War. About the same time he
painted his own portrait, now in the Uffizi Gallery of Florence.
Finally he reverted once more to Rome, and hardly left that
city again. Much enmity still brooded there against him, taking
the form more especially of an allegation that the satires which
he zealously read and diffused in MS. were not his own pro-
duction, but filched from some one else. Rosa indignantly
repelled this charge, which remains indeed quite unsubstan-
tiated, although it is true that the satires deal so extensively
and with such ready manipulation in classical names, allusions
and anecdotes, that one is rather at a loss to fix upon the period
of his busy career at which Rosa could possibly have imbued
his mind with such a multitude of semi-erudite details. It
may perhaps be legitimate to suppose that his literary friends in
Florence and Volterra had coached him up to a large extent
the satires, as compositions, remaining none the less strictly
and fully his own. To confute his detractors he now wrote the
last of the series, entitled Envy. Among the pictures of his
closing years were the admired " Battlepiece " now in the
Louvre, painted in the short space of forty days, full of long-
drawn carnage, with ships burning in the offing; " Pythagoras
and the Fishermen;" the "Oath of Catiline " (Pitti Gallery);
and the very celebrated " Saul and the Witch of Endor "
(Louvre), which is almost his latest work. He undertook a
series of satirical portraits, to be closed by one of himself; but
while occupied with this project he was assailed by dropsy,
which, after lasting fully half a year, brought his life to a close
on the i5th of March 1673. In his last moments he married a
Florentine named Lucrezia, who kept his house and had borne
him two sons, one of them surviving him, and he died in a con-
trite frame of mind. He lies buried in the Chiesa degli Angeli,
where a portrait of him has been set up. Salvator Rosa, after
the hard struggles of his early youth, had always been a success-
ful man, and he left a handsome fortune.
Rosa was indisputably a great leader in that modern tendency
of fine art towards the romantic and picturesque which, developing
in various directions and by diversified processes, has at last almost
totally differentiated modern from olden art. He saw appearances
with a new eye, and presented new images of them on his canvases,
and deserves therefore all the credit due to a vigorous innovator,
even if we contest the absolute value of his product. He himself
courted reputation for his historical works, laying comparatively
little stress on his landscapes; in portraits he was forcible. In
chiaroscuro he is simple and effective; his design has energy and
a certain grandeur, without any high type of form or any superior
measure of correctness. His colour is too constantly of a sandy or
yellowish-grey tone. Personally he was a man of high spirit, and he
sold his pictures at large prices, more (it is said) to assert the honour
of his art than from love of money; rather than sell them cheap he
destroyed them. In his later Florentine period he etched several
of his works, subjects of mythology, soldiering, &c. He was choleric,
but kind and generous. Though a man of gaiety and pleasure, and
a jovial boon companion, he does not appear to have been vicious
in any serious degree. He was talkative, very sharp-tongued and
an unblushing encomiast of his own performances. Among; his
pictures not already mentioned we may name, in the National
722
ROSACEAE
Gallery, London, " Mercury and the Dishonest Woodman," and
three others; in Raynham Hall, " Belisarius " ; in the Grosvenor
Gallery, " Diogenes ' ; in the Pitti Gallery, a grand portrait of a man
in armour, and the " Temptation of St Anthony, ' which contains
his own portrait. This last subject appears also in St Petersburg,
and in the Berlin Gallery.
The satires of Salvator Rosa deserve more attention than they
have generally received. There are, however, two recent books
taking account of them by Cesareo, 1892, and Cartelli, 1899. The
satires, though considerably spread abroad during his lifetime, were
not published until 1719. They are all in terza rima, written
without much literary correctness, but remarkably spirited, pointed
and even brilliant. They are slashingly denunciatory, and from this
point of view too monotonous in treatment. Rosa here appears as
a very severe castigator of all ranks and conditions of men, not
sparing the highest, and as a champion of the poor and down-trodden,
and of moral virtue and Catholic faith. It seems odd that a man
who took so free a part in the pleasures and diversions of life should
be so ruthless to the ministers of these. The satire on Music exposes
the insolence and profligacy of musicians, and the shame of courts
and churches in encouraging them. Poetry dwells
on the pedantry, imitativeness, adulation, affectation
and indecency of poets also their poverty, and the
neglect with which they were treated ; and there is a
very vigorous sortie against oppressive governors and
aristocrats. Tasso's glory is upheld; Dante is spoken
of as obsolete, and Aripsto as corrupting. Painting
inveighs against the pictorial treatment of squalid
subjects, such as beggars (though Rosa must surely
himself have been partly responsible for this mis-
direction of the art), against the ignorance and lewd-
ness of painters, and their tricks of trade, and the
gross indecorum of painting sprawling half-naked
saints of both sexes. War (which contains the
eulogy of Masaniello) derides the folly of hireling
soldiers, who fight and perish while kings stay at
home; the vile morals of kings and lords, heresy and
unbelief also come in for a flagellation. In Babylon
Rosa represents himself as a fisherman, Tirreno, con-
stantly unlucky in his net-hauls on the Euphrates;
he converses with a native of the country, Ergasto. Babylon
(Rome) is very severely treated, and Naples much the same.
Envy (the last of the satires, and generally accounted the best,
although without strong apparent reason) represents Rosa dreaming
that, as he is about to inscribe in all modesty his name upon
the threshold of the temple of glory, the goddess or fiend of
Envy obstructs him, and a long interchange of reciprocal objurga-
tions ensues. Here occurs the highly charged portrait of the
chief Roman detractor of Salvator (we are not aware that he has
ever been identified by name); and the painter protests that he
would never condescend to do any of the lascivious work in painting
so shamefully in vogue.
As authorities for the life of Salvator Rosa, Passeri, Vite de'
Pittori, may be consulted, and Salvini, Satire e Vita di Salvator
Rosa also Baldinucci and Dpminici. The Life by Lady Morgan is
a romantic treatment, mingling tradition or mere fiction with fact.
The novel, A Company of Death, by Albert Cotton, 1904, gives an
interesting picture of Salvator Rosa at Naples. (W. M. R.)
ROSACEAE, in botany, a large cosmopolitan family of seed-
bearing plants belonging to the subclass Polypetalae of Dicoty-
ledons and containing about go genera with 2000 species. The
plants vary widely in manner of growth. Many are herbaceous,
growing erect, as Geum, or with slender creeping stem, as in
species of Polentilla, sometimes sending out long runners, as
warm climates the leaves are often leathery and evergreen.
The leayes are stipulate, the stipules being sometimes small and
shortlived, as in Pyrus and Prunus (cherry, plum, &c.), or
more important structures adnate to the base of the leaf-stalk,
as in roses, brambles, &c. The flowers, which are regular,
generally bisexual, and often showy, are sometimes borne
singly, as in some species of rose, or of the cloudberry (Rubus
chamaemorus) , or few or more together in a corymbose manner,
as in some roses, hawthorn and others. The inflorescence in
agrimony is a raceme, in Polerium a dense-flowered spike, in
Spiraea a number of cymes arranged in a corymb. The parts
of the flowers are arranged on a s-merous plan, with generally
considerable increase in the number of stamens and carpels.
The shape of the thalamus or floral receptacle, and the relative
position and number of the stamens and carpels and the
character of the fruit, vary widely and form distinguishing
in strawberry; others are shrubby, as raspberry, often associ-
ated with a scrambling habit, as in the brambles and roses,
while apple, cherry, pear, plum and other British fruit trees
represent the arborescent habit. Vegetative propagation takes
place by means of runners, which root at the apex and form
a new plant, as in strawberry; by suckers springing from the
base of the shoot and rising to form new leafy shoots after
running for some distance beneath the soil, as in raspberry;
or by shoots produced from the roots, as in cherry or plum.
The scrambling of the brambles and roses is effected by means
of prickles on the branches and leaf-stalks.
The leaves, which are arranged alternately, are simple, as in
apple, cherry, &c., but more often compound, with leaflets
palmately arranged, as in strawberry and species of Polentilla,
or pinnately arranged, as in the brambles, roses, mountain ash,
&c. A difference in this respect often occurs in one and the
same genus, as in Pyrus, where apple (P. Malus), and pear
(P. communis) have simple leaves, whereas mountain ash or
rowan (P. aucuparia) has pinnately compound leaves. In
After Focke in Naliirl. Pflanzcnfamilim. from Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Bolanik, by permission
of Gustav Fischer.
FIG. I. Three flowers cut through longitudinally to show different forms
of receptacles in the Rosaceae: I, Comarum palustre; 2, Alchemilla alpina;
3, Pyrus Malus.
features of the different suborders, six of which may be
recognized.
Suborder I. Spiraeoideae is characterized by a flat or slightly
concave receptacle on which the carpels, frequently five in number,
form a central whorl; each ovary contains several ovules, and
the fruit is a follicle. There are five sepals, five petals and the
stamens vary from ten to indefinite. The plants are generally
shrubs with simple or compound leaves and racemes or panicles of
numerous small white, rose or purple flowers. This suborder, which
is nearly allied to the order Saxifragaceae, contains 17 genera,
chiefly north temperate in distribution. The largest is Spiraea,
numerous species of which are cultivated in gardens; 5. salicifolia
occurs in Britain apparently wild in plantations, but is not indigenous.
The native British meadow-sweet (5. Ulmaria) and dropwort
(5. Filipendula) have been placed in a separate genus, Ulmaria,
and included in the Rosoideae on account of their one-seeded fruit.
Quillaja saponaria is the Chilean soap tree; the bark contains
sapomn.
Suborder II. Pomoideae is characterized by a deep cup-shaped
receptacle with the inner wall of which the five or fewer carpels are
united (fig. I, 3); the carpels are also united with each other, and
each contains generally two ovules. The fruit is made up of the large
fleshy receptacle surrounding the ripe ovaries, the endocarp of which
is leathery or stony and contains one seed. The plants are shrubs
or trees with simple or pinnately compound leaves and white or
rose-coloured often showy flowers, with five sepals and petals and
The 14 genera are distributed through the
indefinite stamens.
north temperate zone, extending southwards in the New World to
the Andes of Peru and Chile. The largest genus, Pyrus, with about
50 species, includes apple (P. Malus), pear (P. communis) (fig. 2),
wild service (P. torminalis), rowan or mountain-ash (P. aucuparia),
and white beam (P. Aria). Mespilus (medlar) and Cotoneaster are
also included. (See separate articles for most of the above.)
Suborder III. Rosoideae is characterized by the receptacle being
convex and swollen (fig. i, i), as in strawberry, or cup-shaped, as
in rose (fig. 4), and bearing numerous carpels, each of which con-
tains one or two ovules, while the fruit is one-seeded and inde-
hiscent. The 39 genera are grouped in tribes according to the
form of the receptacle and of the fruit. The Potentilleae bear the
carpels on a large, rounded or convex outgrowth of the receptacle.
In the large genus Rubus (fig. 3) the ripe ovaries form drupels
upon the dry receptacle; the genus is almost cosmopolitan, but
the majority of species occur in the forest region of the north
temperate zone and in the mountains of tropical America. R.
fruticosus is blackberry, R. Idaeus, raspberry, and R. Chamae-
morus, cloudberry. In the flower of Potentilla, Fragaria (straw-
berry) and a few allied genera an epicalyx is formed by stipular
structures arising at the base of the sepals. The fruits consist of
numerous dry achenes borne in Fragaria on the much-enlarged
ROSACEAE
723
succulent torus, which in the other genera is dry. In Geum (avens)
and Dryas (an arctic and alpine genus) the style is persistent in the
After Wossidlo, from Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Botanik, by permission
of Gustav Fischer.
FIG. 2. Pyrus communis (pear), i, flowering branch; 2, a flower
cut through longitudinally; 3, longitudinal section of fruit;
4, floral diagram.
fruit, forming a feathery appendage (Dryas) or a barbed awn (avens),
either of which is of service in distributing the fruit. The Poten-
tilleae are chiefly north temperate, arctic and alpine plants.
After Wossidlo, from Strasburger's Lehrbuch dcr Butanik, by permission of
Gustav Fischer.
FlG. 3. Rubus frulicosus (blackberry). flowering branch; 2,
longitudinal section of a flower; 3, fruit; 4, floral diagram.
The Roseae comprise the large genus Rosa, characterized by a
more or less urn-shaped torus (fig. 4) enclosing the numerous
carpels which form dry one-seeded fruits enveloped in the bright-
coloured fleshy torus. The numerous stamens surround the mouth
of the torus. The plants are shrubs bearing prickles on the stems
and leaves; many species have a scrambling habit resembling the
brambles. The species of Rosa, like those of Rubus, are extremely
variable, and a great number of subspecies, varieties and forms
have been described. The Sanguisorbeae are a reduced form of
Rosoideae. The dry one-seeded fruit is enclosed in the urn-shaped
torus, which, however, is dry and inconspicuous, and the number of
carpels is much reduced, sometimes to one (figs. 2, 5, 6). Petals are
often wanting, as in Alchemilla (lady's f "tn!aa&&
mantle) and Poterium, and the flowers
are often unisexual and frequently wind-
pollinated, as in salad burnet (Poterium
Sanguisorba) , where the small flowers
are crowded in heads, the upper pistil-
late, with protruding feathery stigmas,
and the lower stammate (or bisexual),
with exserted stamens. Agrimonia
(agrimony) has a long spike of small
honeyless flowers with yellow petals; in
the fruit the torus becomes hard and
crowned by hooked bristles which ensure
the distribution of the enclosed achenes.
Suborder IV. Neuradoideae contains
only two genera of desert-inhabiting
herbs with yellow flowers; and the five .
to ten carpels are united together and |> ur 8 CT ''. Left* ?" Boianik,
with the base of the cup-shaped torus, ^ pension of Gustav F^cher.
which enlarges to form a dry covering FIG. 4. Fruit of Rose,
round the one-seeded fruits. consisting of the
Suborder V. Prunoideae (fig. 7) is fleshy hollowed axis,
characterized by a free solitary carpel
with a terminal style and two pendulous
ovules, and the fruit a one-seeded drupe.
The torus forms a cup from the edge of
which spring the five sepals, five alter-
nating petals and the ten to indefinite stamens. The plants are
deciduous or evergreen trees or shrubs with simple leaves, often
s', the persistent sepals
s, and the carpels
jr. The stamens e
have withered.
rf'
FIG. 5. Carpel of
Lady's Mantle
(Alchemilla) with
lateral style i ;
o, ovary; st,
stigma, enlarged.
FIG. 6. Floral Dia-
gram of Sanguisorba.
b, bract ; a', /3', bracte-
oles ; d, disk.
with small caducous stipules, and racemes or umbels of generally
showy, white or pink flowers. There are five genera, the chief
of which is Prunus, to which belong the plum (Prunus com-
munis), with several well-marked subspecies P. spinosa (sloe
or blackthorn), P. insititia (bullace), P. domestica (wild plum),
the almond (P. Amygdalus), with the nearly allied peach (P.
persica), cherry (P. Cerasus), birdcherry (P. Padus) and cherry
After Wossidlo from Strasburger's Lehrbuch tier Botanik, by permission
of Gustav Fischer.
FIG. 7. Prunus Cerasus. I, flowering branch; 2, a flower cut
throug'i longitudinally; 3, fruit in longitudinal section.
laurel (P. Laurocerasus). The tribe is distributed through the
north temperate zone, passing into the tropics.
Suborder VI. Chrysobalanoideae resembles the last in having a
single free carpel and the fruit a drupe, but differs in having the
style basal, not terminal, and the ovules ascending, not pendulous;
the flowers are also frequently zygomorphic. The 12 genera are
tropical evergreen trees or shrubs, the great majority being South
American. The zygomorphic flowers indicate an affinity with the
closely allied order Leguminosae.
724
ROSAMOND ROSARY
ROSAMOND, known as "The Fair" (d. c. 1176), mistress
of Henry II., king of England, is believed to have been the
daughter of Walter de Clifford of the family of Fitz-1'once.
The evidence for the paternity is, however, only an entry of
a statement made by the jurors of the manor of Corfham in a
Hundred Roll of the second year of the reign of Edward I.
(1274), great grandson of Henry II. Rosamond is said to have
been Henry's mistress secretly for several years, but was openly
acknowledged by him only when he imprisoned his wife Eleanor
of Acquitaine as a punishment for her encouragement of her
sons in the rebellion of 1173-74. She died in or about 1176,
and was buried in the nunnery church of Godstow before the
high altar. The body was removed by order of St Hugh,
bishop of Lincoln, in 1191, and was, seemingly, reinterred in
the chapter house. The story that she was poisoned by Queen
Eleanor first appears in the French Chronicle of London in the
i4th century. The romantic details of the labyrinth at Wood-
stock, and the clue which guided King Henry II. to her bower,
were the inventions of story-writers of later times. There is
no evidence for the belief that she was the mother of Henry's
natural son William Longsword, earl of Salisbury.
ROSARIO, a city and river port of Argentina, in the province
of Santa Fe, on the W. bank of the Parana, 186 m. by rail N.W.
of Buenos Aires. Pop. (1904, estimate) 120,000. It is acces-
sible to ocean-going steamers of medium draught. The city
stands on the eastern margin of the great pampean plain,
65 to 75 ft. above the wide river-bed washed out by the Parana.
It extends back a considerable distance from the river, and
there are country residences and gardens of the better class
along the line of the Central Argentine railway and northward
toward San Lorenzo. The city is laid out with chessboard
regularity, and the streets are paved (in great part with cobble-
stones), lighted with gas and electricity, traversed by tramway
lines, and provided with sewers and water mains. The Boule-
vard El Santafecino is an attractive residence street with
double driveways separated by a strip of garden and bordered
by fine shade trees. The chief edifices of an official character
are the custom house, post office, municipal hall and law courts.
There is a large charity hospital, and the English and German
colonies maintain a well-equipped infirmary. The largest
sugar refinery in Argentina is here, and there are flour-mills,
breweries and some smaller manufactures. The city is chiefly
commercial, being the shipping port for a large part of northern
Argentina, among its exports being wheat, flour, baled hay,
linseed, Indian corn, sugar, rum, cattle, hides, meats, wool,
quebracho extract, &c. The railway connexions are good,
including the Buenos Aires and Rosario and the Central Argen-
tine lines to the national capital, the Buenos Aires and Rosario
line northward to Tucuman, where it connects with the govern-
ment line to Salta, Jujuy and the Bolivian frontier, the Central
Argentine line westward to Cordoba, with connexions at Villa
Maria for Mendoza and the Chilean frontier, and two narrow-
gauge lines, one running to Santa Fe and the other to Cordoba.
The port of Rosario has hitherto consisted of a deep river
anchorage and wooden wharves on the lower bank for the
accommodation of steamers. Since 1902 work has been in
progress under a contract with a French company for the
construction of 12,697 ft- of quays, 23 m. of railway tracks
along the quays to connect with the several railways entering
the city, drawbridges, roadways, sheds, depots, elevator, offices,
electric plant, fixed and movable cranes, and other appliances,
&c., for the handling of produce and merchandise. The
trade of the port was officially valued at 21,276,672 Arg.
gold dollars imports, and 68,503,231 gold dollars exports in
Rosario was founded in 1730 by Francisco Godoy, but it
grew so slowly that it was still a small village up to the middle
of the I9th century. In 1854 General Justo Jose de Urquiza,
then at the head of the Argentine Confederation, made it the
port of the ten inland provinces then at war with Buenos Aires,
and in 1857 imposed differential duties on the cargoes of vessels
first breaking bulk at the southern port. This gave Rosario
a start, and its trade and population have grown since then with
great rapidity.
ROSARY (Lat. rosarium), a popular devotion of the Roman
Catholic Church, consisting of 15 Paternosters and Glorias and
1 50 Aves, recited on beads. It is divided into three parts, each
containing five decades, a decade comprising i Pater, 10 Aves
and a Gloria, in addition to a subject for meditation selected
from the " mysteries " of the life of Christ and of the Blessed
Virgin. The Christian practice of repeating prayers is traceable
to early times: Sozomen mentions (H.E. v. 29) the hermit Paul
of the 4th century who threw away a pebble as he recited each
of his 300 daily prayers; and a canon of the English synod of
Cealcythe in 816 (Mansi xiv. 360) directed seplem beltidum
Paternoster to be said for a deceased bishop. In many orders
the lay brothers daily said a large number of Paternosters
instead of reading the breviary; it was natural that the Pater-
noster should be the prayer most often repeated. The Ave
Maria is first mentioned as a form of prayer in the second half
of the nth century, but it was not until the i6th century that
it became general in its present form. It is not known precisely
when the mechanical device of the rosary was first used. William
of Malmesbury (De gest. pont. Angl. iv. 4) says that Godiva, who
founded a religious house at Coventry in 1040, left a string of
jewels, on which she had told her prayers, that it might be hung
on the statue of the Blessed Virgin. Thomas of Chantimprfi,
who wrote about the middle of the I3th century, first men-
tions the word " rosary " (De apibus, ii. 13), using it apparently
in a mystical sense as Mary's rose-garden. There is no con-
temporary confirmation of the story that the rosary was given
to St Dominic through revelation of the Blessed Virgin and
was employed during the crusade against the Albigenses,
although the story was later accepted by Leo X., Pius V.,
Gregory XIII., Sixtus V., Alexander VII., Innocent XI. and
Clement XI. According to Benedict XIV. (De Fest. 160), the
belief rests on the tradition of the Dominican order. Whatever
may have been the origin of the rosary, the Dominicans did
much to propagate the devotion. The practice of meditating
on the mysteries doubtless began with a Dominican, Alanus
de Rupe (born 1428), and another Dominican, Jacob Sprenger
(d. 1495), grand-inquisitor in Germany, founded the first con-
fraternity of the rosary at Cologne in 1475. This society spread
rapidly, and was specially privileged by Sixtus IV., Innocent
VIII. and Leo. X. After the battle of Lepanto (ist Sunday in
October 1571), which was won while the members of the
confraternity at Rome were making supplication for Christian
success, Pius V. ordered an annual commemoration of " St
Mary of Victory," and Gregory XIII., by bull of the ist of April
1583, set aside the ist Sunday in October as' the feast of the
Rosary of the Blessed Virgin Mary, to be observed in such
churches as maintained an altar in honour of the rosary. Clement
XL, by bull of the 3rd of October 1716, directed the observance
of the feast by all Christendom. The devotion has been
particularly fostered by the Jesuits, St Ignatius Loyola having
expressly ordered its use. It has been repeatedly indulgenced
by various popes. Leo XIII. issued eight encyclicals on the
devotion; he urged its recitation throughout October, and
directed (1883) the insertion of the title regina sacratissimi
rosarii in the Litany. There are several varieties of the rosary
more or less in use by Roman Catholics: the Passionists, or
rosary of the five wounds, approved by Leo XII. in 1823;
the Crown of Our Lord, attributed to Michael of Florence, a
Camaldolese monk (c. 1516), and consisting of 33 Paters,
5 Aves and a Credo; St Bridget's, 7 Paters and 63 Aves, in
honour of the joys and sorrows of the Blessed Virgin and the
63 years of her life. The Living Rosary, in which 15 persons
unite to say the rosary every month, was approved by Gregory
XVI. (1832) and placed in charge of the Dominican order by
Pius IX. (1877).
Similar expedients to assist the memory in repetitions of
prayers occur among Buddhists and Mahommedans: in the
former case the prayers are said on a string of some hundred
beads, called the tibel-pren-ba or the len-wa; in the latter case,
ROSAS ROSCOE, SIR H. E.
the so-called tasbih has 33, 66 or 99 beads, and is used for the
repetition of the 99 names which express the attributes of God.
See the critical dissertation in the Acta sanctorum, Aug. I, 422 sqq ;
Quetif and Echard, Script. Ord. Praed. i. 411 sqq.; Benedict XIV
olim Prospero de Lambertini, De festis B.V.M- i. 170 sqq.; H.
Holzapfel, O.F.M., St Dominikus u. der Rosenkranz (Munich, 1903) ;
Pradel, Rosenkranz-Buchel (Trier, 1885); D. D&hm.Die Bruderschaft
torn hi. Rosenkranz (Trier, 1902). For the indulgences attached to
the devotion consult Beringer, S.J., Die Ablasse, nthed. 292 ff.,
354 ff. (Paderborn, 1895). For the corresponding devotion among
Buddhists, consult Waddell, The Buddhism of Tibet, or Lamaism
(London, 1895), and an article by Monier Williams in the Athenaeum,
9th of Feb. 1878; for that of the Mahommedans, see L Petit, Les
Confreres musulmanes (Paris, 1899), and E. Arnold, Pearls of the
Faith, or Islam's Rosary (London, 1882). There is an excellent
article, " Rosenkranz," by Zockler in Herzog-Hauck, Realency-
klopadie, 3rd ed. vol. 17, pp. 144-50. (C. H. HA.)
ROSAS, JUAN MANUEL (1793-1877), tyrant of Buenos Aires,
was born on the 3Oth of March 1793, in the city of that name.
His father, Leon Ortiz de Rosas, was an owner of cattle runs
(estancias) and a trader in hides, who took an active part in
defeating the English attack on the city in 1807. Juan Rosas
received so little education that he had to learn to read and
write when he was already a married man and a successful cattle
breeder. From a very early age he was left in charge of one
of his father's establishments. When he was eighteen he
married Maria de la Encarnacion Escurra. His mother having
suspected him of appropriating money, he left his parents,
and for some time subsisted by working as a vaquero or cowboy,
and then as overseer on the estates of other owners; but he
accumulated money, and by the help of a loan from a friend he
became possessed of a cattle run of his own, Los Cerrillos. The
anarchical state of the country since its independence of Spain
had favoured the Indians, who had taken the offensive and
raided up to within forty miles of Buenos Aires. Rosas ob-
tained leave to arm his cowboys. Under his management Los
Cerrillos became a refuge for adventurers, whom he paid and fed
well, but from whom he exacted implicit obedience. His
followers became a fighting force of acknowledged efficiency,
and Rosas took practically the position of an independent ruler
whose help was sought by contending political parties. By
attending to his own interest only, and by astute intrigue, or
savage fighting when necessary, he grew in power from 1820
onwards, and from 1835 to 1852 ruled as dictator (see
ARGENTINA). It is probable that he would have continued
to govern in Buenos Aires till his death if his ambition had not
led him into wars with all his neighbours. He wished to extend
the authority of the Republic over all the territory which had
belonged to the Spanish viceroyalty of Buenos. This led him
directly into wars with Uruguay, Paraguay and Chile, and into
" warlike operations " with England and France, with whom
he had other causes of quarrel arising out of the complaints
of traders and bondholders. His government was overthrown
in 1852 by a coalition of his neighbours and the defection of
several of his generals, and even members of his own family
who lived in fear of his suspicions and violence. He took refuge
in England, and lived at Swaythling, near Southampton, till his
death on the I4th of March 1877. A portrait taken in 1834
and reproduced by Sir Woodbine Parish in his Buenos Ayres and
Provinces of the Rio de la Plata (London, 1852) represents Rosas
as a fine-looking man of the handsome Spanish type.
See O. Martens, Ein Caligula unseres Jahrhunderts (Berlin, 1896),
which contains a full bibliography.
ROSCELLINUS (RUCELINUS, or ROUSSELIN) (c. loso-c. 1122),
often called the founder of Nominalism (see SCHOLASTICISM),
was born at Compiegne (Compendium). Little is known of his
life, and our knowledge of his doctrines is mainly derived from
Anselm, Abelard and John of Salisbury. He studied at Soissons
and Reims, was afterwards attached to the cathedral of Chartres,
and became canon of Compiegne. It seems most probable that
Roscellinus was not strictly the first to promulgate nominalistic
doctrines; but in his exposition they received more definite
expression, and, being applied to the dogma of the Trinity,
attracted universal attention. Roscellinus maintained that it
is merely a habit of speech which prevents our speaking of the
three persons as three substances or three Gods. If it were
otherwise, and the three persons were really one substance or
thing (una res), we should be forced to admit that the Father
and the Holy Spirit became incarnate along with the Son.
Roscellinus seems to have put forward this doctrine in perfect
good faith, and to have claimed for it at first the authority
of Lanfranc and Anselm. In 1092, however, a council con-
voked by the archbishop of Reims condemned his interpretation,
and Roscellinus, who was in danger of being stoned to death
by the orthodox populace, recanted his error. He fled to
England, but having made himself unpopular by an attack
on the doctrines of Anselm, he left the country and repaired to
Rome, where he was well received and became reconciled to
the Church. He then returned to France, taught at Tours and
Loc-menach (Loches) in Brittany (where he had Abelard as a
pupil), and finally became canon of Besanfon. He is heard of
as late as 1121, when he came forward to oppose Abelard's
views on the Trinity.
Of the writings of Roscellinus, nothing is preserved except a
letter to Abelard, mainly concerned with the doctrine of the Trinity
(ed. J. A. Schmellcr, Munich, 1850). See F. Picaret, Rosselin,
philosophe et theologien (1896), and authorities quoted under
SCHOLASTICISM.
ROSCHER, WILHELM GEORG FRIEDRICH (1817-1894),
German economist, was born at Hanover on the 2ist of October
1817. He studied at Gottingen and Berlin, and obtained a
professorship at Gottingen in 1844 and subsequently at Leipzig
in 1848. Omitting preparatory indications and undeveloped
germs of doctrine, the origin of the " historical " school of
political economy may be traced to Roscher. Its fundamental
principles are dated, though with some hesitation, and with an
unfortunate contrast of the historical with the philosophical
method, in his Grundriss zu Vorlesungen iiber die Staalswirth-
schaft nach geschichtlicher Melhode (1843). This short study
was afterwards expanded into his great System der Volkswirth-
schaft, published in five volumes between 1854 and 1894, and
arranged as follows: vol. i., Die Grundlagen der National-
okonomie, 1854 (trans, by J. J. Lalor, Principles of Political
Economy, Chicago, 1878); vol. ii., Die National okonomie des
Ackerbaues und der verwandten Urproduktionszweige, 1859;
vol. iii., Die National okonomie des Handels und Gewerbfleisses,
1881; vol. iv., System der Finanzwissenschaft, 1886; vol. v.,
System der Armenpflege und Armenpolilik, 1894. His Geschichte
der National okonomie in Deutschland (1874) is a monumental
work. He also published in 1842 an excellent commentary on
the life and works of Thucydides. He died at Leipzig on the
4th of June 1894.
See T. Roscher, Zur Geschichte der Familie Roscher in Nieder-
sachsen (Hanover, 1892); Brasch, Wilhelm Roscher und die sozial-
wissenschaftlichen Stromungen der Gegenwart (Leipzig, 1895).
ROSCIUS GALLUS, QUINTUS (c. 126-62 B.C.), Roman actor,
was born, a slave, at Solonium, near Lanuvium. Endowed
with a handsome face and manly figure, he studied the delivery
and gestures of the most distinguished advocates in the Forum,
especially Q. Hortensius, and won universal praise for his grace
and elegance on the stage. He especially excelled in comedy.
Cicero took lessons from him. The two often engaged in
friendly rivalry to try whether the orator or the actor could
express a thought or emotion with the greater effect, and
Roscius wrote a treatise in which he compared acting and
oratory. Q. Lutatius Catulus composed a quatrain in his
honour, and the dictator Sulla presented him with a gold ring,
the badge of the equestrian order, a remarkable distinction for
an actor in Rome, where the profession was held in contempt.
Like his contemporary Aesopus, Roscius amassed a large
fortune, and he appears to have retired from the stage some
time before his death. In 76 B.C. he was sued by C. Fannius
Chaerea for 50,003 sesterces (about 400), and was defended by
Cicero in a famous speech.
See H. H. Pfliiger, Cicero's Rede pro Q. Roscio Comoedo (1904).
ROSCOE, SIR HENRY EN FIELD (1833- ), English
chemist, was born in London on the 7th of January 1833. After
726
ROSCOE, W.
studying at Liverpool High School and University College,
London, he went to Heidelberg to work under R. W. Bunsen, of
whom he became a lifelong friend. In 1857 he was appointed
to the chair of chemistry at Owens College, Manchester, where
he remained for thirty years, and from 1885 to 1895 he was M.P.
for the south division of Manchester. He served on several
royal commissions appointed to consider educational questions,
in which he was keenly interested, and from 1896 to 1902 was
vice-chancellor of London University. He was knighted in
1884. His scientific work includes a memorable series of re-
searches carried out with Bunsen between 1855 and 1862, in
which they laid the foundations of comparative photochemistry.
In 1867 he began an elaborate investigation of vanadium and
its compounds, and devised a process for preparing it pure in
the metallic state, at the same time showing that the substance
which had previously passed for the metal was contaminated
with oxygen and nitrogen. He was also the author of researches
on niobium, tungsten, uranium, perchloric acid, the solubility
of ammonia, &c. His publications include, besides several
elementary books on chemistry which have had a wide circula-
tion and been translated into many foreign languages, Lectures
on Spectrum Analysis (1869); a Treatise on Chemistry (the first
edition of which appeared in 1877-1892); A New View of Dalian's
Atomic Theory, with Dr A. Harden (1896); and an Autobio-
graphy (1906). The Treatise on Chemistry, written in colla-
boration with Carl Schorlemmer (1834-1892), who was appointed
his private assistant at Manchester in 1859, official assistant in
the laboratory in 1861, and professor of organic chemistry in
1874, is a standard work.
ROSCOE, WILLIAM (1753-1831), English historian and
miscellaneous writer, was born on the 8th of March 1753 at
Liverpool, where his father, who was a market gardener, kept
a publichouse known as the Bowling Green at Mount Pleasant.
Roscoe was eager in the acquisition of knowledge, and at twelve
he left school, having learned all that his schoolmaster could
teach. He now assisted his father in the work of the garden,
and gave his leisure hours to reading and study. " This mode
of life," he says, " gave health and vigour to my body, and
amusement and instruction to my mind; and to this day
I well remember the delicious sleep which succeeded my labours,
from which I was again called at an early hour. If I were
now asked whom I consider to be the happiest of the human
race, I should answer, those who cultivate the earth by their
own hands." At fifteen it was necessary to decide upon a
path in life. A month's trial of bookselling sufficed to disgust
him, and in 1769 he was articled to a solicitor. Although a
diligent student of law, he did not bid farewell to the Muses,
but continued to read the classics, and made that acquaintance
with the language and literature of Italy which became the
instrument of his distinction in after life.' He wrote many
verses: his Mount Pleasant was composed when he was sixteen,
and this and other verses, though now forgotten, won the
esteem of good critics. In 1774 he commenced business as an
attorney, and as soon as his professional gains warranted he
married (1781) Jane, second daughter of William Grimes, a
Liverpool tradesman, and had seven sons and three daughters.
He had the courage to denounce the African slave trade in his
native town, where not a little of the wealth came from this
source. He wrote the Wrongs of Africa (1787-1788), and entered
into a controversy with an ex-Roman Catholic priest, who
undertook to prove the " licitness of the slave trade " from
the Bible. Roscoe was also a political pamphleteer, and like
many other Liberals of the day hailed the promise of liberty
in the French Revolution.
Meanwhile he had steadily pursued his Italian studies, and
had made extensive collections relating to the great ruler of
Florence. The result was his Life of Lorenzo de' Medici, which
appeared in 1796, and at once placed him in the front rank
of contemporary historians. The work has often been reprinted,
and translations in French, German and other languages show
that its popularity was not confined to its author's native land.
Perhaps the most gratifying testimony was that of Fabroni,
who had intended to translate his own Latin life of Lorenzo,
but abandoned the design and induced Gaetano Mecherini
to undertake an Italian version of Roscoe. In 1796 Roscoe
gave up practice as an attorney, and had some thought of
going to the bar, but relinquished the idea after keeping a
single term. Between 1793 and 1800 he paid much attention
to agriculture, and helped to reclaim Chat Moss, near Man-
chester. He also succeeded in restoring to good order the
affairs of a banking house in which his friend William Clark,
then resident in Italy, was a partner. This task led to his
introduction to the business, which eventually proved dis-
astrous. His translation of Tansillo's Nurse appeared in 1798,
and went through several editions. It is dedicated in a sonnet
to his wife, who had practised the precepts of the Italian poet.
The Life and Pontificate of Leo the Tenth appeared in 1805,
and was a natural sequel to that by which he had made his
reputation. The work, whilst it maintained its author's fame,
did not, on the whole, meet with so favourable a reception as
the Life of Lorenzo. It has been frequently reprinted, and
the insertion of the Italian translation in the Index did not
prevent its circulation even in the papal states. Roscoe was
elected member of parliament for Liverpool in 1806, but the
House of Commons was not a congenial place, and at the dis-
solution in the following year he declined to be again a candi-
date. The commercial troubles of 1816 brought into difficulties
the banking house with which he was connected, and forced
the sale of his collection of books and pictures. It was on this
occasion that he wrote the fine " Sonnet on Parting with his Books."
Dr S. H. Spiker, the king of Prussia's librarian, gives an inter-
esting account of a visit to Roscoe at this period of trouble.
Roscoe said he still desired to write a biography of Erasmus but
" wanted both leisure and youth." This project was not
executed (Spiker's Travels through England, &c., 1816). After
a five years' struggle to discharge the liabilities of the bank,
the action of a small number of creditors forced the partners
into bankruptcy in 1820. For a time Roscoe was in danger
of arrest, but ultimately he received honourable discharge.
On the dispersal of his library, the volumes most useful to him
were secured by friends and placed in the Liverpool Athenaeum.
The sum of 2500 was also invested for his benefit. The inde-
pendent and sensitive nature of Roscoe made both these opera-
tions difficult. Having now resigned commercial pursuits
entirely, he found a pleasant task in the arrangement of the
great library at Holkham, the property of his friend Coke.
In 1822 he issued an appendix of illustrations to his Lorenzo
and also a Memoir of Richard Robert Jones of Aberdaron, a
remarkable self-taught linguist. The year 1824 was memorable
for the death of his wife and the publication of his edition of
the works of Pope, which involved him in a controversy with
Bowles. His versatility was shown by the appearance of a
folio monograph on the Monandrian Plants, which was published
in 1828. It appeared first in numbers, and the last part came
out after his recovery from a paralytic attack. He died on
the 3oth of June 1831.
Roscoe's character was a fine one. Under circumstances
uncongenial and discouraging he steadfastly maintained the
ideal of the intellectual life. Sensitive and conscientious,
he sacrificed his possessions to a punctilious sense of duty.
He had the courage of unpopular opinions, and, whilst pro-
moting every good object in his native town, did not hesitate
to speak out where plain dealing, as in the matter of slavery,
was required. He was a sincere friend and exemplary in his
domestic relations. Posterity is not likely to endorse the
verdict of Horace Walpole, who thought Roscoe " by far the
best of our historians," but in spite of newer lights and of some
changes of fashion in tjie world of letters, his books on Lorenzo
de' Medici and Leo X. remain important contributions to
historical literature.
In addition to the writings already named, Roscoe wrote tracts
on penal jurisprudence, and contributed to the Transactions of the
Royal Society of Literature and of the Linnean Society. The first
collected edition of his Poetical Works was published in 1857, and
ROSCOFF ROSCOMMON
727
is sadly incomplete, omitting, with other verses known to be from
his pen, the Butterfly's Ball, a fantasy, which has charmed thousands
of children since it appeared in 1807. Other verses are in Poems
for Youth, by a Family Circle (1820).
The Life by his son Henry Roscoe (2 vols., London, 1833} contains
full details of Roscoe's career, and there are references to him in the
Autobiographical Sketches of De Quincey, and in Washington
Irving's Sketch Book. (W. E. A. A.)
ROSCOFF, a maritime town and watering-place of north-
western France, in the department of Finistere, on the English
Channel, 17! m. N.N.W. of Morlaix by rail. Pop. (1906) town,
1984; commune, 5054. Roscoff, separated from the He de Batz
by a narrow channel, has a tidal port used by fishing and coasting
vessels. Many of the inhabitants are engaged in the cultivation
of early vegetables, to the growth of which the mild climate and
fertile soil is eminently favourable. The church of Roscoff
(i6th century) has a fine Renaissance tower and contains inter-
esting alabaster bas-reliefs. The ruined chapel of St Ninian
commemorates the landing at Roscoff in 1548 of Mary Stuart,
previous to her betrothal with the dauphin, son of Henry II.
In 1746 Charles Edward, the young Pretender, landed at the
port after his defeat at Culloden.
ROSCOMMON, WENTWORTH DILLON, 4 EARL OF (c.
1630-1685), English poet, was born in Ireland about 1630. He
was a nephew of Thomas Wentworth, earl of Strafford, and was
educated partly under a tutor at his uncle's seat in Yorkshire,
partly at Caen in Normandy and partly at Rome. After
the Restoration he returned to England, and was well received
at court. In 1649 ne na d succeeded to the earldom of Ros-
common, which had been created in 1622 for his great-grand-
father, James Dillon; and he was now put in possession by
act of parliament of all the lands possessed by his family before
the Civil War. As captain of the Gentleman Pensioners he
found abundant opportunity to indulge the love of gambling,
which appears to have been his only vice. Disputes with the
Lord Privy Seal about his Irish estates necessitated his presence
in Ireland, where he gave proof of some business capacity. On
his return to London he was made master of the horse to the
duchess of York. He was twice married, in 1662 to Lady
Frances Boyle, widow of Colonel Francis Courtenay, and in
1674 to Isabella Boynton.
His reputation as a didactic writer and critic rests on his
blank verse translation of the Ars Poetica (1680) and his Essay
on Translated Verse (1684). The essay contained the first
definite enunciation of the principles of " poetic diction,"
which were to be fully developed in the reign of Queen Anne.
Roscommon, who was fastidious in his notions of " dignified
writing," was himself a very correct writer, and quite free from
the indecencies of his contemporaries. Alexander Pope, who
seems to have learnt something from his carefully balanced
phrases and the regular cadence of his verse, says that " In
all Charles's days, Roscommon only boasts unspotted bays."
He saw clearly that a low code of morals was necessarily followed
by a corresponding degradation in literature, and he insists
that sincerity and sympathy with the subject in hand are
essential qualities in the poet. This elevated conception of
his art is in itself no small merit. He has, moreover, the dis-
tinction of having been the first critic to avow his admiration
for Paradise Lost. Roscommon formed a small literary society
which he hoped to develop into an academy with authority
to formulate rules on language and style, but its influence only
extended to a limited circle, and the scheme fell through after
its promoter's death. He was buried in Westminster Abbey
on the 2ist of January 1685.
The title passed to his uncle, Carey Dillon (1627-1689). In 1746,
on the death of James, the 8th earl, it passed to Robert Dillon
(d. 1770), a descendant of the first earl. His family became extinct
in 1816, and in 1828 Michael James Robert Dillon, another descend-
ant of the 1st earl, established his title to the earldom before the
House of Lords. When he died in May 1850 it became extinct.
Roscommon's poems were collected in 1701, and are included
in Anderson's and other collections of the British poets. He also
translated into French from the English of Dr W. Sherlock, Traitte
touchant I'obeissance passive (1686).
ROSCOMMON, a county of Ireland in the province of Con-
naught, bounded N.E. by Leitrim, N.W. by Sligo, W. by Mayo,
W. and S. by Galway, E. by Longford and E. and S. by West-
meath and King's County. The area is 629, 633 acres, or about
985 sq. m. The greater part of the county belongs to the great
limestone plain of central Ireland, and is either flat or very
slightly undulating. In the north-east, on the Leitrim border,
the Braulieve Mountains, consisting of rugged and precipitous
ridges with flattened summits, attain an elevation in Cashel
Mountain of 1377 ft.; and in the north-west the Curlew Moun-
tains, of similar formation, between Roscommon and Sligo,
rise abruptly to a height over 800 ft. In the east the Slieve-
bawn range, formed of sandstone, have a similar elevation. The
Shannon with its expansions forms nearly the whole eastern
boundary of the county, and on the west the Suck from Mayo
forms for over 50 m. the boundary with Galway till it unites
with the Shannon at Shannon Bridge. The other tributaries
of the Shannon within the county are the Arigna, the Feorish
and the Boyle. The lakes formed by expansions of the Shannon
on the borders of Co. Roscommon are Loughs Allen, Boderg,
Boffin, Forbes and Ree. Of the numerous other lakes within
the county th'e most important are Lough Key in the north, very
picturesquely situated with finely wooded banks, and Lough
Gara (mostly in Co. Sligo) in the north-west.
In this long county one may travel fifty miles across the
Carboniferous Limestone plain, with the grey rock cropping out
here and there, and long grass-covered esker-ridges forming the
only obstacle to the roads. Lough Ree is a typical lake of the
plain. Two inliers of Silurian rocks have been thrust up, form-
ing hills between Lough Ree and Lough Boffin. At Boyle,
however, higher Old Red Sandstone country is encountered,
and farther north the Millstone Grit and Coal-Measure series
cap the mountains almost horizontally at Arigna near Lough
Allen. The nodules of clay-ironstone here were formerly
smelted, and the seams of bituminous coal, mostly on Millstone
Grit horizons, are worked successfully on a high level of the
mountains.
The subsoil is principally limestone, but there is some light,
sandy soil in the south. In the level parts the land when drained
and properly cultivated is very fertile, especially in the district
known as the plains of Boyle, which includes some of the richest
grazing land in Ireland. Along the banks of the Suck and
Shannon there is, however, a large extent of bog and marsh.
The proportion of tillage to pasture is roughly as one to three.
Oats and potatoes are the principal crops, but the acreage
devoted to them decreases; the numbers of cattle, sheep, pigs,
goats and poultry, on the other hand, are proportionately large
and increasing. Communications are afforded by the Midland
Great Western railway, the Sligo line of that system crossing
the northern part of the county by Boyle, the Athlone and
Mayo line passing from S.E. to N.W. by the towns of Roscommon
and Castlerea, and the Athlone and Galway line crossing the
southern part.
The population was 116,552 in 1891, and 101,791 in 1901;
97% are Roman Catholics, and nearly the whole popula-
tion is rural. The chief towns are Boyle, Roscommon, Elphin
and Castlerea; and a small portion of Carrick-on-Shannon,
including the railway station, is in this county, the major
portion being in Co. Leitrim. The county is divided into
ten baronies. Ecclesiastically it belongs to the Protestant
dioceses of Elphin and Ardagh (united with Kilmore and Tuam),
and to the Roman Catholic dioceses of Tuam, Clonfert, Achonry,
Elphin and Ardagh. Assizes are held at Roscommon and
quarter sessions at Boyle, Strokestown and Roscommon. The
county returns two members to parliament. To the Irish
parliament before the Union of 1800 two members were re-
turned for the county, and two each for the boroughs of Boyle,
Roscommon and Tulsk.
The district was granted by Henry III. to Richard de Burgo,
but remained almost wholly in the possession of the native
septs. Until the time of Elizabeth Connaught was included
in the two districts of Roscommon and Clare, but in 1570 it
728
ROSCOMMON ROSE, G.
was further subdivided by Sir Henry Sydney, and was assigned
its present limits. All the old proprietors were dispossessed
at the Cromwellian settlement, except the O'Conor family
headed by the O'Conor Don. The most interesting antiquarian
remains within the county are the ruins of Crogan, the ancient
palace of the kings of Connaught. The principal ancient
castles are the old stronghold of the M'Dermotts on Castle
Island, Lough Key, the dismantled castle of the M'Donoughs
at Ballinafad, and the extensive fortress at Roscommon rebuilt
by John d'Ufford, justiciary of Ireland in 1268. There are
fragments of a round tower at Oran. The abbey of Boyle is in
remarkably good preservation, and exhibits fine specimens of
the Norman arch. The other monastic remains within the
county, with the exception of the abbey of Roscommon, are of
comparatively small importance. The Irish bard Carolan, who
died in 1738, is buried by the ruined church of Kilronan, in the
extreme north of the county. The bishopric of Elphin was
united with Kilmore and Ardagh in 1833, and the former
cathedral and episcopal buildings are largely modernized.
ROSCOMMON, a market town and the county town of Co.
Roscommon, Ireland, situated on rising ground in a bare plain
in the centre of the county, on the Mayo line of the Midland
Great Western railway, i8j m. N.W. by N. from Athlone. Pop.
(1901) 1891. It contains the county buildings, and has
Protestant and Roman Catholic churches, the latter of which
is a fine building completed in 1903. An extensive trade is
carried on in agricultural produce and live stock. A castle,
dating from 1268, when it was founded by John d'Ufford,
justiciary of Ireland, stands, an imposing mass of ruins, but far
gone in decay, overlooking the plain. It fell to besiegers in
1566, 1642 and 1652, and was partially burned after the battle of
Aughrim in 1691. There are also remains of a Dominican priory
of the middle of the I3th century, founded by Felim O'Conor,
king of Connaught, and exhibiting fine, though mutilated,
details of the style of that period. The name of the town,
signifying St Coman's wood, is derived from the saint who
founded the monastery of Canons Regular here in the 6th
century. The town received charters from Edward I. and James
I. Two m. N,E. are small remains of the abbey of Deerane.
ROSCREA, a market town near the north-western border
of Co. Tipperary, Ireland, pleasantly situated on undulating
ground connecting the Devil's Bit and the Slieve Bloom moun-
tains. Pop. (1901) 2325. It is 77 m. W.S.W. from Dublin
on the Ballybrophy and Limerick branch of the Great Southern
& Western railway. A branch line runs northward to Birr
or Parsonstown. Flour-milling and tanning are industries,
and monthly cattle fairs are held. There is a branch here of
the Trappist Monastery of Mount Melleray in Co. Waterford.
The antiquarian remains are of interest. These include portions
of an Augustinian abbey, founded by St Cronan, early in the
7th century, which are incorporated into the church. Out of
this abbey a diocese grew, to be united with that of Killaloe
in the I2th century. Here also was produced the Book of
Dimma, consisting of the gospels and accompanied by a brazen
shrine, ornamented with silver and tracery, and preserved in
the library of Trinity College, Dublin. A cross and a shrine
of St Cronan are in the churchyard. There are also a round
tower, 80 ft. in height, but lacking the upper storeys, and a
Franciscan friary (1490); while a circular tower, and a square
keep (occupied as barracks), mark strongholds, the one built
by King John and the other by the Ormondes, and testify to
the former importance of the town, which was doubtless accen-
tuated by its physical position in a passway between the
neighbouring mountain ranges. Leap Castle, about 4 m. N., is
another fortified mansion, which is still inhabited.
ROSE, the name of a distinguished family of German chemists.
VALENTINE ROSE the elder was born on the i6th of August 1736
at Neu-Ruppin, and died on the 28th of April 1771 at Berlin,
where he was an apothecary and for a short time before his
death assessor of the Ober Collegium Medicum. He was the
discoverer of " Rose's fusible metal " (see FUSIBLE METAL).
His son, VALENTINE ROSE the younger, born on the 3ist of
October 1762 at Berlin, was also an apothecary in that city and
assessor of the Ober Collegium Medicum from 1797. It was he
who in 1800 proved that sulphuric ether contains no sulphur. He
died in Berlin on the loth of August 1807, leaving four sons,
one of whom, Heinrich, was a distinguished chemist, and
another, Gustav, a crystallographer and mineralogist. HEIN-
RICH ROSE, born at Berlin on the 6th of August 1795, began to
learn pharmacy in Danzig, where, during the siege of 1807,
he nearly lost his life from typhus. Like his brother he served
in the campaign of 1815. During the summer of the following
year he studied at Berlin under M. H. Klaproth, a devoted
friend of the family, and in the autumn entered a pharmacy at
Mitau. In 1819 he went to Stockholm, where he spent a year
and a half with J. J. Berzelius, and in 1821 he graduated at
Kiel. Returning to Berlin he became a Privatdozent in the
university in 1822, extraordinary professor of chemistry in 1823
and ordinary professor in 1835, and there he died on the 27th
of January 1864. He devoted himself especially to inorganic
chemistry and the development of analytical methods, and the
results of his work are summed up in the successive issues of his
classical work, Ausjuhrliches Handbuth der analytischen Chemie,
of which he published the first edition at Berlin in 1829, and
the sixth, practically a new work in French, at Paris in 1861.
He was the discoverer of antimony pentachloride, and mentioq
may also be made of his researches on the influence of the
mass-action of water in many reactions, carried out before
the investigations of Guldberg and Waage in 1867. GUSTAV
ROSE, born at Berlin on the i8th of March 1798, began his
career as a mining engineer, but soon turned his attention to
theoretical studies. A pupil of Berzelius like his brother, he
graduated in 1820 at Berlin University where he became
successively Privatdozent (1823), extraordinary professor of
mineralogy (1826) and ordinary professor (1839). In 1856 he
succeeded to the directorship of the Royal Mineralogical Museum
at Berlin, and he helped to found the German Geological Society,
of which he was president from 1863 until the end of his life.
He made many journeys in different parts of Europe for the
sake of mineralogical study, and in 1829 with A. von Humboldt
and C. G. Ehrenberg (1795-1876), professor of medicine at
Berlin, took part in an expedition to the Ural and Altai moun-
tains and the Caspian Sea, which yielded information of primary
importance concerning the mineralogy of the Russian Empire.
His work covered every branch of mineralogy, including crys-
tallography and the artificial formation of minerals. The science
of petrography, according to Gerhard vom Rath, originated
with him. He was the first in his own country to use the reflect-
ing goniometer for the measurement of the angles of crystals,
and to teach the method of studying rocks by means of micro-
scopic sections. He also devoted special attention to meteorites
and to the problem presented by the different structure of the
stony matter in them and in the crust of the earth, and just
before his death, which took place at Berlin on the isth of July
1873, he was engaged in investigating the formation of the
diamond. In addition to many scientific memoirs he published
Elements der Krystallographie (1830); Mineralogischgeognoslische
Reise nach dent Ural, dem Altai und dem Kaspische Meere
(1837) vol. i.; (1842) vol. ii.; Das Krystallo-chemische Mineral-
system (1852); and Beschreibung und Einthettung der Meleoriten
(1863).
ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818), British politician, was born on
the 1 7th of June 1744, and was educated at Westminster school,
afterwards entering the navy, a service which he left in 1762
after he had taken part in some fighting in the West Indies.
He then obtained a position in the Civil Service, becoming joint
keeper of the records in 1772 and secretary to the board of taxes
in 1777. In 1782 he gave up the latter appointment to become
one of the secretaries to the treasury under Lord Shelburne,
though he did not enter parliament. He left office with his
colleagues in April 1783, but in the following December he
returned to his former position at the treasury in Pitt's ministry,
being henceforward one of this minister's most steadfast
supporters. He entered parliament as member for Launceston
ROSE, H. J. ROSE
early in 1784, and his fidelity and friendship were rewarded by
Pitt, who gave him a lucrative post in the court of exchequer;
in 1788 he became clerk of the parliaments. In 1801 Rose left
office with Pitt, but returned with him to power in 1804, when
he was made vice-president of the committee on trade and
joint paymaster-general. He resigned these offices a few days
after Pitt's death in 1806, but he served as vice-president of
the committee on trade and treasurer of the navy under the
duke of Portland and Spencer Perceval from 1807 to 1812.
He was again treasurer of the navy under Lord Liverpool,
and he was still member of parliament for Christchurch, a
seat which he had held since 1790, when he died at Cuffnells,
in Hampshire, on the i3th of January 1818. Rose was an
able and conscientious public servant, although he and his
two sons drew a large amount of money from sinecures, a
fact referred to by William Cobbett in his " A New Year's Gift
to old George Rose." He wrote several books on economic
subjects, and his Diaries and Correspondence, edited by the
Rev. L. V. Harcourt, was published in 1860.
His elder son, Sir George Henry Rose (1771-1855), was in
parliament from 1794 to 1813, and again from 1818 to 1844,
and in the meantime he was British minister at Munich and at
Berlin; in 1818 he succeeded his father as clerk of the parlia-
ments. He was the father of Baron Strathnairn (q.ii.). The
second son was the poet William Stewart Rose (q.v.).
ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795-1838), English divine, was
born at Little Horsted in Sussex on the 9th of June 1795, and
was educated at Uckfield school and at Trinity College, Cam-
bridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1817, but missed a fellow-
ship. Taking orders, he was appointed to Buxted, Sussex,
in 1819, and to the vicarage of Horsham in 1821. He had
already attained some repute as a critic, which was enhanced
when, after travelling in Germany, he delivered as select
preacher at Cambridge, four addresses against rationalism,
published in 1825 as The State of the Protestant Religion in
Germany. The book was severely criticized in Germany, and
in England by E. B. Pusey. In 1827 Rose was collated to the
prebend of Middleton; in 1830 he accepted the rectory of
Hadleigh, Suffolk, and in 1833 that of Fairsted, Essex, and in
1835 the perpetual curacy of St Thomas's, Southwark. In
1833-1834 he was professor of divinity at Durham, a post which
ill-health forced him to resign. In 1836 he became editor of the
Encyclopaedia Metropolilana, and he projected the New General
Biographical Dictionary, a scheme carried through by his
brother Henry John Rose (1800-1873). He was appointed
principal of King's College, London, in October 1836, but he was
attacked by influenza, and after two years of ill-health he died
at Florence on the 22nd of December 1838. Rose was a high-
churchman, who to propagate his views in 1832 founded the
British Magazine and so came into touch with the leaders of the
Oxford movement. Out of a conference at his rectory in
Hadleigh came the Association of Friends of the Church, formed
by R. H. Froude and Wm. Palmer.
See J. W. Burgon, Lives of Twelve Good Men (1891).
ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843), English poet and
translator, second son of George Rose (<?..), was born in 1775.
He was educated at Eton College, and in 1796 was returned
to parliament for the borough of Christchurch. In 1800 he
accepted the Chiltern Hundreds on his appointment as reading
clerk of the House of Lords and clerk of the private committees.
His first work, A Naval History of the Late War, was undertaken
at his father's wish, but he only completed one volume. He
produced a free version of the Amadis de Gaul from the French
text of Herberay des Essarts in 1803, followed by a translation
of the Partenopex de Blois (1807) after Le Grand d'Aussy.
With Partinopex he printed his ballad of " The Red King,"
and in 1810 appeared The Crusade of King Louis and King
Edward the Martyr. In 1814 he made a prolonged journey
through Italy and eastern Europe, spending the year 1817
at Venice, where he married a Venetian lady. The Court and
Parliament of Bees, a translation of the Animali Parlanti of
Casti, and Letters from the North of Italy, addressed to Henry
729
Hallam, Esq., appeared in 1819. In the same year the publisher
Murray offered him 2000 for a translation of Ariosto (T. Moore,
Diary, i4th of April 1819). He had already written an abridged
version of Berni's rifacimento of the Orlando Inamorato of
Boiardo, and had begun his Orlando Furioso translated into
English Verse which appeared in two parts in 1823 and 1831.
This, which has become the standard English version, is a close
rendering in the ottava rima of the original. Rose retired from
his official position in 1824. He suffered from paralysis in his
later years, and at Abbotsford, where he was an honoured
guest, rooms were specially fitted up on the ground floor for
his use. His last works were An Epistle to the Right Honourable
John Hookham Frere (1834), in verse, and a volume of Rhymes
(1837) (see Quarterly Review, July 1836 and April 1837). He
died on the 3oth of April 1843.
ROSE (Rosa). The rose has for all ages been the favourite
flower, and as such it has a place in general literature that no
other plant can rival. In most cases the rose of the poets and
the rose of the botanist are one and the same in kind, but
popular usage has attached the name rose to a variety of plants
whose kinship to the true plant no botanist would for a moment
admit. In this place we shall employ the word in its strict
botanical significance, and in commenting on it treat it solely
from the botanical point of view. The rose gives its name to
the order Rosaceae, of which it may be considered the type.
The genus consists of species varying in number, according to
the diverse opinions of botanists of opposite schools, from thirty
to one hundred and eighty, or even two hundred and fifty,
exclusive of the many hundreds of mere garden varieties.
While the lowest estimate is doubtless too low, the highest
is enormously too large, but in any case the wide discrepancies
above alluded to illustrate very forcibly the extreme variability
of the plants, their adaptability to various conditions, and conse-
quently their wide dispersion over the globe, the facility with
which they are cultivated, and the readiness with which new
varieties are continually being produced in gardens by the
art of the hybridizer or the careful selection of the raiser. The
species are natives of all parts of the northern hemisphere, but
are scantily represented in the tropics unless at considerable
elevations.
They are erect or climbing shrubs, never herbs or trees, generally
more or less copiously provided with straight or hooked prickles
of various shapes and with glandular hairs, as in the sweet-brier
or in the moss-rose of gardens. The prickles serve the purpose of
enabling the shrub to sustain itself amid other vegetation. The
viscid hairs which are specially frequent on the flower stalks or in
the neighbourhood of the flower serve to arrest the progress of
undesirable visitants, while the perfume emitted by the glands in
question may co-operate with the fragrance and colour of the
flower to attract those insects whose presence is desirable. The
leaves are invariably alternate, provided with stipules, and unequally
pinnate, the leaflets varying in number from one (as in R. simplici-
folia or berberi folia) to n and even 15, the odd leaflet always being
at the apex, the others in pairs. The flowers are solitary or in loose
cymes (eluster-roses) produced on the ends of the shoots. The
flower-stalk expands into a vase- or urn-shaped dilatation, called
the receptacle or receptacular tube, which ultimately becomes
fleshy and encloses in its cavity the numerous carpels or fruits.
From the edge of the urn or " hip " proceed five sepals, often more
or less compound like the leaves and overlapping in the bud.
Within the sepals are five petals, generally broad or roundish in out-
line, with a very short stalk or none at all, and of very various shades
of white, yellow or red. The very numerous stamens originate slightly
above the sepals and petals ; each has a slender filament and a small
two-celled anther. The inner portion of the receptacular tube whence
the stamens spring is thick and fleshy, and is occasionally spoken of as
the " disk "; but, as in this case it does not represent any separate
organ, it is better to avoid the use of the term. The carpels are
very numerous, ultimately hard in texture, covered with hairs, and
each provided with a long style and button-like stigma. The car-
pels are concealed within the receptacular tube and only the stigmas
as a rule protrude from its mouth. Each carpel contains one ovule.
The so-called fruit is merely the receptacular tube, which, as
previously mentioned, becomes fleshy and brightly coloured as an
attraction to birds, which devour the hips and thus secure the
dispersion of the seed. The dry one-seeded fruits (achenes) are
densely packed inside the hip, and are covered with stiff hairs which
cling to the bird's beak. The stamens are in whorls, and, according
to Payer, they originate in pairs one on each side of the base of
730
ROSE
each petal so that there are ten in each row; a second row of ten
alternates with the first, a third with the second, and so on. By
repeated radial and tangential branching a vast number of stamens
are ultimately produced, and when these stamens assume a petaloid
aspect we have as a consequence the double flowers which are so
much admired. The carpels are much less subject to this petaloid
change, and, as it generally happens in the most double of roses
that some few at least of the anthers are formed with pollen, the
production of seed and the possibility of cross-breeding become
intelligible. Under natural circumstances rose flowers do not
secrete honey, the attraction for insects being provided by the colour
and perfume and the abundance of pollen for food. The stigmas
and anthers come to maturity at the same time, and thus, while
cross-fertilization by insect agency is doubtless most common,
self-fertilization is not prevented.
The large number of species, subspecies, varieties and forms
described as British may be included under about a dozen
species. Among them may be mentioned R. spinosissima,
the Scotch rose, much less variable than the others; R. rubi-
ginosa (or R. eglanteria), the sweet-brier, represented by
several varieties; R. canina, the dog rose (see fig.), including
Dog Rose (Rosa canina) in flower and fruit (half natural size).
numerous subspecies and varieties; the large-fruited apple rose,
R. pomifera; and R. aniensis, the parent of the Ayrshire roses.
Cultivated roses are frequently " budded " or worked upon the
stems of the brier or R. canina, or upon young seedling plants
of the same species; and upon stems of an Italian rose called
the Manetti, raised in the Milan Botanic Gardens about 1837.
Other species, notably R. polyantha, also are used for stocks.
Roses have been grown for so many centuries and have been
crossed and recrossed so often that it is difficult to refer the
cultivated forms to their wild prototypes. The older roses
doubtless originated from R. gallica, a native of central and
southern Europe. R. centifolia (the cabbage rose), a native of
the Caucasus, contributed its share. A cross between the two
species named, may have been the source whence originated
the Bourbon roses. The yellow-flowered Austrian and Persian
brier originated from R. lutea, a native of Austria and the East.
The monthly or China roses sprang from the Chinese R. indica,
and these, crossed with others of the R. centifolia or gallica type,
are the source of the " hybrid perpetuals " so commonly grown
nowadays, because, in addition to their other attractions, their
blooming season is relatively prolonged, and, moreover, is
repeated in the autumn. Tea roses and noisettes, it is to
be presumed, also acknowledge R. indica as one of their pro-
genitors. A magnificent race called " hybrid teas " have
been evolved of late years, by crossing the tea roses and hybrid
perpetuals. They are much more vigorous in constitution than
the true tea roses, while quite as beautiful in blossom and more
perpetual in bloom than the hybrid perpetuals. Recently, by
crossing the Japanese R. Wichuraiana with hybrid perpetuals,
a beautiful and vigorous race of climbers has been produced.
The Banksian rose is a Chinese climbing species, with small
white or fawn-coloured flowers of great beauty, but rarely
seen; the Macartney rose (R. bracteata) is also of Chinese
origin. Its nearly evergreen deep green leaves and large white
flowers are very striking. The Japanese R. rugosa is also a
remarkable species, notable for its bold rugose foliage, its large
white or pink flowers, and its conspicuous globular fruit.
R. damascene is cultivated in some parts of the Balkans for
the purpose of making attar of roses. In Germany the same
variety of rose is used, while at Grasse a strain of the
Provence rose is cultivated for the same purpose. In India
R. damascena is grown largely near Ghazipur for the purpose
of procuring attar of roses and rose water.
Rose water is chiefly produced in Europe from the Provence
or cabbage rose, R. centifolia, grown for the purpose at Mitcham
and much more abundantly in the south of France. Conserve
of roses and infusion of roses, two medicinal preparations re-
tained for their agreeable qualities rather than for any special
virtue, are prepared from the petals of R. gallica, one variety
of which was formerly grown for the purpose near the town
of Provins. Conserve of dog rose is made from the ripe hips
of the dog rose, R. canina. Its only use is in the manufacture
of pills.
The rose is so universal a favourite that some portion of the
garden must necessarily be devoted to it, if the situation be at all
favourable. Many choice roses will not, however, thrive in the
vicinity of large towns, since they require a pure air, and do not
endure a smoky atmosphere. The best soil for them is a deep
rich strong loam free from stagnant moisture. Very light sandy
or gravelly soils, or soils which are clayey and badly drained, are
not suitable, and both must be greatly improved if rose-growing
on them is attempted. Light soils would be improved by a dressing
of strong loam in conjunction with cow-dung or nightsoil; the latter,
provided it is properly prepared and not too fresh, is indeed the
very best manure for roses in all but soils which are naturally very
rich. Heavy soils are improved by adding burned earth or gritty
refuse, with stable manure and leaf-mould, peat moss litter, &c.;
and damp soils must necessarily be drained by trenching. Tea
roses may, however, be grown to perfection in a gravel soil, provided
it be well manured, cow manure being best. Roses generally
require a constant annual supply of manure, and, if this is given
as a mulching in autumn, it serves to protect their roots through
the winter. They also require liberal supplies of water during the
growing season, unless the surface is mulched or top-dressed from
time to time with well-rotted manure. Aphides and caterpillars
of all kinds may be checked by syringing with dilute tobacco water
or some of the many insecticides now provided to facilitate this
rather troublesome task.
Some growers prefer roses grown on their own roots, some on
the Manetti and others on the brier stock. There is this to be
said in favour of their own roots that, if the tops are killed down by
accident or by severe weather, the roots will usually throw up new
shoots true to their kind, which cannot be looked for if they are
worked ; though it is sometimes recommended to plant deep in order
that the rose itself may learn to do without its foster parent the
stock. Too often, however, in the case of persons unfamiliar with
roses, the choice rose dies, and the stock usurps its place. This
is especially true of the Manetti stock, as its foliage is more like
that of many cultivated forms than the brier, and therefore more
easily overlooked. Where standards or half-standards are required,
the brier stock from the hedges is always used. It forms the most
reliable stock for dwarfs of all kinds, and especially for tea roses,
most of which fail on the Manetti stock.
An open situation, not shaded but sheltered from strong winds,
is what the rose prefers. October and November are the best
months for planting roses, but if the weather be wet or frosty and the
soil sticky, the plants should be placed in a sheltered place and
protected by green boughs or matting until suitable conditions pre-
vail. The planting should never be deep, the uppermost layer of
roots being about 2 or 3 in. below the general level of the surface,
and the soil should always be kept stirred with the hoe during the
summer months. In regard to pruning, roses vary considerably,
some requiring close cutting and others only thinning out; some
again, such as strong growing climbers, may be safely pruned in
autumn, and others are better left till spring. Instructions on this
point as to the several groups of varieties will be found in most rose
catalogues, and may be followed, provided the variety is true to
name. It may be laid down as a general rule that the more strongly
growing varieties should be less severely cut back than the weakly
varieties; and, again, the more tender the variety, the later in the
spring should the pruning be done, April being the best month for
pruning teas and noisettes. It should be remembered also that no
ROSEBERY, 5 EARL OF
amount of correct pruning will improve a rose bush that has been
badly planted or placed in a quite unsuitable position.
Where dwarf beds of roses are required, a good plan is to peg
down to within about 6 in. from the ground the strong one-year-
old shoots from the root. In due time blooming shoots break out
from nearly every eye, and masses of flowers are secured, while
strong young shoots are thrown up from the centre, the plant
being on its own roots. Before winter sets in, the old shoots which
have thus flowered and exhausted themselves are cut away, and
three or four or more of the strongest and best ripened young shoots
are reserved for pegging down the following season, which should be
done about February. In the meantime, after the pruning has been
effected, plenty of good manure should have been dug in lightly
about the roots. Thus treated, the plants never fail to produce
plenty of strong wood for pegging down each succeeding season.
The most troublesome fungoid pest of the rose is undoubtedly
the mildew (Sphaerotheca pannosa). The young shoots, leaves and
flower-buds frequently become covered with a delicate white
mycelium, which by means of the suckers it sends into the under-
lying cells robs its host of considerable amounts of food, and causes
the leaves to curl and fall early. The spores are produced in great
abundance and carried by animals and the wind to other plants, and
so the disease is rapidly spread. Later the mycelium increases and
forms a thick velvety coating on the young shoots, and in this the
winter state of the fungus is produced. Spraying with potassium
sulphide (i oz. to 2 to 3 gallons of water) is the best means of check-
ing the spread of the disease. The rose rust (Phragmidium sub-
corticatum) appears on both cultivated and wild roses in the spring,
bursting through the bark in the form of copious masses of orange
powder consisting of the spores of the fungus. These spores infect
the leaves, and produce on them in the summer small dots of an
orange colour and, later, groups of spores that are able to live through
the winter. The last, the teleutospores, are of a dark colour, and
it is by these that the disease is started in the spring. It is therefore
important that all the affected leaves should be destroyed in the
autumn, and the bushes should be sprayed with Bordeaux mixture
or ammoniacal copper carbonate in the spring to prevent the
infection of the leaves by spores brought from a distance. Many
other fungi attack the rose, but perhaps the only other one that
merits mention here is Actinonema Rosae. This attacks the leaves,
forming large dark blotches upon them and frequently causing them
to fall prematurely.
A very large number of insect pests are found upon the rose, but
the best known and most formidable on account of their great
powers of reproduction are the aphides. More than one species is
found upon the rose, though Aphis Rosae is the commonest. Their
attack should be checked by the use of a spray made by boiling
4 oz. quassia chips for an hour or so in a gallon of soft water, straining
off the solution and dissolving therein 4 oz. of soft soap while it is
still warm, afterwards adding I or 2 gallons of soft water according
to the age of the rose leaves that are to be sprayed. Any delay in
dealing with the pest gives the opportunity for its increase, even
a day being sufficient materially to augment their numbers. The
larvae of some of the Tortrix moths fold the leaves almost as soon as
they are developed from the bud, and do considerable damage in
this way and by devouring the leaves, while several " looper "
caterpillars are also found feeding on the foliage. Many species of
saw-fly larvae are also known to attack the rose, feeding either upon
the leaves or devouring the young shoot. These larvae should be
carefully searched for and destroyed whenever found. One of the
leaf-cutting bees, Megachtie, cuts pieces out of the leaves with which
to line its nest, materially reducing their effective surface. The
bees may be caught in a butterfly net or traced to their nests, which
should be destroyed.
For further information see the late Dean Hole's Book about
Roses (1894); Book of the Rose, by Rev. A. Foster Mellias (1905);
Beautiful Roses for Garden and Greenhouse, by J. Weathers (1903);
and Roses, their History, Development and Cultivation, by the Rev.
J. H. Pemberton (1908).
ROSEBERY, ARCHIBALD PHILIP PRIMROSE, S TH EARL
OF (1847- ), British statesman, born in London on the
7th of May 1847, was the grandson and successor to the title of
Archibald John Primrose, 4th earl of Rosebery (1783-1868),
a representative peer of Scotland, who was in 1828 created a
peer of the United Kingdom as Baron Rosebery, and was an
active supporter of the Reform Bill. The Scottish earldom
was first conferred in 1703 upon the 4th earl's great-grandfather,
Archibald Primrose of Dalmeny (1664-1723), a staunch Whig
and a commissioner for the Union. The 5th earl's mother was
Catherine Lucy Wilhelmina, only daughter' of Philip Henry,
4th Earl Stanhope; she was thus a sister of Earl Stanhope,
the historian, and a niece of Lady Hester Stanhope, who was
the niece of William Pitt. A celebrated beauty, a maid of
honour and bridesmaid of Queen Victoria, she married, on the
20th of December 1843, Archibald, Lord Dalmeny (1809-1851),
member for the Stirling Burghs, who became a lord of the
adrriralty under Melbourne. After his death she became the
wife of Harry George Vane, 4th duke of Cleveland, and died
in 1901.
The young Lord Dalmeny was educated at Brighton and at
Eton, where he had as slightly junior contemporaries Mr A. J.
Balfour and Lord Randolph Churchill. He was described by
the most brilliant Eton tutor of his day, William Johnson Cory
(author of lonica), as a " portentously wise youth, not, how-
ever, deficient in fun." He added that Dalmeny " desired
the palm without the dust." In 1866 he matriculated at
Christ Church, Oxford, but went down in 1868, by the request
of the dean, rather than abandon the possession of a small
racing stud. In the same year he succeeded to the earldom
and to the family estates. In February 1871 he seconded the
Address in the House of Lords; a more original effort followed
in November 1871, when he delivered a remarkable essay on the
Union of Scotland and England at the Edinburgh Philosophical
Institution. Three years later he was elected president of the
Social Science Congress at Glasgow, where, on the 3oth of
September, he gave a striking address upon the discovery of
means for raising the condition of the working class as the
" true leverage of empire." In the meantime he travelled
in the south of Europe and in North America. On his return
he acquired an English country house called The Durdans,
Epsom, which he largely rebuilt and adorned with some of the
finest turf portraits of George Stubbs. Following the example,
as he declared, of Oliver Cromwell (for whom he showed an
admiration in other respects culminating in 1900 in the erection
of a statue outside Westminster Hall, which was not appreciated
either by the Irish Nationalist party or by others among his
political associates), he took a pride in owning racehorses, and
afterwards won the Derby three times, in 1894, 1895 and 1905.
He was the first man to enjoy the distinction of winning the
Derby while prime minister; but though this was popular
enough among many classes, it did not please the Liberal Non-
conformists so much, who considered a racehorse a mere
gambling-machine. On the 2oth of March 1878 Lord Rosebery
married Hannah, only child of Baron Meyer Amschel de Roths-
child, of Mentmore, Bucks. The newly married couple took a
lease of Lansdowne House, which for several years was a salon
for the Liberal party and a centre of hospitality for a much
wider circle.
Though impeded in his political career by his exclusion from
the House of Commons, Lord Rosebery's reputation as a social
reformer and orator was steadily growing. In 1878 he was
elected Lord Rector of Aberdeen and in 1880 of Edinburgh
University, where he gave an eloquent address upon Patriotism.
In 1880 he entertained Mr Gladstone at Dalmeny, and during
the " Mid Lothian campaign " he had much to do with the
stage -management of the demonstrations. As was shown
later, he imported into his view of politics a warm sentiment
and an imaginative outlook; and he was an enthusiastic
student of Lord Beaconsfield's political novels, more par-
ticularly of Sybil, after the heroine in which he named
one of his daughters. In August 1881 he became under-
secretary at the Home Office, his immediate chief being Sir
William Harcourt. His work was practically confined to
the direction of the Scottish department of the Office. A
clamour was nevertheless raised in regard to the incom-
patibility of the under-secretaryship with a position in the
House of Lords, and Lord Rosebery resigned the. post in June
1883. He and his wife utilized the interval to make a trip
round the world, being most warmly received in Australia, and
returning by way of India. At the close of 1884 he resumed
office as first commissioner of works with a seat in the cabinet,
and his adherence carried with it a distinct accession of strength
to the Liberal ministry, which was much discredited by the
tragedy attached to the fate of Gordon. The attitude of the
government on the Afghan question and generally in regard to
Russia was held by many to have been perceptibly stiffened
owing to Lord Rosebery's influence.
732
In June 1885 the Liberal administration broke up, but Lord
Salisbury's ministry, which succeeded, was beaten early in
February 1886, and when Mr Gladstone adopted Home Rule,
Lord Rosebery threw in his lot with the old leader, and was
made secretary of state for foreign affairs during the brief
Liberal ministry which followed. He rather distinguished
himself in the Lucia Bay negotiations then being carried on
with Germany. If Busch is to be believed, Prince Bismarck's
view was that Lord Rosebery had " quite mesmerized " Count
Herbert Bismarck; and the latter, from his father's standpoint,
conceded too much to Lord Rosebery, who proved himself to
be, in Bismarck's language, " very sharp." His views on foreign
policy differed materially from those of Granville and Gladstone.
His mind was dwelling constantly upon the political legacy of
the two Pitts; he was a reader of Sir John Seeley; he had him-
self visited the colonies; had predicted that a war would not,
as was commonly said, disintegrate the empire, but rather
the reverse; had magnified the importance of taking colonial
opinion; and had always been a convinced advocate of some
form of Imperial Federation. He was already taunted with
being an Imperialist, but his independent attitude won public
approval. Cambridge gave him the degree of LL.D. in 1888;
in January 1889 he was elected a member of the first county
council of London, and on the i2th of February he was elected
chairman of that body by 104 votes to 17. The tact, assiduity
and dignity with which he guided the deliberations of the
council made him exceedingly popular with its members. In
the spring of 1890 he presided over the Co-operative Congress,
but with a view to the impending political campaign he found it
necessary to resign the chairmanship of the county council in
June. In November of this year, however, Lady Rosebery died,
and he withdrew for a period from public business. In 1891
he made some brief continental visits, one to Madrid, and in
October he saw through the press his little monograph upon
William Pitt, in the Twelve English Statesmen Series, of
which it may be said that it competes in interest with Viscount
Morley's Walpole. In January 1892, upon a new election, he
again for a few months became chairman of the county council.
It was already recognized that in him the country possessed
not only a public man of exceptionally attractive personality,
but one whose literary tastes were combined with a gift for
expression which was at once original and fluent. In October
the Garter was conferred upon him by Queen Victoria.
Meanwhile, in August, upon the return of Gladstone to power,
he was induced with some difficulty (for he was suffering at the
time from insomnia) to resume his position as foreign minister.
His acceptance was construed as a security against the suspicion
of weakness abroad which the Liberal party had incurred by
their foreign policy during the 'eighties. He strongly opposed
the evacuation of Egypt; he insisted upon the exclusive control
by Great Britain of the Upper Nile Valley, and also upon the
retention of Uganda. In 1893 the question of Siam came near
to causing serious trouble with France, but by the exercise of
a combination of firmness and forbearance on Lord Rosebery's
part the crisis was averted, and the lines were laid down for pre-
serving Siam, if possible, as a buffer state between the English
and French frontiers in Indo-China. In the spring of 1895 he
was clear-sighted enough to refuse to join the anti-Japanese
League of Russia, France and Germany at the end of the China-
Japan War.
Lord Rosebery's personal popularity had been increased at
home by his successful intervention in the coal strike of December
1893, and when in March 1894 the resignation of Gladstone was
announced, his selection by Queen Victoria for the premiership
was welcomed by the public at large and by the majority of his
own party. On all hands he was then considered dignus im-
perio it was only as the new administration went to pieces
that people began to add nisi imperasset. The conditions he
had to face were by no means hopeful. The Liberal majority
of 44 was already dwindling away, and the malcontents, who
considered that Sir William Harcourt should have been the
prime minister, or who were perpetually intriguing against a
ROSEBERY, 5 EARL OF
leader who did not satisfy their idea of Radicalism, made Lord
Rosebery's personal position no easy one. A systematic policy
of detraction was pursued by the small section of the Radical
party who objected to a peer premier as such, and a great deal
of adverse criticism was also aroused by a speech in which the
prime minister, taunted for not again bringing forward a Home
Rule measure, insisted upon the truism that the conversion
of England, the " predominant partner," was a necessary
condition of success. The support of the Irish Nationalists
was by no means secure. Lord Rosebery's foreign policy,
moreover, was too Tory for his Radical followers; he insisted
upon " continuity of policy in foreign affairs," which meant
carrying on the Conservative policy and not upsetting it. The
premier was thought to have shown a restlessness and a rawness
at the touch of censure which did not increase his reputation
for reserve power or strength, but this was undoubtedly due in
large measure to the recrudescence of the insomnia from which
he had suffered in 1891. The government effected little. In
Mr Asquith's phrase, it was " ploughing the sands." The
Parish Councils Act was only passed by compromising with the
Opposition. Local Veto and Disestablishment of the Welsh
Church were put in the forefront of the party programme, but
the government was already to all appearances riding for a
fall, when on the 24th of June 1895 it was beaten upon an
adverse vote in the Commons in regard to a question of the
supply and reserve of small arms ammunition.
The general election which followed after Lord Salisbury
had formed his new ministry was remarkable for the undis-
ciplined state of the Liberal party. At the Eighty Club and the
Albert Hall Lord Rosebery advised them to concentrate upon
the reform of the House of Lords, that assembly being, as he
said, a foremost obstacle to the passing of legislation on the lines
of the Newcastle programme; but he was unable to suggest in
what direction it should be reformed. Sir William Harcourt
and Mr John Morley, on the other hand, concentrated respec-
tively upon Local Option and Home Rule. The Liberals were
quarrelling among themselves, and the result was an over-
whelming defeat. In Opposition Lord Rosebery was now at a
serious disadvantage as head of a parliamentary party; for in
any case he could not rally them as a loyally followed leader in
the House of Commons might have done. But his followers
were not all loyal, and his rivals in leadership were themselves
in the House of Commons. Added to this there was still in the
background the veteran statesman to whom Liberalism owed
an unequalled obligation. When the " Armenian atrocities "
became a burning question in the country in 1896, and Mr
Gladstone himself emerged from his retirement to advocate
intervention, Lord Rosebery's difficulties had taken their final
form. He declined to support this demand at the risk of a
European war, and on the 8th of October 1896 he announced
to the Liberal whip, Mr Thomas Ellis, his resignation of the
Liberal leadership. On the following day he made a farewell
speech at the Empire Theatre, Edinburgh, to over four thousand
people, and for some time he held aloof from party politics,
" ploughing his furrow alone," as he afterwards phrased it.
In 1898, on the death of Mr Gladstone, he paid a noble and
eloquent tribute in the House of Lords to the life and public
services of his old leader. He was a pall-bearer at his funeral
on the 28th of May, as he had previously been at the burials of
Tennyson and Millais. His influence in the country was still a
strong one on personal grounds, and he came forward now and
again to give expression independently to popular feeling. In
the autumn of 1898 he gave valuable support to the attitude
taken up by Lord Salisbury upon the Fashoda question. He
was indeed bound by consistency to withstand what his own
government, by the words of Sir Edward Grey, had declared
would be an unfriendly act on the part of France. Again, after
Mr Kruger's ultimatum in October 1899, Lord Rosebery spoke
upon the necessity of the nation closing its ranks and supporting
the government in the prosecution of war in South Africa.
After Nicholson's Nek he reiterated the resolution of the country
" to see this thing through." Nevertheless, in a letter to Captain
ROSEBERY, 5 EARL OF
733
Lambton, an unsuccessful Liberal candidate for Newcastle, in
September 1900, he condemned the general conduct of affairs
by Lord Salisbury's government, while in several speeches in
the House of Lords he strongly urged the necessity of army
reform. Since his abandonment of the leadership in 1896, the
lack of coherence in the Liberal party had become more and
more manifest. The war had brought to the front a pro-Boer
section, who seemed gradually to be compromising the whole
party, and had apparently succeeded in winning the support
of Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, the leader in the House of
Commons. Lord Rosebery maintained for the most part a
sphinx-like seclusion, but in July 1901 he at last came forward
strongly as the champion of the Liberal Imperialist section.
In deference to the wishes of supporters such as Mr Asquith,
Sir Henry Fowler and Sir Edward Grey he determined to
" put his views into the common stock " at a representative
meeting of Liberals held at Chesterfield in December 1901.
There he advised the Liberal party that " its slate must be
cleaned," and, as he subsequently explained, this cleansing
must involve the elimination of Home Rule for Ireland. His
appeal for " spade work " resulted in the formation of the
Liberal League, inside the Liberal Opposition; and what
Lord Rosebery himself described as his " definite separation "
from Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman's " tabernacle " took
place. This announcement, however, was no sooner made
than it was explained away by the supporters of both, and
early in 1902 Lord Rosebery spoke at the National Liberal
Club in a way which indicated that an understanding might
still be arrived at. But though Mr Asquith and Sir Edward
Grey adhered to the Liberal League, Sir Henry Campbell-
Bannerman retained the loyalty of the majority of the Liberal
party, and Lord Spencer threw his weight on the same side;
and in a speech at the Liberal League dinner on the 3ist of
July Lord Rosebery had to admit that their principles had
not yet prevailed, and that, until they did, a reconciliation
between the two wings of the party would be impossible. In
January 1903 he addressed a Liberal meeting at Plymouth,
and appeared to be attempting to concentrate Opposition
criticism upon the points in the government policy which
did not involve the Imperialist difference; and in discussing
War Office reform he advocated the appointment of Lord
Kitchener as secretary of state for war.
When Mr Chamberlain started his new fiscal programme,
combining Tariff Reform with Colonial Preference, Lord
Rosebery at first seemed" inclined to treat it as non-political,
and on the igth of May 1903 he declared in an address to the
Burnley Chamber of Commerce that he was not one of those
who regarded Free Trade as part of the Sermon on the Mount.
This utterance led to an idea that he was inclined to consider
favourably the proposal for a preferential tariff, his earlier
enthusiasm for Imperial Federation making his support an
interesting political possibility. But this idea was quickly
dispelled; on the 22nd he expressed his surprise that anybody
should have thought he intended to approve of Mr Chamberlain's
plan; he was not prepared to dismiss in advance a proposal
for the consolidation of the empire made by the responsible
government, but he believed that the objections to a policy
of preference were insurmountable. The fact, no doubt, was
that Mr Asquith, Lord Rosebery's chief lieutenant in the
Liberal League, made himself from the outset a determined
champion of free trade in opposition to Mr Chamberlain; and
Lord Rosebery quickly came into line with the rest of the
Liberal party on this question. On the 1 2th of June, addressing
the Liberal League, he admitted that as a lifelong Imperialist
it was with pain and grief that he could not support Mr Chamber-
lain's scheme, but the empire had been built upon free trade,
and he only saw danger to the empire in these new proposals.
Speaking at Sheffield on the I3th of October he criticized the
scheme in more detail, and, as an Imperialist, warned the
country against it, emphasizing his own ideal of the future
of the empire " a strong mother with strong children, each
working out his own political and fiscal salvation." His
attitude on the new issue undoubtedly affected public opinion,
and helped to draw him closer to the great body of the Liberal
party, who saw that their identification with the cause of free
trade was doing much to remove the public distrust associated
with their support of Home Rule. On the 7th of November
at Leicester Lord Rosebery insisted that what the country
wanted was not fiscal reform but commercial reform, and he
appealed to the free-trade section of the Unionist party to
join the Liberals in a united defence, an appeal incidentally
for Liberal unity which was warmly seconded ten days later
by Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman. On the 26th of November
Lord Rosebery's speech on the same lines at a meeting in South
London resulted in a powerful demonstration in favour of his
resuming the Liberal leadership, but he made no public response.
On the xoth of June 1904 he addressed a meeting of the
Liberal League at the Queen's Hall, London, and sketched
a programme of " sane and practical Imperialism "; but he
irritated the Home Rulers by again repudiating a parliament
in Dublin, and he perplexed the public generally by his adverse
criticism on the popular Anglo-French Agreement, which he
was the only English statesman to oppose, on the ground of
its handing over Morocco to France.
At Glasgow on the sth of December he again outlined a
Liberal programme, this and other speeches all leading to the
assumption that his return to active co-operation with the
Liberal party in the general election -which could not be long
delayed was fairly certain. Early in 1005 this impression
gained such strength and such polite references were made
to one another in public by Lord Rosebery and Sir Henry
Campbell-Bannerman, that his assumption of office in a Liberal
ministry, possibly presided over by Earl Spencer, was con-
fidently anticipated. But these forecasts were ultimately
upset, not only by Lord Spencer's illness and his removal
from the list of possible Liberal prime ministers, but by Sir
Henry Campbell-Bannerman's pronouncement at Stirling in
November on the subject of Irish Home Rule. Lord Rosebery
had just gone down to Cornwall to make a series of speeches
in support of the Liberal programme, now fairly well mapped
out as regards those items which represented the strong public
opposition to what had been done by the Unionist government.
It was believed that an understanding had been come to be-
tween his Liberal League henchmen (Mr Asquith, Sir E. Grey
and Mr Haldane) and Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, and
that Lord Rosebery's co-operation was to be secured by the
adoption of some formula which would temporarily take Home
Rule out of the official programme as a question of practical
politics. But to the general surprise and Lord Rosebery's
own very evident mortification Sir Henry went a long way in
his Stirling speech to nail the Home Rule colour to the mast;
he did not indeed propose to introduce a Home Rule Bill, but
he declared his determination to proceed in Irish legislation
on lines which would lead up to the same result. Lord Rose-
bery abruptly broke off his campaign, declaring at Bodmin
(26th of November) that he would never " fight under that
banner. " From the moment the apparent recrudescence of the
Liberal split over this question seemed to have misled Mr
Balfour, who resigned office on the 4th of December, into think-
ing that difficulties would arise over the formation of a Liberal
cabinet; but, whether or not the rumour was correct that a
blunder had been made at Stirling and that explanations had
ensued which satisfied Mr Asquith and Sir Edward Grey, this
anticipation proved unjustified. Lord Rosebery himself, it is
true, held aloof; his protest had been publicly made and he
adhered to it in the absence of any public withdrawal by Sir
Henry Campbell-Bannerman; but he encouraged his Liberal
League supporters to be loyal to the new prime minister, and
Mr Asquith, Sir E. Grey and Mr Haldane were included in
the Liberal cabinet. The overwhelming Liberal and Labour
victory at the general election of 1906 began a new era in the
fortunes of the party, and Lord Rosebery's individuality once
more sank back from any position of prominence in regard to
its new programme. He remained outside party politics,
734
ROSECRANS ROSELLINI
emerging only in 1909, first to attack Mr Lloyd George's budget
in the country as a " revolution," and then to the general
surprise to condemn the House of Lords in debate for rejecting
it; and in 1910 (see PARLIAMENT) he appeared once more to
be coming to the front, by the resolutions he carried in regard
to the remodelling of the Upper Chamber, when the death of
King Edward VII. caused a temporary postponement of the
constitutional crisis. In September 1910 he acted as head of
the special mission sent to the Austrian court by George V. to
announce his accession to the throne, a selection peculiarly
appropriate, and cordially welcomed as such, because of his
well-known Austrian sympathies. Indeed, in the East Euro-
pean crisis of 1909 Lord Rosebery had taken a somewhat
isolated part in vindicating the attitude of Austria and her
right to annex Bosnia-Herzegovina, in opposition to the
criticisms generally passed in the English press.
After his retirement from active politics Lord Rosebery
continually displayed his great qualities as a public speaker by
eloquent and witty addresses on miscellaneous subjects. No
public man of his time was more fitted to act as unofficial
national orator; none more happy in the touches with which
he could adorn a social or literary topic and charm a non-
political audience; and on occasion he wrote as well as he
spoke. His Pitt has already been mentioned; his Apprecia-
tions and Addresses and his Peel (containing a remarkable
comment on the position of an English prime minister) were
published in 1899; his Napoleon: the Last Phase an ingenious,
if paradoxical, attempt to justify Napoleon's conduct in exile
at St Helena in 1900; his Cromwell in the same year. In
1906 he published an appreciation of his old friend Lord Randolph
Churchill, inspired by the publication of Mr Winston Churchill's
Life of his father. In its detached yet intimate way, this is a
model of the art by which a good judge of men, possessed at
the same time of a just historical sense, may, from the point
of view of a contemporary on the opposite side in politics,
correct the perspective of an official biography written under
the limitations of filial obligation, and give tone and value to
the picture of an interesting personality.
Lord Rosebery's family consisted of two sons and two
daughters. His eldest son, Lord Dalmeny (b. Jan. 1882), who
in 1909 married a daughter of Lord Henry Grosvenor, 3rd son
of the ist duke of Westminster, entered parliament in 1906
as Liberal member for Mid Lothian, but retired in 1910; he was
well known as a cricketer, captaining the Surrey eleven in
1905 and 1906. The younger son, the Hon. Neil Primrose
(b. Dec. 1882), took more actively than his brother to a political
career, and in January 1910 was returned as a Liberal for the
Wisbech division of Cambridgeshire. The elder daughter,
Lady Sybil, in 1903 married Captain Charles Grant; the
younger, Lady Margaret, in 1899 married the ist earl of
Crewe. (H. CH.)
ROSECRANS, WILLIAM STARKE (1819-1898), American
soldier, was born in Kingston, Ohio, on the 6th of September
1819, and graduated in 1842 from the U.S. Military Academy,
being appointed to the engineers. After serving (1843-47) as
assistant professor at West Point, and in fort construction,
he resigned (April 1854) from the army and went into business
in Cincinnati. On the outbreak of the Civil War Rosecrans
volunteered for service under McClellan and helped raise the Ohio
"Home Guards," with which he served in the West Virginian opera-
tions of 1 86 1 in the rank of brigadier-general. He was second
in command to McClellan during this campaign, and succeeded
to the command when that officer was called to Washington.
In the latter part of 1861 Rosecrans conducted further opera-
tions in the same region with great skill and success, and early
in 1862 he was transferred to the West as a major-general of
volunteers. He took part in the operations against Corinth,
and when General John Pope was ordered to Virginia, Rosecrans
took over command of the Army of the Mississippi with which
he fought the successful battles of luka and Corinth. Soon after-
wards he was ordered to replace D. C. Buell in command of the
forces, renamed the Army of the Cumberland about the same time.
In December he advanced against General Braxton Bragg, and
on the 3 ist of December to the 3rd of January was fought the
bloody and indecisive battle of Stone River (Murfreesboro), after
which Bragg withdrew his army to the southward. In 1863
Rosecrans, refusing to advance until the isolation of Vicksburg
(farther west) was assured, did not take the offensive until
late in June. The operations thus begun were most skilfully
conducted, and Bragg was forced back to Chattanooga (q.v.),
whence he had to retire on being once more outmanoeuvred.
But Rosecrans sustained a great defeat at the battle of Chicka-
mauga (q.v.), and was soon besieged in Chattanooga. He was
then relieved from his command. Later he did good service
in Missouri, and in March 1865 he was made brevet major-
general U.S.A. He resigned in 1867, and in the following
year became minister to Mexico. Subsequently he was engaged
in many railway and industrial enterprises in that country,
as also in California. He was a representative in Congress from
California, 1881-85, and register of the treasury, 1885-93.
Under an act of Congress he was on the 2nd of March 1889
restored to the rank of brigadier-general, and retired. He
died near Redondo, Cal., on the nth of March 1898. On the
1 7th of May 1902 his body was reinterred with military honours
in the National Cemetery at Arlington, in the presence of
President Roosevelt, members of the cabinet and many of his
campaigning comrades.
ROSEGGER, PETER (1843- ), Austrian poet and novelist,
known down to 1894 under the pseudonym Petri Kettenjeier,
was born at Alpl near Krieglach in Upper Styria, on the 3ist
of July 1843, the son of a peasant. Until his seventeenth year
he was employed as a farm hand and received no regular school
education, though he learnt reading and writing from a retired
schoolmaster who lived near. Unfit, owing to physical weak-
ness, for the hard labour of agriculture, he was apprenticed to a
journeyman tailor, and on his wanderings employed his leisure
hours in educating himself. He soon composed poems and
wrote stories. Some of these productions he sent in 1864 to
Dr Svoboda, the editor of the Graz Tagespost, who,
recognizing Rosegger's extraordinary talent, interested himself
in the young author, and with the assistance of friends enabled
him to study (from 1865-69) at the Handelsakademie of Graz.
In 1869, encouraged by Robert Hamerling, Rosegger published
his first work, a volume of poems in Styrian dialect, Zither und
Hackbrett, which immediately established his reputation. As
a result, the provincial diet of Styria accorded him a substantial
stipendium (scholarship) for three years, which enabled him
to supplement his studies by foreign travel. He now devoted
himself entirely to authorship, and in 1876 founded the monthly
periodical Der Heimgarten. On the occasion of the centenary
of its reorganization the University of Heidelberg conferred
upon him, in 1903, the honorary degree of doctor of philosophy.
Rosegger is one of the most fertile authors of recent times. His
fresh natural style, sound judgment and his fascinating descriptions
of Alpine scenery and the life of its inhabitants have made him
one of the most popular authors of Austria and Germany. These
characteristics are displayed to great advantage in Die Schriften des
Waldschulmeisters (1875), Aus meinem Handwerkerleben (1880),
Alpengeschichten (1896), Als ich nochjungwar (1895), and in the love-
story Mann und Weib (1879), while his simple religious mind is
shown in Mein Himmelreich (1901), Erdsegen (1900) and Das ewige
Licht (1897), and his attachment to friends in Cute Kameraden
(1893) and Personliche Erinnerungen an Robert Hamerling (1891).
Among his other works may be mentioned a volume of poems,
Gedichte (1891), a popular play, Am Tage des Gerichts (1892), two
books for boys, Waldferien (1887) and Waldjugend (1900), and the
stories Das Sunderglockl (1904), Wildlinge (1906) and I. N.R.I.
Frohe Botschaft eines armen Sunders (1905), which has also been
translated into English. He has also written several works which
are autobiographical in character, such as Waldheimat (1873) and
Mein Weltleben (1898).
Rosegger's Ausgewahlte Schriften appeared in thirty volumes
(1881-94) ; a popular edition (1895-1900) ; his Schriften in steirischer
Mundart (3 vols., 1894-96). See also A. V. Svoboda, P. K. Rosegger
(1886); A. Stern, Studien zur Literatur der Gegenwart (1895); and
H. Mobius, P. Rosegger (1903).
ROSELLINI, IPPOLITO (1800-1843), Italian Egyptologist,
was born at Pisa. He studied under Mezzofanti at Bologna, and
ROSEMARY ROSES, WARS OF THE
735
in 1824 became professor of oriental languages at Pisa Univer-
sity. He is best known as the associate of J. F. Champollion
(q.v.), whose studies he shared and whom he accompanied in
his Egyptian explorations (1828). On the death of Champollion
the publication of the results of their expedition fell to Rosel-
lini (Monumenti dell' Egilto e della Nubia, Florence, 1832-40,
10 vols. fol.).
ROSEMARY, botanically Rosmarinus, a Labiate plant, the
only representative of the genus and a native of the Mediter-
ranean region. It is a low shrub with linear leaves, dark green
above, white beneath, and with margins rolled back on to the
under face. The flowers are in small axillary clusters. Each
has a two-lipped calyx, from which projects a bluish two-lipped
corolla enclosing two stamens, the other two, which are generally
present in the family, being deficient. The fruit consists of four
smooth nutlets. Botanically the genus is near to Salvia, but it
differs in the shorter connective to the anther. Rosemary was
highly esteemed by the ancients for its aromatic fragrance and
medicinal uses. In modern times it is valued mainly as a per-
fume, for which purpose the oil is obtained by distillation. It
doubtless has slight stimulant properties, such as are common
to all volatile oils, which may account for the general belief
in the efficacy of the plant in promoting the growth of the hair.
Rosemary plays no unimportant part in literature and folk-lore,
being esteemed as an emblem of remembrance. " There's
rosemary, that's for remembrance," says Ophelia. Its use in
connexion with funeral ceremonies is not extinct in country
places to this day, and it was formerly much valued at wed-
ding festivities. The name " ros marinus " or " ros maris,"
literally " sea-dew," was probably given in allusion to its native
habitat in the neighbourhood of the sea.
ROSENHEIM, a town and watering-place of Germany, in the
kingdom of Bavaria, situated at the confluence of the Mangfall
and the Inn, 40 m. by rail S.E. of Munich. Pop. (1905) 15,403-
It is an interesting town, with many medieval houses. Among its
seven churches the Roman Catholic parish church, with a curious
cupola and containing numerous old tombs and effigies, and
that of the Holy Ghost (i5th century), are remarkable. There
are a monastery, two convents, several schools and a hospital.
Rosenheim is frequented for its saline and sulphur baths, and
there are important saltworks, the brine being conveyed
from Reichenhall in pipes; it has also machine factories,
metalworks and breweries. Cordage is manufactured, and
there is a trade in cattle and grain. Although founded
in the I2th century Rosenheim did not become a town until
1864.
See Ditterich, Rosenheim in Oberbayern (Munich, 1870), and Eid,
Aus Altrosenheim (Rosenheim, 1906).
ROSENKRANZ, JOHANN KARL FRIEDRICH (1805-1879),
German philosopher, was born at Magdeburg on the 23rd of
April 1805. He read philosophy at Berlin, Halle and Heidel-
berg, devoting himself mainly to the doctrines of Hegel and
Schleiermacher. After holding the chair of philosophy at
Halle for two years, he became, in 1833, professor at the univer-
sity of Konigsberg, where he remained till his death on the
1 4th of July 1879. In his last years he was quite blind. Through-
out his long professorial career, and in all his numerous publica-
tions he remained, in spite of occasional deviations on particular
points, loyal to the Hegelian tradition as a whole. In the great
division of the Hegelian school, he, in company with Michelet
and others, formed the " centre," midway between Erdmann
and Gabler on the one hand, and the " extreme left " represented
by Strauss, Feuerbach and Bruno Bauer.
Of his numerous writings, the following may be mentioned:
I. Philosophical: Kritik der Schleiermacherschen Glaubenslehre
(1836); Psychologie oder Wissenschaft vom subjektiven Geist (1837;
3rd ed., 1863) ; Kritische Erlauterungen des Hegelschen Systems
(1840); Vorlesungen iiber Schelling (1842); System der Wissenschaft
(1850); Meine Reform der Hegelschen Philosophie (1852); Wissen-
schaft derlogischen Idee (1858-59), with a supplement (Epilegomena,
1862); Hegels Naturphilosophie und die Bearbeitung derselben durch
Vera (1868); Erlauterungen zu Hegels Encyklopddie der philoso-
phischen Wissenschaften (1871). Two other of his works on Hegel
are important, the Leben Hegels (1844) and the Hegel als deutscher
Nationalphilosoph (1870). Between 1838 and 1840 in conjunction
with F. W. Schubert, he published an edition of the works of
Kant, to which he appended a history of the Kantian doctrine.
2. Literary and General : Geschichte der deutschen Poesie im Mittelalter
(1830); Handbuch einer allgemeinen Geschichte der Poesie (1832-33);
Die Pddogogik als System (1848); Aesthetik des Hdsslichen (1853);
Die Poesie und ihre Geschichte (1885); Studien (1839-47) and Neue
Studien (1875-78). He published also an autobiography entitled
Von Magdeburg nach Konigsberg (1873), which deals with his life
up to the time of his settlement at Konigsberg.
See Quabicker, Karl Rosenkranz (1899), and J. Hutchison Stirling,
The Secret of Hegel, part 6.
ROSENTHAL, TOBY EDWARD (1848- ), American
artist, was born at New Haven, Connecticut, on the isth of
March 1848. Removing to San Francisco with his parents in
1855, he there studied painting under Fortunate Arriola. In
1865 he went to Munich, where he was a pupil of the Royal
Academy under Strachuber, Raupp and Piloty. Among
his more important works are: " Morning Prayers " (Leipzig
Museum), " Elaine," " Trial of Constance de Beverley,"
" Dancing Lesson During the Empire " and " Departure from
the Family."
ROSES, WARS OF THE, a name given to a series of civil
wars in England during the reigns of Henry VI., Edward IV.
and Richard III. Their importance in the general history
of England is dealt with elsewhere, and their significance in
the history of the art and practice of war is small. They were
marked by a ferocity and brutality which are practically un-
known in the history of English wars before and since. The
honest yeoman of Edward III.'s time had evolved into a pro-
fessional soldier of fortune, and had been demoralized by the
prolonged and dismal Hundred Years' War, at the close of
which many thousands of ruffians, whose occupation had gone,
had been let loose in England. At the same time the power of
rnnf " p ntratrrl '" thp hands of a few great
iords J _wJio^ were wealthy enough and p"*"-*"' onrmgh~j-n hprnm&.
kmg^aJfera, - The disbanded mercenaries enlisted indifferently
on either side, corrupting the ordinary feudal tenantry with
the evil habits of the French wars, and pillaged the countryside,
with accompaniments of murder and violence, wherever they
went. It is true that the sympathies of the people at large
were to some extent enlisted: London and, generally, the
trading towns being Yorkist, the country people Lan-
castrian a division of factions which roughly corresponded to
that of the early part of the Great Rebellion, two centuries
later, and similarly in a measure indicative of the opposition of
hereditary loyalty and desire for sound and effective govern-
ment. -Bitf there was this difference, that in the i sth century
the feeling of loyalty was to a great extent focused upon the
great lords. Each lord could depend on his own tenantry,
and he could, further, pay large bands of retainers. 'Hence.
much as the citizen desired a settlement, the issue w9y fix
the hands of the magnates; and as accessions to and defections
from one party and the' other constantly shifted the balance of
power, the war dragged on, becoming more and more brutal
with every campaign.
It is from the Wars of the Roses that there originated the
deep.-rooted dislike of the professional soldier which was for
nearly four centuries a conspicuous feature of the English
social and governmental system, and it is therefore in their
results rather than their incidents that they have affected
the evolution of war. They withdrew the English army system
from European battlefields precisely at the moment of transition
when the regimental and technical organization of armies was
becoming a science and seeking models, and the all-powerful
English longbow at the moment when the early, scarcely
effective firearms were, so to speak, struggling for recognition
as army weapons. On the other hand, they destroyed the
British military organization. The national army, aloof from
the main streams of military progress, remained for 150 years
an aggregation of county levies armed with bills and bows. In
so far as the king was permitted or able to raise armies, they
were small mercenary forces formed, on a basis of unemployed
professionals, from pressed men and criminals, and they were
ROSETTA ROSEWOOD
disbanded as soon as the brief occasion for their services had
passed.
The first campaign, or rather episode, of these wars 1 began
with an armed demand of the Yorkist lords for the dismissal
of the Lancastrian element in the king's council, Henry VI.
himself being incapable of governing. The Lancastrians, and
the king with them, marched out of London to meet them, and
the two small armies (3000 Yorkists, 2000 Lancastrians) met at
St Albans (May 22, 1455). The encounter ended with the
dispersion of the weaker force, and the king fell into the hands
of the Yorkists. Four years passed before the next important
battle, Blore Heath, was fought (Sept. 23, 1459). In this the
earl of Salisbury trapped a Lancastrian army in unfavourable
ground near Market Drayton, and destroyed it; but new political
combinations rendered the Yoikist victory useless and sent
the leaders of the party into exile. They made a fresh attempt
in r46o, and, thanks partly to treason in the Lancastrian camp,
partly to the generalship of Warwick, won an important success
and for the second time seized the king at Northampton (July
10, 1460). Shortly afterwards, after a period of negotiation
and threats, there was a fresh conflict. Richard duke of York
went north to fight the hostile army which gathered at York
and consisted of Lancashire and Midland Royalists, while his
son Edward, earl of March, went into the west. The father was
ambushed and killed at Wakefield (Dec. 30, 1460), and the
Lancastrians, inspired as always by Queen Margaret of Anjou,
moved south on London, defeated Warwick at St Albans (Feb.
17, 1461), and regained possession of the king's person. But
the young earl of_March, now duke of York, having raised an
army in the west,~defeared the earl of Pembroke (Feb. 2, 1461)
at Mortimer's Cross (5 m. W. of Leominster). This was the
first battle of the war which was characterized by the massacre
of the common folk and beheading of the captive gentlemen
invariable accompaniments of Edward's victories, and con--
spicuously absent in Warwick's. Edward then pressed on,
joined Warwick, and entered London, the army of Margaret
retreating before them. The excesses of the northern Lan-
castrians in their advance produced bitter fruit on the retreat,
for men flocked to Edward's standard. Marching north in
pursuit, the Yorkists brought their enerriy Jtp bay at Towtbn
(q.v.), 3 m. S. of Tadcaster, and utterly destroyed them (March
29, 1461). For three years after Towtdfl the war consisted
merely of desultory local struggles of small bodies of Lancastrians
against the inevitable. The duke of York had become King
Edward IV., and had established himself firmly. But in 1464,
in the far north of England, the Red Rose was again in the
field. Edward acted with his usual decision. His lieutenant
Montagu (Warwick's brother) defeated and slew Sir Ralph
Percy at Hedgley Moor, near Wooler (April 25, 1464), and im-
mediately afterwards destroyed another Lancastrian army,
with which were both Henry VI. and Queen Margaret, at
Hexham (May 8, 1464). The massacres and executions
which followed effectively crushed the revolt, gor some
years thereafter Edward reigned peacefully, but Warwic
.
ii(T47o^ kej^as driven into exile
om FTushing~Wilh '1500 retainers and"
Shite hi -IE
_ __ larc
a bgdyguaidr l" e
Tnan"
147* Mrs unue "was naUUyijiuf e
of the towns' We7e shut against him,
and the country people liedT But by fii~-pe?6OHft}- charm,
dipIomaTy, fall 1 promises afid an oath of allegiance to King
Henry VI., sworn solemnly at York, he disarmed hostility and,
eluding Montagu's army, reached his own estates in the Wake-
field district, where many of his old retainers joined him. As
1 The name, as is well known, comes from the " white rose of York "
and the " red rose of Lancaster "; but these badges, though more or
less recognized as party distinctions, by no means superseded the
private devices of the various great lords, such as the "falcon and
fetterlock " of Richard duke of York, the " rose in sun " of Edward
IV., the " crowned swan " of Margaret, the Vere star, and even the
revived " white hart " of Richard II.
he advanced south, a few Yorkist nobles with their following
rallied to him, but it was far more the disunion of the Warwick
and the real Lancastrian parties than his own strength which
enabled him to meet Warwick's forces in a pitched battle. At
Barnet, on Easter Eve, April 14, 147 1, the decisive engagement
was fought. But in the midst of the battle reinforcements
coming up under the earl of Oxford to join Warwick came into
conflict with their own party, the badge of the Vere star being
mistaken for Edward's Rose-en-soleil. From that point all the
mutually distrustful elements of Warwick's army fell apart,
and Warwick himself, with his brother Montagu, was slain.
For the last time the unhappy Henry VI. fell into the hands
of his enemies. ^Igjww-relegated to the Tower, and Edward,
disbanding his army, reoccupied the throne. But Margaret
of Anjou, his untiring opponent, who had been in France while
her cause and Warwick's was being lost, had landed in the west
shortly after Barnet, and Edward had to take the field at once.
Assembling a fresh army at Windsor, whence he could march
to interpose between Margaret and her north Welsh allies, or
directly bar her road to London, he marched into the west on
the 24th of April. On the 2Qth he was at Ciiencester, Margaret,
engaged chiefly in recruiting an army, near Bath. Edward
hurried on, but Margaret eluded him and marched for Gloucester.
At that place the governor refused the Lancastrians admittance,
and seeking to cross the Severn out of reach of the Yorkists,
they pushed on by forced marches to Tewkesbury. But
Edward too knew how to march, and caught them up. The
battle of Tewkesbury (May 4,1471) ended with the destruction of
Margaret's force, the captivity of Margaret, the death of her son
Edward (who, it is sometimes said, was stabbed by Edward IV.
himself after the battle) and the execution of sixteen of the
principal Lancastrians.
This was Edward's last battle. The rest of his eventful
reign was similar in many ways to that of his contemporary
Louis XL, being devoted to the consolidation of his power,
by fair means and foul, at the expense of the great feudatories.
But the Wars of the Roses were not yet at an end. For fourteen
years, except for local outbreaks, the land had peace, and
then Richard III.'s crown, struck from his head on Bosworth
Field (Aug. 22, 1485), was presented to Henry earl of Rich-
mond, who, as Henry VII., established the kingship on a secure
foundation. A last feeble attempt to renew the war, made by
an army gathered to uphold the pretender Lambert Simnel,
was crushed by Henry VII. at Stoke Field (4 m. S.W. of
Newark) on the i6th of June 1487.
ROSETTA (Coptic Rashit, Arabic Rashtd), a town situated
at the western or " Rosetta " mouth of the Nile on the west
bank. It was called Bolbitine by the Greeks, but according
to Herodotus the Bolbitine mouth was artificial, and it was
evidently of little importance compared with the Canopic,
Sebennytic and Pelusiac mouths. When the other branches
and the Alexandria canal silted up, Rosetta prospered like its
sister port of Damietta on the eastern branch; the main trade
of the overland route to India passed through it until Mehemet
Ali cut a new canal joining Alexandria to the Nile. Rosetta
is now much decayed. Its population in 1907 was 16,810,
almost entirely Mussulman. A railway joins it to Alexandria.
The celebrated Rosetta Stone which supplied Champollion
with the key for the decipherment of the ancient monuments
of Egypt was found near Fort St Julien, 4 m. N. of the town,
in 1799, by Boussard, a French officer. It is a basalt stele
inscribed in hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek with a decree
of the priests assembled at Memphis in favour of Ptolemy V.
Epiphanes. It was ceded to the English at the capitulation
of Alexandria (1801) and is now in the British Museum. See
EGYPT: II. Ancient Egypt, section D. " Writing." (F. LL. G.)
ROSEWOOD, the name given to several distinct kinds of
ornamental timber. That, however, so called in the United
Kingdom is Brazilian rosewood, the palissandre of the French,
the finest qualities of which, coming from the provinces of
Rio de Janeiro and Bahia, are believed to be the produce prin-
cipally of Dalbergia nigra, a leguminous tree of large dimensions,
ROSICRUCIANISM ROSIN
737
called cabiuna and jacaranda by the Brazilians. The same
name, jacaranda, is applied to several species of Machaerium,
also trees belonging to the natural order Leguminosae; and
there can be no doubt that a certain proportion of the rosewood
of commerce is drawn from these sources. Rosewood comes
to the United Kingdom from Rio de Janeiro, Bahia, Jamaica and
Honduras. The heartwood attains large dimensions, but as it
begins to decay before the tree arrives at maturity it is always
faulty and hollow in the centre. On this account squared
logs or planks of rosewood are never seen, the wood being
imported in half-round flitches 10 to 20 ft. in length and from
5 to 12 in. in their thickest part. Owing to its irregular form,
the wood is sold by weight, and its value varies within wide
limits according to the richness of colour. Rosewood has a
deep ruddy brown colour, richly streaked and grained with
black resinous layers. It takes a fine polish, but, on account
of its resinous nature, it is somewhat difficult to work. The
wood is very much in demand both by cabinet-makers and
pianoforte-makers, by whom it is used both solid and in veneer.
The wood of Dalbergia latifolia, a native of the East Indies, used
for ornamental furniture and carvings under the name of black
wood, is frequently termed East Indian Rosewood. The Bois de
Rose of the French, the Portuguese Pao de Rosa, and the German
Rosenholz is a Brazilian wood, the produce of Physocalymma
floribundum, called in the United Kingdom tulip wood, and
very highly esteemed on account of its beautiful rose colour and
grain.
ROSICRUCIANISM. What is known as the Society of
Rosicrucians (Rosenkreuzer) was really a number of isolated
individuals who early in the I7th century held certain views
in common (which apparently was their only bond of union);
for of a society holding meetings, and having officers, there is
no trace. So far as the numerous works are concerned it is
evident that the writers who posed as Rosicrucians were moral
and religious reformers, and utilized the technicalities of
chemistry (alchemy), and the sciences generally, as media
through which to make known their opinions, there being a
flavour of mysticism or occultism promotive of inquiry and
suggestive of hidden meanings discernible or discoverable
only by adepts.
The publication of the Allgemeine und General- Reformation
der ganzen iveiten Welt (Cassel, 1614), and the Fama Frater-
nitatis (Cassel, 1615) by the theologian Johann Valentin Andrea
(1586-1654), caused immense excitement throughout Europe,
and they not only led to many re-issues, but were followed
by numerous pamphlets, favourable and otherwise, whose
authors generally knew little, if anything, of the real aims
of the original author, and doubtless in not a few cases amused
themselves at the expense of the public. It is probable that
the first work was circulated in MS. about 1610, for it is said
that a reply was written in 1612 (according to Herder), but
if so, there was no mention of the cult before that decade.
The authors generally favoured Lutheranism as opposed to
Roman Catholicism. Others, like John Heydon, admitted
they were not Rosicrucians, but under attractive and sug-
gestive titles to their works sought to make Hermeticism and
other curious studies more useful and popular, and succeeded,
for a time at least.
The curious legend, in which the fabulous origin of the
so-called society was enshrined (that a certain Christian Rosen-
kreuz had discovered the secret wisdom of the East on a pilgrim-
age in the isth century), was so improbable, though ingenious,
that the genesis of the Rosicrucians was generally overlooked
or ignored, but the worthy objects of the fratres were soon
discovered and supported by several able men; the result
being a mass of literature on the subject, which absorbs some
80 pages of Gardner's Catalogue Raisonne of Works on the Occult
Sciences (London, 1903).
The influence that Rosicrucianism had in the modernizing of
ancient Freemasonry early in the 1 8th century must have been
slight, if any, though it is likely that as the century advanced, and
additional ceremonies were grafted on to the first three degrees,
Rosicrucian tenets were occasionally introduced into the later
rituals. So far, however, as the real foundation ceremonies of Craft
xxni. 24
Masonry are concerned, whether before or after the premier Grand
Lodge was formed, it is most unlikely that such a society as the
Freemasons would adopt anything of a really distinctive character
from any other organization.
In The Muses' Threnodie by H. Adamson (Perth, 1638) are the
lines
" For what we do presage is riot in grosse,
For we are brethren of the Rosie Crosse ;
We have the Mason Word and second sight,
Things for to come we can fortell aright.
Dr Begemann considers that possibly during the decade from 1720
to 1730 a kind of Rosicrucian or Hermetic influence took place in
the lodges of London, some additions to the ritual of that period
not having been derived from operative masonry; but in the
previous century no such influence is traceable. Several modern
societies have been formed from time to time (some of which are
still flourishing in Great Britain) for the study of Rosicrucianism
and allied subjects, but in no sense are they directly derived from
the " Brethren of the Rosy Cross " of the I7th century, though
keen followers thereof. By far the most important of these is the
" Societas Rosicruciana in ^nglia," with headquarters in London.
The Supreme Magus, Dr William Wynn Westcott, has written its
History (1900), with other important works on the subject, and
the published Transactions of the Society are most valuable.
The Rosicrucians, their Rites and Mysteries, by Hargrave Jennings
(three editions, 1870-87); The Real History of the Rosicrucians,
founded on their own , Manifestoes and on Facts and Documents
collected from the Writings of Initiated Brethren, by A. E. Waite
(1887); and The Arcane Schools, by John Yarker (1909), may be
consulted with advantage, though not authorized publications of
the Society. (W. J. H.*)
ROSIN (a later variant of " resin," q.v.) or COLOPHONY (Colo-
phonia resina, resin from Colophon in Lydia), the resinous
constituent of the oleo-resin exuded by various species of pine,
known in commerce as crude turpentine. The separation of
the oleo-resin into the essential oil-spirit of turpentine and
common rosin is effected by distillation in large copper stills.
The essential oil is carried off at a heat of between 212 and
316 F., leaving fluid rosin, which is run off through a tap
at the bottom of the still, and purified by passing through a
straining wadding. Rosin varies in colour, according to the
age of the tree whence the turpentine is drawn and the amount
of heat applied in distillation, from an opaque almost pitchy
black substance through grades of brown and yellow to an
almost perfectly transparent colourless glassy mass. The
commercial grades are numerous, ranging by letters from
A, the darkest, to N, extra pale, superior to which are W,
" window glass," and WW, " water white " varieties, the
latter having about three times the value of the common quali-
ties. Rosin is a brittle and friable resin, with a faint piny
odour; the melting-point varies with different specimens,
some being semi-fluid at the temperature of boiling water,
while others do not melt till 220 or 250 F. It is soluble in
alcohol, ether, benzene and chloroform. Rosin consists mainly
of abietic acid, and combines with caustic alkalis to form
salts (rosinates or pinates) that are known as " rosin soaps."
In addition to its extensive use in soap-making, rosin is largely
employed in making inferior varnishes, sealing-wax and various
cements. It is also used for preparing shoemaker's wax, as
a flux for soldering metals, for pitching lager beer casks, for
rosining the bows of musical instruments and 'numerous minor
purposes. In pharmacy it forms an ingredient in several
plasters and ointments. On a large scale it is treated by
destructive distillation for the production of rosin spirit,
pinoline and rosin oil. The last enters into the composition
of some of the solid lubricating greases, and is also used as an
adulterant of other oils.
The chief region of rosin production is the South Atlantic
and Eastern Gulf states of the United States. American
rosin is obtained from the turpentine of the swamp pine, Pinits
auslralis, and of the loblolly pine, P. Taeda. The main source
of supply in Europe is the " landes " of the departments
of Gironde and Landes in France,, where the cluster pine,
P. Pinaster, is extensively cultivated. In the north of Europe
rosin is obtained from the Scotch fir, P. syhestris, and through-
out European countries local supplies are obtained from other
species of pine.
738
ROSKILDE ROSMINI-SERBATI
ROSKILDE, or koESKiLDE, a town of Denmark in the ami
(county) of Kjobenhavn (Copenhagen), 20 m. by. rail W. of
Copenhagen, on the great lagoon-like inlet named Roskilde
Fjord. Pop. (1901) 8368. It has a small port, and is an
important railway junction, from which lines diverge W.,
S.W. and S. through the island of Zealand. Its interest,
however, is historical. It was the capital of the kingdom
until 1443, and the residence of the bishops of Zealand until
the Reformation. The cathedral, a beautiful church, was con-
secrated in 1084, but of this early building only foundation
walls remain; the present structure of brick was begun in
1215, and enlarged and restored at various later dates. It
stands in relation to Danish history somewhat as Westminster
Abbey does to English, containing the tombs of most of the
Danish kings from Harold I. (987). The most noteworthy
architectural details are the Chapel of the Trinity (isth century)
and that of Christian IV. (Renaissance, 1617), carved choir-
stalls, and an altar-piece of the i6th century. Other old build-
ings are a church of Our Lady, dating as it stands from 1242,
a diocesan library (partly of the i5th century), royal palace
(1733) and institute for daughters of noblemen (1670).
ROSMEAD, HERCULES GEORGE ROBERT ROBINSON, IST
BARON (1824-1897), British colonial administrator, was born
on the igth of December 1824. He was of Irish descent on
both sides; his father was Admiral Hercules Robinson, his
mother a Miss Wood of Rosmead, County Westmeath, from
which he afterwards took his title. Passing from Sandhurst
into the 87th Foot, he attained the rank of captain; but in
1846, through the influence of Lord Naas, he obtained a post
in the Board of Public Works in Ireland, and subsequently
became chief commissioner of fairs and markets. His energy
in these positions, notably during the famine of 1848, and the
clearness and vigour of his reports, secured for him at the
age of thirty the office of president of the island of Montserrat.
Subsequently he was governor of St Christopher, from 1855 to
1859, when he was knighted in recognition of his services in
introducing coolie labour into the island; of Hong-Kong; of
Ceylon (K.C.M.G. in 1869); and in 1872 of New South Wales.
It fell to his lot to annex the Fiji Islands to the British Empire,
and his services were rewarded in 1875 by promotion to G.C.M.G.
In 1879 he was transferred to New Zealand, and in 1880 he
succeeded Sir Bartle Frere as high commissioner of South
Africa. He arrived in South Africa shortly before the disaster
of Majuba, and was one of the commissioners for negotiating
a peace which was personally distasteful to him. It left him
with the task of conciliating on the one hand a Dutch party
elated with victory, and on the other hand a British party
almost ready to despair of the British connexion. He was
called home in 1883 to advise the government on the terms of
the new convention concluded with the Transvaal Boers in
February 1884. On his return to South Africa he found that
a critical situation had arisen in Bechuanaland, where Boer
commandoes had seized large tracts of territory and proclaimed
the "republics" of Stella and Goshen. They refused to retire
within the limits of the Transvaal as defined by the new con-
vention, and Robinson, alive to the necessity of preserving this
country the main road to the north for Great Britain, deter-
mined on vigorous action. John Mackenzie and later Cecil
Rhodes were sent to secure the peaceful submission of the
Boers, but without immediate result, partly owing to the atti-
tude of the Cape ministry. Robinson's declaration that the
advice of his ministers to patch up a settlement with the fili-
bustering Boers was equivalent to a condonation of crime, led
to the expedition of Sir Charles Warren and the annexation
of Bechuanaland early in 1885. The difficulties of Robinson's
position were illustrated by the dispute which arose between
him and Warren, who declared that the high commissioner's
duties to the home government were at times in conflict with
the action which, as governor of Cape Colony, he was bound to
take on the advice of his ministers in the interests of the colony.
Sir Hercules Robinson succeeded in winning the confidence of
President Kruger by his fair-mindedness, while he seconded
Rhodes's efforts to unite the British and Dutch parties in Cape
Colony. His mind, however, was that of the administrator as
distinguished from the statesman, and he was content to settle
difficulties as they arose. In 1886 he investigated the charges
brought against Sir John Pope-Hennessy, governor of Mauritius,
and decreed his suspension pending the decision of the home
authorities, who eventually reinstated Pope-Hennessy. In
1887 Robinson was induced by Rhodes to give his consent
to the conclusion of a treaty with Lobengula which secured
British rights in Matabele and Mashona lands. In May 1889
Robinson retired. In his farewell speech he declared that there
was no permanent place in South Africa for direct Imperial
rule. This was interpreted to mean that South Africa must
ultimately become independent an idea repugnant to him.
He explained in a letter to The Times in 1895 that he had
referred to the " direct rule of Downing Street over the crown
colonies, as contrasted with responsible colonial government."
He was made a baronet in 1891. Early in 1895, when he had
entered his 7ist year and was not in robust health, he yielded
to the entreaties of Lord Rosebery's cabinet, and went out
again to South Africa, in succession to Sir H. Loch. His second
term of office was not fortunate. The Jameson Raid produced
a permanent estrangement between him and Cecil Rhodes, and he
was out of sympathy with the new colonial secretary, Mr Cham-
berlain, who had criticized his appointment, and now desired
Robinson to take this opportunity of settling the whole question
of the position of the Uitlanders in the Transvaal. Robinson
answered that the moment was inopportune, and that he must
be left to choose his own time. Alarmed at the imminent
danger of war, he confined his efforts to inducing the Johannes-
burgers to lay down their arms on condition that the raiders'
lives were spared, not knowing that these terms had already
been granted to Jameson. He came home to confer with the
government, and was raised to the peerage as Baron Rosmead.
He returned to South Africa later in the year, but was compelled
by ill-health, in April 1897, to quit his post, and died in London
on the 28th of October 1897, being succeeded in the title by
his son.
ROSMINI-SERBATI, ANTONIO (1797-1855), Italian philo-
sopher, was born at Rovereto in Italian Tirol on the 25th of
March 1797. He belonged to a noble and wealthy family, but
at an early age decided to enter the priesthood. After studying
at Pavia and Padua, he took orders in 1821. In 1828 he founded
a new religious order, the Institute of the Brethren of Charity,
known in Italy generally as the Rosminians. The members
might be priests or laymen, who devoted themselves to preach-
ing, the education of youth, and works of charity material,
moral and intellectual. They have branches in Italy, England,
Ireland, France and America. In London they are attached
to the church of St Etheldreda, Ely Place, Holborn, where the
English translation of Rosmini's works is edited. His works,
The Five Wounds of the Holy Church and The Constitution of
Social Justice, aroused great opposition, especially among the
Jesuits, and in 1849 they were placed upon the Index. Rosmini
at once declared his submission and retired to Stresa on Lago
Maggiore, where he died on the ist of July 1855. Before his
death he had the satisfaction of learning that the works in
question were dismissed, that is, proclaimed free from censure
by the Congregation of the Index. Twenty years later, the
word " dismissed " (dimittantur) became the subject of con-
troversy, some maintaining that it amounted to a direct
approval, others that it was purely negative and did not imply
that the books were free from error. The controversy continued
till 1887, when Leo XIII. finally condemned forty of his pro-
positions and forbade their being taught.
In 1848 Rosmini Hook part in the struggle which had for its
object emancipation from Austria, but he was not an initiator
of the movement which ended in the freedom and unity of
Italy. In fact, while eager for the deliverance of Italy from
Austria, his aim was to bring about a confederation of the
states of the country, which was to be under the control of
the pope.
ROSNY ROSS, SIR H. D.
739
The most comprehensive view of Rosmini's philosophical stand-
point is to be found in his Sistema filosofico, in which he set forth
the conception of a complete encyclopaedia of the human knowable,
synthetically conjoined, according to the order of ideas, in a perfectly
harmonious whole. Contemplating the position of recent philosophy
from Locke to Hegel, and having his eye directed to the ancient
and fundamental problem of the origin, truth and certainty of our
ideas, he wrote: " If philosophy is to be restored to love and
respect, I think it will be necessary, in part, to return to the teachings
of the ancients, and in part to give those teachings the benefit of
modern methods " (Theodicy, n. 148). He examined and analysed
the fact of human knowledge, and obtained the following results:
(l) that the notion or idea of being or existence in general enters
into, and is presupposed by, all our acquired cognitions, so that,
without it, they would be impossible; (2) that this idea is essentially
objective, inasmuch as what is seen in it is as distinct from and opposed
to the mind that sees it as the light is from the eye that looks at it ;
(3) that it is essentially true, because " being " and " truth " are
convertible terms, and because in the vision of it the mind cannot
err, since error could only be committed by a judgment, and here
there is no judgment, but a pure intuition affirming nothing and
denying nothing; (4) that by the application of this essentially
objective and true idea the human being intellectually perceives,
first, the animal body individually conjoined with him, and then,
on occasion of the sensations produced in him not by himself, the
causes of those sensations, that is, from the action felt he perceives
and affirms an agent, a being, and therefore a true thing, that
acts on him, and he thus gets at the external world, these are the
true primitive judgments, containing (a) the subsistence of the
particular being (subject), and (6) its essence or species as deter-
mined by the quality of the action felt from it (predicate) ; (5) that
reflection, by separating the essence or species from the subsistence,
obtains the full specific idea (universalization), and then from this,
by leaving aside some of its elements, the abstract specific idea
(abstraction) ; (6) that the mind, having reached this stage of
development, can proceed to further and further abstracts, including
the first principles of reasoning, the principles of the several sciences,
complex ideas, groups of ideas, and so on without end; (7) finally,
that the same most universal idea of being, this generator and formal
element of all acquired cognitions, cannot itself be acquired, but
must be innate in us, implanted by God in our nature. Being, as
naturally shining to our mind, must therefore be what men call the
light of reason. Hence the name Rosmini gives it of ideal being;
and this he laid down as the fundamental principle of all philosophy
and the supreme criterion of truth and certainty. This he believed
to be the teaching of St Augustine, as well as of St Thomas, of whom
he was an ardent admirer and defender.
Of his numerous works, of which a collected edition in 17 volumes
was issued at Milan (184244), supplemented by Opere postume in
5 vols. (Turin, 1859-74), tne most important are the New Essay on
the Origin of Ideas (Eng. trans., 1883); The Principles of Moral Science
(1831); The Restoration of Philosophy in Italy (1836); The Philo-
sophy of Right (184145). The following have also been translated
into English: A Catholic Catechism, by W. S. Agar (1849); The
Five Wounds of the Holy Church (abridged trans, with introd. by
H. P. Liddon, 1883) ; Maxims of Christian Perfection, by W. A. John-
son (1889); Psychology (Anonymous) (1884-88); Sketch of Modern
Philosophy, by Lockhart (1882); The Ruling Principle of Method
Applied to Education, by Mrs W. Grey (Boston, Mass., 1887); Select
Letters, by D. Gazzola. Rosmini's Sistema filosofico has been
translated into English by Thos. Davidson (Rosmini's Philosophical
System, 1882, with a biographical sketch and complete bibliography) ;
see also Lives by G. S. Macwalter (1883) and G. B. Pagam (1907);
C. Werner, Die Italienische Philosophie des IQ. Jahrhunderts (1884);
F. X. Kraus, " Antonio Rosmini: sein Leben, seine Schriften," in
Deutsche Rundschau, liv. Iv. (1888) ; " Church Reformation in Italy "
in the Edinburgh Review, cxiv. (July 1861); and numerous recent
Italian works, for which Baldwin's Dictionary of Philosophy or
Pagliani's Catalogo Cenerale (Milan, 1905) should be consulted.
ROSNY, JOSEPH HENRY, a pseudonym covering the colla-
boration of the French novelists, Joseph Henri Honore Boex,
born at Brussels in 1856, and his brother Seraphin Justin
Francois Boex, born at Brussels in 1859. The novels of J. H.
Rosny are full of scientific knowledge, of astronomy, anthro-
pology, zoology and, above all, sociology. The stories are
approached from the point of view of society rather than of the
individual, but the characters, strongly individualized and
intensely real, are only incidentally typical. The elder Rosny
was the sole author of the earlier novels, and began novel-
writing as an avowed disciple of Zola. Nell Horn, membre de
I'armte du salut (1885) is a picture of London life and social
reform; Le Bilateral (1886) and Marc Fane (1888) describe the
revolutionary and anarchist parties of Paris; L' Immolation (1887)
is a brutal story of peasant life; Le Termite (1890) is a picture of
literary life in Paris; and Vamireh (1891), with Erymah (1895),
and Les Profondeurs de Kyamo (short stories, 1896) and others
deal with prehistoric man. MM. Rosny were among the writers
who in 1887 entered a formal protest in the Figaro against
Zola's La Terre, and they were designated by Edmond de
Goncourt as original members of his academy. Among their
later novels the more famous are: Daniel Valgraive (1891), a
study in the possibilities of personal sacrifice; L'lmplrieuse
Bonlt (1894), an indictment of Parisian charity; L'lndomplee
(1895), the history of a girl medical student in Paris; Le Serment
(1896, dramatized 1897); Les Ames perdues (1899), another
anarchist novel; La Charpente (1900); Therese Degaudy (1902);
Le Crime du docteur (1903); Le Docteur Harambur (1904); Le
Millionaire (1905) ; and Sous lefardeau (1906).
ROSS, ALEXANDER (1699-1784), Scottish poet, was born
on the I3th of April 1699 at Kincardine-O'Neil, Aberdeenshire.
He was educated at Marischal College, Aberdeen, and became
tutor to the children of Sir William Forbes of Craigievar. He
became in 1732 schoolmaster of Lochlee, Angus, where the rest
of his life was spent. He had long been in the habit of writing
verse for his own amusement, when in 1768 he published, at the
suggestion of James Beattie, The Fortunate Shepherdess . . .
to which is (sic) added a few songs. This is a pastoral narrative
poem, written in obvious imitation of Allan Ramsay's Gentle
Shepherd. Its affectations are chiefly on the surface. The
background of shepherd life as known to Ross, and the rather
sordid motives of the characters, despite their high-sounding
names of Helenore, Rosalind, &c., are depicted with uncom-
promising truth. He died at Lochlee, and was buried on the
26th of May 1784.
See Helenore, or the Fortunate Shepherdess, edited by John Long-
muir (1866); also H. Walker, Three Centuries of Scottish Literature
(1893), ii. 28-34. The bulk of Ross's writings remain in MS.
ROSS, GEORGE WILLIAM (1841- ), Canadian politician,
was born near Nairn, Middlesex county, Ontario, on the i8th
of September 1841, the son of James Ross and Ellen M'Kinnon,
natives of Ross-shire, Scotland. From 1872-1883 he was a
Liberal member of the Federal House; from 1883-99
minister of education in the legislature of the province of
Ontario; and from 1 899-1 905_ premier and treasurer of that
province. In 1905 his government was defeated, and in 1907
he retired to the Canadian Senate. He was for many years
an advocate of total abstinence, and a well-known speaker on
imperial questions.
ROSS, SIR HEW DALRYMPLE (1779-1868), British soldier,
entered the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, in 1793, and
passed out into the Royal Artillery two years later. With
the Royal Horse Artillery he saw active service during the
Irish rebellion of 1798, and after eleven years' service was pro-
moted captain and appointed to command " A " troop R.H.A.
(afterwards famous as the " Chestnut Troop "). In 1809 the
troop landed at Lisbon and at once set out to join Wellington's
army, reaching the front two days after Talavera. Ross's
guns were attached to the Light Division, and, with Craufurd,
took part in the actions on the Coa and the battle of Busaco.
When Massena began his famous retreat from the lines of
Torres Vedras, Ross's troop was amongst the foremost in the
pursuit; at Redinha and Pombal, at Sabugal and Fuentes
d'Onor, the " Chestnuts " earned great distinction, and in
December 1811 their commander received a brevet-majority for
his services. He was present at Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz,
at the Salamanca forts and the battle of Salamanca, still attached
to the Light Division. In the campaign of Vittoria, Ross's
guns were continually with the most advanced troops, and after
Vittoria they captured the only piece of artillery that remained
to the defeated French. A further brevet-promotion and a
good service reward came to Ross for his part in the campaign.
At Vera in the Pyrenees Ross's troop was one of the three
which played a decisive part in the action, and Vera remains
a classical example of the action of horse artillery. " A "
troop was engaged at St Pierre and Orthez, and at the con-
clusion of peace returned to England. It was engaged at
Waterloo, and though half its guns were disabled the remainder
740
took part in the pursuit of the French. Ross received, besides
the Peninsular and Waterloo medals, the K.C.B., the Portuguese
order of the Tower and Sword and the Russian St Anne. He
had commanded the troop for nineteen years when he at last
received a regimental lieutenant-colonelcy. As officer com-
manding Royal Artillery in the Northern District, with dele-
gated command over all the forces of the four northern counties,
Sir Hew Ross had for nearly sixteen years to deal with con-
tinually threatened civil disorder, and bore himself as well as
on the field of battle. From 1840 to 1858, when he retired,
he practically directed, in one post or another, all the artillery
services of the British army, and when in 1854 the test of war
came, the artillery took the field in a far better condition than the
rest of Lord Raglan's army. Much of the present efficiency of
the " Royal Regiment " is directly traceable to the influence
of Sir Hew Ross, to whom it owes the institution of the School
of Gunnery at Shoeburyness and the establishment of the
Royal Artillery Institution at Woolwich. Major-general in
1841 and lieut. -general in 1851, he became general in 1854,
and died, a field-marshal and G.C.B., in 1868.
See Memoir of the R.A. Institution, 1871 ; and Duncan, History of
the Royal Regiment of Artillery.
ROSS, SIR JAMES CLARK (1800-1862), British rear-admiral
and Polar explorer, was born in London on the isth of April 1800.
He entered the navy in 181 2 under his uncle, Captain (afterwards
Sir) John Ross, whom he accompanied on his first Arctic voyage
in search of a North- West passage (1818). Between 1819 and 1827
he returned four times to the same seas in the Arctic expeditions
under Parry, and in 1829-33 again served on the same mission
under his uncle, and while thus employed determined (1831) the
position of the North Magnetic Pole. In 1834 he was pro-
moted captain, and from 1835-38 was employed on the mag-
netic survey of Great Britain. In 1839-43 he commanded the
Antarctic expedition of the " Erebus " and " Terror " (see
POLAR REGIONS), and for this service he received a knight-
hood (1844) and was nominated to the French order of the
Legion of Honour. He published a narrative of this expedition
under the title of A Voyage of Discovery and Research to Southern
and Antarctic Regions (1847), and was the author also of various
reports on zoological and other matters relating to his earlier
voyages. He was elected to the Royal Society in 1848, and
in that year made his last expedition, as captain of the " Enter-
prise," in the first Franklin search expedition. He died at
Aylesbury on the 3rd of April 1862.
ROSS, JOHN, or KOOESKOOWE (1790-1866), chief of the
Cherokee Indian Nation, was of Scotch-Indian descent, and
was born among the Cherokees in Georgia in 1790. In 1819-
1827 he was president of the Cherokee national committee, in
July 1827 he presided over the Cherokee constituent assembly,
and under the constitution which it drafted he was principal
chief from 1828 until his death. In 1830-31 he applied to
the Supreme Court of the United States for an injunction
restraining the state of Georgia from executing its laws within
the Cherokee territory, but the court dismissed his suit on the
ground that it had no jurisdiction. There was a small party
among the Cherokees under the leadership of John Ridge,
a subchief, who were early disposed to treat with the United
States for the removal of their nation west of the Mississippi,
and in February 1835, while negotiations with Ridge were
progressing at Washington, Ross proposed to cede the Cherokee
lands to the United States for $20,000,000. The United
States Senate resolved that $5,000,000 was sufficient. The
treaty negotiated by the Ridge party and the proposal to treat
on the basis of a $5,ooo,ooo-payment were both rejected in a
full council of the Cherokees held in October 1835. The council
authorized Ross to renew negotiations, but before leaving for
Washington he was arrested by the Georgia authorities on
the ground that he was a white man residing in the Indian
country contrary to law. Ross was soon released, but in
December of this year a few hundred Cherokees met the United
States Indian commissioner at New Echota and concluded with
him a treaty of removal. When Ross learned this he called a
ROSS, SIR J. C. ROSS, R.
council to meet in February 1836, and at this meeting the treaty
was declared null and void and a protest against the proceedings
at New Echota was signed by more than 12,000 Cherokees.
Notwithstanding Ross's opposition, the Senate in the following
May ratified the treaty by a vote exceeding by one the necessary
two-thirds majority, and in December 1838, Ross, with the last
party of Cherokees, left for the West (see GEORGIA). During
the Civil War, Ross first urged upon the Cherokee Nation a
policy of friendly inactivity; in May 1861, proclaimed a strict
neutrality; in October 1861, signed a treaty with the Confederate
States; in the summer of 1862 was forced (by Union sym-
pathizers in the Nation) to proclaim neutrality again; soon
afterwards went over to the Union lines; and was in Washington
treating with the Federal government in February 1863 when
the treaty with the Confederate States was abrogated by the
Cherokees. He died at Washington on the ist of August 1866.
See C. C. Royce, " The Cherokee Nation of Indians " in the Fifth
Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1887), and
T. V. Parker, The Cherokee Indians (New York, 1907).
ROSS, SIR JOHN (1777-1856), British rear-admiral and
Arctic explorer, son of the Rev. Andrew Ross, minister of Inch,
Wigtonshire, entered the Royal Navy in 1786, serving in the
Mediterranean till 1789, and afterwards in the Channel. In
1808 he acted as captain of the Swedish Fleet, and in 1812 was
promoted commander. Six years later he was given the com-
mand of an Arctic expedition fitted out by the Admiralty, the
first of a new series of attempts to solve the question of a North-
West passage. This expedition failed to discover much that
was new, and somewhat prejudiced the Arctic reputation of
its leader, who attained the rank of captain on his return. But
in 1829, through the munificence of Mr (afterwards Sir) Felix
Booth, he was able to undertake a second Arctic expedition,
which, during an absence of four years, achieved important
geographical and scientific results. On his return Captain Ross
was the recipient of gold medals from the English and French
geographical societies, and of various foreign orders, including
a knighthood of the Pole Star of Sweden, and in the following
year (1834) received a knighthood and a C.B. at home. In
1850 he undertook a third voyage to the Arctic regions, this
time in search of Sir John Franklin, and in the following year
he attained flag-rank. His publications include Voyage of
Discovery for the Purpose of Exploring Baffin's Bay (1819);
Narrative of a Second Voyage in Search of a North-West Passage,
including the Discovery of the North Magnetic Pole (1835);
Memoirs and Correspondence of Lord De Saumerez (1838).
ROSS, ROBERT (1766-1814), British major-general, entered
the 25th Foot at the age of nineteen, and in 1795 became captain
in the 7th Regiment, obtaining a half-pay majority a few months
later. As a major of the 2oth he served in Holland under
the duke of York in 1799. At the action of Krabbendam the
regiment greatly distinguished itself, though largely composed
of raw militia recruits. Ross was here severely wounded.
In 1801 the 2oth went to Egypt and took part in the final
operations which led to Menou's surrender. In 1803, though
lieutenant-colonel only by brevet, Ross succeeded to the com-
mand, and at once initiated a severe system of training, in
barracks and in the field, in his regiment. The result of this
was apparent when under Sir John Stuart's command the regi-
ment proceeded to Naples. The 2oth played a decisive part in
the brilliant action of Maida, and distinguished itself not less
in the subsequent storm of the castle of Scylla. In 1808-9
Ross and the 2oth formed part of Anstruther's brigade of Sir
John Moore's army in Spain, and though the statement that
the 2oth, owing to its good discipline, suffered less loss than any
other regiment in the retreat on Corunna is incorrect, the
regiment was among the best disciplined in the army. Later
in 1809 it was sent to Walcheren, where fever soon laid low
two-thirds of the men. Ross and his regiment were then sent
to Ireland to recover, and here the colonel repeated the course
of drill and manoeuvre which had so markedly improved the
2oth in Malta. He received a gold medal for Corunna and a
sword of honour for Maida (which action had already won him a
ROSS ROSS AND CROMARTY
gold medal). At the end of 1812 the 2oth was again engaged in
the Peninsula, and Major-General Ross early in the following
year received a brigade command in Cole's division. Scarcely
engaged at Vittoria, Ross's brigade played a distinguished part
in the operations around Pamplona, and the 2oth covered
itself with glory at Roncesvalles and Sorauren. At Orthez
Ross was severely wounded at the head of the brigade, which
was assaulting the village of St Boes. He was among those
who received the thanks of parliament for this battle, and he
received the gold medal for Vittoria and the Peninsula gold
medal. At the end of the war Ross was sent in command of a
brigade to harry the coast of North America, and with 4500
men and three light guns landed in Maryland. At Bladensburg
the Americans stood to fight in a strong position, but Ross's men
routed them (Aug. 24, 1814). The same evening Washington
was entered, and, the public buildings having been destroyed, the
expedition re-embarked. This short and brilliant campaign
excited the admiration of soldiers, critics and public alike, but
the commander did not live to receive his reward. A few days
later an expedition against Baltimore was undertaken; skirmish-
ing soon began, and one of the first to fall was Ross. A public
monument was erected to his memory in St Paul's Cathedral,
and others at his residence at Rosstrevor and at Halifax, N.S.
His family was granted the name Ross of Bladensburg by royal
letters-patent.
See Gentleman's Magazine, 1814, ii. 483; Cole, Peninsular Generals;
Smythe, History of the zoth Regiment.
ROSS, a market town in the Ross parliamentary division
of Herefordshire, England; 133 m. W. by N. from London
and 12 S.E. from Hereford by the Great Western railway.
Pop. of urban district (1901) 3303. It occupies a fine position
on and about a rocky eminence on the left bank of the river Wye.
There are manufactures of machinery and agricultural imple-
ments, and trade in the products of the district, such as cider
and malt, and several fairs are held annually. The church of
St Mary the Virgin stands high, and is surmounted by a lofty
spire; it shows good Decorated and Perpendicular work. A
beautiful terrace called the Prospect adjoins the churchyard
and overlooks the river. The market house, dated 1670, is a
picturesque building supported on columns, the upper portion
serving as a town hall. There are in the town many memorials
of John Kyrle, the Man of Ross, who died here in 1724, and
is eulogized by Pope in his third Moral Epistle (1732). The
Prospect was acquired and laid out by Kyrle, who also planted
the fine elm avenues near the church; his house stands opposite
the market house, where he disbursed his charities; he erected
the church spire, and is buried in the chancel, where his grave
remained without a monument until Pope called attention
to the omission. Nearly opposite the town is Wilton Castle,
which defended the ford in the disturbed reign of Stephen, and
suffered in the Civil Wars, being held for the Parliament and
burned by the Royalists. The inhabited portion is modern.
Four miles below Ross the important ford of Goodrich probably
carried traffic in British and Roman times, and a magnificent
castle, on a precipice rising sheer above the right bank of the
river, commands it. The keep is doubtfully assigned to a date
previous to the Conquest; the important position on the Welsh
March led to several subsequent additions, especially in the
i4th century, and the castle was only dismantled by order of the
Parliamentarians after it had strongly resisted their arms on
behalf of Charles I. in 1646, being the last to fall of the royal
strongholds in this county.
Ross (Ros, Rosse) was granted to the see of Hereford by
Edmund Ironside, but became crown property by aji exchange
effected in 1559. It derived importance from its situation on
the road to South Wales. In 1305, only, it was represented
in parliament by two members; but it was never incorporated,
and was governed by appointees of the manor court, until the
Ross Improvement Act of 1865 established elected commis-
sioners of the borough. Fairs on the days of the Ascension,
Corpus Christi, St Margaret and St Andrew were conferred by
Henry III., and were in existence in 1888. A market every
Thursday was granted by Stephen and confirmed by Henry III. ;
Friday is now market day.
ROSS AND CROMARTY, a northern county of Scotland.
The mainland portion is bounded N. by Sutherland and
Dornoch Firth, E. by the North Sea and Moray Firth, S. by
Beauly Firth and Inverness-shire and W. by the strait of the
Minch. The island portion, consisting of as much of the island
of Lewis as lies north of a line drawn from Loch Resort to Loch
Seaforth, is bounded on the W., N. and E. by the Atlantic,
and S. by Harris, the southern part of Lewis. Many islands,
all but eleven uninhabited, are scattered principally off the
west coasts of Lewis and the mainland. The area of the main-
land is 1,572,294 acres and of the islands 404,413 acres, giving
a total for the county of 1,976,707 acres or 3088-6 sq. m. The
inhabited islands belonging to the mainland are all situated off
the west coast. They are Gillean (lighthouse) in the parish
of Lochalsh, Croulin in Applecross, Horisdale, Dry and Ewe
in Gairloch parish, and Martin and Tanera More, of the group
of the Summer Isles in the parish of Lochbroom. On the North
Sea front the chief indentations are Beauly Firth and Inner
Moray Firth, marking off the Black Isle from Inverness-shire;
Cromarty Firth, bounding the districts of Easter Ross and the
Black Isle; Moray Firth, separating Easter Ross from Nairn-
shire; and Dornoch Firth, dividing north-east Ross from Suther-
landshire. On the Atlantic face which is a coastline of more
than 300 m. the principal sea lochs and bays, from S. to N.,
are Loch Duich, Loch Alsh, Loch Carron, Loch Kishorn, Loch
Torridon, Loch Shieldaig, Upper Loch Torridon, Gairloch, Loch
Ewe, Gruinard Bay, Little Loch Broom and Enard Bay. The
chief capes are Tarbat Ness on the east coast, and Coygach,
Greenstone, Reidh, Red and Hamha Points on the west.
Almost all the southern boundary with Inverness-shire is
guarded by a rampart of peaks, among them being An Ria-
bhachan (3696), Sgurr na Lapaich (3773), Cam Eige (3877),
Mam Soul (3862), Ben Attow (3383), Scour Ouran (3505),
famous for its view from the summit, Ben Mohr (3570) and
the Saddle (3317). To the north of Glen Torridon occur the
masses of the Liatach, with peaks of 3456 and 3358 ft., and
Ben Eay with four peaks above 3000 ft. each. On the north-
eastern shore of Loch Maree rises Ben Slioch (3217), while the
Fannich group contains at least six peaks of more than 3000 ft.
The immense isolated bulk of Ben Wyvis (3429), and its sub-
ordinate peaks An Socach (3295) and An Cabar (3106), is the
most noteworthy feature in the north-east, and the Challich
Hills in the north-west with peaks of 3483 and 3474 ft. are
equally conspicuous, though less solitary. Only a small
fraction of western and southern Ross is under 1000 ft. in
height. Easter Ross and the peninsula of the Black Isle are
comparatively level. The longest stream is the Orrin, which
rises in An Sithean and pursues a course mainly E. by N. to
its confluence with the Conon after a run of about 26 m.,
during a small part of which it forms the boundary with Inver-
ness-shire. At Aultgowrie the stream rushes through a narrow
gorge where the drop is considerable enough to make the falls
of Orrin. From its source in the mountains in Strathvaich the
Blackwater flows S.E. for 19 m. till it joins the Conon, forming
soon after it leaves Loch Garve the small but picturesque
falls of Rogie. Within a short distance of its exit from
Loch Luichart the Conon pours over a series of graceful cascades
and rapids and then pursues a winding course of 12 m., mainly
E. to the head of Cromarty Firth. The falls of Glomach, in
the south-west, are the deepest in the United Kingdom. The
stream giving rise to them drains a series of small lochs on the
northern flanks of Ben Attow and, in an almost unbroken
sheet about 40 ft. broad, effects a sheer leap of 370 ft., and
soon afterwards ends its course in the Elchaig. The falls are
usually visited from Invershiel, 7 m. to the south-west.
Twelve miles south by east of Ullapool, on the estate of Brae-
more, are the falls of Measach, formed by the Droma, a head-
stream of the Broom. The cascades, three in number, are
close to the gorge of Corriehalloch. The Oykell, throughout
its course, forms the boundary with Sutherlandshire, to which
742
ROSS AND CROMARTY
it properly belongs. The largest and most beautiful of the
many freshwater lakes is Loch Maree (q.v.), but a few of the
others are interesting. In the far north-west, 243 ft. above
the sea, lies Loch Skinaskink, a lake of such irregularity of
outline that it has a shore-line of 17 m. It contains several
islands covered with rich woods affording a shelter to deer,
and drains into Enard Bay by the Polly. Lochan Fada (the
" long loch "), 1005 ft. above the sea, is 3! m. in length, has a
greatest breadth of m., covers an area of i J sq. m., and is 248 ft.
deep, with a mean depth of 102 ft. Once drained by the Muic,
it has been tapped a little farther west by the Fhasaigh, which
has lowered the level of the lake sufficiently to behead the
Muic. Other lakes are, north of Loch Maree, Loch Fionn
(the " white " or " clear " lake), 8 m. long by i m. wide, famous
for its heronries; towards the centre of the shire, Loch Luichart
(5 m. long by from J m. to nearly i m. wide), fringed with
birches and having the shape of a crescent; the mountain-
girt Loch Fannich (7 m. long by i m. wide); and the wild
narrow lochs Monar (4 m. long) and Mullardoch (5 m. long),
on the Inverness-shire boundary. Of the straths or valleys
the more important run from the centre eastwards, such as
Strathconon (12 m.), Strathbran (10 m.), Strathgarve (8 m.),
StrathpeSer (6 m.) and Strathcarron (14 m.). Excepting
Glen Orrin (13 m.), in the east central district, the longer glens
lie in the south and towards the west. In the extreme south
Glen Shiel (9 m.) runs between fine mountains to its mouth
on Loch Duich. General Wade's road passes down the glen.
Farther north are Glen Elchaig (9 m.), Glen Carron (12 m.),
in the latter of which the track of the Dingwall & Skye
railway is laid, and Glen Torridon (6 m.).
Geology. The central portion of this county is occupied by the
younger highland schists or Dalradian series. These consist of
quartzites, mica-schists, garnetiferous mica-schists and gneisses, all
with a gentle inclination towards the S.E. On the eastern side of
the county the Dalradian schists are covered unconformably by the
Old Red Sandstone ; the boundary runs southward from Edderton on
Dornoch Firth, by Strathpeffer, to the neighbourhood of Beauly.
These rocks comprise red flags and sandstones, grey bituminous
flags and shales. An anticlinal fold with a S.W.-N.E. axis brings up
the basal beds of the series about the mouth of Cromarty Firth and
exposes once more the schists in the Sutors guarding the entrance
to the firth. The western boundary of the younger schist is formed
by the great ore-Cambrian dislocation line which traverses the
county in a fairly direct course from Elphin on the north by Ullapool
to Glencarron. Most of the area west of the line of disturbance is
covered by Torridonian Sandstone, mainly dark reddish sandstones,
grits and shales, resting unconformably on the ancient Lewisian
gneiss with horizontal or slightly inclined bedding. The uncon-
formity is well exposed on the shores of Gairloch, Loch Maree and
Loch Torridon. These rocks, which attain a considerable thickness
and are divisible into three sub-groups, build up the mountain
districts about Applecross, Coigach and elsewhere. Within the
Torridonian tract the older, Lewisian gneiss occupies large areas
north of Coigach, on the east of Enard Bay, between Gruinard
Bay and Loch Maree; between the last named and Gairloch, on
both sides of middle Loch Torridon and at many other spots
smaller patches are to be found. The Lewisian gneiss is every-
where penetrated by basic dikes, generally with a N.W.-S.E.
direction; some of these are of great breadth. The Torridonian
rocks are succeeded unconformably by a series of Cambrian strata
which is confined to a variable but, on the whole, narrow belt lying
west of the line of main thrusting. This belt of Cambrian rocks has
itself suffered an enormous amount of subordinate thrusting. It is
composed of the following subdivisions in ascending order: false-
bedded quartzite, " Pipe Rock " quartzite, f ucoid beds and Olenellus
band, serpulite grit, Durness dolomite and marble, Durness dolomite
and limestone: but these are not always visible at any one spot. So
great has been the disturbance in the region of thrusting that in
some places, as in the neighbourhood of Loch Kishorn and else-
where, the rocks have been completely overturned and the ancient
gneiss has been piled upon the Torridonian. On the shore of Moray
Firth at Rathie a small patch of Kimeridge shale occurs; and
beneath the cliffs of Shandwick there is a little Lower Oolite with a
thin seam of coal. Glacial striae are found upon the mountains up to
heights of 3000 ft., and much boulder clay is found in the valleys and
spread over large areas in the eastern districts. Raised beaches
occur at 100, 50 and 25 ft. above the present sea-level ; they are well
seen in Loch Carron. Lewis, on Long Island, is made almost entirely
of ancient " Lewisian gneiss." but a little Torridonian occurs about
Stornoway.
Climate and Agriculture. On the west coast the rainfall is
excessive, averaging for the year 50-42 in. at Loch Broom and
62 in. at Strome Ferry (autumn and winter being the wettest
seasons), but on the east coast the annual is only mean 27 in. The
temperature for the year is 46-5 F., for January 38 F. and for
July 57 F. The most fertile tracts lie on the eastern coast, especi-
ally in Easter Ross and the Black Isle, where the soil varies from a
light sandy gravel to a rich deep loam. Among grain crops oats is
that most generally cultivated, but barley and wheat are also raised.
Turnips and potatoes are the chief green crops. On the higher
grounds there is a large extent of good pasturage which carries
heavy flocks of sheep, blackfaced being the principal breed. Most
of the horses, principally half-breds between the old garrons (hardy,
serviceable, small animals) and Clydesdales, are maintained for the
purposes of agriculture. The herds of cattle, mainly native Highland
or crosses, are large, many of them supplying the London market.
Pigs are reared, though in smaller numbers than formerly, most
generally by the crofters. Owing partly to the overcrowding of the
island of Lewis and partly to the unkindly nature of the bulk of the
surface which offers no opportunity for other than patchwork
tillage the number of small holdings is enormous. Sutherlandshire
alone amongst Scottish counties showing an even larger proportion
of holdings under 5 acres; while the average size of all the holdings
throughout the shire does not exceed 20 acres. About 800,000 acres
are devoted to deer forests, a greater area than in any other county
in Scotland, among the largest being Achnashellach (50,000 acres),
Fannich (20,000), Kinlochluichart (20,600), Braemore (40,000), Inch-
bae (21,000) and Dundonnell (23,000). At one time the area
under wood must have been remarkable, if we accept the common
derivation of the word "Ross" as from the Irish ros, "a wood,"
and there is still a considerable extent of native woodland, princi-
pally fir, oak, ash and alder. The fauna is noteworthy. Red and
roe deer abound, and foxes and alpine hares are common, while
badgers and wild cats are occasionally trapped. Winged game are
plentiful, and amongst birds of prey the golden eagle and osprey
occur. Waterfowl of all kinds frequent the sea lochs; many rivers
and lakes are rich in salmon and trout, and the pearl mussel is
found in the bed of the Conon.
Other Industries. Apart from agriculture, the fisheries are
the only considerable industry, the county containing two fishery
districts Stornoway and Cromarty and portions of two others
Loch Broom (the remainder belonging to Sutherlandshire) and Loch
Carron (which includes part of Inverness-shire) Herring, cod and
ling form the principal catch, while salmon are taken in large
quantities in the bays and at the mouth of rivers. Distilleries are
found near Dingwall, Tain and some other places, and there are
manufactures, on a very limited scale, of woollens, chemical
manures and aerated waters, besides some sandstone quarrying and
flour mills. At Muir of Ord, in the parish of Urray, are held great
horse, cattle and sheep markets.
The Highland railway entering the county to the north of Beauly
runs northwards to Dingwall, and then strikes off to the north-east
by Invergordon and Tain, where it bends to the west by north,
leaving the shire at Culrain, having largely followed the coast
throughout. At Muir of Ord it sends off the Black Isle branch and
at Dingwall a branch to Strathpeffer, as well as a line to Strome
Ferry and Kyle of Lochalsh on the south-western shore. Coaches
connect various districts with stations on the Dingwall & Skye
railway.
Population and Administration. The population of the
county in 1891 was 78,727, and in 1901 that of the mainland
was 47,501, and of the islands 28,949, an aggregate of 76,450
or 25 to the sq. m. Thus Ross and Cromarty, though the
third largest in size, is the least populated county in Scotland,
excepting Sutherland, Inverness and Argyll. In 1901 there
were 12,171 persons who spoke Gaelic only (of whom 9928
belonged to the islands) and 39,392 speaking Gaelic and English
(of whom 15,990 were insular). The chief towns and villages
are Stornoway (pop. 2854), Dingwall (2485), Fortrose (1322),
Tain (2067), Cromarty (1242), Invergordon (1085). Ullapool
is a small fishing port near the mouth of Loch Broom. For
administrative purposes the county is divided into six districts,
namely, Black Isle (pop. 6271), Easter Ross (12,192), Lewis
(28,760), Mid Ross (12,953), South-Western Ross (4103) and
Western Ross (5394). The county returns one member to
parliament, and Cromarty, Dingwall and Tain belong to the
Wick group of parliamentary burghs, and Fortrose to the
Inverness group. Excepting Cromarty, these are royal burghs,
and Dingwall is the~ county town. Ross and Cromarty forms
a sheriffdom with Sutherlandshire, and there are resident
sheriffs-substitute at Dingwall and Stornoway, the former
also sitting at Tain and Cromarty. The shire is under school-
board control, and there are academies at Tain, Dingwall
and Fortrose, while several schools earn grants for higher
education. The county council gives the " residue " grant
ROSSANO ROSSBACH
743
to the committee on secondary education, which subsidizes
science and art classes in various schools and higher grade
science schools at Dingwall, Tain and Stornoway.
History. It may be doubted whether the Romans ever
effected even a temporary settlement in the area of the modern
county. At that period, and for long afterwards, the land
was occupied by Gaelic Picts, who, in the 6th and 7th centuries,
were converted to Christianity by followers of St Columba.
Throughout the next three centuries the natives were continu-
ally harassed by Norse pirates, of whose presence tokens have
survived in several place-names (Dingwall, Tain, &c.)- At
this time the country formed part of the great province of
Moray, which then extended as far north as Dornoch Firth
and the Oykell, and practically comprised the whole of Ross
and Cromarty, excepting a comparatively narrow strip on
the Atlantic seaboard. When the rule of the Celtic maormors
or earls ceased in the 12th century, consequent on the planta-
tion of the district with settlers from other parts (including
a body of Flemings), by order of David I., who was anxious
to break the power of the Celts, the bounds of Moravia were
contracted and the earldom of Ross arose. At first Ross
proper only included the territory adjoining Moray and Dor-
noch Firths. The first earl was Malcolm MacHeth, who re-
ceived the title from Malcolm IV. After his rebellion in 1179
chronic insurrection ensued, which was quelled by Alexander II.,
who bestowed the earldom on Farquhar Macintaggart (Farquhar,
son of the priest), then abbot of Applecross, and in that capacity
lord of the western district. William, 4th earl, was present
with his clan at the battle of Bannockburn (1314), and almost
a century later (1412) the castle of Dingwall, the chief seat
on the mainland of Donald, lord of the Isles, was captured
after the disastrous fight at Harlaw in Aberdeenshire, which
Donald had provoked when his claim to the earldom was re-
jected. The earldom reverted to the crown in 1424, but James
I. soon afterwards restored it to the heiress of the line, the
mother of Alexander MacDonald, 3rd lord of the Isles, who
thus became nth earl. In consequence, however, of the
treason of John Macdonald, 4th and last lord of the Isles and
1 2th earl of Ross, the earldom was again vested in the crown
(1476). Five years later James III. bestowed it on his second
son, James Stewart, whom he also created duke of Ross in
1488. By the i6th century the whole area of the county
was occupied by different clans. The Rosses held what is
now Easter Ross; the Munroes the small tract around Ben
Wyvis, including Dingwall; the Macleods Lewis, and, in the
mainland, the district between Loch Maree and Loch Torridon;
the MacDonalds of Glengarry, Coygach, and the district be-
tween Strome Ferry and Kyle of Lochalsh, and the Mackenzies
the remainder. The county of Ross was constituted in 1661,
and Cromarty in 1685 and 1698, both being consolidated into
the present county in 1889 (see CROMARTY, county). Apart
from occasional conflicts between rival clans, the only battles
in the shire were those of Invercarron, at the head of Dornoch
Firth, when Montrose was crushed by Colonel 'Strachan on the
27th of April 1650, and Glenshiel, when the Jacobites, under
the earl of Seaforth, aided by Spaniards, were defeated, at the
pass of Strachel, near Bridge of Shiel, by General Wightman
on the nth of June i7rg.
Antiquities. The principal relics of antiquity mainly stone
circles, cairns and forts are found in the eastern district. A
vitrified fort crowns the hill of Knockfarrel in the parish of Fodderty,
and there is a circular dun near the village of Lochcarron. Some
fine examples of sculptured stones occur, especially those which,
according to tradition, mark the burial-place of the three sons of a
Danish king who were shipwrecked oft the coast of .Nigg. The
largest and handsomest of these three crosses the clach-a-charridh,
or Stone of Lamentation stands at Shandwick. It is about 9 ft.
high and contains representations of the martyrdom of St Andrew
and figures of an elephant and dog. It fell during a storm in 1847
and was broken in three pieces. On the top of the cross in Nigg
churchyard are two figures with outstretched arms in the act of
supplication; the dove descends between them, and below are two
dogs. The cross was knocked down by the fall of the belfry in 1725,
but has been riveted together. The third stone formerly stood at
Cadboll of Hilltown, but was removed for security to the grounds of
Invergordon Castle. Among old castles are those of Lochslin, in
the parish of Fearn, said to date from the I3th century, which,
though ruinous, possesses two square towers in good preservation ;
Balone, in the parish of Tarbat, once a stronghold of the earls of
Ross; the remains of Dingwell Castle, their original seat; and
Eilean Donain in Loch Alsh, which was blown up by English warships
during the abortive Jacobite rising in 1719.
See R. Bain, History of the Ancient Province of Ross (Dingwall,
1899); I. H. Dixon, Gairloch (Edinburgh, 1888); F. N. Reid, The
Earls of Ross (Edinburgh, 1894); W. C. Mackenzie, History of the
Outer Hebrides (Paisley, 1904).
ROSSANO, a city of Calabria, Italy, in the province of Cos-
enza, 24 m. N.N.E. from that town direct, with a station 4 m.
distant on the line from Metaponto to Reggio. Pop. (1901)
T 3)3S4- It is picturesquely situated on a precipitous spur of
the mountain mass of Sila overlooking the Gulf of Taranto,
the highest part of the town being 975 ft. above sea-level.
Rossano is the seat of an archbishop, and in the cathedral is
preserved the Codex Rossanensis, an uncial MS. of the Gospels
of Matthew and Mark in silver characters on purple vellum,
with twelve miniatures, of great interest in the history of
Byzantine art, belonging to the 6th century A.D. It was
brought to Grottaferrata (q.v.) for the exhibition of Byzantine
art held there in 1905. Marble and alabaster quarries are
worked in the neighbourhood.
Mentioned in the Itineraries, Rossano (Roscianum) appears
under the Latin empire as one of the important fortresses of
Calabria. Totila took it in 548. The people showed great
attachment to the Byzantine empire. In the i4th century
Rossano was made a principality for the great family of De
Baux. Passing to the Sforza, and thus to Sigismund of Poland,
it was united in 1558 to the crown of Naples by Philip II.
of Spain in virtue of a doubtful will by Bona of Poland in
favour of Giovanni Lorenzo Pappacoda. Under Isabella of
Aragon and Bona of Poland the town had been a centre of
literary culture; but under the Spaniards it declined. The
crown sold the lordship in 1612 to the Aldobrandini, and from
them it passed to the Borghesi and the Caraffa. Rossano is
best known as the birthplace of St Nilus the younger, whose
life is the most valuable source of information extant in regard
to the state of matters in southern Italy in the loth century.
Pope John VII. (705-7) was also a native of the town.
See F. Lenormant, La Grande-Grkce (1881), vol. i. 339 sqq.
ROSSBACH, a village of Prussian Saxony in the district of
Merseburg, 8 m. S.W. of that place and N.W. of Weissenfels,
famous as the scene of Frederick the Great's victory over the
allied French and the army of the Empire on the sth of November
1757. For the events preceding the battle see SEVEN YEARS'
WAR. The Prussian camp on the morning of the 5th lay
between Rossbach (left) and Bedra (right), facing the Allies,
who, commanded by the French general, Charles de Rohan,
prince de Soubise (1715-1787), and Joseph Frederick William,
duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen (1702-1787), General Feldzeug-
meister of the Empire, had manoeuvred in the preceding days
without giving Frederick an opportunity to bring them to
action, and now lay to the westward, with their right near
Branderoda and their left at Miicheln (see sketch). The
advanced posts of the Prussians were in the villages immediately
west of their camp, those of the Allies on the Schortau hill and
the Galgenberg.
The* Allies possessed a numerical superiority of two to one
in the battle itself, irrespective of detachments, 1 and their
advanced post overlooked all parts of Frederick's camp. They
had had the best of it in the manoeuvres of the previous days,
and the duke of Hildburghausen determined to take the offen-
sive. He had some difficulty, however, in inducing Soubise
to risk a battle, and the Allies did not begin to move off their
camping-ground until after eleven on the 5th, Soubise's intention
being probably to engage as late in the day as possible, with the
'V. der Goltz (Rossbach bis Jena, 1906 edition) gives 41,000
Allies and 21,600 Prussians as the combatant strengths. Berndt's
statistical work, Zahl im Kriege, gives the respective forces engaged
as Allies 43,000, Prussians 21,000. Other accounts give the Allies'
total strength as 64,000 and the Prussians' as 24,000.
744
ROSSE, EARL OF
idea of gaining what advantages he could in a partial action.
The plan was to march the Allied army by Zeuchfeld, round
Frederick's left (which was covered by no serious natural
obstacle), and to deploy in battle array, facing north, between
Reichardtswerben (right) and Pettstadt (left). The duke's
proposed battle and the more limited aim of Soubise were
equally likely to be attained by taking this position, which
threatened to cut off Frederick from the towns on the Saale.
This position, equally, could only be gained by marching round
the Prussian flank, i.e. by a flank march before the enemy.
The obvious risk of interference on the exposed flank was pro-
vided against by a considerable flank guard, and in fact it was
not in the execution of their original design but in hastily
modifying it to suit unfounded assumptions that the Allies
met with disaster.
Frederick spent the morning watching them from a house-top in
Rossbach. The initial stages of their movement convinced him
that the Allies were retreating southward towards their magazines,
and about noon he went to dinner, leaving Captain von Gaudi on
the watch. This officer formed a different impression of the Allies'
intentions, for the columns which from time to time became visible
in the undulations of the ground were seen to turn eastwards from
Zeuchfeld. Gaudi's excited report at first served only to confirm
Frederick in his error. But when the king saw for himself that
hostile cavalry and infantry were already near Pettstadt, he realized
the enemy's intentions. The battle for which he had manoeuvred
in vain was offered to him, and he took it without hesitation.
Leaving a handful of light troops to oppose the French advanced
post (or flank guard) on the Schortau hill, the Prussian army broke
camp and moved half an hour after the king gave the order to
attack the enemy. The latter were marching in the normal order
in two main columns, the first line on the left, the second line on the
right; farther to the right was a column consisting of the reserve
of foot, and between the first and second lines was the reserve
artillery on the road. The right-wing cavalry was of course at
the head, the left-wing cavalry at the tail of the two main columns.
At first the regulation distances were preserved, but when wheeling
eastward at Zeuchfeld there was much confusion, part of the reserve
infantry getting in between the two main columns and hampering
the movements of the reserve artillery, and the rest, on the outer
flank of the wheel, being unable to keep up with the over-rapid
movement of the wheeling pivot. A weak flank guard was thrown
out towards Rossbach. When it was seen that the Prussians were
moving, as far as could be judged, eastward, it was presumed that
they were about to retreat in order to avoid being taken in flank and
rear; and the Allied generals thereupon hurried the march, sending
on the leading (right-wing) cavalry towards Reichardtswerben, and
calling up part of the left-wing cavalry from the tail of the column,
and even the flank-guard cavalry, to take part in the general chase.
That Frederick's move meant an attack upon them before they could
form up, Soubise and the duke failed to realize. They had taken
more than three hours to break camp, and found it difficult to
suppose that Frederick's army could move off in one-sixth that time.
It was obvious, moreover, that the Prussians were not deploying for
battle on the plain in front of Rossbach and Nahlendorf .
Frederick had no intention either of forming up parallel to the
enemy or of retreating. As his army could move as a unit twice as
fast as the enemy's, he intended to make a detour, screened by the
Janus Hiigel and the Polzen Hiigel, and to fall upon them suddenly
from the east. If at the moment of contact the Allies had already
formed their line of battle facing north, the attack would strike their
right flank; if they were still on the move in column eastwards
or north-eastwards, the heads of their columns would be crushed
before the rest could deploy in the new direction deployment in
those days being a lengthy affair. To this end General von Seydlitz,
with every available squadron, hurried eastward from Rossbach,
behind the Janus Hiigel, to the Polzen Hiigel; Colonel von Moller,
with eighteen heavy guns, came into action on the Janus Hiigel
at 3.15 against the advancing columns of the Allied cavalfy; and
the infantry followed as fast as possible. When they came under
the fire of Moller's guns, the Allied squadrons, which were now north
of Reichardtswerben and well ahead of their own infantry, suffered
somewhat heavily ; but it was usual to employ heavy guns to protect
a retreat, and they contented themselves with bringing some field-
guns into action. They were, however, amazed when Seydlitz's
thirty-eight squadrons suddenly rode down upon the head and right
flank of their columns from the Polzen Hiigel avec une incroyable
vitesse. Gallantly as the leading German regiments deployed to
meet him, the result was scarcely in doubt for a moment. Seydlitz
threw_in his last squadron, and then himself fought like a trooper,
receiving a severe wound. The melee drifted rapidly southward,
past the Allied infantry, and Seydlitz finally rallied his horsemen in
a hollow near Tagewerben, ready for fresh service. This first
episode was over in half an hour, and by that time the Prussian
infantry, in 6chelon from the left, was descending the Janus Hiigel
to meet the already confused and disheartened infantry of the
Allies. The latter, as their cavalry had done, managed to deploy
some regiments on the head of the column, and the French in par-
ticular formed one or two columns of attack then peculiar to the
French army and rushed forward with the bayonet. But Moller's
guns, which had advanced with the infantry, tore gaps in the close
masses, and, when it arrived within effective musketry range, the
attack died out before the rapid and methodical volleys of the
Prussian line. Meanwhile the Allies were trying in vain to form a
line of battle. The two main columns had got too close together
in the advance from Pettstadt, part of the reserve which had become
entangled between the main columns was extricating itself by
degrees and endeavouring to catch up with the rest of the reserve
column away to the right, and the reserve artillery was useless in
the middle of the infantry. The Prussian infantry was still in
Cintry Wflkec I
echelon from the left, and the leftmost battalions that had repulsed
the French columns were quickly within musket-shot of this helpless
mass. A few volleys directed against the head and left flank of the
column sufficed to create disorder, and then from the Tagewerben
hollow Seydlitz's rallied squadrons charged, wholly unexpectedly,
upon its right flank. The Allied infantry thereupon broke and fled.
Soubise and the duke, who was wounded, succeeded in keeping one
or two regiments together, but the rest scattered over the country-
side. The battle had lasted less than an hour and a half, and the last
episode of the infantry fight no more than fifteen minutes. Seven
Prussian battalions only were engaged, and these expended five
to fifteen rounds per man. Seydlitz and Prince Henry of Prussia,
the cavalry and the infantry leaders engaged, were both wounded,
but the total loss of the king's army was under 550 officers and men
as compared with 7700 ' on the part of the Allies. (C. F. A.)
ROSSE, EARL OF, a title borne by the Irish family of Parsons.
James Parsons, a native of Leicestershire, who flourished in
the i6th century, was the father of Sir William Parsons (c.
1570-1650), one of the lords justices of Ireland. Having
crossed to Ireland in early life, William Parsons became surveyor-
general in 1602 and obtained land in various parts of the country.
In 1620 he was made a baronet; in 1643 he was deprived of his
office as lord justice, and he died early in 1650. His great-
grandson, Sir Richard Parsons, bart. (c. 1657-1703), was created
Baron Oxmantown and Viscount Rosse in 1681, and Richard's
son and successor, Richard (d. 1741), was made earl of Rosse in
1718. The titles became extinct when Richard, the 2nd earl,
died in August 1764.
Sir William Parsons had two brothers, Sir Lawrence and
Sir Fenton Parsons. Sir Lawrence, second baron of the Irish
exchequer, left a son, William (d. 1653), who defended Bin-
Castle, King's County, for over a year against the Irish during
1 Figures again vary in different authorities. The above figure
is that given by Berndt, ZalU im Kriege.
ROSSE, W. P. ROSSELLI
745
the rebellion of 1641, and whose son, Sir Lawrence Parsons
(d. 1698), was made a baronet in 1677. This Sir Lawrence was
a strong Protestant, and was found guilty of high treason, being
attainted and sentenced to death during the brief period of
James II. 's ascendancy in Ireland. He was not executed,
however, and afterwards he took some part in the struggle
against the supporters of James II. His descendant, Lawrence
Harman Parsons (1749-1807), was created Baron Oxmantown
in 1792, Viscount Oxmantown in 1795, and earl of Rosse in 1806.
He died on the aoth of April 1807, and was succeeded by his
nephew Lawrence.
Lawrence Parsons, 2nd earl of Rosse (1758-1841), the eldest
son of Sir William Parsons, bart. (d. 1791), of Birr Castle, was
born on the 2ist of May 1758. Educated at Trinity College,
Dublin, he entered the Irish parliament as member for the
university in 1782, and soon came to the front in debate. A
friend and follower of Henry Flood, he has been described as
" one of the very, very few honest men in the Irish House of
Commons." He favoured some measure of relief to Roman
Catholics and also parliamentary reform, a speech which he
delivered on this question in 1 793 being described by W. E. H.
Lecky as " exceedingly valuable to students of Irish history ";
but he disliked and opposed the union of the parliaments of
Great Britain and Ireland. After this event, however, he
represented King's County in the united parliament until 1807,
and he was a representative peer for Ireland from 1809 to 1841.
He died at Brighton on the 24th of February 1841. Rosse
wrote Observations on the Bequest of Henry Flood to Trinity
College, Dublin, with a Defence of the Ancient History of Ireland
(Dublin, 1795). His eldest son was the astronomer William
Parsons, 3rd earl of Rosse (see below).
ROSSE, WILLIAM PARSONS, 3RD EARL OF (1800-1867), Irish
astronomer and telescope constructor, was born at York on
the i7th of June 1800, a son of the 2nd earl (see above). Until
his father's death he was known as Lord Oxmantown. Entered
at Trinity College, Dublin, in 1818, he proceeded to Magdalen
College, Oxford, in 1821, and in the same year he was returned
as M.P. for King's County, a seat which he resigned in 1834.
He was Irish representative peer from 1845, president of the
British Association in 1843, president of the Royal Society from
1849 to 1854, and chancellor of the university of Dublin from
1862. From 1827 he devoted himself to the improvement of
reflecting telescopes; in 1839 he mounted a telescope of 3 ft.
aperture at his seat, Birr Castle, Parsonstown; and in February
1845 his celebrated 6-foot reflector was finished. Owing to
the famine and the disturbed state of the country, which de-
manded his attention as a large landowner and lieutenant of
King's County (from 1831), the instrument remained unused
for nearly three years, but since 1848 it has been in constant
use, chiefly for observations of nebulae, for which it was par-
ticularly suited on account of its immense optical power,
nominally 6000. Lord Rosse died at Monkstown on the 3ist
of October 1867. He had four sons. The eldest, Lawrence
Parsons, 4th earl of Rosse, and Baron Oxmantown, born on the
tyth of November 1840, succeeded to the title on his father's
death, and made many investigations on the heavenly bodies,
particularly on the radiation of the moon and related physical
questions; the youngest, the Hon. Charles Algernon Parsons,
born oh the i3th of June 1854, is famous for his commercial
development of the steam turbine.
The first constructor of reflecting telescopes on a large scale,
William Herschel, never published anything about his methods of
casting and polishing specula, and he does not appear to have
been very successful beyond specula of 18 in. diameter, his 4-foot
speculum (" the 4o-foot telescope ") having been little used by him
(see discussion between Sir J. Herschel and Robinson in The
Athenaeum, Nos. 831-36, 1843). Lord Rosse had therefore no help
towards his brilliant results. His speculum metal is composed of
four atoms of copper (126-4 parts) and one of tin (58-9 parts), a
brilliant alloy, which resists tarnish better than any other compound
tried. Chiefly owing to the brittleness of this material, Lord Rosse's
first larger specula were composed of a number of thin plates of
speculum metal (sixteen for a 3-foot mirror) soldered on the back of a
strong but light framework made of a peculiar kind of brass (2-75 of
copper to I of zinc), which has the same expansion as his speculum
metal. In Brewster's Edinburgh Journal of Science for 1828 he
described his machine for polishing the speculum, which in all
essential points remained unaltered afterwards. It imitates the
motions made in polishing a speculum by hand by giving both a
rectilinear and a lateral motion to the polisher, while the speculum
revolves slowly; by shifting two eccentric pins the course of the
polisher can be varied at will from a straight line to an ellipse of
very small eccentricity, and a true parabolic figure can thus be
obtained. The speculum lies face upwards in a shallow bath of
water (to preserve a uniform temperature), and the polisher fits
loosely in a ring, so that the rotation of the speculum makes it
revolve also, but more slowly. Both the grinding and polishing
tools are grooved, to obtain a uniform distribution of the emery
used in the grinding process and of the rouge employed in polishing,
as also to provide for the lateral expansion of the pitch with which
the polisher is coated. In September 1839 a ;}-foot speculum was
finished and mounted on an altazimuth stand similar to Herschel's;
but, though the definition of the images was good (except that the
diffraction at the joints of the speculum caused minute rays in the
case of a very bright star), and its peculiar skeleton form allowed
the speculum to follow atmospheric changes of temperature very
cjuickly, Lord Rosse decided to cast a solid 3-foot speculum. Hitherto
it had been felt as a great difficulty in casting specula that the
solidification did not begin at one surface and proceed gradually
to the other, the common sand mould allowing the edges to cool
first, so that the central parts were subject to great straining when
their time of cooling came, and in large castings this generally caused
cracking. By forming the bottom of the mould of hoop iron placed
on edge and closely packed, and the sides of sand, while the top was
left open, Lord Rosse overcame this difficulty, and the hoop iron
had the further advantage of allowing the gas developed during the
cooling to escape, thus preventing the speculum from being full of
pores and cavities. This invention secured the success of the
casting of a solid 3-foot speculum in 1840, and encouraged Lord
Rosse to make a speculum of 6 ft. diameter in 1842. In the
beginning of 1845 this great reflector was mounted and ready for
work. The instrument has a focal length of 54 ft. and the tube is
about 7 ft- in diameter; owing to these large dimensions it cannot
be pointed to every part of the heavens, but can only be moved a
short distance from the meridian and very little to the north of the
zenith; these restrictions have, however, hardly been felt, as there
is almost at any moment a sufficient number of objects within its
reach.
From 1848 to 1878 it was but with few interruptions employed
for observations of nebulae (see NEBULA); and many previously
unknown features in these objects were revealed by it, especially
the similarity of " annular " and " planetary " nebulae, and the
remarkable " spiral " configuration prevailing in many of the
brighter nebulae. A special study was made of the nebula of Orion,
and the resulting large drawing gives an extremely good representa-
tion of this complicated object. (See TELESCOPE.)
Lord Rosse gave a detailed account of the experiments which
step by step had led to the construction of the 3-foot speculum in
the Philosophical Transactions for 1840. In the same publication
for 1844 and 1850 he communicated short descriptions and drawings
of some of the more interesting nebulae, and in the volume for 1861
he published a paper " On the Construction of Specula of 6-ft.
Aperture, and a Selection from the Observations of Nebulae made
with them," with numerous engravings. The accounts of the
observations given in these papers, however, were fragmentary;
but in 1879-80 a complete account of them was published by the
present earl (" Observations of Nebulae and Clusters of Stars made
with the 6-foot and 3-foot Reflectors at Birr Castle from 1848 tc>
1878 ") in the Scient. Trans. R. Dublin Soc. vol. ii. The drawing
of the nebula of Orion was published in the Phil. Trans, for 1868
See obituary notice in the Proc. Roy. Soc. (1868), 16, 36, and in
the Monthly Notices of Roy. Astr. Soc. vol. 29, p. 123.
ROSSELLI, COSIMO (i43o-c. 1507), Florentine painter, was
born in 1439. At the age of fourteen he became a pupil of
Neri di Bicci, and in 1460 he worked as assistant to his cousin
Bernardo di Stefano Rosselli. The first work of Cosimo men-
tioned by Vasari exists in S. Ambrogio, in Florence, over the
third altar on the left. It is an " Assumption of the Virgin," a
youthful and feeble work. In the same church, on the wall
of one of the chapels, is a fresco by Cosimo which Vasari praises
highly, especially for a portrait of the young scholar Pico of
Mirandola. The scene, a procession bearing a miracle-working
chalice, is painted with much vigour and less mannerism than
most of this artist's work. A picture painted by Rosselli for
the church of the Annunziata, with figures of SS. Barbara,
Matthew and the Baptist, is in the Academy of Florence.
Rosselli also spent some time in Lucca, where he painted several
altar-pieces for various churches. A picture attributed to him.
taken from the church of S. Girolamo at Fiesole, is now in the
National Gallery of London. It is a large retable, with, in the
746
ROSSELLINO ROSSETTI, C. G.
centre, St Jerome in the wilderness kneeling before a crucifix,
and at the sides standing figures of St Damasus and St Eusebius,
St Paolo and St Eustachia; below is a predella with small
subjects. Though dry and hard in treatment, the figures are
designed with much dignity. The Berlin Gallery possesses three
pictures by Rosselli: "The Virgin in Glory," " The Entombment of
Christ, "and " The Massacre of the Innocents." In 1480 Rosselli,
together with the chief painters of Florence, was invited by
Sixtus IV. to Rome to assist in the painting of the frescoes in
the Sistine Chapel. Three of these were executed by him " The
Destruction of Pharaoh's Army in the Red Sea," " Christ Preach-
ing by the Lake of Tiberias," and " The Last Supper." The last
of these is well preserved, but is a mediocre work. Vasari's story
about the pope admiring Rosselli's paintings more than those
of his abler brother painters has probably little foundation.
Rosselli's Sistine frescoes were partly painted by his assistant
Piero di Cosimo, who was so called after Cosimo Rosselli. His
chief pupil was Fra Bartolommeo. According to Vasari, Rosselli
died in 1484, but this is a mistake, as his will exists dated
25th of November 1506 (see Gaye, Car. ined. ii. 457 n.).
For an account of Rosselli's Sistine frescoes, see Plainer and
Bunsen, Beschreibung der Sladt Rom, ii. pt. i. ; and Rumohr, Ilalien.
Forschungen, ii. 265.
ROSSELLINO, ANTONIO (1427-^ 1479), Florentine sculptor,
was the son of Matteo di Domenico Gamberelli, and had four
brothers, who all practised some branch of the fine arts. Almost
nothing is known about the life of Antonio, but many of his
works exist, and are full of religious sentiment, and executed
with the utmost delicacy of touch and technical skill. The
style of Antonio and his brother Bernardo is a development of
that of Donatello and Ghiberti; it possesses all the refinement
and sweetness of the earlier masters, but is not equal to them
in vigour or originality. Antonio's chief work, still in perfect
preservation, is the lovely tomb of a young cardinal prince of
Portugal, who died in 1459. It occupies one side of a small
chapel, also built by Rossellino, on the north of the nave of San
Miniato al Monte. 1 The recumbent effigy of the cardinal rests
on a handsome sarcophagus, and over it, under the arch which
frames the whole, is a beautiful relief of the Madonna between
two flying angels. The tomb was begun in 1461 and finished
in 1466; Antonio received four hundred and twenty-five
gold florins for it. A reproduction of this tomb with slight
Marble Relief by Antonio Rossellino.
alterations, and of course a different effigy, was made by Antonio
for the wife of Antonio Piccolomini, duke of Amalfi, in the
1 Illustrated by Gonnelli, Mon. Sepol. delta Toscana (Florence,
1819), pi. xxiii.
church of S. Maria del Monte at Naples, where it still exists.
For the same church he also executed some delicate reliefs,
which perhaps err in being too pictorial in style, especially in
the treatment of the backgrounds. A fine medallion relief by
him in marble, originally modelled in terra-cotta, is preserved
in the Bargello at Florence (see fig.).
BERNARDO ROSSELLINO (1400-1464), Florentine sculptor,
was no less able than his younger brother Antonio. His finest
piece of sculpture is the tomb, in the Florentine Santa Croce,
of Leonardo Bruni of Arezzo, the historian of Florence, executed
in 1443 some years after Bruni's death; the recumbent effigy
is of great merit. The inner cathedral pulpit at Prato, circular
in form on a tall slender stem, was partly the work of Mino da
Fiesole and partly by Bernardo Rossellino. The latter executed
the minute reliefs of St Stephen and the Assumption of the
Virgin. For his part in the work he received sixty-six gold
florins. The South Kensington Museum possesses a relief
by Bernardo, signed and dated (1456). It is a fine portrait of
the physician Giovanni da S. Miniato. Bernardo's works as an
architect were numerous and important, and he was also a
skilful military engineer. He restored the church of S. Francis
at Assisi, and designed several fine buildings at Civita Vecchia,
Orvieto and elsewhere. He also built fortresses and city walls
at Spoleto, Orvieto and Civita Castellana. He was largely
employed by Nicholas V. and Pius II. for restorations in nearly
all the great basilicas of Rome, but little trace of his work
remains, owing to the sweeping alterations made during the
1 7th and i8th centuries. Between the years 1461 and 1464
(when he died while engaged on the Lazzari monument at
Pistoia) he occupied the important post of capo-maestro to the
Florentine duomo. A number of buildings at Pienza, executed
for Pius II., are attributed to him; the Vatican registers
mention the architect of these as M Bernardo di Fiorenza, but
this indication is too slight to make it certain that the elder
Rossellino is referred to (see Vasari, ed. Milanesi, iii. 93 seq.).
See Wilhelm Bode, Die Italienische Plastik (Berlin, 1902).
ROSSETTI, CHRISTINA GEORGINA (1830-1894), English
poet, was the youngest of the four children of Gabriele Rossetti
(see the article on her brother DANTE GABRIEL ROSSETTI). She
was born at 38 Charlotte Street, Portland Place, London, on
the sth of December 1830. She enjoyed the advantages and
disadvantages of the strange society of Italian exiles and
English eccentrics which her father gathered about him, and
she shared the studies of her gifted elder brother and sister.
As early as 1847 her grandfather, Gaetano Polidori, printed
privately a volume of her Verses, in which the richness of her
vision was already faintly prefigured. In 1850 she contributed
to The Germ seven pieces, including some of the finest of her
lyrics. In her girlhood she had a grave, religious beauty of
feature, and sat as a model not only to her brother Gabriel,
but to Holman Hunt, to Madox Brown and to Millais. In .
1 853-34 Christina Rossetti for nearly a year helped her mother
to keep a day-school at Frome-Selwood, in Somerset. Early
in 1854 the Rossettis returned to London, and the father died.
In poverty, in ill-health, in extreme quietness, she was now
performing her life-work. She was twice sought in marriage,
but each time, from religious scruples (she was a strong high-
church Anglican), she refused her suitor; on the former of
these occasions she sorrowed greatly, and her suffering is
reflected in much of her early song. In 1861 she saw foreign
countries for the first time, paying a six weeks' visit to Nor-*
mandy and Paris. In 1862 she published what was practically
her earliest book, Goblin Market, and took her place at once
among the poets of her age. In this volume, indeed, is still to
be found a majority of her finest writings. The Prince's
Progress followed in 1866. In 1867 she, with her family,
moved to 56 Euston Square, which became their home for
many years. Christina's prose work Commonplace appeared
in 1870. In April 1871 her whole life was changed by a terrible
affliction, known as " Graves's disease "; for two years her
life was in constant danger. She had already composed her
book of children's poems, entitled Sing-Song, which appeared
ROSSETTI, D. G.
747
in 1872. After a long convalescence, she published in 1874
two works of minor importance, Annus Domini and Speaking
Likenesses. The former is the earliest of a series of theological
works in prose, of which the second was Seek and Find in 1879.
In 1 88 1 she published a third collection of poems, A Pageant,
in which there was evidence of slackening lyrical power. She
now gave herself almost entirely to religious disquisition. The
most interesting and personal of her prose publications (but it
contained verse also) was Time Flies (1885) a sort of symbolic
diary or collection of brief homilies. In 1890 the S.P.C.K.
published a volume of her religious verse. She collected her
poetical writings in 1891. In 1892 she was led to publish a
very bulky commentary on the Apocalypse, entitled The Face
of the Deep. After this she wrote little. Her last years were
spent in retirement at 30 Torrington Square, Bloomsbury,
which was her home from 1876 to her death. In 1892 her health
broke down finally, and she had to endure terrible suffering.
From this she was released on the 29th of December 1894. Her
New Poems f were published posthumously in 1896. In spite
of her manifest limitations of sympathy and experience,
Christina Rossetti takes rank among the foremost poets of
her time. In the purity and solidity of her finest lyrics, the
glow and music in which she robes her moods of melancholy
reverie, her extraordinary mixture of austerity with sweetness
and of sanctity of tone with sensuousness of colour, Christina
Rossetti, in her best pieces, may challenge comparison with
the most admirable of our poets. The union of fixed religious
faith with a hold upon physical beauty and the richer parts of
nature has been pointed to as the most original feature of her
poetry. Hers was a cloistered spirit, timid, nun-like, bowed
down by suffering and humility; her character was so retiring
as to be almost invisible. All that we really need to know
about her, save that she was a great saint, was that she was
a great poet. (E. G.)
See the Poetical Works of C. G. R., with Memoir by W. M. Rossetti
(1903). Also Edmund Gosse's Critical Kit-Kats (1896); an article
by Ford Madox Hueffer in the Fortnightly Review (March 1904) ;
and another in The Christian Society (Oct. 1904). The Family
Letters of Christina Rossetti were edited by W. M. Rossetti in 1908.
ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL (1828-1882), English poet
and painter, whose full baptismal name was Gabriel Charles
Dante, was born on the I2th of May 1828, at 38 Charlotte
Street, Portland Place, London. He was the first of the two
sons and the second of the four children of Gabriele Rossetti
(1783-1854), an Italian poet and liberal, who, about 1824,
after many vicissitudes connected with the part he played in
the Naples reform movement against Ferdinand I., came to
England, where he married in 1826 Frances Mary Polidori
(d. 1886), sister of Byron's physician, Dr John Polidori, and
daughter of a Tuscan, Gaetano Polidori, who had in early
youth been Alfieri's secretary and who had married an English
lady. In 1831 he became professor of Italian in King's College,
London, and afterwards achieved a recognized position as a
subtle and original, if eccentric, commentator on Dante. In
1852 he published a volume of Italian religious poems. His
family, besides Dante Gabriel, consisted of Maria Francesca
(1827-1876), who eventually entered an Anglican sisterhood
she is known to Dante scholars by her valuable Shadow of
Dante; William Michael (b. 1829), a well-known man of
letters who from 1845 to 1894 was in the Inland Revenue
Office he married a daughter of Ford Madox Brown; and
Christina (q.v.), the poet. The literary spirit was strongly
entrenched here; and the talent which was always distinguished
in William Michael rose to the height of rare genius in Dante
Gabriel and Christina.
Dante Rossetti's education was begun at a private school
in Foley Street, Portland Place, where he remained, however,
only nine months, from the autumn of 1835 to the summer of
1836. He next went (in the autumn of 1836) to King's College
School, where he remained till the summer of 1843, having
reached the fourth class. From early childhood he had displayed
a marked propensity for drawing and painting. It had there-
fore from the first been tacitly assumed that his future career
would be an artistic one, and he left school early. In Latin,
however, he was already fairly proficient for his age; French
he knew well; Italian he had spoken from childhood, and he
had some German lessons about 1844-45. But, although he
learned enough German to be able to translate the Arme
Heinrich of Hartmann von Aue, and some portions of the
Nibelungenlied, he afterwards forgot the language almost
entirely. His Greek too, such as it had been, he lost. On
leaving school he went (1843) to Gary's Art Academy (previously
called Sass's), near Bedford Square, and thence obtained
admission to the Royal Academy Antique School towards 1846.
Of the artistic education of foreign travel Rossetti had very
little. But in early life he made a short tour in Belgium,
where he was indubitably much impressed and influenced by
the works of Van Eyck at Ghent and Memling at Bruges.
[It may be convenient to interpolate here a continuous
account of Rossetti's career as a pictorial artist. Being
much impressed by some of the early works of Ford Madox
Brown exhibited at the Academy (1841), Westminster Hall
(1844-45) and the British Institution (1845), he sought from
that master of technique technical instruction of a more direct
and stringent kind than he had previously submitted to.
Brown, ever generous in that way, undertook without a fee
the training of Rossetti as a painter, and set him to work
upon such rudimentary studies as pickle-pots and other " still-
life." The pupil's course of such work was, as might be ex-
pected, short; the master's example and that of Millais,
together with the uncompromising energy of Holman Hunt,
with both of whom Rossetti became intimate about this time,
helping and encouraging him. Most of all, perhaps, so far
as his temporary impressions were concerned, a picture of
Brown's which was shown at the " Free Exhibition," Hyde
Park Corner, in the spring of 1848 profoundly affected Rossetti.
This was, of course, months before the formation of the Pre-
Raphaelite Brotherhood in the autumn of the last-named
year, when five painter-students, a sculptor (Thomas Woolner)
and a layman (W. M. Rossetti) agreed upon certain principles
they desired should obtain in art. None of the five owed
the initiative of his views to any of the others or to Brown,
whose impulse was purely technical and connected with
Rossetti only; neither Millais, Holman Hunt, J. Collinson
nor F. G. Stephens needed the help of Madox Brown. The
point of Pre-Raphaelite crystallization which had so great
though brief an influence upon Rossetti's life and art was
found at a chance meeting of Rossetti, Millais and Holman
Hunt in Millais's house in Gower Street, where certain prints
from early Italian frescoes were studied. The enthusiasm
of Rossetti led him to propose the formation of a " Brother-
hood " with more or less definite views and much loftier aims
than artists generally venture to announce. This took effect;
the views of the remaining three men were already known,
and in a few days they joined the new society and took their
shares in the obloquy which attended the doings of Millais,
Hunt and Collinson. Brown, though invited, declined to
become a P-R.B. Rossetti's first effort was by means of " The
Girlhood of Mary, Virgin," which in March 1849 was exhibited
at Hyde Park Corner. It was a picture which attested the
prodigious value of his studies since the previous October,
and the native genius of the painter and the sincere passion
with which he had accepted the obligations of Pre-Raphaelitism,
as they were then, but not for long, understood. Nothing of
his producing was more independent than the inception of
" The Girlhood of Mary, Virgin "; indeed the design for it
was made some half a year before the meeting in Gower Street,
though the execution of this work owed not a little to the
influence, if not the actual help, of Millais and Hunt. Its
mysticism was Rossetti's own, its technique owed something
to Brown. On the whole, there can be no doubt that in this
work was the first pronouncement of a new view of art, a fresh
technique and power rapidly developing itself. . Of course,
the style of this noteworthy and epoch-marking picture was
748
ROSSETTI, D. G.
jejune, its handling was timid, while its coloration and tonality
were dry, not to say thin. Such was Rossetti's advent in art
under the Pre-Raphaelite banner. The picture's reception
was not encouraging, nor did the next work from his hands
induce him to emerge from that proud exclusiveness in which
all such minds as his are content to abide. The diverse moods
of the other Brothers chose otherwise, but of Rossetti's im-
mediate circle it has been truly said: " It appears that of
seven young men and Brethren five have attained eminent
positions, four of them being pre-eminent, although for years
after the society was formed no single member, whatever his
position might be, escaped insult, obloquy and wicked and
malicious misrepresentation. The more conspicuous the
Brother [e.g. Millais], the more outrageously was he attacked. "
No estimate of Rossetti's genius, his triumph and his life as
a whole can be justly based without ample allowance being
made for the circumstances which attended his advent as a
painter. " Ecce Ancilla Domini!" the smaller picture which
is now in the National Gallery of British Art at Millbank, was
the one perfect outcome of the original motive of the Pre-
Raphaelite Brotherhood by its representative and typical
member. It is replete with the mystical mood which then
ruled the painter's mind; that mood chose what may be
called virginal white and its harmonies as its aptest coloration,
and the intense light of morning sufficed for its tonality. It
was exhibited at the Portland Gallery in 1850. After these
pictures were finished, the outside world saw no more of Rossetti
as a painter until it had prepared itself to see modern art from
a higher plane than before.
In December 1850 there appeared the first number of The
Germ, a magazine (which lasted for only four numbers) in which
Rossetti had a leading place as the poet in verse and prose. The
influence of Robert Browning upon Rossetti was more potent
in The Germ than in that splendid romance in water-colours
called " The Laboratory," where a court lady of the ancien
regime visits an old poison-monger to obtain from him a fatal
potion for her rival in love. This wonderful gem of colour,
glowing in lurid and wicked passion and voluptuous suggestion,
marked the opening of the artist's second period and signalized
his departure from that phase of Pre-Raphaelitism of which
"Ecce Ancilla Domini!" was the crowning achievement, and,
so far as he was concerned, the artistic ne plus ultra. Millais
and the other Brothers remained faithful during several years
yet to come. Later in 1850, Rossetti produced the original,
which is in ink, of the famous " Hesterna Rosa," a gambling
scene of men and their mistresses in a tent by lamplight, while
pallid dawn gathers force between the trees without. Then
came from his hands " Borgia," which, like " The Laboratory,"
is in water-colours, and, like " Hesterna Rosa," is a sardonic
tragedy. " How they met Themselves " came next, and, in
illustrating a legend similar to that of the Doppelganger,
affirmed the force, the originality and the tragic passion of
Rossetti's genius. Two lovers are walking in a twilight wood,
where they are confronted suddenly by their apparitions, por-
tending death. The year 1852 produced " Giotto painting
Dante's Portrait," and saw a new development of the painter's
mind and mood, dashed with a humour not often to be seen in
him. In its somewhat dry coloration it differed from the ardent
jewel-like glow and deeper gloom of " Borgia " and its successor
and the sumptuous visions of womanhood in later pictures.
" Found," Rossetti's sole contribution of the sort which Mr
Holman Hunt affected, was begun somewhere about this period;
but this piece of pictorial moralizing (the analogue of the poet's
own "Jenny"), vigorous and intensely pathetic as it is, was
never really finished by its author, being, indeed, far remote
from Rossetti's inner self, which was rather over-scornful of
didactic art, and thoroughly indisposed towards attempts to
ameliorate anybody's condition by means of pictures. Nor did
the stringency of naturalistic painting suit his mood or his
experience. Nevertheless, what is his in the existing picture
remains a masterpiece of poetry with exquisitely finished parts.
Passing a few fine but comparatively unimportant drawings,
such as " Lancelot and Guinevere at the Tomb of Arthur,"
" Lancelot looking at the Dead Lady of Shalott," " Mariana
of the South," " Sir Galahad," " The Blue Closet," and various
works owing subjects to the Arthurian cycle of romances, we
may note that the artist illustrated by five cuts Poems by Alfred
Tennyson, on which Millais and Mr Holman Hunt were also
engaged, and which was published by Moxon in 1857. As in
" Ecce Ancilla Domini !" we had virginal white and morning
light employed to strengthen the mystical significance of the
design, so in " Borgia " Venetian voluptuousness and sensuous
splendours obtained, and in " The Blue Closet " is a very potent
and suggestive exercise intended to symbolize the association
of colour with music. The last is one of the subtlest of the
artist's "inventions," and it shows how he had developed upon
" Borgia " an artistic sympathy which is but too likely to be
" caviare to the general." " The Wedding of St George " is
not so fine; nor was " Lancelot's Dream of the Sangreal,"
Rossetti's part in the luckless decorations of the Oxford Union *
(1857-58); nor are " Guinevere and Sir Lancelot," " Galahad
in the Chapel " and other Arthurian examples quite worthy
of his art. " Bocca Baciata," the super-sensuous portrait of a
woman, a work of wonderful fire, and the pictures on the pulpit
at Llandaff Cathedral, marked the expiration of the second
epoch in Rossetti's art and the beginning of a new, the third,
last and most powerful of all the phases of his career. The
picture " Dr Johnson at the Mitre," when the " pretty fools "
consulted the lexicographer anent Methodism, is a good example
of his humour.
In 1 86 1 Rossetti produced several fine designs for stained
glass, and in the revival of stained-glass painting as an art he
had a larger share than has frequently been ascribed to him.
The practice of designing upon a large scale, and employment
of masses of splendid though deep-toned colours, had probably
something to do with the prodigious development of his powers
and the enlargement of his views as regards painting which took
effect at this period (1862-63). At this time a striking and
highly imaginative triptych, representing three events in the
careers of Paolo and Francesca, was produced; it is a great
improvement upon an earlier design. There is unprecedented
energy in the group of the lovers embracing in the garden-house
just as they have paused in reading the fatal romance. The
composition of this group, with the circular window behind their
figures, is as fine as it was comparatively novel hi Rossetti's.
practice. Its lurid coloration was so thoroughly in harmony
with the pathos of the subject that in this respect the work
excelled all the painter had previously produced. The same
elements, energy, a sympathetic and poetic scheme of colour, and
composition of a fine order, combined with far greater force and
originality in " The Bride," or " The Beloved," that magnificent
illustration of The Song of Solomon. The last named is a
life-size group of powerfully coloured and diversely beautiful
damsels accompanying their mistress with music and with song
on her way to the bridegroom. This picture, as regards its
brilliance, finish, the charms of four lovely faces and the
splendour of its lighting, occupies a great place in the highest
grade of modern art of all the world. It is likewise, so far as the
qualities named are concerned, the crowning piece of Rossetti's
art, and stands for him much as the " Sacred and Profane Love "
of Titian represents that master. Very fine, indeed, but hardly
so passionate and virile, is the " Beata Beatrix," now in the
National Gallery of British Art with " Ecce Ancilla Domini ! "
which he produced thirteen years earlier. These works belong
to a category of fine and quite original examples, all replete with
1 In 1857, Rossetti, when in Oxford with William Morris, con-
ceived the design of filling the bays above the gallery in the then
new Union debating room (now the library) with paintings from
the Morte d' Arthur, ariti he enlisted the co-operation of several of
his artistic circle, including Burne-Jones and William Morris, in
the work, which was begun in August. Morris's picture was " Sir
Palomides watching Tristram and Iseult," Burne-Jones's " Nimue
luring Merlin." Unfortunately the walls were too new and not
properly prepared for painting; the colour soon began to fade and
wear off, and in the course of twenty years or so the pictures
became almost indistinguishable.
ROSSETTI, D. G.
749
similar technical qualities, poetry and pathos. The group com-
prises paintings by which Rossetti is best known, such as
" Proserpina in Hades," which is, on the whole, perhaps the
most original, if not indeed the most poetical and powerful, of
all his output; " Sibylla Palmifera," " Venus Verticordia,"
" Lilith " (the better of the two versions is now referred to),
"Washing Hands," " Monna Vanna," "II Ramoscello,"
"Aurea Catena," "La Pia," "Rosa Triplex," "Veronica
Veronese," "La Ghirlandata," "Pandora," "The Blessed
Damozel," and, last and largest, but not, perhaps, the greatest
of his paintings (a distinction for which " The Bride " and
" Proserpina " must contend), the famous " Dante's Dream,"
now in the Walker Art Gallery at Liverpool. Besides these,
Rossetti produced a large number of fine things. Nearly the
whole of them were exhibited by the Royal Academy and at the
Burlington Fine Art Club in 1883, after their author's death.
(F. G. S.)]
Meanwhile, the literary side of Rossetti had developed pari
passu with his achievements as a painter. The goal before
the young Rossetti's eyes was to reach through art the forgotten
world of old romance that world of wonder and mystery and
spiritual beauty which the old masters knew and could have
painted had not lack of science, combined with slavery to
monkish traditions of asceticism, crippled their strength. In
that great rebellion against the renascence of classicism which
(after working much good and much harm) resulted in i8th-
century materialism in that great movement of man's soul
which may be appropriately named " the Renascence of the
Spirit of Wonder in Poetry and Art " he had become the
acknowledged * protagonist before ever the Pre-Raphaelite
brotherhood was founded, and so he remained down to his
last breath. It was by inevitable instinct that Rossetti turned
to that mysterious side of nature and man's life which to other
painters of his time had been a mere fancy-land, to be visited,
if at all, on the wings of sport. For if there is any permanent
vitality in the Renascence of Wonder in modern Europe, if
it is really the inevitable expression of the soul of man in a
certain stage of civilization (when the sanctions which have
made and moulded society are found to be not absolute and
eternal, but relative, mundane, ephemeral and subject to the
higher sanctions of unseen powers that work behind " the
shows of things "), then perhaps one of the first questions to
ask in regard to any imaginative painter of the ipth century is,
In what relation did he stand to the newly awakened spirit
of romance ? Had he a genuine and independent sympathy
with that temper of wonder and mystery which all over Europe
had preceded and now followed the temper of imitation, prosaic
acceptance, pseudo-classicism and domestic materialism? or
was his apparent sympathy with the temper of wonder, rever-
ence and awe the result of artistic environment dictated to
him by other and more powerful and original souls around
him?
We do not say that the mere fact of a painter's or a poet's
showing but an imperfect sympathy with the Renascence
of Wonder is sufficient to place him below a poet in whom
that sympathy is more nearly complete, but we do say that,
other things being equal or anything like equal, a painter or
poet of this time is to be judged very much by his sympathy
with that great movement, which we call the Renascence of
Wonder because the word " romanticism " never did express
it even before it had been vulgarized by French poets, drama-
tists, doctrinaires and literary harlequins. To struggle against
the prim traditions of the i8th century, the unities of Aristotle,
the delineation of types instead of characters, as Chateau-
briand, Madame de Stael, Balzac and Hugo struggled, was
well. But in studying Rossetti's works we reach the very key
of those " high palaces of romance " which the English mind
had never, even in the i8th century, wholly forgotten, but
whose mystic gates no Frenchman ever yet unlocked. Not
all the romantic feeling to be found in all the French roman-
ticists (with their theory that not earnestness but the gro-
tesque is the life-blood of romance) could equal the romantic
spirit expressed in a single picture or drawing of Rossetti's,
such, for instance, as Beata Beatrix or Pandora. For, while
the French romanticists inspired by the theories (drawn
from English exemplars) of Novalis, Tieck and Herder
cleverly simulated the old romantic feeling, the " beautifully
devotional feeling " which Holman Hunt speaks of, Rossetti
was steeped in it: he was so full of the old frank childlike
wonder and awe which preceded the great renascence of mate-
rialism that he might have lived and worked amidst the old
masters. Hence, in point of design, so original is he that to
match such ideas as are expressed in " Lilith," " Hesterna Rosa,"
" Michael Scott's Wooing," the " Sea Spell," &c., we have to turn
to the sister art of poetry, where only we can find an equally
powerful artistic representation of the idea at the core of the
old romanticism the idea of the evil forces of nature assailing
man through his sense of beauty. We must turn, we say,
not to art not even to the old masters themselves but to
the most perfect efflorescence of the poetry of wonder and
mystery to such ballads as the " Demon Lover," to Coleridge's
" Christabel " and " Kubla Khan," to Keats's " La Belle Dame
sans Merci," for parallels to Rossetti's most characteristic
designs. Now, although the idea at the heart of the highest
romantic poetry (allied perhaps to that apprehension of the
warring of man's soul with the appetites of the flesh which
is the basis of the Christian idea) may not belong exclusively
to what we call the romantic temper (the Greeks, and also
most Asiatic peoples, were more or less familiar with it, as we
see in the Saldmdn and Absal of Jami), yet it became peculiarly
a romantic note, as is seen from the fact that .in the old masters
it resulted in that asceticism which is its logical expression
and which was once an inseparable incident of all romantic
art. But in order to express this stupendous idea as fully
as the poets have expressed it, how is it possible to adopt the
asceticism of the old masters ? This is the question that
Rossetti asked himself, and answered by his own progress in
art. In all of his pictures, the poorest and the best, is dis-
played that power which Blake calls vision the power which,
as he finely says, is " surrounded by the daughters of inspira-
tion," the power, that is, of seeing imaginary objects and
dramatic actions physically seeing them as well as mentally
and flashing them upon the imaginations (even upon the cor-
poreal senses) of others.
Mr W. M. Rossetti (in the Preface to the Collected Works,
1886) has given an interesting account of his brother's literary
nurturing. Shakespeare, Walter Scott, Byron, the Bible
were the earliest influences: then Shelley, Mrs Browning,
the older English and Scottish ballads, and Dante. After-
wards he preferred Keats to Shelley. By 1847 he was " deep
in Robert Browning." Malory's Morte d' Arthur, about 1856,
engrossed him; Victor Hugo and De Musset, among French
poets, were his delight. In his last years he had an enthusiasm
for Chatterton. From childhood's days he had loved to com-
pose, but The Germ (1850) contained Rossetti's first pub-
lished prose or verse. In it appeared " The Blessed Damozel,"
the prose poem " Hand and Soul," six sonnets and four lyrics.
" The Blessed Damozel " was written so early as 1847 or
1848. " Sister Helen " was produced in its original form in
1850 or 1851. His translations from the early Italian poets
also began as far back as 1845 or 1846, and may have been
mainly completed by 1849. He published a volume of The
Early Italian Poets (Dante and his Circle) in 1861. In 1856
he contributed to the Oxford and Cambridge Magazine, in
which among other things the " Burden of Nineveh " appeared.
Materials for a volume of original poetry accumulated slowly,
and these having been somewhat widely read in manuscript
had a very great influence upon contemporary poetic litera-
ture long before their appearance in print. He had intended
to publish a volume in 1862, but the death of his wife (see
below) caused its postponement till 1870. In poetry no less
than in art what makes Rossetti so important a figure is the
position he took up with regard to the modern revival of the
" romantic " spirit. The Renascence of Wonder culminates
750
ROSSETTI, D. G.
in Rossetti's poetry as it culminates in his painting. The
poet who should go beyond Rossetti would pass out of the
realm of poetry into pure mysticism, as certain of his sonnets
show. Fine as are the sonnets (of which the sonnet sequence,
the " House of Life," in the 1881 volume, may be specially men-
tioned), it is in his romantic ballads that Rossetti (notwith-
standing a certain ruggedness of movement) shows his greatest
strength. " Sister Helen," " The Blessed Damozel," " Staff and
Scrip," " Eden Bower," " Troy Town," " Rose Mary," as re-
presenting the modern revival of the true romantic spirit, take
a place quite apart from the other poetry of the time.
Rossetti's poetry, and his prose too, is marked by an extra-
ordinary fastidiousness of expression and beauty of diction;
the form and colour of his style are alike marvellous in clear-
ness and loveliness of language. But the dominant character-
istic, after all, is the underlying idea, the romantic motive.
By the revival of the romantic spirit in English poetry we
mean something much more than the revival, at the close of
the 1 8th century, of natural language, the change discussed
by Wordsworth in his famous Preface, and by Coleridge in
his comments thereon that change of diction and of poetic
methods which is commonly supposed to have arisen with
Cowper, or, if not with Cowper, with Burns. The truth is
that Wordsworth and Coleridge were too near the great changes
in question, and they themselves took too active a part in
those changes, to hold the historical view of what the changes
really were. Important as was the change in poetic methods
which they so admirably practised and discussed, important
as was the revival of natural language, which then set in, it
was not nearly so important as that other revival which had
begun earlier and of which it was the outcome the revival
of the romantic spirit, the Renascence of Wonder, even beneath
the weight of iSth-century diction, the first movement of
which is certainly English, and neither German nor French
in its origin, and can be traced through Chatterton, Macpherson
and the Percy Ballads.
As a mere question of methods, a reaction against the poetic
diction of Pope and his followers was inevitable. But, in dis-
cussing the romantic temper in relation to the overthrow of the
bastard classicism and didactic materialism of the i8th century,
we must go deeper than mere artistic methods in poetry ^ When
closely examined, it is in method only that the poetry of Cowper
is different from the ratiocinative and unromantic poetry of
Dryden and Pope and their followers. Pope treated prose sub-
jects in the ratiocinative that is to say, the prose temper,
but in a highly artificial diction which people agreed to call
poetic. Cowper treated prose subjects too treated them in
the same prose temper, but used natural language; a noble
thing to do, no doubt. But this was only a part (and by no
means the chief part) of the great work achieved by English
poetry at the close of last century. That period, to be sure,
rendered obsolete the poetic diction of Pope; but it introduced
something more precious still entire freedom from the hard
rhetorical materialism imported from France; it gave a new
seeing to English eyes, which were opened once more to the
mystery and the wonder of the universe and the romance of
man's destiny; it revived, in short, the romantic spirit, but the
romantic spirit enriched by all the clarity and sanity that the
renascence of classicism was able to lend. Of the great move-
ment which substituted for the didactic materialism of the
1 8th century the new romanticism of the ipth, the leaders were
Coleridge and Scott, admirably followed by Byron, Shelley
and Keats. Not that Wordsworth was a stranger to the
romantic temper. The magnificent image of Time and Death
under the yew tree is worthy of any romantic poet that ever
lived, yet it cannot be said that he escaped save at moments
from the comfortable iSth-century didactics, or that he was a
spiritual writer in the sense that Coleridge, Blake and Shelley
were spiritual writers.
Of the true romantic feeling, the ever-present apprehension of
the spiritual world and of that struggle of the soul with earthly
conditions which we have before spoken of, Rossetti's poetry
is as full as his pictures so full, indeed, that it was misunderstood
by certain critics, who found in the most spiritualistic of poets
and painters the founder of a " fleshly school." Although it
cannot be said that " The Blessed Damozel " or " Sister Helen "
or " Rose Mary " reaches to the height of the masterpieces of
Coleridge, the purely romantic temper was with Rossetti a more
permanent and even a more natural temper than with any
other igth-century poet, even including the author of " Christa-
bel " himself. As to the other 19th-century poets, though the
Ettrick Shepherd in " The Queen's Wake " shows plenty of the
true feeling, Hogg's verbosity is too great to allow of really suc-
cessful work in the field of romantic ballad, where concentrated
energy is one of the first requisites. And even Dobell's " Keith of
Ravelston " has hardly been fused in the fine atmosphere of fairy-
land. Byron's "footlight bogies" and Shelley's metaphysical
abstractions had of course but very little to do with the inner
core of romance, and we have only to consider Keats, to whose
" La Belle Dame sans Merci " and " Eve of St Mark " Rossetti
always acknowledged himself to be deeply indebted. In the
famous close of the seventh stanza of the " Ode to a Nightin-
gale "
" Charmed magic casements opening on the foam
Of perilous seas in faery lands forlorn "
there is of course the true thrill of the poetry of wonder, and it
is expressed with a music, a startling magic, above the highest
reaches of Rossetti's poetry. But, without the evidence of Keats's
two late poems, " La Belle Dame sans Merci " and the " Eve of
St Mark," who could have said that Keats showed more than a
passing apprehension of that which is the basis of the romantic
temper the supernatural ? In contrasting Keats with Rossetti,
it must always be remembered that Keats's power over the
poetry of wonder came to him at one flash, and that it was not
(as we have said elsewhere) " till late in his brief life that his
bark was running full sail for the enchanted isle where the old
ballad writers once sang and where now sate the wizard Coleridge
alone." Though outside Coleridge's work there had been
nothing in the poetry of wonder comparable with Keats's " La
Belle Dame sans Merci," the latter had previously in "Lamia"
entirely failed in rendering the romantic idea of beauty as a
maleficent power. The reader, owing to the atmosphere sur-
rounding the dramatic action being entirely classic, does not
believe for a moment in the serpent woman. The classic
accessories suggested by Burton's brief narrative hampered
Keats where to Rossetti (as we see in " Pandora," " Cassandra"
and " Troy Town ") they would simply have given birth to
romantic ideas. It is perhaps with Coleridge alone that Rossetti
can be compared as a worker in the Renascence of Wonder.
Although his apparent lack of rhythmic spontaneity places him
below the great master as a singer (for in these miracles of
Coleridge's genius poetry ceases to appear as a fine art at all
it is the inspired song of the changeling child " singing,
dancing to itself "), in permanence of the romantic feeling,
in vitality of belief in the power of the unseen, Rossetti stands
alone. Even the finest portions of his historical ballad " The
King's Tragedy " are those which deal with the supernatural.
The events of Rossetti's life may be briefly summarized. In
the spring of 1860 he married Elizabeth Eleanor Siddall, a
milliner's assistant, who, being very beautiful, was constantly
painted and drawn by him. From 1856 onwards he had been
very intimate with William Morris and Edward Burne- Jones,
who had the greatest affection and artistic admiration for him.
Mrs Rossetti, whose health was delicate, had one still-born
child in 1861, and she died from an overdose of laudanum in
February 1862. Rossetti then moved from Blackfriars to
16 Cheyne Walk, Chelsea, where for a short time George
Meredith, A. C. Swinburne and W. M. Rossetti lived with him.
Mrs Rossetti's own water-colour designs show an extraordinary
genius for invention and a rare instinct for colour. Rossetti
felt her death so acutely that in the first paroxysm of his
grief he insisted upon his poems (then in manuscript) being
buried in her coffin. But in 1869 the manuscripts were disin-
terred, and published in 1870. From this time to his death he
ROSSI, LUIGI DE ROSSINI
continued to write poems and produce pictures in the latter
relying more and more upon his manipulative skill but exercising
less and less his exhaustless faculty of invention.
In 1871 an unsigned article in the Contemporary Review (by
Robert Buchanan) on the " Fleshly School of Poetry " made a
fierce attack on Rossetti's poems from what was intended to be
a moral point of view, to which he answered by one on the
" Stealthy School of Criticism." The attack was deeply felt by
him, and increased his tendency previously tempered by natural
high spirits towards gloomy brooding. About 1868 the curse
of the artistic and poetic temperament, insomnia, attacked
him. One of the most distressing effects of this malady is a
nervous shrinking from personal contact with any save a few
intimate and constantly seen friends. This peculiar kind of
nervousness may be aggravated by the use of narcotics, and in
his case was aggravated to a very painful degree; at one time
he saw scarcely any one save his own family and immediate
family connexions and the present writer. He was frequently
away with William Morris at Kelmscot, in Oxfordshire. During
the time that his second volume of original poetry, Ballads
and Sonnets, was passing through the press (in 1881) his health
began to give way, and he left London for Cumberland. A
stay of a few weeks in the Vale of St John, however, did nothing
to improve his health, and he returned much shattered. He
then went to Birchington-on-Sea, but received no benefit from
the change, though affectionately tended by friends like Hall
Caine and others already mentioned; and, gradually sinking
from a complication of disorders, he died on Sunday the 9th
of April 1882.
In all matters of taste Rossetti's influence has been immense.
The purely decorative arts (see ARTS AND CRAFTS) he may be
said to have rejuvenated directly or indirectly. And he left
the deepest impression upon the poetic methods of his time.
One of the most wonderful of Rossetti's endowments, how-
ever, was neither of a literary nor an artistic kind: it was that
of a rare and most winning personality which attracted towards
itself, as if by an unconscious magnetism, the love of all his
friends, the love, indeed, of all who knew him. (T. W.-D.)
AUTHORITIES. See various books by W. M. Rossetti Dante
Gabriel Rossetti as Designer and Writer (1889); Ruskin, Rossetti,
Pre-Raphaelitism (1899); and Some Reminiscences (1906); Memoir
by W. M. Rossetti prefixed to the Collected Works, published in
1886. Lady Burne-Jones's Memorials of Edward Burnt-Jones
(1904) is full of interesting sidelights. See also F. G. Stephens,
D. G. Rossetti; "Portfolio" monograph (1894); H. C. Marillier,
D. G. Rossetti (1899 and 1901); W. Sharp, Dante Gabriel Rossetti:
A Record and a Study (1882); T. Hall Came, Recollections of Dante
Gabriel Rossetti (1882); W. Allingham, Letters of Dante Gabriel
Rossetti to William Allingham, 1854-70 (1897). An article by Vernon
Lushington in the Oxford and Cambridge Magazine (1856) is an early
contemporary view worth noting.
ROSSI, LUIGI DE, a 17th-century Italian musical composer,
said to have been born at Naples towards the close of the i6th
century. Of his life practically nothing is known. An opera
of his, II Palazzo Incantato, was given at Rome in 1642; in
1646 he was invited by Cardinal Mazarin to Paris, where he
gave his opera Le Manage d'Orphee et d'Euridice (1647), the
first Italian opera performed in Paris. A collection of cantatas
published in 1646 describes him as musician to Cardinal Antonio
Berberini, and G. A. Perti in 1688 speaks of him along with
Carissimi and Cesti as " the three greatest lights of our pro-
fession." Rossi is noteworthy principally for his chamber-
cantatas, which are among the finest that the I7th century
produced. A large quantity are in MS. in the British Museum
and in Christ Church library, Oxford. La Gelosia, printed
by F.A. Gevaert in Les Gloires d'llalie, is an admirable specimen.
ROSSI, PELLEGRINO LUIGI EDOARDO, COUNT (1787-1848),
Italian economist and statesman, was born at Carrara on the
I3th of July 1787. He was educated at Pavia and Bologna,
and in 1812 became professor of law at the latter university.
In 1815 he gave his support to Joachim Murat, and after his
fall escaped to France, whence he proceeded to Geneva. There
he began a course of jurisprudence applied to Roman law, the
success of which gained him the unusual honour of natural-
ization as a citizen of Geneva. In 1820 he was elected as a
deputy to the cantonal council, and was a member of the extra-
ordinary diet of 1832. He was entrusted with the task of
drawing up a revised constitution, which was known as the
Pacte Rossi. This was rejected by a majority of the diet, a
result which deeply affected Rossi, and induced him to look
with favour on the suggestions of Guizot and the due de Broglie
that he should settle in France. He was appointed in 1833 to
the chair of political economy in the College de France, vacated
by the death of J. B. Say. He was naturalized as a French
citizen in 1834, and in the same year became professor of
constitutional law in the faculty of law at Paris. In 1836 he
was elected a member of the Academic des sciences politiques
et morales, was raised to the peerage in 1839 and in 1843 became
doyen of the faculty of law. In 1845 he was sent to Rome by
Guizot to discuss the question of the Jesuits, being finally
appointed ambassador of France at Rome. The revolution
of 1848 severed his connexion with France, and he remained
at Rome and became minister of the interior under Pius IX.
He was unpopular, however, owing to his conservative views,
and was assassinated on the isth of November, as he was
alighting at the steps of the House of Assembly.
As a statesman, Rossi was a man of signal ability and intrepid
character, but it is as an economist that his name will be best
remembered. His Cours d'economie politique (1838-54) gave in
classic form an exposition of the doctrines of Say, Malthus and
Ricardo. His other works were Traite de droit penal (1829); Cpurs
de droit constitutional (1866-67), a d Melanges d'economie politique,
d'histoire et de philosophie (2 vols., 1857). His widow left a sum of
100,000 francs to the Institut de France, to found in his memory
scholarships in political economy or law. Carrara erected a statue
to his memory in 1876, and in 1887 the Societt d'economie politique
celebrated his centenary with a notice of his life and works.
See also le Comte Fleury d'Ideville, Le Comte Pellegrino Rossi,
sa vie, ses asuvres, sa mart (1887).
ROSSINI, GIOACHINO ANTONIO (1792-1868), Italian musical
composer, was born at Pesaro on the 2gth of February 1792.
His father was town trumpeter and inspector of slaughter-
houses, his mother a baker's daughter. The elder Rossini's
sympathies for the French became a source of trouble when,
after the occupation of the papal state by the French in 1796,
the Austrians restored the old regime. He was sent to prison,
and his wife took Gioachino to Bologna, earning her living
as a prima donna buffa at various theatres of the Romagna,
where she was ultimately rejoined by her husband. Gioachino
remained at Bologna in the care of a pork butcher, while his
father played the horn in the bands of the theatres at which
his mother sang. The boy had three years' instruction in the
harpsichord from Prinetti of Novara, but Prinetti played the
scale with two fingers only, combined his profession of a musician
with the business of selling liquor, and fell asleep while he
stood, so that he was a fit subject for ridicule with his critical
pupil. Gioachino was taken from him and apprenticed to a
smith. In Angelo Tesei he found a congenial master, and
learned to read at sight, to play accompaniments on the piano-
forte, and to sing well enough to take solo parts in the church
when he was ten years of age. At thirteen he appeared at
the theatre of the Commune in Paer's Camilla his only appear-
ance as a public singer (1805). He was also able to play the
horn. In 1807 he was admitted to the counterpoint class of
Padre P. S. Mattel, and soon after to that of Cavedagni for
the 'cello at the Conservatorio of Bologna. He learned to
play the 'cello with ease, but the pedantic severity of Mattel's
views on counterpoint only served to accentuate the tendency
of his genius towards a freer school of composition, and his
insight into orchestral resources is to be ascribed rather to
knowledge gained by scoring the quartets and symphonies of
Haydn and Mozart, than to any prescribed rules for the com-
position of music. At Bologna he was known as " il Tedes-
chino " on account of his devotion to Mozart. Through the
friendly interposition of the Marquis Cavalli, his first opera,
La Cambiale di Matrimonio, was produced at Venice when he
was a youth of eighteen. But two years before this he had
already received the prize at the Conservatorio of Bologna
752
ROSSLAND ROSSLYN, EARLS OF
for his cantata // pianlo d' armonia per la morte d'Orfeo. Be-
tween 1810 and 1813, at Bologna, Rome, Venice and Milan,
Rossini produced operas of which the successes were varying.
All memory of them is eclipsed in that of Tancredi. The libretto
was an arrangement of Voltaire's tragedy by J. A. Rossi. Traces
of Pae'r and Paisiello were undeniably present in fragments
of the music. But all critical feeling on the part of the public
was drowned in the effect of sweetness and clarity produced
by such melodies as " Mi rivedrai, ti rivedro " and " Di tanti
palpiti," the former of which became so popular that the
Italians would sing it in crowds at the law courts until called
upon by the judge to desist. Rossini continued to write operas
for Venice and Milan during the next few years, but their recep-
tion was tame and in some cases unsatisfactory after the success
of Tancredi. In 1815 he retired to his home at Bologna, where
Barbaja, the impresario of the Naples theatre, who had once
been a waiter in a coffee-house and now combined the business
of theatrical management with that of farming the public
gaming-tables, concluded an agreement with him by which
he was to take the musical direction of the Teatro San Carlo
and the Teatro Del Fondo at Naples, composing for each of
them one opera a year. His payment was to be 200 ducats
(about 35 or $175) per month; he was also to receive a share
in the gaming-tables amounting to about 1000 ducats (175 or
$875) per annum. The presence of Zingarelli and Paisiello
in Naples was an incentive to intrigue against the success of
the youthful composer, but all hostility was made futile by
the enthusiasm which greeted the court performance of his
Elisabetta regina d' Inghilterra, in which Isabella Colbran, who
subsequently became the composer's wife, took a leading part.
The libretto of this opera by Schmidt was in many of its inci-
dents an anticipation of those presented to the world a few
years later in Scott's Kenilworth. The opera was the first
in which Rossini wrote the ornaments of the airs instead of
leaving them to the fancy of the singers, and also the first in
which the recitative secco was replaced by a recitative accom-
panied by a quartet of strings. In Almaviva, produced in
the beginning of the next year in Rome, the libretto, a version
of Beaumarchais' Barbier de Seville by Sterbini, was the same
as that already used by Paisiello in his Barbier e, an opera
which had enjoyed European popularity for more than a quarter
of a century. The indignation of Paisiello's admirers expressed
itself strongly on the production of the new setting, but in
the thirteen days devoted to the composition of his Almaviva,,
Rossini had created such a masterpiece of musical comedy
that the fame of Paisiello's opera was transferred to his, to
which the title of // Barbiere di Siviglia passed as an inalien-
able heritage. Between 1815 and 1823 Rossini produced
twenty operas. Of these Otello formed the climax to his reform
of serious opera, and offers a suggestive contrast with the treat-
ment of the same subject at a similar point of artistic develop-
ment by the composer Verdi. In Rossini's time the tragic
close was so distasteful to the public of Rome that it was neces-
sary to invent a happy conclusion to Otello; and there are still
places in Italy in which the Shakespearian end of the story can
never be performed without interruption from the audience,
who warn Desdemona of Otello's deadly approach. Conditions
of stage mechanism in 1817 are illustrated by Rossini's accept-
ance of the subject of Cinderella for a libretto only on the con-
dition that the supernatural element should be omitted. The
opera Cenerentola is to be ranked with the Barbiere. The
absence of a similar precaution in the construction of his Mose
in Egitto led to disaster in the scene depicting the passage of
the Israelites through the Red Sea, when the defects in stage
contrivance always raised a laugh, so that the composer was
at length compelled to introduce the chorus " Dal tuo stellate
Soglio " to divert attention from the dividing waves. In 1821,
three years after the production of this work, Rossini married
Isabella Colbran. In 1822 he directed his Cenerentola in
Vienna, where Zelmira was also performed. After this he
returned to Bologna; but an invitation from Prince Metter-
nich to come to Verona and " assist in the general re-establish-
ment of harmony " was too tempting to be refused, and he
arrived at the Congress in time for its opening on the 2oth of
October 1822. Here he made friends with Chateaubriand and
Madame de Lieven. In 1823, at the suggestion of the manager
of the King's Theatre, London, he came to England, being
much fted on his way through Paris. In England he was
given a generous welcome, which included an introduction
to King George IV. and the receipt of 7000 after a residence
of five months. In 1824 he became musical director of the
Theatre Italien in Paris at a salary of 800 per annum, and
when the agreement came to an end he was rewarded with
the offices of chief composer to the king and inspector-general
of singing in France, to which was attached the same income.
The production of his Guillaume Tell in 1829 brought his career
as a writer of opera to a close. The libretto was by Etienne
Jouy and Hippolyte Bis, but their version was revised by
Armand Marrast. The music is remarkable for its freedom
from the conventions discovered and utilized by Rossini in his
earlier works, and marks a transitional stage in the history of
opera. In 1829 he returned to Bologna. His mother had
died in 1827, and he was anxious to be with his father. Arrange-
ments for his subsequent return to Paris on a new agreement
were upset by the abdication of Charles X. and the July Revolu-
tion of 1830. Rossini, who had been considering the subject
of Faust for a new opera, returned, however, to Paris in the
November of that year. Six movements of his Stabat Mater
were written in 1832 and the rest in 1839, the year of his father's
death, and the success of the work bears comparison with his
achievements in opera; but his comparative silence during
the period from 1832 to 1868 makes his biography appear
almost like the narrative of two lives the life of swift triumph,
and the long life of seclusion, of which the biographers give us
pictures in stories of the composer's cynical wit, his speculations
in fish culture, his mask of humility and indifference. His
first wife died in 1845, and political disturbances in the
Romagna compelled him to leave Bologna in 1847, the year
of his second marriage with Olympe Pelissier, who had sat to
Vernet for his picture of " Judith and Hdlofernes." After living
for a time in Florence he settled in Paris in 1855, where his
house was a centre of artistic society. He died at his country
house at Passy on the i3th of November 1868. He was a
foreign associate of the Institute, grand officer of the Legion
of Honour, and the recipient of innumerable orders. In his
compositions Rossini plagiarized even more freely from him-
self than from other musicians, and few of his operas are without
such admixtures frankly introduced in the form of arias or
overtures. A characteristic mannerism in his musical writing
earned for him the nickname of " Monsieur Crescendo." His
music is associated with the names of the greatest singers in
lyrical drama, such as Tamburini, Mario, Rubini, Delle Sedie,
Albani, Grisi, Patti and Nilsson.
ROSSLAND, an important city in the Kootenay district of
British Columbia, incorporated in 1897. Pop. (1907) 4033. It
is situated in a valley 7 m. W. of Trail on the Columbia river
and 8 m. N. of the international boundary. It has direct
railroad communication with Trail and the Arrow lakes as well
as with Northport and Spokane in the state of Washington.
Rossland owes its importance to the immense deposits of iron
and copper pyrites carrying gold, which occur in the vicinity.
The best-known mines are the Le Roy, Centre Star and War
Eagle. The city derives its electric light and power service
from Bonnington Falls on the Kootenay river.
ROSSLAU, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Anhalt, on
the right bank of the Elbe, here crossed by two railway bridges,
3 m. by rail N. of Dessau and 35 m. S.E. of Magdeburg. Pop.
(1905) 11,027. It has a ducal residence, an old castle, a hand-
some parish church, and manufactures of machinery, paper,
sealing-wax, wire goods, sugar, bricks and chemicals. Rosslau
became a town in 1603.
ROSSLYN, EARLS OF. The first earl of Rosslyn was Alex-
ander Wedderburn (see below), who was succeeded by his
nephew, James St Clair Erskine (1762-1837), a son of
ROSSLYN, IST EARL OF ROSSTREVOR
753
Wedderburn's sister Janet by her marriage with Sir Henry
Erskine (d. 1765), a Scottish baronet and soldier. Entering the
army in 1776, James Erskine served in Portugal, in Denmark and
in the Netherlands, and became a general in 1814. From 1782
until 1805, when he became a peer, he was a member of parlia-
ment ; a Tory politician and an associate of the duke of Welling-
ton, he was lord privy seal in 1820-30 and lord president of
the council in 1834-35. He inherited the estates of the family
of St Clair and took this name in 1789, and he died on the
i8th of January 1837. His son, James Alexander (1802-1866),
became 3rd earl, and in 1890 the latter's grandson, James
Francis Harry (b. 1869), became 5th earl.
ROSSLYN, ALEXANDER WEDDERBURN, IST EARL OF
( I 733-i8os), Lord Chancellor of Great Britain, was the eldest son
of Peter Wedderburn (a lord of session as Lord Chesterhall), and
was born in East Lothian on the I3th of February 1733. He
acquired the rudiments of his education at Dalkeith, and in
his fourteenth year matriculated at the university of Edinburgh.
It was from the first his desire to practise at the English bar,
though in deference to his father's wishes he qualified as an
advocate at Edinburgh, in 1754, but entered himself at the
Inner Temple on the 8th of May 1753, so that he might keep
the Easter and Trinity terms in that year. His father was
called to the bench in 1755, and for the next three years Wedder-
burn stuck to his practice in Edinburgh, during which period
he employed his oratorical powers in the General Assembly of
the Church of Scotland, and passed his evenings in the social
and argumentative clubs which abound in Edinburgh. In 1755
the precursor of the later Edinburgh Review was started, now
chiefly remembered because in its pages Adam Smith criticized
the dictionary of Dr Johnson, and because the contents of its
two numbers were edited by Wedderburn. The dean of facility
at this time, Lockhart, afterwards Lord Covington, a lawyer
notorious for his harsh demeanour, in the autumn of 1757
assailed Wedderburn with more than ordinary insolence. His
victim retorted with extraordinary powers of invective, and
on being rebuked by the bench declined to retract or apologize,
but placed his gown upon the table, and with a low bow left
the court for ever. He was called to the English bar at the
Inner Temple in 1757. To shake off his native accent and to
acquire the graces of oratorical action, he engaged the services
of Thomas Sheridan and Charles Macklin, To secure business
and to conduct his cases with adequate knowledge, he studied
the forms of English law, he solicited William Strahan, the
printer, " to get him employed in city causes," and he entered
into social intercourse (as is noted in Alexander Carlyle's
autobiography) with busy London solicitors. His local connex-
ions and the incidents of his previous career introduced him to
the notice of his countrymen Lords Bute and Mansfield. When
Lord Bute was prime minister this legal satellite used, says Dr
Johnson, to go on errands for him, and it is to Wedderburn's
credit that he first suggested to the premier the propriety of
granting Johnson a pension. Through the favour of Lord Bute,
he was returned to parliament for the Ayr burghs in 1761. In
1763 he became king's counsel and bencher of Lincoln's Inn,
and for a short time went the northern circuits, but was more
successful in obtaining business in the Court of Chancery. He
obtained a considerable addition to his resources (Carlyle puts
the amount at 10,000) on his marriage in 1767 to Betty Anne,
sole child and heiress of John Dawson of Marly in Yorkshire.
When George Grenville, whose principles leaned to Toryism,
quarrelled with the court, Wedderburn affected to regard him
as his leader in politics. At the dissolution in the spring of
1768 he was returned by Sir Lawrence Dundas for Richmond as
a Tory, but in the questions that arose over John Wilkes (<?..)
he took the popular side of " Wilkes and liberty," and resigned
his seat in May 1769. In the opinion of the people he was now
regarded as the embodiment of all legal virtue; his health
was toasted at the dinners of the Whigs amid rounds of applause,
and, in recompense for the loss of his seat in parliament, he was
returned by Lord Clive for his pocket-borough of Bishop's
Castle, in Shropshire, in January 1770. During the next session
he acted vigorously in opposition, but his conduct was always
viewed with distrust by his new associates, and his attacks
on the ministry of Lord North grew less and less animated
in proportion to its apparent fixity of tenure. In January 1771
he was offered and accepted the post of solicitor-general. The
high road to the woolsack was now open, but his defection from
his former path has stamped his character with general infamy.
Junius wrote of him, " As for Mr Wedderburn, there is some-
thing about him which even treachery cannot trust," and Colonel
Barre attacked him in the House of Commons. The new law
officer defended his conduct with the assertion that his alliance
in politics had been with Mr George Grenville, and that the
connexion had been severed on his death. All through the
American War he consistently declaimed against the colonies,
and he was bitter in his attack on Benjamin Franklin (q.v.)
before the Privy Council. In June 1778 Wedderburn was
promoted to the post of attorney-general, and in the same year
he refused the dignity of chief baron of the exchequer because
the offer was not accompanied by the promise of a peerage.
At the dissolution in 1774 he had been returned for Okehampton
in Devonshire, and for Castle Rising in Norfolk, and selected
the former constituency; on his promotion as leading law officer
of the crown he returned to Bishop's Castle. The coveted
peerage was not long delayed. In June 1780 he was created
chief justice of the Court of Common Pleas, with the title of
Baron Loughborough.
During the existence of the coalition ministry of North and
Fox, the great seal was in commission (April to December 1783),
and Lord Loughborough held the leading . place among the
commissioners. For some time after that ministry's fall he
was considered the leader of the Whig party in the House of
Lords, and, had the illness of the king brought about the return
of the Whigs to power, the great seal would have been placed
in his hands. The king's restoration to health secured Pitt's
continuance in office, and disappointed the expectations of
the Whigs. In 1792, during the period of the French Revolu-
tion, Lord Loughborough seceded from Fox, and on the 28th
of January 1793 he received the great seal in the Tory cabinet
of Pitt. The resignation of Pitt on the question of Catholic
emancipation (1801) put an end to Wedderburn's tenure of the
Lord Chancellorship, for, much to his surprise, no place was
found for him in Addington's cabinet. His first wife died in
1781 without leaving issue, and he married in the following
year Charlotte, youngest daughter of William, Viscount
Court enay; but her only son died in childhood. Lord Lough-
borough accordingly obtained in 1795 a re-grant of his barony
with remainder to his nephew, Sir James St Clair Erskine.
His fall in 1801 was softened by the grant of an earldom (he
was created earl of Rosslyn 2ist April 1801, with remainder
to his nephew), and by a pension of 4000 per annum. After
this date he rarely appeared in public, but he was a constant
figure at all the royal festivities. He attended one of those
gatherings at Frogmore, on the 3ist of December 1804. On the
following day he was seized with an attack of gout in the stomach,
and on the 2nd of January 1805 he died at his seat, Baylis.
near Salt Hill, Windsor. His remains were buried in St Paul's
Cathedral on the nth of January.
At the bar Wedderburn was the most elegant speaker of his time,
and, although his knowledge of the principles and precedents of
law was deficient, his skill in marshalling facts and his clearness of
diction were marvellous; on the bench his judgments were remark-
able for their perspicuity, particularly in the appeal _ cases to the
House of Lords. For cool and sustained declamation he stood
unrivalled in parliament, and his readiness in debate was universally
acknowledged. In social life, in the company of the wits and writers
of his day, his faculties seemed to desert him. He was not only
dull, but the cause of dulness in others, and even Alexander Carlyle
confesses that in conversation his illustrious countryman was " stiff
and pompous." In Wedderburn's character ambition banished all
rectitude of principle, but the love of money for money's sake was not
among his faults.
See Brougham's Statesmen of the Reign of George III.; Foss's
Judges; Campbell's Lives of Lord Chancellors. (W. P. C-.)
ROSSTREVOR, a watering-place of county Down, Ireland, on
Carlingford Lough. See WARRENPOINT.
754
ROSSWEIN ROSTOPTSCHIN
ROSSWEIN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony,
situated on the Freiberger Mulde, 46 m. S.E. from Leipzig by
the railway via Dobeln to Dresden. Pop. (1905) 9297. It
is famous for its technical schools, among which are one for
builders, another for furniture-makers, and a third for iron-
mongers. The industries are considerable, and include woollen
and cloth manufactures, dyeing, spinning, and the making of
agricultural machinery, cigars, chemicals, bricks and iron
goods. Rosswein is an old town, cloth-making being a flourish-
ing industry here in the i4th century.
See C. V. Bohmert, Die Stadt Rosswein, l88i-Q4 (Dresden,
1895).
ROSTAND, EDMOND (1869- ), French dramatist, was
born on the ist of April 1860, the son of Joseph Eugene Herbert
Rostand (b. 1843), a prominent journalist and economist of
Marseilles. His first play, a burlesque, Les romanesques, was
produced on the 2ist of May 1894 at the Theatre Francais.
He "took the motive of his second piece, La Princesse lointaine
(Theatre de la Renaissance, 5th April 1895), from the story of
the troubadour Rudel and the Lady of Tripoli. The part of
M61issande was created by Sarah Bernhardt, who also was the
original Photine of La Samaritaine (Theatre de la Renaissance,
I4th April 1897), a Biblical drama in three scenes taken from
the gospel story of the woman of Samaria. The production of
his " heroic comedy " of Cyrano de Bergerac (28th December
1897, Theitre de la Porte Saint-Martin), with Coquelin in the
title-role, was a triumph. No such enthusiasm for a drama in
verse had been known since the days of Hugo's Hernani. The
play was quickly translated into English, German, Russian and
other European languages. For his hero he had drawn on
French 17th-century history; in L'Aiglon he chose a subject
from Napoleonic legend, suggested probably by Henri Welsch-
inger's Roi de Rome, 1811-32 (1897), which contained much
new information about the unhappy life of the duke of Reich-
stadt, son of Napoleon I. and Marie Louise, under the sur-
veillance of Metternich at the palace of Schonbrunn. L'Aiglon,
in six acts and in verse, was produced (isth March 1900) by
Sarah Bernhardt at her own theatre, she herself undertaking
the part of the duke of Reichstadt. In 1902 Rostand was
elected to the French Academy. His Chantecler, produced in
February 1910, was awaited with an interest (enhanced by con-
siderable delay in the production) hardly equalled by the
enthusiasm of its reception. Lucien Guitry was in the title-
r61e and Mme. Simone played the part of the pheasant, the
play being a fantasy of bird and animal life, and the charac-
ters denizens of the farmyard and the woods. Rostand's wife,
nee Rosemonde Etienette Gerard, published in 1890 Les Pipeaux,
a volume of verse crowned by the Academy.
See a notice by Henry James in vol. 84, pp. 477 seq. of the Corn-
hill Magazine,
ROSTOCK, a town of Germany, in the grand duchy of Meck-
lenburg-Schwerin, one of the most important commercial cities
on the Baltic. It is situated on the left bank of the estuary of
the Warnow, 8 m. from the port of Warnemiinde on the Baltic.
177 m. N.W. of Berlin by rail, 80 m. N.E. of Ltibeck, and 106 m.
S. of Copenhagen. Pop. (1905) 60,790. It consists of three
parts the old town to the east, and the middle and new towns
to the west of which the first retains some of the antique
features of a Hanse town, while the last two are for the most
part regularly and handsomely built. There are also several
suburbs. The town has four gates, one of them dating from
the 1 4th century, and some fine squares, among them the
Bliicher Platz, with a statue of Bliicher, who was born here,
and the Neue Markt. Rostock was a fortress of some strength,
but the old fortifications have been razed, and their site is
occupied by promenades. Rostock has five old churches:
St Mary's, dating from 1398 to 1472, one of the most imposing
Gothic buildings in Mecklenburg, with two Romanesque towers
and containing a magnificent bronze font and a curious clock;
St Nicholas's, begun about 1250 and restored in 1450, and again
in 1890-94; St Peter's, with a lofty tower over 400 ft. high,
built in 1400, which serves as a landmark to ships at sea;
St James's, completed in 1588, and the church of the Holy Rood,
begun in 1270. St Mary's church contains a monument marking
the original tomb of Hugo Grotius, who died in Rostock in 1645,
though his remains were afterwards removed to Delft. Among
other interesting buildings are the curious 14th-century Gothic
town hall, the facade of which is concealed by a Renaissance
addition; the palace of the grand duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin,
built in 1702; the law courts, built in 1878-79; the university
buildings, erected in 1867-70; and an assembly hall of the
estates of Mecklenburg (Standehaus), a handsome Gothic
building erected in 1889-93.
The university of Rostock was founded in 1418 by Dukes
Johann III. and Albrecht V. of Mecklenburg. From 1437 till 1443
it had its seat at Greifswald in consequence of commotions at
Rostock; and in 1760 it was again removed, on this occasion to
Biitzow. The professors appointed by the city, however, still
taught at Rostock, so that there were practically two universities
in the duchy until 1789, when they were reunited at the original
seat. Rostock is the seat of the supreme court for both the duchies
of Mecklenburg, and is well equipped with schools, hospitals, and
other institutions.
Although the population, commerce and wealth of Rostock have
declined since Hanse days, it has a considerable trade, being the
chief commercial town of Mecklenburg and owning a considerable
fleet. Vessels drawing 16 ft. of water are able to get up to the
wharves. By far the most important export is grain, which goes
almost entirely to British ports; but wool, flax and cattle are also
shipped. The chief imports are coal from Great Britain, herrings
from Sweden, petroleum from America, timber, wine and colonial
goods. Rostock has an important fair at Whitsuntide, lasting for
fourteen days, and also a frequented wool and cattle market. The
industries of the town are varied. One of the chief is shipbuilding.
Machinery, chemicals, sugar, malt, paper, musical instruments,
cotton, straw hats, tobacco, carpets, soap, playing cards, chocolate
and dye-stuffs are among the manufactures. The town also contains
distilleries, saw-mills, oil-mills, tanneries, breweries and electrical
works.
Local historians assert that a village existed on the site of
Rostock as early as A.D. 329, but no certain proofs have been
traced of any earlier community than that founded here in
the 1 2th century, which is said to have received municipal
rights in 1218. The earliest signs of commercial prosperity
date from about 1260. For a time Rostock was under the
dominion of the kings of Denmark. Soon after returning under
the protection of Mecklenburg in the I4th century it joined the
Hanseatic League; and was one of the original members of the
powerful Wendish Hansa, in which it exercised an influence
second only to that of Liibeck. The most prosperous epoch of
its commercial history began in the latter half of the isth
century, precisely at the period when its political power began
to wane. Rostock, however, never entirely lost the independ-
ence which it enjoyed as a Hanse town; and in 1788, as the
result of long contentions with the rulers of Mecklenburg, it
secured for itself a peculiar and liberal municipal constitution,
administered by three burgomasters and three chambers. In
1880 this constitution was somewhat modified, and the city
became less like a state within a state. It has belonged to
Mecklenburg-Schwerin since 1695; in 1712 it was taken by
the Swedes, in 1715 by the Danes and in 1716 by the Russians.
The badge of Rostock is the figure 7; and a local rhyme ex-
plains that there are 7 doors to St Mary's church, 7 streets from
the market-place, 7 gates on the landward side and 7 wharves
on the seaward side of the town, 7 turrets on the town-hall,
which has 7 bells, and 7 linden trees in the park.
See Reinhold, Chronik der Stadt Rostock (Rostock, 1836) ; Krabbe,
Die Universitat Rostock im 13 und 16 Jahrhundert (2 vols., Rostock,
1854), Koppmann, Geschichte der Stadt Rostock (Rostock, 1887);
Volckmann, Fiihrer durch Rostock (yd ed., 1896); the Geschichts-
quellen der Stadt Rostock (Rostock, 1885); and the Beitrage zur
Geschichte der Stadt Rostock (Rostock, 1890).
ROSTOPTSCHIN, COUNT FEODOR VASSILIEVICH (1763-
1826), Russian general, was born on the 23rd of March 1763,
in the government of Orel. He had great influence with
the Tsar Paul, who made him in 1796 adjutant-general,
grand-marshal of the court, then minister of the interior. In
1799 he received the title of count. He was disgraced in 1801
for his opposition to the French alliance, but was restored to
ROSTOV-ON-THE-DON ROSTRA
755
favour in 1810, and was shortly afterwards appointed military
governor of Moscow. He was therefore charged with its defence
against Napoleon, and took every means to rouse the popula-
tion of the town and district against the invader. He has
been generally charged with instigating the burning of Moscow
the day after the French had made their entry; it is certain
that the prisons were opened by his order, and that he took
no means to stop the outbreak. He defended himself against
the charge of incendiarism in a pamphlet printed in Paris
in 1823, La Veriti sur I'incendie de Moscou, but he subsequently
made grave admissions. Shortly after the congress of Vienna,
to which he had accompanied the Tsar Alexander, he was
disgraced. He only returned to Russia in 1825, and died at
Moscow on the I2th of February of the next year.
His Mimoires ecrits en dix minutes were posthumously published
at St Petersburg in 1853, his (Euvres inedites in Paris in 1894.^ A
partial account of his life was written by his grandson A. de Segur
(Paris, 1872). See also Varnhagen von Ense, Denkwiirdigkeiten,
vol. ix. ; G. Tzenoff, Wer hat Moskau im Jahre 1812 in Brand gesleckt
(Berlin, 1900).
ROSTOV-ON-THE-DON, a seaport of Russia, in the territory
of the Don Cossacks, well situated on the high right bank of the
Don, 13 m. from its mouth in the Sea of Azov. In 1731 a small
fort was erected on an island in the Don, near its mouth. Thirty
years later the fortifications were transferred to the site now
occupied by Rostov, 5 m. above the head of the first branch of
the delta of the Don. The Don, which has here a breadth of
230 to 250 yds., with a hardly perceptible current, offers an
excellent roadstead. The navigation, however, is considerably
impeded by the shallowness of the river. Dredging operations
have but partially remedied this. Moreover, the river is frost-
bound for more than one hundred days in the year. The
population has grown rapidly: while in 1881 it was 70,700, in
1897 it numbered 119,889, and in 1905 126,375, exclusive of
the suburbs; if these, which comprise Nakhichevan (32,582 in
1905) be included, the population is well over 160,000, a figure
which is still further swollen in the summer by the influx of
about 60,000 men, who find work in connexion with the ship-
ment of grain for export. The permanent population includes
15,000 Jews, 5000 Armenians, with Tatars, Poles, Germans and
others. In Nakhichevan there are 20,500 Armenians. Owing
to its situation on the navigable river Don and at the junction
of three railways, radiating to north-western Russia, Caucasia
and the Volga respectively, Rostov has become the chief sea-
port of south-eastern Russia, being second in importance on the
Black Sea to Odessa only. It is the chief centre for the supply
of agricultural machinery to the steppe governments of south-
eastern Russia. On an average, 3,000,000 to 4,000,000 worth
of wheat, about 1,000,000 worth of rye, and over 1,500,000
worth of barley are exported annually, besides oats, flax, linseed,
rape seed, oilcake, bran, flour, vegetable oils, raw wool and
caviare. The imports average between four and five millions
sterling annually, and consist largely of agricultural machinery.
There are a shipbuilding yard, flour-mills, tobacco factories,
iron works, machinery works, distilleries, soap works, timber
mills, bell foundries, paper mills and rope works. Rostov is
the chief centre of steam flour-mills for south-eastern Russia
and Caucasia. Two fairs, one of which has considerable im-
portance for the whole of south-eastern Russia, are held here
yearly. Rostov has excellent fisheries. The town has a
cathedral, a fine town hall (1897-99), navigation schools, tech-
nical schools, and a good municipal library.
ROSTOV VELIKIY, a town of Russia, in the government of
Yaroslavl, 35 m. by rail S.W. of the town of Yaroslavl, near
Lake Rostov or Nero. Pop. (1897) 14,342. It has numerous
cotton and linen mills. The great fair for which it was formerly
famous has lost its importance, but the town remains the
centre of a variety of domestic trades tailoring, the manu-
facture of leather, and the making of boots and small enamelled
ikons (sacred images) ; it is also famous for its kitchen gardening
and the export of pickled and dried vegetables and medical
herbs. Fishing is carried on. The restoration of the buildings
(royal palace, archiepiscopal palace, and five churches) of the
kreml or citadel was begun in 1901. The other public buildings
include six 17th-century churches, a museum and a cathedral,
consecrated in 1231 and having its interior walls covered with
paintings.
Rostov was founded by Slavs in or before 862, and played so
prominent a r61e in the history of that part of Russia that it used
to be known as Rostov the Great. From the beginning of the
nth century to the i3th it was the chief town of a territory
which included large parts of the present governments of Yaro-
slavl, Vladimir and Novgorod. After the Mongol invasion of
1239-42 it rapidly declined, and in 1474 it was purchased by
Ivan III. and annexed to Moscow. It was repeatedly plundered
by Tatars, Lithuanians and Poles in the 15th, 1 6th and I7th
centuries.
ROSTRA 1 ("beaks"), in Roman antiquities, the orators'
platform, which originally stood between the comitium and
the forum proper, opposite the curia. It is not known when it
was erected, but in 338 B.C. it was decorated by Gaius Maenius
with the prows of ships captured from the people of Antium
(Livy viii. 14). From that time it was called Rostra, having
previously been known as templum (literally " consecrated
place "), since it had been consecrated by the augurs (Cicero,
In Vatinium, x. 24). Some, however, deny the identity of the
templum and rostra. On the platform or hard by were exhibited
the statues of famous Romans (Camillus, Caesar), and state
documents and memorials (the laws of the Twelve Tables,
the treaty with the Latins, the columna roslrala of Duilius).
Caesar had it pulled down, intending that it should be rebuilt
on the west side of the forum, but it was left for Augustus
(or Mark Antony) to carry out his plan. The term Rostra
Vetera, often used by classical authors in connexion with
funeral orations, makes it doubtful whether the old platform
was entirely demolished, unless the name was simply trans-
ferred to the new rostra of Augustus. This consisted of a
rectangular platform, 78 ft. long, 33 ft. broad and n ft. above
the level of the forum pavement. It was reached by steps from
the back; in front there was a marble balustrade with an
opening in the centre where the speaker stood, possibly also
intended for a staircase leading down into the forum. In the
existing remains the holes in which the beaks of the ships
were fastened, arranged in pairs, are visible. Behind these
remains, close to the Clivus Capitolinus, a row of light low-
arched cells has been found, which, owing to a certain resem-
blance to the earlier rostra as shown on the well-known coin of
Lollius Palicanus, has been identified by Boni with the rostra
removed by Julius Caesar, the other remains being attributed
to the time of Domitian (for objections to this theory, see
Hulsen and Richter). In the time of Hadrian the side balus-
trades were decorated with marble slabs, on which were repre-
sented in relief the burning of the lists of the citizens who were
in arrears to the fisc and the distribution of necessaries to the
poorer citizens. Thedenat explains the first as Domitian re-
assuring a deputation of citizens by burning the denunciatory
reports of the delatores, and the second (the scene of which
he places at the Rostra Julia) as the promulgation of the law
forbidding the mutilation of children. The erection of the arch
of Severus necessitated considerable alterations, the most im-
portant of which was a triangular courtyard cut out of the
north half of the rostra, to allow direct access to it from the
side that faced the arch, its breadth being thereby reduced by
a third. A later extension of the fafade northwards is explained
by a long inscription, recording that about the year 470, Ulpius
Junius Valentinus, a city prefect, restored the structure (hence
called Rostra Vandalica) after a naval victory over the Vandals.
A relief on the arch of Constantine represents the emperor
speaking from the rostra.
The Rostra Julia was a platform with a semicircular niche
1 The Lat. singular rostrum, a beak, the beak of a ship, is used in
English of a platform, stand or pulpit from which a speaker addresses
his audience. It is also used in its original meaning of a beak-like
prolongation or process in zoology or botany.
ROTA, COURT OF ROTHE
in the centre, in front of the Aedes divi Julii, built by Augustus
on the spot where the body of Caesar was cremated. The niche
was probably used to support the bier while a funeral laudatio
was being delivered. The front on either side was decorated
with the beaks of ships captured at the battle of Actium.
For results of the excavations see C. Hiilsen, Das Forum Romanum
(Eng. tr. by I. B. Carter, Rome, 1906) ; see also O. Richter, " Topo-
graphic der Stadt Rom " (1901), pp. 81, 93, 356 (iii. Abt. 3, pt. 2 of
I. von Muller's Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft) ;
H. Thedenat, Le Forum Remain (3rd ed. 1904); J. H. Middleton,
Remains of Ancient Rome (1892); O. Richter, Rekonstruktion und
Geschichte der romischen Rednerbuhne (Berlin, 1884); F. M. Nichols,
The Roman Forum (1877) ; also article ROME: Archaeology.
ROTA, COURT OF, one of the departments of the medieval
papal organization, existing alongside the Dataria, the Poeniten-
tiaria, the two Signaturas (5. Gratiae and S. Justiliae) , and other
bureaus. The Rota was the supreme court of Christendom.
It consisted of twelve members, three from Rome, two from
Spain, one each from Bologna, Ferrara, Venice, Milan, Germany,
France, and (alternately) Tuscany or Perugia. It declined
in importance when the Signitura Justitiae was set above it as
the court of appeal for Italy, and more so as the geographical
jurisdiction of the pope was gradually lessened. After the
Council of Trent the old arrangements were replaced by the
Congregations, permanent committees of cardinals which deal
with definite branches of business. The Rota, however, was
restored to its functions as supreme court of appeal by Pope
Pius X. in 1908 (see CURIA ROMANA).
ROTH, JUSTUS LUDWIG ADOLF (1818-1892), German
geologist and mineralogist, was born at Hamburg on the 15th
of September 1818. In 1867 he was appointed professor of
mineralogy at the university of Berlin. He may be regarded
as one of the founders of petrographical science. In his
published papers he dealt with metamorphism and crystalline
schists, discussed the origin of serpentine, and wrote on Vesuvian
rocks and on Ponza Island. His separate works included Der
Vesuv und die Umgebung von Neapel (1857); Beitrage zur
Petrographie der plutonischen Gesteine (1869-^84); Allgemeine
und chemische Geologic (3 vols., 1879-93); an d Uber die Erdbeben
(1882). He died at Berlin on the ist of April 1892.
ROTHE, RICHARD (1799-1867), Lutheran theologian, was
born at Posen on the 28th of January 1799. He studied theology
in the universities of Heidelberg and Berlin (1817-20) under
Karl Daub (1765-1836), Schleiermacher and Neander, the
philosophers and historians Georg Hegel, Friedrich Creuzer
(1771-1858) and F. C. Schlosser (1776-1861) exercising a
considerable influence in shaping his thought. From 1820 to
1822 he was in the clerical seminary at Wittenberg. In the
autumn of 1823 he was appointed chaplain to the Prussian
embassy in Rome, of which Baron Bunsen was the head. This
post he exchanged in 1828 for a professorship in the Witten-
berg theological seminary, of which in 1832 he became also
second director and ephorus, and hence in 1837 he removed to
Heidelberg as professor and director of a new clerical seminary;
in 1849 he accepted an invitation to Bonn as professor and
university preacher, but in 1854 he returned to Heidelberg
as professor of theology, and afterwards became member of the
Oberkirchenrath, a position he held until his death on the
2oth of August 1867. As a youth Rothe had a bent towards
a supernatural mysticism; his chosen authors were those of
the romantic school, and Novalis remained throughout his life
a special favourite. In Berlin and Wittenberg he came under
the influence of Pietism as represented by such men as Rudolf
Stier (1800-1862) and Friedrich Tholuck, though Tholuck
pronounced him a " very modern Christian." He afterwards
confessed that, though he had been a sincere, he was never
a happy, Pietist. In Rome, under the broadening influence
of classical and ecclesiastical art, he learned to look at Chris-
tianity in its human and universalistic aspects, and began
to develop his great idea, the inseparable relation of religion and
morals. He began then, and particularly after the revolution
of July 1830, likewise to give a more definite form to his peculiar
view of the relations of church and state. He thus became
out of harmony with the pietistic thought and life of Witten-
berg. His removal to Heidelberg and the publication of his
first important work, Die Anfange der christlichen Kirche und
ihrer Verfassung (1837), coincide with the attainment of the
principal theological positions with which his name is associ-
ated. During the middle period of his career (1837-61) he led
the life of a scholastic recluse. During the last six years of
his life he came forward as the advocate of a free theology and
of the Protestantenverein.
Rothe was one of the most profound and influential of modern
German theologians. Like Schleiermacher he combined with the
keenest logical faculty an intensely religious spirit, while his philo-
sophical tendencies were in sympathy rather with Hegel than with
Schleiermacher, and theosophic mysticism was more congenial to
him than the abstractions of Spinoza, to whom Schleiermacher
owed so much. He classed himself among the theosophists, and
claimed to be a convinced and happy supernaturalist in a scientific
age. His system, though it may seem to contain doubtful or even
fantastic elements, is in its general outlines a noble massive whole,
constructed by a profound, comprehensive, fearless and logical
mind. A peculiarity of his thought was the realistic nature of his
spiritualism: his abstractions are all real existences; his spiritual
entities are real and corporeal; his truth is actual being. Hence
Rothe, unlike Schleiermacher, lays great stress, for instance, on
the personality of God, on the reality of the worlds of good and evil
spirits, and on the visible second coming of Christ. Hence his
religious feeling and theological speculation demanded their realiza-
tion in a kingdom of God coextensive with man's nature, terrestrial
history and human society; and thus his theological system became
a Theologische Ethik, as he entitled one of his books (3 vols., 1845
1848). It is on this work that Rothe's permanent reputation as a
theologian and ethical writer will rest. The first edition remained
twelve years out of print before the second (5 vols., 1867-71)
appeared. It was the author's purpose to rewrite the whole, but
he died when he had completed the first two volumes. The re-
mainder was reprinted from the first edition by Professor Heinrich
Holtzmann, with the addition of some notes and emendations left
by the author.
The Theologische Ethik begins with a general sketch of the author's
system of speculative theology in its two divisions, theology proper
and cosmology, cosmology falling into the two subdivisions of Physik
(the world of nature) and Ethik (the wprld of spirit). It is the last
subdivision with which the body of the work is occupied. After
an analysis of the religious consciousness, which yields the doctrine
of an absolute personal and spiritual God, Rothe proceeds to deduce
from his idea of God the process and history of creative develop-
ment, which is eternally proceeding and bringing forth, as its
unending purpose, worlds of spirits, partially self-creative and
sharing the absolute personality of the Creator. Rothe regards the
natural man as the consummation of the development of physical
nature, and obtains spirit as the personal attainment, with divine
help, of those beings in whom the further creative process of moral
development is carried on. His theory leaves the natural man,
without hesitation, to be developed by the natural processes of
animal evolution. The attainment of the higher stage of develop-
ment is the moral and religious vocation of man; this higher stage
is self-determination, the performance of every human function as
a voluntary and intelligent agent, or as a person, having as its
cosmical effect the subjection of all material to spiritual existences.
This personal process of spiritualization is the continuation of the
eternal divine work of creation. Thus the moral life and the
religious life coincide, and when normal are identical; both have
the same aim and are occupied with the same task, the accomplish-
ment of the spiritualization of the world. " Piety, that it may
become truth and reality, demands morality as its fulfilment, as
the only concrete element in which the idea of fellowship with God
is realized; morality, that it may find its perfect unfolding, requires
the aid of piety, in the light of which alone it can comprehend its
own idea in all its breadth and depth." The process of human
development Rothe regards as necessarily taking an abnormal
form and passing through the phase of sin. This abnormal con-
dition necessitates a fresh creative act, that of salvation, which
was, however, from the first, part of the divine plan. As a pre-
paration for this salvation supernatural revelation was required
for the purifying and revivification of the religious consciousness,
and the Saviour Himself had to appear in human history as a fresh
miraculous creation, born of a woman but not begotten by a man.
In consequence of His supernatural birth the Saviour, or the
second Adam, was free from original sin. By His own moral and
religious development He made possible a relation of perfect fellow-
ship between God and man, which was the new and highest stage
of the divine creation of mankind. This stage of development
inaugurated by the Saviour is attained by means of His kingdom or
the community of salvation, which is both moral and religious, and
in the first instance and temporarily only religious that is, a
church. As men reach the full development of their nature, and
appropriate the perfection of the Saviour, the separation between
ROTHELIN ROTHES, EARLS OF
the religious and the moral life will vanish, and the Christian state,
as the highest sphere of human life representing all human functions,
will displace the church. " In proportion as the Saviour Christianizes
the state by means of the church must the progressive completion
of the structure of the church prove the cause of its abolition."
The decline of the church is therefore not to be deplored, but
recognized as the consequence of the independence and complete-
ness of the Christian life. It is the third section of his work the
Pfiichtenlehre which is generally most highly valued, and where his
full strength as an ethical thinker is displayed, without any mixture
of theosophic speculation.
Since Rothe s death several volumes of his sermons and of his
lectures (on dogmatics, the history of homiletics) and a collection
of brief essays and religious meditations under the title of Stille
Stunden (Wittenberg, 1872) have been published.
See F. Nippold, Richard Rothe, tin christliches Lebensbild (2 vols.,
Wittenberg, 1873-74) I D. Schenkel, " Zur Erinnerung an Dr R.
Rothe," _ in the Allgemeine kirchliche Zeitschrift (1867-68); H.Holtz-
mann, " Richard Rothe," in the Jahrbuch des Protestantenvereins
(1869); K. H. W. Schwarz, Zur Geschichte der neuesten Theologie
(4th ed., Leipzig, 1869, pp. 417-44); Otto Pfleiderer, Religions-
philosophie auf geschichtlicher Grundlage (2nd ed., Berlin, 1884,
vol. i. pp. 611-15); cf. The Development of Theology in Germany
since Kant (1890); W. Honig, Richard Rothe, sein Charakter, Leben
and Denken (1898); Adolf Hausrath, Richard Rothe und seine
Freunde (1902).
ROTHELIN, JACQUELINE DE ROHAN, MARQUISE DE
(c. 1520-1587), daughter of Charles de Rohan and Jeanne de
Saint-Severin. Her husband, Francois of Orleans-Longueville,
marquis de Rothelin, died in 1548, and in watching her son's
interests in Neuchatel she was brought into contact with the
reformers in Switzerland. She then embraced Protestantism
and turned her chateau at Blandy, in Brie, into a refuge for
Huguenots. In 1567 she underwent a term of imprisonment
at the Louvre for harbouring Protestants.
ROTHENBURG-OB-DER-TAUBER, a town of Germany, in
the kingdom of Bavaria, 49 m. by rail S.W. of Nuremberg.
Pop. (1905) 8436. It is beautifully situated on an eminence
200 ft. above the Tauber. It is flanked by medieval walls,
towers and gates, and its antique appearance has been care-
fully preserved. Perhaps the most interesting building is
the town hall, one part of which dates from 1240 and the other
from 1572. The latter is a beautiful Renaissance structure,
with a magnificent facade and a delicate spire, and contains a
grand hall, the Kaisersaal, in which every Whit Monday a
play, Der Meistertrunk, which commemorates the capture
of the town by Tilly in 1631, is performed. Other buildings
are the Gothic church of St James, with curiously carved
altars and beautiful stained-glass windows, and containing
in the Toppler chapel the tomb of the burgomaster, Heinrich
Toppler; the 15th-century church of St Wolfgang; the Fran-
ciscan church; and five other churches. The town has many
picturesque houses, and possesses a library with some interest-
ing archives. It has manufactures of toys and agricultural
machinery, electrical works and breweries.
Rothenburg-ob-der-Tauber, mentioned in the chronicles in
304 as Rolinbwre, was probably a residence of the dukes of
Franconia. It first appears as a town in 942 and until 1108
was the seat of the counts of Rothenburg-Komburg; when
this line became extinct it passed to the family of Hohen-
staufen, one member of which took the title of duke of Rothen-
burg. In 1172 it became a free imperial city and it attained
the zenith of its prosperity under the famous burgomaster
Heinrich Toppler (1350-1408). It took part in the movements
in South Germany during the isth and i6th centuries. In 1631
Rothenburg was stormed by Tilly, and the cup of wine pre-
sented by the burgomaster, which, according to tradition, saved
the town from destruction, is annually commemorated in the
play mentioned above.
See Bensen, Beschreibung und Geschichte der Stadt Rothenburg
(Erlangen, 1856) ; Merz, Rothenburg in alter und neuer Zeit (2nd ed.,
Ansbach, 1881); Schultheiss, Rothenburg, ein Stddtebild (Zurich,
1892); and Das Festspiel zu Rothenburg-ob-der-Tauber (Munich,
1892); and W. Klein, Fiihrer durch die Stadt Rothenburg (Rothen-
burg, 1888).
ROTHERHAM, THOMAS (1423-1500), archbishop of York,
also called THOMAS SCOT, was born at Rotherham on the 24th of
757
August 1423; he was educated in his native town and seems to
have been connected with both the universities of Oxford and
Cambridge. Having entered the church he became rector of
Ripple, Worcestershire, and later of St Vedast, Foster Lane,
London, and it was probably when he was chaplain to John de
Vere, earl of Oxford, that he made the acquaintance of Elizabeth
Woodville, afterwards the queen of Edward IV. In 1467
Rotherham became keeper of the privy seal to this king; in
1468 he was appointed bishop of Worcester, in 1472 bishop of
Lincoln and in 1475 chancellor of England. Several times he
went to France on public business; in 1475 at the treaty of
Picquigny he received a pension from Louis XI. of France, and
in 1480 he was chosen archbishop of York. When Edward IV.
died in April 1483 the archbishop remained true to his widow
Elizabeth, and consequently lost the chancellorship and was
put into prison by Richard III. He was soon set at liberty,
and he died in 1500 at Cawood, near York. At Oxford Rother-
ham built part of Lincoln College and increased its endowment ;
at Cambridge, where he was chancellor and master of Pembroke
Hall, he helped to build the University Library. He founded a
college at Rotherham, which was suppressed under Edward VI.,
and he was responsible for the building of part of the church
of All Saints there.
ROTHERHAM, a market-town and municipal borough in
the Rotherham parliamentary division of the West Riding of
Yorkshire, England, 5 m. N.E. of Sheffield, on the Midland,
North - Eastern and Great Central railways. Pop. (1891)
42,061; (1901) 54,349- It lies in the valley of the Don, where
that river is joined by the Rother, and has communication
by water with the Humber. The Don is crossed by a bridge
on which is a small ancient building, formerly a chapel. The
parish church of All Saints, occupying the site of a building
dating from Anglo-Saxon times, was erected in the reign of
Edward IV., and is among the best specimens of Perpendicular
in the north of England. The town possesses iron, steel and
brass works, railway wagon works, potteries, glass-works,
breweries, saw-mills and rope-yards. At the township of
Masborough, opposite Rotherham across the Don, works were
established in 1746 by Samuel Walker, a successful ironmaster.
The municipal borough, incorporated in 1871, is under a mayor,
6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 6012 acres.
The town was of some importance in Anglo-Saxon times,
and at Templeborough, on the S.E. side of Rotherham, there
was a Roman fort, but its traces are effaced. In the time of
Edward the Confessor, Rotherham possessed a market and a
church. During the Civil War it sided with the Parliament.
It was taken by the Royalists in 1643, but after the victory
of Marston Moor was yielded to a detachment of the Parlia-
mentary forces.
ROTHES, EARLS OF. The first earl of Rothes was George
Leslie, son of Norman Leslie of Rothes in Moray, and of
Ballinbreich in Fife. In 1445 he was created Baron Leslie
of Leven, and about 1458 earl of Rothes in the peerage of
Scotland. His grandson George, the 4th earl (d. 1558), whose
father, William, the 3rd earl, was killed at Flodden, was accused,
but acquitted in 1 546, of complicity in the murder of Cardinal
Beaton, in which his brother and his two sons were undoubtedly
implicated; he was one of the Scottish commissioners who
witnessed the marriage of Mary queen of Scots with Francis,
the dauphin of France. His son Andrew, sth earl of Rothes
(d. 1611), took an active part with the lords of the congregation,
first against the queen-mother, Mary of Guise, when regent
of Scotland, and afterwards against Mary queen of Scots in
opposing her marriage with Darnley, and in devising the
murder of Rizzio. He was, however, one ot the peers who
acquitted Bothwell of Darnley's murder; and going over to
the side of the queen, he fought for her at Langside. He
continued to occupy a position of some prominence in Scottish
iffairs until, his death in 1611. His great-grandson, John, 7th
earl of Rothes (1630-1681), held a command in the Royalist
army at the battle of Worcester in 1651, and accompanied
Charles II. to England at the Restoration, when he became
758
ROTHESAY ROTHSCHILD
lord president of the council in Scotland. He was lord treasurer
of Scotland from 1663 till 1667, when he was made lord chan-
cellor of Scotland for life. His estates having been sequestrated
by the parliament in 1651, he received a- re-grant in 1663 of
the earldom of Rothes, together with the title of Lord Leslie
and Ballinbreich, with remainders to his heirs male and female,
providing that in every case where a female should succeed
to the peerage the name of Leslie should be assumed by her
husband. In 1680 the earl was advanced to the dignity of
duke of Rothes and marquess of Ballinbreich, but these titles
became extinct at his death without a son in the following
year. The earldom of Rothes and the other older titles now
passed, under the special remainder mentioned above, to his
daughter Margaret, whose husband, Charles Hamilton, sth
earl of Haddington, accordingly took the name of Leslie, at
the same time making an arrangement by which his own
peerage should pass to a younger son in order to keep the
two earldoms separate. Margaret's son John, who on her
death became 9th earl of Rothes, was vice-admiral of Scotland
from 1715 to 1722, and fought with distinction against the
Jacobite rebels in 1715; and her grandson, the loth earl,
who sold the estates of Ballinbreich to the Dundas family,
was commander-in-chief in Ireland in 1754, and became a
general in 1765. The office of sheriff of Fife, which had been
an hereditary right of the earls of Rothes since 1540, was sold
by the loth earl under the Heritable Act of 1747. On several
subsequent occasions the earldom again passed through the
female line, and in 1893 Mary Elizabeth, countess of Rothes
in her own right, was succeeded by her grandson, Norman
Evelyn Leslie (b. 1877), as igih earl of Rothes.
See Sir R. Douglas, The Peerage of Scotland, edited by Sir J. B.
Paul; and G. E. C., Complete Peerage.
ROTHESAY, a royal, municipal and police burgh, and the
chief town of the county and island of Bute, Scotland. Pop.
(1901) 9378. It is situated on a beautiful bay, 40 m. S.W.
of Glasgow, with which there is regular communication by
railway steamers from Wemyss Bay, Gourock, Greenock
(Prince's Pier) and Craigendoran, as well as by many other
steamers from Glasgow and the Clyde ports. It is a popular
watering-place, and as the bay is sheltered by low wooded
hills and affords excellent anchorage, it is well patronized by
yachts. Loch Striven, on the opposite shore of Argyllshire,
is known as the " Rothesay weather-glass," its appearance
furnishing a certain clue to meteorological conditions. The
town is under the jurisdiction of a provost and council. Rothe-
say has ceased to be a manufacturing centre, fishing being now
its chief industry. Owing to its mild and equable climate
it is a resort of invalids. There is a tramway to Port Banna-
tyne, pleasantly situated on the east horn of Kames Bay,
and Craigmore, about i m. west of Rothesay, is a fashionable
suburb. Ardbeg Point, Loch Fad, Loch Ascog and Barone
Hill (530 ft.) are all within a mile and a half of the town, and
there are numerous excursions by road to other points of
interest. The Kyles of Bute are within a short sail of Rothesay.
In the centre of the town are the ruins of a castle erected in
1098 either by Magnus Barefoot, king of Norway, or by the
Scots as a defence against the Norwegians, with whom during
the i3th century, and earlier, there was constant strife. The
village which grew up round the castle was made a royal burgh
by Robert III., who, in 1398, created his eldest son David
duke of Rothesay, a title which became the highest Scottish
title of the heir-apparent to the crown of the United Kingdom.
During the Commonwealth the castle was garrisoned by Crom-
well's troops. It was burned by the followers of Argyll in
1685, and remained neglected till the rubbish was cleared
away by the second marquess of Bute in 1816. It was repaired
by the third marquess.
ROTHSCHILD, the name of a Jewish family which has
acquired an unexampled position from the magnitude of its
financial transactions. The original name was Bauer, the
founder of the house being MAYER ANSELM (1743-1812), the son
of Anselm Moses Bauer, a small Jewish merchant of Frankfort -
on-the-Main. His father wished him to become a rabbi, but he
set up as a money-lender at the sign of the " Red Shield "
(Rothschild) in the Frankfort Judengasse. He had already
acquired some standing as a banker when his numismatic tastes
obtained for him the friendship of William, ninth landgrave and
afterwards elector of Hesse-Cassel, who in 1801 made him his
agent. In the following year Rothschild negotiated his first
great government loan, ten million thalers for the Danish
government. When the landgrave was compelled to flee from
his capital on the entry of the French, he placed his silver and
other bulky treasures in the hands of Rothschild, who, not
without considerable risk, took charge of them and buried
them, it is said, in a corner of his garden, whence he dug them
up as opportunity arose for disposing of them. This he did
to such advantage as to be able afterwards to return their
value to the elector at 5% interest. He died at Frankfort on the
i gth of September 1812, leaving ten children, five sons and five
daughters. Branches of the business were established at Vienna,
London, Paris and Naples, each being in charge of one of the
sons, the chief of the firm always residing at Frankfort. By a
system of co-operation and joint counsels, aided by the skilful
employment of subordinate agents, they obtained unexampled
opportunities of acquiring an accurate knowledge of the condition
of the financial market, and practically embraced the whole
of Europe within their financial network. The unity of the
interests of the several members of the firm has been preserved
by the system of intermarriages which has been the general
practice of the descendants of the five brothers. Each of the
brothers received in 1815 from Austria the privilege of hereditary
landowners, and in 1822 they were created barons by the same
country. The charge of the Frankfort house devolved on the
eldest, ANSELM MAYER (1773-1855), born on the izth of June
1773, who was chosen a member of the royal Prussian privy
council of commerce, and, in 1820, Bavarian consul and court
banker. The Vienna branch was undertaken by SOLOMON (1774-
1826), born on the pth of December 1774, who entered into inti-
mate relations with Prince Metternich, which contributed in no
small degree to bring about the connexion of the firm with the
allied powers. The third brother, NATHAN MAYER (1777-1836),
born on the i6th of September 1777, has, however, generally
been regarded as the financial genius of the family, and the chief
originator of the transactions which have created for the house
its unexampled position in the financial world. He went to
Manchester about 1800 to act as a purchaser for his father of
manufactured goods; but at the end of five years he removed to
London. The boldness and skill of his financial transactions,
which caused him at first to be regarded as unsafe by the lead-
ing banking firms and financial merchants, later awakened their
admiration and envy. By the employment of carrier-pigeons
and of fast-sailing boats of his own for the transmission of news
he was able to utilize to the best advantage his special sources of
information, while no one was a greater adept in the art of pro-
moting the rise and fall of the stocks. The colossal influence of
the house dates from an operation of his in 1810. In that year
Wellington made some drafts which the English government
could not meet; these were purchased by Rothschild at a liberal
discount, and renewed to the government, which finally redeemed
at par. From this time the allied powers negotiated loans to
carry on the war against Napoleon chiefly through the house
of Rothschild. Rothschild never lost faith in the ultimate over-
throw of Napoleon, his all being virtually staked on the issue of
the contest. He is said to have been present at the battle of
Waterloo. Being able to transmit to London private informa-
tion of the allied success several hours before it reached the
public, he effected an immense profit by the purchase of stock,
which had been depressed on the news of Blucher's defeat two
days previously. Rothschild was the first to popularize foreign
loans in Britain by fixing the rate in sterling money and making
the dividends payable in London and not in foreign capitals.
Latterly he became the financial agent of nearly every civilized
government, although persistently declining contracts for
Spain or the American States. He did not confine himself to
ROTHWELL ROTIFERA
759
operations on a large scale, but on the contrary made it a
principle to despise or neglect no feasible opportunity of trans-
acting business, while at the same time his operations gradu-
ally extended to every quarter of the globe. He died on the
28th of July 1836, and was succeeded in the management of the
London house by his son LIONEL (1808-1879), born on the 22nd
of November 1808, whose name is associated with the removal
of the civil disabilities of the Jews. He was elected a member for
the City of London in 1847, and again in 1849 and 1852, but it
was not till 1858 that the joint operation of an act of parliament
and a resolution of the House of Commons, allowing the omission
from the oath of the words to which as a Jew he conscientiously
objected, rendered it possible for him to take his seat. He con-
tinued to represent the City of London till 1874. His eldest son,
NATHAN (b. 1840), was created a peer as Baron Rothschild in
1885. JACOB (1792-1868), the youngest of the original brothers,
was entrusted with the mission of starting the business in Paris
after the restoration of the Bourbons, for whom he negotiated
large loans. At the Revolution of 1848 he was a heavy loser, and
had also to be protected for a time by a special guard. It was by
his capital that the earliest railways were constructed in France ;
the profits he obtained from the speculation were very large.
He died on the i sth of November 1868. The Naples branch
was superintended by another of the brothers, KARL (1780-
1855). It was always the least important of the five, and after
the annexation of Naples to Italy in 1860 it was discontinued.
See Das Haus Rothschild (1858); Picciotto, Sketches of Anglo-
Jewish History (1875); Francis, Chronicles and Characters of the
Stock Exchange (1853); Treskow, Biographische Notizen tiber
Nathan Meyer Rothschild nebst seinem Testament (1837) ; Roqueplan,
Le Baron James de Rothschild (1868).
ROTHWELL, an urban district in the Normanton parlia-
mentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England,
4 m. S.E. of Leeds. Pop. (1901) 11,702. The church of the
Holy Trinity, though largely restored, retains some good
Decorated details. Rothwell soon after the Conquest was
granted as a dependency of the castle of Pontefract to the
Lacys, who erected here a baronial residence of which there are
slight remains. Coal and stone are obtained in the neighbour-
hood, and the town possesses match-works and rope and twine
factories in which the majority of the large industrial population
is employed.
ROTIFERA (or ROTATORIA), a small, in many respects well-
defined and somewhat isolated, class of the animal kingdom.
Now familiarly known as " wheel animalcules," from the
wheel-like motion produced by the rings of cilia which generally
occur in the head region, the so-called rotatory organs, they
were first discovered by A. Leeuwenhoek, to whom we also
owe the discovery of Bacteria and ciliate Infusoria. Leeuwen-
hoek described Rotifer vulgaris in 1702, and he subsequently
described Melicerta ringens and other species. A great variety
of forms were described by other observers, but they were not
separated as a class from the unicellular organisms (Protozoa)
with which they usually occur, until the appearance of C. G.
Ehrenberg's monograph, which contained a 'mass of detail
regarding their structure. At the present day few groups of
the animal kingdom are so well known to the microscopist,
few groups present more interesting affinities to the morpholo-
gist, and few multicellular animals such a low physiological
condition.
A rotifer may be regarded as typically a hemisphere or half an
oblate spheroid or paraboloid with a mouth somewhere on the flat
end (" disk " or " corona "), which bears a usually double ciliated
ring, the outer zone the "cingulum," and inner the "trochus":
this ring serves both for progression and for bringing up food. The
body-wall, cuticulized outside, is formed by a single layer of ill-
defined cells, and surrounds the simple body cavity (archicoele),
traversed by simple or branched muscular fibres (" mesenchyme ")
(fig. i, m,m). The mouth opens through a narrow pharynx (p)
into a chamber which is (as in Crustacea) at once crop and gizzard,
the mastax (ma), whose thickenings are imbedded in the postero-
ventral wall. A slender ciliated gullet (e) leads into a large stomach
(st) whose wall consists of large richly ciliated cells with usually a
pair of simple secretory sacs opening into it : it may open through
an intestine or rectum into the cloaca. A pair of coiled nephridial
tubes (n) formed of a file of perforated " drain-pipe " cells, with
ciliated tag-like " flame " cells (/), open into a contractile bladder (bl).
FIG. I. Notommala naias. A and B represent the same animal,
some of the organs being shown in one figure and some in the
other, oc, eye-spots; g, nerve ganglion; p, pharynx; ma,
mastax; e, oesophagus; st, stomach; a, anus, opening into the
cloaca; gl, cement-glands in the foot; n, nephridia; f, flame-
cells; bl, bladder; m, m, muscles; ov, ovary (vitellarium alone
seen).
which passes by a slender duct into the cloaca. Into this also opens
the genital duct from the single or paired gonad (<f). The simple
nerve-ganglion or brain (g) lies on the anterodorsal side of the
pharynx, and by its position determines the orientation of the
animal, the cloacal opening lying on the same side, and the course of
the gut being " neural." The sense organs are a pair of pigmented
eyes (oc), and two pairs of antennae, one anterior proximal and near
the wreath, the other distal and usually more or less lateral. The
sexes are always separate, the males being of very rare occurrence
in most cases. In the female the gonad is complex as in flatworms,
composed of a germary for the formation of the eggs, and a vitellary,
much more conspicuous and alone figured (ov), consisting of a definite
number of large nucleated cells for the nourishment of the eggs.
The apical end of the rotifer usually narrows suddenly beyond the
curve of the gut and the cloacal aperture to form the foot of pseudo-
podium which ends in an organ of attachment, a pair of movable
toes, each with the opening of a cement-gland (gl) at its tip. Thus
for orientation we place the rotifer like the cuttle-fish, head down-
wards: the ciliated disk is basal or oral, proximal to the rest of the
animal, the foot is apical, and the brain and cloacal aperture are
anterodorsal. It is in this position that free-swimming forms glide
over the substratum of organic debris in which they find their food.
The cuticle may be locally or generally hardened, in the latter
case being termed a lorica. Often the head is retractile, and a
constriction of flexible cuticle distal to it is termed a neck: in
Philodinaceae there are a series of thin flexible rings which permit
both distal and proximal ends to be telescoped into the middle; and
in Taphrocampa, regular constrictions of the whole bodywall give
an appearance of metemeric segmentation to the body. In Philo-
dinacea accessory toes are found, unfurnished with cement-glands
and distinguished as spurs.
Corona or Disk. This typically consists of two concentric zones,
the trochus and cingulum, often separated by a groove or gutter
which may be finely ciliated; but in several genera of no close
affinity, where it is very oblique to the longitudinal axis of the
body, it is represented by a general ciliation of the surface (Taphro-
campa, Rattulus, Copeus, Adineta). We may suppose that primi-
tively the mouth was seated in the centre of a funnel-shaped disk,
surrounded by a double wreath. The nearest approach to this is
found in Microcodon (fig. 2, i) and its allies, the trochus being
oval with two median gaps, the cingulum, more delicate, and com-
plete. In Flosculariaceae the trochus is a horseshoe-shaped ridge
ROTIFERA
deep down in the funnel-shaped disk. The cingulum appears to
be represented by the margin, usually produced into long petal-like
From Com*. Nat. Hist. vol. ii. " Worms," &c., by permission of Macmillan & Co. Ltd.
FIG. 2. Diagrammatic Views of Disks of Rotifers: cingulum
continuous; trochus dotted; groove shaded; mouth black.
i Simple disk of Microcodon; 2, bdelloid disk of Rotifer and ot
most Melicertids showing dorsal gap; 3, disk of Hydatina with
lobed ridges in the groove, bearing vibratile styles (membranelles) ;
4 disk of Melicerta ringens and M. conifera; the star represents
the ciliated cup connected by ciliated depressions with the
groove; S, disk of Conochilus, like the Bdelloid, but with mouth
antero-dorsal, the gap postero-ventral ; 6, disk of Stephanoceros
cingulum broken up into setiferous lobes, groove a naked funnel,
trochus a horseshoe-shaped ridge, mouth central.
lobes, fringed with long stiffish setae, which in Stephanoceros are
vibratile at intervals, seemingly at will. In Floscularia they serve
to convert the lobed
funnel into an effi-
cient casting net or
clasp net: in one
species (F. pelagica)
there is an outer
girdle of fine cilia for
swimming. In Ap-
silus and A trochus
(fig. 3, 6, d) the
cingulum is a mere
contractile hood. In
most rotifers, on the
contrary, the trochus
is stronger than the
cingulum, often
lobed, and with some
of its cilia aggre-
gated into vibratile
styles homologous
with the comb-
plates of Ctenophora
(q.v.) and the mem-
branelles of ciliate
Infusoria (?..). The
trochus forms the
powerful currents for
locomotion, and fo
the supply of fooc
material, while the
cingulum produces
local current round
the upper rim of th<
corona to bring th<
food particles direc
to the mouth, which
From H. S. Jennings in American Naturalist, vol. xxxv., is displaced througl
by permission of Ginn & Co. a postero-ventral ga]
FIG. 3. a, Stephanoceros eichornii in gela- in the trochus to Hi
tinous tube; b, Acyclus inquietus in behind the disk, jus
gelatinous tube, with eggs; c, Floscularia as occurs in the more
coronetta in gelatinous tube, with eggs; specialized Ciliata
d, Apsilus bucinedax, showing lateral The current formec
(distal) antennae funnel of mouth hanging by the trochus is a
into enormous crop, stomach at apical end gigantic vortex-ring
with gastric glands, anus on postero-ventral the down stroke o
surface, large coiled kidneys at proximal the cilia bein^
end, uniting into median duct; e, Melicerta directly outwards
ringens in tube ; /, same, proximal end en- but the wave beat
larged, showing a pellet in the cup proximal running round th
to the paired lateral antennae; g, Melicerta organ in uniform sue
janus, tube formed of faecal pellets. cession in one direc
tion. Thus th
rotifer is, as it were, constantly drawn forward into the centre o
this vortex ring. There is a dorsal interruption to the disk, in
olving both trochus and cingulum and groove- in this case the
wo halves of the disk may be developed in lobes, flower-shaped in
Melicerta ringens, but often rounded and projecting like kettledrums,
"hese give a strong impression of two crown wheels revolving in the
,ame sense. This appearance puzzled the older observers, who were
ed thereby to give the name " wheel-bearers " to the group, until
he true character of ciliary motion was recognized; for a wheel
annot be i i organic continuity with the support on which it rotates
n Conochilus (fig. 2, 5), a Melicertan, the mouth is displaced towards
he antero-dorsal side and the gap is postero-ventral.
In Melicerta ringens and M. conijera (fig. 2, 4; fig. 3, e.f) there is a
.landular ciliated pit between the mouth and the chin into which
he overflow water "V-^P-J 1 *
7 , jSH
passes by a pair of
;utters, and in which
ine particles are ag-
gregated into pellets,
irhich the animal
leposits, as formed,
on the edge of its
ube and so builds it
up. M. janus builds
up a tube by pellets
of its own faeces (fig.
3, g). In most Ploima
:he dorsal gap is not
well marked, and the
trochus is broken up
nto a number of lobes,
often furnished with
vibratile styles, in
_ront and at the sides,
but ventrally passing
into the uniformly
ciliated oral funnel.
Other ciliated _ or-
gans to be noticed
are the proboscis cup
of Bdelloidaceae, and
the toes of Pedalion.
Besides these Syn-
chaetadae and Notom-
matidae (fig. 7) possess
a pair of aurioles,
great eversible ciliated
pouches a little above
the disk, utilized in
swimming. The mouth
begins as a funnel,
continued into _ a
narrow pharynx, which
in Flosculariaceae is
prolonged into a From c T Hudson b QMff Journa i ttf ifimsufico
slender tube hanging Scima,\o\. muv., by permission of J. & A. Churchill.
freely down into the p IG . Types of Trophi. a, malleate, with
( ~""- A enlarged view of malleus above the
Y-shaped incus consists of a short median
fulcrum bearing two large rami, each of
which is in contact with a stout malleus
consisting of a toothed uncus carried on a
long manubrium; b, sub-malleate, with
enlarged view of malleus the manubria
are twice as long as the 3- to 5-toothed
unci ; c, virgate mallei rod-like, manubria
and fulcrum very long, unci I- or 2-toothed;
d, forcipate rami large and used as a for-
ceps, mallei rod-like, unci pointed orevan-"
escent; e, incudate stout fulcrum, rami
forming a forceps, mallei evanescent ;/, un-
cinate unci large, 2-toothed, manubria
evanescent, incus slender; g, ramate rami
subquadrantic, fulcrum rudimentary, man-
ubria evanescent ; /i.malleo-ramate mallei
fastened by their u nci to the rami, manubria
looped, rami large and fulcrum slender.
apical, often independently jointed ; (2) with the outer ends of
the rami articulate two lateral piece's (mallei), and again com-
posed of a distal longitudinal piece (manubrium) and an
apical transverse piece (the uncus), the whole recalling, as the
name implies, a single-clawed hammer. For the varieties
and modifications of the trophi we simply refer to Hudson's
figure above. The relative size of the crop to the trophi varies
greatly; it is small where the trophi are well developed and com-
plex, as well as in Bdelloidea; but in Flosculariaceae it is large,
and so it is in Asplanchnaceae. Eversible trophi of the forcipate
or virgate type, which can be used for nibbling, are common in
Ploima, notably Rattulidae, and are used for attachment to the
host in the parasitic Seisonaceae, &c. In Asplanchnaceae also,
crop: this is followed
by the crop-gizzard,
also ciliated except
behind, where it is
hardened into a set
of articulated sclerites
(trophi) to form the
gizzard or mastax.
Thus the crop-gizzard
has the same com-
bination of structures
as we find in the
stomach of higher
Crustacea, with which
we may call it homo-
plastic. The trophi
are (i) a median incus
or anvil (fig. 4),
Y - shaped, with the
foot (fulcrum) distal
and the arms (rami)
ROTIFERA
761
where the whole crop is strengthened by a framework of bars, the
incudate mastax lies in a little postero-ventral pouch which can be
everted through the crop and mouth. The stomach is generally
large; its wall consists of a layer of very large ciliated cells, which
often contain fat globules and yellowish-green or brown particles,
and outside these a connective tissue membrane; muscular fibrillae
have also been described. Very constantly a pair of simple sack-
like glands open into the stomach, and probably represent the
hepato-pancreatic glands of other Invertebrates.
Following upon the stomach there is a longer or shorter intestine,
which ends in the cloaca. The intestine is lined by ciliated cells.
In forms living in a tube the intestine turns round and runs forward,
the cloaca being placed so as to debouch over the margin ot the
tube. The cloaca is often very large; the nephridia and oviducts
may open into it, and the eggs lodge there on their way outwards;
they are thrown out, as are the faecal masses, by an eversion of
the cloaca. Asplanchna, Notommata seiboldii, and certain sjpecies
of Ascomorpha are devoid of intestine or anus, excrementitious
matters being ejected through the mouth. The body cavity
(archicoele) contains a fluid in which very minute corpuscles have
been detected. There is no trace of a true vascular system. The
nephridia (fig. i, B, n) present a very interesting stage of develop-
ment. They consist of a pair of tubules with an intracellular lumen
running up the sides of the body, at times merely sinuous, at others
considerably convoluted. From these are given off at irregular
intervals short lateral branches, each of which terminates in a
flame-cell (/) precisely similar in structure to the flame-cells found
in Planarians, Tretnatodes and Cestodes; here as there the question
whether they are open to the body cavity or not must probably be
answered in the negative. At the base these tubes open either
into a permanent bladder (fig. I, bl) which communicates with the
cloaca, or directly into the cloaca. They have the same functions
as the contractile vacuole of freshwater Protozoa (q.v.).
^Nervous System. There is a large ganglion lying in close contact
with the pharynx, proximal to the crop and on its antero-dorsal
side; in Bdelloidaceae at least it is united by short connectives
with a smaller postero-ventral ganglion to form a nerve collar.
From this simple nerve fibres are given off to the body-wall, especially
I '
FIG. 5. Pedalion mira. A, lateral surface view of an adult female :
a, median ventral appendage; b, median dorsal appendage;
c, distal ventro-lateral appendage; d, dorso-lateral appendage;
/, dorsal antenna; g, "chin"; x', cephalotroch. B, lateral
view, showing viscera: oc, eye-spots; n, nephridia; e, ciliated
toes; other letters as above. C, ventral view: *', trochus;
x, cingulum; other letters as above. D, ventral view, showing
the musculature (cf. text). E, dorsal view of a male: a, lateral
appendages; b, dorsal appendage. F, lateral view of a male.
G, enlarged view of the antenna /. H, enlarged view of the
median ventral appendage. (All after Hudson.)
to the ciliated cells of the corona, to the foot, and also to the muscles
and sense organs.
The sense organs are eyes, antennae, sensory styles and a statocyst
in a few species. The eyes are refractive globules set in a cup of
red pigment traversed by a nerve fibre, and lie on the proximal
side of the body, directly on the postero-dorsal surface of the brain,
or at a little distance from it, on the neck, often within the circle
on the corona, and usually well within the transparent body. There
may be one, a pair, or rarely more, the outer ones being more or
less rudimentary. The antennae are short tubular extensions of
the body wall, sometimes retractile with a depressed tip from which
protrudes a tuft of fine stiff bristles. They are possibly organs of ex-
ternal taste (smell) as well as of touch. Typically there are two
pairs a proximal, more or less approximated on the postero-dorsal
surface, and a distaj pair, more widely separate. But the proximal
pair are often fused into a single median antenna (supplied, however,
by two nerves), and in one case at least the distal pair may be
similarly fused. Additional paired antennae may occur within
the coronal surface, which is the seat of the sensory styles, of less
complex structure, which occur in many genera. The statocyst
(retro-cerebral organ of P. Marius de Beauchamp) is a sac filled
with highly refractive granules soluble in dilute acids, and opening
by a slender duct (or a pair) to the surface : its function is doubtless
that of an organ of equilibrium, and it resembles in its opening to
the surface the primitive internal ear of even Vertebrates, for the
duct to the surface persists through life in the sharks.
Locomotor Organs. Most free rotifers swim by the corona, aided
by the ciliated auricles when present. In Bdelloidaceae this may
alternate with a leech-like gait; the corona being withdrawn, the
cupped end of the proboscis serves as a sucker for attachment
alternately with the adherent foot, so that the animal loops its
way along. In two families motile articulated rods occur; in
Triarthridae they probably simply expand the dimensions of the
body in adaptation to life at the surface ; or as a protection against
being swallpwed by their smaller foes. In Polyurthra and Pteroessa
they are numerous, pinnated (feathered), and are doubtless used
for active swimming by jerks; they can be moved up or down by
special muscles attached to their bases, which project into the body.
FIG. 6. Male Rotifers. I, Euchlanis deflexa; 2, lateral; 20, dorsal
views of Colurus bicuspidatus; 3, Notops brachionus; 4, Diglena
permollis; 5, Gastropus minor; 6, Anuraea serrata; 7, Asco-
morpha parasita; 8, Notholca heptodon. (Drawn from specimens
by F. R. Dixon Nuttall.)
In Pedalion (fig. 5), a remarkable torm discovered by Dr C. J.
Hudson in 1871 and found in numbers several times since, these
762
ROTIFERA
appendages have acquired a new and quite special development.
They are six in number, median, ventral and dorsal, and two unequal
lateral pairs. The largest is placed ventrally at some distance
distal to the mouth. Its free extremity is a plumose fan-like
expansion (fig. 5, Aa and H). It is, in common with others,
a hollow process into which run two pairs of broad, coarsely
transversely striated muscles. Each pair has a single insertion on
the inner wall the one pair near the free extremity of the limb, the
other near its attachment; the bands run up, one of each pair on
each side, and run right round the body forming an incomplete
muscular girdle, the ends approximating in the median line. Above
this point springs the large median dorsal limb, which terminates
in groups of long setae. It presents a single pair of muscles attached
along its inner wall which run up and form a muscular girdle round
the body in its posterior third. On either side is attached a dorso-
lateral arid ventro-lateral appendage, each with a fan-like plumose
termination consisting of compound hairs or setae, found elsewhere
only among arthropods (q.v.); each of these is moved -by muscles
running upwards towards the neck and arising immediately under
the trochal disk, the inferior ventro-lateral pair also presenting
muscles which form a girdle in the hind region of the body. It bears
a group of long setose hairs the bases of which are connected with
the nerve fibre. There are also two pairs of distal antennae.
Pedalion presents a pair of ciliated toes in the posterior region of
the body (fig. 5, B, C, and D, e), which it can apparently use as
a means of attachment; Dr Hudson states that he has seen it
anchored by these and swimming round and round in a circle.
Reproduction Organs. Rotifera are unisexual, with the sexes
dimorphic. The ovary is, as in many Platyhelminthes, duplex ; one
part, the germary,
being an organ for the
production by cell
multiplication of the
germ-cells or eggs
proper, the other, the
vitellarium, much more
conspicuous and usu-
ally consisting of a de-
finite number of large
cells, producing yolk
material for the growth
of the egg. The whole
ovary is unilateral
and unpaired in most
rotifers ; symmetrical
in Asplanchnaceae,
Philodinaceae and
Seisonaceae. In As-
planchnaceae the ger-
mary is median, con-
tinuous at the distal
end with the middle
of the transverse horse-
shoe-shaped vitellary.
In Bdelloidaceae and
vol. Seisonaceae the whole
organ is paired, the
germary proximal,
the vitellary next the
cloaca. As a rule,
From
H. S Jennings in American Naturalist,
xxxv., by permission of Ginn & Co.
FIG. 7. Loricate Rotifers, a, Notholca
longispina, lorica only; b, Anuraea
aculeata, like the former, a floating
pelagic type (plankton proper); c, Syn- the wall of the ovary
chaeta slylata; corona with accessory is continued into a
antennae and sensory styles; auricles for uterine tube opening
swimming an actively swimming pelagic into the cloaca; but
type (nekton) ; d, Pterodina patina, with in Philodinaceae this is
bdellpid corona and retractile foot with absent, and the young
" terminal ciliated cup ; e, Distyla gissensis are free in the body
partly extended ;/, Rattulus tigris. cavity and escape by
perforating the cloacal
walls. The male organs are usually a testis, a large seminal bladder and
a protrusible penis. The males are unlike the females in most species ;
only in Eosphora digitata, Rhinops vitrea, Proales werneckii, and the
Seisonaceae a complete digestive system is present. Frequently the
foot is ciliated at the tip, as in the young of tubicolous forms.
The males of rotifers are of relatively rare occurrence, except in the
genusAsplanchna, where they were first recognized as such by Bright-
well in 1841; though those of Hydatina had- long since been seen
and described as a distinct genus. Despite their rare occurrence,
the males of over one hundred and twenty species have now been
recognized, and we may well believe that all species will be found
to present males. This statement may seem to need qualification;
for the male of no Bdelloid has been seen, and there is but a doubtful
record of " winter-eggs " in this group. But possibly, as in Seisona-
ceae, the males resemble the females, and have escaped recognition.
It may, however,_ well be that the capacity for wintering in the
dry state has physiologically replaced the need for resistent fertilized
eggs. Insemination takes place either by the introduction of the
penis into the cloaca of the female, or by the puncture of the body-
wall of the female by the penis, and the injection of the sperm into
the body cavity, whence the single spermatozoa must make their
way to the eggs. The females habitually produce eggs without
impregnation, which again habitually develop into females, more
rarely into males. These unfertilized eggs develop directly, often
in the uterus. In other cases the eggs are liberated earlier and
adhere to the foot, or are hatched within the tube (fig. 3, b, c).
The impregnated eggs undergo a very partial development in the
mother, and these pass into a state of rest, for which they are
furnished with a dense shell. They always give rise to partheno-
genetic females (see REPRODUCTION). The thin-walled eggs are
often termed " summer-eggs," the fertilized ones " winter " or
" ephippial " eggs (by parity with the phyllopod Entomostraca, q.v.).
But the appearance of males seems to be as much associated with
those of summer drought as of winter cold. No adequate knowledge
of the conditions under which males arise has been established. The
phenomenon of seasonal dimorphism is of especial moment for the
plankton dwellers. Not only is the appearance of males regular, but
the forms of the females at different times of the year may be so
distinct as to have led them to be classed as distinct species.
Development. The egg is holoblastic, but the segmentation is very
unequal, recalling that of marine annelids and of molluscs. Gastru-
lation takes place by epiboly, and the stomodaeum (oral inyagination
mastax pharynx) takes place in two stages of the region of the
closed blastopore. Un-
like the molluscs and
annelids, however, the
cloacal invagination lies
outside this region, and
the foot is formed by an
elongation of the end of
the body between the
two apertures. The nerve
ganglion is formed by
an ingrowth of epiblast,
and so are the pedal
glands. The body
cavity is the primitive
blastocoele.
Relationships and Mor-
phology. Passing over
the earlier authors who
regarded this group as
allied to Infusoria, a view
first contested by Dujar-
din, T. H. Huxley viewed
them as equivalent to
and on a level with the
larvae of Echinoderms,
and of such other trocho-
phore larvae as resem-
bled these, a view gener-
ally adopted. But it
became more and more
apparent that the larvae
of this category de- FIG. 8.-
veloped mouth, gut and
anus by the closure in
the middle of such a slit-
like blastopore opening
into a sack-like stomach
as is seen in the larvae
of Turbellaria and Ne-
mertina. The extra-
blastoporic opening of
the cloaca leads us to a
verv different view, which
finds negative support
in the failure of previous
morphologists to adapt
the details of develop-
ment and of the struc-
ture of the disk to their identification of " trochus " and
" cingulum " with the preoral and postoral wreaths of the
trochophore larva. We homologize the rotifer with the Tur-
bellarian larva (fig. 8, A), and with the preoral or upper part
of the trochopore (fig. 8, E, F). Its adhesive foot is paralleled by a
cup-shaped ciliated depression, possibly nervous, found in all the
larvae _cited, except some Echinoderms, and which in Asterids
and Crinoids actually serves as an organ of attachment. This view
obviates the deed for assuming the complicated flexures of the
wreath which has to be done on other assumptions (see ROTIFERA,
Encycl. Brit. ed. 9). Thus Trochosphaera (fig. 8, D) (which has a
male of the same type as Melicerta, &c.) is an extremely modified
type, and its resemblance to the trochophore larva of Lepado-
rhynchus or Polygordius is only superficial. We may note that it
was long since shown that the apical organ (at first assumed to be
the brain) of these larvae was innervated from an anterior thickening
of the circular nerve ring, corresponding with the brain of Rotifers;
the nerve cells immediately below the pit are the ordinary bipolar
From Cambridge Natural History, vol. ii. , " Worms.
&c.," by permission of Macmillan & Co. Ltd.
-Diagram of morphological rela-
tions of Rotifera. A, pilidium larva
of nemertine; B, Asplanchnapus
schematized; C, a ploimal rotifer;
D, trochosphaera female (schematized
from Semper) ; E, veliger larva of mol-
lusc; F, trochophore larva of annelid.
a, anus; ap, apical organ, correspond-
ing to foot of rotifers; at, median
antenna, united by a nerve to br, brain
(letter omitted'in B); bl, bladder, re-
ceiving ramified kidney in B, C, D;
/, foot, and f.g, its cement-gland ;
g, ovary ; k, kidney ; m, mouth ; n, supra-
oesophageal ganglion ; nr, nerve ring in
section.
ROTIFERA
763
ganglion cells below invertebrate sense-organs. Moreover, the body
cavity of the Rotifers is a primitive archicoele ; the persistent or
accrescent cleft between epiblast and hypoblast, traversed by
mesenchymal muscular bands. Thus we regard Rotifers as an
independent stem branching off at the outset of the rise trom the
Platode type to higher Invertebrata, The Polyzoa (qv ). which in
many ways recall Rotifers, appear to be equally independent.
The following classification of Rotifers is our modification of that
of Hudson and Gosse, further altered through considerations put
From H. S Jennings in A merican Natural ist , vol. zxxv. , by permission of Ginn & Co.
FIG. 9. a, Microcodon clavus, showing corona, lateral antennae and
jointed foot; b, Rhinops vitrea, corona from below, showing
proboscidiform extension containing eyes; c, Philodina megalo-
trocha', d, head of Rotifer macroceros, postero-ventral view,
showing lobes of corona, and antero-dorsal median antenna,
telescopic with setae; e. Rotifer (Actinurus) neptunius, showing
head with retracted corona, and protruded dorsal proboscis
bearing median antenna, and telescopic foot with toes and
spurs; /. Asplanchnopus myrmeleo, snowing horseshoe-shaped
germarium (left), blind saccate stomach (right), apical bladder,
foot, &c.; g, Asplanchna ebbesbornii the coiled tube at left is a
kidney; h, i, incudate jaws of Asplanchna brightwellii and girodii
chiefly formed of rami, with the rudimentary mallei parallel and
external to them; j, Ascomorpha hyalina.
forward by C. Wesenberg-Lund, which, however, we do not consider
wholly convincing. He notably regards an oblique disk with
uniform ciliation as primitive, a view which we cannot adopt.
Classification :
(A.) Disk usually with well-marked strong trochus, ciliated groove
and more delicate cingulua interrupted by an antero-dorsal median
gap, usually more or less bilobed.
(i.) Trophi incudate:
1. Asplanchnaceae; trochus circular; foot absent or
minute; trophi incudate; stomach blind; males
frequent, not very dissimilar to females. Asplanchna
Gosse (fig. 9, g-i); Asplanchnopus Deguerne (fig. 9, /);
Ascomorpha Perty (fig. 9, j).
(ii.) Trophi malleoramal:
2. Melicertaceae; females tubicolous, usually attached,
or forming spherical floating social aggregates; males
free swimming. Melicerta Schranck (fig. 3, e, f);
Oecistes Ehrenberg; Lacinularia Schweigger; Conochuus
Ehrenberg, with gap postero-ventral and mouth antero-
dorsal (fig. 2, 5).
3. Trochosphaeraceae ; female footless; subspherical,
the corona bulging into a hemisphere which may equal
the hemispherical body; anus apical; male as in
Melicertaceae, Trochosphaere Semper (fig. 8, D).
4. Ploimoidaceae ; subconical; corona bilobed; retractile
foot absent or ciliated; motile appendages present
in two families.
(a) Pterodinidea ; foot a ciliated cup; cuticle forming
flat lorica. Pterodina Ehr. (fig. 7, d).
(b) Triarthridae ; body with a pair of long cervical
spines pointing distally and serving for leaping
movements or to extend the body and make
it too big for small enemies to swallow; Pedetes
Gosse (no median spines); Triarthra Ehr., one
postero-ventral spine; Tetramastix Zacharias,
two unequal median spines.
(c) Pedalionidae , foot represented by two styles,
sometimes ciliated; body provided with six
hollow-jointed muscular fins for swimming
and leaping. Pedalion Hudson (fig. 5).
(iii.) Trophi ramate:
5. Bdelloidaceae ; foot with two toes and accessory spurs
or a simple perforated disk; body telescopic at either
end with an antero-dorsal proboscis ending in a ciliate
cup and bearing the proximal antenna; corona usually
bilobed, very wheel-like. Males if present probably like
the females. Germary and ovary paired ; oviduct absent ;
young viviparous. Rotifer Schrank (fig. 9, d, e) ; Philodina
Ehr. (fig. 9. c) ; Callidina Ehr. (eyeless) ; Adineta Hudson
is eyeless with the corona uniformly ciliated, and pro-
boscis adnate, hooked.
(iv.) Trophi uncinate:
Flosculariaceae ; disk a contractile cup, often lobed, the
cingulum of long vibratile cilia, of very long motionless
bristles or absent, rarely with an outer zone of fine cilia.
Trochus a pair of ridges or horseshoe open in front.
Oral funnel produced into a fine tube hanging freely into
a pharyngeal cup, containing the uncinate trophi. Body-
wall usually traversed by a network of canals serving
by their contraction to expand the disk. Males and larvae
with a ciliated pedal cup and a simple ciliated disk.
(a) Floscularidae ; tubicolous, with a lobed disk,
bearing stiff or vibratile setae. Floscularia
Oken (fig. 3, 6); Stephanoceros Ehr. (fig. 3, a).
(6) Acyclidae. Disk entire or tentaculate, not seti-
ferous; Acyclus Leidz (fig. 3, c). Foot repre-
sented by a button-like disk, carried far from
the posterior surface; Apsilus Metchnikoff
(fig. 3, d); Atrochus Wierzezski (fig. 3, c).
(B) Ploimaeae; disk variable, often circular, sometimes with a
lobed trochus bearing membranelles (vibratile styles); trophi
complete, malleate, submalleate, virgate, or forcipate; anus
subapical; foot usually short, and usually bearing two toes which
may be much elongated.
Illoricata, cuticle soft; ciliated exsertile auricles
above the disk sometimes present. Albertia
Dujardin; Drilophagus Vejdovsky; Microcodon
Ehr. (fig. o, a); Rhinops Hudson (fig. 9, b);
Synchaeta Ehr. (fig. 7, c) ; Hydatina Ehr. has no
eye ; Notommata Ehr. (restricted by Gosse) ; Copens
Gosse ; Notops Hudson (fig. 6, 3) ; Proales Gosse ;
Castroschiza; Diglena Ehr. (fig. 6, 4).
Loricata, cuticle hardened armour-like, often
sculptured; Polyarthra Ehr.; Pedetes Gosse;
Euchlanis Ehr. (fig. 6, i); Anuraea Ehr.
(fig. 7, 6) ; Notholca Gosse (fig. 7, a) :
Distylis Eckstein (fig. 7, e) ; Rattulus Ehr.
(fig- 7. /); Colurus Ehr. (fig. 6, 2); Taphro-
campa Gosse.
(C.) Seisonaceae. Body elongated with a narrow neck above
the disk; foot ending in a terminal perforated disk. Trophi
virgate exsertile; germary paired; genitp-urinary cloaca opening
above the neck in the male, subapically in the female. Gut blind
(Paraseison), or opening into cloaca (Seison). Males resembling
females, common. All known species are parasitic on the Crustacean
Nebalia; Seison Claus; Paraseison Plate.
Habitat and Habits. The Rotifera are all aquatic, the
majority dwelling in fresh water with Protozoa and Protophyta,
as well as Entomostracous Crustacea. This association with
Protophyta accounts for their study by many distinguished
botanists, such as W. C. Williamson and F. Cohn. Some are
moss-dwellers, inhabiting the surface film of water that bathes
these plants: such especially are the Bdelloids, with their
exceptional capacity for resisting desiccation. Others the
majority live among weeds, the tubicolous ones mostly upon
them. A few are sapropelic, haunting the looser debris that
forms the uppermost layer of the bottom ooze of quiet waters:
we may cite the aberrant Floscularian Atrochus. Widely
different are the habits of the plankton forms, which float
or swim near the surface, and are often provided with long
7 6 4
ROTORUA ROTROU
cuticular extensions for this purpose (fig. 7, a, V). Asplanchna-
ceae, plankton, dwellers in small pools, are, however, ovoid, and
Trochosphaera is spherical and must owe its floating powers to
the low density of the liquid in its enormously dilated body-
cavity. Lacinidaria racemovata and Conochilus form free
floating aggregates, the eggs, as laid, hatching and the young
settling among the approximated gelatinous tubes of the parents.
Some species only frequent the clearest waters; but the lovely
transparent Hydatina senta (fig. 2, 3) likes water contaminated
by the visits of cattle or the drainings of manure. Drilo-
phagus and Albertia are parasitic on the surface or within the
gut of Naid Oligochaete worms: Seisonaceae are ectoparasitic
on the Crustacean Nebalia, Proales werneckii forms galls within
the Conferva Vaucheria, and P. parasita infests the central
jelly of the Phytoflagellate Volvox; P. pelromyzon is a frequent
commensal in the gill cavity of some Cladoceran Crustacean
Eurycereus lamellatus.
The geographical distribution is cosmopolitan, as is the case
with Protozoa and Protophyta of similar habits. A curious
fact is that when a new and striking form is found first in one
place it is shortly after collected from widely separated areas.
In the case of one genus, Gastroschiza, this led to the creation
of no less than six generic names.
History and Bibliography. As rotifers are common in ponds, the
first workers with the microscope observed them repeatedly, the first
record being that of John Harris in 1696, who found a Bdelloid in a
gallipot that had been standing in his window. Leeuwenhoek found
and described some tubicolous species; and during the l8th century a
fair number of species were observed, figured and described with
names. During this time the illusion of a wheel or wheels produced
by the ciliary action of the disk had puzzled all observers. C. E.
Ehrenberg included the Rotifers in his Infusionsthiere, and described
and_ figured with fair precision many of the genera and species.
Dujardin gave a less detailed but more accurate account under the
name of Zoophytes Systolides. The next full work was a valuable
compilation by W. C. Williamson (best known as a botanist) in
Pritchard's Infusoria, in 1861. Much work was done with the
gradual introduction of improved methods during the last forty
years of the century. The discovery and recognition of the males
was made, however, at the close of the fifties. P. H. Gosse collected
and described many species, and elucidated the structure of the
inastax in 1856. Zoologists of the standing of Huxley, Claus and
Leydig added to our knowledge of the anatomy and to the theory
of their relations. But the monumental monograph of C. T.
Hudson and Gosse containing a new classification, an illustrated
description of all the then known species and much information
on habits and structure, provided students with an easy access to
the domain and stimulated many to work hard at the group. Of
these new-comers we may cite C. F. Rousselet, who has found many
new species and many unknown males of known species, elucidated
habits and faithfully kept record of the publications on the class
in the Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society. He has moreover
elaborated a method for preserving Rotifera for microscopic observa-
tion, so that the types of each observer are now as readily available
for comparison as the plant-specimens of the botanist's herbarium.
C. Zelinka has given us the most detailed anatomical accounts we
possess for several Bdelloidaceae, and was the first to utilize modern
methods of microscopic technique on a complete scale.
C. G. Ehrenberg, Die Infusionsthiere als vollkommenere Organis-
men (1838); F. Dujardin, Histoire naturelle des zoophytes (1841);
T. H. Huxley, " Lacinularia socialis," Trans. Micr. Soc. i. (1853);
P. H. Gosse, " Manducatory Organs in Class Rotifera," Phil. Trans.
(1856); W. C. Williamson, "The Rotifera" in A. Pritchard's
History of the Infusoria (1861); C. T. Hudson and P. H. Gosse,
The Rotifera (1886), and supplement (1889) ; Marcus Hartog, " Roti-
fera," in Cambridge Natural History, vol. ii., reprinted 1901 ; H. S.
Jennings, Synopses of North American Invertebrates, xvii., " The
Rotifera," Amer. Nat. xxxv. (1901); C. F. Rousselet, numerous
papers in Journ. Micr. Soc. and Journ. Quekett Club; C. Wesen-
Derg-Lund, " Danmarks Rotifera," in Vid. Meddel. Nat. For.
KjSbenham (1899); C. Zelinka, " Studien tiber Rotiferen," in Zeit.
Wiss. Zool. xliv. (1886), xlvii. (1888), liii. (1891). (M. HA.)
ROTORUA, a town of Rotorua county, North Island, New
Zealand. It lies in the midst of a remarkable volcanic district
generally known as the Hot Spring district, or fancifully as the
Wonderland, which covers an area of 660 sq. m. and extends
160 m. from N.E. to S.W. from White Island, an active volcanic
cone in the Bay of Plenty to the mountains of Tongariro,
Ngaruhoe and Ruapehu in the interior of the island, S.W. of
lake Taupo. Rotorua attracts many visitors on account of
the beauty and scientific interest of the locality and the bathing
in its various medicinal springs. It is a scattered town-
ship lying on the south-western shore of lake Rotorua, amid
hills reaching 2600 ft. in the immediate neighbourhood, and
much of the volcanic soil supports a rich growth of forest
or " bush."
The springs are principally alkaline, alkaline and siliceous, acidic,
or acidic and hepatic (sulphurous). The township includes the
Maori village of Ohinemutu, an interesting collection of native
dwellings, whose inmates constantly use the numerous rudely
excavated baths which are fed by springs varying in temperature
from 60 F. to the boiling-point, and are in some cases used for
cooking. In the vicinity, on the lake-shore, is the government
sanatorium. Two miles south of Rotorua is another native village,
Whakarewarewa, where there are geysers as well as hot springs.
Four miles from Rotorua, near the centre of the lake, the island of
Mokoia rises to 1518 ft. It is partly under grass and partly
wooded, and is inhabited by Maoris, by whom it is regarded as holy
ground. A short channel connects lake Rotorua with lake Rotoiti
to the N.E. At the eastern end steep cliffs rise from the water,
and luxuriant vegetation covers the hills. Both this lake and the
smaller ones to the east, Rotoehu and Rotoma, have deeply indented
shores, and are set in exquisite scenery. The group is known
collectively as the Cold Lakes. The waters of Rotoma are of a
particularly vivid blue. To the south of Rotoiti is Tikitere, a
sombre valley abounding in mud volcanoes, springs and other active
volcanic phenomena. Mount Tarawera (16 m. S.E. of Rotorua) is
noted for the eruption of June 1886, which changed the outline of
several lakes, destroyed the famous Pink and White terraces on
the adjoining lake Tarawera, and converted a region of great beauty
into a desolate wilderness. A fissure was formed extending nearly
9 m. along the axis of the disturbance, and the mission station
of Wairoa (8 m. from Rotorua) on the western shore of the lake was
overwhelmed. A line of craters is seen to the south-west. The
large lakes Okataina, Kahahi and Rerewhakaitu lie respectively N.,
W. and S.E. of lake Tarawera.
ROTROU, JEAN DE (1609-1650), French tragic poet, was
born on the ipth or 2oth of August 1609, at Dreux in Normandy.
Rotrou studied at Dreux and at Paris, and, though three years
younger than Corneille, began play-writing before him. In
1632 he became playwright to the actors of the H6tel de
Bourgogne. With few exceptions, the only events recorded of
his life are the successive appearances of his plays and his
enrolment in 1635 in the band of five poets who had the duty
of turning Richelieu's dramatic ideas into shape. Rotrou's
own first piece, L'Hypocondriaque (pr. 1631), dedicated to the
Comte de Soissons, seigneur of Dreux, appeared when he was
only eighteen. In the same year he published a collection of
CEuvres poetiques, including elegies, epistles and religious verse.
His second piece, La Bague de I'oubli (pr. 1635), an adaptation
in part from the Sortija del Olvido of Lope de Vega, was much
more characteristic. It is the first of several plays in which
Rotrou endeavoured to naturalize in France the romantic
comedy which had flourished in Spain and England instead of
the classical tragedy of Seneca and the classical comedy of
Terence. Corneille had leanings in the same direction. Rotrou's
brilliant but hasty and unequal work showed throughout marks
of a stronger adhesion to the Spanish model. In 1634, when he
printed Cleaginor et Doristee (acted 1630), he said he was already
the author of thirty pieces; but this applies no doubt to adapta-
tions. Diane (acted 1630; pr. 1633), Les Occasions perdves
(acted 1631 ; pr. 1635), which won for him the favour of Richelieu,
and L'Heureuse Constance (acted 1631; pr. 1635), which was
praised by Anne of Austria, succeeded each other rapidly,
and were all in the Spanish manner. In 1631 Rotrou imitated
Plautus in Les Menechmes (pr. 1636), and in 1634 Seneca in
his Hercule mourant (pr. 1636). Comedies and tragi-comedies
followed. Documents exist showing the sale of four pieces to
Antoine de Sommarille for 750 livres tournois in 1636, and in the
next year he sold ten to the same bookseller. He spent much
time at Le Mans with his patron, M. de Belin, who was one of the
opponents of Corneille in the quarrel of the Cid. It has been
generally assumed, partly because of a forged letter long accepted
as Corneille's, that Rotrou was his generous defender in this
matter. He appears to have been no more than neutral, but
is credited with an attempt at reconciliation between the parties
in a pamphlet printed in 1637, L'Incognu et veritable amy de
messieurs de Scudfry et Corneille. M. de Belin died in 1637,
ROTTA ROTTENBURG
765
and in 1639 Rotrou bought the post of lieutenant particulier au
bailliage at Dreux. In the next year he married Marguerite
Camus, and settled down as a model magistrate and pere de
famille. Among his pieces written before his marriage were
a translation of the Amphitryon of Plautus, under the title of
Le.s Deux Sosies (1636), Antigone (1638), and Laure Persecutte
(acted 1637; pr. 1639), in the opposite style to these classical
pieces. In 1646 Rotrou produced the first of his four
masterpieces, Le Veritable Saint Genest (acted 1646; pr. 1648),
a story of Christian martyrdom containing some amusing by-
play, one noble speech and a good deal of dignified action.
Rotrou uses with considerable success the device of a play
within a play. The actor Genest becomes a real convert while
playing the part of a Christian martyr. Incidentally (Act i.
Sc. v.) Rotrou pays a noble tribute to the genius of Corneille.
Don Bertrand de Cabrere (1647) is a tragi-comedy of merit ;
Venceslas (1647 ; pr. 1648) is considered in France his master-
piece, and has* had several modern revivals; Cosroes (1649)
has an Oriental setting, and is claimed as the only absolutely
original piece of Rotrou. These masterpieces follow foreign
models, and Rotrou's genius is shown in the skill with which he
simplifies the plot and strengthens the situations. Saint Genest
followed Lope de Vega's Lo fingido verdadero; Venceslas
followed the No ay ser padre siendo rey of Francisco de Rojas.
In this play Ladislas and his brother both love the princess
Cassandra; Ladislas makes his way into her house and in the
darkness kills a man whom he thinks to be the duke of Courland,
but who is really his brother Alexandre, the favoured lover.
In the early morning he meets the king and is confronted by
the duke of Courland. The outline of this incident is in the
Spanish play, but there the spectators are aware of the ghastly
mistake at the time of the murder. Rotrou shows his dramatic
skill by concealing the real facts from the audience until they
are revealed to the horror-struck Ladislas himself.
In 1650 the plague broke out at Dreux. Rotrou remained at
his post, although urgently desired to save himself by going to
Paris; caught the disease, and died in a few hours. He was
buried at Dreux on the 28th of June 1650. Rotrou's great
fertility (he left thirty-five collected plays besides others lost,
strayed or uncollected), and perhaps the uncertainty of
dramatic plan shown by his hesitation almost to the last between
the classical and the romantic style have injured his work.
He has no thoroughly good play, hardly one thoroughly good
act. But his situations are often pathetic and noble, and as a
tragic poet properly so called he is at his best almost the equal
of Corneille and of Racine. His single lines and single phrases
have a brilliancy and force not to be found in French drama
between Corneille and Hugo.
A complete edition of Rotrou was edited in five volumes by
Viollet le Due in 1822. In 1882 M. de Ronchaud published a
handsome edition of six plays Saint Genest, Venceslas, Don Bertrand
de Cabrkre, Antigone, Hercule Mourant and Cosroes. Venceslas and
Saint Genest are also to be found in the Chefs-d'oeuvre Tragiques of
the Collection Didot.
Rotrou's brother, Pierre Rotrou de Saudreville, left a memoir of
him which is unfortunately lost, but this is cited by the Abb6
Brillon (1671-1736) as his authority in a Notice biographique sur
Jean Rotrou, first printed in 1885 at Chartres under the editorship
of L. Merlet. Other good earlier authorities are Nic^ron, Mtmoires
pour senrir a Vhistoire des hommes illustres (1731), vol. xyi. pp. 89-97;
and the duke de la Valliere, Bibl. du thedtre franfois depuis son
origine (Dresden, 1768), vol. ii. pp. 155-273. Modern works are
by J. Jarry, Essai sur les asuvres dramaliques de Jean Rotrou (Paris
and Lille, 1868); Leonce Person, Hist, du Venceslas de Rotrou,
suivie de notes critiques et biographtques (1882), in which many
legends about Rotrou are discredited; Hist, du v6ritable Saint
Genest de Rotrou (1882), Les Papiers de Pierre Rotrou de Saudre-
ville (1883); Henri Chardon, La Vie de Rotrou mieux connue (1884);
and Georg Steffens, Jean de Rotrou als Nachahmer Lope de Vega's
(Berlin, 1891).
ROTTA, CHROTTA, HROTTA (Fr. Cithare, rotta; Ger, Cy-
thara, Rotta), a medieval stringed instrument derived from
the Greek cithara. The rotta possessed, in common with all
other forerunners of the violin, the chief structural features
of the cithara, i.e. the box sound-chest composed of back
and belly either flat or delicately arched connected by ribs.
The rotta represents the first step in the evolution of the cithara,
when arms and cross-bar were replaced by a frame joined to
the body, the strings being usually restricted to eight or less.
Examples of these early rottas abound in miniatures from
the 8th to the i2th century or even the I4th, such as Cotton
MS. Vespasian A. I. (Brit. Mus.), 700 A.D., and the MS. copy
in the Durham Cathedral Library of the Cassiodorus Com-
mentary on the Psalms 1 manu Bedae. The most interesting
is a real specimen of wood found in an Alamannic tomb of
the 4th to the 7th century at Oberflacht 2 in the Black Forest,
and now preserved in the Volker Museum, Berlin.
The next step was the addition of a finger-board and the con-
sequent reduction of the strings to three or four, since each string
was now capable of producing several notes. In the Caro-
lingian Bible presented to Charles the Bald 3 by Count Vivian
of Tours there is a fine example of the rotta at this stage, in
which the artist has reproduced the position of the fingers of
the left hand stopping the strings, and of the right hand pluck-
ing them. The same instrument occurs in a companion Bible,
known as the Bible of St Paul because it was preserved
in the monastery of that name " without the walls " at Rome.
Although these MSS. were executed in the 9th century, they
do not represent contemporary scenes, but were inspired by
Romano-Christian models, if not actually copied from older
MSS. This is the only representation yet found of the finger-
board thus applied to the rotta. In the final transition pre-
ceding the transformation into the guitar, the rotta appears as
a guitar-shaped instrument without neck o head and having
a hole large enough to allow the hand to pass through left in
the body on each side of the strings. At first this instrument,
which developed into the crwth, was twanged with the fingers,
but in the nth century it was played with a bow, the bridge
having been slightly raised on feet.
The first (and perhaps also the second) of these transitions was
accomplished in the Christian East, where, however, the upper
frame of the earliest rotta seems to have been at once discardedin
favour of a long neck with frets, for which the tanbur undoubtedly
supplied the idea. This evolution is to be traced in the miniatures
of a single MS., which supplies examples of all the transitions. The
miniatures illustrate the Psalms in the Utrecht Psalter; they were
beyond doubt originally designed to accompany a Greek or Syriac
version. 4 The Utrecht Psalter, executed in the diocese of Reims
under Anglo-Saxon influence during the gth century, is no servile
copy, but it owes much of its inspiration and local colour to an
unknown Greek or Syrian prototype.
As soon as the neck was added to the guitar-shaped body, the
instrument ceased to be a rotta and became a guitar (q.v.), or a
guitar-fiddle (q.v.) if played with the bow. Of the rotta, there were
two distinct types, the one derived from the cithara, the rotta proper,
and the other derived from the lyre, which survived to the 1 8th
century as the Welsh crwth. Although the various forms of the
name came to be applied somewhat indiscriminately in different
countries and epochs to both types, yet the structural features of
both remained true to their respective archetypes.
The words rotta in England and cythara in Germany seem to
have clung more especially to the first of these types, while the forms
crwth, crowd, crouth were reserved for the bowed instruments, the
earliest of which appeared in the nth century. 6
The crwth or crowd, so popular in England during the I4th century,
does not seem to have won equal favour in Germany, where at that
time the nidel or guitar-fiddle had been popularized by the minne-
singers. The crwth derived from the lyre underwent no further
development. (K. S.)
ROTTENBURG, a town and episcopal see of Germany, in
the kingdom of Wiirttemberg, situated on the left bank of the
Neckar, which is here crossed by two bridges connecting the
1 Both miniatures are reproduced by J. O. Westwood in Facsimiles
(London, 1868).
* Reproduced in Jahreshefle d. Wiirtemb. Altertums Ver. vol. iii.
(Stuttgart, 1846), pi. viii. figs. 10 and n.
3 See Facsimile, by Comte Auguste de Bastard (Paris, 1883).
* The whole case of this much-discussed Psalter, with rtsumts of
the principal writings on the subject of facsimiles of the miniatures
bearing on the evolution of the cithara, will be found in Kathleen
Schlesmger's Instruments of the Orchestra, pp. 343-82 and pi. iii.,
vi. and vii. (London, 1909).
'See Kathleen Schlcsinger, op. cit., pp. 334, 338-39 n. and 441-
766
ROTTERDAM ROTTWEIL
town with the suburb of Ehingen, 7 m. by rail S.W. of Tubingen.
Pop. (1905) 7554. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop,
and possesses the fine Gothic cathedral of St Martin; several
other churches; an old castle now used as a prison; and a
building, formerly a Jesuit monastery and now the residence
of the bishop. The chief industries are the manufacture of
machinery, screws, watches and beer, tanning and the cultiva-
tion of fruit and hops. Rottenburg passed into the possession
of Austria in 1281 and into that of Wurttemberg in 1805.
Near the town are the remains of the Roman station of Sumalo-
cenna or Salmulocenae.
ROTTERDAM, a city of Holland in the province of South
Holland, on both banks of the New Maas, at the confluence
of the canalized Rotte, and a junction station 14 J m. by rail
S.S.E. of the Hague. Steam tramways connect it with Schie-
dam, and with Numansdorp on the south of the island of Beier-
land, and there is a regular service of steamers by river and
canal to Antwerp by way of the South Holland and Zeeland
Islands and in every direction. The population of the city
was about 20,000 in 1632; 53,212 in 1796; 105,858 in 1860;
and 379,017 in 1905. Its snipping facilities have raised Rotter-
dam to the position of the first commercial city of Holland.
By means of the New Waterway (1869-90) to the Hook of
Holland it is accessible for the largest ships. The principal
quay is the Boompjes (" little trees "), forming the river-
front on the north side. Although originally situated exclu-
sively on the north or right bank of the Maas, in 1869 Rotterdam
was extended to the southern shore by the acquisition of the
commune of Feienoord; while in 1886 Delftshaven on the
west, and in 1895 Charlois on the south-west and Kralingen on
the east, were also incorporated. The river is spanned by a
road bridge (1878) and a railway bridge (1877) passing from
the Boompjes to the North Island, whence they are continued
to the farther shore by swing-bridges through which the largest
ships can pass to the upper river. These bridges prove useful
in breaking up the ice which forms above them in winter. On
the south side of the river are numerous large docks and
wharves, while the city proper on the north side consists of a
labyrinth of basins and canals with tree-bordered quays.
In the centre of the town is the Beursplein, or Exchange
Square, with the large general post office (1875), the
" Amicitia " club, and the exchange itself (1723). Behind
the exchange is the great market-place, built on vaulting over
a canal, and containing a bronze statue of Erasmus, who was
born in Rotterdam in 1467. The statue is the work of Hendrik
de Keyser, and was erected in 1622 (the inscription being
added in 1677) to replace an older one. Beyond the market-
place is the High Street, which runs along the top of the Maas
Dyke. On the west of the city a pretty road planted with
trees and grass plots leads from the Zoological Gardens (1857),
on the north to the small park overlooking the river. In the
park is a statue of the popular poet Hendrik Tollens (d. 1856),
a native of the city. Among the churches of Rotterdam are
an English church, originally built by the ist duke of Marl-
borough, whose arms may be seen with the royal arms over
the entrance. The Groote Kerk, or Laurens Kerk (end of the
1 5th' century) , contains a fine brass screen (1715), a celebrated
organ with nearly 5000 pipes, and the monuments of Admirals
Witte de Witte (d. 1658), Kortenaer (d. 1665), and van Brakel
(d. 1690), and other Dutch naval heroes. The lofty tower
commands an extensive view. In the New Market adjoining
is a fountain adorned with sculptures erected in 1874 to com-
memorate the jubilee of the restoration of Dutch independence
(1813). The museums of the city comprise an ethnographical
museum, the maritime museum established by the Yacht
Club in 1874, and the Boyman's Museum (1867) containing
pictures, drawings and engravings, as well as the town library.
Of the original collection of pictures bequeathed by F. J. O.
Boyman in 1847, more than half was destroyed by fire in 1864;
but the collection has been enlarged since and is representative
of both ancient and modern artists. Close to the museum
is a statue of the statesman Gysbert Karel van Hogendorp
(1762-1834), a native of the city. Among the remaining
buildings must be mentioned the town hall (i7th century;
restored 1823), the court-house, the concert-hall of the " Har-
monic " club, the record office (1900), the leeskabuiet, or sub-
scription library and reading-rooms, and the ten-storeyed
Witte Huis (1897), which is used for offices and is one of the
highest private buildings on the Continent.
The industries comprise the manufacture of tobacco, cigars,
margarine, rope, leather, &c., and there are breweries, dis-
tilleries and sugar refineries. The gas, electricity (1894) and
waterworks (1870) are under municipal control. Shipbuilding
yards extend above and below the city, one of the earliest
being that of the Netherlands Steamboat Company (1825).
It is, however, as a commercial rather than as a manufactur-
ing city that Rotterdam is distinguished, its progress in this
respect having been very striking. Between 1850 and 1902
the area of canals and docks in use on both sides of the river
increased from 96 to over 300 acres, about 2,000,0100 having
been spent on the building of docks in the last quarter of the
1 7th century. Besides its maritime trade Rotterdam has an
extensive river traffic, not only with Holland, but also with
Belgium and Germany. Its overseas trade is principally
with the Dutch colonies, New York, La Plata and the east
and west coasts of Africa. The great harbour works on the
south side of the river required to accommodate this growing
trade were planned by the engineer Stieltjes (d. 1878),
who has a monument on the North Island. Besides being
easily accessible from the river and connected with the rail-
ways, the docks are provided with every facility for coaling
and loading or discharging cargoes. The larger passenger
steamers of the Rotterdamsche Lloyd to Netherlands India
and of the Holland-American Steamship Company (the two
principal passenger and cargo steamship companies at Rotter-
dam) have their berths on the south side of the river. In the
centre of the river there is accommodation for over thirty
vessels at the mooring buoys. The increase in the import-
ance of Rotterdam as a port, apart from the development
of the trade of the Netherlands generally, is shown by the
fact that whereas in 1846 only 31% of the total trade of
the country passed through the port, in 1883 the propor-
tion was 50%; in the same year 43-75% of the total
number of vessels engaged in Dutch trade used the port of
Rotterdam, whereas in 1850 the proportion was only 35-77%.
The average number of all vessels using the port annually
during the decade 1897-1906 was 7228 of 11,163,624 tons, but
a steady increase was recorded during this period, from 6212
ships of 8,434,032 tons in 1897 to 8570 ships of 14,572,246 tons
in 1906.
Rotterdam probably owes its existence to two castles, which
existed in feudal times. In 1299 Johr. I., count of Holland,
granted to the people of Rotterdam the same rights as were
enjoyed by the burghers of Beverwijk, which were identical
with those of Haarlem (K. Hegel, Stddte und Gilden, 1891,
Bd. ii.). This privilege marks the origin of the town. In 1489
it was surprised by Francis van Brederode, and in 1572 it was
plundered by the Spaniards, who were in possession for four
months. It continued to increase in size, various extensions
of its boundaries being made, and its trading importance is
to a large extent the result of its commercial intercourse with
England.
ROTTWEIL, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurttem-
berg, lying on a hill on the left bank of the Neckar, 46 m. S.W.
of Tubingen by rail. Pop. (1905) 9008. It is partly surrounded
by walls, and contains two fine churches, the Gothic Heilige-
Kreuz-kirche, built in the i4th century and restored in 1840,
and the Capellen-kirohe with a Gothic spire 230 ft. high. It
has a medieval town hall, several schools and a museum of
antiquities. Especially noteworthy is the collection of sculp-
tures and pictures of old German art in the chapel of St Law-
rence, where there is also a Roman mosaic, found in the vicinity,
portraying Orpheus in the centre and, at the sides, Roman
chariot-races and gladiators. The industries of the place
ROTUMAH ROUGHER
767
embrace the manufacture of powder, locomotives, machinery,
cotton, leather and beer. There is also a considerable trade in
live stock, agricultural produce and wine.
Rottweil-Altstadt, which lies about J m. to the south, was
a Roman colony. It has an old church and a Cistercian
nunnery founded in 1221 and dissolved in 1838. Near the town
is Wilhelmshall, with saline springs. In the i3th century Rott-
weil became a free imperial city and was subsequently the seat
of an imperial court of law, the jurisdiction of which extended
over Swabia, the Rhineland and Alsace. The functions of
this tribunal came to an end in 1784. In 1803 Rottweil passed
into the possession of Wtirttemberg.
See Ruckgaber, Geschichte der Stadt Rottweil (3 vols., Rottweil,
1835); and Greiner, Das alters Recht der Reichsstadt Rottweil
(Stuttgart, 1900).
ROTUMAH (Rotuma, Rotuam or Grenville), an island of the
South Pacific Ocean, in 12 30' S., 177 E., about 300 m. N. by
W. of Fiji, of which British colony it is a dependency. Its area
is 14 sq. m., and its extreme elevation 800 ft. It is surrounded
by coral reefs, and is richly wooded. Several islets lie round it.
The population is about 2200, the natives being Polynesian,
though their language has been classified as Melanesian. They
are Wesleyans or Roman Catholics. The chief product is
copra. A European commissioner resides. Local laws, subject
to approval by the legislative council of Fiji, are promul-
gated by a regulation board, composed of the commissioner,
native chiefs of the seven districts into which the island is
divided, and two native magistrates. Rotumah was discovered
by Captain Edwards of the "Pandora" in 1791, and was
annexed by Great Britain in 1881.
ROUAULT, JOACHIM (d. 1478), French soldier, was a
member of an old family of Poitou. He attached himself to the
dauphin (afterwards Louis XI.) and became his premier squire.
He followed Louis in his expedition against the Swiss in 1444,
distinguished himself in the war against England in 1448, and
received the posts of governor of Blaye and Fronsac and con-
stable of Bordeaux. After taking an important part in the
battle of Castillon (1453), which resulted in the defeat and
death of John Talbot, ist earl of Shrewsbury, he fought against
John V., count of Armagnac, in 1455, and in the following year
made a fruitless expedition into Scotland. He took part in
the campaign in Catalonia, and became marshal of France
in 1461, and governor of Paris in 1471. In 1471 and 1472
he defended Amiens and Beauvais against the Burgundians.
Towards the end of his life he was disgraced by Louis XL, and
sentenced to banishment and the confiscation of his property.
(M. P.*)
ROUBAIX, a manufacturing town of northern France, in the
department of Nord, 6 m. N.E. of Lille on the railway to Ghent.
Pop. (1906) 119,955. Roubaix is situated about a mile from
the Belgian frontier on the Roubaix Canal, which connects the
lower Deule with the Scheldt by way of the Marcq and the
Espierre. Tramways connect the town with Lille and with
the neighbouring communes of Tourcoing (pop. 62,694), Croix
(pop. 16,292) and Wattrelos (pop. 14,618), with which it unites
to form one great industrial centre. The chief business of
Roubaix is the woollen manufacture, but cotton, silk and other
materials are also produced. The chief of these are fancy and
figured stuffs for garments, velvet and upholstering fabrics.
Wool-combing and wool-dressing works, spinning-mills, weaving
establishments, dye-houses and printing-works occupy some
50,000 work-people, and four hundred firms act as commission
agents for the sale of raw material and the other requisites
for the industry. Power is supplied chiefly by steam, less
than 5000 out of 28,000 looms being hand-looms. There are
breweries, rubber-works, metal foundries and machinery-works
in the town. Tomato and grape growing under glass for the
winter market is extensively prosecuted. To maintain the high
standard of artistic taste which has made the industry of Rou-
baix a success, schools have been multiplied. By the co-opera-
tion of the town and the state the national school of industrial
arts was founded in 1883. This is a small university of art
commerce and industry, the twenty-two courses of which
nclude all the branches of knowledge useful in any of those
pursuits. Among the public institutions are the tribunal of
commerce and the chamber of commerce, the exchange, a
joard of trade-arbitration and the establishment (bureau de
conditionnement) for determining the nature and weight of silk,
wool and cotton.
The prosperity of Roubaix had its origin in the first factory
'ranchise granted in 1469 by Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy,
:o Peter, lord of Roubaix, a descendant of the royal house of
Brittany. In the i8th century Roubaix suffered from the
iealousy of Lille of which it was a dependency, and it was not
till the i gth century that its industries acquired real importance.
The population, which in 1804 was only 8700, had risen in 1861
to 40,000, in 1866 to 65,000, and in 1876 to 83,000.
ROUBILIAC (more correctly ROUBILLAC), LOUIS FRAN-
COIS (1695-1762), French sculptor, was born at Lyons and
became a pupil of Balthasar of Dresden and of N. Coustou.
It is generally stated that he settled in London about 1720,
but as he took the second grand prize for sculpture in 1730,
while still a pupil of Coustou, it is unlikely that he visited
England at an earlier date. The date 1744, as given by
Dussieux, is incorrect. He was at once patronized by Walpole
and soon became the most popular sculptor in England, super-
seding the success of the Fleming Rysbraeck and even of
Scheemakers. He died on the nth of January 1762, and
was buried in the church of St Martin-in-the-Fields. Roubiliac
was largely employed for portrait statues and busts, and
especially for sepulchral monuments. His chief works in
Westminster Abbey are the monuments of Handel, Admiral
Warren, Marshal Wade, Mrs Nightingale and the duke of
Argyll, the last of these being the first work which established
Roubiliac's fame as a sculptor. The statues of George I.,
Sir Isaac Newton, and the duke of Somerset at Cambridge,
and of George II. erected in Golden Square, London, were
also his work. Trinity College, Cambridge, possesses a series
of busts of distinguished members of the college by him.
Roubiliac possessed skill in portraiture and was technically a
master, but lived at a time when his art had sunk to a low ebb.
His figures are frequently uneasy, devoid of dignity and
sculpturesque breadth, and his draperies treated in a manner
more suited to painting than sculpture. There are, however,
noteworthy exceptions, his bust of Pope, for example, reaching
a high standard. More often, however, his striving after
dramatic effect detracts from repose of attitude.
His most celebrated work, the Nightingale monument, in West-
minster Abbey, a marvel of technical skill, is saved from being
ludicrous by its ghastly and even impressive hideousness. On this
the dying wife is represented as sinking in the arms of her husband,
who in vain strives to ward off a dart which Death is aiming at her.
The lower part of the monument, on which the two portrait figures
stand, is shaped like a tomb, out of the opening door of which
Death, as a half-veiled skeleton, is bursting forth. The celebrated
bust of Shakespeare, known as the Davenant bust, in the possession
of the Garrick Club, London, must be attributed to Roubiliac. The
statue of Shakespeare, a commission from David Garrick, and
bequeathed by the actor to the English nation, is in the British
Museum, and shows the talent of the sculptor in a flattering light.
It is noteworthy that none of his work is recorded in France, the
land of his birth and education.
See Le Roy de Sainte-Croix, Vie et ouvrages de L. F. Roubiliac,
sculpleur lyonnais (16(1^-1762) (Paris, 1882). (An extremely rare
work, of which a copy is in the National Art Library, Victoria and
Albert Museum, South Kensington, London.) Allan Cunningham,
The Lives of the Most Eminent British Painters, Sculptors, and
Architects, vol. 3, pp. 31-67 (London, 1830) the fount of informa-
tion of later biographies. Dutton Cook, Art in England (" A
Sculptor's Life in the Past Century") (London, 1869); Austin
Dobson, The Magazine of Art, " Little Roubiliac," vol. 17, pp. 202
and 231 (London, 1894). See also J. T. Smith, Nollekens and his
Times (London, 1829 passim). Henry B. Wheatley has also
devoted research to the work and life of Roubiliac. (M. H. S.)
ROUCHER, JEAN ANTOINE (1745-1794), French poet,
the son of a tailor of Montpellier, was born on the 22nd of
February 1745. By an epithalamium on Louis XVI. and
Marie Antoinette he gained the favour of Turgot, and obtained
768
ROUE ROUEN
a salt-tax collectorship. His poem was entitled Les Mois;
it appeared in 1779, was praised in MS., damned in print
and restored to a just appreciation by the students of literature
of the 1 9th century. It has the drawbacks of merely didactic-
descriptive poetry on the great scale, but occasionally displays
much grace and spirit. The malicious wit of Rivarol's mot
on the ill-success of the poem, " C'est le plus beau naufrage du
siecle," is not intelligible unless it is said that one of the most
elaborate passages describes a shipwreck. Roucher was a
disciple of Voltaire, and therefore a friend of the Revolution,
but he remained moderate in his opinions. He frequently
presided over an anti- Jacobin club, and denounced the tyranny
of the popular demagogues in supplements published with the
Journal de Paris in 1792. He was arrested on the 4th of
October 1793, and, accused of being the leader of a conspiracy
among the prisoners at Saint Lazare, was sent to the guillotine
on the same tumbril with his friend Andre Chenier on the
25th of July 1794. Roucher translated in 1790 Adam Smith's
Wealth of Nations. His letters from prison were edited by his
son-in-law under the title of Consolations de ma captivite (1797),
and his death was made the subject of a tragedy in 1834 by
his brother Claude Roucher-Deratte, a voluminous writer.
See A. Guillois, Pendant la terreur, la poete Roucher, 1743-1794
(1890), founded on the poet's papers by one of his descendants.
ROU6, a dissipated debauchee. The word is French, and
its original meaning was " broken on the wheel." Breaking
on the wheel was a form of execution reserved in France, and
some other countries, for crimes of peculiar atrocity. A roue,
therefore, came by a natural process to be understood to mean
a man morally worse than a pendard or gallows-bird, who
only deserved hanging for common crimes. He was also a
leader in wickedness, since the chief of a gang of brigands
(for instance) would be broken on the wheel, while his obscure
followers were merely hanged. Philip, duke of Orleans, who
was regent of France from 1715 to 1723, gave the term the sense
of impious and callous debauchee, which it has borne since
his time, by habitually applying it to the very bad male company
who amused his privacy and his leisure. The locus dassicus
for the origin of this use of the epithet is in the Memoirs of
Saint-Simon (vol. xii. pp. 441-46, ed. Cheruel and Regnier,
Paris, 1873-86).
ROUELLE, GDILLAUME FRANCOIS (1703-1770), French
chemist, was born in 1703 at Mathieu, near Caen. He started
as an apothecary, but in 1742 he was appointed experimental
demonstrator of chemistry at the Jardin du Roi in Paris,
where he was especially influential and popular as a teacher,
numbering Lavoisier and J. L. Proust among his pupils.
Many stories are told of the vivacity and enthusiasm with
which he lectured, of the absent-mindedness which sometimes
led him, forgetting that his pupils could not hear what he was
saying, to continue his explanations while he was out of the
classroom looking for some piece of apparatus, and of the
vigorous tirades, generally culminating in the epithet " plagi-
aire," in which he used to indulge against men with whom
he disagreed (Hofer, Hist, de la chimie, ii. 378). His most
important achievement was to define " salts " a term formerly
used in the most loose and indeterminate way as the com-
pounds formed by the union of acids and bases, and further
to distinguish between neutral, basic and acid salts. Other
subjects on which he published papers were the inflammation
of turpentine and other essential oils by nitric acid, and the
methods of embalmment practised by the Egyptians. He
died at Passy on the 3rd of August 1770. He is known as
Rouelle the elder, to distinguish him from his younger brother and
assistant, HILAIRE MARIN (1718-1779), who, on his resignation
in 1 768, succeeded him as demonstrator at the Jardin du Roi.
ROUEN, a city of France, capital of the department of Seine-
Inferieure and the ancient capital of the province of Normandy,
on the Seine, 87 m. N.W. of Paris by rail. Pop. (1906) 111,402.
The old city lies on the north bank of the river in an amphi-
theatre formed by the hills which border the Seine valley. It
is surrounded by boulevards. Outside the ellipse formed by
these lie the suburbs of Martainville, St Hilaire, Beauvoisine,
Bouvreuil and Cauchoise; 2j m. to the east is the industrial
town of Darnetal (pop. 6770), and in the level plain on the
opposite bank of the Seine is the extensive manufacturing
suburb of St Sever with the industrial towns of Sotteville
(pop. 18,096) and Petit Quevilly (pop. 14,852) in its immediate
neighbourhood. Finally in the centre of the river, north-east
of St Sever, is the lie Lacroix, which also forms part of Rouen.
Communication across the Seine is maintained by ferry and
by three bridges-, including a pont transbordeur, or moving plat-
form, slung between two lofty columns and propelled by elec-
tricity. Rouen possesses four railway stations. The central
point of the old town is the Place de l'H6tel de Ville, occupied
by the church of St Ouen, the h6tel de ville and an equestrian
statue of Napoleon I., and traversed by the Rue de la Republique
which leads from it past the cathedral to the Place de la Re-
publique and the Quai de Paris. Parallel to this street to the
west are the Rue Beauvoisine with its southern continuations,
the Rue des Carmes and the Rue Grand-Font, and the wide and
handsome Rue Jeanne d'Arc terminating on the Quai de la
Bourse. These thoroughfares, which are all within the boule-
vards, are crossed at right angles by the Rue de la Grosse-
Horloge and by the Rue Thiers, running from the Place Cauchoise
on the west to the Place de 1'Hdtel de Ville, and passing on the
left the Jardin Solferino and the museum.
The cathedral was built on the site of a previous cathedral
which was destroyed by fire in 1200, and its construction lasted
from the beginning of the I3th century, to which period belong
the lateral doors of the west portal, to the beginning of the
1 6th century, when the Tour de Beurre was completed. The
spire surmounting the central tower, which is the highest in
France (485 ft.), is modern. The western facade, with its
profusion of niches, pinnacles and statues, belongs, as a whole,
to the Flamboyant style. But the northern tower, the Tour
St Remain, is in the main of the i2th century, its upper stage
(with its steep, pointed roof) having been added later. The
southern tower, the Tour de Beurre, so named because funds
for its building were given in return for the permission to eat
butter in Lent, is of a type essentially Norman, and consists
of a square tower pierced by high mullioned windows and
surmounted by a low, octagonal structure, with a balustrade
and pinnacles. The juxtaposition of these two towers, so
different in character, is the. most striking feature of the main
facade, which is notable besides for its width. The portals of
the transept are each flanked by two towers and decorated
with sculpture and statuary. That to the north, the Portail
des Libraires, looks upon the Cour des Libraires, once the resort
of the booksellers of Rouen. That to the south is known as
the Portail de la Calende. The plan of the church comprises
a nave with aisles and lateral chapels, a transept and a choir
with ambulatory. The most remarkable part of the interior
is the Lady Chapel (1302-20) behind the choir with the tombs
(1518-25) of Cardinal Georges d'Amboise and his nephew, the
statuary of which, including the kneeling statues of the two
cardinals, is of the finest Renaissance workmanship. The chapel
also contains the tomb (1536-44) of Louis de Breze, seneschal of
Normandy. Behind the cathedral is the archiepiscopal palace,
a building of the I4th and I5th centuries.
St Ouen, formerly the church of an abbey dating to the
Roman period and reorganized by Archbishop St Ouen in the
7th century, exceeds the cathedral in length as well as in purity
of style. In spite of the juxtaposition of the second and third,
the Radiant and Flamboyant types of Gothic architecture,
the building, as a whole, presents a unity which even the modern
facade has failed to mar. It was founded in 1318 in place of
a Romanesque church which previously occupied the site and
of which the only relic is the chapel in the south transept. The
choir alone was constructed in the i4th century. The nave of
the church belongs to the isth century, by the end of which
the central tower with its octagonal lantern and four flanking
turrets had been erected. The building of the western facade,
which is flanked by two towers, was not undertaken till 1846.
ROUEN
769
The walls of the church are pierced by windows filled with
stained glass of the i4th, isth and i6th centuries and cover
more space than is usual even in French Gothic churches. The
Portail des Marmousets, the entrance to the south transept,
has a projecting porch, behind and above which rises a mag-
nificent rose window. The north facade has no entrance. In
the interior, now despoiled of many artistic treasures, there is
an organ-case dating from 1630 and a railing of the i8th century
surrounding the choir.
The church of St Maclou, behind the cathedral, begun in
1437 and finished early in the i6th century, is a rich example
of the Flamboyant style, the characteristics of which are
specially displayed in the decoration of the facade and the
tracery of the portal with its five arched openings. It is cele-
brated for carving attributed to Jean Goujon which appears on
the western doors and in other parts of the church, and has a
handsome organ-loft reached by a graceful open staircase,
and stained glass of the isth and i6th centuries. The spire
above the central tower is modern and was finished in 1869.
Close by the church is the old parish cemetery called the Aitre
de St Maclou; it is surrounded by wooden galleries of the
Renaissance period, supported on stone pillars on which are
sculptures representing a dance of death.
The church of St Vincent, near the Seine, is a building of the
1 6th century and contains the finest stained-glass windows
in Rouen; those at the end of the north aisle, by Engrand and
Jean le Prince, artists of Beauvais, are the most noted. The
stained glass in the churches of St Patrice (i6th century) and
St Godard (late isth century) is inferior only to that of St
Vincent. Among the less important ecclesiastical buildings
of Rouen are the churches of St Gervais, St Romain, St Laurent,
St Vivien, and the tower of St Andre, a relic of an old church
of the isth and i6th centuries.
The most important secular building in Rouen is the Palais de
Justice, once the seat of the exchequer and, later, of the parle-
ment of Normandy. It is in the late Gothic style and consists
of a main building flanked by two wings. The left wing, known
as the Salle des Procureurs, was erected in 1493 and is remark-
able for its lofty barrel-roof of timber. South of the Palais de
Justice is the Porte de la Grosse Horloge, an arcade spanning
the street and surmounted by a large clock of the isth century
with two dials. The Tour de la Grosse Horloge, which rises
beside the arcade, was built in 1389. The tower known as
the Tour de Jeanne d'Arc was the scene of her trial, and is
all that remains of the castle built by Philip Augustus early
in the I3th century. The Porte Guillaume-Lion, opening on to
the Quai de Paris, is a handsome gateway built in 1749.
There are numerous old houses in Rouen in the Gothic and
Renaissance styles. The Hotel de Bourgtheroulde, the most
famous of them, is a stone mansion of the isth century
added to in the reign of Francis I., the facades of which are
decorated with bas-reliefs representing scenes from the meet-
ing of the Field of the Cloth of Gold and allegories from the
Triumphs of Petrarch. Among more modern buildings are
the hdtel de ville of the i8th century, adjoining the north side
of the church of St Ouen, the Bourse dating from the same
period, and the Musee-Bibliotheque constructed in 1880 and
containing rich collections of pictures and ceramics and a
library with upwards of 133,000 volumes and many valuable
MSS. An important museum of antiquities and a museum
of natural history are contained in the old convent of the
Visitation. A statue of the composer F. A. Boieldieu overlooks
the Quai de la Bourse, and one of Pierre Corneille stands at
the western extremity of the lie Lacroix; both were natives
of the town. At Bonsecours, on a hill on the Seine 2 m. above
Rouen, are the modern church, which is a resort of pilgrims, and
the monument to Joan of Arc consisting of three small Renais-
sance buildings with a statue of the heroine in the principal one.
Rouen is the seat of an archbishop, a prefect, a court of appeal
and a court of assizes, and headquarters of the III. army corps.
Its public institutions also include a tribunal of first instance,
tribunals of commerce and of maritime commerce, a council of
xxiii. 25
trade-arbitration, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank
of France. Among its educational establishments are preparatory
schools of medicine and pharmacy, and of higher instruction in
science and literature, Iyc6es and training-colleges for both sexes,
ecclesiastical seminaries, and schools of commerce and industry, of
architecture, music and fine arts. All the more important nations
have consulates in the city. Rouen is an important centre for trade
in wines, spirits, grain and cattle. Grain, wine, coal, timber and
petroleum are leading imports. Besides its manufactures it exports
plaster, sugar and sand. The principal industries of Rouen and its
district are the spinning and weaving of cotton, notably the manu-
facture of rouenneries (cotton fabric woven with dyed yarn), the
printing and dyeing of the manufactured material and the spinning
of flax, hemp and jute; ship-building and the making of braces,
shirts, bodices, boots, shoes and hats is also carried on, and there are
distilleries, petroleum-refineries and manufactories of chemicals,
soap, machinery, carding-combs and brushes. The port of Rouen
comprises the marine docks below the Boi'eldieu bridge, and the
river dock, the timber dock and the petroleum dock above it. There
is also a repairing dock. The Seine is tidal beyond Rouen. The
port is accessible for ships drawing 19! to 22$ ft. of water, and its
quays have a superficial area of about 123 acres. It is served by
the lines of the Orleans, the Western and the Northern railway
companies, and these, in addition to the waterways connected with
the Seine, make Rouen a convenient centre for the distribution of
merchandise.
Ratuma or Ratumacos, the Celtic name of Rouen, was modified
by the Romans into Rotomagus, and by the writers of medieval
Latin into Rodomum, of which the present name is a corruption.
Under Caesar and the early emperors the town was the capital
of the Veliocasses, a people of secondary rank, and it did not
attain to any eminence till it was made the centre of Lugdun-
ensis Secunda at the close of the 3rd century, and a little later
the seat of an archbishop. Rouen owed much to its first bishops
from St Mello, the apostle of the region, who flourished
about 260, to St Remigius, who died in 772. The bishops built
many churches and their tombs became in turn the origin of
new sanctuaries. Under Louis le Debonnaire and his successors,
the Normans several times sacked the city, but after the treaty
of St Clair-sur-Epte in 912, Rouen became the capital of
Normandy and attained still greater prosperity. It was the
principal residence of the dukes and was the scene in 949 of a
victory gained by Duke Richard I. over Otto the Great, emperor
of Germany, Louis d'Outremer, king of France, and Arnold,
count of Flanders. In 1087 William the Conqueror, mortally
wounded at Mantes, died at Rouen. The succeeding Norman
kings of England tended to neglect Rouen in favour of Caen and
afterwards of Poitiers, Le Mans and Angers; but its monasteries,
local trade and manufactures, and the communal organization
which the citizens exacted from their sovereigns during the
course of the i2th century maintained an importance which is
indicated by the building of several fine churches, notably
that of St Ouen. In 1203 Rouen was the scene of the murder
of Arthur of Brittany at the hands of King John of England.
Ostensibly to avenge the crime, Philip Augustus invaded
Normandy and entered the capital unopposed. The union of
the province with the crown of France in no way hindered
the prosperity of the city, for Philip confirmed its communal
privileges and built a new castle. A convention between the
merchants of Rouen and those of Paris relating to the naviga-
tion of the Seine was followed by treaties with London, with
the Hanseatic towns and with Flanders and Champagne. In
1302 the seat of the exchequer or sovereign court, afterwards
the parlement, of Normandy was definitely fixed at Rouen,
which had previously shared its sessions with other towns. In
1356 Charles the Bad, king of Navarre, a favourite in the city,
was arrested within its walls, an event which displeased the
inhabitants, who after the disaster at Poitiers supported the
cause of Etienne Marcel. The revolt of the Harelle in 1382,
caused by the exactions both of the uncles of Charles VI. and
of the monks of St Ouen, was followed by heavy punishment.
In spite of this a stubborn resistance was offered to Henry V.
of England who, after a long siege, occupied the town in 1419.
The prosperity of Rouen continued under the English domina-
tion, and during this period the greater part of the church of
St Ouen was constructed. In 1431 Joan of Arc was tried and
burnt in the city. From that year the French began a series of
770
ROUERGUE ROUHER
attempts *o recapture the town, but they were unsuccessful
till 1449 when Somerset, the English commander, was obliged
to surrender the principal fortified places in Normandy. During
the close of the isth century and the first half of the i6th,
Rouen was the metropolis of art and taste in France and was
one of the first places to reflect the influence of the Renaissance.
During the wars of religion the arts declined. In 1562 the town
was sacked by the Protestants. This did not prevent the
League from gaining so firm a footing there that Henry IV.
besieged it unsuccessfully and only obtained entrance after
his abjuration. The revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685
tost Rouen many of its richest and most industrious citizens in
the Calvinistic emigration. The town suffered less from the
excesses of the French Revolution than from the depredations
of bandits who, under the Directory, infested the neighbourhood
of the city and were not suppressed till the Consulate. During
the Franco-German War the city was occupied by the invaders
from December 1870 till July 1871, and had to submit to heavy
requisitions.
See A. Chfiruel, Histoire de Rouen pendant Vepoyue communale
(Rouen, 1843) ; Histoire de Rouen sous la domination anglaise au
quinzieme siecle (Rouen, 1840) ; N. Periaux, Histoire sommaire et
chronologique de la ville de Rouen (Rouen, 1874) ; C. Enlart, Rouen
(Paris, 1904).
ROUERGUE (Ruthenensis pagus), one of the old provinces
of France, was originally inhabited by the Rutheni. It was
bounded on the N. by Auvergne, on the S. and S.W. by Lan-
guedoc, on the E. by Gevaudan and the Cevennes and on the W.
by Quercy. It included (i) the county of Rodez, (2) Haute and
Basse Marche; and it was divided between the dioceses of
Rodez and Vabres (province d'Alby after this province had
been separated from that of Bourges in 1678). Administra-
tively it formed first a senechaussee, dependent on Languedoc
(capital Villefranche, in the Basse Marche), and later it was
attached to the military governments of Guienne and Gascony.
It was then part of the departments of Aveyron and of Tarn-
et-Garonne. The county of Rodez, after having been in the
possession of the houses of Toulouse and Carlat, fell in the I4th
century into that of Armagnac. Jean II. of Armagnac having
served Charles V. faithfully during his wars with England,
received from him, in 1374, what were called the four " chdtel-
lenies " with the " Commun de la paix," a tax which had been
established there to organize resistance against foreigners.
Jean V. of Armagnac was deprived of the county for crime and
treason against Louis XL, in 1469, but afterwards it was given
back to Charles of Armagnac, who died without legitimate
issue in 1496. Its possession was then disputed between King
Francis I. and the duke of Alencon, who at last compromised
(1519); the king ceded the county to his sister Marguerite
d'Angouleme, who took it as dowry first to the duke of Alencon,
and then to her second husband Henri d'Albret, king of Navarre.
The county afterwards passed to Jeanne d'Albret, then to Henri
IV., and was joined to the crown lands in 1590.
ROUGE (" red," from Lat. rubeus), a French name applied to
various colouring substances of a brilliant carmine tint, especi-
ally when used as cosmetics. The best of these preparations
are such as have for their basis carthamine, obtained from
the safflower (Carthamus linctorius). The Chinese prepare
a rouge, said to be from safflower, which, spread on the cards
on which it is sold, has a brilliant metallic green lustre, but
when moistened and applied to the skin assumes a delicate
carmine tint. Jeweller's rouge for polishing plate is a fine red
iron oxide prepared by calcination from ferrous sulphate (green
vitriol).
ROUGET DE LISLE, CLAUDE JOSEPH (1760-1836), French
author, was born on the loth of May 1760, at Lons-le-Saunier
(Jura). He entered the army as an engineer, and attained
the rank of captain. He was one of those authors whom a
single work has made famous. The song which has immor-
talized him, the Marseillaise, was composed at Strassburg,
where Rouget de Lisle was quartered in April 1792. He wrote
both words and music in a fit of patriotic excitement after a
public dinner. The piece was at first called Chant de guerre
de Varmee du Rhin, and only received its name of Marseillaise
from its adoption by the Provenfal volunteers whom Barbarous
introduced into Paris, and who were prominent in the storming
of the Tuileries. The author was a moderate republican, and
was cashiered and thrown into prison; but the counter-revolu-
tion set him at liberty. He died at Choisy-le-Roi (Seine et
Oise) on the 26th of June 1836. The stirring melody of the
Marseillaise and its ingenious adaptation to the words serve to
disguise the alternate poverty and bombast of the words them-
selves. Rouget de Lisle wrote a few other songs of the same
kind, and in 1825 he published Chants f ran fais, in which he set
to music fifty songs by various authors. His Essais en vers
et en prose (1797) contains the Marseillaise, a prose tale of
the sentimental kind called Adelaide et Monville, and some
occasional poems.
ROUGH CAST (the French equivalent is crepis), in architec-
ture, the exterior coating originally given to the walls of common
dwellings and outbuildings, but now frequently employed for
decorative effect on country houses, especially those built in
half timber. It is a composition of small gravel and sand,
mixed with strong lime mortar, and is thrown on the walls
already covered with two ordinary coats of plaster. Variety
can be obtained on the surface of the wall by small pebbles
of different colours, and in the Tudor period fragments of glass
were sometimes embedded. The central tower of St Alban's
cathedral, built with Roman tiles from Verulam, was covered
with rough cast believed to be coeval with the building. The
rough cast was removed about 1870.
ROUHER, EUGENE (1814-1884), French statesman, was
born at Riom (Puy de D6me) on the 3oth of November 1814.
He practised law in his native place after taking his degree
in Paris in 1835, and in 1846 sought election by his fellow-
citizens to the Chamber of Deputies as an official candidate
of the Guizot ministry. It was only after the revolution of
1848, however, that he became deputy for the department
of Puy de Dome. Re-elected to the Legislative Chamber in
1849 he succeeded Odilon Barrot as minister of justice, with
the additional office of keeper of the seals, which he retained
with short intervals until January 1852. From the tribune
of the Chamber he described the revolution of February as a
" catastrophe," and he supported reactionary legislation, notably
the bill (May 31, 1850) for the limitation of the suffrage. After
the coup d'etat of December 2, 1851, he was entrusted with the
redaction of the new constitution, and on his resignation of
office in January became vice-president of the Council of State.
After the formal establishment of the Empire, Napoleon III.
rewarded him by a grant of 40,000 and the estate of Cirey.
In 1855 he became minister of agriculture, commerce and public
works, and in 1856 senator. He secured for France an excellent
system of railways without making them a state monopoly,
and he conducted the complicated negotiations for the treaty
of commerce with England which was concluded in January
1860, and subsequently arranged similar treaties with Belgium
and Italy. In 1863 he became minister president of the Council
of State, and on the death of A. A. M. Billault minister of state
and chief spokesman of the emperor before the Corps Legislatif.
Although the government had a great majority in the Chamber,
the opposition counted the redoubtable names of Thiers,
Berryer and Jules Favre, and government measures were only
passed by frequent resort to the closure. Rouher had to
defend Napoleon's foreign adventures as well as the free-
trade treaties and the extravagances of Baron Haussmann for
which he was directly responsible. After an attempted defence
of the foreign policy which had aided the aggrandizement of
Prussia at the expense of Austria, Thiers told him in the Chamber
that there were " no more blunders left for him to make." He
opposed the abortive Liberal concessions of January 1867,
announced in a personal letter from Napoleon III. to himself,
and resigned with the rest of the cabinet, only to resume office
after a short interval as minister of finance. When concessions
became inevitable Rouher, the " vice-empereur," resigned
ROULERS ROUND
771
to make way after six months' interval for fimile Ollivier. He
still fought for reaction in his new office of president of the
Senate. After the fall of the Empire he fled to England, but
returned to France a year later to work for the fortunes of the
prince imperial. After serious disturbances he was elected
member for Ajaccio on the nth of February 1872, his election
being characterized by the prefect of Corsica as a regular con-
spiracy in favour of the Empire. In the Chamber, where he
subsequently represented Riom, he formed the group of the
Appel au Peuple. His first speech in the House was the occa-
sion (May 21, 1872) of violent attacks by Audiffret-Pasquier
and Gambetta. The death of the prince imperial in 1879 put
an end to the serious chances of the Bonapai lists, although
Rouher sought to secure the recognition of Prince Napoleon,
son of the ex-king Jerome, as heir to the imperial honours.
Rouher lost his reason after a stroke of paralysis in 1883, and
died on the 3rd of February 1884.
For an estimate of Rouher, see marquis de Caste\\ane,LesHommes
d'etat franfais du xix'. siecle (1888), and generally the literature
dealing with the Second Empire.
ROULERS (Flemish Roeselaere) , a town of Belgium, in the
province of West Flanders, 13 m. N.W. of Courtrai. Pop.
(1904) 24,548. It is one of the oldest communes in Belgium,
and was famous for its weavers in the nth and 1 2th centuries.
Its prosperity depends on the cultivation of flax and the manu-
facture of linen. The church of St Michael is remarkable for
its lofty tower. Baldwin VIII., count of Flanders, died here in
1 1 20, and in 1794 the French under Pichegru defeated the
Austrians under Clerfayt.
ROULETTE, in mathematics, the locus of a point carried on a
curve which rolls on another (fixed) curve. The name appears
to have been used by Pascal to denote the cycloid (q.v.), which
is the simplest roulette, being traced by a point on the circum-
ference of a circle rolling on a straight line. The trochoids and
epicycloids (q.v.) are also simple roulettes, the latter being
traced by points on a circle which rolls on another circle.
See W. H. Besant, Roulettes and Glissetles.
ROULETTE, a gambling game, of French origin. It is one
of the two games played in the gambling-rooms at Monte Carlo,
and the description here given, and the maximum and minimum
stakes mentioned, are to be understood as applying to the game
as it is there conducted. It is solely a game of chance, though
so-called " systems " are innumerable, and some of them for
a short period often appear to give the player an advantage.
There is no possible system, however, which will assure success
in the long-run, and it is herein that the ingenuity of the game
consists. Every systematic method of play must depend upon
increased stakes to retrieve past losses; and though a player
with an unlimited capital might be practically certain to
achieve his end in the course of time, the circumstance that
there is always a maximum renders the bank invincible. The
roulette table, covered with a green cloth, is made up of precisely
corresponding halves with a circular space let into the middle
holding the wheel, on either side of which the cloth is divided into
spaces marked passe, pair,
manque, impair, and the
black and red diamonds. The
wheel is divided into thirty-
seven compartments, col-
oured alternately black and
, red, numbered from one to
thirty-six, the thirty-seventh
being zero. Pair indicates
even numbers, impair odd
numbers, manque includes the
numbers from i to 18; passe,
from 19 to 36. The methods
of staking are innumerable.
The minimum stake is five
francs, which must be placed on the table in the form of a
five-franc piece, and not in smaller change. Rouge, noir,
pair, impair, manque and passe are even chances; i.e. a
stake put upon any of them is paid in corresponding coin
should the player win, the exception being when the little ball
which is spun round the wheel falls into zero, in which case
the even money chances are put " in prison " that is to say,
laid aside until another spin, when if the bank wins they
are lost, if the player wins he is allowed to retrieve his money.
The maximum in the case of these chances is 6000 francs.
Any one who desires to play en plein puts his stake on one of the
thirty-seven numbers. If the ball falls into the corresponding
number on the wheel, the stake is paid thirty-five times; and
as there are thirty-seven numbers on the board, with the advan-
tage already described of imprisoning the even-money chances
when zero comes up, it will be seen that there is a steady per-
centage in favour of the tables and consequently against the
player. This percentage is of course greatly increased when,
as is often the case, a second zero, called double-zero, is used.
In some gambling-houses there is even a third one, called
Eagle Bird. The maximum stake allowed en plein is 180
francs. The next most daring selection is d cheval, when the
stake is placed on the line separating any two numbers, and if
either of them wins the player is paid seventeen times, the
highest stake permissible being 360 francs. Transversale pleine
covers any three numbers in a line, the coin or note being placed
on the line dividing any one of the numbers from the neighbour-
ing even-money chance, as, for instance, between 4 and passe, or
6 and manque. A transversale simple covers six numbers, as,
for example, where the line between 4 and 7 joins passe, or
between 6 and 9 joins manque; and if any one of these numbers
wins, five times the value of the stake is paid, the maximum
here being 1200 francs. En carre includes four numbers, the
coin being placed, for instance, on the cross between i, 2, 4, 5,
or 28, 29, 31, 32; eight times the value of the stake is paid,
and the maximum is 760 francs. The dozens and the columns
are also indicated on the board, the first dozen of course
including i to 12. In each of the columns are twelve num-
bers in different order. A stake placed on either a dozen
or a column is paid twice its value, the maximum here being
3000 francs. A stake constantly played is called the quatre
premiers, which includes zero, i, 2 and 3, the stake being placed
on the line where zero and i join passe, or where zero and 3 join
manque. If any one of these four numbers, including zero, wins,
the stake is paid eight times; and four times eight being thirty-
two, there is a greater advantage to the table than when it loses
en plein or on certain othei chances. Zero can also be played
in combination with any one or two of its neighbours; if with
one of them the stake is paid seventeen times, if with two of
them eleven times. A croupier sits on either side of the wheel;
there is also one at each end of the table, their business being
to assist the players in staking and recovering their winnings.
Behind each of the former pair an official on a high chair super-
vises the table. The croupier whose duty it is to spin the wheel
waits for a time till stakes have been made, and then, exclaiming,
" Messieurs, faites votre jeu! " sets the cylinder in motion,
throwing the ball in the direction contrary to that in which the
wheel revolves. When it is seen that the ball will soon fall at
rest in one of the compartments of the cylinder the croupier
gives the notice, " Rien ne va plus," after which no stakes can
be placed. When the ball finally rests in the compartment, the
croupier announces the number and the even-money chances
that win, as for instance rouge, impair and manque. He and
his fellows then gather in with a rake all the money that has
been lost, after which the winnings are paid and the game
proceeds. At the beginning of play each table is supplied with
a certain large sum. When the bank loses this and is forced to
send for another supply it is said to be " broken."
ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rolundus, the Fr. is the source also of
Du. rond; Ger.-, Swed., Dan. and Nor. rund), circular, spherical,
globular. As a substantive, the word has several specific appli-
cations; thus it is used of the rung of a ladder, of a rounded
cross-bar connecting the legs of a chair, of the circuit of the
772
ROUNDERS ROUND TABLE
watch under an officer which patrols the sentries in a fortress,
fortified town, camp or other military station, and hence of the
beat or customary course of a policeman, a postman, or a
tradesman, and of the full course at such a game as golf. Simi-
larly there were old dances called " rounds," in which the
dancers stood in a circle or ring. They were popular in the
i6th and I7th centuries. Later the name was also applied to
country dances where the dancers stood in two lines. For
the " round " in music see CANON. A complaint or remon-
strance signed by a number of persons is commonly known as
a "round robin "; properly such a document should have the
signatures arranged in a circle, the idea being that thus the
order in which the complainants signed should be unknown.
In the i6th century " round robin " was a name of mockery
given to the Eucharist.
ROUNDERS, 'an English ball game, probably dating from
the 1 8th century, but not attaining to any popularity before
1800. It was the immediate ancestor of Baseball (q.v.). Up to
the year 1889 no special code of rules existed, but the game was
played on the green, the field being marked out in a regular
pentagon by five bases about 15 or 20 yds. apart, called respect-
ively home-base (at which the striker stood), ist base, 2nd base,
yrd base, and 4th base. The feeder, or bowler, stood hi the
middle of the pentagon and tossed the ball, which was softer
than a cricket ball, to the striker, who with a round club, often
a cricket stump, endeavoured to hit it as far out of the reach of
the fielders as possible, a run being scored when the striker
made the circuit of the bases without being put out. Almost
any number of players could form a side, and the batsman
would be retired when a batted ball was caught on the fly or
first bounce, or when he was struck by having the ball thrown
at him while running between bases. Rounders in its primitive
form was more of a romp than a regular game, but it experienced
a revival in Scotland and the north of England about the year
1889, when two governing bodies were formed, the National
Rounders Association of Liverpool and Vicinity and the Scot-
tish Rounders Association. These, with the later Gloucester
Rounders Association, drew up the rules now recognized.
A hard ball similar to that used in baseball was adopted, and the
rule by which a runner could be put out by hitting him with a
thrown ball abandoned.. The bat must not exceed 3 j in. in diameter
nor 35 in. in length. The game is similar to baseball, but there are
several important differences, the most radical being that the ball
may be hit in any direction, as at cricket. The original pentagon
has been discarded in favour of an elongated diamond, the home-
base being at one end and 1st, and and jrd bases at the other
points, while the 4th base is situated on the line of 3rd base towards
home and 17 yds. from the former, the sides of the diamond being
22 yds. in length. The bowler stands in a space marked off in the
centre of the diamond and tosses the ball to the batsman, who must
hit at every " good " ball, i.e. one that is straight over the home-
base and between head and knee. Two bad balls score one for the
batsman. If the latter hits the ball he must run to 1st base and
then 2nd, and so on round to home again, resting at any base; but
he may be put out if the batted ball be caught on the fly or first
bounce or the backstop (wicket-keeper in cricket) catch a ball
struck at but not hit, or the batsman be touched with a ball while
pinning between bases. Ten players constitute a side and three
innings a piece are played, every player batting once in each innings.
Each base made counts one. The backstop is placed directly behind
the batsman, and behind the backstop are placed ist cover (right),
longstop (middle), and 4th cover (left). The ist, 2nd and 3rd basemen
are stationed at the bases, while behind them in the field are placed
the 2nd cover (right), centre cover and 3rd cover (left). The bases are
designated by light wooden posts. An umpire presides over the
game. A variation of rounders is Fieldball, invented in 1888, a
combination of rounders and cricket, a wicket being placed in front
of the backstop, and the four bases arranged in a circle 25 yds.
distant from each other. The bat and ball are similar to those
used in baseball. Another variation is called Baseball Rounders,
which was invented in 1889 and is practically the same as baseball.
ROUNDHEAD, a term applied to the adherents of the parlia-
mentary party in England during the great Civil War. Some
of the Puritans, but by no means all, wore the hair closely
cropped round the head, and there was thus an obvious contrast
between them and the men of fashion with their long ringlets.
" Roundhead " appears to have been first used as a term of
derision towards the end of 1641 when the debates in parlia-
ment on the Bishops Exclusion Bill were causing riots at West-
minster. One authority says of the crowd which gathered
there: " They had the hair of their heads very few of them
longer than their ears, whereupon it came to pass that those
who usually with their cries attended at Westminster were
by a nickname called Roundheads." John Rushworth (His-
torical Collections) is more precise. According to him the
word was first used on the 27th of December 1641 by a dis-
banded officer named David Hide, who during a riot is reported
to have drawn his sword and said he would " cut the throat
of those round-headed dogs that bawled against bishops."
Clarendon (History of the Rebellion, iv. 121) remarks on the
matter: " and from those contestations the two terms of
' Roundhead ' and ' Cavalier ' grew to be received in dis-
course, ... they who were looked upon as servants to the
king being then called ' Cavaliers,' and the other of the rabble
contemned and despised under the name of ' Roundheads.' "
Baxter ascribes the origin of the term to a remark made by
Queen Henrietta Maria at the trial of Strafford; referring to
Pym, she asked who the roundheaded man was. The name
remained in use until after the revolution of 1688.
Roundhead was also used during the Civil War as the name of a
weapon. This is described as having " an head about a quarter of
a yard long, a staffe of two yards long put into their head, twelve
iron pikes round about, and one in the end to stop with."
ROUNDSMAN SYSTEM (sometimes termed the billet, or
ticket, or item system), in the English poor law, a plan by
which the parish paid the occupiers of property to employ
the applicants for relief at a rate of wages fixed by the parish.
It depended not on the services, but on the wants of the
applicants, the employer being repaid out of the poor rate
all that he advanced in wages beyond a certain sum. Accord-
ing to this plan the parish in general made some agreement
with a farmer to sell to him the labour of one or more paupers
at a certain price, paying to the pauper out of the parish funds
the difference between that price and the allowance which
the scale, according to the price of bread and the number of
his family, awarded to him. It received the local name of
billet or ticket system from the ticket signed by the overseer
which the pauper in general carried to the farmer as a warrant
for his being employed, and afterwards took back to the over-
seer, signed by the farmer, as a proof that he had fulfilled
the conditions of relief. In other cases the parish contracted
with a person to have some work performed for him by the
paupers at a given price, the parish paying the paupers. In
many places the roundsman system was carried out by means
of an auction, all the unemployed men being put up to sale
periodically, sometimes monthly or weekly, at prices varying
according to the time of year, the old and infirm selling for
less than the able-bodied. The roundsman system disappeared
on the reform of the poor law in 1834.
ROUND TABLE, THE, in the Arthurian Romance (q.v.), the
table round which, in order to avoid quarrels as to precedence,
King Arthur's knights are seated, and so applied collectively
to the knights themselves as the title of a mythical order of
chivalry. The origin of the Round Table is obscure. Geoffrey
of Monmouth makes no mention of it, and the earliest record
is that of Wace, much expanded by his translator, Layamon,
who gives a picturesque detailed description of the fight for
precedence which took place at Arthur's board on a certain
Yuletide day, and the slaughter which ensued. For this
slaughter Arthur took summary vengeance, slaying all the
kinsfolk of the man who started the fight, and cutting off the
noses of his women-folk. For the future avoidance of any
such scenes a cunning workman of Cornwall offered to make
a table which should seat 1600 knights and more, and at which
all should be equal. Arthur accepted this offer, and the result
was the Round Table, peace and harmony. Wace does not
mention the number of knights.
These versions of the pseudo-chronicles practically ascribe
the foundation to Arthur; the romances, however, differ.
In these either Merlin made the table for Uther Pendragon,
ROUND TOWERS
773
or it had belonged to Leodegrance, king of Cornwall and father
of Guenevere, and was given to Arthur on his marriage with
that princess. When the founding of the Round Table is
ascribed to Merlin it is generally in close connexion with the
Grail legend, forming the last of a series of three, founded in
honour of the Trinity the first being the table of the Last
Supper, the second that of the Grail, established by Joseph
of Arimathea The number of knights whom the table will
seat varies; it might seat twelve or fifty or a hundred and
fifty; nowhere, save in Layamon, do we find a practically un-
limited power of accommodation. It is also to be noted that
whereas, in the pseudo-chronicles, it is the common table of
Arthur's court, designed in the interests of peace and unity,
in the romances it is a sign of superiority, only the best and
most valiant knights being adjudged worthy of a seat at the
Round Table. In fact, it has become the equivalent of an
order of knighthood, the members of which form a brotherhood
bound by oath to succour each other at need and to refrain
from fighting among themselves. The membership is not
restricted to the knights of Arthur's immediate court and
household, knights who are, in all essentials outsiders, appearing
but as passing guests at Arthur's board, such as, e.g., Perceval
and Tristan, may be elected knights of the Round Table. In
two romances, the prose Tristan and the Parzival, the place
of the Round Table proper is taken, on a journey, by a
silken cloth laid on the ground, round which the knights are
seated. In the versions more closely connected with the Grail
story the name of the chosen knight appears on his seat, and
there is one vacant place, the Siege perilous, eventually to be
filled by the Grail winner.
It is obvious that the tradition has passed through several
stages, and has varied in the process. The original source is
not easy to determine. Dr Lewis Mott has pointed out that
" Round Tables " exist in many parts of Great Britain, the
name being often associated with circular trenches, or rings
of stones, which were demonstrably employed in connexion
with the agricultural festivals held at Pentecost, Midsummer
and Michaelmas. However this may be, and it seems probable
that Dr Mott is right in his identification, the pseudo-chroniclers
and romance writers certainly had in their minds a genuine
table, although, probably, one of magical properties. Thus
Layamon's table can seat an indefinite number, and yet it can
be carried by Arthur when he rides abroad. On closely ex-
amining Layamon's version it seems probable that he had in
his mind not merely a circular, but a turning table; he gives
it as ground for the quarrel that all the knights wished to sit
within; at the table the Cornish workman will make none
shall be left without, but they shall sit " without and within,
man against man." It is difficult to explain this phrasing in
any other hypothesis than that Layamon pictured to himself
Arthur's hall as open on one side, and that, on a great feast-day,
owing to the number of guests, the table extended beyond the
covering afforded by the roof. As the feast took place " on
mid-winter's day " the annoyance of those who were without
would be intelligible. To obviate this the cunning workman
devised a circular table, turning on a pivot, with seats affixed,
at which the guests sat the one half in turn within, the other
without, the hall " man against man." This would make the
Round Table analogous to the turning castles which we fre-
quently meet with in romances; and while explaining the
peculiarities of Layamon's text, would make it additionally
probable that he was dealing with an earlier tradition of folk-
lore character, a tradition which was probably also familiar
to Wace, whose version, though much more condensed than
Layamon's, is yet in substantial harmony with this latter.
This, too, is certain; the fight for precedence at Arthur's
board may be paralleled by accounts of precisely similar
quarrels in early Irish literature, e.g. the famous tale of Fled
Bricrend or Bricriu's Feast of the Ultonian cycle.
Recent grail researches have made it most probable that
that mysterious talisman was originally the vessel of the ritual
feast held in honour of a deity of vegetation, Adonis, or
another; if the Round Table also, as Dr Mott suggests, derives
from a similar source, we have a link between these two not-
able features of Arthurian tradition, and an additional piece of
evidence in support of the view that behind the Arthur of
romance there lie not only memories of an historic British
chieftain, but distinct traces of a mythological and beneficent
hero. Incidentally also it would seem that those versions
which connect the table more closely with Arthur are the more
correct.
See Wace, Le Roman de Brut, ed. Leroux de Lincy (1836-38),
vol. ii. 74-76) ; Layamon, Brut, ed. Madden, vol. ii. p. 532 ; A. C. L.
Brown, The Round Table before Wace (Boston, 1900) ; Lewis F.
Mott, The Round Table (Boston, 1905). (J. L. W.)
ROUND TOWERS. A peculiar class of round tower exists
throughout Ireland; about one hundred and twenty examples
once existed; most of these are ruined, but eighteen or twenty
are almost perfect. These towers were built either near or
adjoining a church; they are of various dates, from perhaps
the 8th to the I3th century; though varying in size and detail,
they have many characteristics common to all. They are
built with walls slightly battering inwards, so that the tower
tapers towards the top. The lower part is formed of solid
masonry, the one doorway being raised from 6 to 20 ft. above
the ground, and so only accessible by means of a ladder. The
towers within are divided into several storeys by two or more
floors, usually of wood, but in some cases, as at Keneith, of
stone slightly arched. The access from floor to floor was by
ladders. The windows, which are always high up, are single
lights, mostly arched or with a flat stone 'lintel. In some
of the oldest towers they have triangular tops, formed by two
stones leaning together. One peculiarity of the door and
window openings in the Irish round towers is that the jambs
are frequently set sloping, so that the opening grows narrower
towards the top, as in the temples of ancient Egypt. The
later examples of these towers, dating from the I2th and i3th
centuries, are often decorated with chevron, billet and other
Norman enrichments round the jambs and arches. The roof
is of stone, usually conical in shape, and some of the later
towers are crowned by a circle of battlements. The height of
the round towers varies from about 60 to 132 ft.; that at
Kilcullen was the highest. The masonry differs according
to its date, the oldest examples being built of almost uncut
rubble work, and the later ones of neatly jointed ashlar.
Much has been written as to the use of these towers, and the
most conflicting theories as to their origin have been propounded.
It is fairly certain, however, that they were constructed by Christian
builders, both from the fact that they always are or once were near
a church, and also because crosses and other Christian emblems fre-
quently occur among the sculptured decorations of their doors and
windows. Their original purpose was probably for places of
refuge, for which the solid base and the door high above the ground
seem specially adapted. They may also have been watch-towers,
and in later times often contained bells. Their circular form was
probably for the sake of strength, angles which could be attacked
by a battering ram being thus avoided, and also because no quoins
or dressed stones were needed, except for the openings an important
point at a time when tools for working stone were scarce and
imperfect. Both these reasons may also account for the Norman
round towers which are so common at the west end of churches in
Norfolk, Suffolk and Essex, though these have little resemblance
to those of Ireland except in the use of a circular plan. One example
exactly like those of Ireland exists in the Isle of Man, within the
precincts of Peel Castle adjacent to the cathedral of St German;
it was probably the work of Irish builders. There are also three
in Scotland, viz. at Egilshay in Orkney, and at Abernethy and
Brechin.
Round towers wider and lower in proportion than those
of Ireland appear to have been built by many prehistoric
races in different parts of Europe. The towers of this class
in Scotland are called " brochs "; they average about 50 ft.
high and 30 ft. in internal diameter. Their walls, which are
usually about 15 ft. thick at the bottom, are built hollow,
of rubble masonry, with series of passages one over the other
running all round the tower. As in the Irish towers, the
entrance is placed at some distance from the ground; and the
whole structure is designed as a stronghold. The brochs
774
appear to have been the work of a pre-Christian Celtic race.
Many objects in bronze and iron and fragments of hand-made
pottery have been found in and near these towers, all bearing
witness of a very early date. (See Anderson, Scotland in Pagan
Times, 1883, and Scotland in Early Christian Times, 1881.)
The nuraghi of Sardinia are described in the article on that
island. During the 6th century church towers at and near
Ravenna were usually built round in plan, and not unlike
those of Ireland in their proportions. The finest existing
example is that which stands by the church of S. Apollinare
in Classe, the old port of the city of Ravenna (see BASILICA,
fig. 8). It is of brick, divided into nine storeys, with single-
light windows below, three-light windows in the upper storeys,
and two-lights in the intermediate ones. The.most magnificent
example of a round tower is the well-known leaning tower of
Pisa, begun in the year 1174. It is richly decorated with
tiers of open marble arcades, supported on free columns. The
circular plan was much used by Moslem races for their minarets.
The finest of these is the 13th-century minar of Kutb at
Old Delhi, built of limestone with bands of marble. It is
richly fluted on plan, and when complete was at least 250 ft.
high.
The best account of the Irish round towers is that given by Petrie
in his Ecclesiastical Architecture of Ireland (Dublin, 1845). See also
Keane, Towers and Temples of Ancient Ireland (Dublin, 1850);
Brash, Ecclesiastical Architecture of Ireland (Dublin, 1875); and
Stokes, Early Architecture in Ireland (Dublin, 1878). (J. H. M.)
ROUS, FRANCIS (1570-1659), English Puritan, was born at
Dittisham in Devon in 1579, and educated at Oxford (Broad-
gates Hall, afterwards Pembroke College) and at Leiden,
graduating at the former in January 1596-97, and at the latter
thirteen months afterwards. For some years he lived in
seclusion in Cprnwall and occupied himself with theological
studies, producing among other books The Arte of Happines
(1619) and Testis Veritatis, a reply to Richard Montagu's
Appello Caesarem. He entered parliament in 1625 as member
for Truro, and continued to represent that or some neighbour-
ing west country constituency in such parliaments as were
summoned till his death. He obtained many offices under
the Commonwealth, among them that of provost of Eton
College. At first a Presbyterian, he afterwards joined the
Independents. In 1657 he was made a lord of parliament.
He died at Acton in January 1658-59. The subjective cast
of his piety is reflected in his Mystical Marriage . . . betweene
a Soule and her Saviour (1635), but he is best known by his
metrical version of the Psalms (1643), which was approved by
the Westminster Assembly and (in a revised form) is still used
in the Scottish Presbyterian churches.
ROUS, HENRY JOHN (1795-1877), British admiral and
sportsman, was born on the 23rd of January 1795, the second
son of the ist earl of Stradbroke. He was educated at West-
minster School, and entered the British navy in 1808, serving
as a midshipman in the expedition to Flushing. He was after-
wards appointed to the " Bacchante," and received a medal
for bravery in various actions and expeditions. In 1823 he
was made captain, and served in the Indian and New Holland
stations from 1823 to 1829. In 1834 he was appointed to
the command of the " Pique," a 36-gun frigate, which ran
ashore on the coast of Labrador and was much damaged
Rous, however, brought her across the Atlantic with a sprung
foremast and without keel, forefoot or rudder, and though
the ship was making 23 ins. of water an hour. Rous, always
fond of sport, retired from the navy, and became in 1838 a
steward of the Jockey Club, a position which he held almost
uninterruptedly to his death. In 1855 he was appointee
public handicapper. He managed the duke of Bedford's
stables at Newmarket for many years, and wrote a work on
The Laws and Practice of Horse Racing that procured for him
the title of " the Blackstone of the Turf." In 1841 he was
returned M.P. for Westminster, and in 1846 Sir Robert Pee
made him a lord of the admiralty. He died on the igth o
June 1877.
ROUS, F. ROUSSEAU, J. B.
For the naval career of Admiral Rous see O' Byrne, Naval Bio-
graphical Dictionary (London, 1849). A vivid sketch of him as a
urf authority will be found in Day's Turf Celebrities (London, 1891).
ROUSSEAU, JACQUES (1630-1693), French painter, a
member of a Huguenot family, was born at Paris in 1630. He
was remarkable as a painter of decorative landscapes and
classic ruins, somewhat in the style of Canaletto, but without
lis delicacy of touch; he appears also to have been influenced
>y Nicolas Poussin. While young Rousseau went to Rome,
where he spent some years in painting the ancient ruins,
:ogether with the surrounding landscapes. He thus formed
lis style, which was artificial and conventionally decorative.
His colouring for the most part is unpleasing, partly owing
to his violent treatment of skies with crude blues and orange,
and his chiaroscuro usually is much exaggerated. On his
return to Paris he soon became distinguished as a painter, and
was employed by Louis XIV. to decorate the walls of his
palaces at St Germain and Marly. He was soon admitted
member of the French Academy of the Fine Arts, but on
the revocation of the edict of Nantes he was obliged to take
refuge in Holland, and his name was struck off the Academy
roll. From Holland he was invited to England by the duke
of Montague, who employed him, together with other French
painters, to paint the walls of his palace, Montague House
(on the site of which is now the British Museum). Rousseau
was also employed to paint architectural subjects and land-
scapes in the palace of Hampton Court, where many of his
decorative panels still exist. He spent the latter part of his
life in London, where he died in 1693.
Besides being a painter in oil and fresco Rousseau was an etcher
of some ability; many etchings by his hand from the works of the
Caracci and from his own designs still exist; they are vigorous,
though coarse in execution.
ROUSSEAU, JEAN BAPTISTS (1671-1741), French poet, was
born at Paris on the 6th of April 1671; he died at Brussels
on the I7th of March 1741. The son of a shoemaker, he was
well educated and early gained favour with Boileau, who en-
couraged him to write. He began with the theatre, for which
he had no aptitude. A one-act comedy, Le Cafe, failed in 1694,
and he was not much happier with a more ambitious play,
Le Flatleur (1696), or with the opera of Vtnus et Adonis (1697).
He tried in 1700 another comedy, Le Capricieux, which had
the same fate. He then went with Tallard as an attache to
London, and, in days when literature still led to high position,
seemed likely to achieve success. His misfortunes began with
a club squabble at the Cafe Laurent, which was much frequented
by literary men, and where Rousseau indulged in lampoons on
his companions. A shower of libellous and sometimes obscene
verses was written by or attributed to him, and at last he
was turned out of the cafe. At the same time his poems,
as yet only singly printed or in manuscript, acquired him a
great reputation, due to the dearth of genuine lyrical poetry
between Racine and Chenier. He had in 1701 been made a
member of the Academic des inscriptions; he had been offered,
though he had not accepted, profitable places in the revenue
department; he had become a favourite of the libertine but
influential coterie of the Temple; and in 1710 he presented
himself as a candidate for the Academic francaise. Then
began the second chapter of an extraordinary history of the
animosities of authors. A copy of verses, more offensive
than ever, was handed round, and gossip maintained that
Rousseau was its author. Legal proceedings of various kinds
followed, and Rousseau ascribed the lampoon to Joseph Saurin.
In 1712 Rousseau was prosecuted for defamation of character,
and, on his non-appearance in court, was condemned par
contumace to perpetual exile. He spent the rest of his life
in foreign countries except for a clandestine visit to Paris
in 1738, refusing to accept the permission to return which was
offered him in 1716 because it was not accompanied by complete
rehabilitation.
Prince Eugene and then other persons of distinction took him
under their protection during his exile, and he printed at Soleure the
first edition of his poetical works. Voltaire and he met at Brussels
ROUND TOWERS
PLATE.
Photo, Valentine.
IRISH ROUND TOWER: CLONDALKIN.CO. DUBLIN.
Photo, Mansell & Co.
EAST ANGLIAN ROUND CHURCH-TOWER:
LITTLE SAXHAM.
Photo, Valentine.
BROCH: MOUSA, SHETLAND.
Photo by the late Sir Francis Barry, by permission of The Country Some,
BROCH: KEISS ROAD, CAITHNESS (INTERIOR,
LOWER PART, EXCAVATED).
ROUSSEAU, J. J.
775
in 1722. Voltaire's Le Pour el le centre is said to have shocked
Rousseau, who expressed his sentiments freely. At any rate the
latter had thenceforward no fiercer enemy than Voltaire. His
death elicited from Lefranc de Pompignan an ode of real excellence
and perhaps better than anything of Rousseau's own work. _ That
work is divided, roughly speaking, into two contrasted divisions.
One consists of formal and partly sacred odes and cantatas of the
stiffest character, of which perhaps the Ode d, la fortune is the most
famous; the other of brief epigrams, sometimes licentious and
always, or almost always, ill-natured. As an epigrammatist Rous-
seau is only inferior to his friend Alexis Piron. In the former he
stands almost alone. The frigidity of conventional diction and the
disuse of all really lyrical rhythm which characterize his period do
not prevent his odes and cantatas from showing at times true
poetical faculty, though cramped, and inadequate to explain his
extraordinary vogue. Few writers were so frequently reprinted
during the 1 8th century, but even in his own century La Harpe had
arrived at a truer estimate of his real value when he said of his
poetry: " Le fond n'est qu'un lieu commun charg6 de declamations
et me'me d'idees fausses.'
Besides the Soleure edition mentioned above Rousseau published
another issue of his work in London in 1723. The chief edition
since is that of J. A. Amar (5 vols., 1820), preceded by a notice of his
life. M. A. de Latour published (1869) a useful though not complete
edition, with notes and a biographical introduction.
ROUSSEAU, JEAN JACQUES (1712-1778), French philo-
sopher, was born at Geneva on the 28th June 1712. His family
had established themselves in that city at the time of the
religious wars, but they were of pure French origin. Rous-
seau's father Isaac was a watchmaker; his mother, Suzanne
Bernard, was the daughter of a minister; she died in child-
birth, and Rousseau, who was the second son, was brought up
in a haphazard fashion, his father being dissipated, violent-
tempered and foolish. But he early taught his son to read,
and seems to have laid the foundation of the flighty sentimental-
ism in morals and politics which Rousseau afterwards illustrated
with his genius. When the boy was ten years old his father
got entangled in a dispute with a fellow-citizen, and being
condemned to a short term of imprisonment abandoned Geneva
and took refuge at Lyons. The father and son henceforth
rarely met. Rousseau was taken charge of by his mother's
relations and was committed to the tutorship of M. Lambercier,
pastor at Boissy. In 1724 he was removed from this school
and taken into the house of his uncle Bernard, by whom he was
shortly afterwards apprenticed to a notary. His master, how-
ever, found or thought him incapable and sent him back.
After a short time (April 25, 1725) he was apprenticed afresh,
this time to an engraver. He did not dislike the work, but was
or thought himself cruelly treated. In 1728 he ran away, the
truancy being by his own account unintentional in the first
instance, and due to the fact of the city gates being shut earlier
than usual. Then began an extraordinary series of wander-
ings and adventures, for much of which there is no authority
but his c wn Confessions. He first fell in with some proselytizers
of the Roman faith at Confignon in Savoy, and by them he was
sent to Madame de Warens at Annecy, a young and pretty
widow who was herself a convert. Her influence, however,
which was to be so great, was not immediately exercised, and
he was passed on to Turin, where there was an institution
specially devoted to the reception of neophytes. His experi-
ences here were unsatisfactory, but he abjured duly and was
rewarded by being presented with twenty francs and senj
about his business. He wandered about in Turin for some
time, and at last established himself as footman to a Madame
de Vercellis. Here occurred the famous incident of the theft
of a ribbon, of which he accused a girl fellow-servant. But,
though he kept his place by this piece of cowardice,
Madame de Vercellis died not long afterwards and he was
turned off. He found another place with the Comte de Gouvon,
but lost this also through coxcombry. Then he resolved to
return to Madame de Warens at Annecy. The chronology of
all these events, as narrated by himself, is somewhat obscure,
but they seem to have occupied about three years.
Even then Rousseau did not settle at once in the anomalous
but to him charming position of domestic lover to this lady,
who, nominally a converted Protestant, was in reality, as many
women of her time were, a kind of deist, with a theory of noble
sentiment and a practice of libertinism tempered by good nature.
It used to be held that in her conjugal relations she was more
sinned against than sinning. But modern investigations seem
to show that M. de Vuarrens (which is said to be the correct
spelling of the name) was an unfortunate husband, and was
deserted and robbed by his wife. However, she welcomed
Rousseau kindly, thought it necessary to complete his education,
and he was sent to the seminarists of St Lazare to be improved
in classics, and also to a music master. In one of his incom-
prehensible freaks he set off for Lyons, and, after abandoning
his companion in an epileptic fit, returned to Annecy to find
Madame de Warens gone. Then for some months he relapsed
into the life of vagabondage, varied by improbable adventures,
which (according to his own statement) he so often pursued.
Hardly knowing anything of music, he attempted to give
lessons and a concert at Lausanne; and he actually taught
at Neuchatel. Then he became, or says he became, secretary
to a Greek archimandrite who was travelling in Switzerland
to collect subscriptions for the rebuilding of the Holy Sepul-
chre; then he went to Paris, and, with recommendations from
the French ambassador at Soleure, saw something of good
society; then he returned on foot through Lyons to Savoy,
hearing that Madame de Warens was at Chamb6ry. This was
in 1732, and Rousseau, who for a time had unimportant employ-
ments in the service of the Sardinian crown, was shortly in-
stalled by Madame de Warens, whom he still called Maman, as
amant en litre in her singular household, wherein she diverted
herself with him, with music and with chemistry. In 1736
Madame de Warens, partly for Rousseau's health, took a country
house, Les Charmettes, a short distance from Chamb6ry. Here
in summer, and in the town during winter, Rousseau led a de-
lightful life, which he has delightfully described. In a desultory
way he did a good deal of reading, but in 1738 his health again
became bad, and he was recommended to go to Montpellier.
By his own account this journey to Montpellier was in reality a
voyage d Cythere in company with a certain Madame de Lar-
nage. This being so, he could hardly complain when on return-
ing he found that his official position in Madame de Warens's
household had been taken by a person named Vintzenried.
He was, however, less likely than most men to endure the
position of second in command, and in 1740 he became tutor
at Lyons to the children of M. de Mably, not the well-known
writer of that name, but his and Condillac's elder brother. But
Rousseau did not like teaching and was a bad teacher, and after
a visit to Les Charmettes, finding that his place there was finally
occupied, he once more went to Paris in 1741. He was not
without recommendations. But a new system of musical
notation which he thought he had discovered was unfavourably
received by the Academic des sciences, where it was read in
August 1742, and he was unable to obtain pupils. Madame
Dupin, however, to whose house he had obtained the entry, pro-
cured him the honourable if not very lucrative post of secretary
to M. de Montaigu, ambassador at Venice. With him he stayed
for about eighteen months, and has as usual infinite complaints
to make of his employer and some strange stories to tell. At
length he threw up his situation and returned to Paris (1745).
Up to this time that is to say, till his thirty-third year
Rousseau's life, though continuously described by himself, was
of the kind called subterranean, and the account of it must
be taken with considerable allowances. From this time, how-
ever, he is more or less in view; and, though at least two events
of his life his quarrel with Diderot and his death are subjects
of dispute, its general history can be checked and followed with
reasonable confidence. On his return to Paris he renewed his
relations with the Dupin family and with the literary group of
Diderot, to which he had already been introduced by M. de
Mably's letters. He had an opera, Les Muses galantes, privately
represented; he copied music for money, and received from
Madame Dupin and her son-in-law M. de Francueil a small but
regular salary as secretary. He lived at the Hotel St Quentin
for a time, and once more arranged for himself an equivocal
776
ROUSSEAU, J. J.
domestic establishment. His mistress, whom towards the close
of his life he married after a fashion, was Therese le Vasseur, a
servant at the inn, whom he first met in 1743. She had little
beauty, no education or understanding, and few charms that
his friends could discover, besides which she had a detestable
mother, who was the bane of Rousseau's life. But he made
himself happy with her, and (according to Rousseau's account,
the accuracy of which has been questioned) five children were
born to them, who were all consigned to the foundling hospital.
This disregard of responsibility was partly punished by the use
his critics made of it when he became celebrated as a writer on
education and a preacher of the domestic affections. 1 Diderot,
with whom from 1741 onwards he became more and more
familiar, admitted him as a contributor to the Encyclopedic.
He formed new musical projects, and he was introduced by
degrees to many people of rank and influence, among them
Madame d'fipinay (?..), to whom in 1747 he was introduced
by her lover M. de Francueil. It was not, however, till 1749
that Rousseau made his mark as a writer. The academy of
Dijon offered a prize for an essay on the effect of the progress
of civilization on morals. Rousseau took up the subject,
developed his famous paradox of the superiority of the savage
state, won the prize, and, publishing his essay {Discours sur les
arts et sciences) next year, became famous. The anecdotage as
to the origin of this famous essay is voluminous. It is agreed
that the idea was suggested when Rousseau went to pay a visit
to Diderot, who was in prison at Vincennes for his Lettre sur les
aveugles. Rousseau says he thought of the paradox on his
way down; Morellet and others say that he thought of treating
the subject in the ordinary fashion and was laughed at by
Diderot, who showed him the advantages of the less obvious
treatment. Diderot himself, who in such matters is almost
absolutely trustworthy, does not claim the suggestion, but
uses words which imply that it was at least partly his. It is
very like him. The essay, however, took the artificial and
crotchety society of the day by storm. Francueil gave Rousseau
a valuable post as cashier in the receiver-general's office. But
he resigned it either from conscientiousness, or crotchet, or nerv-
ousness at responsibility, or indolence, or more probably from a
mixture of all four. He went back to his music-copying, but
the salons of the day were determined to have his society, and
for a time they had it. In 1752 he brought out at Fontainebleau
an operetta, the Devin du milage, which was successful. He
received a hundred louis for it, and he was ordered to come to
court next day. This meant the certainty of a pension. But
Rousseau's shyness or his perversity (as before, probably both)
made him disobey the command. His comedy Narcisse,
written long before, was also acted, but unsuccessfully. In the
same year, however, a letter Sur la musique franc.aise again
had a great vogue. 2 Finally, for this was an important year
1 Apart from the fact that there were probably no children at all,
the whole bearing of the belief of Rousseau that they were sent by
him to the Enfants trouves has been falsified by hostile writers. He
was a penniless man of letters, with theories as to state maintenance
of children; and Th6r6se was a consenting party. Rousseau,
however, never saw any of the alleged children; and Mrs Mac-
donald has shown good cause for believing that their existence was
a myth, an imposition on Rousseau's credulity, invented by TheV&se
and her mother to make the tie more binding. (H. CH.)
1 Rousseau's influence on French music was greater than might
have been expected from his very imperfect education; in truth, he
was a musician by natural instinct only, but his feeling for art was
very strong, and, though capricious, based upon true perceptions of
the good and beautiful. The system of notation (by figures) con-
cerning which he read a paper before the Acade'mie des Sciences,
August 22, 1742, was ingenious, but practically worse than useless,
and failed to attract attention, though the paper was published in
1743 under the title of Dissertation sur la musique moderne. In the
famous " guerre des buffons," he took the part of the " buffonists,"
so named in consequence of their attachment to the Italian " opera
buffa," as opposed to the true French opera; and, in his Lettre sur la
musique franfaise, published in 1753, he indulged in a violent tirade
against French music, which he declared to be so contemptible as to
lead to the conclusion " that the French neither have, nor ever will
have, any music of their own, or at least that, if they ever dp have
any, it will be so much the worse for them." This silly libel so
enraged the performers at the Opera that they hanged and burned
with him, the Dijon academy, which had founded his fame,
announced the subject of " The Origin of Inequality," on which
he wrote a discourse which was unsuccessful, but at least equal
to the former in merit. During a visit to Geneva in 1754
Rousseau saw his old friend and love Madame de Warens (now
reduced in circumstances and having lost all her charms), while
after abjuring his abjuration of Protestantism he was enabled
to take up his freedom as citizen of Geneva, to which his birth
entitled him and of which he was proud. Shortly afterwards,
returning to Paris, he accepted a cottage near Montmorency
(the celebrated Hermitage) which Madame d'fipinay had fitted
up for him, and established himself there in April 1756. He
spent little more than a year there, but it was an important year.
Here he wrote La Nouvelle Helotse; here he indulged in the
passion which that novel partly represents, his love for Madame
d'Huodetot, sister-in-law of Madame d'fipinay, a lady young
and amiable, but plain, who had a husband and a lover (St
Lambert), and whom Rousseau's devotion seems to have
partly pleased and partly annoyed. Here too arose the obscure
triangular quarrel between Diderot, Rousseau and Frederick
Melchior Grimm, which ended Rousseau's sojourn at the Hermi-
tage. The supposition least favourable to Rousseau is that it
was due to one of his numerous fits of half-insane petulance
and indignation at the obligations which he was nevertheless
always ready to incur. That most favourable to him is that he
was expected to lend himself in a more or less complaisant
manner to assist and cover Madame d'fipinay's adulterous
affection for Grimm. At any rate, Rousseau quitted the Her-
mitage in the winter of 1757-58, and established himself at
Montlouis in the neighbourhood.
Hitherto Rousseau's behaviour had frequently made him
enemies, but his writings had for the most part made him
friends. The quarrel with Madame d'fipinay, with Diderot,
and through them with the philosophe party reversed this.
In 1758 appeared his Lettre d d'Alembert centre les spectacles,
written in the winter of the previous year at Montlouis. This
was at once an attack on Voltaire, who was giving theatrical
representations at Les Delices, on D'Alembert, who had con-
demned the prejudice against the stage in the Encyclopedic, and
on one of the favourite amusements of the society of the day.
Voltaire's strong point was not forgiveness, and, though
Rousseau no doubt exaggerated the efforts of his " enemies,"
he was certainly henceforward as obnoxious to the philosophe
coterie as to the orthodox party. He still, however, had no
lack of patrons he never had though his perversity made
him quarrel with all in turn. The amiable duke and duchess of
Luxembourg, who were his neighbours at Montlouis, made his
acquaintance, or rather forced theirs upon him, and he was
industrious in his literary work indeed, most of his best
books were produced during his stay in the neighbourhood of
its author in effigy. Rousseau revenged himself by printing his
clever satire entitled Lettre d'un symphoniste de I' Academic Royale de
Musique a ses camarades de I'orchestre. His Lettre a M. Burney is of
a very different type, and does full justice to the genius of Gluck.
His articles on music in the Encyclopedie deal very superficially with
the subject; and his Dictionnaire de musique (Geneva, 1767), though
admirably written, is not trustworthy, either as a record of facts or as
a collection of critical essays. In all these works the imperfection of
his musical education is painfully apparent, and his compositions
betray an equal lack of knowledge, though his refined taste is as
clearly displayed there as is his literary power in the Letters and
Dictionary. His first opera, Les Muses galantes, privately prepared
at the house of La Popelini&re, attracted very little attention; but Le
Devin du village, given at Fontainebleau in 1752, and at the Academic
in '753. achieved a great and well-deserved success. Though very
unequal, and exceedingly simple both in style and construction,
it contains some charming melodies, and is written throughout in the
most refined taste. His Pygmalion (1775) is a melodrama without
singing. Some posthumous fragments of another opera, Daphnis
et Cttob, were printed in 1780; and in 1781 appeared Les Consola-
tions des miskres de ma vie, a collection of about one hundred songs
and other fugitive pieces of very unequal merit. The popular air
known as " Rousseau's Dream " is not contained in this collection,
and cannot be traced back farther than J. B. Cramer's celebrated
" Variations." M. Castil-Blaze has accused Rousseau of extensive
plagiarisms (or worse) in Le Devin du village and Pygmalion, but
apparently without sufficient cause. (W. S. R.)
ROUSSEAU, J. J.
777
Montmorency. A letter to Voltaire on his poem about the Lisbon
earthquake embittered the dislike between the two, being
surreptitiously published. La Nouvelle Heloise appeared in the
same year (1760), and it was immensely popular. In 1762
appeared the Central social at Amsterdam, and .mile, which
was published both in the Low Countries and at Paris. For the
latter the author received 6000 livres, for the Central 1000.
Julie, ou La Nouvelle Hiloise, is a novel written in letters
describing the loves of a man of low position and a girl of
rank, her subsequent marriage to a respectable freethinker
of her own station, the mental agonies of her lover, and the
partial appeasing of the distresses of the lovers by the influence
of noble sentiment and the good offices of a philanthropic
Englishman. It is too long, the sentiment is overstrained,
and severe moralists have accused it of a certain complaisance
in dealing with amatory errors; but it is full of pathos and
knowledge of the human heart. The Control social, as its
title implies, endeavours to base all government on the consent,
direct or implied, of the governed, and indulges in much in-
genious argument to get rid of the practical inconveniences
of such a suggestion. mile, the second title of which is De
I'fducation, is much more of a treatise than of a novel, though
a certain amount of narrative interest is kept up throughout.
Rousseau's reputation was now higher than ever, but the
term of the comparative prosperity which he had enjoyed
for nearly ten years was at hand. The Central social was
obviously anti-monarchic; the Nouvelle Heloise was said to
be immoral; the sentimental deism of the " Profession du
vicaire Savoyard " in mile irritated equally the philosophe
party and the church. On June u, 1762, mile was con-
demned by the parlement of Paris, and two days previously
Madame de Luxembourg and the prince de Conti gave the
author information that he would be arrested if he did not
fly. They also furnished him with means of flight, and he
made for Yverdun in the territory of Bern, whence he trans-
ferred himself to Motiers in Neuchatel, which then belonged
to Prussia. Frederick II. was not indisposed to protect the
persecuted when it cost him nothing and might bring him
fame, and in Marshal Keith, the governor of Neuchatel,
Rousseau found a true and firm friend. He was, however,
unable to be quiet or to practise any of those more or less
pious frauds which were customary at the time with the un-
orthodox. The archbishop of Paris had published a pastoral
against him, and Rousseau did not let the year pass without
a Lettre d M . de Beaumont. The council of Geneva had joined
in the condemnation of Entile, and Rousseau first solemnly
renounced his citizenship, and then, in the Lettres de la mon-
tagne (1763), attacked the council and the Genevan constitu-
tion unsparingly. All this excited public opinion against him,
and gradually he grew unpopular in his own neighbourhood.
This unpopularity is said on uncertain authority to have cul-
minated in a nocturnal attack on his house. At any rate he
thought he was menaced if he was not, and migrated to the
lie St Pierre in the Lake of Bienne, where he once more for
a short, and the last, time enjoyed that idyllic existence which
he loved. But the Bernese government ordered him to quit
its territory. He was for some time uncertain' where to
go, and thought of Corsica (to join Paoli) and Berlin. But
finally David Hume offered him, late in 1765, an asylum in
England, and he accepted. He passed through Paris, where his
presence was tolerated for a time, and landed in England on
January 13, 1766. Therese travelled separately, and was en-
trusted to the charge of James Boswell, who had already
made Rousseau's acquaintance. Here he had once more a
chance of settling peaceably. Severe English moralists like
Johnson thought but ill of him, but the public generally was
not unwilling to testify against French intolerance, and re-
garded his sentimentalism with favour. He was lionized in
London to his heart's content and discontent, for it may truly
be said of Rousseau that he was equally indignant at neglect
and intolerant of attention. When, after not a few displays
of his strange humour, he professed himself tired of the capital,
Hume procured him a country abode in the house of Mr Daven-
port at Wootton in Derbyshire. Here, though the place was
bleak and lonely, he might have been happy enough, and he
actually employed himself in writing the greater part of his
Confessions. But his habit of self-tormenting and tormenting
others never left him. His own caprices interposed some
delay in the conferring of a pension which George III. was
induced to grant him, and he took this as a crime of Hume's.
The publication of a spiteful letter (really by Horace Walpole,
one of whose worst deeds it was) in the name of the king of
Prussia made Rousseau believe that plots of the most terrible
kind were on foot against him. Finally he quarrelled with
Hume because the latter would not acknowledge all his own
friends and Rousseau's supposed enemies of the philosophe
circle to be rascals. He remained, however, at Wootton
during the year and through the winter. In May 1767 he
fled to France, addressing letters to the lord chancellor and
to General Conway, which can only be described as the letters
of a lunatic. He was received in France by the marquis de
Mirabeau (father of the great Mirabeau), of whom he soon had
enough, then by the prince de Conti at Trye. From this
place he again fled and wandered about for some time in a
wretched fashion, still writing the Confessions, constantly
receiving generous help, and always quarrelling with, or at
least suspecting, the helpers. In the summer of 1770 he re-
turned to Paris, resumed music-copying, and was on the whole
happier than he had been since he had to leave Montlouis.
He had by this time married Therese le Vasseur, or had at
least gone through some form of marriage with her.
Many of the best-known stories of Rousseau's life date from
this last time, when he was tolerably accessible to visitors,
though clearly half-insane. He finished his Confessions, wrote
his Dialogues (the interest of which is not quite equal to the
promise of their curious sub-title, Rousseau juge de Jean Jacques),
and began his Reveries du promeneur solitaire, intended as a
sequel and complement to the Confessions, and one of the
best of all his books. It should be said that besides these,
which complete the list of his principal works, he has left a
very large number of minor works and a considerable corre-
spondence. During this time he lived in the Rue Platiere,
which is now named after him. But his suspicions of secret
enemies grew stronger rather than weaker, and at the begin-
ning of 1778 he was glad to accept the offer of M. de Girardin,
a rich financier, and occupy a cottage at Ermenonville. The
country was beautiful; but his old terrors revived, and his
woes were complicated by the alleged inclination of Theiese
for one of M. de Girardin's stable-boys. On July and he died
in a manner which has been much discussed, suspicions of
suicide being circulated at the time by Grimm and others. 1
There is little doubt that for the last ten or fifteen years
of his life, if not from the time of his quarrel with Diderot and
Madame d'Epinay, Rousseau was not wholly sane the com-
bined influence of late and unexpected literary fame and of
constant solitude and discomfort acting upon his excitable
temperament so as to overthrow the balance, never very stable,
of his fine and acute but unrobust intellect. He was by no
means the only man of letters of his time who had to submit
to something like persecution. Fr6ron on the orthodox side
had his share of it, as well as Voltaire, Helvetius, Diderot
and Montesquieu on that of the innovators. But Rousseau
had not, like Montesquieu, a position which guaranteed him
From serious danger; he was not wealthy like Helvfitius; he
had not the wonderful suppleness and trickiness which even
without his wealth would probably have defended Voltaire
himself; and he lacked entirely the " bottom " of Fr6ron and
Diderot. When he was molested he could only shriek at his
1 The local inquiry into the death, on the following day, resulted
in a certificate that he died of apoplexy; but the story that he
shot himself persisted. In December 1897 Rousseau's coffin in the
Pantheon was opened, and M. Berthelot, who examined the skull,
Found no trace of injury by a bullet; and on the whole there is no
reason to doubt the verdict of the original inquiry at Ermenonville.
(H. CH.)
77 8
ROUSSEAU, J. J.
enemies and suspect his friends. His moral character was
undoubtedly weak in other ways than this, but it is fair to
remember that but for his astounding Confessions the more
disgusting parts of it would not have been known, and that
these Confessions were written, if not under hallucination, at
any rate in circumstances entitling the self -condemned criminal
to the benefit of considerable doubt. If Rousseau had held
his tongue, he might have stood lower as a man of letters;
he would pretty certainly have stood higher as a man. He
was, moreover, really sinned against, if still more sinning.
The conduct of Grimm to him was certainly bad; and, though
Walpole was not his personal friend, a worse action than his
famous letter, considering the well-known idiosyncrasy of the
subject, would be difficult to find. It was his own fault that
he saddled himself with the Le Vasseurs, but their conduct was
probably, if not certainly, ungrateful in the extreme. Only
excuses can be made for him; but the excuses for a man born,
as Hume after the quarrel said of him, " without a skin " are
numerous and strong.
His peculiar reputation increased after his death. During
his life his personal peculiarities and the fact that his opinions
were nearly as obnoxious to the one' -party as to the other worked
against him, but it was not so after his death. The men of
the Revolution regarded him with something like idolatry, and
his literary merits conciliated many who were far from idolizing
him as a revolutionist. His style was taken up by Bernardin
de Saint Pierre and by Chateaubriand. It was employed for
purposes quite different from those to which he had himself
applied it, and the reaction triumphed by the very arms which
had been most powerful in the hands of the Revolution. Byron's
fervid panegyric enlisted on his side all who admired Byron
that is to say, the majority of the younger men and women
of Europe between 1820 and 1850 and thus different sides
of his tradition were continued for a . full century after the
publication of his chief books. His religious unorthodoxy
was condoned because he never scoffed; his political heresies,
after their first effect was over, seemed harmless from the
very want of logic and practical spirit in them, while part at
least of his literary secret was the common property of almost
every one who attempted literature.
In religion Rousseau was undoubtedly what he has been
called above a sentimental deist; but no one who reads him
with the smallest attention can fail to see that sentimentalism
was the essence, deism the accident of his creed. In his time
orthodoxy at once generous and intelligent hardly existed in
France. There were ignorant persons who were sincerely
orthodox; there were intelligent persons who pretended to be
so. But between the time of Massillon and D'Aguesseau and
the time of Lamennais and Joseph de Maistre the class of men
of whom in England Berkeley, Butler and Johnson were repre-
sentatives did not exist in France. Little inclined by nature
to any but the emotional side of religion, and utterly undis-
ciplined in any other by education, course of life, or the general
tendency of public opinion, Rousseau naturally took refuge
in the nebulous kind of natural religion which was at once
fashionable and convenient. If his practice fell far short even
of his own arbitrary 'standard of morality, as much may be
said of persons far more dogmatically orthodox.
In politics, on the other hand, Rousseau was a sincere and,
as far as in him lay, a convinced republican. He had no great
tincture of learning, he was by no means a profound logician,
and he was impulsive and emotional in the extreme character-
istics which in political matters predispose the subject to the
preference of equality above all political requisites. He saw
that under the French monarchy the actual result was the
greatest misery of the greatest number, and] he did not look
much further. The Central social is for the political student
one of the most curious and interesting books existing. His-
torically it is null; logically it is full of gaping flaws, practically
its manipulations of the volonte de tous and the volontt g&nerale
are clearly insufficient to obviate anarchy. But its mixture
of real eloquence and apparent cogency is exactly such as
always carries a multitude with it, if only for a time. Moreover,
in some minor branches of politics and economics Rousseau
was a real reformer. Visionary as his educational schemes
(chiefly promulgated in mUe) are in parts, they are admirable
in others, and his protest against mothers refusing to nurse
their children hit a blot in French life which is not removed
yet, and has always been a source of weakness to the nation.
But it is as a literary man pure and simple that is to say,
as an exponent rather than as an originator of ideas that
Rousseau is most noteworthy, and that he has exercised most
influence. The first thing noticeable about him is that he
defies all customary and mechanical classification. He is not
a dramatist his work as such is insignificant nor a novelist,
for, though his two chief works except the Confessions are called
novels, Emile is one only in name, and La Nouwlle Htldise
is as a story diffuse, prosy and awkward to a degree. He
was without command of poetic form, and he could only be
called a philosopher in an age when the term was used
with such meaningless laxity as was customary in the i8th
century. If he must be classed, he was before all things a
describer a describer of the passions of the human heart
and of the beauties of nature. In the first part of his vocation
the novelists of his own youth, such as Marivaux, Richardson
and Prevost, may be said to have shown him the way, though
he improved greatly upon them; in the second he was almost
a creator. In combining the two and expressing the effect
of nature on the feelings and of the feelings on the aspect of
nature he was absolutely without a forerunner or 'a model.
And, as literature since his time has been chiefly differentiated
from literature before it by the colour and tone resulting from
this combination, Rousseau may be said to hold, as an influence,
a place almost unrivalled in literary history. The defects
of all sentimental writing are noticeable in him, but they are
palliated by his wonderful feeling, and by the passionate
sincerity even of his insincere passages. Some cavils have
been made against his French, but none of much weight or
importance. And in such passages as the famous " Voila de
la pervenche " of the Confessions, as the description of the
isle of St Pierre in the Reveries, as some of the letters in the
Nouvelle Heloise and others, he had achieved absolute perfection in
doing what he intended to do. The reader, as it has been said,
may think he might have done something else with advantage, but
he can hardly think that he could have done this thing better.
(G. SA.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The dates of most of Rousseau's works pub-
lished during his lifetime have been given above. The Confessions
and Reveries, which, read in private, had given much umbrage to
persons concerned, and which the author did not intend to be
published until the end of the century, appeared in Geneva in 1782.
In the same year and the following appeared a complete edition in
forty-seven small volumes. There have been many since, the most
important of them being that of Musset-Pathay (Paris, 1823). Some
unpublished works, chiefly letters, were added by Bosscha (Paris,
1858) and Streckeisen Moulton (Paris, 1861). See also the latter's
Rousseau et ses amis (1865). Works on Rousseau are innumerable.
The chief biographies are: in French that of Saint Marc Girardin
(1874), in English the Life by Viscount Morley. But the materials
for his biography are so controversial and so personal his own
Confessions and the memoirs of associates whose accuracy and
honesty are disputed that the correct historical view can hardly
be said yet to be standardized. Mrs Frederika Macdonald, in her
Jean Jacques Rousseau (1906), makes out a good case for regarding
Mme. d Epinay's Memoirs as coloured, if not actually dictated, by
the malevolent attitude of Grimm and Diderot; and her study of
the documents undoubtedly qualifies a good many of the assump-
tions that have been made on the strength of evidence which is at
least tainted by contemporary prejudice, and leaves the way open
for an interpretation of the facts which would reconcile Rousseau's
character as a writer with his actions as a man. Unfortunately
for the consistency of historical writing, the view taken of Rousseau s
biography affects those of Grimm, Diderot, Mme. d'Epinay and
others, and while Mrs Macdonald's researches have done much to
suggest a rehabilitation of Rousseau's veracity they have not
definitely been accepted to an extent which would justify the
rewriting of these other lives in her sense. See also E. Ritter,
Famille et jeunesse de Rousseau (1896); A. Houssaye, Les Charmettes
(2nd ed., 1864); J. Grand-Carteret, Rousseau juge par les Franfais
d'aujourd'hui (1890); L. Ducros, J. J. Rousseau de Genbie a
I'Hermitage, 1712-57 (1908). (H. CH.)
ROUSSEAU, P. E. T. ROUSSEAU DE LA ROTTIERE 779
ROUSSEAU, PIERRE &TIENNE THEODORE (1812-1867),
French painter of the Barbizon school, was born in Paris on the
15th of April 1812, of a bourgeois family which included one or
two artists. At first he received a business training, but soon
displayed aptitude for painting. Although his father regretted
the decision at first, he became reconciled to his son [leaving
business, and throughout the artist's career (for he survived
his son) was a sympathizer with him in all his conflicts with
the Salon authorities. Theodore Rousseau shared the difficulties
of the romantic painters of 1830 in securing for their pictures
a place in the annual Paris exhibition. The whole influence
of the classically trained artists was against them, and not
until 1848 was Rousseau adequately presented to the public.
He had exhibited one or two unimportant works in the Salon
of 1831 and 1834, but in 1836 his great work " La Descente des
vaches " was rejected by the vote of the classic painters; and
from then until after the revolution of 1848 he was persistently
refused. He was not without champions in the press, and
under the title of " le grand refuse " he became known through
the writings of Thore, the critic who afterwards resided in
England and wrote under the name of Burger. During these
years of artistic exile Rousseau produced some of his finest
pictures: " The Chestnut Avenue," " The Marsh in the
Landes " (now in the Louvre), " Hoar-Frost " (now in America) ;
and in 1851, after the reorganization of the Salon in 1848, he
exhibited his masterpiece, " The Edge of the Forest " (also in
the Louvre), a picture similar in treatment to, but slightly
varied in subject from, the composition called " A Glade in
the Forest of Fontainebleau," in the Wallace collection at
Hertford House.
Up to this period Rousseau had lived only occasionally
at Barbizon, but in 1848 he took up his residence in the forest
village, and spent most of his remaining days in the vicinity.
He was now at the height of his artistic power, and was able
to obtain fair sums for his pictures (but only about one-tenth
of their value thirty years after his death), and his circle of
admirers increased. He was still ignored by the authorities,
for while Diaz was made Chevalier of the Legion of Honour
in 1851, Rousseau was left undecorated at this time, but was
nominated shortly afterwards. At the Exposition Universelle
of 1855, where all Rousseau's rejected pictures of the previous
twenty years were gathered together, his works were acknow-
ledged to form one of the finest of the many splendid groups
there exhibited. But during his lifetime Rousseau never really
conquered French taste, and after an unsuccessful sale of
his works by auction in 1861, he contemplated leaving Paris
for Amsterdam or London, or even New York. Misfortune
then overtook him : his wife, who had been a source of constant
anxiety for years, became almost hopelessly insane; his aged
father looked constantly to him for pecuniary assistance;
his patrons were few. Moreoever, while he was temporarily
absent with his invalid wife, a youth living in his home (a
friend of his family) committed suicide in his Barbizon cottage;
when he visited the Alps in 1863, making sketches of Mont
Blanc, he fell dangerously ill with inflammation of the lungs;
and when he returned to Barbizon he suffered from insomnia
and became gradually _ weakened. He was elected president
of the fine art jury for the 1867 Exposition. His disappoint-
ment at being passed over in the distribution of the higher
awards told seriously on his health, and in August he was
seized with paralysis. He slightly recovered, but was again
attacked several times during the autumn. Finally, in
November, he began to sink, and he died, in the presence of
his lifelong friend, J. F. Millet, on the 22nd of December 1867.
Rousseau's other friend and neighbour, Jules Dupr6, himself
an eminent landscape painter of Barbizon, relates the difficulty
Rousseau experienced in knowing when his picture was finished,
and how he, Dupre, would sometimes take away from the
studio some canvas on which Rousseau was labouring too
long. Millet, the peasant painter, for whom Rousseau had
the highest regard, was much with him during the last years
of his life, and at his death Millet took charge of the insane
wife. Rousseau was a good friend to Diaz, teaching him
how to paint trees, for up to a certain point in his career Diaz
considered he could only paint figures.
Rousseau's pictures are always grave in character, with
an air of exquisite melancholy which is powerfully attractive
to the lover of landscapes. They are weU finished when they
profess to be completed pictures, but Rousseau spent so long
a time in working up his subjects that his absolutely completed
works are comparatively few. He left many canvases with
parts of the picture realized in detail and with the remainder
somewhat vague; and also a good number of sketches and
water-colour drawings. His pen work in monochrome on
paper is rare; it is particularly searching in quality. There
are a number of fine pictures by him in the Louvre, and the
Wallace collection contains one of his most important Barbizon
pictures. There is also an example in the lonides collection
at the Victoria and Albert Museum.
AUTHORITIES. Alfred Sensier, Souvenirs sur Th. Rousseau,
(Paris, 1872); E. Michel, Les Artistes celebres : Th. Rousseau[ (Paris,
1891); J. W. Mollett, Rousseau and Diaz (London, 1890); D. Croal
Thomson, The Barbizon School of Painters : Th. Rousseau (London,
1 892); Albert Wolff, La Capitate del' art : Th. Rousseau (Pans, 1886);
E. Chesneau, Peintres romantiques : Th. Rousseau (Paris, 1880);
P. Burty, Maitres et petit-matlres : Th. Rousseau (Paris, 1877).
(D. C. T.)
ROUSSEAU DE LA ROTTIERE, JEAN SIMEON (b. 1747),
French decorative painter, was the youngest son of Jules
Antoine Rousseau, " sculpteur du Roi." The territorial addition
to his patronymic has never been explained, but it is known
to have been in use when he was little more than a boy. He
studied at the Academic Royale, where we find him in September
1768 winning the medal given to the best painter of the quarter.
He appears with his brother Jules Hugues to have been em-
ployed from an early date by his father for the decorative work
executed by the family at Versailles. There has been some
controversy among the authorities as to the respective shares
of father and son in these works, but many of the attributions
are fairly determined by dates, Jules Antoine Rousseau having
been at work at Versailles for years before the birth of his
famous son. The " Bains du Roi," the " Salon de la Meridi-
enne," part of the bedchamber of Madame Adelaide, and the
" Garde-robe of Louis XVI." were among the achievements
which there can be little doubt were shared in by Rousseau de la
Rottiere. His most individual and most famous undertaking
was, however, the decoration of the lovely " Boudoir de Madame
de Sevilly," now at the Victoria and Albert Museum. This
little room, 14 ft. long, 10^ ft. wide and 16 ft. high, was
removed from the house in the Rue de Saint Louis, in the
Marais. The Seigneur de S6villy, who was hereditary " Tresorier-
general de 1'Extraordinaire des guerres " under Louis XVI.,
married his cousin Anne Marie Louise de Pange, a favourite
maid-of-honour of Marie Antoinette, and the story runs that
his wife and the queen, desiring to give him a surprise, had
the room decorated during his absence from Paris. It was
purchased for the museum for 60,000 francs in 1869. The
wall paintings of this sumptuous room came from the hand of
Rousseau de la Rottiere; the overdoor and part of the ceiling
were executed by Lagrenee le jeune; the architect was Ledoux;
the grey marble figures of aged men on either side of the fire-
place were sculptured by Clodion; the mounts of the chimney-
piece are apparently from the chisel of Gouthiere. The date
of the room is assigned to 1781-82, and Jean Simeon's authorship
of much of its decoration is rendered certain by his own still
existing sketch. The decoration is Pompeian in feeling, and in
the main its taste is admirable; the execution is of the highest
excellence. The tall narrow panels are painted in medallions
with amorini; festoons and bouquets of flowers fill every
available space; the shutters are painted with doves and
shepherdesses. Lagren6e's pictures in the upper lunettes
represent the elements; upon the ceiling is Jupiter en-
throned within a deep blue border. The perfection of detail,
the unity* of the whole composition, the dexterity with which so
small a chamber, lofty out of proportion to its length and width,
780
ROUSSILLON ROUTLEDGE
has been picked out with recessed arches, the tenderness of its
scheme of colour, combine to produce an exquisite effect. It
is a melancholy reflection that M. de Sevilly, whom his wife
and Marie Antoinette combined to surprise with this chef-
d'oeuvre, was guillotined, and that his wife, whose sitting-room
it was, was condemned to die with him and with Madame
Elisabeth de France, whom they had befriended, but was saved,
against her will, by the princess, who made a false declaration
as to her condition. She had two subsequent husbands, and
lost them both in little more than two years. She herself lived
less than five years after her delivery by the fall of Robespierre.
There is no information as to Rousseau's later life. The last
known mention of him is in 1792.
ROUSSILLON, one of the old provinces of France. It now
forms the greater part of the department of Pyrenees
Orientales (q.v.). It was bounded S. by the Pyrenees, W. by the
county of Foix, N. by Languedoc and E. by the Mediterranean.
The province derived its name from a small place near Perpig-
nan, the capital, called Ruscino (Rosceliona, Castel Rossello),
where the Gallic chieftains met to consider Hannibal's request
for a conference. The district formed part of the Roman
province of Gallia Narbonensis from 121 B.C. to A.D. 462, when
it was ceded with the rest of Septimania to Theodoric II., king
of the Visigoths. His successor, Amalaric, on his defeat by
Clovis in 531 retired to Spain, leaving a governor in Septimania.
In 719 the Saracens crossed the Pyrenees, and Septimania was
held by them until their defeat by Pippin in 756. On the
invasion of Spain by Charlemagne in 778 he found the border-
lands wasted by the Saracenic wars, and the inhabitants hiding
among the mountains. He accordingly made grants of land
to Visigothic refugees from Spain, and founded several monas-
teries, round which the people gathered for protection. In
792 the Saracens again invaded France, but were repulsed by
Louis, king of Aquitaine, whose rule extended over all Catalonia
as far as Barcelona. The different portions of his kingdom in
time grew into allodial fiefs, and in 893 Suniaire II. became the
first hereditary count of Roussillon. But his rule only extended
over the eastern part of what became the later province. The
western part, or Cerdagne, was ruled in 900 by Miron as first
count, and one of his grandsons, Bernard, was the first heredi-
tary count of the middle portion, or Besalu. In mi Raymond-
Berenger III., count of Barcelona, inherited the fief of Besalu,
to which was added in 1117 that of Cerdagne; and in 1172 his
grandson, Alfonso II., king of Aragon, united Roussillon to his
other states on the death of the last count, Gerard II. The counts
of Roussillon, Cerdagne and Besalu were not sufficiently powerful
to indulge in any wars of ambition. Their energies had been
devoted to furthering the welfare of their people. Under the
Aragonese monarchs the progress of the united province still con-
tinued, and Collioure, the port of Perpignan, became a centre of
Mediterranean trade. But the country was destined to pay the
penalty of its position on the frontiers of France and Spain
in the long struggle for ascendancy between these two powers.
By the treaty of Corbeil (1258) Louis IX. surrendered the sove-
reignty of Roussillon and the ancient countship of Barcelona to
Aragon, and from that time until the I7th century the province
ceased to belong to France. James I. of Aragon had wrested
the Balearic Isles from the Moors and left them with Roussillon
to his son James (1276), with the title of king of Majorca.
The consequent disputes of this monarch with his brother
Pedro III. of Aragon were not lost sight of by Philip III. of
France in his quarrel with the latter about the crown of the
Two Sicilies. Philip espoused James's cause and led his army
into Spain, but retreating died at Perpignan in 1285. James
then became reconciled to his brother, and in 1311 was suc-
ceeded by his son Sancho, who founded the cathedral of Per-
pignan shortly before his death in 1324. His successor James II.
refused to do homage to Philip VI. of France for the seigniory
of Montpellier, and applied to Pedro IV. of Aragon for aid.
Pedro not only refused it, but on various pretexts declared war
against him, and seized Majorca and Roussillon in 13*44. The
province was now again united to Aragon, and enjoyed peace
until 1462. In this year the disputes between John II. and
his son about the crown of Navarre gave Louis XI. of France
an excuse to support John against his subjects, who had risen
in revolt. Louis turned traitor, and the province having been
pawned to him for 300,0x20 crowns, was occupied by the French
troops until 1493, when Charles VIII. restored it to Ferdinand
and Isabella. During the war between France and Spain
(1496-98) the people suffered equally from the Spanish garrisons
and the French invaders. But dislike of the Spaniards was
soon effaced in the pride of sharing in the glory of Charles V.,
and in 1542, when Perpignan was besieged by the dauphin,
the Roussillonnais remained true to their allegiance. After-
wards the decay of Spain was France's opportunity, and on
the revolt of the Catalans against the Castilians in 1641,
Louis XIII. espoused the cause of the former, and the treaty
of the Pyrenees in 1659 secured Roussillon to the French crown.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Privileges el litres relatifs aux franchises, in-
stitutions et proprietes communales du Roussillon el de la Cerdagne
depuis le XI' s^ede jusqu'en 1600 (1878); Auguste Brutails, Elude
sur la condition des populations rurales du Roussillon au moyen age
(1891). See also the publications of the Societe agricole, scientifique
et litteraire des Pyrenees Orientales (1834 fol.).
ROUTH, EDWARD JOHN (1831-1007), English mathe-
matician, was born at Quebec on the 2oth of January 1831.
At the age of eleven he came to England, and after studying
under A. de Morgan at University College, London, entered
Peterhouse, Cambridge, in 1851. In the mathematical tripos
three years later he was senior wrangler, beating J. Clerk
Maxwell, who, however, tied with him for the Smith's prize.
Elected a fellow of his college, he devoted himself to teaching,
and quickly proved himself one of the most successful mathe-
matical " coaches " ever known at Cambridge. In thirty
years, of some 700 pupils who passed through his hands 500
became wranglers; and for twenty-two successive years, from
1861 to 1882, the senior wrangler was trained by him. He
made considerable contributions to scientific literature, and
among his publications were: An Analytical View of Newton's
Principia, with Lord Brougham (1855); an Essay on the Sta-
bility of a given Slate of Motion, which won the Adams' prize
in 1877; and treatises on the Dynamics of Rigid Bodies, on
Analytical Statics, and on the Dynamics of a Particle. He
died at Cambridge on the 7th of June 1907.
ROUTH, MARTIN JOSEPH (1755-1854), English classical
scholar, was born at South Elmham, Suffolk, on the i8th of
September 1755. He was educated at Queen's College, Oxford,
and subsequently elected to a fellowship at Magdalen, of which
society he became president hi 1791. He died at Oxford on
the 22nd of December 1854, and retained his physical and
intellectual powers to the last. He was the author of editions
of the Euthydemus and Gorgias of Plato (1784), to which Dindorf
declared himself indebted for his first ideas of Greek criticism,
and of Bishop Burnet's History of his Own Time (2nd ed., 1833)
and History of the Reign of King James the Second (1852).
Routh was also an authority on patristic literature, his Re-
liquiae Sacrae (2nd ed., 1846-48), a collection of the frag-
ments of the Fathers of the 2nd and 3rd centuries, and Scrip-
tor um ecclesiasticorum opuscula praecipua quaedam (2nd ed.,
840) being valuable contributions to ecclesiastical knowledge.
See Gentleman's Magazine, 1855; J. W. Burgon, Lives of Twelve
Good Men (1888).
ROUTLEDGE, GEORGE (1812-1888), English publisher, was
born at Brampton in Cumberland on the 23rd of September
1812. He gained his earliest experience of business with a
bookseller at Carlisle. Proceeding to London in 1833, he
started in business for himself as a bookseller in 1836, and as
a publisher in 1843, making his first serious success by reprint-
ing the Biblical commentaries of an American writer, Albert
Barnes. His fame as a publisher, however, rests chiefly upon
the enormous number of cheap books which he issued. A
series of shilling volumes called the " Railway Library " was
an immense success, including as it did Mrs Harriet Beecher
Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin, and he also published in popular
ROUVIER ROVIGO
781
form some of the writings of Washington Irving, Fenimore
Cooper, Bulwer Lytton and Benjamin Disraeli. He also
brought out a number of shilling books in " Routledge's Uni-
versal Library." Routledge died in London on the 1310 of
December 1888. After being styled Routledge, Warne &
Routledge, his firm changed its name to that of George Rout-
ledge & Sons. A branch of the business was established in
New York in 1854.
ROUVIER, MAURICE (1842- ), French statesman, was
born at Aix on the lyth of April 1842, and spent the early
years of his manhood in business at Marseilles. He supported
Gambetta's candidature there in 1867, and in 1870 he founded
an anti-imperial journal, L'galiti. Becoming secretary
general of the prefecture of Bouches-du-Rh6ne in 1870-71,
he refused the office of prefect. In July 1871 he was returned
to the National Assembly for Marseilles at a by-election, and
voted steadily with the Republican party. He became a
recognized authority on finance, and repeatedly served on
the Budget Commission as reporter or president. At the
general elections of 1881 after the fall of the Ferry cabinet
he was returned to the chamber on a programme which included
the separation of Church and State, a policy of decentraliza-
tion, and the imposition of an income-tax. He then joined
Gambetta's cabinet as minister of commerce and the colonies,
and in the 1883-85 cabinet of Jules Ferry he held the same
office. He became premier and minister of finance on the
3ist of May 1887, with the support of the moderate republican
groups, the Radicals holding aloof in support of General
Boulanger, who began a violent agitation against the govern-
ment. Then came the scandal of the decorations in which
President Grevy's son-in-law Daniel Wilson figured, and the
Rouvier cabinet fell in the attempt to screen the president.
Rouvier's opposition in his capacity of president of the Budget
Commission was one of the causes of the defeat of the Floquet
cabinet in February 1889. In the new Tirard ministry formed
to combat the Boulangist agitation he was minister of finance.
This portfolio he retained consecutively hi the Freycinet, the
Loubet and the Ribot cabinets, 1890-93. His relations with
Corn61ius Herz and the baron de Reinach compelled his retire-
ment, however, from the Ribot cabinet at the time of the
Panama scandals in December 1892. Again, in 1902, he became
minister of finance, after nearly ten years in exclusion from
office, in the Radical cabinet of M. Combes; and on the fall
of the Combes ministry in January 1905 he was invited by
the president to form a new ministry. In this cabinet he at
first held the ministry of finance. In his initial declaration
to the chamber the new premier had declared his intention of
continuing the policy of the late cabinet, pledging the new
ministry to a policy of conciliation, to the consideration of
old age pensions, an income-tax, separation of Church and
State. Public attention, however, was chiefly concentrated
on foreign policy. During the Combes ministry M. Delcasse
had come to a secret understanding with Spain on the Moroccan
question, and had established an understanding with England.
His policy had aroused German jealousy, which became evident
in the asperity with which the question of Morocco was handled
in Berlin. At a cabinet meeting on June sth it is said that
M. Rouvier reproached the Foreign Minister with imprudence
in the matter of Morocco, and after a heated discussion
M. Delcasse gave in his resignation. M. Rouvier himself took
the portfolio of foreign affairs at this anxious juncture. He,
after critical negotiations, secured on July Sth an agreement with
Germany accepting the international conference proposed by
the sultan of Morocco on the assurance that Germany would
recognize the special nature of the interest of France in main-
taining order on the frontier of her Algerian empire. Lengthy
discussions resulted in a new convention in September, which
contained the programme of the proposed conference, and in
December M. Rouvier was able to make a statement of the
whole proceedings in the chamber, which received the assent
of all parties. M. Rouvier's government did not long survive
the presidential election of 1906. The disturbances arising
in connexion with the Separation Law were skilfully handled
by M. Clemenceau to discredit the ministry, which gave place
to a cabinet under the direction of M. Sarrien.
ROVERETO, the most important industrial town in the
southern or Italian-speaking portion of the Austrian province
of Tirol, though its population (which in 1900 was 10,180,
Italian-speaking and Romanist) is less than that of Trent. It
is also the principal town of the administrative district of
Rovereto. Built on the left bank of the Adige, in the widest
portion of the Val Lagarina (the name given to the Adige valley
from Acquaviva, above Rovereto, to the Italian frontier), it is
divided into two parts by the Leno torrent. It is on the
Brenner railway, by which it is 15 m. S.W. of Trent and 41! m.
N. of Verona. Save in the newer quarter of the town, the streets
are narrow and crooked, several being named after the most
distinguished native of the place, Antonio Rosmini-Serbati
(q.v). The finest church is that of Santa Maria del Carmine,
the old 14th-century church now serving as a sacristy to that
built from 1678 to 1750. The church of San Marco dates from
the i sth century. The town is dominated by the castle (now
used as barracks), which was reconstructed in 1492 by the
Venetians, after it had been burnt in 1487 by the count of
Tirol. The staple silk industry (which dates from the i6th
century) has declined, the number both of filande (establish-
ments wherein the cocoons are unwound) and of filatoje (those
wherein the silk is spun) having diminished.
In 1132 the emperor Lothair found the passage of the gorge
above the site of the town barred by a castle, which he took
and gave to one of his Teutonic followers, the ancestor of the
Castelbarco family. Towards the middle of the i3th century
that family obtained by marriage the lands of the Lizzana family
(whose castle rises S. of the town), and in 1300 practically
founded the town and surrounded it with walls. In 1416 it was
taken by the Venetians, who in 1487 successfully resisted, at
Galliano, an attempt to take it made by the count of Tirol and
the bishop of Trent. In 1509, at the outset of the war of the
League of Cambray, the town gave itself voluntarily to the
emperor Maximilian, to whom it was ceded formally by Venice
in 1517, and next year incorporated with Tirol. South of
Rovereto is the village of Marco, near which are certain natural
remains (either those of a landslip that occurred in 883, or of a
glacier moraine) believed to have been described by Dante
(Inf. xii. 4-9), who is said to have spent part of the year 1304,
during his exile from Florence, in the castle of Lizzana, between
Marco and Rovereto. (W. A. B. C.)
ROVIGNO, a seaport of Austria, in Istria, 75 m. S. of Trieste
by rail. Pop. (1900) 10,205, mostly Italian. It is situated on
the west coast of Istria, and possesses an interesting cathedral,
built on the summit of the promontory Monte di Sant' Eufemia.
Its campanile, built after the model of the famous campanile in
Venice, is crowned with a bronze statue of St Eufemia, the
patron saint of the town, whose remains are preserved in the
church. It contains a station of the Berlin Aquarium, with a
fine collection of the fauna of the Adriatic Sea. In the neigh-
bourhood are vineyards, which produce the best wine in Istria,
and olive gardens, while its hazel-nuts are reputed the finest
in the world. Rovigno is the principal centre of the Austrian
tunny and sardine fishery. The industries, in addition to ship-
building and the preservation of fish, include the manufacture
of tobacco, cement, macaroni and similar preparations, and
flour. There is an active export trade. Its inhabitants are
renowned seamen. Rovigno is the ancient Arupenum or
Rubinum, and according to tradition it was originally built on an
island, Cissa by name, which disappeared during the earth-
quakes about 737. Rovigno passed definitively into the hands
of the Venetians in 1330, and it remained true to the republic
till the treaty of Campo Formio (1797).
ROVIGO, a town of Venetia, Italy, capital of the province of
Rovigo. It stands on the low ground between the lower Adige
and the lower Po, 50 m. by rail S.W. of Venice and 27 m. S.S.W.
of Padua, and on the Adigetto Canal, 17 ft. above sea-level.
Pop. (1901) 6038 (town); 10,735 (commune). It is a station
ROVUMA ROWE
on the line between Bologna and Padua, with branches to
Legnago and Chioggia. The architecture of the town bears
the stamp both of Venetian and of Ferrarese influence. The
cathedral church of Santo Stefano (1696) is of less interest than
La Madonna del Soccorso, an octagon with a fine campanile,
begun in 1594 by Francesco Zamberlano of Bassano, a pupil of
Palladio. The town hall contains a library including some
rare early editions, belonging to the Accademia de' Concord i,
founded in 1580, and a fair picture gallery enriched with the
spoils of the monasteries. The Palazzo Roncali is a fine Re-
naissance building by Sanmicheli (1555). Two towers of its
medieval castle remain. Wool, silk, linen and leather are
among the local manufactures.
Rovigo (Neo-Latin Rhodigium) appears to be mentioned as
Rodigo in 838. It was selected as his residence by the bishop
of Adria on the destruction of his city by the Huns. From
the nth to the i4th century the Este family was usually in
authority; but the Venetians took the place by siege in 1482
and retained possession of it by the peace of 1484, and though
the Este more than once recovered it, the Venetians, returning
in 1514, retained possession till the French Revolution. In
1806 the city was made a duchy in favour of General Savary.
The Austrians in 1815 created it a royal city. (T. As.)
ROVUMA, a river in East Africa, forming during the greater
part of its course the boundary between German and Portuguese
territory. The lower Rovuma is formed by the junction in
11 25' S., 38 31' E. of two branches of nearly equal importance,
the longer of which, the Lujenda, comes from the south-west,
the other, which still bears the name Rovuma, from the
west. Its source lies on an undulating plateau, 3000 ft.
high, immediately to the east of Lake Nyasa, in 10 45' S.,
35 40' E., the head-stream flowing first due west before turning
south and east. In its eastward course the Rovuma flows
near the base of the escarpment of an arid sandstone plateau
to the north, from which direction the streams, which have cut
themselves deep channels in the plateau edge, have almost
all short courses. On the opposite bank the Rovuma receives,
besides the Lujenda, the Msinje and Luchulingo, flowing in
broad valleys running from south to north. The Lujenda
rises in close proximity to Lake Chilwa, in the small Lake
Chiuta (1700 ft.), the swamps to the south of this being separated
from Chilwa only by a narrow wooded ridge. The stream which
issues from Chiuta passes by a swampy valley into the narrow
Lake Amaramba, from which the Lujenda finally issues as a
stream 80 yds. wide. Lower down it varies greatly in width,
containing in many parts long wooded islands which rise above
the flood level, and are often inhabited. The river is fordable
in many places in the dry season. At its mouth it is about a
mile wide. The lower Rovuma, which is often half a mile
wide but generally shallow, flows through a swampy valley
flanked by plateau escarpments containing several small back-
waters of the river. The mouth, which lies hi 10 28' S.,
40 30' E., is entirely in German territory, the boundary near
the coast being formed by the parallel of 10 40'. The length
of the Rovuma is about 500 m.
ROW, JOHN (c. 1525-1580), Scottish reformer, was born
near Stirling and educated in that town and at St Andrews,
where he began to practise as an advocate in the consistorial
court. In 1550 he was sent to Rome in the interests of John
Hamilton, archbishop of St Andrews, and attracted the notice
of the highest authorities, who, when his failing health drove
him back to Scotland in 1558, nominated him papal nuncio to
inquire into the spread of heresy in that country. That in-
quiry ultimately led him to change his faith. Much influenced
by Knox's preaching, he joined the reformers and in April
1560 was admitted minister of Kennoway in Fife, and in July
of the same year minister of the Old or Middle Church at Perth.
He was one of the commission of six who drew up the " Con-
fession of Faith " and the " First Book of Discipline," and
during the struggle with Queen Mary was often employed on
important engagements. He was moderator of the Church
Assembly at Edinburgh in July 1567 and at Perth in the follow-
ing December, and again in Edinburgh 1576 and Stirling 1578.
Meanwhile he helped to compile the " Second Book of Discipline,"
and became more than ever opposed to the Episcopal system of
church government. He was a considerable scholar and is said
to have been the first to teach Hebrew hi Scotland. He died
at Perth on the i6th of October 1580.
His son JOHN Row (1568-1646), minister of Camock, wrote
a Historic of the Kirk of Scotland 1558 to 1637, which was con-
tinued to 1639 by his son, the third John Row (c. 1 598-6. 1672),
rector of the Perth grammar school and then (appointed by
Cromwell) principal of King's College, Aberdeen, who, with his
father and grandfather was a famour Hebraist, but left the
Church of Scotland to become an Independent minister. This
Historic was published by the Wodrow Society and by the
Maitland Club hi 1842.
ROWE, NICHOLAS (1674-1718), English dramatist and mis-
cellaneous writer, son of John Rowe (d. 1692), barrister and
serjeant-at-law, was baptized at Little Barford in Bedford-
shire on the 30th of June 1674. Nicholas Rowe was educated
at Westminster School under Dr Busby. He became in 1688
a King's Scholar, and entered the Middle Temple in 1691. On
his father's death he became the master of an independent
fortune. His first play, The Ambitious Stepmother, the scene
of which is laid in Persepolis, was produced in 1700, and was
followed in 1702 by Tamerlane. In this play the conqueror
represented William III., and Louis XIV. is denounced as
Bajazet. It was for many years regularly acted on the anni-
versary of William's landing at Torbay. The Fair Penitent
(1703), an adaptation of Massinger and Field's Fatal Dowry,
was pronounced by Dr Johnson to be one of the most pleasing
tragedies in the language. In it occurs the famous character
of Lothario, whose name passed into current use as the equiva-
lent of a rake. Calista is said to have suggested to Samuel
Richardson the character of Clarissa Harlowe, as Lothario
suggested Lovelace. In 1704 Rowe tried his hand at comedy,
producing The Biter at Lincoln's Inn Fields. The play is said
to have amused no one except the author, and Rowe returned
to tragedy in Ulysses (1706). The Royal Convert (1707) dealt
with the persecutions endured by Aribert, son of Hengist and
the Christian maiden Ethelinda. The Tragedy of Jane Shore,
which was played at Drury Lane with Mrs Oldfield in the title-
r61e in 1714, ran for nineteen nights, and kept the stage longer
than any of his other works. The Tragedy of Lady Jane Grey
followed in 1715. Rowe's friendship with Pope, who speaks
affectionately of his vivacity and gaiety of disposition, led to
attacks inspired by the publisher Edmund Curll, the best
known of these being The New Rehearsal, or Bays the Younger,
containing an Examen of Seven of Rowe's Plays, by Charles
Gildon. Rowe acted as under-secretary (1709-11) to the duke
of Queensberry when he was principal secretary of state for
Scotland. On the accession of George I. he was made a sur-
veyor of customs, and hi 1715 he succeeded Nahum Tate as
poet laureate. He was also appointed clerk of the council to
the prince of Wales, and hi 1718 was nominated by Lord
Chancellor Parker as clerk of the presentations hi Chancery.
He died on the 6th of December 1718, and was buried hi West-
minster Abbey. He was twice married, and his widow re-
ceived a pension from George I. hi 1719 hi recognition of her
husband's translation of Lucan. This verse translation, or
rather paraphrase of the Pharsalia, was called by Samuel
Johnson " one of the greatest productions in English poetry,"
and was widely read, running through eight editions between
1718 and 1807.
Rowe was the first modern editor of Shakespeare. It is
unfortunate that he based his text (6 vols., 1709) on the corrupt
Fourth Folio, a course^ in which he was followed by later editors.
We owe to him the preservation of a number of Shakespearian
traditions, collected for him at Stratford by Thomas Betterton.
These materials he used with considerable judgment hi the
memoir prefixed to the Works. Moreover, his practical know-
ledge of the stage suggested technical improvements. He
divided the play into acts and scenes on a reasonable method,
ROWEL ROWING
783
noted the entrances and exits of the players, and prefixed a
list of the dramatis personae to each play. Rowe wrote occa-
sional verses addressed to Godolphin and Halifax, adapted
some of the odes of Horace to fit contemporary events, and
translated the Caracteres of La Bruyere and the Callipaedia
of C. Quillet. He also wrote a memoir of Boileau prefixed to
a translation of the Lutrin.
Rowe's Works were printed in 1727, and in 1736, 1747, 1756, 1766
and 1792 ; his occasional poems are included in Anderson's and other
collections of the British poets.
ROWEL (from 0. Fr. rouel or rod, dim. of roue, Lat. rota,
wheel), the name of the small revolving wheel or disk with
radiating points forming the termination of a rider's spur.
The earliest rowels probably did not revolve but were fixed.
They appear on monuments of the i3th century, as in the
great seal of Henry III. of England, but the older " prick "
spurs remained the standard form till the I4th century (see
SPUR). In veterinary science, the word is used of a small
disk of leather or other material used as a seton.
ROWING (O. Eng. rowan, to row, cf. Lat. remus, Gr. epti>i6s,
oar), the act of driving forward or propelling a boat (?..) along
the surface of the wafer by means of oars.
History. The earliest historical records describe battles
and voyages in which the ships were propelled by oars. There
must, of course, have been from time to time friendly trials
of speed between these ancient craft, such as that described by
Virgil in the fifth book of the Aeneid, but there is no record
in classical or even in medieval times of rowing having been
indulged in solely as a recreation, or as a means of promoting
athletic contest. The absence of any element of competition
is sufficient to account for the fact that the boats, the oars,
and the method of rowing of the i7th century differed but
little from those of the earliest times.
The history of Great Britain abounds in instances of the
use of the oar. The ancient Britons propelled themselves in
coracles of wickerwork covered with skins, by means of paddles
rather than oars, but the Saxons were expert oarsmen, as also
were the Danish and Norwegian invaders. It is recorded by
William of Malmesbury that Edgar the Peaceable was rowed
in state on the river Dee by eight tributary kings, himself
acting as coxswain.
During the nth and I2th centuries, when roads were often
impassable, considerable use was made of the various rivers
of England for the transmission of both passengers and mer-
chandise; and, until the introduction of coaches, the nobility
and gentry who had mansions and watergates on the banks
of the Thames relied almost entirely upon their boats and
elaborately fitted barges as a means of conveyance from place
to place.
This use of boats and barges as a means of conveyance for
merchandise and passengers provided a means of livelihood
for a class of professional oarsmen known as bargemen or water-
men. They were professionals, not in the sense of professional
athletes, but because they made their living by rowing and
navigating passenger and other craft along and across the
Thames. Watermen as a class are mentioned in history as
early as the i3th century. The distress occasioned to them
by the long frosts is referred to in the chronicles of that period.
They are mentioned as having been employed to row the
barons and their retinues to Runnymede for the signing
of the Magna Carta by King John, and about the same time
several of the city companies established barges for the pur-
poses of processions and other pageants upon the Thames. It
is stated by Fabian that in 1454 " Sir John Norman, then
lord mayor of London, built a noble barge at his own expense
and was rowed by watermen with silver oars, attended by
such of the city companies as possessed barges, in a splendid
manner." The lord mayor's procession by water to West-
minster was annual until 1856, the state barge of the lord
mayor being a magnificent species of shallop rowed by water-
men, while those of the city companies were propelled by a
double bank of oars in the fore half, the after part consisting
of a cabin which somewhat resembled that of a gondola. In
1514 and in 1555 acts of parliament were passed for the regula-
tion of watermen and their boats and fares upon the Thames
(7 Henry VIII. cap. vii. and 2 and 3 Ph. & Mar. cap. xvi.), and
from the terms of these statutes there can be no doubt that
there were in the isth century a considerable body of men
who lived by the " trade of Rowing " as it is there called.
During the i6th and I7th centuries there were no doubt com-
petitions from time to time between these watermen, but the
first actual mention of boat-racing is the record of the estab-
lishment in 1715 of Doggett's Coat and Badge. Mr Thomas
Doggett, who may fairly be described as the founder of modern
boat-racing, was a celebrated comedian. He established a
fund to provide an annual prize of a waterman's coat with
a large silver badge on the arm. The race was founded in
honour of the house of Hanover and to commemorate the
anniversary of " King George I.'s happy accession to the throne
of Great Britain." The contest was to take place at the be-
ginning of August and on the Thames between six young
watermen who were not to have exceeded the time of their
apprenticeship by more than twelve months. Although the
first race took place in 1715 the names of the winners have
only been preserved since 1791. Doggett's Coat and Badge
is still an annual event, the conditions as to boats to be used
and other details having been slightly modified. It is entirely
controlled and managed by the Fishmongers' Company.
The first English regatta (Ital. regata) an entertainment
introduced, as the Annual Register records, from Venice
of which we have evidence, took place on the Thames off Rane-
lagh Gardens in 1775. Great public interest seems to have
been taken in the spectacular aspect of this pageant, the barges
of the lord mayor and the city companies being present, but
there is no record of the competing wager boats or of the names
of the watermen who took part in the races.
About the years 1800 to 1810 there are instances of matches
between watermen for stakes presented by gentlemen who
no doubt made wagers upon the result, and from these pro-
fessional wager matches it was but a short step to sporting
matches between the gentlemen themselves. When once the
" gentleman amateur," as he was called, appeared, his evolu-
tion, from the sportsman who occasionally rowed a match
against a friend, or against time, for a wager, to the amateur
oarsman of the present day, was not slow. The amateur
rowing which began about the year 1800 on the Thames at
Westminster has flourished as a branch of athletic sport, and
has spread to every quarter of the globe.
Rowing in the United Kingdom. The earliest rowing clubs
in England were small groups of oarsmen who combined to
purchase a six-oared or eight-oared boat for the purpose of
racing. The club was called by the same name as the ship it
possessed, and at the commencement of the igth century the
principal clubs in existence upon the Thames were the " Star,"
the " Arrow," the " Shark " and the " Siren." The two latter
have long since disappeared, but the " Star " and the " Arrow "
combined about the year 1818 and founded the Leander Club,
an institution which after varying fortunes has for many years
been recognized as the premier rowing club of the world.
The earliest contemporary record of boat-racing is the Water
Ledger of Westminster School, which commences in the year
1813 with a list of the crew of the six-oared boat " Fly." In 1811
Eton had a ten-oared boat and three boats with eight oars, but
there is no existing record of a race until 1817. In 1818 Eton
challenged Westminster School to row from Westminster to
Kew Bridge against the tide; but the race was stopped by the
authorities, and it was not until 1829 that the first contest
between the two schools took place. Between 1829 and 1847
there were eight matches between Eton and Westminster. The
race was revived for a few years in the sixties, and in the year
1868 the state of the lower tideway was such that the West-
minster boys moved their boathouse first to Wandsworth and
then to Putney. This arrangement was found to be incon-
venient, and shortly afterwards Westminster rowing came to an
784.
ROWING
end. Eton rowing, on the other hand, has continued to prosper,
and for many years it has been the greatest " nursery " of first-
class oarsmen. Since 1861 the Eton College Boat Club has
never failed to enter a crew at Henley Regatta.
At Oxford the records of periodical races between college
boats begin as early as 1815, and those of Cambridge a few
years later. The first contest between eight-oared crews
representing the two universities took place at Henley-on-
Thames in June 1829. The second contest was not until 1836,
and was rowed from Westminster to Putney. In 1837 and
1838 the universities were unable to make a match, and in
each of those years a race was rowed between Cambridge and
the Leander Club, which had thus early become the premier
club of the tideway. It was not always easy in the early days
of boat-racing for the university boat clubs to agree as to the
conditions and time of the match, but on several] occasions
when the universities had been unable to meet on the tide-
way they fought their battle whilst competing for the Grand
Challenge Cup at Henley Regatta. Since 1856 the Oxford and
Cambridge boat race has been an annual event. It is rowed
about a week or ten days before Easter from Putney to Mortlake
over what is known as the championship course, a distance
of 4! m. The race is rowed with the flood-tide, and occu-
pies as a rule a time varying between 19 and 22 min. The
time occupied by a crew in covering this course depends a
great deal more upon the conditions of wind and tide than
upon the excellence, or the reverse, of the crew. The crew
of each university is selected by a president, usually one of the
senior members of the last crew, who is elected at the first
meeting in the summer term and holds office for a year. Thus
the university race comes at the end of his term of office, and
he has every opportunity during the summer and autumn of
studying the material which will be at his disposal for the forma-
tion of a crew in the ensuing spring. The aquatic arrangements
at the two universities are very much alike. The university
year begins in October. During the winter term the freshmen
are instructed in the elements of rowing, while the senior men
are engaged in practising for the University (inter-collegiate)
Fours, a race which takes place early in November. During
the latter portion of the term the president of the University
Boat Club is engaged in selecting and coaching the trial eights,
two picked crews comprising the bulk of the material available
for the formation of the university crew. The trial eight races
are rowed in the beginning of December, that of Cambridge
on the Ouse at Ely, and that of Oxford on the Thames at
Moulsford, neither the Cam nor the Isis being wide enough
for two crews to race abreast. During the whole of the Easter
term the university crews are engaged in practice and training
for the University Boat Race. The attention of the remainder
of the rowing men at the universities is devoted to training for
the bumping races known at Oxford and Cambridge respectively
as the Torpids and Lent Races. Each college is represented in
these races, and no oarsman who has rowed in the first boat of
his college during the previous summer is qualified to compete.
The boats start at fixed distances apart, and each boat endeavours
to bump the boat in front of it, and to avoid being bumped
by the boat behind. When a bump is effected, the two boats
involved draw to the side, and the next night the successful
boat starts in front of its victim. Each spring the boats start
in the order in which they finished the previous year. The
races last for six nights at Oxford and four at Cambridge. In
the summer term the important bumping races between the
best crews of each college take place. They are known as
" The Eights " at Oxford and " The May Races " at Cambridge.
To attain the position of " Head of the River " in these races
is the summit of a college boat club's ambition.
The great arena of rowing contests is Henley Royal Regatta.
It was founded in 1839 at a public meeting held in the town
hall at Henley-on-Thames, at which it was decided to raise a
subscription and purchase two challenge cups, the Grand
Challenge Cup to be rowed for annually in eight-oared boats
open to all amateur crews, and the Town Challenge Cup for
four-oared crews residing within 5 m. of Henley. The first
regatta was held on the I4th of June 1839, and was a most
successful affair, the Grand Challenge Cup being won by the
Trinity Boat Club, Cambridge. In 1840 another district race
was added, and in 1841 the Stewards Challenge Cup for four oars
was added to the programme, open to competition upon the
same conditions as the Grand Challenge Cup. There have now
for many years been eight events at the regatta, four of which
are open to all amateurs, viz. the Grand Challenge Cup for
eight oars, the Stewards Challenge Cup for fours, the Silver
Goblets for pair oars founded in 1845, and the Diamond Sculls
for single scullers founded in 1844. The races for which the
entry is restricted are the Ladies Challenge Plate for eight oars
(founded 1845) and the Visitors Challenge Cup for four oars
(founded 1847), which are open to crews from schools and
colleges in the United Kingdom; also the Thames Challenge
Cup for eight oars (founded 1868) and Wyfold Challenge Cup
for four oars (founded 1855). The rule as to entry for the
Thames Cup is that no one who has won the Grand Challenge
or Stewards Cup may compete, nor may any one enter for this
race and for the Grand or Stewards Cups in the same year.
The rule for the Wyfold Cup is the same, except that a com-
petitor may also enter for the Grand Challenge Cup.
The original regatta course was from the upper end of the
Temple Island to Henley Bridge, but a change was made in
1886 so as to avoid the corner at the finish. The races now
start at the lower end of the island and finish at the upper end
of the grounds of Phyllis Court. The course is i m. 550 yds.
in length and about no ft. in width. The races are rowed
against the stream, and the time usually occupied by the
winning crew of the Grand Challenge Cup is within a few
seconds of 7 min. In 1843 took place the famous " seven-
oar " victory of Oxford. At the eleventh hour one of the
Oxford crew was incapacitated by illness. Their opponents,
the Cambridge Subscription Rooms Club, refused to allow them
to introduce a substitute, and the Oxford men gained undying
fame by winning the Grand Challenge Cup with seven oars.
Ten years later (1853) there was a magnificent race between
Oxford and Cambridge in the Grand Challenge Cup, the former
winning by 18 in. only. In 1862 there was a dead heat in
the final heat of the Diamond Sculls between Mr E. D. Brick-
wood and Mr W. B. Woodgate. In 1878 occurred the memorable
contest between Mr T. C. Edwards-Moss and Mr G. W. Lee
(U.S.A.) in a heat for the Diamond Sculls which was won on the
post by the former. In 1891 the Leander Club, after a dead
heat with the Thames R.C., began a series of victories in the
Grand Challenge Cup, winning the cup on seven occasions in
the next ten years. In 1892 the Diamond Sculls left England
for the first time, having been won by Mr J. J. K. Ooms of
Holland. In 1895 a crew representing Cornell University,
U.S.A., entered for the Grand Challenge Cup and were drawn
in their heat against the Leander Club. Owing to a misunder-
standing between the starter and the Leander crew," the latter
failed to start, and the Cornell crew rowed on to the finish
without offering to return to the start, a proceeding which
caused no little comment at the time. On the following day
they were defeated by Trinity Hall, Cambridge, the ultimate
winners. In 1897 the Grand Challenge Cup was won by 2 ft.
by New College, Oxford, in the record time of 6 min. 51 sees.,
after a desperate race with Leander. The feature of the next
ten years was the persistency with which colonial and foreign
crews endeavoured to carry off the principal prizes of the re-
gatta, and the invasion culminated in 1906 by the capture of
the Grand Challenge Cup by a crew from the Club Nautique
de Gand, Belgium. On this occasion the Leander Club was
not represented, but in 1907 the Belgians repeated their victory
after defeating a strong Leander crew in one of the heats. In
1903 Mr Herbert Steward, the chairman of the regatta com-
mittee, published a detailed record of the regatta from its
commencement, which gives a complete history of the meeting
and an account of every race.
Henley regatta is rowed " in accordance with " the rules of
ROWING
785
the Amateur Rowing Association, a body which has control of
all other amateur rowing in England. The Henley Stewards and
the Amateur Rowing Association (or A.R.A.) are in complete
harmony. Their rules are identically the same, but the
Stewards being the older body are not subject to the A.R.A. ,
and in the improbable event of a difference occurring they
would be entitled to act independently. The A.R.A. was
formed in 1882 for the purpose of drawing up a definition of an
" amateur," and for the purpose of having a body who could
if necessary select a national representative crew to meet any
foreign or colonial invaders. It has long since dropped the
latter portion of its original programme, and the A.R.A. as at
present constituted is an association to which all the principal
amateur boat clubs are affiliated. Its objects are to maintain
the standard of amateur oarsmanship and to promote the
interests of boat racing. It is governed by a committee which
occupies in the British rowing world a position not unlike that
of the stewards of the Jockey Club in racing matters. The
constitution and objects of the A.R.A. are clearly defined in
the rules, and their definition of an amateur is so much stricter
than that of some other countries that it is advisable to set it
out in extenso. It is as follows:
No person shall be considered an amateur oarsman, sculler or
coxswain
(1) Who has ever rowed or steered in any race for a stake, money
or entrance fee ;
(2) Who has ever knowingly rowed or steered with or against a
professional for any prize ;
(3) Who has ever taught, pursued or assisted in the practice of
athletic exercises of any kind for profit ;
(4) Who has ever been employed in or about boats or in manual
labour for money or wages;
(5) Who is or has been by trade or employment for wages a
mechanic, artisan or labourer, or engaged in any menial duty ;
(6) Who is disqualified as an amateur in any other branch of
sport.
The rules of the A.R.A. also comprise the " Laws of Boat
Racing," which govern the race from start to finish; and the
" Rules for Regattas," which deal with a large number of
matters such as the definition of the different classes of oarsmen,
seniors, juniors and maidens, the making of entries, the powers
of regatta committees, &c.
A large number of regattas are held under these rules in all
parts of the country during the summer months. There are
also several matches and other competitions rowed under
special rules, the most important of these being the Wingfield
Sculls (founded 1830), or amateur championship of the Thames,
rowed in the month of July over the championship course from
Putney to Mortlake (45 m.).
If the number of entries at Henley Regatta, the extension
of the sphere of influence of the A.R.A. and the public interest
in the Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race, may be taken as
tests, rowing has more than held its own among the various
competing forms of recreation in the world of British amateur
athletic sport.
Rowing in the United Stales. The earliest record of a boat
race in the United States is that of a contest in light barges in
the year 1811 between the " Knicker-bocker " of New York
and the " Invincible " of Long Island, in which the former was
successful. The evolution from racing in heavy pleasure boats
to racing in specially constructed craft proceeded with great
rapidity, and by the year 1834 a large number of small clubs
in New York had combined, under the title of the Castle Garden
Boat Club Association. In 1837 the first regatta took place at
Poughkeepsie, the race being between " six-oars " for a prize
of $200. In those days there was no real distinction in America
between amateur and professional, and in spite of rules and
definitions the distinction between one who is qualified as an
amateur and one who is not has remained in America much less
certain and precise than in the United Kingdom.
Yale and Harvard Universities became centres of aquatic
energy very early in the history of American rowing. The
first racing boat at Yale, a six-oar, was bought in 1844, and in
the following spring Harvard purchased an eight, and in 1852
a race was rowed between a Harvard crew and three Yale crews at
Lake Winnepesaukee, which resulted in a victory for the former.
In 1859 Harvard again defeated Yale in a six-oared race, but
on the following day at Worcester City Regatta the same crews
entered for a prize and Yale defeated Harvard. In 1864 at a
college regatta Yale defeated Harvard, but in 1866 Harvard
with a very fine crew showed their superiority over all the other
colleges. In 1869 Harvard sent a challenge to Oxford and
Cambridge to row a four-oared match on the Thames from
Putney to Mortlake. It was accepted by the former and the
race was rowed on the 2;th of August. The race aroused great
public interest, and the banks of the river were crowded from
end to end of the course. The crews were: Oxford, F. Willan
(bow), A. C. Yarborough, J. C. Tinne and S. Darbishire (stroke);
Harvard, J. S. Fay (bow), E. G. Lyman, W. H. Simmons and
A. P. Loring (stroke). Harvard led at first, but Oxford eventu-
ally rowed them down and won by three lengths.
The trip of the Harvard four to England aroused the rowing
enthusiasm of other American universities such as Princeton,
Cornell, Columbia and Pennsylvania, and during the next ten
years considerable improvement was shown in American
rowing. In 1875 no fewer than thirteen university or college
crews competed in a race, in which Cornell finished first,
Columbia second and Harvard third, the ships used being
six-oars without coxswains. In 1876 the eight-oared match
over a four-mile course between Harvard and Yale was in-
stituted, and in 1878 a four from Columbia University went
to Henley and won the Visitors Challenge Cup. In 1879 and
1880 there were a very large number of intercollegiate matches
and regattas, in several of which Columbia maintained the
reputation which they had gained at Henley. In 1881 a
Cornell four started at Henley for the Stewards Cup, but were
easily beaten. During the next few years there was consider-
able difference of opinion between universities as to the correct
style of stroke, and in 1882 a Yale crew, coached by Mr Davis,
did some fine performances, rowing a very fast short stroke
in a very long boat. They were, however, eventually beaten
by Harvard after an exciting race, in which it is only fair to
them to record that the erratic steering of their coxswain
contributed in no small degree to their defeat. The next
year, 1883, Yale tried an even faster and shorter stroke, but
were easily beaten by Harvard, who rowed with great length
and steadiness. This year saw the end of the very fast short
stroke, and although the " strokes " of the various crews since
that day have differed in minor degrees, they settled down
to a longer steadier method of rowing which is spoken of in
England as the " American style." It differs from that
adopted by English oarsmen in that there is an absence of
swing and body work, and in that the oarsmen appear to rely
almost entirely upon their long slides and hard leg work. In
the early " nineties " Cornell was almost always successful at
home, and in 1895 they entered for the Grand .Challenge Cup
at Henley. Owing to a misunderstanding at the start the
Leander crew were left at the post in the first heat, but on
the next day Cornell suffered defeat at the hands of Trinity
Hall. In 1896 Yale entered at Henley under the tuition of
Cook, but were somewhat easily beaten by Leander. The
result of these two expeditions to Henley was an attempt to
introduce the English style of rowing in America. The experi-
ment was not altogether successful. Mr R. C. Lehmann, who
had met with considerable success in England as a coach both
at Oxford and Cambridge, went to Harvard for two seasons.
The attempt to instruct the American oarsmen in the English
methods of swing and body work, instead of the American
stroke, resulted in their falling short of perfection in either
style, and they were beaten by Yale upon each occasion. Mr
Lehmann's visit, if it failed to give pace to the crews he coached,
resulted, however, in improving the whole spirit of American
college rowing. Mutual confidence and friendly rivalry took
the place of the atmosphere of suspicion and almost of enmity
which had at times existed between Harvard and Yale. In
1893 an Inter-collegiate Rowing Association was formed by
y86
ROWLAND
Cornell, Columbia and Pennsylvania to organise contests at
Poughkeepsie open to all colleges. In 1899 and 1900 Pennsyl-
vania won, in 1902, 1904 and 1908 Syracuse, and in most other
years Cornell. The two annual inter-collegiate regattas are the
Harvard- Yale at New London, and that at Poughkeepsie, open
to all but not participated in by Harvard and Yale. By way
of exception, Harvard rowed at Poughkeepsie in 1896, and in
1897 and 1898 Cornell rowed in two regattas. In 1901 Pennsyl-
vania was just beaten by Leander Club in the race for the
Grand Challenge Cup at Henley.
The history of amateur rowing in the United States, other
than that of the colleges and universities, is a narrative of
continual struggles on the part of the authorities to distinguish
between the amateur and the non-amateur. The National
Association of Amateur Oarsmen was established in 1872.
Many regattas have been held since that date under their
rules, but the standard of amateurism which satisfied the
N.A.A.O. has never been strict enough to comply with the
requirements of the English A.R.A. or the Henley Stewards.
In 1883 a Hillsdale four from U.S.A. tendered an entry at
Henley, but it was refused by the Stewards, on the ground
that the men were not amateurs according to the English
definition. In subsequent years several American scullers
entered for the Diamond Sculls, and in 1897 they were won by
E. H. Ten-Eyck of Wachusett Boat Club, Worcester, U.S.A.
In 1898 Ten-Eyck's entry was refused by the Henley Stewards.
No little resentment has been caused in America by the re-
luctance of the English authorities to accept American entries,
but their justification lies in the essential difference, not only
in letter but in spirit, between the laws and customs of the
two countries with regard to the amateur status and amateur
sport. In 1904 a crew of the Vesper B.C. of Philadelphia were
duly vouched by the N.A.A.O. and their entry accepted by
the Henley Stewards. They competed and were beaten, and
it afterwards became known that not only had several of the
men made money out of the trip, but that two or three of the
oarsmen were not qualified to row at Henley. It also appeared
that certain members of the N.A.A.O. had, to say the least
of it, been extremely careless in giving assurances as to the
status of the Vesper crew, and all relations between the N.A.A.O.
and the Henley Stewards were abruptly terminated, the Stewards
determining that they would not accept foreign entries except
from a country where there was a governing body which had
control of amateur rowing and which had an agreement with
the Stewards by which they definitely pledged themselves not
to send competitors to Henley unless they came within the
English definition. In 1906 Harvard challenged Cambridge.
The race, which attracted an immense concourse of spectators,
was rowed from Putney to Mortlake in September. Cambridge
led from the start and won by three lengths.
Rowing in other Countries. During the latter years of the
igth century and during the early years of the present century,
rowing increased very greatly in popularity as a branch of
athletic sport in every quarter of the globe. It would be
impossible here to describe the history or organization of boat
clubs and regattas in Australia, in Canada, and in the various
countries of Europe. Canadian rowing has always been of a
high class. In 1904 L. Scholes, a Canadian sculler, won the
Diamond Sculls at Henley, and on several occasions Canadian
eights and fours have competed for the Grand Challenge and
Stewards Challenge Cups at Henley. In Australia they have
a regatta which is called the " Australian Henley," and an
inter-university contest for a cup presented by Oxford and
Cambridge oarsmen. In Europe international championships
have been instituted in the hope of bringing together oarsmen
and scullers from all countries. The Belgian oarsmen have by
their Henley successes achieved the greatest distinction among
continental oarsmen. In Holland the principal rowing clubs
have their headquarters at Amsterdam, and several Dutch
crews have been seen at Henley. In France there are in-
numerable rowing clubs which are now governed by the Federa-
tion francaise, a body which has a strict code of rules, but
which has not adopted quite so strict an amateur definition
as that of the English A.R.A. In Germany, also, rowing is
very extensively practised under the auspices of the Deutsche
Ruderverband ; the chief contests between English and German
crews of recent years were at the Cork Regatta of 1902 when
Leander Club defeated the Berlin Club in the eight-oared race,
and at the Henley Regatta of 1907, when a four of the Lud-
wigshafener Club were defeated in a heat of the Stewards Cup
by a Leander crew.
Methods and Style. The English style is the only one in which
the oarsman swings his body to the full extent fore and aft, at the
same time making use of his sliding seat. Most of the foreign
crews who have competed in England have sacrificed a portion
of their swing in order to enable them, as they believe, to
make better use of their leg work. There can be no doubt
that the English style is in a sense more exhausting to the
oarsman, that is to say it enables him to bring more muscle
into play and to make full use of his weight and strength,
but in spite of recent defeats it is still believed by English
oarsmen to be the most effective. The crews of 1906 and 1907
which were defeated by the Belgians were the best that England
could at the time produce, but they undoubtedly rowed in a
style which fell a long way short ot ideal English rowing.
The secret of good rowing is the simultaneous application of
leg and body work from end to end of the stroke. The instant
the blades are covered the whole weight must be lifted from
the stretcher and applied to the oar-handle, and must remain
so applied until the hands come in to the chest. In order to
ensure that the pressure so applied to the blade shall be as
long and as -hard as possible, the body must be swung for-
ward to its full extent, and during the stroke the shoulders
must always be swinging back faster than the seat, while at
the same time the legs are driving hard at the stretcher. The
slide and swing should be finished simultaneously. There
are many subsidiary rules of style as to the movements of the
hands and arms, but they are all of secondary importance and
are devised so as to enable the average man to execute the
working portion of the stroke effectively and often, without
undue exertion to himself. The movements of a crew must
be as nearly as possible simultaneous in every particular. There
have been many instances of crews which although inferior in
style and strength to their opponents have been victorious
owing to being " better together."
See the volumes on Rowing in the Badminton and Isthmian
Libraries; W. E. Sherwood, Oxford Rowing; W. B. Woodgate,
Oars and Sculls; E. D. Brickwood, Boat Racing; H. T. Steward,
Henley Royal Regatta. (C. M. P.)
ROWLAND, HENRY AUGUSTUS (1848-1901), American
physicist, was born at Honesdale, Pennsylvania, on the 27th
of November 1848. From an early age he exhibited marked
scientific tastes and spent all his spare time in electrical and
chemical experiments. At the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute at
Troy, N.Y. he graduated in 1870, and he then obtained an engage-
ment on the Western New York railway. But the work there
was not to his liking, and after a short time he gave it up for an
instructorship in natural science at the university of Wooster,
Ohio, which in turn he resigned in order to return to Troy as
assistant professor of physics. Finally, in 1876, he became
the first occupant of the chair of physics at the Johns Hopkins
University, Baltimore, a position which he retained until his
premature death on the i6th of April 1901. Rowland was
one of the most brilliant men of science that America has pro-
duced, and it is curious that at first his merits were not
perceived in his own country, In America he was unable even
to secure the publication of certain of his scientific papers; but
Clerk Maxwell at once saw their excellence, and had them
printed in the Philosophical Magazine. When the managers
of the Johns Hopkins University asked advice in Europe as to
whom they should make their professor of physics, he was
pointed out in all quarters as the best man for the post. In
the interval between his election and the assumption of his
duties at Baltimore, he studied physics under Helmholtz at
ROWLANDS, R. ROWLANDSON
787
Berlin, and carried out a well-known research on the effect of
an electrically charged body in motion, showing it to give rise
to a magnetic field. As soon as he was settled at Baltimore,
two important pieces of work engaged his attention. One
was a redetermination of the ohm. For this he obtained a
value which was substantially different from that ascertained
by the committee of the British Association appointed for the
purpose, but ultimately he had the satisfaction of seeing his
own result accepted as the more correct of the two. The other
was a new determination of the mechanical equivalent of
heat. In this he used Joule's paddle-wheel method, though
with many improvements, the whole apparatus being on a
larger scale and the experiments being conducted over a wider
range of temperature. He obtained a result distinctly higher
than Joule's final figure; and in addition he made many valu-
able observations on thermometrical questions and on the
variation of the specific heat of water, which J. P. Joule had
assumed to be the same at all temperatures. In 1882, before
the Physical Society of London, he gave a description of the
diffraction gratings with which his name is specially associated,
and which have been of enormous advantage to astronomical
spectroscopy. These gratings consist of pieces of metal or
glass ruled by means of a diamond point with a very large
number of parallel lines, on the extreme accuracy of which
their efficiency depends. For their production, therefore,
dividing engines of extraordinary trueness and delicacy must
be employed, and in the construction of such machines Row-
land's engineering skill brought him conspicuous success. The
results of his labours may be found in the elaborate Photo-
graphic Map of the Normal Solar Spectrum (1888) and the Table
of Solar Wave-Lengths (1898). In the later years of his life he
was engaged in developing a system of multiplex telegraphy.
ROWLANDS, RICHARD (fl. 1560-1620), Anglo-Dutch
antiquary, whose real name was Verstegen, was the son of a
cooper whose father, Theodore Roland Verstegen, a Dutch
emigrant, came to England about 1500. Under the name
of Rowlands, Richard went to Christ Church, Oxford, in 1565,
where he studied early English history and the Anglo-Saxon
language. Leaving the university without a degree, he pub-
lished in 1576 a work of antiquarian research, translated from
the German, entitled The Post of the World, describing the great
cities of Europe; and soon afterwards he moved to Antwerp,
where he resumed the name of Verstegen, and set up in business
as a printer and engraver. In 1587 he went to Paris, and in
1595 to Spain, where he studied in the college at Seville, after-
wards returning to Antwerp, where he lived so far as is known
until his death, the date of which, though certainly later than
1620, is unknown. Rowlands was a zealous Roman Catholic,
and in 1587 he published at Antwerp Thealrum Crudelitatum
haereticorum, in which he criticized the treatment of the Roman
Catholics in England under Elizabeth so freely that when a
French translation of the book appeared in the following year
he was thrown into prison at the instance of the English am-
bassador in Paris. Many of his writings were published in the
name of Verstegen. His works included A Dialogue on Dying
Well (1603), a translation from the Italian; Restitution of
Decayed Intelligence in Antiquities concerning the English
Nation, dedicated to James I. (1605); Neder Dvytsche
Epigrammen (1617); Sundry Successive Regal Governments
in England (1620); Spiegel der Nederlandsche Elenden (1621).
The verses on the defeat of the Irish rebels under Tyrone,
entitled England's Joy, by R. R. (1601), is doubtfully attri-
buted to him. Richard Verstegan, author of Nederlanlische
Antiquileylen (Brussels, 1646), is probably another person,
possibly Rowlands's son.
See Anthony a Wood, Athenae Oxonienses, edited by P. Bliss
(4 vols., London, 1813-20); J. W. Burgon, Life and Times of Sir
T. Gresham (2 vols., London, 1839); W. C. Hazlitt, Collections and
Notes (London, 1882 and 1887).
ROWLANDS, SAMUEL (c. 1573-1630), English author of pam-
phlets in prose and verse, which reflect the follies and humours
of the lower middle-class life of his time, seems to have had no
contemporary literary reputation; but his work throws consider-
able light on the social London of his day. Among his works,
which include some poems on sacred subjects, are: The
Betraying of Christ (1598); The Letting of Humours Blood in
the Head-vaine (epigrams and satires) and A Mery Meetinge,
or 'tis Mery when Knaves mete (1600) the two latter being
publicly burnt by order, but republished later under other
names (Humors Ordinarie and The Knave of Clubbes)',
Greenes Ghost haunting Conie-Catchers (1602), which he pre-
tended to have edited from Greene's papers, but which is
largely borrowed from his printed works; Tis Merrie when
Gossips meete (1602), a dialogue between a Widow, a Wife, a
Maid and a Vintner; Looke to it; for He stabbe ye (1604), in
which Death describes the tyrants, careless divines and other
evil-doers whom he will destroy; Hells broke loose (1605), an
account of John of Leyden, and in the same year a Theatre of
Divine Recreation (not extant), poems founded on the Old
Testament; A Terrible Ballell betwene . . . Time and Death
(1606); Democritus, or Doctor Merry-man his Medicines against
Melancholy humors, reprinted, with alterations, as Doctor
Merrie-man, and Diogenes Lanthorne (1607), in which " Athens "
is London; The Famous History of Guy, Earl of Warwick
(1607), a long romance in Rowlands's favourite six-lined stanza,
and one of his hastiest, least successful efforts; Humors
Looking Glasse (1608); and Martin Mark-all, Beadle of Bride-
well (1610), a history of roguery containing much information
about notable highwaymen and the completest vocabulary
of thieves' slang up to that time. Of his later works may be
mentioned Sir Thomas Overbury; or the Poysoned Knights
Complaint, and The Melancholie Knight (1615), which suggests
a hearing of Beaumont and Fletcher's Knight of the Burning
Pestle. The last of his humorous studies, Good Newes and Bad
Newes, appeared in 1622, and in 1628 he published a pious
volume of prose and verse, entitled Heavens Glory, Seeke it:
Earts vanitie, Flye it: Hells Horror, Fere it. After this nothing
is known of him. Mr Gosse, in his introduction to Rowlands's
complete works, edited (1872-80) for the Hunterian Club in
Glasgow by Mr S. J. H. Herrtage, sums him up as a " kind of
small non-political Defoe, a pamphleteer in verse whose talents
were never put into exercise except when their possessor was
pressed for means, and a poet of considerable talent without
one spark or glimmer of genius."
Mr Gosse's notice is reprinted in his Seventeenth Century Studies
(1883). A recently discovered poem by Rowlands, The Bride (1617),
was reprinted at Boston, U.S.A., in 1905 by Mr A. C. Potter.
ROWLANDSON, THOMAS (1756-1827), English caricaturist,
was born in Old Jewry, London, in July 1756, the son of a
tradesman or city merchant. On leaving school he became
a student in the Royal Academy. At the age of sixteen he
resided and studied for a time in Paris, and he afterwards made
frequent tours on the Continent, enriching his portfolios with
numerous jottings of life and character. In 1775 he exhibited
at the Royal Academy a drawing of " Delilah visiting Samson in
Prison," and in the following years he was represented by various
portraits and landscapes. Possessed of much facility of erfe-
cution and a ready command of the figure, he was spoken of
as a promising student ; and had he continued his early applica-
tion he would have made his mark as a painter. But by the
death of his aunt, a French lady, he fell heir to a sum of 7000,
plunged into the dissipations of the town and was known to
sit at the gaming-table for thirty-six hours at a stretch. In
time poverty overtook him; and the friendship and example
of Gillray and Bunbury seem to have suggested caricature as
a means of filling an empty purse. His drawing of Vauxhall,
shown in the Royal Academy exhibition of 1784, had been
engraved by Pollard, and the print was a success. Rowlandson
was largely employed by Rudolph Ackermann, the art publisher,
who in 1809-11 issued in his Poetical Magazine "The
Schoolmaster's Tour" a series of plates with illustrative
verses by Dr William Coombe. They were the most popular
of the artist's works. Again engraved by Rowlandson himself
in 1812, and issued under the title of the " Tour of Dr Syntax
y88
ROWLEY ROWTON, BARON
in Search of the Picturesque," they had attained a fifth edition
by 1813, and were followed in 1820 by " Dr Syntax in Search
of Consolation," and in 1821 by the " Third Tour of Dr Syntax
in Search of a Wife." The same Collaboration of designer,
author and publisher appeared in the English " Dance of Death,"
issued in 1814-16, one of the most admirable of Rowlandson's
series, and in the " Dance of Life," 1822. Rowlandson also illus-
trated Smollett, Goldsmith and Sterne, and his designs will be
found in The Spirit of the Public Journals (1825), The English
Spy (1825), and The Humourist (1831). He died in London,
after a prolonged illness, on the 22nd of April 1827.
Rowlandson's designs were usually executed in outline with the
reed-pen, and delicately washed with colour. They were then
etched by the artist on the copper, and afterwards aqua-tinted
usually by a professional engraver, the impressions being finally
coloured by hand. As a designer he was characterized by the
utmost facility and ease of draughtsmanship, and the quality of
his art suffered from this haste and over-production. He was a
true if not a very refined humorist, dealing less frequently than his
fierce contemporary Gillray with politics, but commonly touching,
in a rather gentle spirit, the various aspects and incidents of social
life. His most artistic work is to be found among the more careful
drawings of his earlier period; but even among the exaggerated
caricature of his later time we find hints that this master of the
humorous might have attained to the beautiful had he so willed.
See J. Grego, Rowlandson the Caricaturist, a Selection from his
Works, &c. (2 vols., 1880).
ROWLEY, WILLIAM (c. 1585-0. 1642), English actor and
dramatist, collaborator with several of the dramatists of the
Elizabethan period, especially with Thomas Middleton. He
is not to be identified with " Master Rowley, once a rare scholar
of learned Pembroke Hall in Cambridge," whom Francis Meres
described in his Palladis Tamia as one of the " best for comedy."
The only Rowley at Pembroke Hall at the period was Ralph
Rowley, afterwards rector of Chelmsford. William Rowley
is described as the chief comedian in the Prince of Wales's
company, and it was doubtless during the two years' union
(1614-16) of these players with the Lady Elizabeth's com-
pany that he was brought into contact with Middleton. Rowley
joined the King's Servants in 1623, and retired from the stage
about four years later. The fact of his marriage is recorded
in 1637, and he is supposed to have died about 1642. Four
plays attributed to his sole authorship are extant: A new
Wonder, A Woman never Vext (printed, 1632); A Match at
Midnight (1633); A Tragedie called Alls Lost by Lust (1633);
and a Shoomaker a Gentleman with the Life and Death of the
Cripple that stole the Weathercock at Paules (1638). They are
distinguished by effectiveness of situation and ingenuity of
plot, so that we may conjecture why he was in such request
as an associate in play-making, and he had further an experi-
mental knowledge of the coarse comedy likely to please the pit.
It is recorded by Langbaine that he " was beloved of those
great men Shakespeare, Fletcher and Jonson." The plays he
wrote with Middleton are dealt with under that heading. With
George Wilkins and John Day he wrote The Travailes of the
Three English Brothers (1607); with Thomas Heywood he
prpduced the romantic comedy of Fortune by Land and Sea
(printed, 1655); he was associated with Thomas Dekker and
John Ford in The Witch of Edmonton l (printed, 1658) ; A
Cure for a Cuckold (printed, 1661) and The Thracian Wonder
(printed, 1661) are assigned to the joint authorship of Webster
and Rowley; while Shakespeare's name was unjustifiably
coupled with his on the title-page of The Birth of Merlin: or,
The Childe hath found his Father (1662). Rowley also wrote
an elegy on Hugh Attwell, the actor, and a satirical pamphlet
describing contemporary London, entitled A Search for Money
(1609).
The dramatist SAMUEL ROWLEY, described without apparent
reason by J. P. Collier as William Rowley's brother, was employed
1 It is usual to minimize Rowley's share in this play. Mr Seccombe
(Diet. Nat. Biog., s.v. Rowley) says: " Dekker appears to have had
the chief share, but Rowley supplied some acceptable buffoonery."
J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps (Diet, of Old English Plays), however,
defined it as a tragi-comedy by William Rowley, adding that he
had help from the other two.
by Henslowe as a reader of plays. He wrote some scriptural plays
now lost, with William Borne (or Bird, or Boyle)* and Edward
Juby. His only extant pieces are: When you see me, You know me.
Or the famous Chronicle Historie of King Henry the eight, with the
birth and vertuous life of Edward Prince of Wales (1605), of interest
because of its possible connexion with the Shakespearian play
of Henry VIII., and The Noble Souldier. Or, A Contract Broken,
justly reveng'd (1634), which was entered, however, in the Stationers'
Register as the work of Thomas Dekker, to whom the major share
is probably assignable.
ROWLEY REGIS, an urban district in the Kingswinford par-
liamentary division of Staffordshire, England, on the Stourbridge
branch of the Great Western railway, 7 m. W. of Birmingham,
Pop. (1901) 34,670. It lies in a hilly district rich in coal and
iron, while a hard basaltic intrusion known as Rowley rag is
largely quarried. The town is a modern growth out of a village
surrounding the church of St Giles, which dates from the
i3th century, though rebuilt in 1840. Iron manufactures are
extensive; there are also brick and tile works and breweries.
ROWLOCK (pronounced rullock or rottock), a device on the
gunwale of a boat in or on which an oar rests, forming a fulcrum
for the oar hi rowing. The word is a corruption due to " row "
of the earlier " oar-lock," O.E. arloc, a lock or enclosed place
for an oar. The simplest form of rowlock is a notch, square
or rounded, on the gunwale, in which the oar rests; other
kinds are formed by two pins or pegs, " thole pins " (thole
being ultimately the same word as Norw. toll, a young fir-tree),
and by a swivel with two horns of metals, pivoted in the gun-
wale or on an outrigger (see OAR) .
ROWTON, MONTAGUE WILLIAM LOWRY-CORRY, BARON
(1838-1903), second son of the Right Hon. Henry Corry by
his wife Harriet, daughter of the 6th earl of Shaftesbury, was
born in London on the 8th of October 1838, educated at
Harrow and at Trinity College, Cambridge, and called to the
bar in 1863. His father, a son of the 2nd earl of Belmore, re-
presented County Tyrone in parliament continuously for forty-
seven years (1826-73), and was a member of Lord Derby's
cabinet (1866-68) as vice-president of the council and after-
wards as first lord of the Admiralty. Montague Corry was
thus brought up in close touch with Conservative party politics;
but it is said to have been his winning personality and social
accomplishments rather than his political connexions that
recommended him to the favourable notice of Disraeli, who
in 1866 made Corry his private secretary. From this time
till the statesman's death in 1881 Corry maintained his con-
nexion with Disraeli, the relations between the two men being
more intimate and confidential than usually subsist between
a private secretary and his political chief. When Disraeli
resigned office in 1868 Corry declined various offers of public
employment in order to be free to continue his services, now
given gratuitously, to the Conservative leader; and when the
latter returned to power in 1874, Corry resumed his position as
official private secretary to the prime minister. He accom-
panied Disraeli (then earl of Beaconsfield) to the congress of
Berlin in 1878, where he acted as one of the secretaries of the
special embassy of Great Britain. On the defeat of the Con-
servatives in 1880, Corry was raised to the peerage with the
title of Baron Rowton, of Rowton Castle, Shropshire. He
had rendered service of an exceptional order to his chief, and
after Beaconsfield 's removal to the House of Lords his private
secretary became invaluable in keeping him in touch with the
rank and file of his party. Lord Rowton was in Algiers when
Beaconsfield was stricken with his last illness in the spring
of 1881; but returning post-haste across Europe, he was present
at the death-bed of his old chief. Beaconsfield (q.v.) bequeathed
to Rowton all his correspondence and other papers.
Lord Rowton will long be remembered as the originator of
the scheme known as the Rowton Houses. Consulted by Sir
! William Borne or Bird engaged to play with the Admiral's Men
for three years from 1597. In 1600 he borrowed 303. from Henslowe
to pay for a new play, Jugurth, by W. Boyle (probably another name
for himself). He helped S. Rowley in Joshua (1601 ), and in additions
(1602) to Marlowe's Dr Faustus. His connexion with the theatre
ceased about 1621.
ROXANA ROXBURGHSHIRE
789
Edward Guinness (afterwards Lord Iveagh) with regard to
the latter's projected gift of 200,000 for endowment of a trust
for the improvement of the dwellings of the working classes,
Rowton made himself personally familiar with the conditions
of the poorest inhabitants of London; and he determined
to establish " a poor man's hotel," which should offer better
accommodation than the common lodging-houses, at similar
prices. In the face of much discouragement and difficulty,
the first Rowton House was opened at Vauxhall in December
1892, the cost (30,000) being defrayed by Lord Rowton, though
he was by no means a man of great wealth. In 1894 a com-
pany, Rowton Houses (Limited), was incorporated to extend
the scheme, a main characteristic of which was that the houses
should not be charitable institutions but should be on a paying
commercial basis. The scheme proved a gratifying success,
and was imitated not only in many of the chief towns of Great
Britain, but also in different countries of Europe and in America
(see HOUSING). Lord Rowton also devoted himself to the
business of the Guinness Trust, of which he was a trustee, and
was interested in many philanthropic schemes. Lord Rowton
was unmarried, and the title consequently became extinct at
his death, which occurred in London on the 9th of November
1903.
ROXANA, or ROXANE, daughter of the Bactrian king
Oxyartes, and wife of Alexander the Great. After the latter's
death she gave birth at Babylon to a son (Alexander IV.), who
was accepted by the generals as joint-king with Arrhidaeus.
Having crossed over to Macedonia, and thrown in her lot with
Olympias, mother of Alexander the Great, she was imprisoned
by Cassander in the fortress of Amphipolis and put to death
(310 or 309 B.C.). The marriage of Alexander and Roxana was
the subject of a famous painting by Action.
See Plutarch, Alexander, 47, 77; Arrian, Anab. iv. 18, vii. 27;
Died. Sic. xviii. 3, 38, xix. II, 52, 105; Strabo xi. p. 517, xvii.
p. 794.
ROXBURGHE, EARLS AND DUKES OF. ROBERT KER, ist
earl of Roxburghe (c. 1570-1650), was the eldest son of William
Ker of Cessford (d. 1606) and the grandson of Sir Walter Ker
(d. c. 1584), who fought against Mary queen of Scots both at
Carberry Hill and at Langside. He was descended from Sir
Andrew Ker of Cessford (d. 1526) who fought at Flodden and
was killed near Melrose in January 1526 by the Scotts of
Buccleuch. The deed was avenged when the Kers under Sir
Walter killed Sir Walter Scott of Buccleuch in Edinburgh in
1552. Robert Ker was also descended, on the maternal side,
from Andrew Ker of Ferniehurst (c. 1471-1545), a celebrated
border chieftain. Another famous member of the family was
Andrew's grandson, Sir Thomas Ker of Ferniehurst (d. 1586),
who, Camden says, was " of an immovable fidelity to the queen
of Scots and the king her son." He was the father of Robert
Carr, earl of Somerset, the favourite of James I.
After a turbulent life on the border Robert Ker became a
Scottish privy councillor in 1 599 and was made Lord Roxburghe
about the same time; he accompanied King James to London
in 1603, and was created earl of Roxburghe in 1616. He was
lord privy seal for Scotland from 1637 to 1649, and in the
Scottish parliament he showed his sympathy with Charles I.;
but he took no part in the Civil War, although he signed the
" engagement " for the king's release in 1648. He died at
Floors, his residence near Kelso, on the i8th of January 1650.
His son Harry, Lord Ker, had died in January 1643; conse-
quently his titles and estates passed by special arrangement to
his grandson, WILLIAM DRUMMOND (d. 1675), the youngest son
of his daughter Jean and her husband John Drummond, 2nd
earl of Perth. William took the name of Ker, became 2nd earl
of Roxburghe, and married his cousin Lord Ker's daughter Jean.
The second earl's son was ROBERT, 3rd earl (c. 1658-1682),
whose son was JOHN, ist duke of Roxburghe (c. 1680-1741).
John became 5th earl on the death of his brother Robert, the
4th earl, in 1696, and is described by George Lockhart of Carn-
wath as " perhaps the best accomplished young man of quality
in Europe." In 1704 he was made a secretary of state of
Scotland, and he helped to bring about the union with England,
being created duke of Roxburghe in 1707 for his services in this
connexion. This was the last creation in the Scottish peerage.
The duke was a representative peer for Scotland in four parlia-
ments; George I. made him a privy councillor and keeper of
the privy seal of Scotland, and he was loyal to the king during
the Jacobite rising in 1715. He was again a secretary of state
from 1716 to 1725, but he opposed the malt-tax, and in 1725
Sir Robert Walpole procured his dismissal from office. He
died on the 24th of February 1741. His only son, ROBERT
(c. 1709-1755), who had been created Earl Ker of Wakefield in
1722, became 2nd duke, and was succeeded by his son JOHN, 3rd
duke of Roxburghe (1740-1804), the famous bibliophile. John
was betrothed to Christiana, daughter of the duke of Mecklen-
burg-Strelitz; but when the princess's sister Charlotte was
affianced to George III., reasons of state led to the rupture of the
engagement, and he died unmarried on the igth of March 1804.
The duke's library, including a unique collection of books from
Caxton's press, and three rare volumes of broadside ballads, was
sold in 1812, when the Roxburghe Club was founded to com-
memorate the sale of Valdarfer's edition of Boccaccio. Rox-
burghe's cousin William, 7th Lord Bellenden (c. 1728-1805),
who succeeded to the Scottish titles and estates, died childless
in October 1805, and for seven years the titles were dormant.
Then in 1812 Sir JAMES INNES, bart. (1736-1823), a descendant
of the ist earl, established his claim to them, and taking the
name of Innes-Ker, became 5th duke of Roxburghe. Among
the unsuccessful claimants to the Roxburghe dukedom was John
Bellenden Ker (c. 1765-1842), famous as a wit and botanist
and the author of Archaeology of Popular Phrases and Nursery
Rhymes (1837), whose son was the legal reformer, Charles Henry
Bellenden Ker (c. 1785-1871).
The sth duke's great-grandson, HENRY JOHN INNES-KER
(b. 1876), became Sth duke in 1892. The duke of Roxburghe
sits in the House of Lords as Earl Innes, a peerage of the United
Kingdom, which was conferred in 1837 upon James Henry, the
6th duke (1816-1879).
ROXBURGHSHIRE, a Border county of Scotland, bounded
W. by Berwickshire, E. and S.E. by Northumberland, S. by
Cumberland, S.W. by Dumfriesshire and N.W. by the shires of
Selkirk and Mid Lothian. It has an area of 426,060 acres, or
665-7 sq. m. The only low-lying ground in the shire is found in
the N. and in the valleys of the larger rivers, and the whole S.
is markedly hilly. Though the Cheviots, forming for a con-
siderable distance the natural boundary with England, mostly
belong to Northumberland, Catcleuch Shin (1742 ft.) and Peel
Fell (1964) are Scottish peaks. The chief heights of the moun-
tainous mass constituting the watershed between Teviotdale
and Liddesdale are Cauldcleuch Head (1996), Greatmoor (1964),
Pennygant (1805), Din Fell (1735), Windburgh (1622) and
Arnton Fell (1464). In the W. is Crib Law (1369), and in the
N., near Melrose, occur the triple Eildons (highest peak, 1385).
The county is abundantly watered. The Tweed flows through
the N. of the shire for 26 out of its total run of 97 m., though for
about 2 m. (near Abbotsford) it is the boundary stream with
Selkirkshire, and for 10 m. lower down with Berwickshire
(parishes of Earlston and Merton). On the right its affluents
are the Bowden and the Teviot, and on the left the Allan and
the Eden. The Teviot is the principal river lying entirely in
Roxburghshire. From its source near Causeway Grain Head on
the Dumfriesshire border, it follows mainly a N.E. direction for
37 m. to its confluence with the Tweed at Kelso. Its chief
tributaries are, on the right, Allan Water, the Slitrig, Dean Burn,
the Rule, the Jed, the Oxnam and the Kale, and, on the left,
Borthwick Water and the Ale, both rising in Selkirkshire. The
Liddel is the leading stream in the S. Rising near Peel Fell in
the Cheviots it flows S.W. to the Esk after a course of 27 m.,
receiving on the right Hermitage Water, on the left Kershope
Burn. The Kershope and Liddel, during part of their run, serve
as boundaries with Cumberland. Excepting the Liddel, which
drains to the Esk, much the greater portion of the surface is
drained, by the Tweed, to the North Sea. The lakes are few
790
ROXBURGHSHIRE
and small, the largest being Yetholm or Primside Loch and
Horselaw, both in the parish of Linton among outlying hills of
the Cheviots. Teviotdale, Liddesdale, Tweedside and Jedvale
are the principal valleys.
Geology. This county contains a considerable range of. sedi-
mentary rocks from the Ordovician to the Carboniferous systems,
and with these are associated .large tracts of volcanic rocks.
The Ordovician and Silurian ro'cks occupy the N.W. and W.
part of the county; they have been thrown into numerous
sharp folds. It is on the crests of the anticlines that the strata
of the former system appear flanked on either side by those of the
latter. The oldest rocks are the mudstones and radiolarian cherts
with contemporaneous and intrusive igneous rocks of Arenig age;
these are followed by shales and greywackes of Llandeilo age and
similar rocks of Caradoc age. Then comes the Silurian with the
Birkhill shales and massive grits and greywackes of the Gala or
Queensberry group with the Hawick rocks; these are all of Llan-
dovery age and they occupy the greater part of the Silurian area.
Wenlock and Ludlow rocks are found S. of Hawick rocks from
Wisp Hill N.E. by Stobs Castle; other inlying masses occur in the
Old Red Sandstone and Carboniferous areas, the largest of these
being that which appears in a belt some 14 m. in length from near
Riccarton in the direction of Hobkirk. Two divisions of the Old
Red Sandstone occur; the lower, which consists of subordinate
sandstones and conglomerates in sheets of contemporaneous lavas
with some tuffs, is confined to the Cheviots; the strata are uncon-
formable upon the upturned Silurian beds. The upper division,
which in its turn is unconformable upon the lower, occupies about
one-third of the county. It consists of coarse conglomerates at
the base followed by sandstones and marls. It is well developed
in the N., where volcanic rocks come in; the Trow Crags of
Makerstown which cross the Tweed are due to these lavas. It
extends from Newtown and Kelso to Kirkton with extensions in
the valleys S.W. Carboniferous rocks are represented by the
Calciferous sandstone series; in the S.W. in Liddesdale and on the
uplands of Carter Fell, Larriston Fell, &c., they are sandstones
with shales, some calcareous beds and coal and volcanic beds. In
the N.E. corner of the county the outer part of the Berwickshire
Carboniferous basin just comes within the boundary. An inter-
esting series of volcanic " necks " belonging to this period is ex-
emplified in Dunain Law, Black Law, Maiden Paps, Ruberslaw and
other hills. Glacial deposits are represented by boulder clay and
beds and ridges of sand and gravel.
Climate and Industries. The average annual rainfall is about
37 in., higher in the hilly regions and somewhat lower towards the
N. and E. The mean temperature for the year is 48F., for January
38 F. and for July 60 F. The soil is chiefly loam in the level
tracts along the banks of the larger streams, where it is also very
fertile. In other districts a mixture of clay and gravel is mostly
found, but there is besides a considerable extent of mossy land.
Of the area under grain about two-thirds are occupied by oats, the
remainder being principally devoted to barley. Among green crops
turnips and swedes are most generally cultivated, potatoes covering
a comparatively small acreage. In different parts of Tweedside
and Jedvale several kinds of fruit are successfully grown. Both
in the pastoral and arable localities agriculture is in an advanced
condition. The hill country is everywhere covered with a thick
green pasturage admirably suited for sheep, which occupy the walks
in increasingly large quantities. The herds of cattle are also heavy,
horses are kept mostly for farming operations, and pigs are raised
in moderate numbers. Fairly large holdings predominate, farms
of between loo and 300 acres being general, and only in Berwick-
shire is the proportion of farms of more than 1000 acres exceeded.
Many districts on the Tweed and Teviot are beautifully wooded,
but having regard to the great area once occupied by forest, the
acreage under wood is now relatively small.
The county is the principal seat of the tweed and hosiery manu-
factures in Scotland. Engineering, ironfounding, dyeing and tanning
are also carried on at Hawick and Jedburgh, and agricultural
implements and machinery, chemical manures and especially fishing
tackle are made at Kelso. The salmon fisheries on the Tweed are
of considerable value.
The Waverley route of the North British railway runs through
the county from near Melrose in the N. to Kershopefoot in the S.
At St Boswells branches are sent off to Duns and Reston, and to
Jedburgh and Kelso via Roxburgh. The North-Eastern railway, an
English company, has a line from Berwick to Kelso, via Coldstream
and Carham.
Population and Administration. The population in 1901
was 48,804, or 73 persons to the sq. m. In 1901 there were
132 persons who spoke Gaelic and English, but none Gaelic
only. The principal towns are Hawick (pop. 17,303), Kelso
(4008), Jedburgh (3136), Melrose (2195). The county returns
a member to parliament, and Hawick 1 belongs to the Border
group of parliamentary burghs. Jedburgh, the county town,
is a royal burgh, and Hawick, Kelso and Melrose are police
burghs. The shires of Roxburgh, Berwick and Selkirk form
a sheriffdom, and a resident sheriff-substitute sits at Jedburgh
and Hawick. The county is under school-board jurisdiction,
and there are secondary schools at Hawick and Kelso, while the
board schools at Jedburgh and Melrose have secondary depart-
ments. Most of the " residue " grant is expended in assisting
teachers to attend science and art classes at Edinburgh Uni-
versity and Hawick, and in subsidizing science and art and
technical classes at Hawick, Kelso and elsewhere.
History and Antiquities. Among the more important re-
mains of the original inhabitants are the so-called " Druidical "
stones and circles at Plenderleath between the Kale and Oxnam;
on Hownam Steeple, a few miles to the N.W. (where they
are locally known as the Shearers and the Bandster); and at
Midshiels on the Teviot. The stones on Ninestane Rig, near
Hermitage Castle, and on Whisgill are supposed to com-
memorate the Britons of Strathclyde who, under Aidan, were
defeated with great slaughter by Ethelfrith, king of Bernicia,
at the battle of Degsanstane or Dawstane in 603. There are
hill forts in Liddesdale on the Allan, in the parish of Oxnam,
and on the most easterly of the three Eildons. This last is
said to be the largest example of its kind in Scotland. The
fortress was defended by palisades around the three circular
terraces which form the hill-top. Within the enclosure there
was a town of huts, judging from certain marks that indicate
the site of such dwellings, and the relics of early British pottery
that have been found, while the fact that springs exist renders
the theory of a settlement all the more probable. One of the
most important and most mysterious of British remains is
the Catrail, or Picts' Work Dyke. In its original condition
it is supposed to have consisted of a line of double mounds
or ramparts, averaging about 30 ft. in width, with an inter-
vening ditch 6 ft. broad, the slope from the centre of the mound
to the middle of the bottom of the trench being 10 ft. Owing
to weather and other causes, however, it is now far from per-
fect and in places has disappeared for miles. Beginning at
Torwoodlee, N.W. of Galashiels, it ran S.W. to Yarrow church,
whence it turned first S. and then S.E., following a meandering
course to Peel Fell in the Cheviots, a distance of 48 miles.
Though it must have been difficult to defend so long a line,
the bulk of opinion is in favour of its being a defence work.
Roman remains are also of exceptional interest. Watling
Street crossed the Border N. of Brownhart taw (1664 ft.) in
the Cheviots, then took a mainly N.W. direction' across the
Kale, Oxnam, Jed and Teviot to Newstead, near Melrose,
where it is conjectured to have crossed the Tweed and run up
Lauderdale into Haddingtonshire. The chief stations were
Ad Fines on the Cheviot's, Gadanica (Bonjedward) near
Jedfoot and Eildon Hill (? Trimontium). Another so-called
Roman road is the Wheel Causeway or Causey, a supposed con-
tinuation of the Maiden Way which ran from Overburgh in
Lancashire to Bewcastle in Cumberland, and so to the Border.
It entered Roxburghshire N. of Deadwater and went (roughly)
N. as far as Wolflee, whence its direction becomes a matter of
surmise. Of Roman camps the principal appear to have been
situated at Cappuck, to the S.E. of Jedburgh, and near New-
stead, at the base of the Eildons, the alleged site of Trimontium.
After the retreat of the Romans the country was occupied
by the Britons of Strathclyde in the W. and the Bernicians in
the E. It was then annexed to Northumbria for over four
centuries until it was ceded, along with Lothian, to Scotland
in 1018. David I. constituted it a shire, its ancient county
town of Roxburgh (see KELSO) forming one of the Court of
Four Burghs. The castle of Roxburgh, after changing hands
more than once, was captured from the English in 1460 and
dismantled. Other towns were repeatedly burned down, and
the abbeys of Dryburgh, Jedburgh, Kelso and Melrose ulti-
mately ruined in the expedition of the earl of Hertford (the
Protector Somerset) in 1544-45. The Border freebooters of
whom the Armstrongs and Elliots were the chief conducted
many a bloody fray on their own account. On the union
of the crowns the county gradually settled into what was
ROXBURY ROYAL SOCIETY
791
comparatively a state of repose, disturbed to some extent during
the Covenanting troubles and, to a much slighter degree, by
the Jacobite rebellions.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Sir George Douglas, Roxburgh, Selkirk and
Peebles (Edinburgh, 1899); W. S. Crockett, The Scott Country
(Edinburgh, -1902); Alexander Jeffrey, The History and Antiquities
of Roxburghshire (4 vols., Edinburgh, 1857-64).
ROXBURY, formerly a city of Norfolk county, Massachu-
setts, U.S.A., situated between Boston and Dorchester, but
since 1868 a part of Boston. It is primarily a residential
district. Among its institutions are the Roxbury Latin School,
established in 1645,' the Fellowes Athenaeum (a part of the
Roxbury branch of the Boston Public Library), with about
26,000 volumes in 1909, and the New England Hospital for
Women and Children (1863), the New England Baptist Hospital
(1893), the Woman's Charity Club Hospital (1890), the Roxbury
Homoeopathic Dispensary (1886), the Roxbury Home for
Children and Aged Women (1856), a Home for Aged Couples
(1884) and the Massachusetts Home, for Intemperate Women
(1879). On Mount Bellevue, in West Roxbury (set apart from
Roxbury in 1851 and annexed to Boston in 1873), there is an
observatory (erected in 1869 by the city of Boston as a stand-
pipe for the high service water supply). Among the manu-
factures of the district are cotton and woollen goods, cordage,
carpets, shoes and foundry products. The town of Roxbury
(at first usually spelled Rocksbury) was founded in 1630 by
some of the Puritan immigrants who came with Governor John
Winthrop; the settlers were led by William Pynchon, who in
1636 led a party from here and founded Springfield, Mass. At
the home of Rev Thomas Welde (d. 1662), the first minister,
Anne Hutchinson (q.v.) was held in custody during the winter
of 1637-38. Associated as teacher with Welde and his suc-
cessors, Samuel Danforth and Nehemiah Walter, was John
Eliot, the apostle to the Indians, who removed to Roxbury in
1632 and died here in 1690. Roxbury was the home also
of Thomas Dudley, of his son Joseph and of his grandson Paul;
of Robert Calef (d. 1719), the leader of the opposition to the
witchcraft craze; of General Joseph Warren, and of William
Eustis (1753-1825), who was U.S. secretary of war (1800-
12), minister to the Netherlands (1814-18), and governor of
Massachusetts (1823-25); and from 1837 to 1845 Theodore
Parker was the pastor of the Unitarian Church of West Roxbury.
Of special interest in the old Roxbury burial-ground is the
" Ministers' Tomb," containing the remains of John Eliot, and
the tomb of the Dudleys. West Roxbury was the scene of
the Brook Farm experiment (see BROOK FARM). Roxbury was
chartered as a city in 1846.
See F. S. Drake, The Town of Roxbury, its Memorable Persons and
Places (Boston, 1878 and 1905).
ROY, WILLIAM (1726-1790), a famous British surveyor,
military draughtsman, antiquary, &c. In 1746, when an
assistant in the office of Colonel Watson, deputy quartermaster-
general in North Britain, he began the survey of the mainland
of Scotland, the results of which were embodied in what is
known as the "duke of Cumberland's map." In 1755 he
obtained his commission in the 4th King's Own Foot, and in
1759 gained his lieutenancy and went to serve in Germany in
the Seven Years' War. In 1765 he appears as deputy quarter-
master-general to the forces, surveyor-general of coasts and
engineer-director of military surveys in Great Britain; in 1767
he became F.R.S., in 1781 major-general, in 1783 director of
Royal Engineers. Besides his campaigns and observations in
Germany, his visits to Ireland (1766) and to Gibraltar (1768)
were important. In 1783-84 he conducted observations for
determining the relative positions of the French and English
royal observatories. His measurement of a base-line for that
purpose on Hounslow Heath in 1784, the germ of all subse-
quent surveys of the United Kingdom, gained him in 1785 the
1 This school was founded, primarily through the influence of the
Rev. John Eliot, by inhabitants of Roxbury. In 1672 Thomas Bell,
one of the original founders, bequeathed to the school all his Roxbury
lands. In 1789 the school was incorporated.
Copley medal of the Royal Society. Roy's measurements
(not fully utilized till 1787, when the Paris and Greenwich
observatories were properly connected) form the basis of the
topographical survey of Middlesex, Surrey, Kent and Sussex.
He was finishing an account of this work for the Phil. Trans.
when he died on the ist of July 1790.
Roy's principal book-publication is the Military Antiquities of the
Romans in Britain (1793). See also notices of him and contributions
from him in the records of the War Office and the Royal Engineers,
in the Transactions of the Royal Society of London, vols. Ixvii.,
Ixxv., Ixxvii., Ixxx., Ixxxv., and in the Gentleman's Magazine,
vols. lv., Ix. He is whimsically denounced by Jonathan Oldbuck of
Monkbarns in Scott's Antiquary.
ROYAL FERN, in botany, the common name for the fern
Osmunda regalis, a native of Britain, where it grows in bogs,
marshy woods, &c. It is a handsome plant with bi-pinnate
fronds 2 to 6 ft. long and i ft. or more broad; the tops of the
fronds are fertile, the fertile pinnae being cylindrical and
densely covered with the spore-cases, giving the appearance of a
dense panicle of flowers, whence the plant is known as the
flowering fern. There are various cultivated forms cristata
has the ends of the fronds and the pinnae finely crested, and
corymbifera has curiously forked and crested fronds. Several
other species, such as O. cinnamomea, O. Claytoniana, are
known as handsome greenhouse ferns (see also FERNS).
ROYAL SOCIETY, THE, the oldest scientific society in Great
Britain, and one of the oldest in Europe. The Royal Society
(more fully, The Royal Society of London for Improving
Natural Knowledge) is usually considered to have been founded
in the year 1660, but a nucleus had in fact been in existence for
some years before that date. As early as the year 1645 weekly
meetings were held in London of " divers worthy persons,
inquisitive into natural philosophy and other parts of human
learning, and particularly of what hath been called the New
Philosophy or Experimental Philosophy," and there can be little
doubt that this gathering of philosophers is identical with the
" Invisible College " of which Boyle speaks in sundry letters
written in 1646 and 1647. These weekly meetings, according
to Wallis, were first suggested by Theodore Haak, " a German
of the Palatinate then resident in London," and they were held
sometimes in Dr Goddard's lodgings in Wood Street, sometimes
at the Bull-Head Tavern in Cheapside.
Some of these " Philosophers," resident in Oxford about 1648,
formed an association there under the title of the Philosophical
Society of Oxford, and used to meet, most usually in the rooms
of Dr Wilkins, warden of Wadham College. A close inter-
communication was maintained between the Oxford and
London Philosophers; but ultimately the activity of the
society was concentrated in the London meetings, which were
held principally at Gresham College.
On November 28, 1660, the first journal book of the society
was opened with a " memorandum," from which the following
is an extract: " Memorandum that Novemb. 28. 1660, These per-
sons following, according to the usuall custom of most of them,
mett together at Gresham Colledge to h'eare Mr Wren's lecture,
viz. The Lord Brouncker, Mr Boyle, Mr Bruce, Sir Robert
Moray, Sir Paul Neile, Dr Wilkins, Dr Goddard, Dr Petty,
Mr Ball, Mr Rooke, Mr Wren, Mr Hill. And after the lecture
was ended, they did, according to the usuall manner, withdrawe
for mutuall converse. Where amongst other matters that were
discoursed of, something was offered about a designe of founding
a Colledge for the promoting of Physico-Mathematicall Experi-
mentall Learning." It was agreed at this meeting that the
company should continue to assemble on Wednesdays at three
o'clock; an admission fee of ten shillings with a subscription of
one shilling a week was instituted; Dr Wilkins was appointed
chairman; and a list of forty-one persons judged likely and fit
to join the design was drawn up. On the following Wednesday
Sir Robert Moray brought word that the king (Charles II.)
approved the design of the meetings; a form of obligation was
framed, and was signed by all the persons enumerated in the
memorandum of the 28th of November and by seventy-three
others. On the 1 2th of December another meeting was held at
792
ROYAL SOCIETY, THE
which fifty-five was fixed as the number of the society, per-
sons of the degree of baron, Fellows of the College of Physicians,
and public professors of mathematics, physics and natural
philosophy of both universities being supernumeraries.
Gresham College was now appointed to be the regular
meeting-place of the society. Sir Robert Moray (or Murray)
was chosen president (March 6, 1661), and continued from time
to time to occupy the chair until the incorporation of the
society, when Lord Brouncker was appointed the first president
under the charter. In October 1661 the king offered to be
entered one of the society, and next year the society was in-
corporated under its present title. The name " Royal Society "
appears to have been first applied to the Philosophers by John
Evelyn, in the dedication of his translation of a book by Gabriel
Naud6, published in 1661. Evelyn received in that year the
thanks of the " philosophic assembly " for the honourable
mention he had made of them by the name of " The Royal
Society."
The charter of incorporation passed the Great Seal on the
15th of July 1662, to be modified, however, by a second charter
in the following year, repeating the incorporating clauses of the
first charter, but conferring further privileges on the society.
The second charter passed the Great Seal on the 22nd of April
1663, and was followed in 1669 by a third, confirming the powers
granted by the second charter, with some modifications of detail,
and granting certain lands in Chelsea to the society. The
council of the Royal Society met for the first time on the I3th
of May 1663, when resolutions were passed that debate con-
cerning those to be admitted should be secret, and that Fellows
should pay is. a week to defray expenses.
At this early stage of its history the " correspondence "
which was actively maintained with' continental philosophers
formed an important part of the society's labours, and selec-
tions from this correspondence furnished the beginnings of the
Philosophical Transactions (a publication now of world-wide
celebrity). At first the publication of the Transactions was
entirely " the act of the respective secretaries." The first
number, consisting of 16 quarto pages, appeared on Monday,
March 6, 1664-65, under the title of Philosophical Trans-
actions: giving some Accompt of the present undertakings,
studies and labours of the Ingenious in many considerable
parts of the world, with a dedication to the Royal Society
signed by Henry Oldenburg, the first secretary of the society.
It was ordered (ist of March 1664-65) " that the tract be
licensed by the Council of the Society, being first reviewed
by some of the members of the same." In 1750, 496 numbers,
or 46 volumes, had been published. After this date the work
was issued under the superintendence of a committee, and the
division into numbers disappeared. The society also from its
earliest years published, or directed the publication of, separate
treatises and books on matters of philosophy; most notable
among these being the Philosophiae naturalis principia
mathematica Autore Is. Newton. Imprimatur: S. Pepys,
Reg. Soc. Praeses. Julii -5, 1686, 4(0 Londini 1687.
In 1887 the Philosophical Transactions was divided into two
series, labelled A and B respectively, the former containing
papers of a mathematical or physical character, and the latter
papers of a biological character. More than 225 quarto volumes
have been published. In 1832 appeared the first volume of
Abstracts of papers printed in the Philosophical Transactions
from the year 1800. This publication developed in the course
of a few years into the Proceedings of the Royal Society, which
has been continued up to the present time. It is published
now in two series, corresponding to the two series of the Philo-
sophical Transactions, and is issued in 8vo form at the rate of
about three volumes a year.
It is, however, certain that one of the most important functions
of the society from the beginning was the performance of ex-
periments before the members. In the royal warrant of 1663
ordering the mace which the king presented to the society, it
is described as " The Royal Society for the improving of Natural
Knowledge by experiments "; and during its earlier years the
time of the meetings was principally occupied by the perform-
ance and discussion of experiments. The society early exercised
the power granted by charter to appoint two " curators of
experiments^' the first holder of that office being Robert
Hooke, who was afterwards elected a secretary of the society.
Another matter to which the society gave attention was the
formation of a museum, the nucleus being " the collection of
rarities formerly belonging to Mr Hubbard," which, by a
resolution of council passed on the 2ist of February 1666, was
purchased for the sum of 100. This museum, at one time the
most famous in London, was presented to the trustees of the
British Museum in 1781, upon the removal of the society to
Somerset House. A certain number, however, of instruments
and models of historical interest have remained in the possession
of the society, and some qf them, more peculiarly associated
with its earlier years, are still preserved at Burlington House.
The remainder have been deposited in the Victoria and Albert
Museum, South Kensington.
After the Great Fire of London in September 1666 the
apartments of the Royal Society in Gresham College were
required for the use of the city authorities, and the society
were therefore invited by Henry Howard of Norfolk to meet
in Arundel House. At the same time he presented them with
the library purchased by his 'grandfather, Thomas earl of
Arundel, and thus the foundation was laid of the important
collection of scientific works, now exceeding 60,000 volumes,
which the society possesses. Of the Arundel MSS. the bulk
was sold to the trustees of the British Museum in 1830 for the
sum of 3559, the proceeds being devoted to the purchase of
scientific books. These MSS. are still kept in the British
Museum as a separate collection. The society, however, still
possesses a valuable collection of scientific correspondence,
official records, and other manuscripts, including the original
manuscript, with Newton's autograph corrections, from which
the first edition of the Principia was printed, and many other
original documents of great interest.
Under date December 21, 1671, the journal-book records
that " the lord bishop of Sarum proposed for candidate Mr
Isaac Newton, professor of the mathematicks at Cambridge."
Newton was elected a Fellow January n, 1671-72, and in 1703
he was appointed president, a post which he held till his
death in 1727. During his presidency the society moved to
Crane Court, their first meeting in the new quarters being held
November 8, 1710. In the same year they were appointed
visitors and directors of the Royal Observatory at Greenwich,
a function which they continued to perform until the acces-
sion of William IV., when by the new warrant then issued the
president and six of the Fellows of the Royal Astronomical
Society were added to the list of visitors.
In 1780, under the presidency of Sir Joseph Banks, the Royal
Society removed from Crane Court to the apartments assigned
to them by the government in the new Somerset House, where
they remained until they removed to Burlington House in
1857. The policy of Sir Joseph Banks was to render the Fellow-
ship more difficult of attainment than it had been; and the
measures which he took for this purpose, combined with other
circumstances, led to the rise of a faction headed by Dr
Horsley. Throughout the years 1783 and 1784 feeling ran
exceedingly high, but in the end the president was supported
by the majority of the society. An account of the controversy
will be found in a tract entitled An Authentic Narrative of the
Dissensions and Debates in the Royal Society. An important
step in pursuance of the same policy was taken in the year 1847,
when the number of candidates recommended for election by
the council was limited to fifteen, and the election was made
annual. This limitation has remained in force up to the present
time. Concurrent wifli the gradual restriction of the Fellowship
was the successive establishment of other scientific bodies. The
founding of the Linnean Society in 1788 under the auspices of
several Fellows of the Royal Society was the first instance of
the establishment of a distinct scientific association under royal
charter; and this has been followed by the formation of the
ROYAL SOCIETY, THE
793
large number oi societies now active in the promotion of special
branches of science.
From the time of its royal founder onwards the Royal Society has
constantly been appealed to by the government for advice in con-
nexion with scientific undertakings of national importance. The
following are some of the principal matters of this character upon
which the society has been consulted by, or which it has successfully
urged upon the attention of, the government : the improvement
and equipment of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, in 1710, when
it was placed in the sole charge of the society; the change of the
calendar in 1752; ventilation of prisons; protection of buildings
and ships from lightning; measurement oi a degree of latitude;
determination of the length of a pendulum vibrating seconds;
comparison of the British and French standards of length; the
Geodetic Survey in 1784, and the General Trigonometrical Survey
begun in 1791 ; expeditions to observe the transits of Venus in 1761,
1769 (commanded by Captain Cook), 1877 and 1882; the Antarctic
expeditions of 1772 (under Captain Cook, whose voyage extended to
the circumnavigation of the globe), of 1839 (under Ross), and 1900;
observations for determining the density of the earth; Arctic
expeditions of 1817 (in search of the North-West Passage), of 1819
(under Parry), of 1827 (Parry and Ross), of 1845 (Franklin), of 1874
(under Nares) ; numerous expeditions for observing eclipses of the
sun; 1822, use of coal-tar in vessels of war; best manner of
measuring tonnage of ships; 1823, corrosion of copper sheathing by
sea-water; Babbage's calculating machine; lightning-conductors
for vessels of war; 1825, supervision of gas-works; 1832, tidal
observations; 1835, instruments and tables for testing the strength
of spirits; magnetic observatories in the colonies; 1862, the great
Melbourne telegraph; 1865, pendulum observations in India;
1866, reorganization of the meteorological department; 1868, deep-
sea research; 1872, "Challenger" expedition; 1879, prevention
of accidents in mines; 1881, pendulum observations; cruise of the
" Triton " in Faroe Channel ; 1883, borings in delta of Nile; 1884,
Bureau des Poids et Mesures; international conference on a prime
meridian; 1888, inquiry into lighthouse illuminants; 1890, the
investigation of colour-blindness; 1895, examination of the structure
of a coral reef by boring; 1896, inquiry into cylinders for compressed
gases; the establishment of an International Geodetic Bureau;
1897, determination of the relations between the metric and imperial
units of weights and measures; and, more recently, an inquiry into
the volcanic eruptions in the West Indies; international seis-
mological investigation; international exploration of the upper
atmosphere; measurement of an arc of the meridian across Africa.
In recent years also the society, acting at the request of the govern-
ment, has taken the leading part in investigations, in the course of
which important discoveries have been made, in relation to various
tropical diseases, beginning with the tsetse-fly disease of cattle in
Africa, followed by investigations into malaria, Mediterranean fever
and sleeping sickness. The society has standing committees which
advise the Indian government on matters connected with scientific
inquiry in India and on the observatories of India. The society
has taken a leading part in the promotion of the International
Catalogue of Scientific Literature from 1900, and of the International
Association of Academies, which is composed of all the principal
scientific academies of the world, meeting regularly to promote
international action in questions of scientific interest.
In addition to the occasional services enumerated above, the
Royal Society has exercised, and still exercises, a variety of important
public functions of a more permanent nature. It still provides
seven of the board of visitors of the Royal Observatory at Green-
wich. From 1877 until the reconstitution of the Meteorological
Office in 1906 the society nominated the meteorological council,
which had the control of that office. The society has the custody
of standard copies of the imperial standard yard and pound. The
president and council have the control of the National Physical
Laboratory, an institution established in 1899 in pursuance of the
recommendations of a treasury committee appointed by H.M.
government in response to representations from the Royal Society.
The society had previously for many years had control of the
Kew Observatory, now incorporated with the National Physical
Laboratory, and still remains trustee of the Gassiot Fund, a fund
established for the maintenance of the observatory. The society
elects four of the nine members of the managing committee of the
Lawes Agricultural Trust, and is officially represented on the
governing bodies of a number of important scientific and educational
institutions and of the principal public schools.
One of the most important duties which the Royal Society
performs on behalf of the government is the administration of the
annual grant of 4000 for the promotion of scientific research.
This grant originated in a proposal by Lord John Russell in 1849
that at the close of the year the president and council should point
out to the first lord of the treasury a limited number of persons to
whom the grant of a reward or of a sum to defray the cost of experi-
ments might be of essential service. This grant of 1000 afterwards
became annual, and was continued until -1876. In that year an
additional sum of 4000 for similar purposes was granted, and the
two funds of 1000 and 4000 were administered concurrently until
1 88 1, in which year the two were combined in a single annual grant
of 4000 under new regulations. Since 1896 parliament has also
voted annually a grant of 1000 to be administered by the Royal
Society in aid of scientific publications, not only those issued by
itself, but also scientific matter published through other channels.
One of the most useful of the society's publications is the great
catalogue of scientific papers an index now in twelve quarto
volumes, under authors' names, of all the memoirs of importance
in the chief English and foreign scientific serials from the year 1800
to the year 1883. The work was prepared under the direction of the
Royal Society. A continuation carrying the catalogue up to the
end of the igth century, and a subject index to the whole catalogue,
have also been compiled.
A statement of the trust funds administered by the Royal Society
will be found in the Year Book published annually, and the origin
and history of these funds will be found in the Record of the Royal
Society (2nd ed. 1901). The income of the society is derived from
the annual contributions and composition fees of the Fellows, from
rents and from interest on various investments. The balance-
sheet and an account of the estates and property are published in
the Year Book. Five medals (the Copley, two Royal, the Davy and
the Hughes) are awarded by the society every year; the Rumford
and the Darwin medals biennially, the Sylvester triennially and
the Buchanan quinquennially. The first of these originated in a
bequest by Sir Godfrey Copley (1709), and is awarded " to the
living author of such philosophical research, either published or
communicated to the society, as may appear to the council to be
deserving of that honour "; the author may be an Englishman or
a foreigner. The Rumford medal originated in a gift from Count
Rumford in 1796 of 1000 3% consols, for the most important
discoveries in heat or light made during the preceding two years.
The Royal medals were instituted by George IV., and are awarded
annually for the two most important contributions to science published
in the British dominions not more than ten years nor less than one
year from the date of the award. The Davy medal was founded
by the will of Mr John Davy, F.R.S., the brother of Sir Humphry
Davy, and is given annually for the most important discovery in
chemistry made in Europe or Anglo-America. An enumeration of
the awards of each of the medals and the conditions of the awards
are published in the Year Book. The society also has the award
of three research studentships, one founded in 1890 in memory of
J. P. Joule, and the others created out of a bequest to the society by
Sir William Mackinnon in 1897.
Under the existing statutes of the Royal Society every candidate
for election into the society must be recommended by a certificate
in writing signed by six or more Fellows, of whom three at least
must sign from personal knowledge. From the candidates so re-
commended the council annually select fifteen by ballot, and the
names so selected are submitted to the society for election by ballot.
Princes of the blood, however, and not more than two persons
selected by the council on special grounds once in two years, may
be elected by a more summary procedure. Foreign members, not
exceeding fifty, may be selected by the council from among men of
the greatest scientific eminence abroad, and proposed to the society
for election. Every Fellow of the society is liable to an admission
fee of 10 and an annual payment of 4; but, by aid of a fund
established in 1878 for the purpose, the admission fees and l of
the annual contribution of all the Fellows elected since that date
have been remitted. The composition for annual payments is 60.
The anniversary meeting for the election of the council and
officers is held on St Andrew's Day. The council for the ensuing
year, out of which are chosen the president, treasurer, principal
secretaries, and foreign secretary, must consist of eleven members
of the existing council and ten Fellows who are not members of
the existing council. These are nominated by the president and
council previously to the anniversary meeting. The session of the
society is from November to June; the ordinary meetings are held
on Thursdays during the session, at 4.30 p.m. The selection for
publication from the papers read before the society is made by
the " Committee of Papers," which consists of the members of the
council for the time being aided by committees appointed for the
purpose. The papers so selected are published either in the Philo-
sophical Transactions (410) or the Proceedings of the Royal Society
(8vo), and one copy of each of these publications is presented gratis
to every Fellow of the society and to the chief scientific societies
throughout the world.
The making and repealing of laws is vested in the council, and in
every case the question must be put to the vote on two several
days of their meeting.
The text of the charters of the Royal Society is given in the
Record, and in the same work will be found lists of the presidents,
treasurers, secretaries and assistant-secretaries from the foundation
to the year 1900. The same work gives a chronological list_of all
the Fellows, with dates of election, and an alphabetical index.
Other histories are Thomson's History of the Royal Society (1812);
Weld's History of the Royal Society; Bishop Sprat's (1667), which
consists largely of a defence of the society against the attacks of
a priori philosophers; and Dr Birch's (1756), which treats mainly
of the society's scientific work. (R. W. F H.)
794
ROYALTY ROYLE
ROYALTY (O. Fr. realte, reialte, royaulte, from Med. Lat.
regalltas, the substantive of regalis, of or belonging to a king,
rex), kingly state or personality, hence a royal person, or number
of persons of royal birth collectively, a member of a royal family.
More particularly " royalty " is used of the rights and attributes
of a sovereign, and especially of dues paid to the crown, which
belong to the sovereign jure coronae, such as dues from gold
and silver mines, waifs, estrays, &c. The term is usually
applied to the payment made by a publisher to an author on
every copy of his book sold; to the payment made to a patentee
on each article manufactured under his patent by a licensee
(see PATENTS), and to the payment made to the owner of
minerals for the right of working, paid on the ton or other
weight raised.
ROY AN, a town of W. France, in the department of Charente
Inferieure, on the right bank of the Gironde, at its mouth
63 m. below and N.N.W. of Bordeaux. Pop. (1906) 7142.
Royan is one of the most frequented bathing resorts on the
Atlantic seaboard. The coast is divided into a number of
small bays or " conches," forming so many distinct beaches:
to the E. of the town is the " Grande Conche" with the municipal
casino; to the S. the " Conche de Foncillon," separated from
the first-named by a quay which forms a fine terraced esplanade ;
beyond the fort of Royan follow in succession the conches
" du Chay " and " de Robinson," and the most fashionable
of all, that of Pontaillac. The port carries on sardine-fishing
and an active coasting trade, but the harbour at high tide
is accessible only to vessels drawing from 8 to 10 ft., and at
low water is dry. Eugene Pelletan, the author, has a statue
in the town, of which he was a benefactor. The lighthouse of
Cordouan, 200 ft. in height, rebuilt on the site of an older
tower by the architect Louis de Foix in 1584-1610 and added
to about the end of the i8th century, stands on a rock
7^ m. W.S.W. of Royan.
Royan after passing through many hands came to the family
of la Tremoille, in whose favour it was made first a marquisate
and then a duchy. During the first half of the isth century
it was held by the English. During the wars of religion it
was a centre of Calvinism and had to sustain in 1622 an
eight days' siege by the troops of Louis XIII. As late as the
end of the i8th century it was but a " bourg " of about one
thousand inhabitants, noticeable only for its priory, where
Brantdme wrote a portion of his Chronicles. The prosperity
of the place dates from the Restoration, when steamboat com-
munication was established with Bordeaux.
ROYAT, a watering-place of central France, in the department
of Puy-de-D6me, situated at a height of 1475 ft. on the Tire-
tame, i| m. S.W. of Clermont-Ferrand. Pop. (1906) 1451.
The thermal springs, situated in the part of Royat known as
St Mart, are strongly impregnated with carbonic acid and
chloride of sodium and are used in cases of rheumatism, gout,
bronchitis, asthma, anaemia, &c. They were known in Roman
times, and rums of ancient baths are still to be seen. The
village of Royat proper, a little higher up the valley, has a
church of the nth and I2th centuries fortified with battle-
ments.
ROYER-COLLARD, PIERRE PAUL (1763-1845), French
statesman and philosopher, was born on the 2ist of June 1763
at Sompuis, near Vitry le Francais (Marne), the son of Antoine
Royer, a small proprietor. His mother, Angelique Perpetue
Collard, was a woman of unusual strength of character and of
austere piety. Pierre Paul Royer was sent at twelve to the
college of Chaumont of which his uncle, Father Paul Collard,
was director. He subsequently followed his uncle to Saint-
Omer, where he studied mathematics. At the outbreak of
the Revolution, which moved him to passionate sympathy,
he was practising at the Parisian bar. He was returned by
his section, the Island of Saint Louis, to the Commune, of which
he was secretary from 1790 to 1792. After the revolution
of the loth of August in that year he was replaced by J. L.
Tallien. His sympathies were now with the Gironde, and
after the insurrection of the i2th Prairial (3131 of May 1793)
he was in danger of his life. He returned to Sompuis, and
was saved from arrest possibly by the protection of Danton
and in some degree by the impression made by his mother's
courageous piety on the local commissary of the Convention.
In 1797 he was returned by his department (Marne) to the
Council of the Five Hundred, where he allied himself especially
with Camille Jordan. He made one great speech in the council
in defence of the principles of religious liberty, but the coup
d'ttat of Fructidor (4th of September 1797) drove him again
into private life. It was at this period that he developed
his legitimist opinions and entered into communication with
the' comte de Provence (Louis XVIII.). He was the ruling
spirit in the small committee formed in Paris to help forward
a Restoration independent of the comte d'Artois and his party;
but with the establishment of the Consulate he saw the prospects
of the monarchy were temporarily hopeless, and the members
of the committee resigned. From that time until the Restora-
tion Royer-Collard devoted himself exclusively to the study of
philosophy. He derived his opposition to the philosophy of
Condillac chiefly from the study of Descartes and his followers,
and from his early veneration for the fathers of Port-Royal.
He was occupied with the erection of a system which should
provide a moral and political education consonant with his
view of the needs of France. From 1811 to 1814 he lectured
at the Sorbonne. From this time dates his long association
with Guizot. Royer-Collard himself was supervisor of the
press under the first restoration. From 1815 onwards he sat
as deputy for Marne in the chamber. As president of the
commission of public instruction from 1815 to 1820 he checked
the pretensions of the clerical party, the immediate cause of
his retirement being an attempt to infringe the rights of the
university of Paris by giving university diplomas, independent
of university examinations, to the teaching fraternity of the
Christian Brothers. Royer-Collard's acceptance of the Legiti-
mist principle did not prevent a faithful adhesion to the social
revolution effected in 1789, and he protested in 1815, in 1820,
and again under the monarchy of July against laws of exception.
He was the moving spirit of the " Doctrinaires," as they
were called, who met at the house of the comte de Ste Aulaire
and in the salon of Madame de Stae'Ps daughter, the duchesse
de Broglie. The leaders of the party, beside Royer-Collard,
were Guizot, P. F. H. de Serre, Camille Jordan and Charles de
Remusat. In 1820 he was excluded from the council of state
by a decree signed by his former ally Serre. In 1827 he was
elected for seven constituencies, but remained faithful to his
native department. Next year he became president of the
chamber, and fought against the reactionary policy which
precipitated the Revolution of July. It was Royer-Collard
who in March 1830 presented the address of the 221. From
that time he took no active part in politics, although he retained
his seat in the chamber until 1839. He died at his estate of
Chateauvieux, near Vitry, on the 2nd of September 1845. He
had been a member of the Academy since 1827. Royer-Collard
married in 1799 Mile, de Forges de Chateauvieux. The two
daughters who survived to womanhood received an education
of the utmost austerity.
Royer-Collard left no considerable writings, but fragments of
his philosophical work are included in Jouffroy's translation of the
works of Thomas Reid. The standard life of Royer-Collard is by
his friend Prosper de Barante, Vie politique de M. Royer Collard,
ses discours et ses ecrits (2 vols., 1861). There are also biographies
by M. A. Philippe (1857), by L. Vingtain (1858), by E. Spuller
(1895), in Grands ecrivains franfais. Cf. E. Faguet, Politique et
morale du xix" sitcle (1891); H. Taine, Les Philosophes franc,ais du
xixf siede (1857); L. Seche, Les Derniers Jansenistes (1891); and
Lady Blennerhasset, " The Doctrinaires " in the Cambridge Modern
History (vol. x. chap, ii., 1907). For further references see H. P.
Thieme, Guide bibliographique (Paris, 1907).
ROYLE, JOHN FORBES (1799-1858), British botanist and
teacher of materia medica, was born in Cawnpore in 1799.
Entering the service of the East India Company as assistant
surgeon, he devoted himself to studying botany and geology,
and made large collections among the Himalaya Mountains.
He also investigated the medical properties of the plants of
ROYSTON RUBBER
795
Hindustan and the history of their uses among the native races.
The results of these investigations appeared in an essay On the
Antiquity of Hindoo Medicine (1837). For nearly ten years
he held the post of superintendent of the East India Company's
botanic garden in the Himalayas at Saharanpur. In 1837 he
was appointed to the professorship of materia medica in King's
College, London, which he held till 1856. From 1838 onward*
he conducted a special department of correspondence, relating
to vegetable products, at the East India House, and at the
time of his death he had just completed there an extensive and
valuable museum of technical products from the East Indies.
In 1851 he superintended the Indian department of the Great
Exhibition. He died at Acton near London on the 2nd of
January 1858.
The work on which his reputation chiefly rests is the Illustrations
of the Botany and other branches of Natural History of the Himalaya
Mountains, and of the Flora of Cashmere, in 2 vols. 410, begun in
1839. In addition he wrote An Essay on the Productive Resources
of India (1840), On the Culture and Commerce of Cotton in India and
Elsewhere (1851) and The Fibrous Plants of India fitted for Cordage
0855), together with papers in scientific journals.
ROYSTON, a market town in the Hitchin parliamentary
division of Hertfordshire, England, close to the border of
Cambridgeshire, 48 m. N. of London by the Cambridge branch
of the Great Northern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901)
3517. The church of St John the Baptist is mainly Early
English. There are a market house, and institute with library
and museum. Beneath a street in the town is a curious example
of a hermit's cave, excavated in the chalk, and containing rude
carvings of the crucifixion and other sacred subjects. It was
discovered in 1742. The town lies on the Roman Ermine
Street, at the point where it strikes from the hills across the
plain, and its straight course is deflected slightly W. Roman
relics have been found, and several barrows and earth-mounds
occur on the neighbouring hills. A monastery of Augustinian
canons was founded here towards the close of the I2th century,
but there are no remains.
ROYTON, an urban district of Lancashire, England, within
the parliamentary borough of Oldham, 2 m. N. of Oldham on
the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway. Though of early origin,
it is, as a town, of wholly modern growth. The cotton
manufacture is its chief industry. Pop. (1901) 14,881.
ROZAS, JUAN MARTINEZ DE (1759-1813), the earliest
leader in the Chilean struggle for independence, was born at
Mendoza in 1759. In early life he was a professor of law, and
of theology and philosophy at Santiago. He held the post of
acting governor of Concepcion at one time, and was also colonel
in a militia regiment. In 1808 he became secretary to the last
Spanish governor, Francisco Antonio Carrasco, and used his
position to prepare the nationalist movement that began in
1809. After resigning his position as secretary, Rozas was
mainly responsible for the resignation of the Spanish governor,
and the formation of a national Junta on the i8th of September
1810, of which he was the real leader. Under his influence
many reforms were initiated, freedom of trade was established,
an army was organized and a national congress was called
together in July 1811. But at the end of that year divisions
began to arise between Rozas' followers from Concepcion
and the men of Santiago; and a feud broke out between Rozas
and Jose Miguel Carrera (q.v.) who had secured control of
Santiago. In 1812 Carrera succeeded in securing the banish-
ment of his rival, who retired to Mendoza, where he died on the
3rd of March 1813.
See P. B. Figueroa, Diccionario biogrdfico de Chile, 1550-1887
(Santiago, 1888}, and J. B. Suarez, Rasgos bioydficos de hombres
notables de Chile (Valparaiso, 1886); both giving biographical
sketches of prominent characters in Chilean history.
RUABON (Rhiwabon), a town of Denbighshire, N. Wales,
in the E. parliamentary division, near the Shropshire border,
5 m. S.W. of Wrexham, on the Great Western railway. Pop.
(1901) 3248. It is situated on a small tributary of the Dee.
The old Gothic church is thought by some to have been founded
by Mabon, a brother of Llewelyn (i3th c.), and has monuments
to the Wynn family, by Nollekens and Rhysbrac, and to Dr
D. Powel (d. 1598), translator into English of Caradoc's (of
Llancarfan) History of Wales. In the neighbourhood are
collieries, engineering works, an iron foundry and chemical
works, besides an extensive industry in glazed and other bricks.
Near Ruabon is Caerdden (Caerddin), an ancient camp (village)
surrounded by circular intrenchments, and Wynnstay, with
an avenue of fine trees. Anciently the residence of Madoc
ab Gruffyd Maelor (founder of Valle Crucis Abbey), it was
called Wattstay, from Watt's Dyke, an old rampart on the
estate. It was named Wynnstay on its coming into possession
of the Wynns (i7th c.). Offa's Dyke, near here, is 10 ft. high,
and broad enough for two carriages abreast. Not far is Chirk
Castle (supposed to have been built in 1013), besieged by Crom-
well's artillery : near it, in the Ceiriog valley, the defeat of
Henry II. by Owen Gwynedd took place in 1165.
RUBBER, INDIARUBBER or CAOUTCHOUC (a word prob-
ably derived from Cahucha or Caucho the names in Ecuador
and Peru respectively for rubber or the tree producing it),
the chief constituent of the coagulated milky juice or latex
furnished by a number of different trees, shrubs and vines.
The latex of the best rubber plants furnishes from 20 to 50%
of rubber. The latex is not to be confused with the sap
of trees, on the circulation of which their nutrition depends.
Though frequently occurring, it is not a universal feature of plant
life, and does not appear to be necessary or even directly con-
nected with the nutritive system of plants. Its exact function
is not fully understood. Latex, though chiefly secreted in
vessels or small sacs which reside in the cortical tissue between
the outer bark and the wood is also found in the leaves and
sometimes in the roots or bulbs. The trees and plants whose
latices furnish caoutchouc in considerable quantity chiefly
belong to the natural orders Euphorbiaceae, Urticaceae,
Apocynaceae, Asclepiadaceae. The latex is usually obtained
from the bark or stem by making an incision reaching almost
to the wood when the milky fluid flows more or less readily
from the laticiferous vessels. It is, like milk, an emulsion, and
when examined with the microscope is seen to consist of numer-
ous globules suspended in a watery fluid. On standing, some
latices separate, more or less readily, into an upper layer
resembling cream and consisting of the globules, and a lower
watery layer. This separation can be rapidly effected with
some latices by the use of a centrifugal machine, but this
method has not yet been applied to any extent commercially.
The globules which furnish the cream gradually pass on standing
into solid caoutchouc, a process which is facilitated by rapid
stirring, or by the addition of an acid or other chemical agent.
If the latex is warmed or an acid, an alkali or astringent plant
juice is added to it, " coagulation " usually takes place more
or less readily, the caoutchouc separating in solid flakes or
curds. The efficacy of heat or of an acid, an alkali or other
agent in promoting coagulation depends on the character of the
latex, and varies with that obtained from different plants. The
watery fluid in which the globules are suspended holds certain
proteids, carbohydrates and a small proportion of salts in solu-
tion. The latex exhibits a neutral, acid or alkaline reaction
depending upon the plant from which it has been obtained.
When exposed to air the latex gradually undergoes putre-
factive changes accompanied by coagulation of the caout-
chouc. The addition of a small quantity of ammonia or of
formalin to some latices usually has the effect of preserving
them for a considerable time. The nature of the coagulation is
not yet completely understood. It has been compared with that
of milk and of blood, which depend essentially on the coagula-
tion or separation in curds of a proteid or albuminous substance,
such as takes place when white of egg is warmed. There is,
however, reason to believe that the coagulation of latex into
rubber is not mainly of this character. The globules in the
latex are liquid, and the phenomenon of coagulation would seem
to consist in the passage of this liquid into solid caoutchouc
through the kind of change known as polymerization or con-
densation, in which a liquid passes into solid without alteration
796
RUBBER
of composition or by condensation with the elimination of the
elements of water. The effect of chemical agents in producing
coagulation are in consonance with what is known of other
instances of polymeric or condensation changes, whilst the fact
that the collection of globules separated by creaming after
thorough washing, and therefore removal of all proteid, is
susceptible of solidification into caoutchouc by a merely
mechanical act such as churning, strongly supports the view
that the character of the change is distinct from that of any
alteration which may occur in the proteid constituents of
the latex.
The existence of caoutchouc or rubber was first observed
soon after the discovery of America. It was noticed that
certain Indian tribes of South America played with a ball
composed of a resilient and elastic substance, which afterwards
was found to possess the power of removing lead pencil marks
from paper and came into commerce as " Indian Rubber."
It was not until the middle of the i8th century that the trees
which yielded caoutchouc were identified, chiefly by French
observers. La Condamine ascertained the nature of the tree,
now known as Hevea brasiliensis, from which the Para rubber
of S. America was obtained, whilst a little later Fresnau and
Aublet described the Euphorbiaceous trees which furnished the
rubber of Guiana.
The methods adopted by the natives in S. America and in
Mexico for incising -the trees and obtaining the rubber are
exceedingly primitive, but survive with little modification at
the present day.
Statistics of Rubber Production. Until recently rubber was
obtained almost exclusively from the tropical forests of S.
and Central America, E. and W. Africa and Asia, being the
produce of naturally occurring trees and vines. The increase
in the demand, for which the employment of rubber tires is
largely responsible, has given an increased stimulus to the
production of " wild " rubber, with the result that trees and
vines have been recklessly cut and destroyed, and in some
instances vast regions, as in the S. Sudan, have been nearly
entirely denuded of rubber vines. This has led to restrictive
measures, the vines being tapped under definite regulations
as to the manner and time of tapping, and also to requirements
as to replanting vines to take the place of those which have
been injured or destroyed, certain areas being periodically
closed. Such measures, which are now in operation in the
French Sudan, the Congo and in German W. and E. Africa,
can, however, only be enforced by special administrative
machinery and at considerable expense, and this legislative
action can only be regarded as temporary and preliminary
to the establishment of plantations of rubber trees, which are
not only easier to control, but the trees are less liable to injury
from careless tapping. In Africa it seems probable that the
production of rubber from vines is likely to be entirely super-
seded in process of time, and replaced by the plantations of
trees which are already being established in those districts in
which careful experiment has determined the kind of rubber
tree best adapted to the locality. The forests of tropical
America have suffered similarly, trees having been injured or
destroyed and in some cases cut down in order to secure the
immediate increase of supply which was called for by a con-
siderable rise in value. The result has been that in the forests
of Brazil and Mexico the conservation of rubber trees has
received greater attention, whilst new and extensive areas
are planted in S. and Central America. The wild rubber of S.
and Central America is still the principal source of the rubber
supply of the world, and is likely to continue to be so for many
years to come. Although the cost of transport from the remote
forest regions of some districts is a serious consideration, this
is not likely to be operative in reducing production until there
has been a considerable and permanent fall in price, by which
time new areas in those countries in which planting is now
taking place will probably have come into bearing.
The enormous increase in the commercial demand for rubber
and the probability of the continuance of this increase in view
of the great variety of purposes to which the material can be
applied, has led to great activity in rubber planting in other
parts of the world, especially in Ceylon and the Malay Peninsula
and Archipelago, where the Para rubber trees (Hevea brasiliensis)
has been successfully introduced, and numerous plantations,
many of which have not been in existence for more than ten or
fifteen years, are now contributing to the world's supply. This
rubber is known as " Plantation " rubber in contradistinction
to the " wild " rubber.
" Plantation " Para rubber from Ceylon and the Malay
States has brought prices equal to and often exceeding those
of fine Para rubber from Brazil. This is largely due to the
improved methods of preparing the rubber practised by the
planters of Ceylon and Malaya, which lead to the exclusion
of the impurities usually found in " wild " rubber. Para
rubber from Brazil generally contains about 15% of water,
whilst " plantation " Para is usually nearly dry and contains i %
of water or less. It would appear, however, that the finest
" wild " Para rubber as a rule possesses greater tensile strength
than the " plantation " rubber. This has been ascribed by
some to the presence in " wild " rubber of certain impurities
derived either from the latex or introduced during the prepara-
tion of the rubber which are thought to enhance the physical
properties of the caoutchouc. It is more probable, however,
that the superiority of the " wild " Para is principally due to the
greater age of the forest trees from which the rubber is obtained,
many of which are from thirty to fifty years old. It is well
known that the Hevea tree usually furnishes very inferior rubber
if tapped before it is six or seven years old, and there is evidence
to show that the quality of the rubber improves with the age
of the tree. The oldest of the plantation trees of Ceylon and
Malaya are not much more than twelve years old, whilst it is to
be feared that immature trees are often tapped and their latex
mixed with that of older trees before coagulation, thus forming
inferior rubber. It is therefore to be expected that as time
goes on the quality of " plantation " rubber will improve, and
there would seem to be no reason why it should not eventually
be fully equal to that of the " wild " rubber.
In 1909 the total production of rubber is stated to have
been about 70,000 tons, of which more than one-half came
from tropical America, about one-third from Africa, whilst
the remainder was chiefly of Asiatic origin, including " planta-
tion " rubber from Ceylon and Malaya, which amounted to
about 3000 tons.
Chiefly owing to the supplies of " wild " rubber which are
still available, comparatively little has been done until recently
in establishing plantations either in Africa or in tropical America,
but in Asia, including Ceylon, India and Malaya, in which
there are relatively few important naturally-occurring rubber
plants, there has been for some years great activity in forming
plantations of rubber trees introduced mainly from tropical
America, and there are now many millions sterling of British
capital invested in companies established to form rubber
plantations chiefly in Ceylon and Malaya. Each year should
therefore show an increase in the production of plantation
rubber. No trustworthy estimate of the rate of the increase
of production can, however, be formed, as several uncertain
economic factors have to be taken into account. Among
these are the precise extent of demand, the limit of the inevit-
able fall in price with largely increased production, the cost
of labour as increasing amounts are required, and the effect of
changed conditions on the output of " wild " rubber and the
competition of the new plantations which are being established
in tropical America.
There can be little doubt that with a fall in price further
uses for rubber would arise, leading to an increased demand,
and among them may be mentioned its utilization as a road
material. Difficulties in the supply of labour in the East
may hinder the further development of the rubber-planting
industry, especially at a period when a reduction in the cost
of production may be the chief problem. In 1909 the average
cost of producing " plantation " rubber in Ceylon and Malaya
RUBBER
PLATE I.
FIG. ii. PARA RUBBER PLANTATION, CEYLON.
FIG. 12. PARA RUBBER TREES, TAP
(Spiral and V Systems.)
xxm. 796.
From Pkototrapks in the Collections of the Imptrial Institute.
PLATE II.
RUBBER
FIG. 13. CEARA RUBBER TREE.
FIG. 14. CASTILLOA RUBBER TREES.
FIG. is.FICUS ELASTICA.
FIG. 16.FUNTUMIA ELASTICA.
From Photographs in the Collections of the Imperial Institute,
RUBBER
797
may be stated approximately to have been from lod. to is.
per lb. The cost of collecting " wild " rubber is less easy to
state with any approach to accuracy, since the cost varies in
different districts of S. and Central America, but the average
cost is stated not to be less than is. per lb. In Africa the cost
of collection is much less, but the rubber is generally of inferior
quality.
The market price of commercial rubber is determined by the
current price of " fine Para " from S. America. This is subject
to considerable fluctuation, 'and varied in 1900 to 1908 from
2s. lod. to 53. gd. a lb. As much as 6s. 9d. per lb was given
for specially prepared " plantation Para." Towards the latter
part of 1904 the price of fine Para reached a high level and then
considerably declined, reaching in 1907-8 a lower figure than had
been recorded since 1900. At the beginning of 1908 the price
gradually rose again to the neighbourhood of 45. a lb. During
1909, without any serious decline in production, the price rapidly
rose, owing to extraordinary causes, to about IDS. a lb, and in
the early part of 1910 rose to over izs. a lb, and subsequently
fell to about half this price. Having regard to the present cost
of producing " plantation " rubber, and to the probability that,
apart from a possible increase in the price of labour, this cost
is susceptible of further reduction, it may be concluded that
rubber production will continue to be profitable even should a
considerable fall in market value take place.
The Principal Rubber Trees, their Cultivation, and the Prepara-
tion of Rubber. Most commercial rubber is derived from natural
supplies, from the wild rubber trees of S. and Central America,
India and Africa. Each year, however, the output of " planta-
tion " rubber will show a considerable increase, and it is to be ex-
pected that ultimately this will form the chief source of supply,
unless unforeseen circumstances should arise to interfere with
the development of the plantation industry, which has been
vigorously started chiefly with European capital in the tropical
possessions of Great Britain, France and Germany. The best
rubber is now obtained from large trees, of which the following
are the more important:
1. " Para " rubber, which takes the first position in the market,
is derived from species of Hevea, principally Hevea brasiliensis, of
which there are enormous forests in the valleys of the Amazon and
its tributaries, and also in Peru, Bolivia, Venezuela and Guiana.
In Brazil alone it is stated that the rubber area amounts to at least
one million sq. m. The tree has been recently planted with great
success especially in Ceylon and Malaya (Plate I. figs. II and 12).
2. " Ceara " or Manigoba rubber is derived from species of
Manihot, chiefly Manihot Glaziovii, a native of S. America especi-
ally abundant in Brazil, and successfully introduced into other
countries (Plate II. fig. 13). The latex of this tree flows less freely
than that of Hevea brasiliensis, and the collection of large quan-
tities of the latex is attended with considerable difficulty. The
latex is therefore usually allowed to coagulate on the tree, as it
slowly exudes from the incision. On this account it is often exported
in strings or " scrap " and .not usually in biscuits or balls. Partly
for this reason and partly because pieces of wood and dirt are apt
to be included with the scrap, the market value of Ceara rubber is
usually less than that of Para. The plantations of Manihot estab-
lished in E. Africa, Ceylon and S. India have, however, begun to
furnish a better quality of Ceara rubber, which is often prepared in
biscuit form. Other species of Manihot are also under trial, and
some give promise of good results, especially M. dichotoma and
M. heptaphylla.
3. The " Ule " rubber of Central America and British Honduras
originates from Caslilloa elaslica. In S. America its natural occur-
rence appears to be limited to west of the Andes, but the tree is
abundant in Mexico, Guatemala and Nicaragua. The rubber comes
into commerce in thick strips or sheets or as " scrap." The rubber
is usually dark in colour and is often contaminated with proteid
impurities derived from the latex. Ule rubber is generally inferior
in strength to Para and commands a lower price. The Castilloa
tree has been experimentally planted in Ceylon, the West Indies
and other countries (Plate II. fig. 14).
Other trees occurring in S. America which furnish rubber of
secondary commercial importance are Hancornia speciosa, yielding
the Mangabeira rubber of Brazil, and species of Sapium furnishing
the Colombian rubber and much of the rubber of Guiana (derived
from Sapium Jenmani), which is scarcely inferior to the rubber of
Para.
4. " Rambong " or Assam rubber is the produce of Ficus elastica,
commonly known as the indiarubber tree and cultivated in Europe
as an ornamental plant. This tree, indigenous to Asia, attains large
dimensions in India, Ceylon and the Malay Archipelago (Plate II.
fig. 15). It furnishes most of the lubber of India, Sumatra and
Java. Although intrinsically of excellent quality, Kambong rubber,
owing to the careless method of collection practised by the natives
which leads to the inclusion of much impurity, usually fetches a
lower price than Para. The tree has been introduced into W.
Africa and Egypt, but has not proved very successful in Africa as a
rubber producer.
5. " Lagos " rubber is the produce of the African rubber tree Fun-
tumia elastica, which is indigenous to Africa from Uganda to W. Africa
(Plate II. fig. 16). It is known as the silk rubber tree, probably on
account of the silky hairs which are attached to the seeds. The
latex, which is usually coagulated by standing or by heating, is
obtained from incisions in the bark of the tree. The rubber is of
good quality, though, owing to the method of preparation adopted,
the product is often impure and discoloured, and consequently
usually brings a lower price than the best rubbers of commerce.
6. Besides the trees described above, a number of climbing plants
or vines belonging to the Apocyanaceae secrete a latex which
furnishes rubber of good quality. These vines are less satisfactory
than trees as rubber producers, owing to the readiness with which
they are injured and destroyed by careless tapping, and to the
difficulty of regulating these methods in the case of vines distributed
over enormous areas of forest. Of these vines the most important
are the species of Landolphia which occur throughout tropical
E. Africa. The rubber is obtained by incising the stems of the
vines and coagulating the latex by exposure, by admixture with
acid vegetable juices or by heating. Landolphia rubber is usually
roughly prepared and in consequence commands a low price. The
vines of species of Clitandra and Carpodinus in W. Africa also
furnish good rubber, as do the Forsteroma gracilis of British Guiana
and Forsteronia floribunda of Jamaica. Vines resembling Lan-
dolphias are widely distributed in Asia. Among these are species
of Willughbeia and Leuconotis, from which much of the rubber
exported from Borneo is derived; Parameria glandulifera, common
in Siam and Borneo, and Urceola esculenta and Cryplostegia grandi-
flora, both common in Burma.
Among other sources from which rubber is commercially obtained
may be mentioned the Guayule plant (Parthenium argentatum) of
Mexico, and the " Ecanda plant of Portuguese W. Africa, from
the tuberous roots of which rubber is extracted by the natives.
The " Ecanda " plant has been named Raphionacme utilis. The
root rubber prepared by the natives of the Congo and the S. Sudan
is extracted partly from the roots of Landolphia or from the rhizomes
of Landolphia Thollonii or Carpodinus lanceolatus. It is obtained
by breaking up the roots or rhizomes in hot water and separating
the rubber, and machines have now been devised for this purpose.
Little is at present known of the large rubber tree of Tonkin (Bleck-
rodea tonkinensis) , the latex of which is stated to furnish excellent
rubber.
SOURCES OF COMMERCIAL RUBBER
i. PARA RUBBER is so named from the Para province of Brazil,
from the principal town of which, also known as Para, most of the
rubber is shipped. This rubber is obtained chiefly from Hevea
brasiliensis, Mull. Arg., a large euphorbiaceous tree upwards of
60 ft. in height, and having trifoliate leaves, the leaflets being
lanceolate and tapering at both ends (fig. i). The trunk reaches
about 8 ft. in circumference. _ The flowers are usually pale green.
The fruit is a capsule containing three seeds rather larger than
cobnuts, having a brown smooth surface figured with black
patches. The seeds readily lose their vitality, and on this account
need special care in transport. They should be loosely packed in
dry soil or charcoal. These seeds have been examined at the
Imperial Institute, and the kernels have been found to contain
nearly half their weight (48%) of an oil resembling linseed oil
and applicable for the same purposes. The residue or " cake "
left after expression of the oil is apparently nutritious and may
prove to be of value for feeding animals. There is present in the
seeds an enzyme which rapidly decomposes the oil if the seeds are
crushed and kept, setting free a fatty acid and glycerin. As the
seeds are very abundant, they will probably be utilized commercially
as soon as the demand for planting has subsided.
In Brazil the trees are found in different districts, but flourish best
on rich alluvial clay slopes by the side of rivers, where there is a
certain amount of drainage, and the temperature reaches from
89 F. to 94 F. at noon and is never cooler than 73 F. at night, while
rain falls during about six months and the soil and atmosphere are
moist throughout the year. The genus Hevea was formerly called
Siphonia, and the tree named Pao de Xerringa by the Portuguese,
[rom the use by the Omaqua Indians of squirts or syringes made from
a piece of pipe inserted in a hollow flask-shaped ball of rubber. The
trees are not generally tapped until they are ten to fifteen years
old, as young trees yield inferior rubber. If carefully conducted,
tapping does not injure the tree. The latex is collected in the
so-called dry season between June and February. The trees are
tapped in the early morning when the latex is most readily obtained.
RUBBER
To obtain the latex, deep incisions are made near the base of the tree
extending up the trunk. Small shallow cups are placed below the
FIG. i. Hevea brasiliensis (\ nat. size).
incisions to receive the milk, each cup being attached by sticking
a piece of soft clay to the tree and pressing the cup against it.
The latex, of which each tree yields only about 6 oz. in three
days, has a strong ammoniacal odour, which rapidly disappears,
and in consequence of the loss of ammonia the latex will not keep
for longer than a day unchanged ; hence when it has to be carried to
a distance from the place of collection, 3 % of ammonia solution is
added. The latex usually furnished about 30% of rubber.
To obtain the rubber, the latex is usually treated in the following
manner. A piece of wood about 3 ft. long, with a flattened end
forming a kind of paddle, is dipped in the milk, or this is poured over
it as evenly as possible. The milk is then carefully dried by turning
the mould round and round in the smoke produced by burning
wood mixed with certain oily palm nuts; those of A ttalea excelsa are
considered best, the smoke being confined within certain limits
by the narrowness of the neck of the pot in which the nuts are
heated. The creosote and other products from the smoke no doubt
act antiseptically and prevent to a large extent the subsequent
putrefaction of the prpteids retained by the coagulated rubber.
Each layer of rubber is allowed to become firm before forming
another; a practised hand can make 5 or 6 lb in an hour. In some
districts a stout stick is substituted for the paddle, on which the
rubber as it coagulates is wound cylindrically. The rubber thus
prepared is the finest that can be obtained. The cakes when
completed are, in order to remove them from the mould, slit open
with a sharp knife, which is kept wet, and are hung up to dry. The
flat rounded cakes of rubber made in this manner are known in the
London market as " biscuits. " They retain about 15 % of moisture.
The scrapings from the tree, which contain fragments of wood, are
mixed with the residues of the collecting pots and the refuse of the
vessels employed, and are made up into large rounded balls, which
form the inferior commercial quality called " negrohead, " and often
contain 25 or 35% of impurity. The yield of rubber varies, but
it is stated on an average to be 10 ft of rubber per tree, and if care-
fully tapped one tree will yield this amount for many years in
succession.
Plantations of Hevea brasiliensis. Hevea brasiliensis was intro-
duced to Ceylon and Singapore from seedlings raised at Kew from
Brazilian seed, specially collected by Mr H. A. Wickham in S.
America. The seedlings rapidly developed and in most places in
which they were planted grew into large trees which furnished
satisfactory latex when tapped in their sixth or seventh year. Ever
since plantations of Hevea have been made on an increasing scale in
the Straits Settlements, the Federated Majay States and in Ceylon,
and at the present time rubber plantations form the principal
industry in these colonies. Successful plantations of Hevea have
also been established in Java, Sumatra and Borneo. Many of these
plantations have not yet reached the productive stage that is, the
sixth or seventh year. A large number of plantations in British
Malaya and Ceylon are now actively exporting increasing quantities
of rubber. Hevea seedlings were also introduced into India, but did
not apparently succeed except in Burma and S. India.
It may be estimated that between one and two million acres
of land in the different countries referred to have been already
appropriated for rubber plantations. Plantations are also being
formed in British, French and German possessions in W. Africa
and in the Congo, also in the tropical portions of Australia. In
certain districts of British W. Africa the Hevea which has been
planted promises well, especially in the Gold Coast, where good
yields of latex are stated to have been obtained.
It may be useful to summarize here the experience which has been
gained in the formation of plantations of Hevea and in the production
of rubber.
Hevea brasiliensis as a rule flourishes to the greatest extent at low
altitudes on rich soil capable of retaining moisture. The nature
of the soil appears, however, to be of secondary importance, provided
that it is able to hold moisture and that climatic conditions of high
and even temperature with considerable rainfall and absence of
wind are satisfied. Although the tree is sensitive to such conditions,
it appears to possess a certain capacity of adaptation which should
be borne in mind. Generally a low altitude is desirable, but good
results have been obtained in Ceylon in sheltered positions at
elevations of 3000 ft. and over, although at higher altitudes the
growth of these trees appears to be slower. In many plantations
besides catch crops (cassava, sesame, ground-nuts, &c.) other
crops, such as tea, coffee, cocoa and tobacco, are grown
with rubber. It is improbable, except in the early stages of
the rubber tree, that this procedure will succeed; the rubber will
ultimately dominate the position to the detriment and ultimate
extinction of the other crop, whilst the growth of the rubber tree
will be retarded. A partial exception may perhaps be made in the
case of cocoa, when the two plants are placed not too closely in
about equal numbers. In these circumstances it appears that
satisfactory results may be obtained from both crops, at any rate for
a certain number of years.
The experience of planters in general is in favour of the complete
removal of weeds from a rubber plantation. This practice, which
involves periodical weeding, adds considerably to the cost of
maintaining plantations, and, although justified so far by results,
possesses several other disadvantages. During the tropical rains
the soil is liable, to a greater or less extent, to denudation, which
becomes very serious when the land slopes; and in any case, the soil
is apt to become impoverished by the loss of its soluble constituents.
These disadvantages are at their maximum when the rubber trees
are quite young. At a later stage the shade of the large trees
compensates to a considerable extent for the absence of cover on the
ground. Another disadvantage of uncovered soil in a plantation of
young rubber trees is that the ground under the heat of a tropical
sun rapidly loses its moisture. For this reason proposals have been
made to plant in the place of weeds low-growing leguminous plants,
the growth of which will not only prevent impoverishment and loss of
soil during the rains and conserve moisture in the heat, but will
also have the effect of enriching the soil in nitrogenous constituents
through the power leguminous plants possess of absorbing nitrogen
from the air through nodules on their roots. Among the plants
which are being tried for this purpose are various species of Crotolaria,
passion-flower, and the well-known sensitive plant of the East.
The success of the method cannot yet be judged, but the experiment
is one which deserves very full trial.
One of the most important subjects in connexion with rubber
plantations is the
method to be adopted
in tapping the trees
for latex. The native
methods in vogue in
Brazil and Mexico are
primitive and often in-
jurious to the tree. At
present it cannot be
said that finality has
been reached on the
subject of the best
method, giving a good
return of latex with a
minimum of damage to
the tree. A method
at one time largely
adopted was to make a
series of V-shaged in-
cisions on four sides of
the tree to a height of
about 6 ft. from the base
that is, within the
reach of an ordinary
man without the need
for ladder or scaffold-
ing; the latex obtained -
from the upper part
of the tree is said
to furnish less rubber
and of poor quality.
The latex is collected in cups placed at
FIG. 2. Tapping, herring-bone system.
the
Other systems are the herring-bone plan of
apex of each V.
a vertical channel
RUBBER
799
with lateral connecting channels about I ft. apart at an angle
of about 45, the latex being collected in cups placed at the base
of the vertical channels (fig. 2) ; the spiral system, in which a
series of spiral grooves are cut all round the trunk, by which means
virtually the entire area of the trunk is tapped. In some instances
a combination of. these methods is employed. The V-system is the
oldest, but is being largely superseded by the herring-bone; the
spiral system is more recent and is still on trial.
Instead of the axe or large knives which frequently inflicted serious
damage to the trees, special small knives and prickers are now
employed so constructed as to avoid injury to the tree through
making a larger incision than is necessary, and without penetrating
into the wood below the laticiferoMs layer. It is possible to_tap or
prick' trees daily for a number of years without apparent injury,
but the practice of tapping on alternate days appears to be safer
and to afford equally satisfactory if not better results. The yield
of latex is at first small, but increases with successive tappings,
which appear to stimulate the local production of latex, and finally
reaches a maximum.
When the bark has been removed a period of from three to four
years must elapse before it is so fully renewed as to render fresh
incisions possible. In the case of a tree from seven to ten years old,
tapping is so arranged that by the time the last incisions on the
original growth are made, the new growths on other portions are at
least four years old, and ready for new incisions to be made. Too
frequent tapping leads to the production of latex poor in caoutchouc,
whilst tapping of trees before they are six or seven years old, and
from 20-25 in- in circumference, produces inferior rubber. As a
rule, an annual yield of more than 1-2 Ib of rubber per tree must not
be looked for from recent plantations, although much higher yields
up to 10-15 R> an d over Per tre 5 are recorded from S. America, and
it is therefore probable that with greater experience as to the best
methods of tapping and with older trees considerably larger yields
may be expected from plantations in the future. An average of
150 trees to the acre (20X15 ft.) and a yield of ij Ib of rubber per
annum per tree at 2s. 6d. per Ib gives the result of 28, 2s. 6d. per
acre. The cost of production may be assumed to be about is. per ft),
to which has to be added the expense of transport. The cost of
clearing forest land and planting with rubber in Ceylon is estimated
at about too Rs. per acre in the first year, and from 20-30 Rs. per
acre in subsequent years until the sixth year, when the plantation
would begin to be productive.
The point of next importance is the coagulation of the latex so
as to produce rubber in the form and of the quality required by the
manufacturer. The primitive methods of coagulation and curing
practised in S. America undoubtedly are susceptible of considerable
improvement, and certainly waste can be reduced to a minimum.
It is, however, important to remember that rough as these native
methods are they result in the production of rubber which commands
the highest price. As the removal of the impurities of the latex is
one of the essential points to be aimed at, it was thought that the
use of a centrifugal machine to separate the caoutchouc as a cream
from the watery part of the latex would prove to be a satisfactory
process. This method is said to answer well with the latex of
Castilloa, but it appears to be inapplicable to the latex of Hevea,
which does not cream readily when centrifugalized.
The plan usually adopted is to collect the latex in rectangular
tanks or casks. It is then coagulated by the addition of an acid
liquid, acetic acid or lime juice being generally employed, and
the mixture allowed to stand. The coagulated rubber separates
as a mass of spongy caoutchouc. If the coagulation has been
effected in shallow dishes, the rubber is obtained in a thin cake of
similar shape known as a " biscuit."
The rubber thus formed is washed and dried. The coagu-
lated rubber separated from the watery fluid is cut up into small
pieces and passed through the grooved rollers of the washing
machine, from which it issues in sheets, long crinkled ribbons or
" crepe," which are then dried in hot air chambers or in a vacuum
dryer, by which means the water is dissipated at a lower temperature.
In order to prevent decomposition of any proteid impurity which
may remain incorporated with the rubber, the freshly coagu-
lated rubber is sometimes cured in the smoke of burning wood or
a small quantity of an antiseptic such as creosote is added during
coagulation.
Plantation rubber comes into commerce in the form of the crinkled
ribbons known as crSpe, in sheets or biscuits, and sometimes in large
blocks made by compressing the cre"pe rubber. Block rubber is
considered to possess certain advantages in securing a constant
proportion of water, and in being satisfactory for transport. The
best condition and form in which to export rubber cannot be regarded
as settled. The probabilities are that in the end the production of
a rubber as nearly as possible free from water and impurities and of
constant composition will be realized as best meeting the require-
ments of the modern manufacturer. The need for scrupulous
cleanliness in the preparation of rubber is now recognized, and the
arrangements of a rubber factory in Ceylon or Malaya are comparable
with those of the modern dairy.
In the present transition stage of rubber production it is necessary
for the manufacturer in Europe to wash all rubber. He receives
both the wild rubber containing variable quantities of impurity and
the purer plantation rubber, the latter, however, in much smaller
amount. The fact that at present washing machinery exists in
all European factories and that most of the rubber received needs
washing, leads to the greater purity of plantation rubber, except
for special purposes, being generally discounted by the manufacturer.
As soon as the output of plantation rubber of constant composition has
reached much larger dimensions it is probable that the manufacturer
will be able to dispense with washing. This will operate to the
advantage of plantation rubber and against the wild rubber, so
long as the latter is not exported in a purer condition.
So far the Hevea plantations in Ceylon and the East have not
been seriously troubled by insect or fungoid pests, and those which
have occurred have succumbed to proper treatment. The most
serious trouble has been occasioned in the Malay States by a white
thread-like fungus (Fames semitostus) which attacks the roots of
the Hevea tree and eventually kills it. The development of this
fungus is greatly promoted by the presence of decaying stumps
and wood in the plantation. Vigorous measures are now taken in
many plantations to remove all old wood and to extract stumps
of old trees, which in the first instance it was considered unneces-
sary to remove.
2. Manihot Glaziomi belonging to the Euphorbiaceae is the tree
of N.E. Brazil which furnishes Ceara or Manicoba rubber (fig. 3).
It is closely related to
the Manioc, cassava or
tapioca plant (Manihot
utilissima) which it re-
sembles when young
and exhibits a similar
tuberous root system.
The tree grows well on
dry and rocky soil with-
out rain for a con-
siderable period of the
year, and flourishes at
high altitudes up to
about 4000 ft. It is
therefore adapted for
conditions which are
unsuitable for Hevea.
The tree grows about
30 ft. high, with a
rounded head of foliage,
and greyish -green 3 to
7-lobed palmate leaves,
somewhat resembling the
leaves of the castor-oil
plant in shape and size.
The seeds (fig. 3), which
are abundant and retain FIG. 3. Manihot Glaziomi. I, branch
their vitality well, have w ; t h flowers (\ nat. size); 2, fruit;
a hard thick coat. The 3, seed (J nat. size),
seeds take a year to
germinate, unless the edges near the end bearing the caruncular
projecting are rasped oft. Cuttings, if they have a single bud,
strike readily.
The trees are tapped when they are about five years old. The
mode of collecting the rubber is as follows. After brushing away
the loose stones and dirt from the root of the tree by means of a
handful of twigs, the collector lays down large leaves for the latex
to drop upon. He then slices off the outer layer of the bark to the
height of 4 or 5 ft. The latex, which exudes slowly and in many
tortuous courses, some of it ultimately falling on the ground, is
allowed to remain on the tree for several days, until it becomes
dry and solid, when it is pulled off in strings, which are either
rolled up into balls or put into bags in loose masses, in which form
it enters commerce under the name of Ceara " scrap." Ceara
rubber is also exported in the form of lumps and cakes. The annual
yield of rubber is rather more than I Ib per tree. The latex coagulates
readily, especially if churned or if diluted with water, when a purer
rubber is obtained.
The Manihot tree has been widely introduced into other countries,
and appears to succeed wherever the rainfall is not excessive. In
Ceylon and in some parts of India, especially in Madras, it has
succeeded well. In W. Africa the tree flourishes, but it is under
trial as a rubber producer. The Manihot tree also promises well
in E. Africa, Nyasaland and the Mozambique. The pure Ceara
rubber, as for example the " biscuits " prepared in Ceylon, is of
excellent Quality, scarcely if at all inferior to Para. That derived
from Brazil, however, is generally inferior, being mixed with wood
and dirt. The cultivation and collection of the rubber being
troublesome, it is unlikely to be attended to in those countries in
which Hevea is successful.
3. The source of " Ule " rubber exported from Central America,
and of the " Caucho " rubber of Peru is Castilloa elastica, Cerv.,
a lofty tree, N. O. Urticaceae, with a trunk 3 ft. or more in diameter,
and large hairy oblong lanceolate leaves often 18 in. long and 7 in.
wide (fig. 4). The tree grows most abundantly in a sporadic manner
8oo
RUBBER
in the dense moist forests of the basin of the Rio San Juan, where
the rain falls for nine months in the year. It prefers rich fertile
soil on the banks of watercourses,
but does not flourish in swamps. It
is found also in Costa Rica, Guate-
mala, Honduras, Mexico, Cuba and
Hayti, and in Panama with another
species of Castilloa, and on the W.
coast of S. America down to the slopes
of Chimborazo; the Cordilleras of
the Andes separating the Castilloas
from the Heveas of Brazil.
In Nicaragua the latex is collected
in April, when the old leaves begin to
fall and the new ones are appearing,
during which time the latex is richest.
The tree is tapped either in the same
manner as the Hevea, or by encircling
the tree with a simple spiral cut at
an inclination of 45, or by two
parallel spirals if the tree be large.
At the bottom of the spiral an iron
spout about 4 in. long is driven into
the tree, and the milk is received in
iron pails. A tree 20 to 30 ft. high to
its first branches, and about 4 ft. in
diameter, is expected to yield annually
20 gallons of milk, each gallon giving
about 2 Ib of rubber. In the evening
the milk is strained through a wire
sieve and transferred to barrels. The
FlG. 4. Castilloa elastica. milk, which is acid, is coagulated by
i, leaf; 2, twig with the addition of the alkaline juice of
male flowers; 3, twig the " achete " plant, or of another
with female flowers; plant called " coasso." The strained
4, seed. _ 1-3, J nat. size; juice of either of these plants, ob-
4, nat. size. tained by bruising the moistened herb
and subsequent expression, is added
to the milk in the proportion of about I pint to the gallon.
In British Honduras an alkaline decoction prepared from the
Moon plant (Calonictyon speciosum) is used for the same purpose.
If these plants are not procurable, two parts of water are
added to one of the milk, and the mixture allowed to stand
for twelve hours. The coagulum is next flattened out by a
wooden or iron roller to get rid of the cavities containing watery
liquid, and the sheets are then hung up for fourteen days to dry,
when they weigh about 2 Ib, the sheets being usually ^ to j in.
thick and 20 in. in diameter. When coagulated in water, the mass
is placed in vats in the ground and allowed to dry, this taking place
in about a fortnight. It is then rolled into balls. That which dries
on the incisions in the tree is called " bola " or " burucha," and
is said to be highly prized in New York. The loss of Nicaragua
rubber in drying is estimated at 15%. It is exported chiefly from
San Juan del Norte, or Grey Town, and the larger proportion goes
to the United States. The Castilloa tree appears to be suitable for
cultivation only in districts where the Para rubber would grow
equally well. The tree is ready for tapping at about the same age
as Hevea and the average yield of rubber is about the same. Since
the latex " creams " readily the rubber can be separated from the
latex by centrifugalizing, and its quality and market value thus
.enhanced. Much of the native Castilloa rubber is of inferior quality.
The tree has been introduced into S. India, Ceylon and the W. Indies,
where it has succeeded well, especially in Trinidad and Tobago. It
is also under trial in E. and W. Africa and Nyasaland. Several other
species of Castilloa than C. elastica are known to furnish rubber, but
little has been recorded as to their advantages.
4. Funtumia elastica (formerly known as Kickxia or Kixia
elastica) is the W. African (Ire or Irai or Lagos) rubber tree, which
belongs to the Apocynaceae, a natural order which includes the
Landolphia vines as well as other rubber producers. It is a large
forest tree of upright habit extending to 60 or 70 ft. in height and
3 to 4 ft. in diameter. The bright green, glabrous leaves are broad
and oblong, about 6 in. in length (see fig. 5). The flowers are yellow,
and the seeds enclosed in a pod are long and thin with numerous
long silky fibres attached to them, which enable the seeds to be
readily carried by the wind. The trees are common throughout
the central regions of E. and W. Africa (from Uganda to Sierra
Leone). The botanical name is taken from a W. African native
name for a rubber tree " Funtum."
Many of the trees in the accessible forests of W. Africa have
been destroyed by over-tapping and felling. Plantations of Fun-
tumia have been established in several districts, including; the Gold
Coast and S. Nigeria. The trees are tapped on the " herring-bone "
plan and the milk collected in vessels at the base. This "is then
poured into the hollowed-out trunk of a tree, where it is allowed
to stand covered with palm leaves for about a fortnight. The
watery portion of the latex soaks into the trunk, and the soft
spongy rubber which remains is kneaded and pressed into lumps
or balls.
In some districts the collected milk is heated alone or diluted with
water, to coagulate the rubber, but if heated alone an inferior
rubber is apt to result owing to overheating.
FIG. 5. Funtumia elastica (Lagos rubber). I, twig with flowers
(i nat. size) ; 2, part of under side of leaf showing somatia at
d d (about nat. size) ; 3, fruit (about J nat. size).
The Funtumia latex can also be coagulated by the astringent
infusion of Bauhinia leaves or by exposing it in shallow dishes, when
the liquid " creams." The yield of rubber is stated as a rule to
be less than that of Para. The rubber, if properly prepared, is of
excellent quality, and the tree deserves further attention, especially
in those regions of W. Africa which are unsuited to Hevea.
Funtumia africana furnishes a very inferior rubber, which is highly
resinous.
5. Ficus elastica is the tree which produces Rambong or Assam
rubber. It is well known in Europe as a small ornamental tree,
but in the tropics it attains very large dimensions, and de-
velops a system of branching roots which act as buttresses to the
large trunk (see fig. 6). It is a native of India, Burma and the
Malay Archipel-
ago, and is most
abundant in those
regions in which
the climate is dis-
tinctly humid, a
subject to this
condition the tree
flourishes at high
altitudes. In As-
sam and in upper
Burma there are
extensive forests
of Ficus elastica,
but to a large ex-
tent the trees have
been damaged by
careless tapping.
Large plantations
have been formed
by the Govern-
ment of India
both in Assam and
FIG- ^.-Ficus elastica. I, twig (i nat. size);
ported s sdll ob- * ^ion of inflorescence (J nat. size).
tained from the forest trees. It has been found that although the
tree grows well in many different countries and different localities,
it only furnishes a satisfactory yield of rubber in mountainous dis-
tricts, such as those of Assam and certain parts of Ceylon and
Java. The trees are tapped when about ten years old, and as a
rule annually furnish from 5-10 Ib of rubber per tree. The latex
flows fairly well, but is usually allowed to dry on the tree.
The rubber, if of good quality, sells at prices only slightly inferior
to that of Para. When the plantations of Ficus in India are in full
bearing it is possible that this tree may attract more attention, since
the plantation rubber is likely to be of superior quality owing to the
greater care taken in its preparation. It seems at present doubtful,
however, whether the establishment of plantations of Ficus will be
profitable under ordinary conditions in India.
In addition to the trees described above there are numerous
plants of some importance as rubber producers. Among these may
be mentioned the Landolphia vines, which are still the chief source
of African rubber. The vines grow upon forest trees, and the
stems are periodically tapped. There are numerous species of these
climbing plants, of which the most important as furnishing good
rubber are Landolphia owariensis (see fig. 7), which occurs throughout
RUBBER
801
W. Africa and the Sudan, Landolphia Heudelotii of W. Africa,
and Landolphia Kirkii and L'. Dawei, which are found in the forests
FIG. 7. Landolphia owariensis. I, twig with flowers (i nat. size);
2, fruit (J nat. size).
of E. Africa. Other species of Landolphia, including Landolphia
florida, abundant in both E. and W. Africa, furnish rubber of
inferior quality.
Among other shrubs and vines which yield rubber of fair quality
may be mentioned Willughbeia edulis and Urceola elastica and
Parameria glandulifera, which occur in Burma and Malaya.
The Sapiums of Colombia and Guiana are large trees resembling
Hevea, and certain species furnish good rubber, especially the
Sapium Jenmani of Guiana. Most of the native Sapiums have
been destroyed by reckless tapping, and the merits of this genus
have been somewhat overlooked and deserve reinvestigation. The
same applies to certain species of Hevea, other than H. brasiliensis ,
which are known to produce good rubber in tropical America.
Pernambuco or Mangabeira rubber is obtained from Hancornia
speciosa, Gom., an apocynaceous tree common on the S. American
plateau in Brazil from Pernambuco to Rio de Janeiro, at a height of
3000 to 5000 ft. above the sea. It is about the size of an ordinary
apple tree, with small leaves like the willow, and a drooping habit
like a weeping birch, and has an edible fruit like a yellow plum called
" mangaba," for which, rather than for the rubber, the tree is
cultivated in some districts. Only a small quantity of this rubber
comes to England, and it is not much valued, being a " wet " rubber.
It is produced in " biscuits " or " sheets." The caoutchouc is
collected in the following manner: about eight oblique cuts are
made all round the trunk, but only through the bark, and a tin
cup is fastened at the bottom of each incision by means of a piece of
soft clay. The cups when full are poured into a larger vessel, and
solution of alum is added to coagulate the latex. In two or three
minutes coagulation takes place, and the rubber is then exposed to
the air on sticks, and allowed to drain for eight days. About thirty
days afterwards it is sent to market. Pernambuco rubber, as is
the case with most rubbers coagulated by saline solutions, con-
tains a large quantity of water. The tree has been planted in
other countries, but has so far not received much attention. It
will grow on a dry sandy soil, dislikes much moisture, and needs
no shade.
Forsteronia gracilis of Guiana is a climbing plant which also belongs
to the Apocynaceae. Like the Forsteronia flpribunda of Jamaica
it yields rubber of good quality. Ficus Vogelii of W. Africa yields
rubber of variable quality. The production of rubber by this tree
merits further investigation, as it grows readily in nearly every
district of W. Africa and the Sudan.
Specimens of the best known and of many of the lesser known
rubbers are included in the Colonial and Indian Collections and
Sample Rooms of the Imperial Institute, and many of the authentic
specimens have been chemically and technically examined in the
Scientific and Technical Department of the Institute and com-
mercially valued. Reports on many of the lesser known rubbers
have been published in the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.
XXIII. 26
Chemistry of Rubber.
Rubber is chiefly composed of the soft, solid, elastic substance
known as caoutchouc. It is usually assumed that this substance is
present as such in the latex. The globules in the latex, however,
consist more probably of a distinct liquid substance which readily
changes into the solid caoutchouc. The coagulation of the latex
often originates with the " curding " of the proteids present, and this
alteration in the proteid leads to the solidification of the globules
into caoutchouc. The latter, however, is probably a distinct effect.
Under certain conditions, as when latex is allowed to stand or is
centrifugalized, a cream is obtained consisting of the liquid globules,
which may be washed free from proteid without change, but, either
by mechanical agitation or by the addition of acid or other chemical
agent, the liquid gradually solidifies to a mass of solid caoutchouc.
The phenomenon therefore resembles the change known to the
chemist as polymerization, by which through molecular aggregation
a liquid may pass into a solid without change in its empirical com-
position. The effect may, however, also be due to chemical change
known as condensation, and be accompanied by the elimination
of the elements of water. So far the chemical nature of the liquid
globules of the latex is unknown, and the exact character of the
change into solid caoutchouc remains to be determined. The
watery liquid known as rubber milk or latex is an emulsion con-
sisting chiefly of a weak watery solution of proteids, carbohydrates
and salts holding the liquid globules in suspension. In connexion
with the production of rubber the most important factor is the
proportion of caoutchouc it contains. In a good rubber this ranges
from 70-90 % and over. The proportion and nature of the proteids
or albuminous materials varies considerably in different latices.
The proteids should be as far as possible removed during the pre-
paration of the rubber, as these substances are chiefly responsible
for the objectionable smell and colour of " native " rubbers, and
their presence leads to subsequent change in the commercial material.
All crude rubber contains more or less proteid, and in the opinion
of some technical experts its presence even affords strength to the
material, but this cannot be accepted as proved.' The dissolved
salts (potassium, sodium, ammonium, calcium, magnesium, &c.)
of the latex are generally nearly entirely absent from the well-
prepared rubber. Of considerable importance to the value of the
rubber is the absence of the resinous constituents which are present
in greater or smaller proportion in all latices. The presence of more
than a small percentage of resin in the latex leads to th'e production
of rubber containing much resin, which seriously depreciates^ its
commercial value for most purposes. The percentage of resin in a
good rubber should be as small as possible, and should in any case
be less than 10%. There is no feasible method at present known
of preventing the inclusion of the resin of the latex with the rubber
during coagulation, and although the separation of the resin from
the solid caoutchouc by means of solvents is possible, it is not
practicable or profitable commercially. A complete examination
of a series of different latices has shown that, in many cases, e.g.
Hevea and Castilloa, the resin is present in large proportion in the
latex derived from young trees, and diminishes in amount as the
tree ages. This is one reason why young trees should not be tapped.
The composition of latex and of typical rubbers is given below :
RUBBERS
Para Latex
(Ceylon).
%
Water . SS'iS
Caoutchouc 41-29
Proteids . 2-18
Sugar, etc. . 0-36
Ash (salts) . 0-41
Para Ceara Castilloa Picus Laxdolpkia
Rubber Rubber Rubber Elastica Kirkii
(Ceylon). (Ceylon). (Ceylon). (Bengal). (E. Africa).
Caoutchouc 04-6
Resin . 2-66
Proteids . 1-75
Ash . . 0-14
Moisture . 0-85
76.25
10-04
8-05
2-46
3-2
86-19
12-42
0-87
0-20
0.32
%
84-3
0-8
0-8
So- 1
6-9
0-3
7-7
The chemical analysis of crude rubber is an important guide to
its value. At present, however, the methods of analysis usually
employed are not sufficiently delicate to afford all the necessary
information as to the intrinsic value of the higher grades of rubber,
and do not go much beyond the exclusion of inferior rubber. The
tests of the physical properties of crude rubber usually applied to
determine its value in the market are also very rough and cannot
be relied upon. The development of the rubber industry has now
reached a stage at which more exact methods of determining the
chemical composition and physical properties (strength and elas-
ticity) of rubber are required. At present the caoutchouc present
in crude rubber is usually estimated indirectly, and it is possible
that what generally passes as caoutchouc may be in some instances
a mixture of similar chemical substances, which if separated would
be found to differ in those physical properties on which the technical
value of rubber depends.
It is already certain that some commercial rubbers contain a
variable proportion of a substance of the nature of caoutchouc,
but having different properties.
True caoutchouc, the principal constituent of all rubbers, n
probably essentially one and the same substance, from whatever
botanical source it may have been derived. This is an elasti
solid, almost transparent in thin sheets, composed entirely of carbon
and hydrogen, the empirical composition of which is represented by
802
RUBBER
the formula C 6 H>. It thus possesses the same composition as the
hydrocarbon of gutta-percha and as that of oil of turpentine and
other terpenes which are the chief components of essential oils.
The properties of caoutchouc clearly show, however, that its actual
molecular structure is considerably more complex than is repre-
sented by the empirical formula, and that it is to be regarded as the
polymer of a terpene or similar hydrocarbon and composed of a
cluster of at least ten or twenty molecules of the formula CiH.
When solid caoutchouc is strongly heated it breaks down, without
change in its ultimate composition, into a number of simpler liquid
hydrocarbons of the terpene class (dipentene, di-isoprene, isoprene,
&c.), of which one, isoprene (CeHs), is of simpler structure than oil
of turpentine (CioHn), from which it can also be obtained by the
action of an intense heat.
When this volatile liquid hydrocarbon (isoprene) is allowed to
stand for some time in a closed bottle, it gradually passes into a
substance having the principal properties of natural caoutchouc.
The same change of isoprene into caoutchouc may also be effected
by the action of certain chemical agents. It may therefore be said
that caoutchouc has been already artificially or synthetically pre-
pared, and the possibility of producing synthetic rubber cheaply
on a commercial scale remains the only problem. At present
the change of isoprene into caoutchouc is mainly of scientific
interest in indicating possibilities with regard to the conversion of
the liquid globules of the latex into rubber and to the formation
of rubber by plants. The exact chemical nature of caoutchouc is,
however, not determined, and recent researches point to the view
that its molecular structure may even be somewhat different from
that of the terpenes.
The exact manner in which isoprene passes into caoutchouc is
also not understood. These problems are, however, certain to be
solved in the near future, and then probably caoutchouc may be
formed in other ways than from isoprene.
The question as to whether synthetic rubber will ever be produced
cheaply on a commerical scale is therefore the important one for
those who are largely interested in the rubber-planting industry.
No definite answer can be given to this question at the present time.
Its settlement will depend in part on the cost of producing rubber
from plants, which from their point of view it is to the interests of
planters to reduce as far as possible. There are many substances
produced by plants which can be synthetically prepared by chemical
means, but, as with quinine, the process involved is too costly to
enable the synthetic product to compete with the natural product.
The chief properties of caoutchouc and its employment for technical
purposes may now be considered.
Caoutchouc is not dissolved by water or alcohol, and is not affected
except by the strongest acids. Alkalis have little effect on it
under ordinary circumstances, although prolonged contact with
ammonia results in a partial change. The best solvents for rubber
are carbon bisulphide, benzol and mineral naphtha, carbon tetra-
chloride and chloroform. These liquids, either alone or mixed,
are employed in making the rubber solutions used for technical
purposes. Vegetable and other oils rapidly penetrate caoutchouc
and lead to deterioration of its properties. Sulphur when warmed
with caoutchouc combines with it, and on this fact the vulcanization
of rubber depends, and also the production, with an excess of sulphur,
of the hard black material known as vulcanite or ebonite.
Caoutchouc is a soft elastic resilient solid. In this respect it
differs from gutta-percha, which, like caoutchouc, is derived from
the latices of certain plants. The technical value of caoutchouc
chiefly depends on the extent to which it is capable of being stretched
without breaking, and the extent to which it at once returns to its
original dimensions. Caoutchouc is a bad conductor of heat and
electricity, and alone or mixed with other materials is employed
as an electrical insulator.
When caoutchouc is heated slightly above the temperature of
boiling water it becomes softer and loses much of its elasticity,
which, however, it recoveres on cooling. At about I5O-2OO C.
caoutchouc melts, forming a viscous liquid which does not solidify
on cooling. This viscous liquid is present in small proportion in
some commercial rubbers owing to overheating during their pre-
paration. It appears to be the principal cause of stickiness or the
' tacky " condition of some rubbers, which considerably depreciates
their commercial value. There is some evidence that " tackiness "
may be induced by a kind of fermentation which takes place in
crude rubber.
At higher temperatures the viscous liquid suffers decomposition
with the formation of various liquid hydrocarbons, principally
members of the terpene series. Similar products are also formed
by heating gutta-percha which closely resembles caoutchouc in
its chemical structure.
Rubber slowly absorbs oxygen when exposed to air and light,
the absorption of oxygen being accompanied by a gradual change
in the characteristic properties of rubber, and ultimately to the
production of a hard, inelastic, brittle substance containing oxygen.
Ozone at once attacks rubber, rapidly destroying it. If ozone is
passed into a solution of rubber in chloroform the caoutchouc
combines with a molecule of ozone forming a compound of the
empirical composition C 6 H 8 O 8 . When this compound is acted on
by water, hydrogen peroxide and levulinic aldehyde are formed,
the aldehyde being subsequently oxidized by the hydrogen peroxide,
forming levulinic acid. The hydrocarbon of gutta-percha yields
similar results and is therefore closely related to caoutchouc.
The study of the action of .ozone on caoutchouc has thrown new
light on the complex question of the chemical structure of this
substance, and discloses relationships with the sugars and other
carbohydrates from certain of which levulinic acid is obtained by
oxidation.
Caoutchouc, like other " unsaturated " molecules, forms compounds
with chlorine, bromine, iodine and sulphur.
Commercial Treatment of Rubber.
In the industrial working of indiarubber, the various impurities
present in the crude " wild ' rubber (bark, dirt and the principal
impurities derived from the latex, except resin) are removed by the
following process: The lumps of crude caoutchouc are first softened
by the prolonged action of hot water, and then cut into slices
by means of a sharp knife generally by hand, as thus any large
stones or other foreign substances can be removed. The softened
slices are now repeatedly passed between grooved rollers, known
FIG. 8. Roller of Washing Machine.
as washing rollers (fig. 8), a supply of hot or cold water being
made to flow over them. Solid impurities speedily become
crushed, and are carried away by the water, while the rubber
takes the form of an irregular sheet perforated by numerous
holes. The loss on washing ranges from 10-15 % with " fine Para "
to 40 % with other " wild " rubbers. In the future this washing
of wild " rubber may be conducted in the tropics, thus furnishing
the manufacturer with rubber which, like " plantation " rubber,
need not be subjected to this process in the factory. The washed
product contains in its pores a notable proportion of water, which
is removed by hanging the rubber for some days in a warm room.
It is now ready either for incorporation with sulphur and other
materials, or for agglomeration into solid masses by means of the
masticating machine an apparatus which consists of a strong
cylindrical cast-iron casing, inside which there revolves a metal
cylinder with a fluted or corrugated surface. Some of the rubber
having been placed in the annular space between the inner cylinder
and the outer casing, the former is made to revolve; and the
continued kneading action to which the rubber is subjected works
it into a solid mass, something like a gigantic sausage. Before
commencing the mastication it is generally necessary to warm the
apparatus by means of steam; but as the operation proceeds the
heat produced requires to be moderated by streams of cold water
flowing through channels provided for the purpose. The inner
cylinder is generally placed somewhat excentrically in the outer
casing, in order to render the kneading more perfect than would
otherwise be the case.
To convert the masticated rubber into rectangular blocks, it is
first softened by heat, and then forced into iron boxes or moulds.
The blocks are cut into thin sheets by means of a sharp knife, which
is caused to move to and fro about two thousand times per minute,
the knife being kept moistened with water, and the block fed up to it
by mechanical means. Cut sheets are largely used for the fabrica-
tion of certain classes of rubber goods these being made by
cementing the sheets together with a solution of rubber in'" naphtha
or benzol. Most articles made of cut sheet rubber would, however,
be of very limited utility were they not hardened or vulcanized by
the action of sulphur or some compound of that element. After
vulcanization, rubber is no longer softened by a moderate heat, a
temperature of 160 C. scarcely affecting it, nor is it rendered rigid
by cold, and the ordinary solvents fail to dissolve it. It must,
however, be distinctly understood that it is not the mere admixture
but the actual combination of sulphur with indiarubber that causes
vulcanization. If an article made of cut sheet be immersed for a
few minutes in a bath of melted sulphur, maintained at a tempera-
ture of 120 C., the rubber absorbs about one-tenth of its weight of
that element, and, although somewhat yellowish in colour from the
presence of free sulphur, it is still unvulcanized, and unaltered as
regards general properties. If, however, it be now subjected for an
hour or so to a terqperature of 140 C., a combination occurs, and
vulcanized caoutchouc is the result. When a manufactured article
has been saturated with sulphur in the melted sulphur bath, the
heat necessary for vulcanization may be obtained either by high-
pressure steam, by heated glycerin, or by immersion in a sulphur
bath heated to about 140 C. In this last case absorption of the
sulphur and its intimate combination with the rubber occur
simultaneously. Cut sheets, or articles made from them, may be
RUBBER
803
saturated by being laid in powdered sulphur maintained for some
hours at about 1 10 C. Sheets sulphured in this way can be made up
into articles and joined together either by warming the parts to be
united, or by means of mdiarubber solution; after which the true
vulcanization, or " curing," as it is termed, can be brought about
in the usual way.
Another method of vulcanizing articles made from cut sheet
rubber consists in exposing them to the action of chloride of
sulphur. Either they are placed in a leaden cupboard into which
the vapour is introduced, or they are dipped for a few seconds in a
mixture of one part of chloride of sulphur and forty parts of carbon
disulphide or purified light petroleum. Vulcanization takes place
in this instance without the action of heat ; but it is usual to subject
the goods for a short time to a temperature of 40 C. after their
removal from the solution, in order to drive off the liquid which has
been absorbed, and to ensure a sufficient action of the chloride of
sulphur. Treatment with a warm alkaline solution is afterwards
advisable, in order to remove traces of hydrochloric acid generated
during the process. Another very excellent method of vulcanizing
cut sheet goods consists in placing them in a solution of the poly-
sulphides of calcium at a temperature of 140 C. Rubber employed
for the manufacture of cut sheets is often coloured by such pigments
as vermilion, oxide of chromium, ultramarine, orpiment, antimony,
lamp black, or oxide of zinc, incorporation being effected either by
means of the masticator or by a pair of rollers heated internally
by steam, and so geared as to move in contrary directions at unequal
Flo. 9. The Mixing Rollers.
speed (fig. 9). Most of the rub'ber now manufactured is not com-
bined with sulphur when in the form of sheets, but is mechanically
incorporated with about one-tenth of its weight of that substance
by means of the mixing rollers any required pigment or other
matter, such as whiting or barium sulphate, being added. The
mixed rubber thus obtained is readily softened by heat, and can be
very easily worked into any desired form or rolled into sheets by
an apparatus known as the calendering machine. Vulcanization is
then ensured by exposure for half an hour or more to a temperature
of 135-! 50 C., usually in closed iron vessels into which high-
pressure steam is admitted (fig. 10). Tubes are generally made up
around mandrels, and
allowed throughout
the curing to remain
imbedded in pul-
verized French chalk,
which affords a useful
support for many
articles that tend to
lose their shape during
the process. Of late
years a considerable
amount of seamless
tubing has been made,
much in the same way
as lead piping, by
forcing the mixed rub-
ber through a die,
and curing as above.
The calendered sheets
are generally cured
between folds of wet
cloth, the markings of
FIG. io. A Vulcanizer. w hi c h they retain;
and hollow articles, such as playing balls or injection bottles,
are vulcanized in iron or brass moulds, tinned inside and very
slightly greased. Before it is put in, the article is roughly put
together, and the expansion of the included air forces the rubber into
contact with the internal surface of the mould, or a little carbonate
of ammonia is enclosed. Belting intended for driving machinery
is built up of canvas which has been thoroughly frictioned with the
soft mixed rubber, and is cured by placing it in a kind of press kept
by means of steam at a dry heat of about 140 C. Packing for the
stuffing boxes of steam engines is similarly prepared from strips of
rubber and frictioned canvas, as also are the so-called insertion
sheets, in which layers of rubber alternate with canvas or even wire
gauze. Indiarubber stereotypes are now extensively made use of as
hand stamps, and attempts nave been made to introduce them for
press and machine printing. A plaster cast of the type is, when dry,
saturated with shellac varnish and redried. Rubber mixed in the
usual way with about 10% of sulphur is now softened by heat,
forced into the mould, and retained there by pressure during the
operation of curing, which is usually effected in an iron box heated
over a gas burner to 140 C.
The ordinary macintosh or waterproof cloth is prepared by
spreading on the textile fabric layer after layer of indiarubber paste
or solution made with benzol or coal-naphtha. If cotton or linen
is used, it is usual to incorporate sulphur with the paste, and to
effect vulcanization by steam heat; but, when silk or wool is em-
ployed, no sulphur is added to the paste, thedried coating of rubber
being merely brought into momentary contact with the mixture
of chloride of sulphur and carbon disulphide already mentioned.
Double texture goods are made by uniting the rubber surfaces of
two pieces of the coated material. Air goods, such as cushions,
beds, gas bags, and so forth, are made of textile fabrics which have
been coated with mixed rubber either by the spreading process
above described, or by means of heated rollers, the curing being then
effected by steam heat. The manufacture of overshoes and fishing
boots is an analogous process, only the canvas base is more thickly
coated with a highly pigmented rubber of low quality. The articles
are first fashioned by joining the soft material; they are then
varnished, and afterwards cured in ovens heated to about 135 C.
The fine vulcanized " spread sheets " are made by spreading layers
of indiarubber solution, already charged with the requisite pro-
portion of sulphur, on a textile base previously prepared with a
mixture of paste, glue and treacle: Vulcanization is then effected
by steam heat, and, the preparation on the cloth being softened by
water, the sheet of rubber is readily removed. The required thick-
ness of the spread sheet is very often secured by the rubber-faced
surfaces of two cloths being united before curing. The threads
used in making elastic webbing are usually cut from spread sheets.
The manufacture of springs, valves and washers does not require
any very special notice, these articles being generally fashioned out
of mixed rubber, and vulcanized either in moulds or in powdered
French chalk. Rollers are made to adhere to their metal spindles
by the intervention of a layer of ebonite, and after vulcanization
they are turned. In order to make spongy or porous rubber, some
material is incorporated which will give off gas or vapour at the
vulcanizing temperature, such as carbonate of ammonia, crystal-
lized alum, and finely ground damp sawdust. Uncombined sulphur
is injurious, and often leads to the decay of vulcanized goods, but
an excess of sulphur is generally required in order to ensure perfect
vulcanization. Sometimes the excess is partially removed by
boiling the finished goods with a solution of caustic soda, or some
other solvent of sulphur. In other cases the injurious effects of
free sulphur are obviated by using instead of it a metallic sulphide,
generally the orange sulphide of antimony; but, for the best results,
it is necessary that this should contain from 20 to 30 % of uncom-
bined sulphur.
It will thus be seen that for nearly all practical purposes, including
tires, vulcanized rubber mixed with mineral matter is employed!
Such articles contain varying proportions of rubber (l2Hx>%),
about 1-2 % of combined sulphur, and from 25-70 % of mineral
matter. Vulcanized rubber is also now largely used as an electrical
insulator for the construction of cables, &c., instead of gutta-percha.
When the vulcanization of rubber is carried too far, from the
presence of a very large proportion of sulphur and an unduly long
action of heat, the caoutchouc becomes hard, horn-like, and often
black. Rubber hardened by over-vulcanization is largely manu-
factured under the name of ebonite or vulcanite. It is usually
made by incorporating about 40 % of sulphur with purified Borneo
rubber by means of the usual mixing rollers, shaping the required
articles out of the mass thus obtained, and heating for six, eight or
ten hours to from 135 to 150. Ebonite takes a fine polish, and is
valuable to the electrician on account of its insulating properties,
and to the chemist and photographer because vessels made of it are
unaffected by most chemical reagents. A kind of vulcanite which
contains a large proportion of vermilion or other mineral pigment
is used, under the name of dental rubber, for making artificial gums
and supports for artificial teeth.
LITERATURE. Henri Jumelle, Les Plantes & caoutchouc et a
gutta (Paris, 1903); Dr O. Warburg, Les Plantes a caoutchouc el leur
culture (Paris, 1902; French translation by J. Vilbouchevitch) ;
Herbert Wright, Hevea brasiliensis or Para Rubber (Colombo, 1908);
Rubber in the East: the official account of the Ceylon Rubber Exhibi-
tion, 1906, edited by J. C. Willis, M. Kelway Bamber and E. B.
Denham (Colombo, 1906) ; Yves Henry, Le Caoutchouc dans I' Afrique
occidental franfaise (Paris, 1906) ; E. de Wildeman and L. Gentil,
Lianes caoutchoutiftres de VEtat Independent du Congo (Brussels,
1904); C. O. Weber, The Chemistry of Indiarubber (London, 1902);
Selected papers from the Kew Bulletin, iii. " Rubber " (London,
1906); Kew Bulletin, 1906-9; Bulletin of the Imperial Institute,
1903-9. (W. R. D.)
8 04
RUBBLE RUBENS
RUBBLE, broken stone, of irregular size and shape. This
word is closely connected in derivation with " rubbish," which
was formerly also applied to what we now call " rubble." The
earlier Middle English form was robeux or robows. It would
appear that the original is an O. Fr. fobel. Roba (older form
robba) is found in Italian in the sense of refuse, trash. Robba
is explained by Florio as a gown, or mantle, robe, wealth, goods,
trash. The original sense was " spoil" Thus, " robe," " rob,"
" rubbish " and " rubble " are all cognate.
" Rubble- work " is a name applied to several species of
masonry (q.v.). One kind, where the stones are loosely thrown
together in a wall between boards and grouted with mortar
almost like concrete, is called in Italian muraglia di getto and
in French bocage. Work executed with large stones put together
without any attempt at courses is also called rubble.
RUBELLITE, a red variety of tourmaline (q.v.) used as a
gem-stone. It generally occurs crystallized on the walls of
cavities in coarse granitic rocks, where it is often associated
with a pink lithia-mica (lepidolite). The most valued kinds are
deep red; the colour being probably due to the presence of
manganese. Some of the fines^ rubellite is found in Siberia,
whence it is sometimes called siberite, or passes under the
misleading name of " Siberian ruby." The mills at Ekaterin-
burg, where it is cut and polished, draw most of their supplies
from the Ural Mountains chiefly from Mursinka, Sarapulskaya
and Shaitanka, near Ekaterinburg but specimens are occa-
sionally found at Nerchinsk in Transbaikalia. Burma is
famous for rubellite, but little was known as to the conditions
of its occurrence there until after the British annexation, when
the old workings were visited and described by C. Barrington
Brown and by F. Noetling. The pits which yield rubellite
are dug in alluvial deposits in the Mong-long valley, some miles
to the S.E. of Mogok, the centre of the ruby country. It was
here that the Chinese obtained the rubellite so much valued in
China for buttons of the caps of mandarins of certain rank. In
the British Museum there is a remarkable specimen of crystal-
lized rubellite of large size and fine form, but of poor colour, which
was presented by the king of Ava to Colonel Michael Symes on
the occasion of his mission in 1795. Very fine rubellite is found in
the United States, notably at Mount Mica, near Paris, Oxford Co.,
Maine, where the crystals are often red at one end and green at
the other. Mount Rubellite, near Hebron, and Mount Apatite
at Auburn, are other localities in the same state from which
fine specimens are obtained. Chesterfield and Goshen, Mass.,
also yield red tourmaline, frequently associated with green in
the same crystal. Pink tourmaline also occurs, with lepidolite
and kunzite, in San Diego Co., California. In Europe rubellite
occurs sparingly at a few localities, as at San Piero in Elba and
at Penig in Saxony; but the mineral is rarely if ever fit for the
lapidary. (F. W. R.*)
RUBENS, PETER PAUL (1577-1640), Flemish painter, was
born at Siegen, in Westphalia, on the zgth of June 1577. His
father, Johannes Rubens, a druggist, although of humble
descent was a man of learning, and councillor and alderman in
his native town (1562). A Roman Catholic by birth, he became
a zealous upholder of the Reformation, and we find him spoken
of as le plus docte Calviniste qui fust pour lors au Bas Pays.
After the plundering of the Antwerp churches in 1566, the
magistrates were called upon for a justification. While openly
they declared themselves devoted sons of the church, a list
of the followers of the Reformed creed, headed by the name of
Anthony Van Stralen, the burgomaster, got into the hands of
the duke of Alva. This was a sentence of death for the magis-
trates, and Johannes Rubens lost no time in quitting Spanish
soil, ultimately settling at Cologne (October 1568) .with his
wife and four children.
In his new residence he became legal adviser to Anne of
Saxony, the second wife of the prince of Orange, William the
Silent. Before long it was discovered that their relations were
not purely of a business kind. Thrown into the dungeons of
Dillenburg, Rubens lingered there for many months, his wife,
Maria Pypelincx, never relaxing her endeavours to get the
undutiful husband restored to freedom. Two years elapsed
before the prisoner was released, and then only to be confined
to the small town of Siegen. Here he lived with his family
from 1573 to 1578, and here Maria Pypelincx gave birth to
Philip, afterwards town-clerk of Antwerp, and Peter Paul. A
year after (May 1578) the Antwerp lawyer got leave to return
to Cologne, where he died on the i8th of March 1587, after
having, it is said, returned to Roman Catholicism.
Rubens went to Antwerp with his mother when he was
scarcely ten years of age. He was an excellent Latin scholar,
and also proficient in French, Italian, Spanish, English, German
and Dutch. Part of his boyhood he spent as a page in the
household of the countess of Lalaing, in Brussels; but tradition
adds that his mother allowed him to follow his proper vocation,
choosing as his master Tobias Verhaecht. Not the slightest
trace of this first master's influence can be detected in Rubens's
works. Not so with Adam Van Noort, to whom the young
man was next apprenticed. Van Noort, whose aspect of
energy is well known through Van Dyck's beautiful etching,
was the highly esteemed master of numerous painters among
them Van Balen, Sebastian Vrancx, and Jordaens, later his
son-in-law.
Rubens remained with Van Noort for the usual period of
four years, thereafter studying under Otto Vaenius or Van
Veen, a gentleman by birth, a most distinguished Latin scholar
and a painter of very high repute. He was a native of Leiden,
and only recently settled in Antwerp. Though Rubens never
adopted his style of painting, the tastes of master and pupil
had much in common, and some pictures by Otto Vaenius can
be pointed out as having inspired Rubens at a more advanced
period. For example, the " Magdalene anointing Christ's Feet,"
painted for the cathedral at Malaga, and now at the Hermitage
in St Petersburg, closely resembles in composition the very
important work of Otto Vaenius in the church at Bergues near
Dunkirk.
In 1598, Adam Van Noort acting as dean of the Antwerp
gild of painters, Rubens was officially recognized as " master "
that is, was allowed to work independently and receive pupils.
His style at this early period may be judged from the by no
means satisfactory " Holy Trinity " at Antwerp Museum,
which already shows his bold, vigorous handling, and the
" Portrait of a Youth " in the Munich Pinakothek.
From 1600 to the latter part of 1608 Rubens belonged to the
household of Vincenzo Gonzaga, duke of Mantua. The duke,
who spent some time at Venice in July 1600, had his attention
drawn by one of his courtiers to Rubens's genius, and immediately
induced him to enter his service. The influence of the master's
stay at Mantua was of extreme importance, and cannot be too
constantly kept in view in the study of his later works.
Sent to Rome in 1601, to take copies from Raphael for his
master, he was also commissioned to paint several pictures for
the church of Santa Croce, by the archduke Albrecht of Austria,
sovereign of the Spanish Netherlands, and once, when he was
a cardinal, the titular of that see. A copy of " Mercury and
Psyche " after Raphael is preserved in the museum at Pesth.
The religious paintings " The Invention of the Cross," " The
Crowning with Thorns " and " The Crucifixion " are to be
found in the hospital at Grasse in Provence (Alpes Mari times).
At the beginning of 1603, " The Fleming," as he was termed
at Mantua, was sent to Spain with a variety of presents for
Philip III. and his minister the duke of Lerma, and thus had
opportunity to spend a whole year at Madrid and become ac-
quainted with some of Titian's masterpieces. Of his own
works, known to belong to the same period, in the Madrid
Gallery, are " Heraclitus " and "Democritus." Of Rubens's
abilities so far back as 1604 we get a more complete idea from
an immense picture now in the Antwerp Gallery, the " Baptism
of Our Lord," originally painted for the Jesuits at Mantua.
Here it may be seen to what degree Italian surroundings
had influenced the household painter of Vincenzo Gonzaga.
Vigorous to the extreme in design, he reminds us of Michelangelo
as much as any of the degenerate masters of the Roman school,
RUBENS
805
while in decorative skill he seems to be descended from Titian
and in colouring from Giulio Romano. Equally with this
picture, " The Transfiguration," now in the museum at Nancy,
and the portraits of " Vincenzo and his Consort, kneeling before
the Trinity," in the library at Mantua, claim a large share of
attention.
Two years later we meet a very large altar-piece of " The
Circumcision " at St Ambrogio at Genoa, the " Virgin in a Glory
of Angels," and two groups of Saints, painted on the wall, at
both sides of the high altar in the church of Santa Maria in
Valicella in Rome. These works remind us of a saying of
Baglione, who was acquainted with Rubens in Italy: Apprese
egli buon gusto, e diede in una maniera buona Italiana.
While employed "at Rome hi 1608, Rubens received most
alarming news as to the state of his mother's health. The duke
of Mantua was then absent from Italy, but the dutiful son,
without awaiting his return, at once set out for the Netherknds.
When he arrived in Antwerp, Maria Pypelincx was no more.
However strong his wish might now be to return to Italy, his
purpose was overruled by the express desire of his sovereigns,
Albrecht and Isabella, to see him take up a permanent residence
in the Belgian provinces. On the 3rd of August 1609 Rubens
was named painter in ordinary to their Highnesses, with a
salary of 500 livres, and " the rights, honours, privileges, ex-
emptions," &c., belonging to persons of the royal household,
not to speak of the gift of a gold chain. Not least in importance
for the painter was his complete exemption from all the regula-
tions of the gild of St Luke, entitling him to engage any pupils
or fellow-workers without being obliged to have them enrolled
a favour which has been of considerable trouble to the
historians of Flemish art.
Although so recently returned to his native land, Rubens
seems to have been, with one accord, accepted by his country-
men as the head of their school, and the municipality was
foremost in giving him the means of proving his acquirements.
The first in date among the numerous repetitions of the "Adora-
tion of the Magi " is a picture in the Madrid Gallery, measuring
12 ft. by 17, and containing no fewer than eight-and-twenty
life-size figures, many in gorgeous attire, warriors in steel
armour, horsemen, slaves, camels, &c. This picture, painted
in Antwerp, at the town's expense, in 1609, had scarcely re-
mained three years in the town hall when if went to Spain as
a present to Don Rodrigo Calderon, count of Oliva. The
painter has represented himself among the horsemen, bare-
headed, and wearing his gold chain. From a letter written hi
May 1611 we know that more than a hundred young men were
desirous to become his pupils, and that many had, " for several
years," been waiting with other masters until he could admit
them to his studio.
Apart from the success of his works, another powerful motive
had helped to detain the master hi Antwerp his marriage
with Isabella Brant (October 1609). Many pictures have
made us familiar with the graceful young woman who was for
seventeen years to share the master's destinies. We meet her
at the Hague, St Petersburg, Berlin, Florence, at Grosvenor
House, but more especially at Munich, where Rubens and his
wife are depicted at full length on the same canvas. " His
wife is very handsome," observes Sir Joshua Reynolds, "and
has an agreeable countenance;" but the picture, he adds,
" is rather hard in manner." This, it must be noted, is the
case with all those pictures known to have immediately followed
Rubens's return, when he was still dependent on the assist-
ance of painters trained by others than himself. Even hi the
" Raising of the Cross," now hi the Antwerp cathedral, and
painted for the church of St Walburga in 1610, the dryness in
outline is very striking.
According to the taste still at that time prevailing, the
picture is tripartite, but the wings only serve to develop the
central composition, and add to the general effect. In Wit-
doeck's beautiful engraving the partitions even disappear.
Thus, from the first, we see Rubens quite determined upon
having his own way, and it is recorded that, when he painted
the " Descent from the Cross," " St Christopher," the subject
chosen by the Arquebusiers, was altered so as to bring the
artistic expressions into better accordance with his views.
Although the subject was frequently repeated by the great
painter, this first " Descent from the Cross " has not ceased
to be looked upon as his masterpiece. Begun in 1611, the
celebrated work was placed in 1614, and certainly no more
striking evidence could be given of the rapid growth of the
author's abilities. Rubens received 2400 florins for this picture.
In many respects, Italian influence remains conspicuous in
the " Descent from the Cross." Rubens had seen Ricciarelli's
fresco at the Trinita de' Monti, and was also acquainted with
the grandiose picture of Baroccio in the cathedral of Perugia,
and no one conversant with these works can mistake their
influence. But in Rubens strength of personality could not
be overpowered by reminiscence; and in type, as well as in
colouring, the " Descent from the Cross " may be termed
thoroughly Flemish and Rubenesque.
If Sir Dudley Carleton could speak of Antwerp in 1616 as
Magna civitas, magna soliludo, there was no place neverthe-
less which could give a wider scope to artistic enterprise. Spain
and the United Provinces were for a time at peace; almost
all the churches had been stripped of their adornments;
monastic orders were powerful and richly endowed, gilds and
corporations eager to show the fervour of their Catholic faith,
now that the " monster of heresy " seemed for ever quelled.
Gothic churches began to be decorated according to the new
fashion adopted in Italy. Altars magnified to monuments,
sometimes reaching the full height of the vaulted roof, dis-
played, between their twisted columns, pictures of a size hitherto
unknown. No master seemed better fitted to be associated
with this kind of painting than Rubens. The temple erected
by the reverend fathers in Antwerp was almost entirely the
painter's work, and if he did not, as we often find asserted,
design the front, he certainly was the inspirer of the whole
building. Hitherto no Fleming had undertaken to paint
ceilings with foreshortened figures, and blend the religious
with the decorative art after the style of those buildings which
are met with hi Italy, and owe their decorations to masters
like Titian, Veronese and Tintoretto. No fewer than forty
ceiling-panels were composed by Rubens, and painted under his
direction ha the space of two years. All were destroyed by
fire in 1718. Sketches in water-colour were taken some time
before the disaster by de Wit, and from these were made the
etchings by Du Pont which alone enable us to form a judgment
of the grandiose undertaking. In the Madrid Gallery we' find
a general view of the church in all its splendour. The present
church of St Charles hi Antwerp is, externally, with some
alteration, the building here alluded to.
Rubens delighted in undertakings of the vastest kind. " The
large size of a picture," he writes to W. Trumbull in 1621, " gives
us painters more courage to represent our ideas with the utmost
freedom and semblance of reality. ... I confess myself to be,
by a natural instinct, better fitted to execute works of the
largest size." The correctness of this appreciation he was
very soon called upon to demonstrate most strikingly by a
series of twenty-four pictures, illustrating the life of Marie de
Medicis, queen-mother of France. The gallery at the Luxem-
bourg Palace, which these paintings once adorned, has long
since disappeared, and the complete work is not exhibited in
the Louvre. Drawings, it seems, had been asked from Quentin
Varin, the French master who incited Poussin to become a
painter, but Rubens was ultimately preferred. This preference
may in some degree be ascribed to his former connexion with
the court at Mantua, Marie de Medicis and the duchess of
Gonzaga being sisters. From the cradle to the day of her
reconciliation with Louis XIII., we follow Marie de Mdicis
after the manner in which it was customary in those days to
consider personages of superior rank. The Fates for her have
spun the silken and golden thread; Juno watches over her
birth and entrusts her to the town of Florence; Minerva,
the Graces and Apollo take charge of her education; Love
8o6
RUBENS
exhibits her image to the king, and Neptune conveys her across
the seas; Justice, Health and Plenty endow her son; Prudence
and Generosity are at her sides during the regency; and, when
she resigns the helm of the state to the prince, Justice,
Strength, Religion and Fidelity hold the oars. The sketches
of all these paintings now in the Munich Gallery were
painted in Antwerp, a numerous staff of distinguished
collaborators being entrusted with the final execution. But
the master himself spent much time in Paris, retouching the
whole work, which was completed within less than four years.
On the I3th of May 1625, Rubens writes from Paris to his
friend Peiresc that both the queen and her son are highly satis-
fied with his paintings, and that Louis XIII. came on purpose
to the Luxembourg, " where he never has set foot since the
palace was begun sixteen or eighteen years ago." We also
gather from this letter that the picture representing the
" Felicity of the Regency " was painted to replace another,
the " Departure of the Queen," which had caused some offence.
Richelieu gave himself some trouble to get part of the work,
intended to represent the life of Henry IV., bestowed upon
Cavalier d'Arpina, but did not succeed in his endeavours. The
queen's exile, however, prevented the undertaking from going
beyond a few sketches, and two or three panels, one of which,
the " Triumph of Henry IV.," now in the Uffizi Gallery, is
one of the noblest works of Rubens or of any master.
On the nth of May 1625, Rubens was present at the nuptials
of Henrietta Maria at Notre Dame in Paris, when the scaffolding
on which he stood gave way, and he tells us he was just able to
catch an adjoining tribune.
No painter in Europe could now pretend to equal Rubens
either in talent or in renown. Month after month productions
of amazing size left the Antwerp studio; and to those un-
acquainted with the master's pictures magnificent engravings
by Vorsterman, Pontius and others had conveyed singularly
striking interpretations. " Whatever work of his I may
require," writes Moretus, the celebrated Antwerp printer,
" I have to ask him six months before, so as that he may think
of it at leisure, and do the work on Sundays or holidays; no
week days of his could I pretend to get under a hundred
florins."
Of the numerous creations of his brush, none, perhaps,
will more thoroughly disclose to us Rubens's comprehension of
religious decorative art than the " Assumption of the Virgin "
at the high altar of Antwerp cathedral, finished in 1625. It
is, of twenty repetitions of this subject, the only example still
preserved at the place for which it was intended. In spirit
we are here reminded of Titian's " Assunta " in the cathedral
at Verona, but Rubens's proves perhaps a higher conception
of the subject. The work is seen a considerable way off, and
every outline is bathed in light, so that the Virgin is elevated
to dazzling glory with a power of ascension scarcely, if ever,
attained by any master.
Although able to rely so greatly on his power as a colourist,
Rubens is not a mere decorator. He penetrates into the
spirit of his subjects more deeply than, at first sight, seems
consistent with his prodigious facility in execution. The
" Massacre of the Innocents," in the Munich Gallery, is a
composition that can leave no person unmoved mothers
defending their children with nails and teeth. When St Francis
attempts to shelter the universe from the Saviour's wrath
(Brussels Gallery), Rubens recalls to our memory that most
dramatic passage of the Iliad when Hecuba, from the walls of
Troy, entreats her son Hector to spare his life. Rubens was
a man of his time; his studies of Italian art in no way led
him back to the Quattrocentisti nor the Raffaeleschi; their
power was at an end. The influence of Michelangelo, Titian,
Tintoretto, more especially Baroccio, Polidoro, and even
Parmigiano, is no less visible with him than with those masters
who, like Spranger, C. Schwartz and Goltzius, stood high in
public estimation immediately before his advent.
In the midst of the rarest activity as a painter, Rubens
was now called upon to give proofs of a very different kind
of ability. The truce concluded between Spain and the Nether-
lands in 1609 ended in 1621; Archduke Albrecht died the
same year. His widow sincerely wished to prolong the arrange-
ment, still hoping to see the United Provinces return to the
Spanish dominion, and in her eyes Rubens was the fittest person
to bring about this conclusion. The painter's comings and
goings, however, did not remain unheeded, for the French
ambassador writes from Brussels in 1624 " Rubens is here
to take the likeness of the prince of Poland, by order of the
infanta. I am persuaded he will succeed better in this than
in his negotiations for the truce." But, if Rubens was to
fail in his efforts to bring about an arrangement with the
Netherlands, other events enabled him to render great service
to the state.
Rubens and Buckingham met in Paris in 1625; a corre-
spondence of some importance had been going on between
the painter and the Brussels court, and before long it was pro-
posed that he should endeavour to bring about a final arrange-
ment between the Crowns of England and Spain. The infanta
willingly consented, and King Philip, who much objected to
the interference of an artist, gave way on hearing, through his
aunt, that the negotiator on the English side, Sir Balthasar
Gerbier a Fleming by birth was likewise a painter. Rubens
and Gerbier very soon met in Holland. Matters went on very
well, and Rubens volunteered to go to Spain and lay before the
council the result of his negotiations (1628). Nine months
were thus spent at Madrid; they rank among the most im-
portant in Rubens's career. He had brought with him eight
pictures of various sizes and subjects as presents from the
infanta, and he was also commissioned to paint several portraits
of the king and royal family. An equestrian picture of Philip
IV., destroyed by fire in last century, became the subject of a
poem by Lope de Vega, and the description enables us to identify
the composition with that of a painting now in the Palazzo Pitti,
ascribed to Velazquez.
Through a letter to Peiresc we hear of the familiar inter-
course kept up between the painter and the king. Philip
delighted to see Rubens at work in the studio prepared for
him in the palace, where he not only left many original pictures,
but copied for his own pleasure and profit the best of Titian's.
An artistic event of some importance connected with the so-
journ in Spain is the meeting of Rubens and Velazquez, to the
delight, and, it may be added, advantage of both.
Great as was the king's admiration of Rubens as a painter,
it seems to have been scarcely above the value attached to
his political services. He now commissioned the painter to
go to London as bearer of his views to Charles I., and Rubens,
honoured with the title of secretary of the king's privy council
in the Netherlands, started at once on his new mission.
Although he stopped but four days in Antwerp, he arrived
in London just as peace had been concluded with France.
Received by Charles with genuine pleasure, he very soon was able
to ingratiate himself so far as to induce the king to pledge his
royal word to take part in no undertakings against Spain so
long as the negotiations remained unconcluded, and all the
subsequent endeavours of France, Venice and the States found
the king immovable in this resolution. The tardiness of the
Spanish court in sending a regular ambassador involved the un-
fortunate painter in distressing anxieties, and the tone of his
despatches is very bitter. But he speaks with the greatest
admiration of England and the English, regretting that he
should only have come to know the country so late. His
popularity must have been very great, for on the 23rd of
September 1629 the university of Cambridge conferred upon
him the honorary degree of master of arts, and on the 2ist of
February 1630 he^was knighted, the king presenting him with
the sword used at the ceremony, which is still preserved by the.
descendants of the artist.
Although, it seems, less actively employed as an artist in
EnglarM than in Spain, Rubens, besides his sketches for the
decoration of the Banqueting Hall at Whitehall, painted the
admirable picture of " The Blessings of Peace " now in the
RUBENS
807
National Gallery. There is no reason to doubt, with Smith,
that " His Majesty sat to him for his portrait, yet it is not a
little remarkable that no notice occurs in any of the royal
catalogues, or the writers of the period, of the existence of such
a portrait." While in England, Rubens very narrowly escaped
drowning while going to Greenwich in a boat. The fact is
reported by Lord Dorchester in a letter to Sir Isaac Wake
(Sainsbury, cxvi.). At the beginning of March the painter's
mission came to a close.
Rubens was now fifty-three years of age; he had been four
years a widower, and before the end of the year (December
1630) he entered into a second marriage with a beautiful girl
of sixteen, named Helena Fourment. She was an admirable
model, and none of her husband's works may be more justly
termed masterpieces than those in which she is represented
(Munich, St Petersburg, Blenheim, Liechtenstein, the Louvre,
&c.).
Although the long months of absence could not be termed
blanks in Rubens's artistic career, his return was followed by
an almost incredible activity. Inspired more than ever by
the glorious works of Titian, he now produced some of his
best paintings. Brightness in colouring, breadth of touch and
pictorial conception, are specially striking in those works we
know to have been painted in the latter part of his lifetime.
Could anything give a higher idea of Rubens's genius than,
for example, the " Feast of Venus," the portrait of " Helena
Fourment ready to enter the Bath," or the " St Ildefonso "?
This last picture now, as well as the two others just alluded
to, in the Vienna Gallery was painted for the church of the
convent of St Jacques, in Brussels. On the wings are repre-
sented the archdukes in royal attire, under the protection pf
their patron saints. The presence of these figures has led to
some mistake regarding the date of the production, but it has
been proved beyond doubt, through a document published
by Mr Castan (1884), that the " St Ildefonso" (at Vienna-
there is another resembling it at St Petersburg) belongs to the
series of works executed after the journeys to Spain and England.
Archduke Albrecht had been dead ten years. The picture was
engraved by Witdoeck in 1638.
Isabella died in 1633, and we know that to the end Rubens
remained in high favour with her, alike as an artist and as a
political agent. The painter was even one of the gentlemen
she deputed to meet Marie de Medicis at the frontier in 1631,
after her escape from France.
Spain and the Netherlands went to war again, the king never
ceasing to look upon the Dutch as rebels, and much trouble and
suspicion came upon the great artist. As to the real nature of
his communings with Frederick Henry of Orange, whom he is
known to have interviewed, nothing as yet has been discovered.
Ferdinand of Austria, the cardinal-infant of Spain, was
called to the government of the Netherlands on the death of
his aunt. He was the king's younger brother, and arrived at
Antwerp in May 1635. The streets had been decorated with
triumphal arches and " spectacula," arranged by Rubens, and
certainly never equalled by any other works of the kind. 1
Several of the paintings detached from the arches were offered
as presents to the new governor-general, a scarcely known fact,
which accounts for the presence of many of these works in
public galleries (Vienna, Dresden, Brussels, &c.). Rubens was
at the time laid up with gout, but Prince Ferdinand was desirous
of expressing his satisfaction, and called upon the painter, re-
maining a long time at his house. Rubens and Ferdinand
had met at Madrid, and only a short time elapsed before the
painter was confirmed in his official standing a matter of
small importance, if we consider that the last years of his life
were almost exclusively employed in working much more for
the king than for his brother. About a hundred and twenty
1 Many sketches of the arches are still preserved in the museums
in Antwerp, St Petersburg, Cambridge, Windsor, &c. All the
compositions were etched under the direction of Rubens by his
' pupil J. Van Thulden and published under the title of Pompa
introitus honori serenissimi Principis Ferdinandi Austriaci S. R. E.
card, a S. P. Q. Antverp. decreta el ordinata.
paintings of considerable size left Antwerp for Madrid in 1637,
1638 and 1639; they were intended to decorate the pavilion
erected at the Pardo, and known under the name of Torre de
la Parada. Another series had been begun, when Ferdinand
wrote to Madrid that the painter was no more, and Jordaens
would finish the work. Rubens breathed his last on the 3oth
of May 1646.
More fortunate than many artists, Rubens left the world in the
midst of his glory. Not the remotest trace of approaching old age,
not the slightest failing of mind or skill, can be detected even in
his latest works, such as the " Martyrdom of St Peter " at Cologne,
the " Martyrdom of St Thomas " at Prague, or the " Judgment of
Paris " at Madrid, where his young wife appears for the last time.
Rubens has little of the Italian grace and refinement ; he was a
Fleming throughout, noth withstanding his frequent recollections of
those Italian masters whom he most admired, and who themselves
have little, if anything, in common with Raphael. But it must
be borne in mind how completely his predecessors were frozen into
stiffness through italianization, and how necessary it was to bring
back the Flemish school to life and nature. Critics have spoken of
Rubens's historical improprieties. Of course nobody could suppose
that his classical learning did not go far enough to know that the
heroines of the Old Testament or of Roman history were not dressed
out as ladies of his time; but in this respect he only follows the
example of Titian, Paolo Veronese, and many others. In no other
school do we find these animated hunts of lions, tigers, and even
the hippopotamus and the crocodile, which may be reckoned among
the finest specimens of art, and here again are life and nature dis-
Clayed with the utmost power. " His horses are perfect in their
ind," says Reynolds; his dogs are of the strong Flemish breed,
and his landscapes the most charming pictures of Brabantine scenery,
in the midst of which lay his seat of Steen. As a portrait painter,
although less refined than Van Dyck, he shows that eminent master
the way; and his pure fancy subjects, as the " Garden of Love "
(Madrid and Dresden) and the " Village Feast " (Louvre), have
never been equalled.
For nearly one hundred years the Flemish school may be said to
have been but a reflection of the Rubenesque principles. Although
Jordaens and Erasmus Quellin lived till 1678, the school might be
termed a body without soul.
Some etchings have been ascribed to Rubens, but except a head
of Seneca, the only copy of .which is in the Print Room at the
British Museum, and a beautiful figure of St Catherine, we can
admit none of the other plates said to proceed from Rubens as
authentic. Rubens nevertheless exercised an immense influence
on the art of engraving. Under his direct guidance Soutman,
Vorsterman, Pontius, Witdoeck, the two Bolswerts, Peter de Jode,
N. Lauwers, and many others of less note, left an immense number
of beautiful plates, reproducing the most celebrated of his paintings.
To give an idea of what his influence was capable of accomplishing,
pictorially speaking, it might be sufficient to notice the transforma-
tion undergone by the Antwerp school of engraving under Rubens;
even the modern school of engraving, in more than one respect, is
a continuation of the style first practised in Antwerp (see LINE
ENGRAVING). His influence is scarcely less apparent in sculpture,
and the celebrated Luke Fayd'herbe was his pupil.
Never did the Flemish school find a second Rubens. None of
his four sons became a painter, nor did any of his three daughters
marry an artist. According to Rubens's will, his drawings were to
belong to that one of hi> sons who might become a painter, or in
the event of one of his daughters marrying a celebrated artist, they
were to be her portion. The valuable collection was dispersed only
in 1659, and of the pictures sold in 1640 thirty-two became the
property of the king of Spain. The Madrid Gallery alone possesses
over sixty of his works. Four years after her husband s death,
Helena Fourment married J. B. Van Brouckhoven de Bergheyck,
knight of St James, member of the privy council, &c. She died in
1673. In 1746 the male line of Rubens's descendants was completely
extinct. In the female line more than a hundred families of name
in Europe trace their descent from him.
The paintings of Rubens are found in all the principal galleries
in Europe: Antwerp and Brussels, Madrid, Pans, Lille, Dresden,
Berlin, Munich, Vienna, St Petersburg, London, Florence, Milan,
Turin exhibit several hundreds of his works. J. Smith's Catalogue
gives descriptions of more than thirteen hundred compositions.
LITERATURE. A. van Hasselt, Histoire de P. P. Rubens (Brussels,
1840) ; E. Cachet, Lettres inedites de P. P. Rubens (Brussels, 1840) ;
W. Noel Sainsbury, Original Unpublished Papers illustrative of the
Life of Sir Peter Paul Rubens (London, 1859); C. Ruelens, Pierre
Paul Rubens, documents et lettres (Brussels, 1877); Armand Baschet,
" Rubens en Italic et en Espagne," in the Gazette des beaux arts, vols.
xxii. to xxiv. (Paris, 1867-68) ; A. Michiels, Rubens et I'fcole d'Anvers
(Paris, 1877); Cruzada Villaamil, Rubens diplomatico espafiol
(Madrid, 1874) ; Gachard, Histoire politiaue et diplomatique de P. P.
Rubens (Brussels, 1877) ; P. Genard, P. P. Rubens, Aanteekeningen over
den Grooten Meester (Antwerp, 1877) ; Max Rooses, Titres et portraits
graves d'apres P. P. Rubens, pour t'imprimerie plantinienne (Antwerp,
8o8
RUBIACEAE RUBIDIUM
i877); J- Smith, Catalogue raisonne of the Works of the most eminent
Dutch and Flemish Painters, pt. ii. (London, 1 8,50) ; Waagen, Peter
Paul Rubens (translated from the German by R. Noel; edited by
Mrs Jameson, London, 1840); H. Hymans, Histoire de la gravure
dans I'ecole de Rubens (Brussels, 1879) ; C. G. Voorhelm Schneevoogt,
Catalogue des estampes gravies d'apres Rubens (Haarlem, 1873);
Max Rooses, Rubens, sa vie el ses osuvres (Antwerp, 1893); R. A. M.
Stevenson, P. P. Rubens (Portfolio Monograph; London, 1898);
Emile Michel, Rubens: his Life, his Work and his Time (London,
1899) ; H. Knackfuss, Rubens (London, 1904) ; and E. Dillon, Rubens
(London, 1909). (H. H.; P. G. K.)
RUBIACEAE, in botany, a large natural order of seed plants,
belonging to the series Rubiales of the subclass Sympetalae
(Gamopetalae) of Dicotyledons, and containing about 350
genera with about 4500 species. It is mainly a tropical family
of trees, shrubs and herbs, but some of the tribes, especially
Galieae, to which the British representatives belong and which
contains only herbs, are more strongly developed in temperate
regions; some species of Galium reach the Arctic zone and are
found at high elevations on mountains in the tropics.
The most striking characteristic of the family are the opposite-
decussate, generally entire, stipulate leaves. The stipules are very
varied in form ; they generally stand between the petioles of a pair
of leaves (interpetiolar). The two stipules of adjacent leaves are
usually united, and in the Galieae, as well shown in the British
species, are enlarged and leaf-like, forming with the two leaves an
apparent whorl ; by fusion or branching of the stipules the number of
leaves in the whorl varies from four to eight or more. The flowers are
rarely solitary, terminal or axillary, as in Gardenia; generally they
are arranged in cymes or panicles or crowded into heads, and are
often showy; in British members of the family they are very small,
but may be conspicuous from their numbers, as in lady's bedstraw
(Galium verum). The flowers are hermaphrodite and regular with
parts in fours or fives; the four or five sepals, petals and stamens
are placed above the ovary, which consists of two carpels, contains
one to indefinite anatropous ovules in each of the two chambers,
and is crowned by a simple style ending in a head or in two lobes.
The sepals are often small, sometimes reduced to a narrow ring
encircling the top of the ovary or altogether absent. The united
petals form a corolla which varies widely in form in the different
genera; it is often funnel- or salver-shaped, the honey, which is
secreted by a disk round the base of the style, being at the bottom
of a longer or shorter tube, in which case the flowers are adapted
for pollination by Lepidoptera or bees, as in Gardenia, Mussaenda,
Guettarda, &c. ; in other cases it is bell-shaped or, as in Galium,
rotate, with a short tube and sharply spreading segments; the
honey is in these cases freely exposed or only slightly concealed
and the flowers are pollinated by flies. The stamens are attached
to the corolla-tube and alternate in position with its segments;
the flowers are often dimorphic (or heterostyled) with short-styled
and long-styled forms as in ipecacuanha (see fig.).
The fruit also varies widely in form and is dry or fleshy. When
dry it forms a capsule with septicidal or loculicidal dehiscence, or is
a schizocarp separating when dry into two one-seeded pericarps
which, as in the British cleavers (Galium Aparine), sometimes bear
hooked appendages which aid their dispersal.
Some genera show a remarkable association with ants. Thus
Myrmecodia, Hydnophytum are epiphytic plants, in which the base
of the stem forms a large tuber, which is attached to the support by
numerous adventitious roots. The substance of the tuber is pene-
trated by numerous cork-lined cavities communicating by galleries,
which are inhabited by ants. There is no evidence that the presence
of the ants is of any service to the plant.
The order is divided into a large number of tribes based on the
number of ovules in each ovary-chamber, the character of the fruit
seed and ovule, and the aestivation of the corolla. These may be
arranged in three families as follows:
Cinchoneae, often woody plants with scale-like stipules, and
numerous ovules in each ovary-chamber; the fruit is generally a
capsule. To this belong Cinchona (q.v.), a genus of large trees with
handsome flowers containing about forty species in the Andes of
South America it is well known as the source of Peruvian bark.
An allied genus, Bouvardia (q.v.), from tropical America, is cultivated
for its flowers. The species of Uncaria climb by means of hooks
which are modified inflorescence-axes.
Mussaenda, Gardenia (q.v.), and other genera are characterized by
having a fleshy fruit.
Coffeeae, often woody or shrubby plants with scale-like stipules;
each ovary-chamber contains only one ovule. Coffee (q.v.), a genus
of shrubs with about twenty-five species in the Old World tropics,
includes the coffee plant (C. arabica and C. liberica) ; the fruit is a
two-seeded drupe, the seed is the " coffee-bean." The thickened
root of Uragoga ipecacuanha yields ipecacuanha (q.v.).
Stellateae, herbaceous plants with leaf -like stipules; each ovary-
chamber contains one ovule only. Includes the four British genera
Rubia, one species of which, R. tinctorum, is madder; Galium,
including G. verum (lady's bedstraw), G. Aparine (goose-grass or
cleavers), and other British species; Asperula, including A. odorata
(woodruff) and Sherardia.
The order is closely allied to Caprifoliaceae, the chief distinction
being the absence of stipules in the latter.
Ipecacuanha Plant.
RUBICON, a small stream of ancient Italy, which flowed into
the Adriatic between Ariminum and Caesena, and formed the
boundary between Italy and the province of Cisalpine Gaul.
Hence Caesar's crossing of it in 49 B.C. was tantamount to a
declaration of war against Rome as represented by Pompey and
the Senate. The historic importance of this event gave rise
to the phrase " crossing the Rubicon " for a step which definitely
commits a person to a given course of action. There has been
much controversy as to the identification of the stream; it
appears that its upper course is represented by that of the
Pisciatello (called Rubigone in the nth or iath century and now
Rugone or Urgone), and its lower portion by the Fiumicino,
which the Urgone once joined. The point was marked by a
station on the Via Aemilia below their confluence, 12 m. N.W.
of Ariminum, bearing the name ad Confluentes; and here is
still preserved a three-arched bridge, larger than is necessary
for the water carried by the present Fiumicino.
RUBIDIUM [symbol Rb, atomic weight 85-45 (O=i6)], a
metallic element belonging to the group of the alkali metals.
It is found in the minerals lepidolite, petalite and in various
specimens of mica and of carnallite, and in some mineral
waters. It also occurs in tea, cocoa, coffee, tobacco and in
the ashes of beetroot. It was discovered by R. Bunsen and
Kirchhoff (Ann., 1860, 113, p. 337), in the spectroscopic examina-
tion of the residues obtained on evaporation of water from
a mineral spring at Durkheim, being characterized by two
distinctive red lines. The best source of rubidium salts is the
residue left after extracting lithium salts from lepidolite, the
method of separation being based on the different solubilities
of the platino-chlorides of potassium, rubidium and caesium
RUBINSTEIN
809
in water (R. Bunsen, Ann., 1862, 122, p. 331)- A somewhat
similar process based on the varying solubilities of the corre-
sponding alums has also been devised by Redtenbacher (Jour,
prak. Chem., 1865, 95, p. 148). The metal is prepared by
distilling the carbonate with carbon (an explosive compound
similar to that obtained from potassium and carbon monoxide is
liable to be formed simultaneously); by reducing the hydrox-
ide with aluminium: 4RbOH+2Al = Rb 2 O Al 2 3 +2Rb-|-2H 2
(N. Beketoff, Ber., 1888, 21, p. 424 ref.); by reducing
the carbonate (C. Winckler, Ber., 1890, 23, p. 51) or the
hydroxide with magnesium (H. Erdmann and P, Kothner,
Ann., 1899, 294, p. 55); and by heating the fused chloride
with calcium in an exhausted glass tube at 400-500 C.
(L. Hackspill, Comptes rendus, 1905, 141, p. 101). The metal
was first obtained electrolytically in 1910 by electrolysing the
fused hydroxide in a nickel vessel, with an iron wire cathode
and iron cylinder anode; the product on cooling being opened
under pyridine cooled by a freezing mixture (G. von Hevesy,
Zeil. anorg. Chem., 1910, 67, p. 242). It is a silvery white
metal which melts at 38-5 C. and has a specific gravity of 1-52.
It oxidizes rapidly on exposure to air, and decomposes cold
water very rapidly. It closely resembles caesium and potas-
sium in its general properties. The rubidium salts are generally
colourless, mostly soluble in water and isomorphous with the
corresponding potassium salts.
Rubidium hydride, RbH, was obtained in the form of colourless
needles by H. Moissan (Comptes rendus, 1903, 136, p. 587) from the
direct combination of its constituent elements. It rapidly dis-
sociates when heated in vacuo to 300 C. The existence of the
oxide RWD appears to be doubtful, the results of Erdmann and
Kothner (loc. c-tt.) pointing to the formation of RbO 2 by the direct
union of the metal with dry oxygen. E. Rengade (Comptes rendus,
1907, 144, p. 920), by partially oxidizing the 0u-tal in a current of
dry oxygen and removing excess of metal by distillation in vacuo,
has obtained oxides of composition RbjOj (yellowish white),
RbjOs (black) and Rb 2 O (yellow). Rubidium hydroxide, RbOH, is
a colourless solid which is formed by the action of rubidium on water,
or by the addition of baryta water to a solution of rubidium sulphate.
It is readily soluble in water, the solution being very alkaline and
caustic. It melts at 301. Evaporation of the aqueous solution at
15 C. deposits a crystalline hydrated hydroxide of composition
RbOH-2H 2 O (R. de Forcrand, Comptes rendus, 1909, 149, p. 1341).
Rubidium chloride, RbCl, is formed on burning rubidium in chlorine,
or on dissolving the hydroxide in aqueous hydrochloric acid. It
crystallizes in colourless cubes and volatilizes when heated very
strongly. It is soluble in water and combines with many metallic
chlorides to form double salts. It combines also with iodine
chloride and bromide and with bromine chloride and with bromine
(H. L. Wells and H. L. Wheeler, Amer. Jour. Sci., 1891 (3), 43,
p. 475).
Rubidium sulphate, RbjSCh, is formed by the action of sulphuric
acid on the carbonate or hydroxide of the metal, or by the action
of milk of lime on rubidium alum, the excess of lime being pre-
cipitated by rubidium carbonate and the solution neutralized by
sulphuric acid. It forms large colourless hexagonal crystals.
Several sulphides of the metal have been described by W. Biltz
and E. Wilke-Dorfurt (Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1906, 48, p. 297). The
normal sulphide, Rb2S-4H2O, is colourless, and when heated in
aqueous solution with the requisite amount of sulphur is transformed
into the yellow tetrasulphide, Rb 2 S4-2H 2 p. A pentasulphide,
RbjSs, which crystallizes in red prisms melting at 223 C., is also
obtained by the direct union of the normal sulphide with sulphur.
When heated in a current of hydrogen it is transformed into the
colourless disulphide, whilst if the heating be carried out in a current
of nitrogen it yields the trisulphide, Rb 2 S 3 -H 2 O. These sulphides
are much less hygroscopic than the corresponding caesium com-
pounds. Rubidium nitrate, RbNO 3 , obtained by the action of
nitric acid on the carbonate, crystallizes in needles or prisms and
when strongly heated is transformed into a mixture of nitrite
and oxide. Rubidium ammonium, RbNH s , was prepared by H.
Moissan (Comptes^ rendus, 1903, 136, p. 1177) by the action of liquid
ammonia on rubidium. The product combines with acetylene to
form rubidium acetylide acetylene, Rb2C 2 -C 2 H 2 , which on heating
in vacuo loses acetylene and leaves a residue of rubidium carbide
Rb 2 C 2 (ibid. p. 1217). Rubidium carbonate, Rb 2 COa, formed by the
addition of ammonium carbonate to rubidium hydroxide, is a
crystalline mass which melts in its water of crystallization when
heated.
The atomic weight of rubidium was determined by R. Bunsen
(Fogg. Ann., 1861, 113, p. 339), Picard (Zeit. anal. Chem., 1862, I,
p. 519) and Godeffroy (Ann., 1876, 181, p. 185), the methods being
basea on the conversion of rubjaium hahdes into the corresponding
silver salt, and the values obtained vary from 85-40 to 85-50. The
determination of E. H. Archibald (Jour. Chem. Soc., 1904, 85, p. 776)
from the analysis of the chloride and bromide gives the mean value
as 85-485 (O = 16).
RUBINSTEIN, ANTON GRIGOROVICH (1829-1894),
Russian pianist, born of Jewish parentage on the 28th of
November 1829 at Wechwotynetz, in Podolia, was the son of
a pencil manufacturer who migrated to Moscow. The Rubin-
stein family, at the dictate of Anton's grandfather Roman
Rubinstein, had all been baptized at the time of the ukase
against the Jews issued in 1830 by the Tsar Nicholas. Anton
was then one year old. Besides his mother he had but one
teacher, the piano master Alexander Villoing, of whom he
declared at the end of his own career that he had never met a
better. In July 1838 Rubinstein appeared in the theatre of
the Petrowski Park at Moscow; and in the year following he
went to Paris after Villoing, and in 1840 played before Liszt.
For some time after this Rubinstein travelled in Holland,
Germany and Scandinavia, and reached England in 1842,
where on the 2oth of May he made his first appearance at a
Choral Fund concert. In 1845, after a brief visit to Moscow
in 1843, he went with his family (including his brother Nikolaus)
to Berlin in order to complete his musical education. Dehn
was their master, and Mendelssohn, whom Rubinstein had
met previously in London, their best friend. The sudden
death of Rubinstein's father necessitated the withdrawal of
his mother and Nikolaus to Moscow, while Anton, on Dehn's
advice, went to Vienna to seek a livelihood. Hence, after
more hard study for nearly two years, he went with the flautist
Heindl, and later alone, on a concert tour in' Hungary; and
the outbreak of the revolution in Vienna preventing his return
there, he went via Berlin to St Petersburg, where the Grand
Duchess Helene appointed him Kammervirtuos. About this
time an unfortunate error of the police nearly caused his ex-
patriation to Siberia, from which he was saved by his patroness.
During the next eight years Rubinstein spent most of his time
in St Petersburg studying, playing and composing. His
opera Dmitri Donskoi was produced there in 1851, and Toms
der Narr in 1853. Die Sibirischen Jiiger, written about the
same time, was not produced. On the advice of his patroness
and Count Wilhorski he visited Hamburg and Leipzig, and
arrived for the second time in London in 1857, when at a
Philharmonic concert he introduced his own concerto in G.
In the following year he was in London again, having in the
meantime been appointed Concert Director of the Royal
Russian Musical Society. In 1862, in collaboration with Carl
Schuberth, he founded the St Petersburg Conservatorium, of
which he was director until 1867. In 1868 he travelled in
Germany, France and England, and remained for some time
in Vienna, where he introduced a large number of his own
compositions. Thence he went to America in 1872 and 1873,
when he returned to Russia, and after a short rest set off once
more on concert tours. In this manner the rest of his life
was spent, until in 1885 he began a series of historical recitals
of immense interest, which he gave in most of the chief Euro-
pean capitals. He died on the 2oth of November 1894.
In addition to the works already named, Rubenstein left
compositions in almost every known form. Among other of
his operas are Die Kinder der Haide, Feramors (Lalla Roukk),
Nero, Der Damon and Die Makkabaer, this last perhaps more
frequently played than all the others, of which the chief defect
is their lack of dramatic point. On the subject of oratorio
Rubinstein held original views, though his attempt to realize
them in Moses and Christus was not completely successful,
while his efforts in Berlin and London to found a Sacred Theatre
failed entirely. Nevertheless he himself regarded the Christus
as his greatest achievement. The most familiar of his five
symphonies are the " Ocean " and the " Dramatic." He
wrote scores on scores of pianoforte works, from complex
concertos to the most commonplace salonstUcke; abundance
of concerted chamber-music, and a number of songs and duets,
which enjoyed some popularity. He also published several
books, including his Reminiscences and Die geistiiche Oper.
8io
RUBRIC RUBRUQUIS
Rubinstein's fame as one of the greatest of pianists will live
in history. His technique bore comparison with that of Liszt;
he possessed a power for interpreting the most different kinds
of music which has not been surpassed.
His brother NIKOLAUS (1835-1881) was also a remarkable
pianist, and a marvellous teacher of music. He founded the
conservatorium of music at Moscow.
See Bernhard Vogel, Anton Rubinstein, Biographischer Abriss
(Leipzig, 1888); Alexander MacArthur, Anton Rubinstein, a Bio-
graphical Sketch (Edinburgh, 1889); Eugen Zabel, Anton Rubin-
stein, Ein KiinsUerleben (Leipzig, 1892); Anton von Halten, Anton
Rubinstein (Utrecht, 1886) ; Cuthbert H. Cronk, The Works of Anton
Rubinstein (London, 1900).
RUBRIC (Fr. rubriqwe, Lat. rubrica, ruber, red), in its earliest
and original sense, red earth or ochre, ruddle, and hence applied
to words written or printed in red lettering, in MSS. or printed
books, such as chapter headings, paragraphs, initial letters,
&c., thus marking in a distinctive manner that to which atten-
tion is to be drawn. The term was also applied to the passages
so marked, and more especially to the directions or rules as to
the conduct of divine service in liturgical books. This is the
chief current usage of the term (see LITURGY).
RUBRUQUIS (or RUBROUCK), WILLIAM OF (c. 1215-1270;
fl. 1253-55), Franciscan friar, one of the chief medieval travellers
and travel-writers. Nothing is known of him save what can
be gathered from his own narrative, and from Roger Bacon, his
contemporary and brother Franciscan. The name of Rubruquis
(" Fratris Willielmi de Rubruquis ") is found in the imperfect
MS. printed by Hakluyt in his collection, and followed in his
English translation, as well as in the completer issue of the
English by Purchas. Writers of the i6th, iyth and igth
centuries have called the traveller Risbroucke and Rysbrokius
(Rysbroeck and Ruysbroek in the Biographic universelle and
Nouv. biog. generale) an error founded on the identification
of his name of origin with Ruysbroeck in Brabant (a few miles
south of Brussels) and perhaps promoted by the fame of John of
Ruysbroeck or Rysbroeck (1294-1381), a Belgian mystic, whose
treatises have been reprinted as late as 1848. It is only within
the last twenty years that attention has been called to the fact
that Rubrouck is the name of a village and commune in old
(medieval) French Flanders, belonging to the canton of Cassel
in the department du Nord, and lying some 8| m. N.E.. of
St Omer. In the library of the latter city many medieval
documents exist referring expressly to de Rubroucks 1 of the
1 2th and i3th centuries. It may be fairly assumed that Friar
William came from this place; 2 thus Hakluyt's conclusion is
justified, as expressed in the title he gives to Lord Lumley's
MS. printed by him, now in the British Museum, MSS. Reg.,
14 C. xiii. fol. 225 r.~36 r. (Itinerarium fratris Willielmi de
Rubruquis de ordine fratrum Minorum, Galli, Anno gratie 1253, ad
paries Orientates.
Friar William went to Tartary under orders from Louis IX.
(St Louis). That king, at an earlier date, viz. December
1248, when in Cyprus, had been visited by alleged envoys from
Elchigaday (Ilchikadai, Ilchikdai), who commanded the Mongol
hosts in Armenia and Persia. The king then despatched a
return mission consisting of Friar Andrew of Longjumeau or
Lonjumel and other ecclesiastics, who carried presents and
letters for both Ilchikadai and the Great Khan. They reached
the court of the latter in the winter of 1249-50, when there
was no actual khan on the throne; and they returned, along
with Tatar envoys, bearing a letter to Louis from the Mongol
regent-mother which was couched in terms so arrogant that the
king repented sorely of having sent such a mission (" li rois se
X A detailed notice of such documents was published by M. E.
Coussemaker of Lille. See remarks by M. d'Avezac in Bull, de la
Soc. de Geog., 2nd vol. for 1868, pp. 569-70.
'The county of Flanders was at this time a fief of the French
crown (see Natalis de Wailly, Notes on Joinvitte, p. 576). William's
mother-tongue may have been Flemish. From his representation
to Mangu Khan (p. 361) that certain " Teutonic! " who had been
carried away as slaves by a Tatar chief were " nostrae linguae,"
Dr Franz Max Schmidt inclines to think this certain.
repenti fort quant il y envoia," Joinville, Histoire de Saint Louis,
pp. 148-49, in Paris edition of 1858 by F. Michel, Paulin Paris
and F. Didot). These returned envoys reached the king when
he was at Caesarea, therefore between March 1251 and May
1252. But not long after the king, hearing that the Tatar
prince Sartak, son of Batu, was a " baptized Christian," felt
moved to open communication with him, and for this purpose
deputed Friar William of Rubrouck. The former rebuff had
made the king chary of sending formal embassies, and Friar
William on every occasion, beginning with a sermon delivered
in St Sophia's on Palm Sunday (i.e. April I3th) 1253, dis-
claimed that character.
Various histories of St Louis, and other documents, give
particulars of the despatch of the mission of Friar Andrew from
Cyprus, but none mention that of Friar William; and the first
dates given by the latter are those of his sermon at Constanti-
nople, and of his entrance into the Black Sea (May 7th, 1253).
He must therefore have received his commission at Acre, where
the king was residing from May 1252 to the 2gth of June
1253; but he had travelled by way of Constantinople, as has
just been indicated, and there received letters to some of the
Tatar chiefs from the emperor, who was at this time Baldwin de
Courtenay, the last of the Latin dynasty.
The narrative of the journey is everywhere full of life and
interest. The vast conquests of Jenghiz Khan were still in
nominal dependence on his successors, at this time represented
by Mangu Khan, reigning on the Mongolian steppes, but prac-
tically these conquests were splitting up into several great
monarchies. Of these the Ulus of Juji, the eldest son of
Jenghiz, formed the most westerly, and its ruler was Batu Khan,
established on the Volga. Sartak is known in the history
of the Mongols as Batu's eldest son, and was appointed his
successor, though he died immediately after his father (1256).
The story of Sartak's Christianity seems to have had some
foundation; it was currently believed among Asiatic Chris-
tians, and it is alleged by Armenian writers that he had been
brought up and baptized among the Russians. Pope Innocent
IV. (August 29, 1254) refers with enthusiasm to Sartak's
baptism, of which he had just heard from a priest whom the
khan had sent as envoy to the papal court.
Rubrouck and his party landed at Soldaia, or Sudak, on the
Crimean coast, then a centre of intercourse between the'
Mediterranean world and what is now S. Russia. Equipped
with horses and carts for the steppe, they travelled success-
ively to the courts (i.e. the nomad camps) of Scacatai (Kadan?),
Sartak and Batu, thus crossing the Don and arriving at the
Volga: of both these rivers Friar William gives vivid and
interesting sketches. Batu kept the travellers for some time
in suspense, and then referred them to the Great Khan himself,
an order involving the enormous journey to Mongolia. The
actual travelling of the party from the Crimea to the khan's
court near Karakorum cannot have been, on a rough calcula-
tion, less than 5000 m., and the return journey to Lajazzo
in Cilicia would be longer by 500 to 700 m. The chief dates
to be gathered from the narrative are as follows: the envoys
embark on the " Euxine," May 7th, 1253; reach Soldaia,
May 2ist; set out thence, June ist; reach the camp of Sartak,
July 3ist; begin the journey from the camp of Batu E. across
the steppes, September i6th; turn S.E., November ist; reach
the Talas river, November 8th; leave Cailac 3 (S. of Lake
Balkash), November 3oth; reach the camp of the Great Khan,
December 27th; leave the camp of the Great Khan on or about
July loth, 1254; reach camp of Batu again, September i6th;
leave Batu's camp at Sarai, November ist; arrive at the Iron
Gate (Derbent), November i3th; Christmas spent at Nakh-
shivan or Nakhichevan (under Ararat); reach Antioch (from
Lajazzo, Layes, or Ayas, of Cilicia, via Cyprus), June 29th, 1255;
reach Tripoli, August i sth.
3 Cailac, where Rubrouck halted twelve days, is undoubtedly the
Kayalik of the historians of the Mongols, the position of which is
somewhat indefinite. The narrative of Rubrouck shows that it must
have been near the modern Kopal.
RUBRUQUIS
811
The camp of Batu was first reached near the northernmost
point of his summer marches, therefore about Ukek or Uvyek,
near Saratov (see Marco Polo, Paris ed. of 1824, p. 3). Before
the camp was left they had marched with it five weeks down
the Volga. The point of departure would lie on that river
somewhere between 48 and 50 N. The route taken lay E.
by a line running N. of the Caspian and Aral basins; then
from about 70 E. to the basin of the Talas river; thence
across the passes of the Kirghiz Ala-tau and S. of the Balkash
Lake to the Ala-kul and the Baratula Lake (Ebi-nor). From
this the travellers struck N. across the Barluk, or the Orkochuk
Mountains, and thence, passing S. of the modern Kobdo, to
the valley of the Jabkan river, whence they emerged on the
plain of Mongolia, coming upon the Great Khan's camp at a
spot ten days' journey from Karakorum and bearing in the
main S. from that place, with the Khangaj Mountains between.
This route is of course not thus defined in the narrative,
but is a deduction from the facts stated therein. The key to
the whole is the description given of that central portion inter-
vening between the basin of the Talas and Lake Ala-kul, which
enables the topography of that region, including the passage
of the Ili, the plain S. of the Balkash, and the Ala-kul itself,
to be identified past question. 1
The return journey, being made in summer, after retravers-
ing the Jabkan valley, 2 lay apparently farther to the N., and
passed N. of the Balkash, probably with a fairly straight course,
to the mouths of the Volga. Thence the party travelled S.
by Derbent, and so by Shamakhi to the Araxes, Nakhshivan,
Erzingan, Sivas and Iconium, to Lajazzo, Layas, or Ayas,
where they embarked for Cyprus and Syria. St Louis had
returned to France a year before.
We have alluded to Roger Bacon's mention of Friar William.
Indeed, in the geographical section, of the Opus Majus (c. 1262)
he cites the traveller repeatedly and copiously, describing him as
" frater Wilhelmus quern dominus rex Franciae misit ad Tartaros,
Anno Domini 1253 . . . qui perlustravit regiones orientiset aquilonis
et loca in medio his annexa, et scripsit haec praedicta illustri regi ;
quern librum diligenter vidi et cum ejus auctore contuli " (see Opus
Majus, Oxford edition of 1897, i. 353-66). Add to this William's
own incidental particulars as to his being like his precursor,
Friar John de Piano Carpini a very heavy man (ponderosus valde),
and we know no more of his personality, except the abundant
indications of character afforded by the story itself. These paint
for us an honest, pious, stout-hearted, acute and most intelligent
observer, keen in the acquisition of knowledge, the author of one of
the best narratives of travel in existence. His language indeed is
dog-Latin of the most un-Ciceronian quality; but it is in his hands
a pithy and transparent medium of expression. In spite of all the
difficulties of communication, and of the badness of his turgemannus
or dragoman, 8 he gathered a mass of particulars, wonderfully true
or near the truth, not only as to Asiatic nature, geography, ethno-
graphy and manners, but as to religion and language. Of his
geography a good example occurs in his account of the Caspian
(eagerly caught up by Roger Bacon), which is perfectly accurate,
except that he places the hill country occupied by the Mulahids, or
Assassins, on the E. instead of the S. shore. He explicitly corrects
the allegation of Isidore that it is a gulf of the ocean: " non est
verum quod dicit Ysidorus . . . nusquam enim tangit oceanum,
sed undique circumdatur terra " (265).* Of his interest and acumen
in matters of language we may cite examples. The language of the
Pascatir (or Bashkirs) and of the Hungarians is the same as he had
1 See details in Cathay and the Way Thither, pp. ccxi-ccxiv, and
Schuyler's Turkistan, i. 402-5. Mr Schuyler points out the true
identification of Rubrouck's river with the Ili, instead of the Chu,
which is a much smaller stream ; and other amendments have been
derived from Dr F. M. Schmidt (see below).
2 This meaning may be put on Rubrouck's words: "Our going
was in winter, our return in summer, and that by a way lying very
much farther north, only that for a space of fifteen days' journey in
going and coming we followed a certain river between mountains,
and on these there was no grass to be found except close to the river."
The position of the Chagan Takoi or upper Jabkan seems to suit
these facts best; but Mr Schuyler refers them to the upper Irtish,
and Dr F. M. Schmidt to the Uliungur.
3 " Ego enim percepi postea, quando incepi aliquantulum intelligere
idioma, quod quando dicebam unum ipse totum aliud dicebat,
secundum cjuod ei occurrebat. Turn, videns oericulum loquendi per
ipsum, elegi magis tacere " (248-49).
4 The page references in the text are to d'Avezac's edition of the
Latin (see below).
learned from Dominicans who had been among them (274).' The
language of the Ruthenians, Poles, Bohemians and Slavonians is
one, and is the same with that of the Vandals, or Wends (275).
In the town of Equius (immediately beyond the Ili, perhaps Aspara)*
the people were Mahommedans speaking Persian, though so far
remote from Persia (281). The Uighurs (or Yugurs) of the country
about Cailac (see note above) had formed a language and character
of their own, and in that language and character the Nes-
torians of that tract used to perform their office and write their
books (281-82). The Uighurs are those among whom are found
the fountain and root of the Turkish and Comanian tongue (289).
Their character has been adopted by the Mongols. In using it they
begin writing from the top and write downwards, whilst line follows
line from left to right (286). The Nestorians say their service, and
have their holy books, in Syriac, but know nothing of the language,
just as some of our monks sing the mass without knowing Latin (293).
The Tibet people write as we do, and their letters have a strong
resemblance to ours. The Tangut people write from right to left
like the Arabs, and their lines advance upwards (329). The current
money of Cathay is of cotton paper, a palm in length and breadth,
and on this they print lines like those of Mangu Khan's seal:
" imprimunt lineas sicut est sigillum Mangu a remarkable
expression. They write with a painter's pencil and combine in one
character several letters, forming one expression : " faciunt in una
figura plures literas comprehcndentes unam dictionem," a still
more remarkable utterance, showing an approximate apprehension of
the nature of Chinese writing (329).
Yet this sagacious observer is denounced as an untruthful
blunderer by Isaac Jacob Schmidt (a man of useful learning, of
a kind rare in his day, but narrow, wrong-headed, and in natural
acumen and candour far inferior to the 13th-century friar) simply
because Rubrouck's evidence as to the Turkish dialect of the Uighurs
traversed a pet heresy, long since exploded, which Schmidt enter-
tained, viz. that the Uighurs were by race and language Tibetan. 7
L6on Cahun (Introduction a I'histoire de I'Asie, pp. 353-55, 384-86,
392) also shows a strange perversity in depreciating Rubrouck;
all this detraction may be contrasted with Oscar PeschePs admirably
fair judgment (Geschichte der Erdkunde, p. 165, &c.). At the same
time, Rubrouck may be considered inferior as a politician and
diplomatist to Carpini ; and the latter's remarkable work has in its
turn suffered from undiscriminating eulogy of his successor's
Itinerarium. An attempt has been made to strike a balance in the
judgment 6f these two great pioneers in the Dawn of Modern
Geography, ii. 375-81.
The narrative of Rubrouck, after Roger Bacon's copious use of it,
seems to have dropped out of sight, though five MSS. are still known
to exist: the chief of these are (i) Corp. Chr. Coll., Cambridge, No.
66, fols. 67 v.-no v. of about 1320; (2) No. 181 of the same
library, fols. 321-98, of about 1270-90; (3) Leiden Univ. Libr., No.
77 (formerly 104), fols. 160 r.-iox) r. of about 1290. It has no place
in the famous collections of the I4th century, nor in the earlier
Speculum Historiale of Vincent of Beauvais, which gives so much
attention to the 13th-century intercourse of Latin Christendom
with Tartary. It first appeared imperfectly in Hakluyt (1598 and
1599), as we have mentioned. But it was not till 1839 that any
proper edition of the text was published. In that year the Recuetl
de Voyages^oi the Paris Geographical Society, vol. iv., contained an
edition of the Latin text, and a collation of the MSS. put forth by
M. d'Avezac, with the assistance of two young scholars, since of high
distinction, viz. Francisque Michel and Thomas Wright. But there
is no commentary on the subject-matter, such as M. d'Avezac
attached to his edition of Friar John de Piano Carpini in the same
volume. Something has been done to supply this deficiency by the
two editions in the Hakluyt Society's publications, (i.) William of
Rubrouck . . . John of Pian de Carpine, trans, and edited by
William W. Rockhill (London, 1900); (ii.) Texts and Versions of
. . . Carpini and . . . Rubruquis . . . , edited by C. Raymond
Beazley (London, 1903). Richthofen in his China, i. 602-4, has
briefly but justly noticed Rubrouck. A French version with some
notes, issued at Paris in 1 877, in the Bibliotheque orientale Elzfoirienne
hardly deserves mention. Dr Franz Max Schmidt's admirable
monograph, Ober Rubruk's Reise (Berlin, 1885), has been separately
* The Bashkirs now speak a Turkish dialect ; but they are of
Finnish race, and it is quite possible that they then spoke a language
akin to Magyar. There is no doubt that the Mussulman historians
of that age identified the Hungarians and the Bashkirs (e.g. see
extracts from Juvaini and Rashiduddin in App. to D'Ohsson's Hist,
des Mongols, ii. 620-23). The Bashkirs are also constantly coupled
with the Majar by Abulghazi. See Fr. tr. by Desmaisons. pp. 19,
140, 1 80, 189.
> Asp = Equus. Aspara is often mentioned by the historians of
Timur and his successors; its exact place is uncertain, but it lay
somewhere on the Ili frontier. Dr F. M. Schmidt thinks this identi-
fication impossible; but one of his reasons viz. that Equius was
only one day from Cailac appears to be a misapprehension of the
text.
7 See Forschungen im Gebiete . . . der Volker Mitttl-Asitns (St
Petersburg, 1824), pp. 90-93.
812
RUBY
printed from vol. xx. of the Zeitschrift of the Berlin Geographical
Society. See also d'Ohsson, Histoire des Mongols (1852), vol. ii.
pp. 283-309; Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches from Eastern
' iatic Sources (1888), i. 204-5, 262-63, 299, 301, 305-8, 311, 318, 327,
i; ii. 25, 38, 41-42, 70-71, 83-86, 91, 116, 120; Beazley, Dawn of
Asiatic Sources (1888), i. 204-5, 262-63, 299, 301, 305-8, 31 1, 318, 327,
334; ii. 25, 38, 41-42, 70-71, 83-86, 91, 116, 120; Beazley, Dawn of
Modern Geography, ii. 266, 278-79, 281, 298-99, 303, 320-82, 421,
449-52; iii. 17-18, 31-32, 46, 69, 84-85,
236-37. 544-
101, 105, 188,
Y.;C. R. B.)
RUBY (Lat. rubeus, red), the most valued of all gem-stones,
a red transparent variety of corundum, or crystallized alumina.
It is sometimes termed " oriental ruby " to distinguish it from
the spinel ruby, which is a stone of inferior hardness, density
and value (see SPINEL). When the word ruby is used without
any qualifying prefix, it is always the true or so-called oriental
stone that is meant in modern nomenclature. Ancient writers,
relying chiefly on colour, classed together under a common
name several brilliant red stones, such as the ruby, spinel and
garnet: thus the avOpat; of Theophrastus and the Carbunculus
of Pliny were names which seem to have been applied to several
distinct minerals. Although the word ruby is used in the
English translation of the Old Testament it is improbable that
the true ruby was known to the ancient Hebrews.
The ruby crystallizes in the hexagonal system (see COR-
UNDUM). The crystals have no true cleavage, but tend to
break along certain gliding planes. The colour of ruby varies
from deep cochineal to pale rose-red, in some cases with a
tinge of purple, the most valued tint being that called by
experts pigeon's-blood colour. On exposure to a high tem-
perature, the ruby becomes green, but regains its original
colour on cooling. The red. colour of ruby may be due to
chromium. When a ruby of the most esteemed tint is ex-
amined with the dichroscope, one image is generally seen to be
carmine and the other aurora-red, the red colour inclining to
orange. This test serves to distinguish the true ruby from
spinel and from garnet, since these minerals, being _ cubic, are
not dichroic. Another means of distinction is afforded by the
specific gravity of ruby (about 4), which is higher than that
of spinel and garnet, whilst the superior hardness of the ruby
(about 9) furnishes yet another test. The high refractivity
of ruby is also characteristic, the mean ordinary index being
1-77 and the extraordinary 1-76. When cut and polished the
ruby is therefore a brilliant stone, but having weak dispersive
power it lacks fire. Subjected to radiant discharge in a Crookes
tube, the ruby, like other forms of corundum, phosphoresces
with a vivid red glow.
The oriental ruby is a mineral of very limited distribution.
Its most famous localities are in Upper Burma, but until the
British annexation of the country in 1886 the mines were so
jealously guarded that little was known as to the conditions
under which the mineral occurred. Soon after the annexation,
the ruby districts were officially visited, and reported on, by
Mr C. Barrington Brown, and specimens from the mines were
exhaustively studied by Professor J. W. Judd. The principal
district is situated in the neighbourhood of Mogok, 90 m.
N.N.E. of Mandalay. The ruby occurs in bands of a crystalline
limestone, associated with granitic and gneissose rocks, some
of which are highly basic; and it is from the anorthite, or
lime-felspar, and the associated minerals in the pyroxene-
gneisses, that the corundum, spinel and calcite, may, according
to Judd, have been derived. Probably the felspar is first
altered to scapolite, and this on decomposition would yield
calcium carbonate and hydrous aluminium silicates, from
which the anhydrous alumina might ultimately be separated.
The limestone contains (in addition to the ruby) spinel, garnet,
graphite, wollastonite, scapolite, felspar, mica, pyrrhotite
and other minerals. The ruby, like other kinds of corun-
dum, suffers alteration under certain conditions, and passes
by hydration into gibbsite and diaspore, which by further
alteration and union with silica, &c., may yield margarite,
vermiculite, chlorite and other hydrous silicates.
The Burmese rubies are not generally worked in the lime-
stone matrix, 'but are mostly found loose in detrital matter,
which is clayey and sandy in character and yellowish-brown
in colour, and is known locally as " byon." Some of the
deposits occur in limestone caverns, where they may, like
cave-earth, represent the insoluble residue of the limestone.
Workings in the cave-deposits are called " loodwins " (crooked
mines). In the alluvium of the valleys, the ruby-pits are known
as " twinlones " (round pits), whilst workings in the ruby-
earth on the hillsides are termed " hmyaudwins " (water
mines). The byon contains, with the ruby, other coloured
corundums and spinels. Burmese rubies are found also in
crystalline h'mestone in the hills near Sagyin, about 20 m. N.
of Mandalay, and it is of mineralogical interest to note that
the limestone here contains chondrodite.
Rubies are found in Siam, at several localities in the pro-
vinces of Chantabun and Krat; and Professor H. Louis has
described their occurrence at Moung Klung in this region. The
rubies are found with, sapphires and spinels, in gravels, resting
in some cases on basic igneous rocks. The Siam rubies are
generally of dark colour, often inclining to a deep reddish
brown. Rubies occur, with sapphires and other minerals, in
the gem-gravels of Ceylon, but are not usually of such good
colour as the Burmese stones. A cloudy variety, which, when
cut with a convex surface, exhibits a luminous star, is known
as star-ruby (see ASTERIAS). In peninsular India rubies are
rarely found, though they have been reported from the corun-
dum deposits of Madras and Mysore. The ruby is known,
however, to occur in a micaceous limestone at Jagdalak, near
Kabul in Afghanistan.
Rubies, generally of pale colour, are found with the sapphires
of Montana, especially at Yogo Gulch near Utica. In the
corundum deposits of N. Carolina ruby is occasionally met
with, especially at Cowee Creek, Macon county, where it oc-
curs in crystals of tabular, rhombohedral and prismatic habit.
These crystals, sometimes of fine colour, are found in gravels
resting on a soft rock called saprolite, which results from the
weathering of certain basic igneous rocks; and it is notable
that the ruby crystals are associated with the variety of garnet
termed rhodolite, as described by Professor Judd and W. E.
Hidden. Australia has occasionally yielded rubies, but mostly
of small size and inferior quality. In New South Wales and in
Victoria they have been found in drift gravels, and a magenta-
coloured turbid variety from Victoria has been described under
the name of barklyite.
Rubies have been produced artificially with much success.
At one time it was the practice to fuse together small fragments
of the natural stone; and gems cut from such material were
known as reconstructed rubies. This process has given way
to Professor A. Verneuil's method of forming artificial ruby from
purified ammonia-alum with a certain proportion of chrome-
alum. The finely powdered material is caused to fall periodi-
cally into an oxyhydrogen flame, the heat of which decomposes
the alum, and the alumina thus set free forms liquid drops
which collect and solidify as a pear-shaped mass. When of
the characteristic pigeon's-blood colour, the synthetical ruby
contains about 2-5% of chromic oxide. The manufactured
ruby possesses the physical characters of corundum, but may
generally be distinguished by microscopic bubbles and striae.
The manufacture is carried out commercially. (For other pro-
cesses, see GEM, ARTIFICIAL.)
It should be noted that several minerals known popularly
as rubies have no relation to the true red corundum. Thus,
" Cape rubies " from the South African diamond" mines,
" Australian rubies " from South Australia, and " Arizona
rubies" are merely fine garnets; "Siberian ruby" is red
tourmaline (see RUBELLITE), and " Balas ruby" is spinel
(q.v.). Ruby silver is a name applied to light red silver ore,
or proustite; ruby copper is merely cuprite, in brilliant crystals;
and ruby-blende is a clear red variety of zinc sulphide.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For the Burma ruby, see " The Rubies of
Burma and Associated Minerals: their mode of occurrence, origin
and metamorphoses," by C. Barrington Brown and Professor J. W.
Judd, Phil. Trans., 1897, 187, p. 151. For the ruby of Siam, see
' The Ruby and Sapphire Deposits of Moung Klung, Siam," by
H. Louis, Mineralog. Mag., 1894, 10, p. 267. For synthetical ruby,
RUBY MINES RUDD
813
see G. F. Herbert Smith, Mineralog. Mag., 1908, 15, p. 153; and
J. Boyer, La Synthese des pierres precieuses (Paris, 1909).
(F. W. R.*)
RUBY MINES, a district in the Mandalay division of Upper
Burma, lying along the Irrawaddy river between the Bhamo
district on the N., the Shan States on the E., Mandalay district
on the S. and Katha on the W. Including the Shan state of
Mongmit, which is temporarily administered as part of the
district, the total area is 5476 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 87,694. The
district geographically forms part of the Shan plateau, and is
to a great extent a mass of hills with a general N. and S. direc-
tion. It contains considerable numbers of Kachins (13,300)
and Palaungs (16,400). The annual rainfall at Mogok averages
98 in. The administrative headquarters are at Mogok, which
is also the centre of the ruby-mining industry. It stands in
the centre of a valley 4000 ft. above sea-level, and is reached
by a cart-road from Thabeikkyin, 61 m. distant, on the Irra-
waddy. The Ruby Mines Company employs about 44 Euro-
peans and Eurasians in its works, which are situated at the
north end of the town. The company has constructed a dam
across the Yeni stream and set up an electric installation of
about 450 horse-power, which works pumps and the washing
machinery. The mines were worked under Burmese rule, but
were discontinued on account of the small profit. Now they
seem to be established on a sound financial basis. The system
adopted is to excavate large open pits, from which the ruby-
earth or byon is removed en masse and washed and crushed
by machinery. Spinels and sapphires are found with the
rubies. In 1904, the produce of rubies alone was 200,000
carats, valued at 80,000, most of which were sent to London
for sale. In addition, some mining is carried on by natives,
working under a licence which does' not permit the use of
machinery. The district contains 994 sq. m. of reserved forests.
RUCKERT, JOHANN MICHAEL FRIEDRICH (1788-1866),
German poet, was born at Schweinfurt on the i6th of May
1788, the eldest son of a lawyer. He was educated at the
gymnasium of his native place and at the universities of Wurz-
burg and Heidelberg. For some time (1816-17) he worked
on the editorial staff of the Morgenblatt at Stuttgart. Nearly
the whole of the year 1818 he spent in Rome, and afterwards
he lived for several years at Coburg. He was appointed a
professor of Oriental languages at the university of Erlangen in
1826, and in 1841 he was called to a similar position in Berlin,
where he was also made a privy councillor. In 1849 he resigned
his professorship at Berlin, and went to live on his estate Neuses
near Coburg. He died on the 3ist of January 1866. When
Ruckert began his literary career, Germany was engaged in
her life-and-death struggle with Napoleon; and in his first
volume, Deutsche Gedichte, published in 1814 under the
pseudonym " Freimund Raimar," he gave, particularly in
the powerful "Geharnischte Sonette," vigorous expression to the
prevailing sentiment of his countrymen. In 1815-18 appeared
Napoleon, eine politische Komodie in drei Stiicken (only two
parts were published), and in 1817 Der Kranz der Zeit. He
issued a collection of poems, Ostliche Rosen, in 1822; and in
1834-38 his Gesammelle Gedichte were published in six volumes,
a selection from which has passed through many editions.
Ruckert, who was master of thirty languages, made his mark
chiefly as a translator of Oriental poetry and as a writer of
poems conceived in the spirit of Oriental masters. Much
attention was attracted by a translation of Hariri's Makamen
(1826), Nal und Damajanti, an Indian tale (1828), Rostem und
Suhrab, eine Heldengeschichte (1838), and Hamasa, oder die
iiltesten arabischen Volkslieder (1846). Among his original
writings dealing with Oriental subjects are Morgenlandische
Sagen und Geschichten (1837), Erbauliches und Beschauliches
aus dem Morgenland (1836-38), and Brahmanische Erzdhlungen
(1839). The most elaborate of his works is Die Weisheit des
Brahmanen, published in six volumes in 1836-39. This last
and the Liebesfruhling (1844), a cycle of love-songs, are the
best known of all Ruckert's productions. In 1843-45 he issued
the dramas Saul und David (1843), H erodes der Grosse (1844),
Kaiser Heinrich IV. (1845) and Christofero Colombo (1845), all
of which are greatly inferior to the work to which he owes his
place in German literature. At the time of the Danish war
in 1864 he wrote Ein Dutzend Kampflieder jiir SMeswig-
Holstein, which, although published anonymously, produced
a considerable impression. After his death many poetical
translations and original poems were found among his papers,
and several collections of them were published. Ruckert
had a splendour of imagination which made Oriental poetry
congenial to him, and he has seldom been surpassed in rhythmic
skill and metrical ingenuity. There are hardly any lyrical
forms which are not represented among his works, and in all
of them he wrote with equal ease and grace.
A complete edition of Ruckert's poetical works appeared in
12 vols. in 1868-69. Subsequent editions have been edited by
L. Laistner (1896), C. Beyer (1896), G. Ellinger (1897). See
B. Fortlage, F. Ruckert und seine Werke (1867); C. Beyer, Friedrich
Ruckert, ein biographisches Denkmal (1868), Neue MitteUungen uber
Ruckert (1873), and Nachgelassene Gedtchte Ruckerts und neue
Beitrdge zu dessen Leben und Schriften (1877); R. Boxberger,
Riickert-Studien (1878); P. de Lagarde, Erinnerungen an F. Ruckert
(1886); F. Muncker, Friedrich Ruckert (1890); G. Voigt, Ruckerts
Gedankenlyrik (1891).
RUDAGI (d. 954). Farid-eddln Mahommed 'Abdallah, the
first great literary genius of modern Persia, was born in Rudag,
a village in Transoxiana, about 870-900. Most of his biographers
assert that he was totally blind, but the accurate knowledge
of colours shown in his poems makes this very doubtful. The
fame of his accomplishments reached the ear of the Samanid
Nasr II. bin Ahmad, the ruler of Khorasan and Transoxiana
(913-42), who invited the poet to his court.. Rudagi became
his daily companion, rose to the highest honours and amassed
great wealth. In spite of various predecessors, he well deserves
the title of " father of Persian literature," " the Adam or
Sultan of poets," since he was the first who impressed upon
every form of epic, lyric and didactic poetry its peculiar stamp
and its individual character. He is also said to have been
the founder of the " diwan " that is, the typical form of the
complete collection of a poet's lyrical compositions in a more
or less alphabetical order which prevails to the present day
among all Mahommedan writers. Of the 1,300,000 verses
attributed to him, there remain only 52 kasldas, ghazals
and ruba'Is; of his epic masterpieces we have nothing beyond
a few stray lines in native dictionaries. But the most serious
loss is that of his translation of Ibn Mokaffa's Arabic version
of the old Indian fable book Kalilah and Dimnah, which he put
into Persian verse at the request of his royal patron. Numerous
fragments, however, are preserved in the Persian lexicon of
AsadI of Tus (ed. P. Horn, Gottingen, 1897). In his kasidas,
all devoted to the praise of his sovereign and friend,
Rudagi has left us unequalled models of a refined and delicate
taste, very different from the often bombastic compositions
of later Persian encomiasts. His didactic odes and epigrams
express in well-measured lines a sort of Epicurean philosophy
of human life and human happiness; more charming still are
the purely lyrical pieces in glorification of love and wine.
Rudagi survived his royal friend, and died poor and forgotten
by the world.
There is a complete edition of all the extant poems of Rudagi,
in Persian text and metrical German translation, together with a
biographical account, based on forty-six Persian MSS., in Dr H.
Ethe's " Rudagi der Samanidendichter " (Goltinger Nachrichten,
1873, pp. 663-742); see also his " Neupersische Literatur " in
Geiger^ Grundriss der iranischen Philologie (ii.) ; P. Horn, Gesch.
der persischen Literatur (1901), p. 73; E. G. Browne, Literary
History of Persia, i. (1902); C. J. Pickering, " A Persian Chaucer '
in National Review (May 1890).
RUDD, or RED-EYE (Leuciscus erythrophthalmus), a fish of
the Cyprinid family, spread over Europe, N. and S. of the Alps,
also found in Asia Minor, and common in localities where there
are still waters with muddy bottom. The rudd and the roach
are very similar and frequently confused by anglers; the
former differs principally in the more posterior dorsal fin,
which is situated exactly opposite the space between the ventral
and anal fins. It is a fine fish, but little esteemed for food,
814
RUDDER RUDESHEIM
and rarely exceeds 12 in. in length and 2 Ib in weight. It
feeds on small freshwater animals and soft vegetable matter,
and spawns in April or May. It readily crosses with the white
bream, and more rarely with the roach and bleak.
RUDDER (O.E. Rather, i.e. rower), that part of the steering
apparatus of a ship which is fastened to the stern outside,
and on which the water acts directly. The word may be
found to be used as if it were synonymous with " helm."
But the helm (A.S. Hillf, a handle) is the handle by which the
rudder is worked. The tiller, which is perhaps derived from a
provincial English name for the handle of a spade, has the
same meaning as the helm. In the earliest times a single oar,
at the stern, was used to row the vessel round. In later times
oars with large blades were fixed on the sides near the stern.
In Greek and Roman vessels two sets were sometimes employed,
so that if the pitching of the ship lifted the after pair out of the
water, the foremost pair could still act. As these ancient ships
were, at least in some cases, sharp at both ends and could sail
either way, steer (or steering) oars were fixed both fore and aft.
The steer oar in this form passed through a ring on the side and
was supported on a crutch, and was turned by a helm, or tiller.
Norse and medieval vessels had, as far as we. can judge, one
steer oar only placed on the right side near the stern hence
the name "starboard," i.e. steerside, for the right side of the
ship looking forward. In the case of small vessels the steer
oar possesses an advantage over the rudder, for it can bring
the stern round quickly. Therefore it is still used in whaling
boats and rowing boats which have to work against wind and
tide, and in surf when the rudder will not act. It is not possible
to assign any date for the displacement of the side rudder by
the stern, rudder. They were certainly used together, and the
second displaced the first in the course of the I4th century
when experience had shown that the rudder was more effective
at the stern than at the side. The rudder of a wooden ship
when fully developed was composed of four pieces. The first
or main piece was hung on to the stern post of the ship. Its
upper portion was known as the rudder head, and was at first
an oval shaft which passed into the ship through the rudder
port, and to which the helm was fixed. A canvas bag called
a rudder coat covered the opening to exclude the water. In
later days Sir R. Seppings introduced the cylindrical form in
order to prevent the water from coming into the round rudder
port. Three back pieces were fastened to the main piece longi-
tudinally. The whole were fastened together by iron bands
called pintle straps, which had at the forward end a pin or
pintle, which fitted into braces, i.e. fixed rings on the stern
post, so that the rudder hung on hinges. The lower part of
the main piece was bevelled, and so was the stern post, so as to
allow the rudder to swing freely. A projecting piece called a
chock or wood-lock was fixed in the head outside the ship in
order to prevent the rudder from being lifted by the water out
of its hinges. A small vessel can be steered by the helm or
tiller, but in a larger it is necessary to apply a mechanical
leverage. This was secured by carrying ropes, or in later times
chains, to the sides of the ship, and then through blocks to the
upper deck, round a barrel which is worked by the wheel. The
principle of the rudder cannot alter, but the means employed
to work it have been altered by the introduction of the screw,
and by the increased size of ships. A single screw is placed in
an open space before the stern post. As the opening thus
created prevents the water from flowing directly on to the
rudder, a screw steamer is sometimes difficult to steer. In
order to make the rudder more manageable, it has been balanced,
i.e. pivoted, on a shaft placed at about a third of its length from
the foremost edge. In a double screw there is no opening, but
the balanced rudder is still used, and the ship can be turned by
reversing one of the screws. The need for more power to work
the helm has led to the introduction of steam, and hydraulic
steering apparatus which can be set in motion by a small wheel.
See Burney's Falconer's Dictionary (London, 1830), Torr's
Ancient Ships (Cambridge, 1894); Nares, Seamanship (Portsmouth,
1882).
RUDDIMAN, THOMAS (1674-1757), Scottish classical scholar,
was born in October 1674, at Raggal, Banffshire, where his father
was a farmer. He was educated at Aberdeen University, and
through the influence of Dr Archibald Pitcairne he was made
assistant in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh. His chief
writings at this period were editions of Florence Wilson's De
Animi Tranquillitate Dialogus (1707), and the Cantici Solomonis
Paraphrasis Poetica (1709) of Arthur Johnston (1587-1641),
editor of the Deliciae Poetarum Scotorum. On the death of Dr
Pitcairne he edited his friend's Latin verses, and arranged for
the sale of his valuable library to Peter the Great of Russia.
In 1714 he published Rudiments of the Latin Tongue, which was
long used in Scottish schools. In 1715 he edited, with notes and
annotations, the works of George Buchanan in two volumes
folio. As Ruddiman was a Jacobite, the liberal views of
Buchanan seemed to him to call for frequent censure. A society
of scholars was formed in Edinburgh to " vindicate that incom-
parably learned and pious author from the calumnies of Mr
Thomas Ruddiman"; but Ruddiman's remains the standard
edition, though George Logan, John Love, John Man and
others attacked him with great vehemence. He founded (1715)
a successful printing business, and in 1728 was appointed printer
to the university. He acquired the Caledonian Mercury in 1729,
and in 1730 was appointed keeper of the Advocates' Library,
resigning in 1752. He died in Edinburgh, on the igth of January
1757-
Besides the works mentioned, the following writings of Ruddiman
deserve notice: An edition of Gavin Douglas's Aeneid of Virgil
(1710); the editing and completion of Anderson's Selectus Diplo-
matum et Numismatum Scotiae Thesaurus (1739); Catalogue of the
Advocates' Library (1733-42); and a famous edition of Livy (1751).
He also helped Joseph Ames with the Typographical Antiquities.
Ruddiman was for many years the representative scholar of Scotland.
Writing in 1766, Dr Johnson, after reproving Boswell for some bad
Latin, significantly adds " Ruddiman is dead." When Boswell
proposed to write Ruddiman's life, " I should take pleasure in
helping you to do honour to him," said Johnson.
See Chalmers's Life of Ruddiman (1794); Scots Magazine, January
7. 1757-
RUDE, FRANQOIS (1784-1855), French sculptor, was born
at Dijon on the 4th of June 1784. Till the age of sixteen he
worked at his father's trade as a stovemaker, but in 1809 he
went up to Paris from the Dijon school of art, and became a
pupil of Castellier, obtaining the Grand Prix in 1812. After
the second restoration of the Bourbons he retired to Brussels,
where he got some work under the architect Van der Straeten,
who employed him to execute nine bas-reliefs in the palace of
Tervueren. At Brussels Rude married Sophie Fremiet, the
daughter of a Bonapartist compatriot to whom he had many
obligations, but gladly availed himself of an opportunity to
return to Paris, where in 1827 a statue of the Virgin for St Gervais
and a " Mercury fastening his Sandals " (now in the Louvre)
obtained much attention. His great success dates, however,
from 1833, when he received the cross of the Legion of Honour for
his statueof a " Neapolitan Fisher Boy playing with a Tortoise,"
which also procured for him the important commission for all
the ornament and one group in the Arc de 1'Etoile. This group,
the " Depart des volontaires de 1792," a work full of energy and
fire, immortalizes the name of Rude. Amongst other pro-
ductions we may mention the statue of the mathematician
Gaspard Monge (1848), Jeanne d'Arc, in the gardens of the
Luxembourg (1852), a Calvary in bronze for the high altar of
St Vincent de Paul (1855), as well as " Hebe and the Eagle of
Jupiter," " Love Triumphant " and " Christ on the Cross," all of
which appeared at the Salon of 1857 after his death. He died
suddenly on the 3rd of November 1855.
See also P. G. Hamerton, Modern Frenchmen, five biographies
(1878); Carl Adolf Rosenberg, Francois Rude (1884); Louis Gonse,
Les Chefs d'ceuvre des musees de France (Paris, 1900) ; L. de Fourcaud,
Francois Rude, sculpteur (Paris, 1904).
RUDERAL (Lat. rudus, rubbish), a botanical term for plants
growing on rubbish heaps or in waste places.
RUDESHEIM, a town of Germany in the Prussian Rhine
province on the right bank of the Rhine, 19 m. S.W. of
RUDINI RUDOLF
815
Wiesbaden by the main line from Frankfort-on-Main to
Cologne. Pop. (1905) 4773. Its situation, at the lower end of
the famous vineyard district of the Rheingau, opposite Bingen
and just above the romantic gorge of the Rhine, renders it a
popular tourist centre. Behind the town rises the majestic
Niederwald (985 ft.), on the crest of which stands the national
monument, " Germania," commemorating the war of 1870-71.
Riidesheim has some interesting towers. The Bromserburg,
or Niederburg, a massive structure built in the I3th century,
formerly belonging to the archbishops of Mainz; the Boosen-
burg, or Oberburg, which was rebuilt hi 1868, with the exception
of the keep; the Adlerturm, a relic of the fortifications of the
town; and the Vorderburg, the remains of an old castle. The
Gothic church of St James has some interesting paintings and
monuments, and there is also a Protestant church. The town
has electrical works, but its industries are mainly concerned with
the preparation of wine, the best kinds being Rudesheimer Berg,
Hinterhaus and Rottland.
See I. P. Schmelzeis, Riidesheim im Rheingau (Rudesheim, 1881);
and Heiderlinden, Rudesheim und seine Umgebung (Rudesheim,
1888).
RUDINl, ANTONIO STARABBA, MARQUIS DI (1830-1908),
Italian statesman, was born at Palermo on the 6th of April
1839. In 1859 he joined the revolutionary committee which
paved the way for Garibaldi's triumphs in the following year;
then after spending a short time at Turin as attache to the Italian
foreign office he was elected mayor of Palermo. In 1866 he
displayed considerable personal courage and energy in quelling
an insurrection of separatist and reactionary tendencies. The
prestige thus acquired led to his appointment as prefect of
Palermo, and while occupying that position he put down
brigandage throughout the province; in 1868 he was prefect
of Naples. In October 1869 he became minister of the interior
in the Menabrea cabinet, but he fell with that cabinet a few
months later, and although elected member of parliament for
Canicatti held no important position until, upon the death of
Minghetti in 1886, he became leader of the Right. Early in 1891
he succeeded Crispi as premier and minister of foreign affairs
by forming a coalition cabinet with a part of the Left under
Nicotera; his administration proved vacillating, but it initiated
the economies by which Italian finances were put on a sound
basis and also renewed the Triple Alliance. He was overthrown
in May 1892 by a vote of the Chamber and succeeded by Giolitti.
Upon the return of his rival, Crispi, to power in December 1893,
he resumed political activity, allying himself with the Radical
leader, Cavallotti. The crisis consequent upon the disaster of
Adowa (ist March 1896) enabled Rudini to return to power as
premier and minister of the interior in a cabinet formed by the
veteran Conservative, General Ricotti. He concluded peace
with Abyssinia, but endangered relations with Great Britain by
the unauthorized publication of confidential diplomatic corre-
spondence in a Green-book on Abyssinian affairs. To satisfy
the anti-colonial party he ceded Kassala to Great Britain,
provoking thereby much indignation in Italy. His internal
policy was marked by continual yielding to Radical pressure and
by persecution of Crispi. By dissolving the Chamber early in
1897 and favouring Radical candidates in the general election,
he paved the way for the outbreak of May 1898, the suppression
of which entailed considerable bloodshed and necessitated a
state of siege at Milan, Naples, Florence and Leghorn. In-
dignation at the results of his policy led to his overthrow in
June 1898. During his second term of office he thrice modified
his cabinet (July r8g6, December r897, and May 1898) without
strengthening his political position. In many respects Rudinr,
though leader of the Right and nominally a Conservative
politician, proved a dissolving element in the Italian Conserva-
tive ranks. By his alliance with the Liberals under Nicotera
in r8gr, and by his understanding with the Radicals under
Cavallotti in r894-98; by abandoning his Conservative colleague,
General Ricotti, to whom he owed the premiership in 1896;
and by his vacillating action after his fall from power, he divided
and demoralized a constitutional party which, with greater
sincerity and less reliance upon political cleverness, he might
have welded into a solid parliamentary organization. At the
same time he was a thorough gentleman and grand seigneur.
One of the largest and wealthiest landowners in Sicily, he
managed his estates on liberal lines, and was never troubled
by agrarian disturbances. The marquis, who had not been in
office since 1898, died on the 6th of August 1908, leaving a son,
Carlo, who married a daughter of Mr Henry Labouchere.
RUDOK, a small town on the Ladakh frontier of Tibet, through
which all the trade of Tibet passes to Leh, and at which is
maintained the Chinese outpost that for many years persistently
interfered with European exploration. Rudok is picturesquely
situated on the side of a hill standing isolated in the plain near
the E. end of Lake Pangong, across which the official boundary
between Tibet and Kashmir runs. The houses are built in
tiers, whitewashed and walled in. At the top of the hill are
a large palace and several monasteries painted red. About
a mile away from the foot of the hill is another monastery.
Rudok is about 13,300 ft. above sea-level, and the greatest
altitude on the route connecting it with Lhasa at the pass of
Mariom la (the water-parting between the Brahmaputra and
the Sutlej) is 15,500 ft. The winter climate of Rudok and of all
the towns of the Tsangpo basin, owing to the intense dryness
of the air and the light fall of snow, seems to be bracing and
exhilarating rather than severe. The thermometer never ap-
proaches the minimum record of Puetra (in the same latitude
and at half the absolute elevation), according to the observations
of native surveyors.
RUDOLF (otherwise known as BASSO NOROK and GALLOP),
a large lake of E. equatorial Africa, forming- the centre of an
inland drainage system, occupying the S. of the Abyssinian
highlands and a portion of the great equatorial plateau. The
lake itself lies towards the N. of the great East African rift
valley, between the parallels of 2 26' and 5 N., while the
meridian of 36 E. is slightly W. of the centre of the northern
wider part, the narrower southern portion bending to 36^ E.
The length along the curved axis is 185 m., the maximum
width 37, and the area roughly 3500 sq. m. Its altitude is
1250 ft. Towards the S. it seems to be deep, but it is com-
paratively shallow in the N. Its water is brackish, but drink-
able. The country bordering the lake on almost every side
is sterile and forbidding. The S. end, for some 50 m. on the
W. and for a longer distance on the E., is shut in by high cliffs
the escarpments of a rugged lava-strewn country, which
shows abundant signs of volcanic activity, great changes
having been reported since 1889. In particular, the great
volcano of Lubburua (Teleki's volcano) at the S. end of the
lake is said to have been destroyed between 1889 and 1897
by a sudden explosion. The highest point of the S.E. side
of the lake is Mount Kulal, 7812 ft., while the culminating
height within the basin of the lake is Mount Sil, 9280 ft., which
lies about 20 m. S. of Lubburua. Further N., on the W. side,
sandy plains alternate with lines of low hills, the immediate
shores (on which the water appears to have encroached in
very modern times) being marked by spits of sand, which in
places cut off lagoons from the main body of the lake. These
are the haunt of great numbers of water-birds. In 3 8' N.
the dry bed of the Turkwell in its upper course a large river
descending the slopes of Mount Elgon approaches the lake.
Near the N. end mountains again approach the shores, the
most prominent being Mount Lubbur (5200 ft.), an extinct
volcano with a well-preserved crater. At the extreme N.W.
corner a bay some 35 m. long (Sanderson Gulf) is almost
separated from the rest of the lake by two long points of land.
On the E. side, open arid plains, with few trees, occupy most
of the N. country. One hill, in 3 20' N., has a height of
3470 ft., and at the N.E. end, separating the lake from Lake
Stefanie, is a hilly country, the highest point between the
lakes being 3524 ft. Immediately N. of these hills rises the
Hummurr Range, with one peak exceeding 7000 ft. Near
the S. end is the volcanic island of Elmolo, 10 m. long, and
there are a few small islets. Just N. of 4 N. is a small volcanic
8i6
RUDOLPH I.
island with highest point 2100 ft. At the N. end of the lake
a level swampy plain is traversed by various arms of the lake
and by the Nianam river. This river has been shown to be
identical with the Omo, the course of which was long one
of the most debated questions of African geography. Its
northernmost feeders rise on the high plateau S. of the Blue
Nile, in 9 10' N., and being swollen by other streams from
the E. and W., soon form a large river. During its lower
course it makes two considerable bends to the W. before finally
entering the lake as a deep stream a quarter of a mile wide.
Lake Rudolf (previously known on the east coast by report)
was discovered in 1888 by Count Samuel Teleki and Lieutenant
Ludwig von Hohnel. It was subsequently visited by Dr
Donaldson Smith, Vittorio Bottego, H. S. H. Cavendish, H. H.
Austin, and others, and by 1905 its shores and the neighbouring
country had become fairly well known. In 1907, by an agree-
ment between the powers concerned, the N.E. end of the lake,
into which the Omo debouches, was assigned to Abyssinia,
the rest of the lake to Great Britain.
AUTHORITIES. Geographical Journal (September 1896, April
1898, August 1899, May 1904; the last-named issue contains a
map by Captain P. Maud, R.E.) ; Ludwig von Hohnel, Discovery of
Lakes Rudolf and Stefanie (London, 1894) ; A. Donaldson Smith,
Through Unknown African Countries (London, 1897) ; A. H.
Neumann, Elephant-Hunting in East Equatorial Africa (London,
1898); L. Vannutelli and C. Citerni, L'Omo (Milan, 1899); M. S.
Wellby, 'Twixt Sirdar and Menelik (London, 1901); H. H. Austin,
Among Swamps and Giants in Equatorial Africa (1902) ; C. H.
Stigand, To Abyssinia through an Unknown Land (1910).
(E. HE.)
RUDOLPH I. (1218-1291), German king, son of Albert IV.
count of Habsburg, and Hedwig, daughter of Ulrich count
of Kyburg, was born at Limburg on the ist of May 1218. At
his father's death in 1239 Rudolph inherited the family estates
in Alsace, and in 1245 he married Gertrude, daughter of Burk-
hard III. count of Hohenberg. He paid frequent visits to
the court of his godfather the emperor Frederick II., and his
loyalty to Frederick and to his son Conrad IV. was richly
rewarded by grants of land, but in 1254 was excommunicated
by Pope Innocent IV. The disorder in Germany after the
fall of the Hohenstaufen afforded an opportunity for Rudolph
to increase his possessions. His wife was an heiress; and
on the death of his childless uncle, Hartmann VI. count of
Kyburg, in 1264, he seized his valuable estates. Successful
feuds with the bishops of Strassburg and Basel further aug-
mented his wealth and his reputation; rights over various
tracts of land were purchased from abbots and others; and
he was also the possessor of large estates in the regions now
known as Switzerland and Alsace.
These various sources of wealth and influence had rendered
Rudolph the most powerful prince in S.W. Germany when,
in the autumn of 1273, the princes met to elect a king. His
election at Frankfort on the 29th of September 1273 was largely
due to the efforts of his brother-in-law, Frederick III. of
Hohenzollern, burgrave of Nuremberg. The support of Albert
duke of Saxe-Lauenburg, and of Louis II. count palatine of
the Rhine and duke of upper Bavaria, had been purchased
by betrothing them to two of Rudolph's daughters; so that
Ottakar II. king of Bohemia, a candidate for the throne, was
almost alone in his opposition. Rudolph was crowned at
Aix-la-Chapelle on the 24th of October 1273, and the feast
which followed has been described by Schiller in Der Graf von
Hapsburg. To win the approbation of the pope Rudolph re-
nounced all imperial rights in Rome, the papal territory and
Sicily, and promised to lead a new crusade; and Pope
Gregory X., in spite of Ottakar's protests, not only recognized
Rudolph himself, but persuaded Alphonso X. king of Castile,
who had been chosen German king in 1257, to do the same.
In November 1274 it was decided by the diet at Nuremberg
that all crown estates seized since the death of the emperor
Frederick II. must be restored, and that Ottakar of Bohemia
must answer to the diet for not recognizing the new king.
Ottakar refused to appear or to restore the provinces of Austria,
Styria, Carinthia and Carniola which he had seized. He was
placed under the ban; and in June 1276 war was declared
against him. Having detached Henry I. duke of lower Bavaria
from his side, Rudolph compelled the Bohemian king to cede
the four provinces in November 1276. Ottakar was then
invested with Bohemia by Rudolph, and his son Wenceslaus
was betrothed to a daughter of the German king, who made
a triumphal entry into Vienna. Ottakar, however, raised
questions about the execution of the treaty, made an alliance
with some Polish chiefs and procured the support of several
German princes, including his former ally, Henry of lower
Bavaria. To meet this combination Rudolph entered into
alliance with Ladislaus IV. king of Hungary, and gave addi-
tional privileges to the citizens of Vienna. On the 26th of
August 1278 the rival armies met on the banks of the river
March near Diirnkrut, and Ottakar was defeated and killed.
Moravia was subdued and its government entrusted to Rudolph's
representatives, while Wenceslaus was again betrothed to one
of his daughters.
Rudolph's attention was next turned to his new possessions
in Austria and the adjacent countries. He spent several years
in establishing his authority there, but found some difficulty in
making these provinces hereditary in his family. At length
the hostility of the princes was overcome, and in December
1282 Rudolph invested his sons Albert and Rudolph with
the duchies of Austria and Styria at Augsburg, and so
laid the foundations of the greatness of the house of
Habsburg.
Turning to the west he compelled Philip I. count of upper
Burgundy to cede some districts to him in 1281, forced the
citizens of Berne to pay the tribute which they had previously
refused, and in 1289 marched against Philip's successor, Otto
IV., and compelled him to do homage. In 1281 his first wife
died, and on the 5th of February 1284 he married Isabella,
daughter of Hugh IV. duke of Burgundy. Rudolph was not
very successful in restoring internal peace to Germany. Orders
were indeed issued for the establishment of landpeaces in
Bavaria, Franconia and Swabia, and afterwards for the whole
of Germany; but the king lacked the power, or the determina-
tion, to enforce them, although in December 1289 he led an
expedition into Thuringia where he destroyed a number of
robber-castles. In 1291 he attempted to secure the election of
his son Albert as German king; but the princes refused on the
pretext of their inability to support two kings, but perhaps
because they feared the increasing power of the Habsburgs.
Rudolph died at Spires on the i5th of July 1291 and was buried
in the cathedral of that city. He had a large family, but only
one of his sons, Albert, afterwards the German king Albert I.,
survived him. Rudolph was a tall man with pale face and
prominent nose. He possessed many excellent qualities, bravery,
piety and generosity; but his reign is memorable rather, in
the history of the house of Habsburg than in that of the
kingdom of Germany.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The original authorities relating to the time and
life of Rudolph are found in the Monumenta Germaniae historica.
Scriptores, Band xvii. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826 fol.). The
following should also be consulted: Acta imperii selecta, Urkunden
deutscher Konige und Kaiser, edited by J. F. Bohmer (Innsbruck,
1870); Acta imperii inedita seculi XIII et XIV, Urkunden und
Briefe zur Geschichte des Kaiserreichs, edited by E. Winkelmann
(Innsbruck, 1885); Aktenstiicke zur Geschichte des deutschen Retches
unter den Konigen Rudolf I. und Albrecht I., edited by F. Kalten-
brunner (Vienna, 1889); M. Gerbert, Codex epistolaris Rudolph I.
(Sanblas, 1772); F. J. Bodmann, Codex epistolaris Rudolf, I.
Romanorum regis (Leipzig, 1806).
The best modern authorities are K. Hagen, Deutsche Geschichte
von Rudolf von Habsburg bis aufdie neueste Zeit (Frankfort, 1854-57) :
O. Lorenz, Geschichte Rudolfs von Habsburg und Adolf s von Nassau
(Vienna, 1863-67) ; Th. Lindner, Deutsche Geschichte unter den
Habsburgern und Luxemburgern (Stuttgart, 1888-93); A. Huber,
Rudolf von Habsburg^vor seiner Thronbesteigung (Vienna, 1873);
J. Hirn, Rudolf von Habsburg (Vienna, 1874); H. von Zeissberg,
Ueber das Rechtsverfahren Rudolf von Habsburg gegen Ottokar von
Biihmen (Vienna, 1882); H. Otto, Die Beziehungen Rudolfs von
Habsburg zu Papst Gregor X. (Erlangen, 1893) ; A. Busson, Der
Krieg von 1278 und die Schlacht bei Diirnkrut (Vienna, 1880); and
O. Redlich, Rudolf von Habsburg (Innsbruck, 1903).
RUDOLPH II. RUDOLPH THE BALD
817
RUDOLPH II. (1552-1612), Roman emperor, son of the
emperor Maximilian II. by his wife Maria, daughter of the
emperor Charles V., was born in Vienna on the i8th of July
1552. In 1563 he was sent to Spain, where his natural abilities
were improved by a good education, but he lacked the frank
and tolerant spirit of his father, resembling rather his uncle
Philip II. of Spain. In 1572 he was crowned king of Hungary,
three years later king of Bohemia; and in October 1575 he
was chosen king of the Romans, or German king, at Regensburg,
becoming emperor on his father's death in October 1576. The
importance of Rudolph's reign is negative rather than positive,
consisting more in what he did not do than in what he did;
although it is questionable whether any ruler could have pre-
vented the religious struggles of Germany and the Thirty Years'
War.
The more active part of the emperor's life was the period
from his accession to about 1597. During that time he attended
the infrequent imperial diets, and took an interest in the struggle
in the Netherlands and the defence of the empire against the
Turks. He was at times suspicious of the papal policy, while
his relations with Spain were somewhat inharmonious. As a
convinced Roman Catholic he forwarded the progress of the
counter-reformation, and in general the tolerant policy of
Maximilian II. was reversed. Political as well as religious
privileges were attacked; the administration was conducted
by Germans; and the result was a considerable amount of
discontent which became very pronounced about the opening
of the 1 7th century. Concurrently with the growth of this
unrest Rudolph had become increasingly subject to attacks
of depression and eccentricity, which were so serious as to
amount almost to insanity. In 1604, after a war with
Turkey had been in progress since 1593, many of the
Hungarians rebelled against Rudolph and chose Stephen
Bocskay as their prince. By this time the members of the
Habsburg family were thoroughly alarmed at the indifference
or incompetence of the emperor; and their anxieties were not
diminished by the knowledge that he was in feeble health,
was unmarried, and had refused to take any steps towards
securing the election of a successor. In April 1606 they
declared Rudolph incapable of ruling, and recognized one of
his younger brothers, the archduke Matthias, afterwards emperor,
as their head; and in the following June Matthias, having
already with the emperor's reluctant consent taken the conduct
of affairs into his own hands, made peace by granting extensive
concessions to the rebellious Hungarians, and concluded a
treaty with the sultan in November of the same year. Then
shaking off his lethargy Rudolph prepared to renew the war
with the Turks; a move which Matthias met by throwing
himself upon the support of the national party in Hungary.
Matthias also found adherents in other parts of his brother's
dominions, with the result that in June 1608 the emperor was
compelled to cede to him the kingdom of Hungary together
with the government of Austria and Moravia. Rudolph now
sought the aid of the princes of the empire, and even of the
Protestants; but he had met with no success in this direction
when trouble arose in Bohemia. Having at first rejected
the demand of the Bohemians for greater religious liberty,
the emperor was soon obliged to yield to superior force, and in
1609 he acceded to the popular wishes by issuing the Letter
of Majesty (Majestdtsbrief), and then made similar concessions
to his subjects in Silesia and elsewhere. A short reconciliation
with Matthias was followed by further disorder in Bohemia,
which was invaded by Rudolph's cousin, the archduke Leopold
(1586-1632). The Bohemians invoked the aid of Matthias,
who gathered an army; and in 1611 the emperor, practically
a prisoner at Prague, was again forced to cede a kingdom
to his brother. Rudolph died at Prague, his usual place of
residence, on the 2oth of January 1612, and was succeeded
as emperor by Matthias.
Rudolph was a clever and cultured man, greatly interested
in chemistry, alchemy, astronomy and astrology; he was a
patron of Tycho Brahe and Kepler, and was himself something
of a scholar and an artist. He was the greatest collector of his
age, his agents ransacking Europe to fill his museums with rare
works of art. His education at the Spanish court and an
hereditary tendency to insanity, however, made him haughty,
suspicious and consequently very unpopular, while even in his
best days the temper of his_mind was that of a recluse rather
than of a ruler.
The sources for the life and times of Rudolph II. are somewhat
scanty, as many of the official documents of the reign, which were
kept at Prague and not at Vienna, were destroyed, probably during
the Thirty Years' War. The best authorities, however, are:
Rudolphi II. epislolae ineditae, edited by B. Comte de Pace (Vienna.
1 77 1 ) ; M . Ritter, Quellenbeitrdge zur Geschichte des Kaisers Rudolf II
(Munich, 1872); and Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Gegen-
reformation und des dreissigjdhrigen Krieges (Stuttgart, 1887 fol.) ;
L. von Ranke, Zur deutschen Geschichte: Vom ReUgionsfrieden bis
sum 30-jdhrigen Kriege (Leipzig, 1868); A. Gindely, Rudolf 11.
und seine Zeit (Prague, 1862-68); F. Stieve, Die Verhandlungen
uber die Nachfolge Kaiser Rudolfs II. (Munich, 1880); in the
Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Band xxix. (Leipzig, 1889);
and Der Ursprung des dreissigjdhrigen Krieges (Munich, 1875); F.
von Bezold, Kaiser Rudolf II. und die heilige Liga (Munich, 1886) ;
J. Janssen, Geschichte des Deutschen Volks seit dent Ausgang des
Mittelalters (Freiburg, 1878 fol.), of which there is an English trans-
lation by M. A. Mitchell and A. M. Christie (London, 1896 fol.) ; and
H. Montz, Die Wahl Rudolfs II. (Marburg, 1895).
RUDOLPH, or RAOUL (d. 936), king of the Franks and duke
of Burgundy, was a son of Richard duke of Burgundy, and was
probably a member of the Carolingian family. He became
duke of Burgundy on his father's death in 921, and having
married Emma, daughter of Robert duke of the Franks,
assisted his father-in-law to drive the Frankish king, Charles
III. (the Simple), from his throne. Robert then became king
of the Franks, and when he was killed in battle in June 923 he
was succeeded by Rudolph, who was crowned at Soissons in
the following month. Giving Burgundy to his brother-in-law
Giselbert of Vergi (d. 956), the new king was fully occupied in
resisting the attacks of the Normans, and in combating the
partisans of Charles the Simple; but his enterprises were mainly
unsuccessful, and his authority was not generally recognized.
But when engaged in a struggle with his brother-in-law, Herbert
II. count of Vermandois, over the possession of the county
of Laon, Rudolph experienced happier fortunes. At Limoges
a great victory was gained over the Normans, whose duke,
William I., did homage to him in 933 ; invasions of Aquitaine
led to his recognition as king by the powerful lords of that
district; and Herbert of Vermandois was defeated and put to
flight. In 935 peace was made between these rivals; and on
the 1 4th of January 936 Rudolph died at Auxerre, leaving no
sons.
See W. Lippert, Konig Rudolf von Frankreich (Leipzig, 1886).
RUDOLPH (d. 1080), German king, and duke of Swabia,
opponent of the emperor Henry IV., was a son of Kuno count
of Rheinfelden, who possessed estates in both Burgundy and
Swabia. He received the duchy of Swabia from Agnes, regent
and mother of the young king, Henry IV., in 1057, and two
years later married the king's sister Matilda (1045-1060), and
was made administrator of the kingdom of Burgundy, or Aries.
Differences soon arose between the king and his brother-in-law,
whose loyalty was suspected during the Saxon War of 1073.
When Henry was excommunicated and deposed by pope
Gregory VII., the princes met at Forchheim, and elected
Rudolph as German king. He renounced the right of investi-
ture, disclaimed any intention of making the crown hereditary
in his family, and was crowned at Mainz on the 27th of March
1077. He found no support in Swabia, but, uniting with the
Saxons, won two victories over Henry's troops, and, in 1080,
was recognized by the pope. On the isth of October 1080,
Rudolph was severely wounded at Hohenmolsen, and died the
next day. He was buried at Merseburg, where his beautiful
bronze tomb is still to be seen.
See O. Grund, Die Wahl Rudolfs von Rheinfelden zum Gegenkdnig
(Leipzig, 1880).
RUDOLPH, or RAOUL, known as RUDOLPH GLABER
(Rudolph the Bald) (d. c. 1050), French chronicler, was born in
8i8
RUDOLSTADT RUFF
Burgundy about 985, and was in turn an inmate of the mon-
asteries of St Leger at Champeaux and St Benigne at Dijon,
afterwards entering the famous abbey of Cluny, and becoming a
monk at St Germain at Auxerre before 1039. He also appears
to have visited Italy. His Historiarum sui temporis libri V.,
dedicated to St Odilon, abbot of Cluny, purports to be a uni-
versal history from 900 to 1044; but is an irregular narration
of events in France and Burgundy. Rudolph was a strong
believer in the approaching end of the world.
The Historiarum was first printed in 1596, and published by A.
Duchesne in the Historiae Francorum Scriptores, tome iv. (Paris,
1639-49). Extracts are printed in the Monumenta Germaniae
historica, Band vii.; but perhaps the best edition of the work is
the one edited by M. Prou in the Collection de textes pour servir a
I'etude et I'enseignement de I'histoire (Paris, 1886). Rudolph also
wrote a Vita, S. Gulielmi, abbatis S. Benigni, published by J. Mabillon
in the Acta Sanctorum, tome vi. (Paris, 1668).
See A. Molinier, Les Sources de I'histoire de France, tome 11. (Paris,
1902); and A. Potthast, Bibliotheca historica (Berlin, 1896).
RUDOLSTADT, a town of Germany, capital of the princi-
pality of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, and the chief residence of
the prince, lies on the left bank of the Saale, 18 m. S.W.
of Jena, by the railway Grossheringen-Saalfeld, in one of the
most beautiful districts of Thuringia. Pop. (1905) 12,494. The
picturesque town is a favourite tourist resort. Besides con-
taining the government buildings of the little principality,
Rudolstadt is well provided with schools and other institutions,
including a library of 65,000 volumes. The residence of the
prince is the Heidecksburg, a palace on an eminence 200 ft.
above the Saale, which was rebuilt after a fire in 1735, and
contains a picture gallery, a magnificent banqueting hall and a
library. The Ludwigsburg, another palace in the town, built in
1 742, accommodates the natural history collections belonging to
the prince. The principal church dates from the end of the
i $th century and contains tombs and effigies of many former
princes. In the Anger, a public park between the town and
the river, is the theatre. The Rudolsbad a handsome hydro-
pathic establishment with a richly decorated interior lying
amidst extensive grounds, is also noticeable. Various memorials
in and near the town commemorate the visits of Schiller to the
neighbourhood in 1787 and 1788. The industries of the place
include the manufacture of porcelain, chocolate and dye-
stuffs, wool-spinning and bell-founding.
The name of Rudolstadt occurs in an inventory of the posses-
sions of the abbey of Hersfeld in the year 800. After passing
into the possession of the German kings and then of the rulers
of Orlamiinde and of Weimar, it came into the hands of the
counts of Schwarzburg in 1335. Its civic rights were confirmed
in 1404, and since 1599 it has been the residence of the ruling
house of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt.
See Renovanz, Chronik von Rudolstadt (Rudolstadt, 1860);
Anemiiller, Geschichtsbilder aus der Vergangenheit Rudolstadts
(Rudolstadt, 1888); and Woerl, Rudolstadt (2nd ed., Leipzig,
1890).
RUDRA (probably from the root rud, " to howl," hence " the
howler "), in Hindu Vedic mythology, a storm god, and father
of the Maruts who are frequently called Rudriyas. He shoots
tempests at the earth, but is not essentially a malevolent deity,
being invoked as a protector of cattle. In the Atharvaveda he
is lord of life and death, and in later Hinduism one of the Hindu
trinity, the god Siva.
See A. A. Macdpnell, Vedic Mythology (Strassburg, 1897); Sir
William Muir, Original Sanskrit Texts, iv. 299420.
RUE (Fr. rue, Lat. ruta, from Gr. frvrii, the Pelopon-
nesian word for the plant known as irrryavov), the name
of a woody or bushy herb, belonging to the genus Ruta,
especially Ruta graveolens, the " common rue," a plant with
bluish green spotted leaves and greenish yellow flowers. It has
a strong pungent smell and the leaves have a bitter taste.
The plant was much used in medieval and later medicine as a
stimulative and irritant drug. It was commonly supposed to
be much used by witches. From its association with " rue,"
sorrow, repentance (O. Eng. hreow, from hreowan, to be sorry
for, cf. Ger. reuen), the plant was also known as " herb of
grace," and was taken as the symbol of repentance.
RUEDA, LOPE DE (1510?-! 565?), Spanish dramatist, was
born early in the i6th century at Seville, where, according
to Cervantes, he worked as a metal-beater. His name first
occurs in 1554 as acting at Benavente, and between 1558 and
1561 he was manager of a strolling company which visited
Segovia, Seville, Toledo, Madrid, Valencia and C6rdova. In
the last-named city Rueda fell ill, and on the 2ist of March
1565 made a will which he was too exhausted to sign; he
probably died shortly afterwards, and is said by Cervantes to
have been buried in C6rdova cathedral. He was twice married;
first to a disreputable actress named Mariana, who became the
mistress of the duke de Medinaceli; and second to Rafaela
Angela, who bore him a daughter. His works were issued
posthumously in 1567 by Timoneda, who toned down certain
passages in the texts. Rueda's more ambitious plays are
mostly adapted from the Italian; in Eufemia he draws on
Boccaccio, in Medora he utilizes Giancarli's Zingara, in Armelina
he combines Raineri's Attilia with Cecchi's Servigiale, and in
Los Enga.nad.os he uses Gl'Ingannati, a comedy produced by the
Intronati, a literary society at Siena. These follow the original
so closely that they give no idea of Rueda's talent; but in his
pasos or prose interludes he displays an abundance of riotous
humour, great knowledge of low life, and a most happy gift of
dialogue. His predecessors mostly wrote for courtly audiences
or for the study; Rueda with his strollers created a taste for
the drama which he was able to gratify, and he is admitted
both by Cervantes and Lope de Vega to be the true founder
of the national theatre.
His works have been reprinted by the marquis de la Fuensanta
del Valle in the Coleccion de libros raros 6 curwsos, vols. xxiii. and
xxiv.
RUEIL, a town of N. France, in the department of Seine-et-
Oise, at the W. foot of Mt Valerien, 6 m. W. of Paris by tramway.
Pop. (1906) 10,439. Rueil has a church rebuilt under Napoleon
III. in exact imitation of a previous church in the Renaissance
style, and containing the tombs of the Empress Josephine and
her daughter Hortense de Beauharnais. In the i7th century
Richelieu built a chateau which no longer exists. Rueil has
important photographic works and manufactures of lime and
cement, &c. Close to the town is the chateau of Malmaison,
a building of the i8th century famous as the residence of the
empress Josephine. It was afterwards occupied by Maria
Christina, queen of Spain, and by the empress Eugenie. In
1900 the owner, Daniel Osiris, presented it and the park to the
nation; the apartments have been as far as possible restored
to the condition in which they were when inhabited by Josephine
and Napoleon.
RUFF, a bird so called from the very beautiful and remark-
able frill of elongated feathers that, just before the breeding-
season, grow thickly round the neck of the male, who is
considerably larger than the female, known as the reeve. In
many respects this species, the Tringa pugnax of Linnaeus and
the Machetes pugnax of modern ornithologists, is one of the most
singular in existence. The best account is that given in 1813
by G. Montagu (Suppl. Orn. Dictionary), who seems to have
been struck by the peculiarities of the species, and, to investigate
them, visited the fens of Lincolnshire, possibly excited thereto
by the example of T. Pennant, whose information, collected
there in 1769, was of a kind to provoke further inquiry, while
Daniel (Rural Sports, iii. p. 234) had added some other parti-
culars, and subsequently G. Graves in 1816 repeated in the
same district the experience of his predecessors. Since that time
the great changes produced by the drainage of the fen-country
have banished this species from nearly the whole of it, so that
R. Lubbock (Obs. Fauna of Norfolk, pp. 68-73) and H. Steven-
son (Birds of Norfolk, ii. pp. 261-271) can alone be cited as
modern witnesses of its habits in England, while the trade of
netting or snaring ruffs and fattening them for the table has
for many years practically ceased.
The cock bird, when, to use the fenman's expression, he has
RUFFIAN RUFFO
819
not " his show on," and the hen at all seasons, offer no very
remarkable deviation from ordinary sandpipers; outwardly l
there is nothing, except the unequal size of the two sexes, to
rouse suspicion of any abnormal peculiarity. But when spring
comes all is changed. In a surprisingly short time the feathers
clothing the face of the male are shed, and their place is taken
by papillae or small caruncles of bright yellow or pale pink.
From each side of his head sprouts a tuft of stiff curled feathers,
while the feathers of the throat change colour, and beneath
and around it sprouts the frill or ruff already mentioned as
giving the bird his name. The feathers which form this
remarkable adornment are, like those of the " ear-tufts," stiff
and incurved at the end, but much longer measuring more
than 2 in. They are closely arrayed, capable of depression
or elevation, and form a shield to the front of the breast
impenetrable by the bill of a rival. 2 More extraordinary than
this, from one point of view, is the great variety of coloration
that obtains in these temporal^ outgrowths. Considering the
really few colours that the birds exhibit, the variation is some-
thing marvellous, so that fifty examples may be compared
without finding a very close resemblance between any two of
Ruff,
them, while the individual variation is increased by the " ear-
tufts," which generally differ in colour from the frill. The
colours range from deep black to pure white, passing through
chestnut or bay, and many tints of brown or ashy-grey, while
often the feathers are more or less closely barred with some
darker shade, and the black is very frequently glossed with
violet, blue or green or, in addition, spangled with white
grey or gold-colour. The white, on the other hand, is not
rarely freckled, streaked, or barred with grey, rufous-brown
or black. In some examples the barring is most regularly
concentric, in others more or less broken-up or undulating,
and the latter may be said of the streaks. It was ascertained
by Montagu, and has since been confirmed by A. D. Bartlett,
that every ruff assumes tufts and frill exactly the same in
colour and markings as those he wore in the preceding season;
and thus, polymorphic as is the male as a species, as an individual
he is unchangeable. The white frill is said to be the rarest,
and birds exhibiting it have white necks even in winter.
That all this wonderful " show " is the consequence of the
polygamous habit of the ruff can scarcely be doubted. No
1 Internally there Is a great difference in the form of the posterior
margin of the sternum, as long ago remarked by Nitzsch.
2 This " ruff " has been compared Jo that of Elizabethan or
Jacobean costume, but it is essentially different, since that was open
in front and widest and most projecting behind, whereas the bird's
decorative apparel is most developed in front and at the sides and
scarcely exists behind.
other species of Limicoline bird has, so far as is known, any
tendency to it. Indeed, in many species of Limicolae, as the
dotterel, the godwits (q.v.), phalaropes and perhaps some
others, the female is larger and more brightly coloured than
the male, who in such cases seems to take upon himself some
at least of the domestic duties. Both Montagu and Graves, to
say nothing of other writers, state that the ruffs, in England,
were far more numerous than the reeves; and their testimony
can hardly be doubted; though in Germany J. F. Naumann
( Vog. Deutschland's, vii. p. 544) considers that this is only the
case in the earlier part of the season, and that later the females
greatly outnumber the males. By no one have the ruff's
characteristics been more happily described than by J. Wolley,
in a communication to W. C. Hewitson (Eggs of Brit. Birds,
3d ed., p. 346), as follows:
" The ruff, like other fine gentlemen, takes much more trouble
with his courtship than with his duties as a husband. Whilst the
reeves are sitting on their eggs, scattered about the swamps, he
is to be seen far away flitting about in flocks, and on the ground
dancing and sparring with his companions. Before they are con-
fined to their nests, it is wonderful with what devotion the females
are attended by their gay followers, who seem to be each trying to
be more attentive than the rest. Nothing can be more expressive
of humility and ardent love than some of the actions of the ruff.
He throws himself prostrate on the ground, with every feather on
his body standing up and quivering; but he seems as if he were
afraid of coming too near his mistress. If she flies off, he starts
up in an instant to arrive before her at the next place of alighting,
and all his actions are full of life and spirit. But none of his spirit
is expended in care for his family. He never comes to see after an
enemy. In the [Lapland] marshes, a reeve now and then flies
near with a scarcely audible ka-ka-kuk; but she. seems a dull bird,
and makes no noisy attack on an invader."
The breeding-grounds of the ruff extend from Great Britain
across N. Europe and Asia; but the birds become less numerous
towards the E. They winter in India, reaching even Ceylon,
and Africa as far as the Cape of Good Hope. The ruff also
occasionally visits Iceland, and there are several well-authen-
ticated records of its occurrence on the E. coast of the United
States, while an example is stated (Ibis, 1875, p. 332) to have
been received from the N. of S. America. (A. N.)
RUFFIAN (Fr. rufian, It. ruffiano), a brutal, violent person,
a swaggering, low bully. The etymology is obscure, but the
word has been connected with " ruffler," a bully, swaggerer, one
who "ruffles" (M. Du. rqffeln, to pander). An early derivation,
quoted in Du Cange, derives it from Lat. rufus, red, as the hair
of the meretrices, with whom the ruffiani were generally associ-
ated, was red or gold, as contrasted with the black hair of sober
matrons.
RUFFO, FABRIZIO (1744-1827), Neapolitan cardinal and
politician, was born at San Lucido in Calabria on the i6th of
September 1744. His father, Litterio Ruffo, was duke of Baran-
ello, and his mother, Giustiniana, was of the family of Colonna.
Fabrizio owed his education to his uncle, the cardinal Thomas
Ruffo, then dean of the Sacred College. In early life he secured
the favour of Giovanni Angelo Braschi di Cesera, who in 1775
became Pope Pius VI. Ruffo was placed by the pope among the
chierici di camera the clerks who formed the papal civil and
financial service. He was later promoted to be treasurer-general,
a post which carried with it the ministry of war. Ruffo's conduct
in office was diversely judged. Colletta, the historian of Naples,
speaks of him as corrupt, and Jomini repeats the charge. Ruffo's
biographer, Sachinelli, says that he incurred hostility by restrict-
ing the feudal powers of some of the landowners in the papal
states. In 1791 he was removed from the treasurership, but was
created cardinal on the zgth of September, though he was not
in orders. He never became a priest. Ruffo went to Naples,
where he was named administrator of the royal domain of
Caserta, and received the abbey of S. Sophia in Benevento
in commendam. When in December 1798 the French troops
advanced on Naples, Ruffo fled to Palermo with the royal
family. He was chosen to head a royalist movement in Calabria,
where his family, though impoverished by debt, exercised
large feudal powers. He was named vicar-general on the
25th of January 1799. On the 8th of February he landed at
820
RUFIJI RUFINUS
La Cortona with a small following, and began to raise the so-
called " army of the faith " in association with Fra Diavolo
and other brigand leaders. Ruffo had no difficulty in upsetting
the republican government established by the French, and
by June had advanced to Naples (see NAPLES and NELSON).
The campaign has given rise to much controversy. Ruffo
appears to have lost favour with the king by showing a tendency
to spare the republicans. He resigned his vicar-generalship
to the prince of Cassero, and during the second French conquest
and the reigns of Joseph Bonaparte and Murat he lived quietly
in Naples. Some notice was taken of him by Napoleon, but
he never held an important post. After the restoration of
the Bourbons he was received into favour. During the revolu-
tionary troubles of 1822 he was consulted by the king, and was
even in office for a very short time as a " loyalist " minister.
He died on the I3th of December 1827.
The account of Ruffo given in Colletta's History of Naples (English
translation, Edinburgh, 1860) must be taken with caution. Colletta
was a violent liberal partisan, who wrote in exile, and largely from
memory. He has been corrected by the Duca de Lauria, Inlorno
alia storia del Reame di Nappli di Pietro Colletta (Naples, 1877).
Ruffo's own side of the question is stated in Memorie Storiche sulla
vita del Cardinale Fabrizip Ruffo, by Domenico Sacchinelli (Naples,
1836). See also Fabrizio Ruffo: Revolution and Gegen-Revolution
von Neapel, by Baron von Helfert (Vienna, 1882).
RUFIJI, a large river of German East Africa, entering the
sea by a considerable delta, between 7 45' and 8 13' S. Its
upper basin, which extends from N. to S. through over 300 m.,
is drained by three main branches, which unite to form the
lower Rufiji. Of the three upper branches, the two southern,
the Luvegu and the Ulanga, though shorter than the northern-
most (the Ruaha), carry a greater volume of water, as they
come from a more rainy region, and by their junction in 8 35'
S-, 37 25' E., the Rufiji proper may be said to be formed.
The Luvegu rises 10 50' S., 35 50' E., and flows N.E. in a wooded
valley, generally narrow, and bordered by a broken country in
great part uninhabited and covered with thin forest. In its lower
course it is a large stream 100 to 150 yds. wide.
The Ulanga is formed by a number of streams descending from
the outer escarpment of the high plateau which runs N.E. from the
head of Lake Nyasa and in Uhehe becomes broken up in ranges
of mountains. The most important head-stream, the Ruhudye,
rises in about 9 30' S., 34 40' E. As a whole, the Ulanga valley
is broad, level and swampy, the river running in a very winding
course and sending off many diverging arms. It is navigable
throughout the greater part of its course, haying even in the dry
season a general depth of 3 to 12 ft., with a width of 40 to 120 yds.
In April and May nearly all the streams overflow their banks and
cover a great part of the plain.
Just below the junction of the Luvegu and Ulanga, the Rufiji
flows through a narrow pass by the Shuguli falls, and continues
N.E. in a fairly straight course to the junction of the Ruaha, in
7 55' S., 37 52' E. The most remote branches of the Ruaha rise
N. of Lake Nyasa in the Livingstone mountains. The united stream
makes a wide sweep to the N. of the Uhehe mountains, from which
it receives various tributaries, finally flowing S.E. and E. to the
Rufiji. A little below the junction the Rufiji is broken by the
Pangani falls, but is thence navigable by small steamers to its
delta. In this part of its course the river receives no large tributaries
but sends out divergent channels. The country on either side is a
generally level plain, inundated, on the south, in the rains, and the
river varies in width from 100 to 400 yds., with an average current
of 3 m. an hour. The main mouth of the river is that known as
Simba Uranga, the bar of which can be crossed by ocean vessels
at high water, but all the branches are very shallow as the apex
of the delta is approached. Much of the delta is suited for rice-
growing.
RUFINUS, TYRANNIUS, presbyter and theologian, was born
at or near Aquileia at the head of the Adriatic, probably be-
tween 340 an 345. In early manhood he entered the cloister
as a catechumen, receiving baptism about 370. About the
same time a visit of Jerome to Aquileia led to a close friendship
between the two, and shortly after Jerome's departure for
the East Rufinus also was drawn thither (in 372 or 373) by his
interest in its theology and monasticism. He first settled in
Egypt, hearing the lectures of Didymus, the Origenistic head
of the catechetical school at Alexandria, and also cultivating
friendly relations with Macarius the elder and other ascetics
in the desert. In Egypt, if not even before leaving Italy, he
had become intimately acquainted with Melania, a wealthy and
devout Roman widow; and when she removed to Palestine,
taking with her a number of clergy and monks on whom the
persecutions of the Arian Valens had borne heavily, Rufinus
(about 378) followed her. While his patroness lived in a con-
vent of her own. in Jerusalem, Rufinus, at her expense, gathered
together a number of monks in a monastery on the Mount of
Olives, devoting himself at the same time to the study of Greek
theology. This combination of the contemplative life and
the life of learning had already developed in the Egyptian
monasteries. When Jerome came to Bethlehem in 386,
the friendship formed at Aquileia was renewed. Another
of the intimates of Rufinus- was John, bishop of Jerusalem,
and formerly a Nitrian monk, by whom he was ordained to
the priesthood in 390. In 394, in consequence of the attack
upon the doctrines of Origen made by Epiphanius of Salamis
during a visit to Jerusalem, a fierce quarrel broke out, which
found Rufinus and Jerome on different sides; and, though three
years afterwards a formal reconciliation was brought about
between Jerome and John, the breach between Jerome and
Rufinus remained unhealed.
In the autumn of 397 Rufinus embarked for Rome, where,
finding that the theological controversies of the East were
exciting much interest and curiosity, he published a Latin
translation of the Apology of Pamphilus for Origen, and also
(398-99) a somewhat free rendering of the irtpi &pxn> (or
De Principiis) of that author himself. In the preface to the
latter work he referred to Jerome as an admirer of Origen,
and as having already translated some of his works with
modifications of ambiguous doctrinal expressions. This allu-
sion annoyed Jerome, who was exceedingly sensitive as to his
reputation for orthodoxy, and the consequence was a bitter
pamphlet war, very wonderful to the modern onlooker, who
finds it difficult to see anything discreditable in the accusation
against a biblical scholar that he had once thought well of
Origen, or in the countercharge against a translator that he
had avowedly exercised editorial functions as well. At the
instigation of Theophilus of Alexandria, Anastasius (pope 398-
402) summoned Rufinus from Aquileia to Rome to vindicate
his orthodoxy; but he excused himself from a personal attend-
ance in a written Apologia pro fide sua. The pope in his reply
expressly condemned Origen, but left the question of Rufinus's
orthodoxy to his own conscience. He was, however, regarded
with suspicion in orthodox circles (cf. the Decretum Gelassii, 20)
in spite of his services to Christian literature. In 408 we find
Rufinus at the monastery of Pinetum (in the Campagna?);
thence he was driven by the arrival of Alaric to Sicily, being
accompanied by Melania in his flight. In Sicily he was engaged
in translating the Homilies of Origen when he died in 410.
The original works of Rufinus are^-(l) De Adulteratione Librorum
Origenis an appendix to his translation of the Apology of Pamphilus,
and intended to show that many of the features in Origen's teaching
which were then held to be objectionable arise from interpolations
and falsifications of the genuine text; (2) De Benedictionibus XII
Patriarcharum Libri II an exposition of Gen. xlix. ; (3) Apologia
s. Invectivarum in Hieronymum Libri II; (4) Apologia pro Fide Sua
ad Anastasiunt Pontificem; (5) Historia Eremitica consisting of
the lives of thirty-three monks of the Nitrian desert ; 1 (6) Expositio
Symboli, a commentary on the creed of Aquileia comparing it with
that of Rome, which is valuable for its evidence as to church teaching
in the 4th century. The Historiae Ecclesiasticae Libri XI of Rufinus
consist partly of a free translation of Eusebius (10 books in 9) and
partly of a continuation (bks. x. and xi.) down to the death of Theo-
dosius the Great. The other translations of Rufinus are (l) the
Instituta Monachorum and some of the Homilies of Basil: (2) the
Apology of Pamphilus, referred to above; (3) Origen's Principia;
(4) Origen's Homilies (Gen.-Kings,also Cant, and Rom.) ;(s) Opusctila
of Gregory of Nazianzus; (6) the Sententiae of Sixtus, an unknown
Greek philosopher; (7) the Sententiae of Evagrius; (8) the Clementine
Recognitions (the only form in which that work is now extant);
(9) the Canon Paschalis of Anatolius Alexandrinus. We can hardly
overestimate the influence which Rufinus exerted on Western
theologians by thus putting the great Greek fathers into the Latin
tongue. D. Vallarsi's uncompleted edition of Rufinus (vol. i. fol.,
Verona, 1745) contains the De Benedictionibus , the Apologies, the
1 On this work see Dom Butler in Texts and Studies, vi. i. pp. 10 ff.
RUFUS RUGE
821
Expositio Symboli, the Historia Eremitica and the two original
books of the Hist. Eccl. See also Migne, Patrol, (vol. xxi. of the
Latin series). For the translations, see the various editions of
Origen, Eusebius, &c.
See W. H. Freemantle in Diet. Chr. Biog. iv. 555-60; A. Ebert,
Allg. Gesch. d. Lilt. d. Mittelalters im Aberuuande, i. 321-27 (Leipzig,
1889); G. Kriiger in Hauck-Herzog's Real-encyk.fur prot. Theol.,
where there is a full bibliography.
RUFUS, GAIUS VALGIUS, Lain poet, friend of Horace
and Maecenas, and consul in 12 B.C. He was known as a
writer of elegies and epigrams, and his contemporaries believed
him capable of great things in epic. The author of the pane-
gyric on Messalla declares Rufus to be the only poet fitted to
be the great man's Homer. Rufus did not, however, confine
himself to poetry. He discussed grammatical questions by
correspondence, translated the rhetorical manual of his teacher
Apollodorus of Pergamum, and began a treatise on medicinal
plants, dedicated to Augustus. Horace addressed to him the
ninth ode of the second book.
Fragments in R. Weichert, Poetarum Latinorum Vilae el Carminum
Reliquiae (1830); R. Unger, De C. Valgii Rufi Poematis (1848);
O. Ribbeck, Geschichte der romischen Dichtung (1889), ii. ; M. Schanz,
Geschichte der romischen Litteratur (1899), ii. I; Teuffel, Hist, of
Roman Literature (Eng. trans., 1900), 241.
RUFUS, LUCIUS VARIUS (c 74-14 B.C.), Roman poet of
the Augustan age. He was the friend of Virgil, after whose
death he and Plotius Tucca prepared the Aeneid for publica-
tion, and of Horace, for whom he and Virgil obtained an intro-
duction to Maecenas. Horace speaks of him as a master of
epic and the only poet capable of celebrating the achievements
of Vipsanius Agrippa (Odes, i. 6) ; Virgil (under the name of
Lycidas, Eel. ix. 35) regrets that he had hitherto produced
nothing comparable to the work of Varius or Helvius Cinna.
From Macrobius (Saturnalia, vi. i, 39; 2, 19) we learn that
Varius composed an epic poem De Morte, some lines of which
are quoted as having been imitated or appropriated by Virgil;
Horace (Sat. i. 10, 43) probably alludes to another epic, and,
according to the scholiast on Epistles, i. 16, 27-29, these three
lines are taken bodily from a panegyric of Varius on Augustus.
But his most famous literary production was the tragedy
Thyestes, which Quintilian (Inst. Oral. x. i, 98) declares fit to
rank with any of the Greek tragedies. The didascalia (which is
preserved in a Paris MS.) informs us that it was produced at
the games celebrated (29 B.C.) by Augustus in honour of the
victory at Actium, and that Varius received a present of a
million sesterces from the emperor.
Fragments in E. Bahrens, Frag. Poetarum Romanorum (1886);
monographs by A. Weichert (1836) and R. Unger (1870, 1878, 1898) ;
M. Schanz, Geschichte der romischen Litteratur (1899), ii. I; Teuffel,
Hist, of Roman Literature (Eng. trans., 1900), 223.
RUG, a term of Scandinavian origin (cf. Swed. rugg, rough
hair; Norw. dial, rugga, rough), and probably connected with
" rough " and " rag," originally for a kind of coarse woollen
material, like frieze; hence it is used of a piece of thick material
used as a wrap or covering for the knees or body in travelling
or in bed, and especially for a thick mat or small-sized carpet
laid on the floor (see CARPET).
RUGBY, a market town in the Rugby parliamentary division
of Warwickshire, England, finely situated on a tableland
rising from the S. bank of the Avon, near the Oxford Canal.
Pop. of urban district (1901), 16,830. It is an important
junction on the London & North-Western railway, by which
it is 82^ m. N.W. from London; it is served also by the Great
Central railway and by a branch of the Midland railway from
Leicester.
The boys' school, ranking as one of the most famous public
schools in England, was founded and endowed under the will
(1567) of Laurence Sheriff, a merchant grocer and servant to
Queen Elizabeth, and a native either of Rugby or of the neigh-
bouring village of Brownsover. The endowment consisted of
the parsonage of Brownsover, Sheriff's mansion house in Rugby,
and one-third (8 acres) of his estate in Middlesex, near the
Foundling Hospital, London, which, being let on building
leases, gradually increased to about 5000 a year. The full
endowment was obtained in 1653. The school originally
stood opposite the parish church, and was removed to its
present site on the S. side of the town between 1740 and 1750.
In 1809 it was rebuilt from designs by Henry Hakewill (1771-
1830); the chapel, dedicated to St Lawrence, was added in
1820. At the tercentenary of the school in 1867 subscriptions
were set on foot for founding scholarships, building additional
schoolrooms, rebuilding or enlarging the chapel and other
objects. The chapel was rebuilt and reconsecrated in 1872,
and further additions were made in 1898. A swimming bath
was erected in 1876; the Temple observatory, containing a
fine equatorial refractor by Alvan Clark, was built in 1877,
and the Temple reading-room with the art museum in 1878.
The workshops underneath the gymnasium were opened in
1880, and a new big school and class-rooms were erected in
1885. From about 70 to 1777 the numbers attending the
school have increased to nearly 600. A great impulse was
given to the progress of the school during the headmastership
of Thomas Arnold, 1827-42. Among Arnold's successors were
Archibald Campbell Tail and Frederick Temple, both after-
wards archbishops of Canterbury.
The parish church of St Andrew was rebuilt from designs
by W. Butterfield and reconsecrated in 1879. A tower and
spire were added in 1895. An aisle commemorates John
Moultrie (1799-1874), rector, widely known as the "poet
pastor." The church of Holy Trinity is by Sir G. G. Scott,
and the Roman Catholic church of St Marie by A. W. Pugin.
Trade is mainly agricultural; there is a large cattle market,
and several fairs are held annually.
The early history of Rugby is obscure, but a settlement of the
Danes is presumed from the name, and from the neighbouring tract
of Dunsmore Heath (Danesmpor). Rugby was originally a hamlet
of the adjoining parish of Clifton-on-Dunsmore7 and is separately
treated of as such in Domesday Book. Ernaldus de Bosco (Ernald
de Bois), lord of the manor of Clifton, seems to have erected the
first chapel in Rugby, in the reign of Stephen, about 1140. It
was afterwards granted by him, with certain lands, to endow the
abbey of St Mary, Leicester, which grant was confirmed by his
successors and by royal charter of Henry II. In the second year
of King John (1200) a suit took place between Henry de Rokeby,
lord of the manor of Rugby, and Paul, abbot of St Mary, Leicester,
which resulted in the former obtaining possession of the advowson
of Rugby, on condition of homage and service to the abbot of
Leicester. By virtue of this agreement the chapel was converted
into a parish church and the vicarage into a rectory.
RUGE, ARNOLD (1802-1880), German philosopher and
political writer, was born at Bergen, in the island of Riigen,
on the I3th of September 1802. He studied at Halle, Jena
and Heidelberg, and became an adherent of the party which
sought to create a free and united Germany. For his zeal he
was confined for five years in the fortress of Kolberg, where he
studied Plato and the Greek poets. On his release in 1830
he published Schill und die Seinen, a tragedy, and a translation
of Oedipus in Colonus. Ruge settled in Halle, where in 1837
with E. T. Echtermeyer he founded the Hallesche Jahrbucher
fur deutsche Kunst und Wissenschaft. In this periodical he
discussed the questions of the time from the point of view of
the Hegelian philosophy. The Jahrbucher was detested by the
orthodox party in Prussia; and was finally suppressed by
the Saxon government in 1843. In Paris Ruge tried to act
with Karl Marx as co-editor of the Deutsch-Franzosische Jahr-
bucher, but had little sympathy with Marx's socialistic theories,
and soon left him. In the revolutionary movement of 1848
he organized the Extreme Left in the Frankfort parliament,
and for some time he lived in Berlin as the editor of the Die
Reform. The Prussian government intervened and Ruge soon
afterwards left for Paris, hoping, through his friend Alexandre
Ledru-Rollin, to establish relations between German and
French republicans; but in 1849 both Ledru-Rollin and Ruge
had to take refuge in London. Here, in company with Giuseppe
Mazzini and other advanced politicians, they formed a " Euro-
pean Democratic Committee." From this Ruge soon withdrew,
and in 1850 went to Brighton, where he supported himself
by teaching and writing. In 1866 and 1870 he vigorously
822
. RUGELEY RUHNKEN
supported Prussia against Austria, and Germany against France.
In his last years he received from the German government
a pension of 1000 marks. He died on the 3 ist of December 1880.
Ruge was a leader in religious and political liberalism, but did
not produce any work of enduring importance. In 1846-48 his
Gesammelte Schriften were published in ten volumes. After this
time he wrote, among other books, Unser System, Revolutions-
novellen, Die Loge des Humanismus, and Aus fruherer Zeit (his
memoirs). He also wrote many poems, and several dramas and
romances, and translated into German various English works,
including the Letters of Junius and Buckle's History of Civilization.
His Letters and Diary (1825-80) were published by Paul Nerrlich
(Berlin, 1885-87). See A. W. Bolin's L. Feuerbach, pp. 127-52
(Stuttgart, 1891).
RUGELEY, a market town in the Lichfield parliamentary
division of Staffordshire, England, in the Trent valley. Pop.
of urban district (1901), 4447. The London & North-Western
railway has stations on the main line (Trent Valley, 124^ m.
N.W. from London), and at the town, on a branch line to
Walsall. The Grand Trunk canal here follows the Trent. To
the S.W. lie the hills of Cannock Chase. The church of St
Augustine is modern; of the parish church of the i4th century
only the tower and chancel remain. The municipal offices,
market hall and assembly-room are contained in one building
(1879). A grammar school was founded in 1611. There are
ironfoundries, corn-mills and tanneries; and the parish includes
several collieries.
RUGEN, an island of Germany, in the Baltic, immediately
opposite Stralsund, 15 m. off the north-west coast of Pomerania
in Prussia, from which it is separated by the narrow Strelasund,
or Bodden. Its shape is exceedingly irregular, and its coast-
line is broken by numerous bays and peninsulas, sometimes
of considerable size. The general name is applied by the
natives only to the roughly triangular main trunk of the island,
while the larger peninsulas, the landward extremities of which
taper to narrow necks of land, are considered to be as distinct
from Riigen as the various adjacent smaller islands which are
also included for statistical purposes under the name. The
chief peninsulas are those of Jasmund and Wittow on the north,
and Monchgut, at one time the property of the monastery of
Eldena, on the south-east; and the chief neighbouring islands
are Ummanz and Hiddensee, both off the north-west coast.
Riigen is the largest island in Germany. Its greatest length
from N. to S. is 32 m.; its greatest breadth is 255 m.; and
its area is 377 sq. m. The surface gradually rises towards the
west to Rugard (335 ft.) the " eye of Rugen " near Bergen,
but the highest point is the Hertaburg (505 ft.) in Jasmund.
Erratic blocks are scattered throughout the island, and the
roads are made with granite. Though much of Riigen is flat
and sandy, the fine beech woods which cover a great part of
it, and the bold northern coast scenery combine with the
convenient sea-bathing offered by the various villages around
the coast to attract large numbers of visitors. The most beauti-
ful and attractive part of the island is the peninsula of Jasmund,
which terminates to the north in the Stubbenkammer (Slavonic
for " rock steps "), a sheer chalk cliff, the summit of which, the
Konigsstuhl, is 420 ft. above the sea. The east of Jasmund is
clothed with an extensive beech wood called the Stubbenitz,
in which lies the Borg, or Herta Lake. Connected with Jas-
mund by the narrow isthmus of Schabe to the west is the
peninsula of Wittow, the most fertile part of the island. At
its north-west extremity rises the height of Arcona, with a
lighthouse.
A ferry connects the island with Stralsund, and from the
landing-stage at Altefahr a railway traverses the island, passing
the capital Bergen to Sassnitz, on the north-east coast. Hence
a regular steamboat service connects with Trelleborgin Sweden,
thus affording direct communication between Berlin and Stock-
holm. The other chief places are Garz, Sagard, Gingst and
Putbus, the last being the old capital of a barony of the
princes of Putbus. Sassnitz, Gohren, Sellin and Lauterbach-
Putbus are among the favourite bathing resorts. Schoritz was
the birthplace of the patriot and poet, Ernst Moritz Arndt.
Ecclesiastically Riigen is divided into 75 parishes, in which the
pastoral succession is said to be almost hereditary. The in-
habitants are distinguished from those of the mainland by
peculiarities of dialect, costume and habits; and even the
various peninsulas differ from each other in these particulars.
The peninsula of Monchgut has best preserved its peculiarities;
but there, too, primitive simplicity is yielding to the influence
of the annual stream of summer visitors. The inhabitants
raise some cattle, and Riigen has long been famous for its
geese; but the only really considerable industry is fishing,
the herring-fishery being especially important. Riigen, with
the neighbouring islands, forms a governmental department,
with a population (1905) of 47,023.
The original Germanic inhabitants of Riigen were dispossessed by
Slavs; and there are still various relics of the long reign of paganism
that ensued. In the Stubbenitz and elsewhere Huns' or giants'
graves are common; and near the Hertha Lake are the ruins of
an ancient edifice which some have sought to identify with the shrine
of the heathen deity Hertha or Nerthus, referred to by Tacitus.
On Arcona in Wittow are the remains of an ancient fortress, enclosing
a temple which was destroyed in 1 168 by the Danish king Waldemar I.,
when he made himself master of the island. Riigen was ruled then
by a succession of native princes, under Danish supremacy, until
1218. After being for a century and a half in the possession of
a branch of the ruling family in Pomerania, it was finally united
with that duchy in 1478, and passed with it into the possession of
Sweden in 1648. With the rest of Western Pomerania Riigen has
belonged to Prussia since. 1815.
See Fock, Rugensch-pommersche Geschichten (6 vols., Leipzig,
1861-72); R. Baier, Die Insel Rugen nach ihrer archdologischen
Bedeutung (Stralsund, 1886); R. Credner, Rugen. Eine Inselstudie
(Stuttgart, 1893); Edwin Miiller, Die Insel Rugen (i7th ed., Berlin,
1900); Schuster, Fuhrer durch die Insel Riigen (7th ed., Stettin,
1901); Boll, Die Insel Rugen (Schwerin, 1858); O. Wendler,
Geschichte Rugens seit der altesten Zeit (Bergen, 1895); A. Haas,
Riigensche Sagen und Mdrchen (Greifswald, 1891); U. John, Volkssagen
aus Rugen (Stettin, 1886); and E. M. Arndt, Fairy Tales from the
Isle of Rugen (London, 1896).
RUHLA, a town of Germany, partly in the duchy of Saxe-
Weimar and partly in that of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. Pop. (1905)
7017. It stretches along the valley of the Erb in the Thuringian
forest 8 m. S. of Eisenach, and attracts a number of visitors
owing to its beautiful natural surroundings and its mineral
springs. Its staple industry is the making of wooden and
meerschaum pipes; it has also electrical works, and some
small manufactures. Ruhla, which is known locally as Die
Ruhl, was famous in the middle ages for its armourers, and
subsequently for its cutlers.
See Ziegler, Das Thuringerwalddorf Ruhla (Dresden, 1876).
RUHNKEN, DAVID (1723-1798), one of the most illustrious
scholars of the Netherlands, was of German origin, having been
born in Pomerania in 1723. His parents had him educated for
the church, but after two years at the university of Wittenberg
he determined to live the life of a scholar. At Wittenberg
Ruhnken lived in close intimacy with the two most distinguished
professors, Ritter and Berger. To them he owed a thorough
grounding in ancient history and Roman antiquities and litera-
ture; and from them he learned a pure and vivid Latin style.
At Wittenberg, too, Ruhnken derived valuable mental training
from study in mathematics and Roman law. Probably nothing
would have severed him from his surroundings there but a
desire which daily grew upon him to explore the inmost recesses
of Greek literature. Neither at Wittenberg nor at any other
German university was Greek in that age seriously studied.
It was taught in the main to students in divinity for the sake of
the Greek Testament and the early fathers of the church. F. A.
Wolf is the real creator of Greek scholarship in modern Germany,
and Person's gibe that " the Germans in Greek are sadly to
seek " was barbed with truth. It is significant of the state of
Hellenic studies in Gerniany in 1743 that their leading exponents
were Gesner and Ernesti. Ruhnken was well advised by his
friends at Wittenberg to seek the university of Leiden, where,
stimulated by the influence of Bentley, the great scholar Tiberius
Hemsterhuis had founded the only real school of Greek learning
which had existed on the Continent since the days of Joseph
Scaliger and Isaac Casaubon.
RUHR RUIZ
823
Perhaps no two men of letters ever lived in closer friendship
than Hemsterhuis and Ruhnken during the twenty-three years
which passed from Ruhnken's arrival in the Netherlands in
1743 to the death of Hemsterhuis in 1766. A few years made it
clear that Ruhnken and Valckenaer were the two pupils of the
great master on whom his inheritance must devolve. As his
reputation spread, many efforts were made to attract Ruhnken
back to Germany, but after settling in Leiden, he only left
the country once, when he spent a year in Paris, ransacking
the public libraries (1755). For work achieved, this year of
Ruhnken may compare even with the famous year which Ritschl
spent in Italy. In 1757 Ruhnken was appointed lecturer in
Greek, to assist Hemsterhuis, and in 1761 he succeeded Ouden-
dorp, with the title of " ordinary professor of history and elo-
quence," but practically as Latin professor. This promotion
drew on him the enmity of some native Netherlanders, who
deemed themselves (not without some show of reason) to possess
stronger claims for a chair of Latin. The only defence made by
Ruhnken was to publish works on Latin literature which eclipsed
and silenced his rivals. In 1766 Valckenaer succeeded Hem-
sterhuis in the Greek chair. The intimacy between the two
colleagues was only broken by Valckenaer's death in 1785, and
stood without strain the test of common candidature for the
office (an important one at Leiden) of university librarian, in
which Ruhnken was successful. Ruhnken's later years were
clouded by severe domestic misfortune, and by the political
commotions which, after the outbreak of the war with Eng-
land in 1780, troubled the Netherlands without ceasing, and
threatened to extinguish the university of Leiden. He died in
1798.
Personally, Ruhnken was as far as possible removed from
being a recluse or a pedant. He had a well-knit and even hand-
some frame, attractive manners (though sometimes tinged
with irony), and a nature simple and healthy, and open to im-
pressions from all sides. Fond of society, he cared little tp what
rank his associates belonged, if they were genuine men in whom
he might find something to learn. His biographer even says
of him in his early days that he knew how to sacrifice to the
Sirens without proving traitor to the Muses. Life in the open
air 'had a great attraction for him; he was fond of sport, and
would sometimes devote to it two or three days in the week.
In his bearing towards other scholars Ruhnken was generous
and dignified, distributing literary aid with a free hand, and
meeting onslaughts for the most part with a smile. In the
records of learning he occupies an important position. He
forms a principal link in the chain which connects Bentley with
the modern scholarship of the Continent. The spirit and the
aims of Hemsterhuis, the great reviver of Continental learning,
were committed to his trust, and were faithfully maintained.
He greatly widened the circle of those who valued taste and
precision in classical scholarship. He powerfully aided the
emancipation of Greek studies from theology; nor must it be
forgotten that he first in modern times dared to think of rescuing
Plato from the hands of the professed philosophers men pre-
sumptuous enough to interpret the ancient sage with little or no
knowledge of the language in which he wrote.
Ruhnken's principal works are editions of (i) Timaeus's Lexicon
of Platonic Words, (2) Thalelaeus and other Greek commentators
on Roman law, (3) Rutilius Lupus and other grammarians,
(4) Velleius Paterculus, (5) the works of Muretus.' He also occupied
himself much with the history of Greek literature, particularly the
oratorical literature, with the Homeric hymns, the scholia on Plato
and the Greek and Roman grammarians and rhetoricians. A dis-
covery famous in its time was that in the text of the work of Apsines
on rhetoric a large piece of a work by Longinus was embedded.
Modern views of the writings attributed to Longinus have lessened
the interest of this discovery without lessening its merit. The
biography of Ruhnken was written by his great pupil, Wyttenbach,
Soon after his death. (J- S. R.)
RUHR, a river of Germany, an important right-bank tribu-
tary of the lower Rhine. It rises on the north side of the Winter-
berg in the Sauerland, at a height of about 2000 ft. above the
sea. It first takes a northerly and north-westerly course, and
in a deep and well-wooded valley winds past the romantically
situated town of Arnsberg. Shortly after reaching Neheim it
bends to the south-west, courses through the mining district
around Hagen, and receives from the left the waters of the Lenne.
Hence in a tortuous course it works its way past Witten, Steele,
Kettwig and Mtilheim, and, after a course of 142 m., discharges
itself into the Rhine at Ruhrort. From this place the Ruhr
canal connects it with Duisburg. The river is navigable from
Witten downwards (43 m.), by the aid of eleven locks; but
navigation is often greatly impeded through dearth of water.
RUHRORT, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province,
situated at the junction of the Ruhr and the Rhine, in the midst
of a productive coal district, 15 m. N. of Dusseldorf and 12 E.
of Crefeld by rail. Ruhrort has the largest river harbour in
Europe, with quays extending nearly 5 m. along the river, and
it is the principal shipping port for the coal of the Westphalian
coalfield, which is despatched in the fleet of steam-tugs and
barges belonging to the port. The coal is sent principally to
South Germany and the Netherlands. Grain and timber are also
exported and iron ore is imported. In 1905 the port was entered
and cleared by over 27,000 vessels of 7,418,065 tons. The
industries of the town include large iron and steel works, ship-
building yards and tanneries. Ruhrort has three Evangelical
and three Roman Catholic churches, and several schools and
public institutions.
Rurhort is first mentioned in 1379, and obtained civic rights in
1551. Having been in the possession of the counts of La Marck,
it passed into that of Brandenburg in 1614. In 1905 it was
united with Duisburg and Meiderich to form a single munici-
pality, the joint population being 41,416.
See Geschichte der Stadt Ruhrort (Ruhrort, 1882").
RUIZ, JUAN (c. iz83-c. 1350), Spanish poet, was born probably
at Alcala de Henares, and became arch-priest of Hita. Though
he draws his physical portrait in the Libra de buen amor, he gives
no exact biographical details. It may be inferred from his
writings that he was not an exemplary priest, and one of the
manuscript copies of his poems states that he was imprisoned
by order of Gil Albornoz, archbishop of Toledo. It is not known
whether he was sentenced for his irregularities of conduct, or on
account of his satirical reflections on his ecclesiastical superiors.
Nor is it possible to fix the precise date of his imprisonment.
Albornoz nominally occupied the see of Toledo from 1337 to
1368, but he fell into disgrace in 1351 and fled to Avignon.
A consideration of these circumstances points to the probable
conclusion that Ruiz was in prison from 1337 to 1350, but this is
conjecture. What seems established is that he finished the
Libra de buen amor in 1343 while in gaol, and that he was no
longer arch-priest of Hita in January 1351; it is assumed that
he died shortly before the latter date.
Ruiz is by far the most eminent poet of medieval Spain. His
natural gifts were supplemented by his varied culture; he clearly
had a considerable knowledge of colloquial (and perhaps of
literary) Arabic; his classical reading was apparently not exten-
sive, but he knew by heart the Disticha of Dionysius Cato, and
admitsTiis indebtedness to Ovid and to the De Amore ascribed to
Pamphilus; his references to Blanchefleur, to Tristan and to
Yseult, indicate an acquaintance with French literature, and he
utilizes the fabliaux with remarkable deftness; lastly, he adapts
fables and apologues from Aesop, from Pedro Alfonso's Disciplina
clericalis, and from medieval bestiaries. All these heterogeneous
materials are fused in the substance of his versified autobiography,
into which he intercalates devout songs, parodies of epic or forensic
formulae, and lyrical digressions on every aspect of life. Ruiz, in
fact, offers a complete picture of picaresque society in Spain during
the first half of the i4th century, and his impartial irony lends
a deeper tone to his rich colouring. He knows the weaknesses
of both clergy and laity, and he dwells with equal complacency
on the amorous adventures of great ladies, on the perverse
intrigues arranged by demure nuns behind their convent walls,
and on the simpler instinctive animalism of country lasses and
Moorish dancing-girls. In addition to the faculty of genial
observation Ruiz has the gift of creating characters and pre-
senting types of human nature: from his Don Fur6n is derived
824
RUKWA RULLUS
the hungry gentleman in Lazarillo de Tormes, in Don Mel6n
and Dona Endrina he anticipates Calisto and Melibea in the
Celestina, and Celestina herself is developed from Ruiz" Trota-
conventos. Moreover, Ruiz was justly proud of his metrical
innovations. The Libra de buen amor is mainly written in the
cuaderna via modelled on the French alexandrine, but he im-
parts to the measure a variety and rapidity previously unknown
in Spanish, and he experiments by introducing internal rhymes
or by shortening the fourth line into an octosyllabic verse; or he
boldly recasts the form of the stanza, extending it to six or seven
lines with alternate verses of eight and five syllables. But his
technical skill never sinks to triviality. All his writing bears
the stamp of a unique personality, and, if he never attempts a
sublime flight, he conveys with contagious force his enthusiasm
for life under any conditions in town, country, vagabondage
or gaol.
His influence is visible in El Corbacho, the work of another
jovial goliard, Alphonso Martinez de Toledo, arch-priest of
Talavera, who wrote more than half a century before the Libra
de buen amor was imitated by the author of the Celestina.
Ruiz is mentioned with respect by Santillana, and that his reputa-
tion extended beyond Spain is proved by the surviving fragments
of a Portuguese version of the Libra de buen amor. By some
strange accident he was neglected, and apparently forgotten,
till 1790, when an expurgated edition of his poems was published
by Tomas Antonio Sanchez; from that date his fame has
steadily increased, and by the unanimous verdict of all competent
judges he is now ranked as the greatest Spanish poet of his
century.
An accurate edition of his works was published by M. Jean
Ducamin at Toulouse in 1901, and he is the subject of Sr. D. Julio
Puyol y Alonso's critical study, El Arcipreste de Hita (Madrid,
1906). Q. F.-K.)
RUKWA (sometimes also Rikwa and Hikwa), a shallow
lake in German East Africa, lying 2650 ft. above the sea in a
N.W. continuation of the rift-valley which contains Lake Nyasa.
The sides of the valley here run in steep parallel walls 30 to 40 m.
apart, from S.E. to N.W., leaving between them a level plain
extending from about 7^ to 8 S. iThis whole area was
probably once covered by the lake, but this has shrunk so that
the permanent water occupies only a space of 30 m. by 12 at the
S. immediately under the E. escarpment. In the rains its extends
some 40 m. farther N., and the north of the plain is likewise then
covered with water to a depth of about 4 ft. The rest of the
plain is a bare expanse intensely heated by the sun in the dry
season, and forming a tract of foul mud near the lake shores.
But in 1903-4 the level of the lake rose so that the waters covered
the whole depression. The lake has two large feeders, one
coming from the W., the other from the S.E. The W. feeder,
the Saisi, or Momba, rises in 80 50' S., 31 30' E., and traverses
a winding valley cut out of the high plateau between lakes
Nyasa and Tanganyika. It enters the lake on its N.W. side.
The other chief feeder, the Songwe, rises in 9 8' S., 33 30' E.
on the same plateau as the Saisi and flows N.W., enteringjlukwa
at its S. end. The Songwe is joined about 50 m. about its mouth
by the Rupa, whose head-waters are in the high-lying land N.E.
of Rukwa. The maximum depth of the lake is about io ft.
Its water is very brackish and of a milky colour from the mud
stirred up by the wind. It contains great quantities of fish.
First seen from the north by Joseph Thomson in 1880, it was
visited by Dr Kaiser, a German, in 1882, and has since been
thoroughly explored by various British and German travellers.
See " Begleitworte zu der Karte der Gebiete am sudlichen Tangan-
jika- und Rukwa-See," by Paul Sprigade, in Mitteil. v. Forsch. u.
Gdehrten a. d. deutschen Schutzgebieten (Berlin, 1904), with map on
the scale of 1 : 500,000.
RULHIERE (or RuLHiiREs), CLAUDE CARLOMAN DE (1735-
1791), French poet and historian, was born at Bondy, near
Paris, on the i2th of June 1735. He became aide-de-camp to
Marshal Richelieu, whom he followed through the Hanoverian
campaign of 1757 and to his government at Bordeaux in 1758;
and at twenty-five he was sent to St Petersburg as secretary
of legation. Here he actually saw the revolution which seated
Catherine II. on the throne, and thus obtained the facts of
Anecdotes sur la revolution de Russie en 1762. Catherine made
repeated efforts to secure the destruction of the MS., which
remained unpublished until after the empress's death. Rul-
hiere became secretary to the comte de Provence (afterwards
Louis XVIII.) in 1773, and he was admitted to the Academy
in 1787. The later years of his life were spent chiefly in Paris,
where he held an appointment in the Foreign Office and went
much into society; but he visited Germany and Poland in
1776. His unfinished Histoire de I' anarchic de Pologne (4 vols.,
1807) was published posthumously under the editorship of
P. C. F. Daunou. The only important historical work which
he published during his lifetime was his claircissements his-
loriques sur les causes de la revocation de I' edit de Nantes . . .
(2 vols., 1788), undertaken in view of the restoration to the
Protestants of their civil rights. Rulhiere died at Bondy on
the 3oth of January 1791.
His short sketch of the Russian revolution is justly ranked
among the masterpieces of the kind in French. Of the larger
Poland Carlyle, as justly, complains that its allowance of fact
is too small in proportion to its bulk. The author was also
a fertile writer of vers de societe, short satires, epigrams, &c.,
and he had a considerable reputation among the witty and
ill-natured group also containing Nicolas Chamfort, Antoine
de Rivarol, Louis Rene de Champcenetz, &c. On the other
hand he has the credit of caring for J. J. Rousseau in his morose
old age, until Rousseau as usual quarrelled with him.
Rulhiere's works were edited, with a notice by P. R. Anguis, in
1819 (Paris, 6 vols. 8vo). The Russian Revolution may be found
in the Chefs-d'oeuvre historiques of the Collection Didot, and the
Poland, with title altered to Resolutions de Pologne, in the same
collection. See^also a notice by Eugene Asse prefixed to an edition
1890) of Rulhiere's Anecdotes sur U Marechal de Richelieu; Sainte-
Beuve, Causeries du lundi (vol. iv.).
RULLUS, PUBLIUS SERVILIUS, Roman tribune of the
people, in 64 B.C., well known as the proposer of one of the
most far-reaching agrarian laws brought forward in Roman
history. This law provided for the establishment of a com-
mission of ten, empowered to purchase land in Italy for dis-
tribution amongst the poorer citizens and for the foundation
of colonies. Its professed object was to clear Rome of the
large number of pauper citizens, who formed a standing menace
to peace. The members of the commission were to be invested
with powers so extensive that Cicero spoke of them as ten
" kings." They were to be elected for five years by seventeen
of the tribes chosen by lot from the thirty-five; the imperium
was to be conferred upon them by the lex curiata, together
with judicial powers and the rank of praetor. Only those
were eligible who personally gave in their names, a clause
obviously intended to exclude Pompey, who was at the time
absent in the East. In fact, the commission as a whole was
intended to act as a counterpoise to his power. The only land
available for the purposes of the bill was the Ager Campanus
and the Ager Stellatis, where 5000 citizens were to be settled
at once, but as these were utterly insufficient, other lands
were to be acquired by purchase. The necessary money was
to be found by the sale of all the public property in Italy which
had been ordered to be sold by resolutions of the senate (in
81, or subsequently), but which the fear of unpopularity had
deterred the consuls from selling; by the sale of lands, &c.,
in the provinces which had become public property since 88,
and even of the domains acquired during the Mithradatic
war. A special article, the object of which was to pacify
those who had received grants of land from Sulla, declared
such possessions to be private property, for which compensa-
tion was to be paid in case of surrender. The revenues of the
provinces which were now being organized by Pompey, and
the booty and money taken or received by generals during
war were also to be applied to this purpose. The places to
which colonies were to be sent were not specified (with the
exception mentioned above), so that the commissioners would
be able to sell wherever they pleased, and it was left to them
to decide what was public or private property.
RUM RUMANIA
825
Cicero delivered four speeches against the bill, of which
three are still extant, although the first is mutilated at the
beginning. The second is the most important for the history
of the bill; nothing is known of the fourth. Very little
enthusiasm was shown in the matter by the people, who pre-
ferred the distribution of doles in the city to the prospect of
distant allotments. One of the tribunes even threatened to
put his veto on the bill, which was withdrawn before the voting
took place. The whole affair was obviously a political move,
probably engineered by Caesar, his object being to make the
democratic leaders the rulers of the state. Although Caesar
could hardly have expected the bill to pass, the aristocratic
party would be saddled with the odium of rejecting a popular
measure, and the people themselves would be more ready to
welcome a proposal by Caesar himself, an expectation fulfilled
by the passing of the lex Julia in 59, whereby Caesar at least
partly succeeded where Rullus had failed.
See the orations of Cicero De lege rgraria, with the introduction
in G. Long's edition, and the same author's Decline of the Roman
Republic, hi. p. 241; Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, bk. v. ch. 5; art.
AGRARIAN LAWS.
RUM, or ROUM (Arab. ar-Rum), a very indefinite term in use
among Mahommedans at different dates for Europeans generally
and for the Byzantine empire in particular; at one time even
for the Seljuk empire in Asia Minor, and now for Greeks inhabit-
ing Ottoman territory. When the Arabs met the Byzantine
Greeks, these called themselves 'Pupaiot, or Romans, a
reminiscence of the Roman conquest and of the founding of
the new Rome at Byzantium. The Arabs, therefore, called
them "the Rum" as a race-name (already in Kor. xxx. i),
their territory " the land of the Rum," and the Mediterranean
" the Sea of the Rum." The original ancient Greeks they called
" Yunan " (lonians), the ancient Romans, " Rum " and some-
times " Latmlyun " (Latins) . Later, inasmuch as Muslim contact
with the Byzantine Greeks was in Asia Minor, the term Rum
became fixed there geographically and remained even after the
conquest by the Seljuk Turks, so that their territory was called
the land of the Seljuks of Rum. But as the Mediterranean was
" the Sea of the Rum," so all peoples on its N. coast were called
sweepingly, " the Rum." In Spain any Christian slave-girl
who had embraced Islam was named Rumlya, and we find the
crew of a Genoese vessel being called Romans by a Muslim
traveUer. The crusades introduced the Franks (Ifranja), and
later Arabic writers recognize them and their civilization on
the N. shore of the Mediterranean W. from Rome; so Ibn
Khaldun in the latter part of the I4th century. But Rumi is
still used in Morocco for a Christian or European in general,
instead of the now elsewhere commoner Ifranji. (D. B. MA.)
RUM (according to Skeat, a corruption of Malay brum or
brant; the adjective " rum," i.e. " queer," being a distinct word,
in Gipsy row), a potable spirit distilled chiefly from fermented
cane-sugar. It is mainly the produce of the West Indian Islands,
notably Jamaica, and of Demerara. There are two kinds of
Jamaica rum, namely, " common " or " clean " rum, and
" flavoured " or " German " rum. The latter is used almost
entirely for purposes of blending with lighter types of spirit.
Compared with other potable spirits such as whisky and brandy,
the Jamaica rums are distinguished by their very high propor-
tion of secondary products, particularly of the compound esters.
Among the latter butyric " ether " (ethyl butyrate) predomi-
nates. The Demerara rums are of a lighter character. Rum
has a deep brown colour imparted by caramel or by storage in
sherry casks, or, most generally, by both. " Tafia " is an in-
ferior quality of rum produced in the French colonies. " Negro "
rum, which is the lowest quality of all, and into the wash for
which the debris of the sugar-cane enters, is consumed locaUy
by the coloured workers. The spirit prepared from beet-sugar
molasses cannot be regarded as rum, for, unless it is highly
rectified, it possesses a disagreeable'odour'and taste. Fictitious
rum is, however, sometimes prepared from highly rectified beet
spirit and rum " essence " a mixture of artificial esters (ethyl
butyrate, &c.V birch bark oil and so on. Highly rectified
Description.
Alcohol
per cent
Total
Acid.
Volatile
Acid.
Esters.
Higher
Alco-
hols.
Fur-
fural.
Alde-
hydes.
by vol.
(Results expressed in grams per 100 litres of
absolute alcohol.)
I. Jamaica Rums
A. "Common Clear "
Average
Maximum.
79-1
82.1
78.5
"55
61
146
366.5
1058
08.5
150
4-5
Il.S
IS3
30.0
Minimum .
68.6
30
21
88
46
1.0
5.0
B. " F'.axured "
Average .
Z 7 ' 3
102.5
95-5
768.5
107
5.2
20 7
Maximum .
80.0
US
137
1204
144
12.0
37 5
Minimum .
66.1
45
39
391
80
9-7
2. Demfrara Rums .
71 tot 13
18.41075
37 to 96
o.6tO2- 7
beet spirit is also occasionally used for blending with genuine
rum, particularly with the " flavoured " or " German " rum.
The latter name originated in the fact that this kind of rum was
exported very largely to Germany for the purpose of blending.
The general composition of various kinds of rum is manifest
from the annexed table. The consumption of rum in the
United Kingdom has fallen off considerably of late years, con-
currently with the general tendency of the public towards
lighter and "drier " alcoholic beverages (see SPIRITS).
COMPOSITION OF DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF RUM
(Analyses by W. Collingwood Williams; cf. /. Soc. Chem. Ind.
1907, p. 498.)
RUMANIA, or ROUMANIA [Romania], a kingdom of south-
eastern Europe, situated to the north-east of the Balkan Pen-
insula, 1 and on the Black Sea. Pop. (1910, estimate) 6,850,000;
area, about 50,720 sq. m., or about 6500 sq. m. less than the
combined areas of England and Wales. Rurnania begins on
the seaward side with a band of territory called the Dobrudja
(q.v.) ; and broadens westward into the form of a blunted cres-
cent, its northern horn being called Moldavia, its southern
Walachia.
Physical Features. Along the inner edge of this crescent run the
Carpathian Mountains, also called, towards their western extremity,
the Transylyanian Mountains (q.v.) or Transylvanian Alps; and the
frontier which marks off Rumania from Hungary is drawn along
their crests. The eastern boundary is formed by the river Prutn
(Prutu), between Moldavia and Russia; farther south by the Kilia
mouth of the Danube (Dunarea), between the Dobrudja and Russia,
and by the Black Sea. In the extreme south-east, an irregular
line, traced from Ilanlac, 10 m. S. of Mangalia, on the coast, as far
as the Danube at Silistria, 85 m. inland, separates the Dobrudja
from Bulgaria. Otherwise, the Danube constitutes the whole
southern frontier; its right bank being Bulgarian for 290 m., and
Servian, in the extreme west, for 50 m. The Danube (q.v.) enters
Rumania through the Verciorova or Kazan * Pass. It here resembles
a long lake, overshadowed by precipitous mountains, which vary
from 1000 to 2000 ft. in height, and are covered by birches and
pines. In this neighbourhood the channel contracts to about
116 yds. in width, with a depth of 30 fathoms. At the eastern
end of the pass are the celebrated Iron Gates, a rapid so named by
the Turks, not from the surrounding heights, which here descend
gradually to the river, but from the number of submerged rocks
m the waterway. As it flows eastward from the frontier, the
Danube gains in breadth and volume. Islands are frequent; the
banks recede and become lower until, after 50 m., they stand
almost level with the water. Henceforward, for 290 m., the
Rumanian shore is a desolate fen-country, varied only by a few hills,
by cities, and by lagoons often 15 m. long. East of Bucharest, a
chain of lagoons and partially drained marshes stretches inland
for 45 m. At Silistria the river bends N.N.E. for no m. with the
Dobrudja on its right, and a barren plain, called the Baragan Steppe,
on its left. It here encloses two large swampy islands, the upper
being 57 m., the lower 43 m. long. Both have an average breadth
of 10 m. Beyond Galatz, the river again turns eastward, branching
out, near Tulcea, into three great waterways, which wind througn
a low-lying alluvial delta to the sea. The northern estuary is named
the Kilia Mouth; the central, the Sulina; the southern, the St
George's. Between Verciorova and the Sulina Mouth, the Danube
traverses 540 m. Its current is rapid, and supplies* the motive
1 In 1904, in a lecture read before the Rumanian Geographical
Society, M. A. Sturdza showed that Rumania should not be included
in the Balkan Peninsula, where it is placed by many writers and
cartographers. This view was accepted by the Society, and a copy
of the lecture was forwarded to all similar associations in Europe.
See A. Sturdza, La Roumanie n'appariient pas a la peninsule
balkanigue (Bucharest, 1904).
* I.e. Cauldron.
826
RUMANIA
[PHYSICAL FEATURES
D
RUMANIA
Scale. 1 13.360.000
English Miles
2O 30 40 50 60
Boundaries of Prouince*
Boundaries o
Capital* of Proi'tncs<
Capital! of Department*
Railways
Continuation North, Same Scale
Longitude East 28 of Greenwich JJ)
power for thousands of floating watermills, which lie moored in
the shallows. It is fed by many tributaries, which rise in the
Carpathians as mountain torrents, growing broad and sluggish as
they flow south-eastward through the central Rumanian plain. In
Walachia, it is joined by the Jiu (or Schyl) opposite Rahova; by
the Olt (ancient Aluta) at Turnu Magurele; by the united streams
of the Dimboyitza (Dambovija) and Argesh (A rges,} at Oltenitza ;
by the Jalomitza (lalomi^a) opposite Hirsova. The Olt pierces
the Carpathians, by way of the Rothenthurm Pass, and forms the
boundary of Little (i.e. western) Walachia, or Oltland. The Sereth
(Siretu or Serel") flows for about 340 m. from its Transylvanian
source through Moldavia, and meets the Danube near Galatz, after
receiving the Moldova, Bistritza (Bislrija), Trotosh (Troto$u),
Milcovu, Putna, Ramnicu and Buzeu on the west; and the Berlad
(Berladu) on the east. The Milcovu was the former boundary
between Walachia and Moldavia. The Pruth rises on the northern
limit of Moldavia, forms the eastern frontier for 330 m., and falls
into the Danube 10 m. E. of Galatz. Its chief Rumanian tributaries
are the Basheu (Ba$eu) and Jijia, rivers of the north. The Dobrudja
(g.t>.) or Dobrogea covers about 2900 sq. m. between the Black
Sea and the lower reaches of the Danube. Its high crystalline
rocks, covered with sedimentary formations, descend abruptly
towards the delta, but more gradually towards the south, where
the Bulgarian steppes encroach upon Rumanian soil. The few
small rivers which drain the hills generally flow seaward, but those
of the delta and steppes belong to the Danubian system. The
coast is a low-lying region of sandhills, meres and marshes with
one lagoon, 42 m. long, connected by a short stream with the St
George Mouth. Its outlet on the sea is named the Portidje Mouth
(Gura partial) of the Danube. North of this, the lagoon is called
Lake Razim ; while its southern half, shut off by three long islands,
is the Blue Lake (Sinoe Osero,\n Bulgarian).
Apart from the Dobrudja, the whole of Rumania is included in
the northern basin of the lower Danube. It consists of a single
inclined plane stretching upwards, with a north-westerly direction,
from the left bank of the river to the summits of the Carpathians.
It is divided into three zones steppe, forest and alpine. The first
begins beyond the mud-flats and reed-beds which line the water's edge,
and is a vast monotonous lowland, sloping so gently as to seem almost
level. The surface is a yellow clay, with patches of brown or dark
grey, outliers of the Russian " black earth. " Cereals, chiefly maize,
with green crops and fields of gourds, alternate with fallow land
overgrown by coarse grasses, weeds and stunted shrubs. Among
the scanty trees, willows and poplars are commonest. The second
zone extends over the foothills and lower ridges of the Carpathians.
This region, called by Rumans " the district of vines, " is the most
fertile portion of the country. In it grow most fruits and flowers
which thrive in a temperate climate. Oaks, elms, firs, ashes and
beeches are the principal forest trees. The third zone covers the
higher mountains on their southern and eastern sides, whose violently
contorted strata leave many transverse valleys, though usually
inclining laterally towards the south-east. The birch and larch
woods of this zone give way to pine forests as the altitude increases ;
and the pines to mosses, lichens and alpine plants, just below the
jagged iron-grey peaks, many of which attain altitudes of 6000 to
8000 ft.
Geology. The axis of the Transylvanian Alps consists of sericite
schists and other similar rocks; and these are followed on the
south by Jurassic, Cretaceous and Early Tertiary beds. The
Jurassic and Cretaceous beds are ordinary marine sediments, but
from the Cenomanian to the Oligocene the deposits are of the
peculiar facies known in the Alps and Carpathians as Flysch.
Farther north, the Flysch forms practically the whole of the
Rumanian flank of the Carpathians. Along the foot of the Car-
pathians lies a broad trough of Miocene salt-bearing beds, and in
this trough the strata are sometimes horizontal and sometimes
strongly folded. Outside the band of Miocene beds the Sarmatian,
Pontian and Levantine series, often concealed by Quaternary
deposits, cover the great part of the Danube plain. Even the
Pontian beds are sometimes folded. In the Dobrudja crystalline
rocks, presumably of ancient date, rise through the Tertiary and
recent deposits and form the hills which lie between the Danube
and the Black Sea. 1
Climate. The Rumanian climate alternates between extreme
cold in winter, when the thermometer may; fall to -20 Fahrenheit
and extreme heat in summer, when it may rise to 100 in the shade.
Autumn is the mildest season; spring lasts only for a few weeks.
Spring at Bucharest has a mean temperature of 53; summer,
1 SeeL. Teisseyre and L. Mrazec, Aperfti geologique sur les forma-
tions saliferes et les gisements de sel en Roumanie, Moniteur des
interets petroliferes roumains (1902), pp. 3-51 ; S. Stefanescu,
Etude sur les terrains tertiaires de Roumanie (1897) ; J. Bergeron,
" Observations relatives a la structure de la haute vallee delajalo-
mita (Roumanie) et des Carpathes roumaines, " Bull. Soc. Geol.
France, ser. 4, vol. iv. (1904), pp. 54-77.
AGRICULTURE: LAND TENURE]
RUMANIA
827
72-5; autumn, 65; winter, 27-5. For about 155 days in each
year, Rumania suffers from the bitter north-east wind (crivets)
which sweeps over south Russia; while a scorching west or south-
west wind (austrii) blows for about 126 days. Little snow falls in
the plains, but among the mountains it may lie for five months.
The frosts are severe, the Danube being often icebound for three
months. The rainfall, which is heaviest in summer, averages
about 15-20 in.
Fauna. In its fauna, Walachia has far more affinity to the lands
lying south of the Danube than to Transylvania, although several
species of Claudilia, once regarded as exclusively Transylvanian,
are found south of the Carpathians. Moldavia and the Baragan
Steppe resemble the Russian prairies in their variety of molluscs
and the lower kinds <Jf mammals. Over 40 species of freshwater
mussels (Unionidae) have been observed in the Rumanian rivers.
The lakes of the Dobrudja likewise abound in molluscs; parent
forms, in many cases, of species which reappear, greatly modified,
in the Black Sea. Insect life is somewhat less remarkable; but
besides a distinctive genus of Orthoptera (Jaguetia Hospodar),
there are several kinds of weevils (Curculionidae) said to be peculiar
to Rumania. Birds are very numerous, including no fewer than
4 varieties of crows, 5 of warblers, 7 of woodpeckers, 8 of buntings,
4 of falcons, and 5 of eagles; while among the hosts of waterfowl
which people the marshes of the Danube are 9 varieties of ducks,
and 4 of rails. Roe-deer, foxes and wolves find shelter in the
forests, where bears are not uncommon; and chamois frequent
the loftiest and most inaccessible peaks.
Minerals. The mineral wealth of Rumania lies chiefly in the
mountains. Petroleum, salt, lignite and brown coal are largely
worked. Deposits of rock-salt, a valuable government monopoly,
stretch from the department of Suceava in northern Moldavia to
that of Gorjiu in Walachia, and are mined in the departments of
Bacau, Prahova and Ramnicu SSrat. The presence of petroleum,
indicated by many ancient workings in the shape of shallow hand-
dug wells, can be traced continuously at the foot of the Transyl-
vanian Alps, from Turnu Severin into Bukovina. Rumans claim
for their product a higher percentage of pure oil than is found in
the American, Galician and Caucasian wells; and, although Ameri-
can competition nearly destroyed this industry between 1873 and
1895, improved methods and legislation favouring the introduction
of foreign capital enabled it to recover. At the beginning of the
2Oth century the Rumanian petroleum deposits were among the
most important in the world. The industry is carried on by
private producers as well as by the state, the American Standard
Oil Company being largely interested. The total output, coming
chiefly from the departments of Bacau, Buzeu, Dimbovitza and
Prahova, was 250,000 metric tons in 1900, 615,000 in 1905, and
1,300,000 in 1909. Associated with petroleum is ozokerite, con-
verted by the peasantry into candles. Lignite is used as fuel on
the railways. The chief anthracite beds, those in the Gorjiu
department, are leased until 1975 to an English capitalist,
who has the right to construct railways. Extensive coalfields
exist in the Dobrudja, and the Dimbovitza. Mehedintzi, Muscel,
Prahova and Valcea departments. Iron, copper, lead, mercury,
cinnabar, cobalt, nickel, sulphur, arsenic and china clay also occur.
Among the mountains, gold was perhaps worked under Trajan,
who first appointed a Procurator Metallorum, or overseer of mines,
for Dacia; certainly in the 14th century, when immigrant Saxon
miners established a considerable trade with Ragusa, in Dalmatia.
Under the Turks, gold-washing was carried on by gipsy slaves,
but it has long been abandoned as unprofitable. Until 1896
building materials were chiefly imported; but, after that year,
many quarries were opened to develop the native resources of
limestone, sandstone, serpentine, red, yellow and green granite,
and marbles of all colours, including the white marble from Dorna
in Suceava, said by Rumans to rival that of Carrara in Italy Clear
amber is found beside the Buzeu and its affluents, with brown and
grey clouded amber, and a blue fluorescent variety, of considerable
value.
Rumania has long been noted for its mineral springs. Ruins
of a Roman bath exist near Curtea de Argesh. In the Valcea de-
partment, besides many other iodine, sulphur and mud baths,
there are the state-supported spas of Calimanescii, Caciulata
and Govora, situated among some of the finest Carpathian scenery.
Most famous of all is Sinaia (g.v.), the summer residence of the
Court; while important springs exist at Lake Sarat, near Braila;
at Slanic, in the Prahova department, where flooded and abandoned
salt-mines are fitted up as baths; at the Tekir Ghiol mere, near
Constantza; and at Baltzatesti (Bal(atestii), in the Neamtzu
(Neam(u) department, a favourite resort of invalids from many
parts of eastern Europe.
Agriculture. That, in 1900, Rumania ranked third, 1 after the
United States and Russia, among the grain-growing countries of the
world, is due partly to the fertile soil, whose chemical constituents
are the same as in the " black earth " region of Russia, though even
"The relative importance of Rumania was afterwards lessened
by the development of wheat-culture in Canada, Argentina and
elsewhere.
richer in nitrates; partly also to the improved methods and ap-
pliances introduced in the last quarter of the loth century. The
frail wooden ploughs with a lance-headed share that only scratched
the surface soil, were then superseded by iron ploughs; steam
threshers replaced the oxen which trod out the corn, and modern
implements were widely adopted. Vast harvests of wheat and
maize ripen on the plains and lower hills. Apart from cereals,
the principal crops are beans, potatoes, beetroot and tobacco. Among
the wine-producing countries of Europe, Rumania stood fifth in
Iqoo, despite the ravages of phylloxera, old-fashioned culture, lack
of storage and other drawbacks. The red wines of Moldavia,
especially the brand known as Piscul Cerbulul, resemble Bordeaux.
The best white wines came from Cotnar in the Jassy department,
but here phylloxera ruined the vineyards. Golden Cotnar was akin
to Tokay. To combat the phylloxera, the government ordered the
destruction of all infected vines, distributed immune American stocks
and established schools of viticulture. On the upland fruit farms,
although apples, pears, medlars, cherries, plums, peaches, apricots
and melons thrive, the chief attention is given to damsons, from which
is extracted a mild spirit (tsuica), highly esteemed throughout
Rumania. This industry began to decline after 1860, but revived
with the establishment of government schools of fruit-culture in
many villages. Further instruction was given at various horti-
cultural institutes in the towns, notably the Botanic Gardens and
Institute of Bucharest, where the experiments in planting figs,
almonds, hops and cotton yielded favourable results. Tobacco
is largely cultivated, under state supervision.
There are three breeds of Rumanian oxen, besides the peculiar
black buffaloes, with horns lying almost flat along their necks.
Cheap transit enables the Rumanian farmers to compete success-
fully in the meat-markets of Austria, Germany and Holland. The
southern Dobrudja and the Baragan Steppe, with the mountain
pastures of Argeh, Buzeu, Dimbovitza, Muscel and Prahova, are
occupied by large sheep-runs; 1200 farms were created in the
Baragan by the Land Act of 1889. In winter the flocks are driven
from the highlands to the plains. Cheeses of ewe's milk, packed
in sheepskins or bark, are in great demand. Swine and pork are
largely exported to Russia and Austria-Hungary. Besides the
Moldavian and Servian breeds, thousands of so-called " swamp
hogs " run wild among the marshes and on the islands of the Danube.
Silkworm-rearing, once an important household industry, had been
almost abandoned, when, in 1891, the government established
mulberry nurseries, and distributed silkworms free of charge.
Silkworm-rearing is taught in the monasteries and agricultural
schools, especially in the College of Agriculture and Sylviculture,
at Ferestriu, near Bucharest. Similar measures were adopted to
check the decline of bee-keeping, and a model apiary was founded in
1890, under government control.
Forests The forests of Rumania were long either neglected or
exploited in the most reckless fashion. Large tracts of woodland
were cleared near the railways, and the communal rights of grazing
and gathering firewood destroyed the aftergrowths. Nevertheless,
in 1910 there were 2,760,000 acres under forests, chiefly in the
mountains of north-western Moldavia. More than 1,000,000 acres
are state property. Under King Charles, an ardent forester, the
wholesale destruction of timber was arrested, and new plantations
met with success. Lumber is floated down the rivers of the Car-
pathian watershed to the Danube, and so exported to Turkey and
Bulgaria; casks, shaped planks and petroleum drums go chiefly
to Austria and Russia. Wood-carving is taught in many schools,
and a special school of forestry exists at Branesci in the Ilfov depart-
ment. Estates in private hands are liable to state control, under
the Forests Act of 1886.
Land Tenure. The Rumanian system of land tenure dates from
1864, when most of the land was held in large estates, owned
privately, or by the state or by monasteries. There was also a small
class of peasant proprietors, called mocheneni in Walachia, rfsechi
in Moldavia, living and working in family communities; but the
great mass of the peasantry cultivated the lands of the large pro-
prietors, giving a certain number of days' work to their manorial
lord, in addition to a tithe of the raw produce. They received in
return a plot of ground proportionate to the number of animals
they owned, and had also rights of grazing and of collecting fuel in
the forests. In 1864, under the government of Prince Cuza, a new
law was promulgated, conferring on each peasant family freehold
property in lots varying from 7j to 15 acres, according to the
number of oxen that they owned. The man with no cattle received
the minimum; the owner of 2 oxen got 10 acres, and the possessor
of 4 received 12$ to 15 acres. The price of the land, which was
calculated on the basis of the value of the forced labour to which the
landlord had been entitled, was about i, i6s. per acre, paid to the
landlord by the state as compensation, and subsequently recovered
from the peasants in fifteen annual instalments. In the first dis-
tribution, which took place almost immediately after the law was
passed. 280,000 families in Walachia and about 127,000 in Moldavia
became freeholders, holding nearly 4 million acres or one-third
of the cultivated area of the country. These peasant plots were
all declared inalienable for thirty years. The law of emancipation,
although passed with the best of motives, did not to any great
RUMANIA
[MANUFACTURES AND FINANCE
extent benefit the peasantry. The limited size of their farms, and
the necessity for buying wood and paying for pasturage, both of
which were formerly free, prevented them from obtaining complete
independence of the large proprietors, on whose estates they still
had to work for payment in money or kind, while their improvidence
soon got them into the hands of Jewish money-lenders, who, fortu-
nately for the peasants, were by law unable to become proprietors of
the soil. In 1866 and 1872 laws were passed for still further improv-
ing the position of these small proprietors; and in 1879 a measure
was carried for allotting lands to 48,000 recently married couples,
and for restoring to many peasant families lands which had been
alienated.
By the Land Act of 1889, the state domains, amounting to nearly
one-third of the total area of Rumania (originally the property of the
church and the convents, confiscated by Prince Cuza in 1866), were
distributed among the peasantry. The land was divided into lots
of 12$, 25 and 37} acres. Peasants having no land might purchase
the smaller lots on very easy terms. Those who already held less
than I2j acres might purchase up to that amount. When a change
of residence became necessary to enable the peasant to take up the
new allotment, the state advanced 6 to each family to defray
expenses. The price to be paid for the land differed in different
districts, and was to be paid to the state in small annual instalments.
If any land remained after satisfying the wants of the peasants, it
was to be sold by public auction in lots of 50 to 62 J acres. All lots
in both cases were declared inalienable for thirty years. The sale of
the larger lots gave rise to so many abuses that in 1896 a law was
passed abolishing their further sale. As a result of these measures
the majority of Rumans are peasant proprietors; but the smallness
of the holdings renders scientific farming difficult except by co-
operation, and many proprietors can only live by working for the
owners of large estates. Thus, though the average value of agri-
cultural land increased by 60% between 1870 and 1900, the position
of the peasantry is far from satisfactory, and the resultant discon-
tent was the chief cause of the agrarian rising in 1907.
Fisheries. Among European freshwater fishing-grounds, the
Danube is only surpassed by the Volga; the most valuable fish being
sturgeon and sterlet, mostly netted in the St George mouth; carp,
often weighing 50 ft; pike, perch, tench and eels. By an act of
1895, a close period was instituted, the lakes and rivers restocked,
and the state fisheries, which are either farmed by private companies
or directly administered, were set in order. The coarse-grained grey
Rumanian caviare is forwarded to Berlin, and there blended with
Russian caviare. Flounders and mullet are caught in the Black
Sea, and there are oyster-beds in the delta and on the Dobrudja
littoral. The principal markets for Rumanian fish are Turkey,
Russia and Austria-Hungary. Fish of inferior quality is imported,
chiefly from Russia.
Manufactures and Commerce. The native mines, fields and
forests provide raw material for most of the few factories which
exist. These include petroleum refineries, iron foundries, distilleries,
flour mills, sugar refineries, sawmills, paper mills, chemical works,
glass works, soap and candle works, &c. A law passed in 1887
provided that any one undertaking to found an industrial estab-
lishment with a capital of at least 2000, or employing at least
25 workmen (of whom two-thirds should be Rumanians), should be
granted 12 acres of state land, exemption for a term of years from
all direct taxes, freedom from customs dues for machinery and raw
material imported, exemption from road taxes, reduction in cost
of carriage of materials on the state railways, and preferential rights
to the supply of manufactured articles to the state.
The following table shows the value of Rumanian imports and
exports for five years :
Year.
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
Imports.
12,455,000
13,510,000
16,885,000
17,220,000
16,563,000
Exports.
10,475,000
18,284,000
19,654,000
22,157,000
15,158,000
The principal imports are metals and machinery (5,510,000 in
1908), textiles, silk, wool, hair and hides. Grain (11,297,000 in
1908), petroleum (1,543,000) and timber (1,059,000) are by far
the most important exports, the remainder consisting of live-stock
the animal products, fruit, vegetables and mineral waters. In
1908 the chief consumers of Rumanian goods were (in order) Belgium,
Great Britain and Italy; the chief exporters to Rumania were
Germany, Austria-Hungary, Great Britain and France. The wide
fluctuations in Rumanian commerce are largely due to the depen-
dence of the country on the grain harvest.
Finance. The state revenue is derived from customs; from
public works and public land; from indirect taxes in the shape of
stamp, inheritance, beer, spirit, petroleum and other duties; from
direct taxes on land and buildings, with road-tolls, licences for the
sale of alcohol and traders' registration fees; from the tobacco,
salt, match, playing-card and cigarette-paper monopolies; and from
the postal, telegraphic and telephonic services. The chief items
of expenditure are interest on the national debt, and the cost of
defence, public works and education.
The following table shows the estimated revenue and expenditure
for five years:
Year. Revenue. Expenditure.
1906-7 . . . 9.557,ooo 9,509,000
1907-8 . . . 10,099,000 9,979,000
1908-9 . . . 16,440,000 16,390,000
1909-10 . . . 17,427,000 17,146,000
1910-11 . . . 18,443,000 18,443,000
The great increase after 1907-8 is due to the inclusion of railway
receipts and expenditure, with some other items not previously
enumerated.
In May 1905 the outstanding public deb.t, which amounted to
about 54,000,000, mainly placed in Germany and bearing interest
at an average rate of 5 %, was converted into a uniform 4 % stock.
Besides this reduction of interest, the state secured an extension
of fourteen years in each of the various periods allotted for repayment
of the component loans. But a considerable increase in the total
debt was involved, because a bonus of io$% in new 4% stock,
issued at par, was offered to induce bondholders to convert, while,
to cover the bonus, an additional 4% loan was riased at 30-70,
amounting to 4,000,000, redeemable in 1945. At the beginning
of the fiscal y-ar 1909-10 (March 3ist, O.S.) the total outstanding
debt was 58,367,000, and the debt charges for the year were
estimated at 3,518,080.
Banks and Currency. Apart from the General Bank of Rumania
(capital 200,000), which is owned by a syndicate mainly of Germans,
the largest credit establishments belong to the state. They include
the National Bank (capital and reserves in 1910, 1,560,000), founded
in 1880; the Agricultural Loan Bank, founded in 1894; the Rural
and Urban Land Credit Institutes, which lend money on agricultural
and building land respectively; the Cassa Rurala, which buys
estates for resale in small lots; savings banks in all the principal
towns; and the Deposit and Trust Fund, which takes charge of
estates left vacant through intestacy, surplus departmental and
communal funds, securities given by contractors for public works,
&c.
After the Crimean War, a bimetallic currency was adopted, with
the leu (franc) of 100 bani (centimes) as the unit of value. But
after 1878 the Russian silver rouble was rated so highly as to drive the
native coins out of circulation ; and in 1889 Rumania joined the Latin
Monetary Union and adopted a gold standard. Besides the silver
eieces worth 5, I, 2 and 5 lei, gold coins of 5, 10 and 20 let are used,
ilver is legal tender only up to 50 let. All taxes and customs dues
must be paid in gold, and, owing to the small quantities issued from
the Rumanian mint, foreign gold is current, especially French
2O-franc pieces (equal at par to 20 let), Turkish gold lire (22-70),
Old Russian Imperials (20-60) and English sovereigns of (25-22).
Besides bronze coins of less value than J leu, nickel pieces worth 5,
10 and 20 bant were authorized by a law of 1900. The French
decimal system is in use for weights and measures, together with
Turkish standards. On the railways and in post offices the Gregorian
calendar is employed ; elsewhere the Julian remains in use.
Chief Towns. The chief towns, with their estimated population
in 1910, are Bucharest, the capital (300,000) ; Jassy, the capital of
Moldavia (80,000) ; Galatz (66,000), Braila (60,000), Ploesci (50,000),
Craiova (46,000), Botoshani (34,000), BeYlad (25,000), Focshani
(25,000), Tulcea (20,000), Constantza (16,000), Giurgevo (15,000).
Other towns which, like the foregoing, are described in separate
articles are Alexandria, Babadag, Bacau, Buzeu, Calafat, Calarashi,
Campulung, Caracal, Curtea de Argesh, Dorohoi, Dragashani,
Falticeni, Hushi, Mangalia, Neamtzu, Oltenitza, Piatra, Pitesci,
Ramnicu Sarat, Ramnicu Valcea, Roman, Sinaia, Sulina, Tirgu
Jiu, Tirgu Ocna, Tirgovishtea, Tecuci, Turnu Magurele, Turnu
Severin and Vaslui.
Communications. Until the igth century, traffic was carried on
in Rumania chiefly by means of ox-wagons, over the roughest of
roads. After 1830, however, many highways were opened, these
being usually excellent among the mountains but deteriorating as
they descend into the lowlands, where stone is dear. Highways
are maintained by the state, department or commune, according
to their size and importance. In 1869, the first Rumanian railway
was opened, between Bucharest and Giurgevo, its port. Other lines
followed rapidly; some built by private enterprise, others by the
state, which by 1888 had bought the entire system. This centres
in one main line, carried southwards from Suczawa in Bukovina
through the whole length of Moldavia, and turning westwards
through Walachia to meet the Hungarian frontier at Verciorova.
Branch lines extend, on one side, up the lateral valleys of the
Carpathians, and, on the other, to Jassy and the principal Danubian
ports. A direct line connects Jassy with Galatz; another traverses
the Dobrudja from Constantza to Cernavoda, where it crosses the
Danube and proceeds north-west to join the main line. The double
bridge of Cernavoda, with the viaducts leading to it, stretches for
12 1 m. across the river and surrounding marshes. Besides the
junctions at Suczawa and Verciorova, the Rumania system meets
the Hungarian through the Gyimes, Rothenthurm and Vulkan
Passes; the Russian by lines from Jassy and Galatz to Kishinev
in Bessarabia; the Bulgarian and Servian by means of numerous
POPULATION : CONSTITUTION]
RUMANIA
829
ferries. Rumania has no canals, and the canalization of its rivers
is impeded by drought and floods. The Pruth and Sereth art-
navigable for a short distance by small sailing craft ; the conservancy
of the Danube (q.v.) is controlled by a European commission, which
sits at Galatz. Besides river services, the state maintains lines of
sea-going ships from Constantza to Constantinople and the Aegean
Islands, and from Braila to Rotterdam. In 1908 the ports of
Rumania were entered by 32,888 vessels of 9,269,000 tons, of which
30,504 of 6,529,000 tons belonged to the river (Danubian) trade.
The merchant navy of Rumania comprised about 495 vessels of
145,000 tons, including 88 steamers.
Population. The population of Rumania numbered 5,912,520
in 1899, and about 6,850,000 in 1910. Fully 6,000,000
of these were Rumans or Vlachs (q.v.). The population of
foreign descent comprises many Jews, Armenians, gipsies,
Greeks, Germans, Turks, Tatars and Magyars, Servians and
Bulgarians. The Jews increase more rapidly than any of these
peoples except the Armenians. They usually congregate in the
larger towns, though in northern Moldavia there are a few
purely Jewish villages, recalling those of Poland.
The bitter feeling against them in Rumania is not so much due
to religious fanaticism as to the fear that if given political and
other rights they will gradually possess themselves of the whole
soil. In many towns in northern Moldavia the Jews are in a
majority, and their total numbers in Rumania are about 300,000,
i.e. about one-twentieth of the entire population, a larger ratio
than exists in any other country in the world. In many places
they have the monopoly of the wine and spirit shops, and retail
trade generally; and as they are always willing to advance
money on usury, and are more intelligent and better educated
than the ordinary peasant, there is little doubt that in a country
where the large landowners are proverbially extravagant, and
the peasant proprietors needy, the soil would soon fall into the
hands of the Jews were it not for the stringent laws which pre-
vent them from owning land outside the towns. When in
addition it is considered that the Moldavian Jews, who are
mostly of Polish and Russian origin, speak a foreign language,
wear a distinguishing dress and keep themselves aloof from
their neighbours, the antipathy in which they are held by the
Rumanians generally may be understood.
The gipsies, who are mostly converts to the Orthodox Church,
still, as a rule, cling to their vagabond existence, though their
skill at all handicrafts finds them ready employment in the towns.
During their centuries of slavery, they were organized into
castes, as musicians, metal workers, masons, &c.; but after
about 1850 the bonds of caste were gradually relaxed and
gipsies began to intermarry with Rumans. The Greeks form a
floating population of merchants and small traders, anxious to
amass a fortune and return home. German and Austrian
business men visit the country in large numbers, and colonies
of German farmers flourish among the mountains of Little
Walachia. In central Moldavia there is a large population of
Magyar descent, and the Servian and Bulgarian elements are
strong near the Danube. The interior of the Dobrudja is occu-
pied largely by Turks and Bulgarians, with Tatars, Russians and
Armenians, but here the Ruman steadily gains ground at the
expense of the alien. At Megidia, a flourishing town of about
10,000 inhabitants, which sprang up after 1860 between Cerna-
voda and Constantza, the Tatars predominate. Russians of
the Lipovan sect live in exile in Bucharest and other cities,
earning a livelihood as cab-drivers, and wearing the long coats
and round caps of their countrymen.
National Characteristics. Two dissimilar types are noticeable
among the Rumans. One is fair-haired, florid and blue-eyed;
the other, more frequent among the Carpathians, is dark,
resembling the southern Italians. Both alike are hardy,
though rarely tall; both, when of the peasant class, frugal
and inured to toil amid the rigours of their native climate.
Proud of their race and country, they acquired, with their
independence, an ardent sense of nationality; and they look
forward to the day which will reunite them to their kinsmen
in Transylvania and Bessarabia. They have been taught,
originally in the interests of Transylvanian Roman Catholicism,
to regard themselves as true descendants of the Romans. The
peasants retain their distinctive dress, long discarded, except
on festivals and at court, by the wealthier classes. Men wear
a long linen tunic, leather belt, white woollen trousers and
leather gaiters, above Turkish slippers or sandals. The low-
landers' head-dress is generally a high cylindrical cap of rough
cloth or felt, while the mountaineers prefer a small round
straw hat. Sundays and holidays bring out a sleeveless jacket,
embroidered in red and gold; and both sexes wear sheepskins
in cold weather. The linen dresses of women are fastened by
a long sash or girdle, wound many times round the waist;
the holiday attire being a white gown covered with embroideries,
one or more brightly coloured aprons and necklaces of beads
or coins. The standard of comfort is lowest along the Danube
and in parts of the Dobrudja. As the land becomes higher,
the dwellings improve; but, despite the presence of a doctor
in each commune, disease is everywhere rife. Many villages
are wholly built of timber and thatch, especially amongst the
Carpathians, the floors being frequently raised on piles, several
feet above the ground. The inner walls are often hung with
hand-woven tapestries, which harmonize well with the smoke-
blackened rafters, the primitive loom and the huge Dutch
stove characteristic of a prosperous Rumanian farm. Many
pagan beliefs linger on in the country, where vampires, witches
and the evil eye are dreaded by all. The peasants reassure
themselves by the use of charms and spells, and by a strict
observance of the forms which their creed prescribes. A cross
guards every well or spring; every home has its ikons or sacred
pictures. Church festivals and fasts are kept with equal care.
For months together a Ruman will subsist cm vegetables and
mamaliga, the maize porridge that forms his staple diet. Beef
and mutton are rarely touched, and in some districts pork is
only eaten on St Hilary's day (the 2oth of December, O.S.).
Veal is the one kind of meat generally consumed. Wine and
plum-spirit, or the more powerful brandy distilled from grain,
are drunk in great quantities by the townsfolk, more sparingly
by countrymen; Rumans generally being more sober than
the western Europeans. The ceremonies which accompany a
wedding preserve the tradition of marriage by capture; a
peasant bride must enter her new home carrying bread and
salt, and in parts of Walachia a flower is painted on the outer
wall of cottages in which there is a girl old enough to marry.
Young men swear eternal brotherhood; girls, eternal sister-
hood; and the Church ratifies their choice in a service at
which the feet of the pair are chained together. This relation-
ship is morally and legally regarded as not less binding than
kinship by birth. The dead are borne to the grave with un-
covered faces, and a Rumanian funeral is a scene of much
barbaric display. All classes delight in music and dancing.
Women hold spinning-parties at which the leader begins a
ballad, and each in turn contributes a verse. A number of
satirical folk-tales (largely of Turkish origin) are current at
the expense of Jew, gipsy or parish priest. The Rumanian
folk-songs, sung and often improvised by the villagers, or by a
wandering guitar-player (cobzar), are of exceptional interest
and beauty (see Literature, below). The national dances
and music closely resemble those of the Southern Slavs (see
MONTENEGRO and BULGARIA).
Constitution. In 1866, Prince Charles of Hohenzollern-
Sigmaringen was chosen prince of Rumania by a constituent
assembly elected under universal suffrage. This body at the
same time drew up a constitution, which remains in force,
though modified in 1879 and 1884. In 1881, Prince Charles
was proclaimed king. As he proved childless, the succession
was accepted by his brother, Prince Leopold, on behalf of his
son William; and in 1888 William renounced his claim in
favour of Ferdinand his younger brother. Thus the monarchy
became hereditary in the family of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen.
No woman may ascend the throne; and, in default of a male
heir, the representatives of the people can choose a king among
the royal families of western Europe.
Parliament consists of a senate, elected for eight years, and
8 3 o
RUMANIA
[RELIGION: EDUCATION
a chamber of deputies, elected for four years. Senators must
be forty years old and possess an income of 9400 lei (376). They
are chosen by two colleges of electors; one composed of citizens
with an income of 80; the other, of citizens with incomes
varying from 32 to 80. The heir-apparent, the two arch-
bishops, the six bishops and the rectors of both universities,
sit ex officio in the senate. For the chamber of deputies, all
citizen taxpayers of full age may vote, being organized for
the purpose into three colleges. All persons with an income
of 50 vote in the first; all residents in an urban commune who
pay taxes amounting to sixteen shillings yearly, with those who
have been through the primary course of education, and all
members of the liberal professions, retired officers and state
pensioners, vote in the second. The third college is formed of
the remaining taxpayers. Those who can read and write vote
directly, the rest indirectly. Every fifty indirect electors
choose a delegate, who votes along with the direct electors.
The naturalization of Jews and Moslems is hedged about by
many technical difficulties, and requires a separate vote of
the legislature in every individual case. Deputies must be not
less than twenty-five years of age. Both senators and deputies
receive 20 lei for each day of actual attendance, and travel
free on the railways. The king may temporarily veto any
measure passed by parliament. Executive power is vested
in a council under the presidency of a prime minister, and
representing the ministers of foreign affairs; justice; the
interior; religion and education; war; finance; agriculture,
trade, industry and public domains; and public works. Entire
liberty of speech, assembly and the press is guaranteed by the
constitution, by which also the titles and privileges of the
boiars or nobles were abolished.
For purposes of local government, Rumania is divided into
32 departments, each controlled by a prefect, and subdivided
into sub-prefectures and communes. The sub-prefectures (plasii)
correspond with the French arrondissements. Prelects and sub-
prefects are appointed by the state, but the chief civic officials are
elected. Very heavy octroi duties provide the means of municipal
administration.
Law and Justice. Until the I7th century justice was administered
according to custom and precedent, or, in ecclesiastical cases, by the
rules of an ill-defined canon law. The first change was introduced
by Matthew Bassaraba, prince of Walachia (1633-54), an d by
Basil the Wolf, prince of Moldavia (1634-53). Basil drew up a
criminal code, on the principle of " an eye for an eye." Thus, a man
guilty of arson was burned alive. No idea of equality before the
law as yet existed: nobles might only be beheaded or banished.
Bassaraba, besides reforming the canon law, issued a similar criminal
code, with a number of civil enactments, based on Roman law, and
regulating testaments, guardianship, &c. The next great advance
began with the Russian protectorate over Rumania (1828-56), when
magistrates were made irremovable, and new tribunals created,
including a petty court in each rural commune. But nothing was
yet done to modify the relative positions of noble and serf. The
growth of the present system dates from the union of Moldavia
and Walachia in 1859. The main provisions of Rumanian law are
drawn from the codes of western powers, especially the Code Napoleon.
Besides the communal courts, there are quarter-sessional or circuit
courts, where simple cases are decided. An appeal from these lies
to the departmental courts, which sit in every capital of a department,
and in which sessions are held, at stated times, for the trial by jury
of serious offences. Any appeal from the departmental courts is
brought before the appeal courts of Bucharest, Craiova, Galatz or
Jassy; and thence, if necessary, to the supreme tribunal, or court
of cassation (Curtea de Casatie), which sits in Bucharest.
Defence. At the accession of Prince Charles, the Rumanian army
consisted of raw levies, led by adventurers from any country,
provided with no uniform, and, in many cases, armed only with
pikes or sabres. Under Prince Charles universal and compulsory
service was introduced. The present system, in which his reforms
culminated, rests upon a law of 1891, modified in 1900 and 1908.
By this law the forces are divided into three sections. The first
is composed of men between the ages of 21 and 30, enrolled in the
field army and its reserves. Every citizen capable of bearing arms
must serve from his ^oth to his 36th year in the second section, or
territorial militia, which musters in spring for shooting-practice and
in the autumn for field manoeuvres. In the militia are included
soldiers who have served their time in the ranks, a.nd recruits
chosen by lot from the yearly contingent of conscripts but not
immediately summoned for duty in the field army. Finally, every
citizen between the ages of 36 and 46 belongs to the third section,
called the Gloata (Landsturm) , which can only be called upon for
home service in war. In time of peace the field army consists of
four complete army corps, with headquarters at Craiova, Bucharest,
Jassy and Galatz, besides an independent brigade in the Dobrudja,
and a separate cavalry division with headquarters at Bucharest.
Its peace strength in 1909-10 was 4415 officers, 89,227 non-com-
missioned officers and men, and 18,920 horses. The infantry
was armed with the Mannlicher magazine rifle (model 1893), the
cavalry with the Mannlicher carbine, the horse and field artillery
with Krupp quick-firing guns. On a war footing the field army
would contain 225,000 combatants. It was estimated that the
militia should ultimately furnish an additional force of 100,000 men,
but up to IQIO this branch of the service was not completely
organized. The arrangements for mobilization are otherwise very
complete, and the field army is maintained in a high state of
efficiency. The war budget for 1909-10 was 2,271,300.
The fortifications designed in 1882 by the Belgian engineer,
General Brialmont, and completed at a cost of more than 4,000,000,
form the keystone of the national defences. They consist of the
Sereth Line, an entrenchment extending over a front of 45 m.
from Galatz to Focshani, and intended to cover an army of defence
against invaders from the north-east, and of the outworks which
make Bucharest the largest fortified camp in the world, except
Paris. All these fortifications, including the additional works at
Galatz and Focshani, are strongly armed with Krupp and Gruson
guns.
The Rumanian navy is divided into two squadrons; one for the
Danube, with headquarters at Galatz; one for the Black Sea,
with headquarters at Constantza. In 1009-10 the fleet comprised
one cruiser, seven gunboats, eight torpedo-boats, six coastguard
vessels, a training-ship, a despatch-boat, a ship for the mining
service and numerous vessels for naval police. The state possesses
a floating dock and a marine arsenal at Galatz.
Religion. The State Church of Rumania, which is governed by a
Holy Synod, professes the Orthodox Oriental creed. Its indepen-
dence was formally recognized by the oecumenical patriarch of Con-
stantinople, in 1885. The Rumanian Church had claimed its inde-
pendence from very ancient times, but under the Turkish suzerainty
and Phanariote hospodars Greeks were generally elected as bishops,
and the influence of the Greek patriarch at Constantinople came to
be more and more felt. In 1864 it declared itself independent of all
foreign prelates. In 1872 a law was passed by which the bishops were
elected by the senate, the chamber of deputies, and the synod sitting
as an assembly (the only other occasion on which provision is made
for such an assembly is in the event of the throne becoming vacant
without any apparent heir). It was subsequently decided to con-
secrate the holy oil in Rumania instead of procuring it from Russia
or Constantinople; but the Greek patriarch protested. Secret
negotiations were entered into which came to a successful issue.
The patriarch feared on the one hand that the growing influence
of the Russian Church would give a colour of Slavism to the whole
church, and that a Russian might eventually be appointed oecumenical
patriarch at Constantinople, while the Rumanians hoped by means
of the independence of their church to deprive the Russians of all
excuse for interfering in their internal affairs under the pretext of
religion. The Rumanians, although obtaining complete indepen-
dence, agreed to recognize the patriarch at Constantinople as the
chief dignitary of the Orthodox Church.
The metropolitan archbishop of Bucharest, officially styled
metropolitan primate of Rumania, presides over the Holy Synod;
the other members being the metropolitan of Jassy (primate of
Moldavia), the six bishops of Ramnicu Valcea, Roman, Hushi, Buzeu,
Curtea de Argesh and the Lower Danube (Galatz) ; together with
eight bishops in partibus, their coadjutors. Metropolitans and
bishops are elected by the senate and deputies, sitting together.
In Hungary there are a uniate metropolitan and three bishops be-
longing to the Rumanian church. The secular clergy marry before
ordination; and only regular clergy (kalugari) are eligible for high
preferment. Although many convents had been closed and utilized
for secular purposes, there were in 1910 no less than 168, including
nunneries. The older convents are usually built in places difficult of
access and are strongly fortified ; for in troublous times they served
as refuges for the peasants or rallying-places for demoralized troops.
The sequestration of the monastic estates, which in 1864 covered
nearly one-third of Rumania, was due to flagrant abuses. Many
estates were held by alien foundations, such as the convents of
Mount Athos and Jerusalem ; while the revenues of many more were
spent abroad by the patriarch of Constantinople. Religious liberty
is accorded to all churches, Jews, Moslems, Roman Catholics, Pro-
testants, Armenians and Lipovans having their own places of worship.
Education. Primary education is free and compulsory, " where
schools are available, for children between seven and eleven years
of age. At the cjose of the" igth century, however, the accommoda-
tion was insufficient, tjie attendance limited in consequence, and
the percentage of illiterates high; reaching 88-5% in some of
the rural communes. Great improvements were effected between
1900 and 1907, the number of schools increasing from 3643 to 4463,
and the pupils from 298,000 to 515,000. The state contributes to
the maintenance of elementary schools, for the Vlachs in Macedonia,
Bulgaria and Transylvania.
HISTORY]
RUMANIA
831
Secondary and higher education are also free. There are gym-
nasia, or grammar schools of four classes, roughly corresponding
with the German sub-gymnasia ; and lyceums of eight classes, which
answer to the German gymnasia. Up to the fourth class all pupils
are taught alike in the lyceums; in the fifth, however, they are
divided into a literary or " humanist " section, and a scientific or
" realist " section. The four upper classes are taught French and
German; English and Italian being added for the " realists," Greek
and Latin for the " humanists." Technical instruction is given in
the agricultural schools; in various arts and crafts institutes, such
as those of Bucharest and Jassy ; in the veterinary and engineering
colleges of Bucharest; in numerous commercial schools, and in
schools of domestic economy for girls. In 190910 there were four
ecclesiastical seminaries, seven training schools for teachers and
eight military schools. The cost of education is largely borne by
the communes, as well as by the state. At Bucharest and Jassy
there are universities with faculties of law, philosophy, science and
medicine and theology.
Antiquities. The history of primitive civilization in Rumania can
be traced back to the Neolithic Age; numerous remains of this period
have been found at Vodastra in the Romanatzi department. Roman
rule Jeft a deep imprint on the country. The following Roman
towns have been identified: (i) in the Dobrudja, Cius (Hirsova),
Troesmis (Iglitza), Arrubium (Machin), Viodunum (isakcha),
Istrus (Karaharman),Tropaeum (Adam KHssi), Kallatis (Mangalia),
Tomi (Constantza); (2) in Moldavia, Dinogetia (Tiglina); (3) in
Walachia, Drobetae (Turnu Severin), Malva (Celeiu), Castra Nova
(Craiova), Romula (Resca), Sorium (Roshiori de Vede), Pelendava
(Bradesci), Acidava (Jenuseshti), Rusidava (Dragasani), Castra
Traiana (Ramnicu Valcea), Arutela (Bivolari), Pons Vetus (Caineni),
Koraidava (Petroasa), Ramidava (Buzeu). A great military road
encircled the Dobrudja hills and skirted the Bulgarian shore of the
Danube. It was linked by a ferry at Celeiu to two lesser roads; one
striking northwards into Transylvania, up the Olt valley, the other
bending westwards until it reached the Jiu, and there diverging
southwards to Turnu Severin, and northwards to the Vulcan Pass.
The plains near the Olt and Jiu estuaries are rich in Roman remains,
notably in the towns of Caracal, Grodjibod and Islaz. Ruins and
inscriptions may be seen at Resca, a temple at Slaveni, villas and a
statue of the emperor Commodus (A.D. 161-92) at Celeiu. All these
lie within a radius of 60 m. Two ramparts, known as Trajan's
wall, can be discerned, one on either side of the railway from
Cernavoda to Constantza ; and there were bridges over the Danube
at Turnu Severin and Turnu Magurele. The Tropaeum Trajani, or
Adam Klissi monument (found near Rassova in the Dobrudja and
removed to Bucharest museum), is a round stone structure of 100 ft.
circumference and 40 ft. high, carved in low relief with scenes repre-
senting Trajan's conquest of Dacia. (See G. Tocilescu, Das Monu-
ment von Adam Klissi, Vienna, 1895.) Few monuments were left
by the barbarian invaders who ravaged Rumania from the 3rd
century to the I4th save some vestiges of Gothic culture at Buzeu,
and at Petroasa, close by. The celebrated treasure of Petroasa
(commonly written Petrossa), preserved in Bucharest museum,
consists of embossed and jewelled gold plate, and probably dates
from the 6th century (see PLATE). Medieval tapestries, with
ecclesiastical vestments, ornaments and some fine pieces of early
woodwork, are also preserved in Bucharest museum. The attempt
to create a national style of architecture, based on Greek and
Byzantine models, began under Stephen the Great of Moldavia
(1457-1504), lasting until the 1 7th century, when it was arrested,
first by oolitical disorders, and, later, by the commercial develop-
ment which caused a demand for cheap and rapid building. Its
chief accomplishment is the cathedral of Curtea de Argesh (q.v.).
Painting and sculpture, like modern Rumanian architecture, are
still in their infancy.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. A list of the numerous statistical and other
official publications issued at Bucharest in Rumanian or French is
given yearly in Annual statistic al Romdniei. The final results of
the census of 1899 were published by the ministry of agriculture in
1905, with introduction by Dr L. Colescu. See also G. J. Lahovari,
Marele dichonar geografic al Romdniei (vols. 1-5, Bucharest, 1899-
1902); A. de Gubernatis, La Roumanie et les Roumains (Florence,
1898); E. de Martonne, La Valachie, essai de monographic geo-
graphique; ]. Samuelson, Rumania, Past and Present (London,
1882); G. Beuger, Rumania in 1900 (trans, from the German by
A. H. Keane (London, 1901)); A. Bellessort, La Roumanie con-
temporaine (Paris, 1905); L. Colescu, Proeres tconomiques . . .
realises sous la regne de Sa Majeste It Roi Carol I. (Bucharest, 1907) ;
G. D. Creanga, Crundbesitzverteilung und Bauernfrage in Rumdnien
(Leipzig, 1907) ; C. Baicoianu, Histoire de la politique douaniere de la
Roumanie de 1870-1903 (2 vols., Bucharest, 1904). (X.)
HISTORY
(i) Introduction. The earliest record of the lands which
constitute the kingdom of. Rumania begins with the period
immediately preceding their conquest by the Romans.
For information upon this period, and upon the
subsequent centuries of Roman or Byzantine rule, see
DACIA. From the 6th to the izth century, wave after wave
of barbarian conquerors, Goths, Tatars, Slavs and others,
passed over the country, and, according to one school of
historians, almost obliterated its original Daco-Roman popu-
lation; the modern Vlachs, on this theory, representing a later
body of immigrants from Transdanubian territory. According
to others, the ancient inhabitants were, at worst, only sub-
merged for a time, and their direct descendants are the Rumans
of to-day. Each of these conflicting views is supported by
strong evidence; and the whole controversy, too large and
too obscure for discussion here, is considered under the heading
VLACHS.
Towards the close of the I3th century, Walachia and Moldavia
were occupied by a mixed population, composed partly of
Vlachs, but mainly of Slavs and Tatars; in Great Walachia, 1
also called Muntenia, the Petchenegs and Cumanians f ae
predominated. Rumanian historians have striven, by Vlach* la
piecing together the stray fragments of evidence which *** <*
survive, to prove that their Vlach ancestors had not, <* at ry-
as sometimes alleged, been reduced to a scattered com-
munity of nomadic shepherds, dwelling among the Carpathians
as the serfs of their more powerful neighbours. The researches
of Ha^deu, Xenopol and other historians tend to show the
existence of a highly organized Vlach society in Transylvania,
Oltland and certain districts of Hungary and Moldavia; of
a settled commonalty, agricultural rather than pastoral; and
of a hereditary feudal nobility, bound to pay tribute and render
military service to the Hungarian crown, but enjoying many
privileges, which were defined by a distinct customary law (jus
valahicuni) . Although the characteristic title's of voivode, knez
and ban (all implying military as well as civil authority) are
of Slavonic origin, and perhaps derived from the practice of
the later Bulgarian (or Bulgaro-Vlachian) empire, the growth
of Vlach feudal institutions is attributed to German influences,
which permeated through Hungarian channels into the Vlach
world, and transformed the primitive tribal chiefs into a feudal
aristocracy of boiars or bayards* (nobles).
With the i3th century, at latest, begins the authentic political
history of the Vlachs in Rumania, but it is not the history of
a united people. The two principalities of Walachia Growth oi
and Moldavia developed separately, and each has its Rumanian
separate annals. About the year 1774 it first aatioa-
becomes possible to trace the progress of these *" <>r '
Danubian Principalities in a single narrative, owing to
the uniform system of administration adopted by the
Turkish authorities, and the rapid contemporary growth of
a national consciousness among the Vlachs. At last, in 1859,
the two principalities were finally united under the name of
Rumania. The subjoined history of the country is arranged
under the four headings: Walachia, Moldavia, the Danubian
Principalities and Rumania, in order to emphasize this his-
torical development.
(2) Walachia. Tradition, as embodied in a native chronicle
of the i6th century, entitled the History of the Ruman Land since
the arrival of the Rumans (Istoria tieret Rom&nescl de Foanda-
cdndu au descSlicata Romdnii), gives a precise account ttoa of the
of the founding of the Walachian state by Radu Negru, Priad-
or Rudolf the Black (otherwise known as Negru Voda, **"*>'
the Black Prince), voivode of the Rumans of Fogaras in
Transylvania, who in 1290 descended with a numerous people
into the Transalpine plain and established his capital first
at Campulung and then at Curtea de Argesh. Radu dies in
1310, and is succeeded by a series of voivodes whose names and
dates are duly given; but this early chapter of Walachian
history has been rudely handled by critical historians. A
considerable body of Vlachs doubtless emigrated from Hungary
at this time, and founded in Walachia a principality dependent
1 i.e. Walachia east of the Olt, not to be confused with the MrydXi?
BXaxia in southern Macedonia (see BALKAN PENINSULA).
1 In later Rumanian history there arose a class who obtained their
rank by merit or favour, and did not necessarily bequeath it to their
heirs. But the hereditary aristocracy also survived, and feudalism
remained characteristic of Rumanian society up to 1860.
RUMANIA
[HISTORY
nines.
on the Hungarian crown; but material is lacking for a detailed
description of the movement.
In 1330 the voivode John Bassaraba * or Bazarab the Great
(1310-38) succeeded in inflicting a crushing defeat on his
Hun- suzerain King Charles I. of Hungary, and for fourteen
tariaa years Walachia enjoyed complete independence. Louis
Sapnm- the Great (1342-82) succeeded for a while in restor-
acy ' ing the Hungarian supremacy, but in 1367 the voivode
Vlad or Vladislav inflicted another severe defeat on the Hun-
garians, and succeeded for a time in ousting the Magyar governor
of Turnu Severin, and thus incorporating Oltland in his own
dominions. Subsequently, in order to retain a hold on the
loyalty of the Walachian voivode, the king of Hungary invested
him with the title of duke of Fogaras and Omlas, Ruman dis-
tricts in Transylvania.
Under the voivode Mircea (1386-1418), whose prowess is still
celebrated in the national folk-songs, Walachia played for a
while a more ambitious part. This prince during the
earlier part of his reign sought a counterpoise to
Hungarian influence in close alliance with King Ladislaus V. of
Poland. He added to his other titles that of " count of Severin,
despot of the Dobrudja, and lord of Silistria," and both Vidin
and Sistora appear in his possession. A Walachian contingent,
apparently Mircea's, aided the Servian tsar Lazar in his vain
endeavour to resist the Turks at Kossovo (1389); later he
allied himself with his former enemy Sigismund of Hungary
against the Turkish sultan Bayezid I., who inflicted a
crushing defeat on the allied armies at Nikopolis in 1396.
Bayezid subsequently invaded and laid waste a large part of
Walachia, but the voivode succeeded in inflicting considerable
loss on the retiring Turks, and the capture of Bayezid by Timur
in 1402 gave the country a reprieve. In the internecine struggle
that followed amongst the sons of Bayezid, Mircea espoused the
cause of Musa; but, though he thus obtained for a while con-
siderable influence in the Turkish councils, this policy eventually
drew on him the vengeance of the sultan Mahomet I., who
succeeded in reducing him to a tributary position.
During the succeeding period the Walachian princes appear
alternately as the allies of Hungary or the creatures of the
Relations Turk. In the later battle of Kossovo of 1448, between
w tth the Hungarians, led by Hunyadi Janos and the sultan
Hungary Murad II., the Walachian contingent treacherously
adthe surrendered to the Turks; but this did not hinder the
victorious sultan from massacring the prisoners and
adding to the tribute a yearly contribution of 3000 javelins and
4000 shields. In 1453 Constantinople fell; in 1454 Hunyadi
died; and a year later the sultan invaded Walachia to set up
Vlad IV. (1455-62), the son of a former voivode. The father of
this Vlad had himself been notorious for his ferocity, but his
son, during his Turkish sojourn, had improved on his father's
example. He was known in Walachia as Dracul, or the Devil,
and has left a name in history as Vlad the Impaler. The
stories of his ferocious savagery exceed belief. He is said to
have feasted amongst his impaled victims. When the sultan
Mahomet, infuriated at the impalement of his envoy, the pasha
of Vidin, who had been charged with Vlad's deposition, invaded
Walachia in person with an immense host, he is said to have
found at one spot a forest of pales on which were the bodies
of men, women and children. The voivode Radu (1462-75)
was substituted for this monster by Turkish influence, and con-
strained to pay a tribute of 12,000 ducats; but Vlad returned
to the throne in 1476-77.
The shifting policy of the Walachian princes at this time is
well described in a letter of the Hungarian king Matthias
Corvinus (1458-00) to Casimir of Poland. " The voivodes,"
he writes, " of Walachia and Moldavia fawn alternately upon
the Turks, the Tatars, the Poles and the Hungarians, that among
so many masters their perfidy may remain unpunished." The
1 A. Sturdza gives) a genealogical table, showing that Radu
belonged to the great native dynasty of Bassarab (q.v.) or Bassaraba,
which continued, though not in unbroken succession, to rule in
Walachia until 1658, and in Moldavia until 1669.
prevalent laxity of marriage, the frequency of divorce, and the
fact that illegitimate children could succeed as well as those
born in lawful wedlock, by multiplying the candidates for the
voivodeship and preventing any regular system of succession,
contributed much to the internal confusion of the country.
The elections, though often controlled by the Turkish Divan,
were still constitutionally in the hands of the boiars, who were
split up into various factions, each with its own pretender to the
throne. The princes followed one another in rapid succession,
and usually met with violent ends. A large part of the popu-
lation led a pastoral life, and at the time of Verantius's visit to
Walachia in the early part of the i6th century, the towns and
villages were built of wood and wattle and daub. Tirgovishtea
alone, at this time the capital of the country, was a considerable
town, with two stone castles.
A temporary improvement took place under Neagoe Bassaraba
(1512-21). Neagoe was a great builder of monasteries; he
founded the cathedrals of Curtea de Argesh (q.v.) and Tirgovish-
tea, and adorned Mount Athos with his pious works. He trans-
ferred the direct allegiance of the Walachian Church from the
patriarchate of Ochrida in Macedonia to that of Constantinople.
On his death, however, the brief period of comparative prosperity
which his architectural works attest was tragically interrupted,
and it seemed for a time that Walachia was doomed to Turkish
sink into a Turkish pashalic. The Turkish commander, op/>re-
Mahmud Bey, became treacherously possessed of Nea- '<>
goe's young son and successor, and, sending him a prisoner to
Stambul, proceeded to nominate Turkish governors in the towns
and villages of Walachia. The Walachians resisted desperately,
elected Radu, a kinsman of Neagoe, voivode, and succeeded with
Hungarian help in defeating Mahmud Bey at Grumatz in 1522.
The conflict was prolonged with varying fortunes until in 1524
the dogged opposition of the Walachians triumphed in the
sultan's recognition of Radu.
But the battle of Mohacs in 1526 decided the long preponder-
ance of Turkish control. The unfortunate province served as
a transit route for Turkish expeditions against Hungary and
Transylvania, and was exhausted by continual requisitions.
Turkish settlers were gradually making good their footing on
Walachian soil, and mosques were rising in the towns and villages.
The voivode Alexander, who succeeded in 1591, and like his
predecessors had bought his post of the Divan, carried the oppres-
sion still further by introducing a janissary guard and farming
out his possessions to his Turkish supporters. Meanwhile the
Turkish governors on the Bulgarian bank never ceased to
ravage the country, and again it seemed as if Walachia must
share the fate of the Balkan States and succumb to the direct
government of the Ottoman.
In the depth of the national distress the choice of the people
fell on Michael, the son of Petrushko, ban of Craiova, the
first dignitary of the realm, who had fled to Transylvania to
escape Alexander's machinations. Supported at Constantinople
by two influential personages, Sigismund Bathory, prince of
Transylvania (1581-98 and 1601-2), and the English ambassador,
Edward Barton, and aided by a loan of 200,000 florins, Michael
succeeded in procuring from the Divan the deposition of his
enemy and his own nomination.
The genius of Michael "the Brave" (1593-1601) secured
Walachia for a time a place in universal history. The moment
for action was favourable. The emperor Rudolph II. had
gained some successes over the Turks, and Sigismund the Brave.
Bathory had been driven by Turkish extortions to throw
off the allegiance to the sultan. But the first obstacle to be dealt
with was the presence of the enemy within the walls. By previous
concert with the Moldavian voivode Aaron, on the i3th of
November 1594, the Turkish guards and settlers in the two princi-
palities were massacred at a given signal. Michael followed up
these " Walachian Vespers " by an actual invasion of Turkish
territory, and, aided by Sigismund Bathory, succeeded in carrying
by assault Rustchuk, Silistria and other places on the right bank
of the lower Danube. A simultaneous invasion of Walachia
by a large Turkish and Tatar host was successfully defeated;
RUMANIA
833
the Tatar khan withdrew with the loss of his bravest followers,
and, in the great victory of Mantin on the Danube (1595), the
Turkish army was annihilated, and its leader, Mustafa, slain.
The sultan now sent Sinan Pasha, " the Renegade," to invade
Walachia with 100,000 men. Michael withdrew to the mountains
before this overwhelming force, but, being joined by Bathory
with a Transylvanian contingent, the voivode resumed the offen-
sive, stormed Bucharest, where Sinan had entrenched a Turkish
detachment, and, pursuing the main body of his forces to the
Danube, overtook the rearguard and cut it to pieces, capturing
enormous booty. Sinan Pasha returned to Constantinople to
die, it is said, of vexation; and in 1597, the sultan, weary of a
disastrous contest, sent Michael a red flag in token of recon-
ciliation, reinvested him for life in an office of which he had
been unable to deprive him, and granted the succession to
his son.
In 1599, on the abdication of Sigismund Bathory in Transyl-
vania, Michael, in league with the imperialist forces, and in
Conquest connivance with the Saxon burghers, attacked and
of Traa- defeated his successor Andreas Bathory near Hermann-
syivaais. stac j t; an( j j se jzi n g himself the reins of government,
secured his proclamation as prince of Transylvania. The
emperor consented to appoint him his viceroy (locum tenens
per Transylvaniam) , and the sultan ratified his election. As
prince of Transylvania he summoned diets in 1399 and 1600,
and, having expelled the voivode of Moldavia, united under
his sceptre three principalities. The partiality that he showed
for the Ruman and Szekler parts of the population alienated,
however, the Transylvanian Saxons, who preferred the direct
government of the emperor. The imperial commissioner
General Basta lent his support to the disaffected party, and
Michael was driven out of Transylvania by a successful revolt,
while a Polish army invaded Walachia from the Moldavian side.
Michael's coolness and resource, however, never deserted him.
He resolved to appeal to the emperor, rode to Prague, won over
Rudolph by his singular address, and, richly supplied with funds,
reappeared in Transylvania as imperial governor. In con-
junction with Basta he defeated the superior Transylvanian
forces at Goroslo, expelling Sigismund Bathory, who had
again aspired to the crown, and taking one hundred and fifty
flags and forty-five cannon. But at the moment of his returning
prosperity Basta, who had quarrelled with him about the supreme
command of the imperial forces, procured his murder on the
igth of August 1601. Not only had Michael succeeded in
rolling back for a time the tide of Turkish conquest, but for
the first and last time in modern history he united what once
had been Trajan's Dacia, in its widest extent, and with it the
whole Ruman race north of the Danube, under a single sceptre.
Michael's wife Florika and his son Nicholas were carried off
into Tatar captivity, and erban or Sherban, of the Bassaraba
family, was raised to the voivodeship of Walachia by imperialist
influences, while Sigismund resumed the government of Tran-
sylvania. On his deposition by the Porte in 1610, there fol-
lowed a succession of princes who, though still for the most
part of Ruman origin, bought their appointment at Stambul.
Walachian contingents were continually employed by the Turks
in their Polish wars, and the settlement of Greeks in an official
or mercantile capacity in the principality provoked grave
discontent, which on one occasion took the form of a massacre.
The reign of the voivode Matthias Bassaraba (1633-54)
was an interval of comparative prosperity. Matthias repulsed
Matthias his powerful rival, Basil the Wolf, the voivode of
Bassa- Moldavia and his Tatar and Cossack allies. His last
***" days were embittered, however, by an outbreak of
military anarchy. His illegitimate son and successor, Con-
stantine erban (1654-58), was the last of the Bassaraba
dynasty to rule over Walachia; and on his death the Turkish
yoke again weighed heavier on his country. The old capital,
Tlrgovishtea, was considered by the Divan to be too near the
Transylvanian frontier, and the voivodes were accordingly
compelled to transfer their residence to Bucharest, which was
finally made the seat of government in 1698.
xxni. 27
The mechanical skill of the Walachians was found useful by
the Turks, who employed them as carpenters and pontonniers;
and during the siege of Vienna in 1683 the Walachian ert>an
contingent, which, under the voivode erban Cantacu- caata-
zene, had been forced to co-operate with the Turks, "*
was entrusted with the construction of the two bridges over the
Danube above and below Vienna. The Walachian as well as
the Moldavian prince, who had been also forced to bring his
contingent, maintained a secret system of communication with
the besieged, which was continued by erban after his return
to Walachia. The emperor granted him a diploma creating
him count of the empire and recognizing his descent from the
imperial house of Cantacuzene, erban meanwhile collecting
his forces for an open breach with the Porte. His prudence,
however, perpetually postponed the occasion, and Walachia
enjoyed peace to his death in 1688. This peaceful state of the
country gave the voivode leisure to promote its internal culture,
and in the year of his death he had the satisfaction of seeing
the first part of a Walachian Bible issue from the first printing-
press of the country, which he had established at Bucharest.
He had also caused to be compiled a history of Walachia, and
had called to the country many teachers of the Greek language,
whose business it was to instruct the sons of the boiars in
grammar, rhetoric and philosophy.
Immediately on erban's death the boiars, to prevent the
Porte from handing over the office to the Greek adventurer who
bid the highest, proceeded to elect his sister's son &,
Constantine Brancovan. The Turkish envoy then in ttaatioe
Bucharest was persuaded to invest Brancovan with the Brma-
caftan, or robe of office, in token of Turkish approval, covta -
and the patriarch of Constantinople, who was also present,
and the archbishop of Walachia, Theodosius, consecrated him
together at the high altar of the cathedral, where he took the
coronation oath to devote his whole strength to the good of his
country and received the boiars' oath of submission. Bran-
covan, it is true, found it expedient to devote his predecessor's
treasure to purchasing the confirmation of his title from the
Divan, but the account of his coronation ceremony remains
an interesting landmark in the constitutional history of the
country. In his relations with the Habsburg power he displayed
the same caution as the voivode erban. In spite of defeats
inflicted on the Turks by the imperial troops at Pozharevats,
Nish and Vidin, in 1689, it was only by an exercise of force that
they secured winter quarters in Walachia; and though, after
the battle of Poltava in 1709, Brancovan concluded a secret
treaty with the tsar Peter the Great, he avoided giving open
effect to it. The tranquillity which he thus obtained was
employed by Brancovan as by his predecessor in furthering the
internal well-being of the country, with what success is best
apparent from the description of Walachia left by the Florentine
Del Chiaro, who visited the country in 1709 and spent
seven years there. He describes the stoneless Walachian
plain, with its rich pastures, its crops of maize and
millet, and woods so symmetrically planted and
carefully kept by Brancovan's orders that hiding in
them was out of the question. Butter and honey were exported
to supply the sultan's kitchen at Stambul; wax and cattle
to Venice; and the red and white wine of Walachia, notably
that of Pitesei, to Transylvania. The Walachian horses were
in demand among the Turks and Poles. Near Ribnik and
elsewhere were salt-mines which supplied all the wants of the
Transdanubian provinces of Turkey; there were considerable
copper mines at Maidan ; and iron was worked near Tlrgovishtea.
The gipsy community was bound to bring fifteen pounds weight
of gold from the washings of the Argesh. Many of the boiars
were wealthy, but the common people were so ground down
with taxation that " of their ancient Roman valour only
the name remained." To avoid the extortion of their rulers
numbers had emigrated to Transylvania and even to the Turkish
provinces. The principal Walachian city was Bucharest, con-
taining a population of about 50,000; but, except for two
large hans or merchants' halls built by Brancovan and his
834
RUMANIA
[HISTORY
predecessor, and the recently erected palace, which had a marble
staircase and a fine garden, the houses were of wood. The
dress of the men was thoroughly Turkish except for their lamb-
skin caps, that of the women half Greek, half Turkish. The
houses were scrupulously clean and strewn with sweet herbs.
Del Chiaro notices the great imitative capacity of the race, both
artistic and mechanical. A Walachian in Venice had copied
several of the pictures there with great skill; the copper-plates
and wood engravings for the new press were executed by native
hands. The Walachians imitated every kind of Turkish and
European manufacture; and, though the boiars imported finer
glass from Venice and Bohemia, a glass manufactory had been
established near Tlrgovishtea which produced a better quality
than the Polish. From the Bucharest press, besides a variety
of ecclesiastical books, there were issued in the Ruman tongue
a translation of a French work entitled The Maxims of the
Orientals and The Romance of Alexander the Great. In 1700
Brancovan had a map of the country made and a copperplate
engraving of it executed at Padua.
The prosperity of Walachia, however, under its " Golden
Bey," as Brancovan was known at Stambul, only increased the
Pall of Turkish exactions; and, although all demands were
Bran- punctually met, the sultan finally resolved on the
covatt. removal of his too prosperous vassal. Brancovan
was accused of secret correspondence with the emperor, ^he
tsar, the king of Poland and the Venetian republic, of betray-
ing the Forte's secrets, of preferring Tlrgovishtea to Bucharest
as a residence, of acquiring lands and palaces in Transylvania,
of keeping agents at Venice and Vienna, in both of which cities
he had invested large sums, and of striking gold coins with his
effigy. 1 An envoy arrived at Bucharest on the 4th of April
1714, and proclaimed Brancovan mazil, i.e. deposed. He
was conducted to Constantinople and beheaded, together with
his four sons. A scion of the rival Cantacuzenian family was
elected by the pasha's orders, and he, after exhausting the
principality for the benefit of the Divan, was in turn deposed
and executed in 1716.
From this period onwards the Porte introduced a new system
with regard to its Walachian vassals. The line of national
The princes ceased. The office of voivode or hospodar
Phan- was sold to the highest bidder at Stambul, to be farmed
ariotv out from a purely mercenary point of view. The
rigfme, p r i nces w ho now succeeded one another in rapid succes-
sion were mostly Greeks from the Phanar quarter of Con-
stantinople who had served the palace in the quality of
dragoman (interpreter), or held some other court appointment.
They were nominated by imperial firman without a shadow
of free election, and were deposed and transferred from one
principality to another, executed or reappointed, like so many
pashas. Like pashas they rarely held their office more than
three years, it being the natural policy of the Porte to multiply
such lucrative nominations. The same hospodar was often
reappointed again and again as he succeeded in raising the sum
necessary to buy back his title. Constantine Mavrocordato
was in this way hospodar of Walachia at six different times,
and paid on one occasion as much as a million lion-dollars
(40,000) for the office. The princes thus imposed on the
country were generally men of intelligence and culture. Nicholas
Mavrocordato, the first of the series, was himself the author
of a Greek work on duties, and maintained at his court Demeter
Prokopios of Moschopolis in Macedonia, who wrote a review
of Greek literature during the i7th and beginning of the 1 8th
centuries. Constantine Mavrocordato was the author of really
liberal reforms. He introduced an urbarium or land law,
limiting to 24 the days of angaria, or forced labour, owed
yearly by the peasants to their feudal lord. In 1747 he decreed
the abolition of serfdom, but this enactment was not carried
1 One of these, with the legend " CONSTANTINVS BASSARABA DE
BRANCOVAN D.G.VOEVODA ET PRINCEPS VALACHIAE TRANSALPINAE,"
and having on the reverse the crowned shield of Walachia containing
a raven holding a cross in its beak between a moon and a star, is
engraved by Del Chiaro. They were of 2, 3 and 10 ducats weight.
into effect. But the rule of the Phanariotes could not but be
productive of grinding oppression, and it was rendered doubly
hateful by the swarms of Greek adventurers who accompanied
them. Numbers of the peasantry emigrated, and the population
rapidly diminished. In 1745 the number of tax-paying families,
which a few years before had amounted to 147,000, had sunk
to 70,000. Yet the taxes were continually on the increase,
and the hospodar Scarlat Ghica (1758-61), though he tried to
win some popularity by the removal of Turkish settlers and the
abolition of the vakarit or tax on cattle and horses, which was
peculiarly hateful to the peasantry, raised the total amount
of taxation to 25,000,000 lion-dollars, about 1,000,000. The
Turks meantime maintained their grip on the country by hold-
ing on the Walachian bank of the Danube the fortresses of
Giurgevo, Turnu Severin and Orsova, with the surrounding
districts.
But the tide of Ottoman dominion was ebbing fast. Already,
by the peace of Passarowitz Pozharevats in 1718, the banat
of Craiova had been ceded to the emperor, though by the peace
of Belgrade in 1739 it was recovered by the Porte for its Wala-
chian vassal. In 1769 the Russian general Romanzov occupied
the principality, the bishops and clergy took an oath of fidelity
to the empress Catherine, and a deputation of boiars followed.
The liberties of the country were guaranteed, taxation reformed
and in 1772 the negotiations at Fokshani between Russia and
the Porte broke down because the empress's representatives
insisted on the sultan's recognition of the independence of
Walachia and Moldavia under a European guarantee.. Turkish
rule was, however, definitely restored by the treaty of Kutchuk
Kainardji, in 1774; and as from this period onwards Walachian
history is closely connected with that of Moldavia, it may be
convenient before continuing this review to turn to the earlier
history of the sister principality.
(3) Moldavia. According to the native traditional account,
as first given by the Moldavian chroniclers of the i6th, I7th
and iSth centuries, Dragosh the son of Bogdan, the founder of
the Moldavian principality, emigrated with his followers from
the Hungarian district of Marmaros in the northern Carpathians.
The dates assigned to this event vary from 1299, given by
Urechia, to 1342, given by the monastic chronicle of Putna.
The story is related with various fabulous accompaniments.
From the aurochs (zimbru), in pursuit of which Dragosh first
arrived on the banks of the Moldova, is derived the ox-head of
the Moldavian national arms, and from his favourite hound
who perished in the waters the name of the river. From the
Hungarian and Russian sources, which are somewhat more
precise, the date of the arrival of Dragosh, who is confused
with the historical Bogdan Voda (1340-1365), appears to have
been 1349, and his departure from Marmaros was carried out
in defiance of his Hungarian suzerain.
These legendary accounts seem to show that the Moldavian
voivodate was founded, like that of Walachia, by Vlach immi-
grants from Hungary, during the first half of the
i4th century. Its original strength lay probably in mstory.
the compact Ruman settlements among the eastern
Carpathians, first mentioned by Nicetas of Chonae, about 1164.
The Moldavian lowlands were still held by a variety of Tatar
tribes, who were only expelled after 1350, by the united efforts
of Andrew Laszkovich, voivode of Transylvania, and Bogdan
Voda, the first independent prince of Moldavia. Coins bearing
the name of Bogdan are still extant; and there is an inscription
over his tomb at the monastery of Radautzi, in Bukovina,
placed there by Stephen the Great of Moldavia (1457-1504).
In the agreement arrived at between Louis of Hungary and
the emperor Charles IV. in 1372, the voivodate of Moldavia was
recognized as a dependency of the crown of St Stephen.
The overlordship x over the country was, however, claims of
contested by the king of Poland, and their rival Poland
claims were .a continual source of dispute between the " d
two kingdoms. In 1412 a remarkable agreement was
arrived at between Sigismund, in his quality of king of
Hungary, and King Ladislaus Il.of Poland, by which both parties
HISTORY]
RUMANIA
835
consented to postpone the question of suzerainship in Moldavia.
Should, however the Turks invade the country, the Polish and
Hungarian forces were to unite in expelling them, the voivode
was to be deposed, and the Moldavian territories divided be-
tween the allies. During the first half of the isth century
Polish influence was preponderant, and it was customary for
the voivodes of Moldavia to do homage to the king of Poland
at his cities of Kameniec or Snyatin.
In 1456 the voivode Peter, alarmed at the progress of the
Turks, who were now dominant in Servia and Walachia, offered
the sultan Mahomet II. a yearly tribute of 2000 ducats.
tbfareat. On his deposition, however, in 1457 by Stephen, known
as " the Great," Moldavia became a power formidable
alike to Turk, Pole and Hungarian, Throughout the long reign
of this voivode, which lasted forty-six years, from 1458 to 1504,
his courage and resources never failed. In the early part of his
reign he appears, in agreement . with the Turkish sultan and
the king of Poland, turning out the Hungarian vassal, the
ferocious Vlad, from the Walachian throne, and annexing the
coast cities of Kilia and Cetatea Alba or Byelgorod, the Turkish
Akkerman. These cities he refused to cede to the sultan,
and, about this period, he entered into negotiations with
Venice and the shah of Persia, in the vain hope of
organizing a world-wide coalition against the Turks. In the
autumn of 1474 the sultan Mahomet entered Moldavia at the
head of an army estimated by the Polish historian Dlugosz at
120,000 men. The voivode Stephen withdrew into the interior
at the approach of this overwhelming host, but on the I7th
of January 1475, turned to bay at Rahova (Podul Inalt, near
Vaslui) and gained a complete victory over the Turks. Four
pashas were among the slain; over a hundred banners fell
into the Moldavian hands; and only a few survivors succeeded
in reaching the Danube. In 1476 Mahomet again invaded
Moldavia, but, though successful in the open field, the Turks
were sorely harassed by Stephen's guerilla onslaughts, and,
being thinned by pestilence, were again constrained to retire.
In 1484 the same tactics proved successful against an invasion
of Bayezid II. Three years later a Polish invasion of Moldavia
under John Albert with 80,000 men ended in disaster, and
shortly afterwards the voivode Stephen, aided by a Turkish
and Tatar contingent, laid waste the Polish territories to the
upper waters of the Vistula, and succeeded in annexing for a
time the Polish province of Pokutia, between the Carpathians
and the Dniester.
Exclusive of this temporary acquisition, the Moldavian terri-
tory at this period extended from the river Milcovu, which formed
Moldavia the boundary of Walachia, to the Dniester. It in-
circa eluded the Carpathian region of Bukovina, literally
/500. " t ne beechwood, " where lay Sereth and Suciava
(Suczawa), the earliest residences of the voivodes, the maritime
district of Budzak (the later Bessarabia), with Kilia, Byelgorod
and the left bank of the lower Danube from Galatz to the
Sulina mouth. The government, civil and ecclesiastical, was
practically the same as that described in the case of Walachia,
the officials bearing for the most part Slavonic titles derived from
the practice of the Bulgaro-Vlachian tsardom. The church was
Orthodox Oriental, and depended from the patriarch of Ochrida.
In official documents the language used was Slavonic, the style
of a Moldavian ruler being Nachalnik i Voievoda Moldovlasi,
prince and duke ( = Ger. Fiirst and Herzog) of the Moldov-
lachs. The election of the voivodes, though in the hands of
the boiars, was strictly regulated by hereditary principles, and
Cantemir describes the extinction of the house of Dragosh in the
1 6th century as one of the unsettling causes that most contributed
to the ruin of the country. The Moldavian army was reckoned
40,000 strong, and the cavalry were especially formidable. Ver-
antius of Sebenico, an eye-witness of the state of Moldavia at
the beginning of the i6th century, mentions three towns of the
interior provided with stone walls Suciava, Chotim (Khotin)
and Ncamtzu; the people were barbarous, but more warlike than
the Walachians and more tenacious of their national costume,
punishing with death any who adopted the Turkish.
In 1 504 Stephen the Great died, and was succeeded by his son,
Bogdan III. " the One-eyed. " At feud with Poland about
Pokutia, despairing of efficacious support from hard- Moldavia
pressed Hungary, the new voivode saw no hope of tributary
safety except in a dependent alliance with the ad- t lhe
vancing Ottoman power, which already hemmed
Moldavia in on the Walachian and Crimean sides. In 1513 he
agreed to pay an annual tribute to the sultan Selim in return
for the sultan's guarantee to preserve the national constitution
and religion of Moldavia, to which country the Turks now gave
the name of Kara Bogdan, from their first vassal. The terms
of Moldavian submission were further regulated by a firman
signed by the sultan Suleiman at Budapest in 1529 by which the
yearly present or bockshish, as the tribute was euphoniously
called, was fixed at 4000 ducats, 40 horses and 25 falcons, and
the voivode was bound at need to supply the Turkish army with
a contingent of 1000 men. The Turks pursued much the same
policy as in Walachia. The tribute was gradually increased. A
hold was obtained on the country by the occupation of various
fortresses on Moldavian soil with the surrounding territory
in 1538 Cetatea Alba, in 1592 Bender, in 1702 Chotim (Khotin).
Already by the middle of the i6th century the yoke was so
heavy that the voivode Elias (1546-51) became Mahommedan
to avoid the sultan's anger.
At this period occurs a curious interlude in Moldavian history.
In 1561 the adventurer and impostor Jacob Basilicus succeeded
with Hungarian help in turning out the voivode
Alexander Lapusheanu (1552-61 and 1563-68) and
seizing on the reins of government. A Greek by birth,
adopted son of Jacob Heraklides, despot of Paros, Samos and
other Aegean islands, acquainted with Greek and Latin literature,
and master of most European languages; appearing alternately
as a student of astronomy at Wittenberg, whither he had been
invited by Count Mansfeld, as a correspondent of Melanchthon,
and as a writer of historical works which he dedicated to Philip
II. of Spain, Basilicus, finding that his Aegean sovereignty wag
of little practical value beyond the crowning of poet laureates,
fixed his roving ambition on a more substantial dominion. He
published an astounding pedigree, in which, starting from
" Hercules Triptolemus," he wound his way through the royal
Servian line to the kinship of Moldavian voivodes, and, having
won the emperor Ferdinand to his financial and military support,
succeeded, though at the head of only 1600 cavalry, in routing
by a bold dash the vastly superior forces of the voivode, and
even in purchasing the Turkish confirmation of his usurped
title. He assumed the style of BaatXtw MoXSa/ftas, and eluded
the Turkish stipulation that he should dismiss his foreign guards.
In Moldavia he appeared as a moral reformer, endeavouring
to put down the prevalent vices of bigamy and divorce. He
erected a school, placed it under a German master, and collected
children from every part of the country to be maintained and
educated at his expense. He also busied himself with the col-
lection of a library. But his taxes a ducat for each family
were considered heavy; his orthodoxy was suspected, his
foreign counsellors detested. In 1 563 the people rose, massacred
the Hungarian guards, the foreign settlers, and finally Jacob
himself.
The expelled voivode Alexander was now restored by the
Porte, the schools were destroyed, and the country relapsed
into its normal state of barbarism under Bogdan IV. (1568-
72). Bogdan's successor, John the Terrible (1572^74), was
provoked by the Forte's demand for 120,000 ducats as
tribute instead of 60,000 as heretofore to rise against the
oppressor; but after gaining three victories he was finally
defeated and slain (1574), and the country was left more than
ever at the mercy of the Ottoman. Voivodes were now created
and deposed in rapid succession by the Divan, but the victories
of Michael the Brave in Walachia infused a more independent
spirit into the Moldavians. The Moldavian dominion was
now disputed by the Transylvanians and Poles, but in 1600
Michael succeeded in annexing it to his " Great Dacian "
realm. On Michael's murder the Poles under Zamoyski again
8 3 6
RUMANIA
[HISTORY
asserted their supremacy, but in 1618 the Porte once more
recovered its dominion and set up successively two creatures
of its own as voivodes Gratiani, an Italian who had been
court jeweller, and a Greek custom-house official, Alexander.
As in Walachia at a somewhat later date, the Phanariote
regime seemed now thoroughly established in Moldavia, and
The it became the rule that every three years the voivode
Phaa- should procure his confirmation by a large baksheesh,
*>< and every year by a smaller one. But Prince Basil
rtglme. ^ Wolf ( Vasilie Lupul), an Albanian, who succeeded
in 1634, showed great ability, and for twenty years maintained
his position on the Moldavian throne. He introduced several
internal reforms, codified the written and unwritten laws of
the country, established a printing press, Greek monastic
schools, and also a Latin school. He brought the Moldavian
Church into more direct relation with the patriarch of Con-
stantinople, but also showed considerable favour to the Latins,
allowing them to erect churches at Suciava, Jassy and Galatz.
The last voivode of the Bassaraba family, Elias Voda, reigned
from 1667 to 1669.
During the wars between Sobieski, king of Poland (1674-
96), and the Turks, Moldavia found itself between hammer
and anvil, and suffered terribly from Tatar devastations. The
voivode Duka was forced like his Walachian contemporary to
supply a contingent for the siege of Vienna in 1683. After
Sobieski's death in 1696, the hopes of Moldavia turned to the
advancing Muscovite power. In 1711 the voivode
Caatetair. Demetrius Cantemir, rendered desperate by the
Turkish exactions, concluded an agreement with the
tsar Peter the Great by which Moldavia was to become a
protected and vassal state of Russia, with the enjoyment of
its traditional liberties, the voivodeship to be hereditary in
the family of Cantemir. On the approach of the Russian
army the prince issued a proclamation containing the terms
of the Russian protectorate and calling on the boiars and
people to aid their Orthodox deliverers. But the long Turkish
terrorism had done its work, and at the approach of a Turkish
and Tatar host the greater part of the Moldavians deserted
their voivode. The Russian campaign was unsuccessful, and
all that Peter could offer Cantemir and the boiars who had
stood by him was an asylum on Russian soil.
In his Russian exile Cantemir composed in a fair Latin style
his Descriptio Moldaviae, the counterpart, so far as Moldavia
is concerned, to Del Chiaro's contemporary descrip-
tion of Walachia. The capital of the country was
now Jassy, to which city Stephen the Great had trans-
^ erre ^ ^ s court from Suciava, the earlier residence of
the voivodes. It had at this time forty churches
some of stone, some of wood. Fifty years before it had con-
tained 12,000 houses, but Tatar devastations had reduced it
to a third of its former size. The most important commercial
emporium was the Danubian port of Galatz, which was fre-
quented by vessels from the whole of the Levant from Trebizond
to Barbary. The cargoes which they here took in consisted of
Moldavian timber (oak, deal and cornel), grain, butter, honey
and wax, salt and nitre. Kilia, at the north mouth of the
Danube, was also frequented by trading vessels, including
Venetian and Ragusan. Moldavian wine was exported to
Poland, Russia, Transylvania, and Hungary; that of Cotnar
was in Cantemir's opinion superior to Tokay. The excellence
of the Moldavian horses is attested by a Turkish proverb;
and annual droves of as many as 40,000 Moldavian oxen were
sent across Poland to Danzig. Moldavia proper was divided
into the upper country or Terra de sus, and the lower country,
or Terra de josu. Bessarabia had been detached from the
rest of the principality and placed under the direct control of
the military, authorities. It was divided into four provinces:
that of Budzak, inhabited by the Nogai Tatars; that of
Cetatea Alba, the Greek Monkastron, a strongly fortified place;
and those of Ismaila and Kilia. The voivodes owed their
nomination entirely to the Porte, and the great officers of the
realm were appointed at their discretion. These were the
Can-
tfmlr's
lion of
Great Logothete (Marele Logofetu) or chancellor ; the governor
of Lower Moldavia Vorniculu de terra dejosu; the governor of
Upper Moldavia Vorniculu de terra de sus; the Hatman or
commander -in -chief; the high chamberlain Marele Postel-
nicu; the great Spathar, or sword-bearer; the great cup-
bearer Marele Paharnicu; and the treasurer, or Vistiernicu,
who together formed the prince's council and were known as
Boiari de Svatu. Below these were a number of subordinate
officers who acted as their assessors and were known as boiars
of the Divan (Boiari de Divanu). The high court of justice was
formed by the prince, metropolitan and boiars: the Boiari
de Svatu decided on the verdict; the metropolitan declared
the law; and the prince pronounced sentence. The boiars
were able to try minor cases in their own residences, but subject
to the right of appeal to the prince's tribunal. Of the char-
acter of the Moldavian people Cantemir does not give a very
favourable account. Their best points were their hospitality
and, in Lower Moldavia, their valour. They cared little for
letters, and were generally indolent, and their prejudice against
mercantile pursuits left the commerce of the country in the
hands of Armenians, Jews, Greeks and Turks. The pure-
blood Ruman population, noble and plebeian, inhabited the
cities and towns or larger villages; the peasantry were mostly
of Little Russian and Hungarian race, and were in a servile
condition. There was a considerable gipsy population, almost
every boiar having several Zingar families in his possession;
these were mostly smiths.
From this period onwards the character of the Ottoman
domination in Moldavia is in every respect analogous to that
of Walachia. The office of voivode or hospodar was _
farmed out by the Porte to a succession of wealthy atioaot
Greeks from the Phanar quarter of Constantinople. Phaa-
All formality of election by the boiars was now dis- *J*
pensed with, and the princes received their caftan of n * a
office at Constantinople, where they were consecrated by the
Greek patriarch. The system favoured Turkish extortion in
two ways: the presence of the voivode's family connexions at
Stambul gave the Porte so many hostages for his obedience;
on the other hand the princes themselves could not rely on
any support due to family influence in Moldavia itself. They
were thus mere puppets of the Divan, and could be deposed
and shifted with the same facility as so many pashas an object
of Turkish policy, as each change was a pretext for a new levy
of baksheesh. The chief families that shared the office during
this period were those of Mavrocordato, Ghica, Callimachi,
Ypsilanti and Murusi. Although from the very conditions
of their creation they regarded the country as a field for ex-
ploitations, they were themselves often men of education and
ability, and unquestionably made some praiseworthy attempts
to promote the general culture and well-being of their subjects.
In this respect, even the Phanariote regime was preferable to
mere pasha rule, while it had the further consequence of pre-
serving intact the national form of administration and the
historic offices of Moldavia. Gregory Ghica (1774-77), who
himself spoke French and Italian, founded a school or " gym-
nasium " at Jassy, where Greek, Latin and theology were
taught in a fashion. He encouraged the settlement of German
Protestant colonists in the country, some of whom set up as
watchmakers in Jassy, where they were further allowed to
build an evangelical church. J. L. Carra, a Swiss who had
been tutor to Prince Ghica's children, and who published in
1781 an account of the actual state of the principalities, speaks
of some of the boiars as possessing a taste for French literature
and even for the works of Voltaire, a tendency actively com-
bated by the patriarch of Constantinople.
The Russo-Turkish War, which ended in the peace of Kutchuk
Kainardji (1774)^ was fatal to the integrity of Moldavian
territory. The house of Austria, which had already
annexed Galicia in 1772, profited by the situation to Bukovina.
arrange with both contending parties for the peace-
ful cession of Bukovina to the Habsburg monarchy.
This richly wooded Moldavian province, containing Suciava
HISTORY]
RUMANIA
37
(Suczawa), the earliest seat of the voivodes, and Cernautil or
Czernovicz, was in 1774 occupied by Habsburg troops with
Russian connivance, and in 1777 Baron Thugut procured its
formal cession from the sultan.
(4) The Danubian Principalities: 1774-1859. By the
treaty of Kutchuk Kainardji Russia consented to hand back
Treaty at the principalities to the sultan, but by Article xvi.
Kutchuk several stipulations were made in favour of the Wal-
Kainan/ji. ac hians and Moldavians. The people of the princi-
palities were to enjoy all the privileges that they had
possessed under Mahomet IV.; they were to be freed from
tribute for two years, as some compensation for the ruinous
effects of the last war; they were to pay a moderate tribute;
the agents of Walachia and Moldavia at Constantinople were
to enjoy the rights of national representatives, and the Russian
minister at the Porte should on occasion watch over the
interests of the principalities. The stipulations of the treaty,
though deficient in precision (the Walachians, for instance,
had no authentic record of the privileges enjoyed under
Mahomet IV.), formed the basis of future liberties in both
principalities; but for the moment all reforms were postponed.
The treaty was hardly concluded when it was violated by
the Porte, which refused to recognize the right of the Walachian
boiars to elect their voivode, and nominated Alexander Ypsilanti,
a creature of its own. In 1777 Constantine Murusi was made
voivode of Moldavia in the same high-handed fashion. The
Divan seemed intent on restoring the old system of government
in its entirety, but in 1783 the Russian representative extracted
from the sultan a decree (hattisherif) defining more precisely the
liberties of the principalities and fixing the amount of the annual
tribute for Walachia 619 purses exclusive of various
" presents " amounting to 130,00x2 piasters, and for Moldavia
135 purses and further gifts to the extent of 115,000 piasters.
By the peace of Jassy in 1792 the Dniester was recognized as
the Russian frontier, and the privileges of the principalities as
specified in the hattisherif confirmed. In defiance of treaties,
however, the Porte continued to change the hospodars almost
yearly and to exact extraordinary installation presents. The
revolt of Pasvan Oglu in Bulgaria was the cause of great injury
to Walachia. The rebels ravaged Little Walachia in 1801-2,
and their ravages were succeeded by those of the Turkish troops,
who now swarmed over the country. Exaction followed exac-
tion, and in 1802 Russia resolved to assert her treaty rights in
favour of the oppressed inhabitants of the principalities. On
the accession of Constantine Ypsilanti (1802-6) in Walachia,
and of Alexander Murusi (1802-6) in Moldavia, the Porte
was constrained to issue a new hattisherif by which every prince
Russian was to hold his office for at least seven years, unless the
pntec- Porte satisfied the Russian minister that there were good
tl0 "' and sufficient grounds for his deposition. This clause
of the hattisherif was not enforced. All irregular contributions
were to cease, and all citizens, with the exception of the boiars
and clergy, were to pay their share of the tribute. The Turkish
troops then employed in the principalities were to be paid off,
and one year's tribute remitted for the purpose. The boiars were
to be responsible for the maintenance of schools, hospitals and
roads; they and the prince together for the militia. The
number of Turkish merchants resident in the country was
limited. Finally, the hospodars were to be amenable to repre-
sentations made to them by the Russian envoy at Constanti-
nople, to whom was entrusted the task of watching over the
Walachian and Moldavian liberties. This, it will be seen, was a
veiled Russian protectorate.
In 1804 the Serbs under Karageorge rose against the Turkish
dominion, and were secretly aided by the Walachian voivode
Ypsilanti. The Porte, instigated by Napoleon's ambassador
Sebastiani, resolved on Ypsilanti's deposition, but the hospodar
succeeded in escaping to St Petersburg. In the war that now
ensued between the Russians and the Turks, the Russians were
for a time successful, and even demanded that the Russian
territory should extend to the Danube. They occupied
the principalities from 1806 to 1812. In 1808 they formed a
governing committee consisting of the metropolitan, another
bishop, and four or five boiars under the presidency of General
Kusnikov. The seat of the president was at Jassy, and General
Engelhart was appointed as vice-president at Bucharest. By
the peace of Bucharest, however, in 1812, the principalities were
restored to the sultan under the former conditions, with the
exception of Bessarabia, which was ceded to the tsar. The
Pruth thus became the Russian boundary.
The growing solidarity between the two Ruman principalities
received a striking illustration in 1816, when the Walachian and
Moldavian hospodars published together a code applicable to
both countries, and which had been elaborated by a joint com-
mission. The Greek movement was now beginning to assume
a practical shape. About 1780 Riga Velestiniul, a Hellenized
Vlach from Macedonia who is also known by the purely Greek
name of Rigas Phereos, had founded in Bucharest a patriotic
and revolutionary association known as the Society of Friends
(ereupia T&V <t>iKuv) which gradually attained great in- Ttlt
fluencc. In 1810 Ignatius, the metropolitan of Walachia, Hetser-
founded a Greek literary society in Bucharest which l*t"
soon developed into a political association, and many "">**
similar bodies were formed throughout the Greek world, '
and finally united into one powerful secret society, the Hetairia.
Some of the members even cherished the fantastic hope of
restoring the ancient Byzantine empire. In 1821 Alexander
Ypsilanti, a son of the voivode, and an aide-de-camp of the tsar
Alexander I., entered Moldavia at the head of the Hetaerists,
and, representing that he had the support of the tsar, prevailed
on the hospodar Michael Sutzu to aid him in invading the Otto-
man dominions. To secure Walachian help, Ypsilanti advanced
on Bucharest, but the prince, Theodore Vladimirescu, who repre-
sented the national Ruman reaction against the Phanariotes,
repulsed his overtures with the remark " that his business
was not to march against the Turks, but to clear the country
of Phanariotes." Vladimirescu was slain by a Greek revolu-
tionary agent, but Ypsilanti rashly continuing his enterprise
after he had been repudiated by the Russian emperor, his forces
were finally crushed by the Turks at Dragashani, in Walachia,
and at Skuleni, in Moldavia; and the result of his revolt was a
Turkish occupation of the principalities. In 1822 the Turkish
troops, who had committed great excesses, were withdrawn
on the combined representations of Russia, Austria and Great
Britain. The country, however, was again ravaged by the
retiring troops, quarters of Jassy and Bucharest burnt, and
the complete evacuation delayed till 1824, when the British
government again remonstrated with the Porte (see EASTERN
QUESTION; GREECE; YPSILANTI; ALEXANDER).
By the convention of Akkerman between the Russians and
the Turks in 1826 the privileges of the principalities were once
more confirmed, and they were again ratified in 1829, pgfce of
under Russian guarantee, by the peace of Adrianople. Ad Ha-
By this peace all the towns on the left bank of the
Danube were restored to the principalities, and the
Porte undertook to refrain from fortifying any position on the
Walachian side of the river. A Russian army occupied the
country until the Porte fulfilled its promises. The princi-
palities were to enjoy commercial freedom, and the right of
establishing a quarantine cordon along the Danube or else-
where. The internal constitution of the countries was to be
regulated by an " Organic Law," which was drawn up by assem-
blies of bishops and boiars at Jassy and Bucharest, acting,
however, under Russian control. The Organic Law thus elabo-
rated was by no means of a liberal character, and amongst other
abuses maintained the feudal privileges of the boiars. It was
ratified by the Porte in 1834, and the Russian army of occu-
pation thereupon withdrew. The newly elected hospodars,
Alexander Ghica (1834-42) and George Bibescu (1842-48) in
Walachia, and Michael Sturdza (1834-49) in Moldavia, ruled in
accordance with the Organic Law. Their reigns were marked
by the social, financial and political predominance of Russia,
which had steadily increased since 1711. The treaty of 1774
had given Russia a firm foothold in Rumanian politics. This
8 3 8
RUMANIA
[HISTORY
had been strengthened by the hattisherif of 1802; while the
treaties of 1812, 1826 and 1829 had respectively yielded up
Bessarabia, the Sulina mouth of the Danube and the St George
mouth to the tsar. From 1834 to 1848 the Russian consul at
Bucharest was all-powerful.
The revolutionary movement of 1848 extended from the
Rumans of Hungary and Transylvania to their kinsmen of the
Move- Transalpine regions. Here its real object was the over-
men* of throw of Russian influence. In Moldavia the agitation
1848. was mos tly confined to the boiars, and the hospodar
Michael Sturdza succeeded in arresting the ringleaders. In
Walachia, however, the outbreak took a more violent form.
The people assembled at Bucharest, and demanded a constitu-
tion. Prince Bibescu, after setting his signature to the con-
stitution submitted to him, fled to Transylvania, and a
provisional government was formed. The Turks, however,
urged thereto by Russian diplomacy, crossed the Danube, and a
joint Russo-Turkish dictatorship restored the Organic Law.
By the Balta-Liman convention of 1849 the two governments
agreed to the appointment of Barbu Stirbeiu (Stirbey) as prince
f Walachia, and Gregory Ghica for Moldavia.
On the entry of the Russian troops into the principalities in
1853, the hospodars fled to Vienna, leaving the government in
Russian the hands of their ministers. During the Danubian
and campaign that now ensued great suffering was inflicted
/ o^u H * a on tne inhabitants, but in 1854 the cabinet of Vienna
tioa, induced the Russians to withdraw. Austrian troops
I8S3^54. occupied the principalities, and the hospodars returned
to their posts. One important consequence of the revolution had
been the banishment of many rising politicians to western
Europe, where they were brought into contact with a higher
type of civilization. The practice initiated by the more liberal
Phanariotes of sending Rumanian students to the French,
German and Italian universities tended in the same direction.
Statesmen such as I. C. Bratianu, D. A. Sturdza, S. I. Ghica, D.
Ghica and Lascar Catargiu (whose biographies are given under
separate headings) received their political training abroad, and
returned to educate their countrymen. To this fact the
surprisingly rapid progress of Rumania, as compared with the
Balkan States, may very largely be attributed.
By the treaty of Paris in 1856 the principalities with their
existing privileges were placed under the collective guarantee
Treaty ot of the contracting Powers, while remaining under the
Paris, suzerainty of the Porte the Porte on its part engag-
18S6. m g to res p ec t th e complete independence of their
internal administration. A strip of southern Bessarabia was
restored to Moldavia, so as to push back She Russian frontier
from the Danube mouth. The existing laws and statutes of
both principalities were to be revised by a European Com-
mission, sitting at Bucharest, and their work was to be
assisted by a Divan or national council which the Porte was
to convoke for the purpose in each of the two provinces,
and in which all classes of Walachian and Moldavian society
were to be represented. The European commission, in arriv-
ing at its conclusions, was to take into consideration the
opinion expressed by the representative councils; the Powers
were to come to terms with the Porte as to the recom-
mendations of the commission; and the final result was to be
embodied in a hattisherif of the sultan, which was to lay down
the definitive organization of the two principalities. In 1857 the
commission arrived, and the representative councils of the
two peoples were convoked. On their meeting in September
Union they at once proceeded to vote with unanimity the
of the union of the two principalities into a single state under
prinu- the name of Romania (Rumania), to be governed by
pa it cs. a f ore jg n p rmc e elected from one of the reigning
dynasties of Europe, and having a single representative assembly.
The Powers decided to undo the work of national union. By
the convention concluded by the European congress at Paris in
1858, it was decided that the principalities should continue as
heretofore to be governed each by its own prince. Walachia
and Moldavia were to have separate assemblies, but a central
commission was to be established at Fokshani for the prepara-
tion of laws of common interest, which were afterwards to be
submitted to the respective assemblies. In accordance with
this convention the deputies of Moldavia and Walachia met in
separate assemblies at Bucharest and Jassy, but the choice
of both fell unanimously on Prince Alexander John Cuza
(January 1859). (A. J. E.; X.)
(5) Rumania. Thus the union of the Rumanian nation
was accomplished. A new conference met in Paris to discuss
the situation, and in 1861 the election of Prince Cuza Prince
was ratified by the Powers and the Porte. The two Cuza,
assemblies and the central commission were preserved '***-**
till 1862, when a single assembly met at Bucharest and a single
ministry was formed for the two countries. The central com-
mission was at the same time abolished, and a council of state
charged with preparing bills substituted for it. In May 1864,
owing to difficulties between the government and the general
assembly, the assembly was dissolved, and a statute was sub-
mitted to universal suffrage giving greater authority to the prince,
and creating two chambers (of senators and of deputies). The
franchise was now extended to all citizens, a cumulative voting
power being reserved, however, for property, and the peasantry
were emancipated from forced labour. Up to this point the
prince had ruled wisely; he had founded the universities of
Bucharest and Jassy; his reforms had swept away the last
vestiges of feudalism and created a class of peasant freeholders.
But the closing years of his reign were marked by an attempt
to concentrate all power in his own hands. He strove to
realize his democratic ideals by despotic methods. His very
reforms alienated the goodwill of all classes; of the nobles, by
the abolition of forced labour; of the clergy, by the confiscation
of monastic estates; of the masses, by the introduction of a
tobacco monopoly and the inevitable collapse of the inflated
hopes to which his agrarian reforms had given rise. His own
dissolute conduct increased his unpopularity, and at last the
leading statesmen in both provinces, who had long believed
that the national welfare demanded the election of a foreign
prince, conspired to dethrone him. In February 1866 he was
compelled to abdicate; and a council of regency was formed
under the presidency of Prince Ion Ghica. The count of
Flanders, brother to the king of the Belgians, was proclaimed
hospodar of the united provinces, but declined the proffered
honour.
Meanwhile a conference of the Powers assembled at Paris
and decided by a majority of four to three that the new hospodar
should be a native of the country. The principalities, Election
however, determined to elect Prince Charles, the ot Prince
second son of Prince Charles Antony of Hohenzollern- Charles,
Sigmaringen. On a referendum, 685,969 electors
voted in his favour, against 224 dissentients. Prince Charles
was an officer in the Prussian army, twenty-seven years of age,
and was related to the French imperial family as well as to the
royal house of Prussia: his nomination obtained not only the
tacit consent and approval of his friend and kinsman King
William of Prussia, but also the warm and more open support
of Napoleon III. The king of Prussia, however, had agreed
that the new hospodar should be a native of the principalities,
and could not therefore openly approve of Prince Charles's
election. Acting on the advice of Bismarck, the prince asked
for a short leave of absence, resigned his commission in the
Prussian army on crossing the frontier, and hastened down
the Danube to Rumania, under a feigned name and with a
false passport. On the 2oth of May he landed at Turnu .
Severin, where he was enthusiastically welcomed. He reached
Bucharest on the 22nd, and on the same day, in the presence
of the provisional government, took the oaths to respect the
laws of the country and to maintain its rights and the integrity
of its territory. In October Prince Charles proceeded to
Constantinople and was cordially received by his suzerain,
the sultan, who bestowed on him the firman of investiture,
admitted the principle of hereditary succession in his family,
and allowed him the right of maintaining an army of 30.000
RUMANIA
men. Rumania was to remain part of the Ottoman empire within
the limits fixed by the capitulations and the treaty of Paris.
The first Rumanian ministry formed under the new prince
was composed of the leading statesmen of all political parties,
Foreign care being taken that the two provinces should be
and equally represented. A new constitution was unan-
domcstic imously passed by the chamber on the nth of July.
^ provided for an Upper and Lower House of Re-
presentatives, and conferred on the prince the right of
an absolute and unconditional veto on all legislation. Other
reforms were urgently needed. There was an empty treasury,
and the floating debt amounted to 7,000,000; maladministra-
tion was rampant in every department of the state; the
national guard was mutinous, while the small army of regulars
was badly organized and inefficient. The existence of famine
and cholera added to the difficulties of the government, and
in March 1867 the Lower House, by a majority of three, passed
the laconic resolution, " The chamber inflicts a vote of blame
on the government. " As the result of this vote M. Kretzulescu,
a Moderate Conservative, was called to the head of affairs, and
I. C. Bratianu entered the government as minister of the
interior. The new ministry, of which Bratianu was the leading
spirit, showed considerable energy: a concession was granted
for the construction of the first Rumanian railway, from
Bucharest to Giurgevo, and the reorganization of the army was
undertaken. Among other less judicious measures, a decree
was passed ostensibly directed against all vagabond foreigners,
but really aimed at the Jews, large numbers of whom, including
many respected landowners and men of business, were im-
prisoned, or expelled, from Jassy, Bacau and other parts of
Moldavia. This harsh treatment created intense indignation
abroad, especially in France and Great Britain; and the
emperor Napoleon wrote personally to Prince Charles, pro-
testing against the persecution. The country could not afford
to lose the goodwill of the emperor of the French, at that time
one of the most powerful factors in Europe in July 1869
Bratianu, although immensely popular, found it necessary to
resign office, and with him fell the rest of the cabinet.
On the 1 5th of September 1869, Prince Charles married
Princess Elizabeth of Wied, afterwards celebrated under her
literary name of Carmen Sylva. 1 In the same year the army
was reorganized, and a rural police created. Every able-bodied
citizen was rendered liable to give three days' work yearly
towards the construction of roads, or to pay a small tax as an
equivalent. An important railway concession, which subse-
quently caused grave political complications, was granted to
the German contractors Strausberg and Offenheim.
Much excitement was aroused in Rumania by the outbreak
of the war between Prussia and France. The sympathies of
The the Rumanians were entirely on the side of the French,
rebellion whom they regarded as a kindred Latin race, while
of 1870. those of the prince were naturally with his native
country. The excitement culminated in a revolutionary
outbreak at Ploesci, where a hot-headed deputy, Candianu
Popescu, after the mob had stormed the militia barracks, issued
a proclamation deposing Prince Charles and appointing General
Golescu regent. Owing to the loyalty of the regular army
the insurrection was speedily quelled. But the feeling in the
country was strong against the German sovereign, who seriously
thought of abdicating when a jury acquitted the accused rebels.
On the 7th of December he wrote confidentially to the sovereigns
whose representatives had signed the treaty of Paris, suggesting
that the future of Rumania should be regulated by a European
congress.
A few days subsequently the prince learned that the German
railway contractor Strausberg was unwilling or unable to pay
The nil- the coupons of the railway bonds due on the ist of
way crisis January 1871, which were mostly held by influential
0/1871. people in Germany. This threw the responsibility
of payment on Rumania, and was a severe blow to the prince,
1 For biographical details, see CHARLES, king of Rumania; and
ELIZABETH, queen of Rumania.
through whose instrumentality the loan had been placed.
Matters were brought to a crisis by the Prussian government
threatening to force the Rumanian government to provide
for the unpaid coupons. The country was financially in no
condition to comply. Bitter indignation prevailed against
everything German, and culminated in an attack on the German
colony in Bucharest on the 22nd of March 1871. On the
following morning the prince summoned the members of the
council of regency of 1866, and informed them of his inten-
tion to place the government in their hands. Lascar Catargiu
and General Golescu, the only two members present, as well
as Dimitrie Sturdza and other influential persons, declined
to accept the responsibility. Catargiu offered to unite the
different sections of the Conservative party in order to deal
with the crisis. The prince accepted his offer. The elections
took place early in May 1871, and the government, to which
all the most respectable elements in the country had rallied,
obtained a large majority. When parliament met in May the
prince had a most enthusiastic reception. The anti-German
feeling in the country had greatly subsided, in consequence of
the crushing defeat of France; and in January 1872 the
chambers passed a law by which Rumania undertook to pay
the railway coupons. The German syndicate was satisfied,
and the railway crisis ended.
Catargiu's ministry was the tenth that had held office in the
five years since the prince's arrival, but it was the first one that
was stable. In March 1875 the budget for 1876,
amounting to 4,000,000, nearly double in amount
that of the year 1866, was passed without difficulty, miaiMtry,
and on the 28th of the month the parliamentary I87t ' 75 >
session closed. It was the first occasion in Rumania that the
same chamber had sat for the whole constitutional period of
four years, and also the first time that the same ministry had
opened and closed the same parliament.
Only the fall of the Catargiu ministry saved the country
from revolution. The leading Liberals had promoted a con-
spiracy for the arrest and expulsion of the prince, and the
formation of a provisional government under General Dabija.
The prospect of a return to power put an end to these machina-
tions. Catargiu's ministry was succeeded by an administration
under General Florescu, known as the "cabinet of the generals,"
and, a month later, by the so-called " ministry of conciliation "
under M. Jepureanu. A commission of the chambers drew up an
indictment against Catargiu and his late colleagues, accusing
them of violating the constitution and the public liberties,
squandering the state revenues, and other abuse of power.
Unable to stem the tide of popular passion, which was crying for
the impeachment of Catargiu, Jepureanu resigned office, and
Bratianu formed a new Liberal cabinet, destined to guide the
country through many eventful years.
But the re-opening of the Eastern Question was destined
to bring to a climax the great struggle of Rumania for existence
and independence, and temporarily to throw into the The
shade all domestic questions. The insurrection hi RUSSO-
Bulgaria, with its accompanying horrors, followed by Turkish
the deposition of sultan Murad and the succession" of
the sultan Abdul Hamid, contributed to indicate the
near approach of a Russo-Turkish war. Russia had shown
symptoms of anger against Rumania for not having taken up a
decided attitude in the approaching struggle, and the Russian
ambassador Ignatiev had some months previously threatened
that his government would seize Rumania as a pledge as soon
as the Turks occupied Servia and Montenegro. Prince Charles
decided to send a mission, composed of Bratianu and Colonel
Slaniceanu (the minister of war), to the imperial headquarters
at Livadia. They were well received by the emperor (October
1876), but in spite of mixed threats and cajoleries on the
part of Gorchakov, Ignatiev and others, Bratianu returned
without having definitively committed his country to active
measures.
On the I4th of November six Russian army corps were
mobilized to form the army of the south under the grand duke
8 4 o
RUMANIA
[HISTORY
Nicholas. A few days later two secret envoys arrived at
Bucharest, the one M. de Nelidov, to negotiate on the part of
the Russian government for the passage of their army through
Rumania, the other Ali Bey, to arrange on behalf of the sultan
a combination with Rumania against Russia. Prince Charles
cleverly temporized with both powers. Negotiations with
Russia were continued, and Bratianu was sent to Constantinople
to put pressure upon Turkey to secure certain rights and
privileges which would practically have made Rumania inde-
pendent, except that it would still have paid a fixed tribute;
but the conference of the powers assembled at that capital came
to a definite end on the igth of January 1877, when the Turkish
government declined every proposal of the conference. Mean-
while the Porte, in issuing Midhat Pasha's famous scheme of
reforms, had greatly irritated Rumanian politicians by includ-
ing their country in the same category as the other privileged
provinces, and designating its inhabitants as Ottoman subjects.
A secret convention was signed between Russia and Rumania
on the i6th of April, by which Rumania allowed free passage
to the Russian armies, the tsar engaging in return to maintain
its political rights and to protect its integrity, while all matters
of detail connected with the passage of the Russian troops were
to be regulated by a special treaty. On the 23rd of April
Russia declared war against Turkey, and the grand duke Nicholas
issued a proclamation to the Rumanian nation, announcing
his intention of entering their territory in the hope of finding
the same welcome as in former wars. The Rumanian govern-
ment made a platonic protest against the crossing of the frontier,
and the Rumanian troops fell back as the Russians advanced;
provisions and stores of all kinds were supplied to the invading
army against cash payments in gold, and the railways and
telegraphs were freely placed at its disposal. The Rumanian
chambers were assembled on the 26th of April, and the con-
vention with Russia was sanctioned. The Ottoman govern-
ment immediately broke off diplomatic relations with Rumania,
and on the nth of May the chambers passed a resolution that
a state of war existed with Turkey. (For a detailed account of
the subsequent campaign, in which Prince Charles and the
Rumanian army contributed greatly to the success of the
Russian arms, see RUSSO-TURKISH WARS, and PLEVNA.) The
fall of Plevna left the Russian army free to march on Constan-
tinople, and on the 3ist of January 1878 the preliminaries of
peace were signed at Adrianople. They stipulated that
Rumania should be independent and receive an increase of
territory.
Peace between Russia and Turkey was signed at San Stefano
on the 3rd of March. On the 2Qth of January the Rumanian
The agent at St Petersburg was officially informed of the
Berlin intention of the Russian government to regain posses-
"meai' s ' on ^ tne R umaman portion of Bessarabia, i.e. that
/. Cession portion which was ceded to Moldavia by Russia after
of Bess- the Crimean War. Rumania was to be indemnified at
arabia. tne ex p ense o f Turkey by the delta of the Danube and
the Dobrudja as far as Constantza. The motive assigned was
that this territory had not been ceded to Rumania, but to
Moldavia, and had been separated from Russia by the almost
obsolete treaty of Paris (1856). But the proposed exchange
of territory aroused the most bitter indignation at Bucharest.
Bratianu and Cogalniceanu were sent to Berlin to endeavour
to prevail on the representatives of the Powers there assembled
in June 1878 to veto the cession of Bessarabia to Russia; but
the Rumanian delegates were not permitted to attend the
sittings of the congress until the Powers had decided in favour
of the Russian claim. The treaty of Berlin in dealing with
Rumania decided to recognize its independence, subject to two
conditions: First (Art. xlv.), that the principality should
restore to the emperor of Russia that portion of the Bessarabian
territory detached from Russia by the treaty of Paris in 1856,
bounded on the west by the mid-channel of the Pruth, and on
the south by the mid-channel of the Kilia branch and the
Staryi Stambul mouth. Second (Art. xliv.), that absolute
freedom of worship should be granted to all persons in Rumania;
that no religious beliefs should be a bar to the enjoyment of any
political rights; and, further, that the subjects of all the
powers should be treated in Rumania on a footing of perfect
equality. Article xlvi. declared that the islands forming the
delta of the Danube, the Isle of Serpents, and the province of
Dobrudja, as far as a line starting from the east of Silistria and
terminating on the Black Sea south of Mangalia, should be added
to Rumania. Other articles denned the international position of
Rumania, while Article liii. decreed that it should have a repre-
sentative on the European commission of the Danube. Bratianu
wrote with some truth that the Great Powers by sacrificing
Rumania were able to obtain more concessions for themselves
from Russia, and Lord Beaconsfield was constrained to
admit that " in politics ingratitude is often the reward of
the greatest services. " The Rumanians submitted reluctantly
to the retrocession of Bessarabia; and the Dobrudja was
occupied by Rumanian troops on the 26th of November
1878.
But Article xliv. of the treaty of Berlin caused tremendous
agitation throughout the country, and almost provoked a
revolution. Article vii. of the constitution of 1866 laid 2, The
down that " only Christians can become citizens of Jewish
Rumania " in other words, all Jews were excluded ue *" on -
from the rights of citizenship; and as no foreigner could own
land in Rumania outside the towns, no Jew could become a
country proprietor. Public opinion in Rumania rendered it
almost impossible for any government to carry out the wishes
of the Berlin tribunal. To do so involved a change in the
constitution, which could only be effected by a specially elected
constituent assembly. This body met on the 3rd of June,
and sat through the entire summer. The irritation of the
powers at the unexpected delay was so great that Great Britain
proposed a collective note on the subject, to be executed by
the Austrian cabinet; while Prince Bismarck threatened,
if the Berlin proposition were not carried out, to refer to the
suzerain power at Constantinople. At last, however, on the
1 8th of October, Article vii. was repealed, and it thus became
possible for Rumanian Jews to become naturalized and to hold
land. It was further decided to admit to naturalization the 883
Jewish soldiers who had served in the war; but with all other
Jews individual naturalization was required, and this was
hedged about by so many difficulties, a special vote of the legis-
lature being required, with a two-thirds majority in each
individual case, that although the compromise thus effected
was accepted by the powers, the actual result was that, from
1880 to 1884, out of 385 persons who were naturalized in
Rumania, only 71 were Rumanian Jews. As the process of
naturalization has never been accelerated, the 300,000 Jews
said to inhabit Rumania are still regarded as foreigners; and
although liable to military service and to the payment of taxes,
are unable to own rural land or possess electoral or other civil
rights.
Italy was the first of the Powers to notify its recognition
of Rumanian independence (December 1879); but Bismarck
succeeded in prevailing on the Western Powers not 3 ,.
to give official recognition until Rumania should have lishmeat
purchased the railways from their German owners, at the
This unpopular measure caused some delay; but f^f olaa
Great Britain, France and Germany formally recognized
the independence of the country on the 2oth of February 1880.
Early in 1881 it was generally felt that the time had arrived
for Rumania to be created a kingdom. On the I3th of March
the tsar Alexander II. was assassinated, and the Rumanian
opposition chose this occasion to accuse the Liberal government
of aiming at republican and anti-dynastic ideals. To refute
this charge, the ministry proposed the elevation of the Rumanian
principality into the kingdom of Rumania. The prince accepted
the resolution; within ten days the new kingdom was recog-
nized by all the Great Powers, and the coronation took place
at Bucharest on the 22nd of May 1881. The royal crown was
constructed of steel made from Turkish cannon captured at
Plevna.
HISTORY]
RUMANIA
841
Rumania was now comparatively, but not entirely, free
from fears of serious foreign complications. Austria and
Relations Russia alike resented the decision to fortify Bucharest
an< * l ^ e S eret n line, adopted by the Rumanian govern-
ment in 1882. Relations with Russia had remained
Austria- strained ever since the war. The delimitation of the
Hungary. Dobrudja frontier was still unsettled, and owing to
Russian opposition was not finally disposed of till 1884.
Expenses incurred during the war led to much controversy,
especially when the Russian government claimed the return of
120,000 advanced to enable the Rumanians to mobilize, and
considered by them as a free gift. A compromise was made,
both parties withdrawing their claims, in April 1882.
Relations with Austria-Hungary were also on a very un-
pleasant footing. There were two principal subjects of discord
the navigation of the Danube (q.v.) and the " national
question," i.e. the status of the Vlach communities outside
Rumania, and especially in Transylvania and Macedonia (see
VLACHS and MACEDONIA). The Danube question became
acute in 1881, 1883 and 1899; the national question is a
more permanent source of trouble, affecting Austria-Hungary,
Greece, Turkey and Bulgaria. King Charles, who naturally
favoured the ally of Germany, and Bratianu, who regarded
Russian policy with suspicion, endeavoured to promote a
better understanding with Austria-Hungary. But there was
a strong anti-German party in the country, especially among
the old boiars and the peasantry. Community of creed, ancient
traditional influence, the entire absence of Russian merchants,
and | the consequent avoidance of many small commercial
rivalries, contributed to bring about a sort of passive preference
for Russia, while the bitter disputes that had occurred with .
Germany on the question of railway finance had left a very
hostile feeling.
In March 1883 the government decided to introduce various
important changes into the constitution. Three electoral colleges
Revision were f rme( i instead of four; a considerable addition
of the was niade to the numbers of the senate and chamber;
Const!- trial by jury was established for press offences, except
tution, those committed against the royal family and the
1883-8-4. sovereigns o f foreign states; these were to be
tried by the ordinary tribunals without jury. A bill was
passed endowing the crown with state lands, giving an annual
rent of 24,000 in addition to the civil list fixed in 1866 at
49,000; another measure granted free passes on the railways
and an allowance of i daily during the sitting of parliament
to all senators and deputies. The revision of the constitution
had estranged the two heads of the Liberal party, I. C. Bratianu,
who was mainly responsible for the new measures, and C. A.
Rosetti, who unsuccessfully advocated reforms of a far more
democratic character. These two had been united by a most
intimate friendship. One had never acted without the other.
Rosetti was said to be the soul whilst Bratianu was the voice
of the same personality. Henceforward Bratianu had sole
control of the Liberal government. The revising chambers
having fulfilled their special mandate, were dissolved in Sep-
tember 1884, and a new parliament assembled in November,
the government, as usual, obtaining a large majority in both
houses.
Since 1876 Bratianu had exercised an almost dictatorial
power, and anything like a powerful parliamentary opposition
Coalition had ceased to exist. But he had been too long in
oi parties p Ower ; the numerous state departments were ex-
clusively filled with his nominees; and some pecuniary
Bratianu, scandals, in which the minister of war and other
1883-88. high officials were implicated, helped to augument his
fast-growing unpopularity. New parties were formed in
opposition, and the National Liberal and Liberal-Conservative
parties combined to attack him. The first of these main-
tained that the government should be essentially Rumanian,
and, while maintaining friendly relations with foreign Powers,
should in no wise allow them to interfere with interal affairs.
They also advocated reduction of expenditure and the inde-
pendence of the magistracy. The Liberal-Conservatives held
generally the same views, but had as their ideal of foreign
policy a guaranteed neutrality. Another party which now
attracted considerable attention was that of the Junimists,
or Young Conservatives. The name was taken from the
Junimea, a literary society formed in Jassy in 1874 by P.
Carp, T. Rosetti, and Maiorescu, and transformed into a political
association in 1881. Their programme for home affairs in-
volved the amelioration of the position of the peasantry and
artisan classes, whose progress they considered had been
overlooked, the irremovability of the magistracy, and a revision
of the communal law in the sense of decentralization. In
financial matters they advocated the introduction of a gold
standard and the removal of the agio on gold, also the intro-
duction of foreign capital to develop industries in the country;
and as regards foreign policy, they were strong advocates of
intimate and friendly relations with Austria-Hungary. Elec-
tions for a new chamber took place in February 1888, and the
whole of the leaders of the opposition were elected, including
Dimitrie Bratianu, the premier's brother, and Lascar Catargiu.
I. C. Bratianu definitely retired on the 4th of April, after having
held the premiership for twelve eventful years. Had he con-
tinued much longer in office it is probable that there would
have been a revolutionary movement against the dynasty.
During the previous parliament a Conservative manifesto,
signed by Catargiu, D. Bratianu and other leaders of the
opposition, openly threatened that if the ministers were not
removed before the general election, the responsibility would
be thrown, " not on those who served the crown, but on him
who bore it "; and the name of Prince George Bibescu had
been openly mentioned as a possible successor.
In~the new chamber elected in October 1888 only five members
of Bratianu's party retained their seats. The most prominent
statesman in the new Conservative- Junimist ad- TneCottm
ministration was P. Carp, who in the spring of 1889 g erra tive-
succeeded in passing a bill which authorized the Junimist
distribution of state lands among the peasantry. co'Httoa.
Despite this admirable measure, he was unable to
retain office, and three changes of ministry followed.
The Conservative-Junimist parliament nevertheless restored
tranquillity to the country. On the 22nd of May 1891, the
2th anniversary of the king's accession was celebrated with
great enthusiasm. Meanwhile the gold standard had been
introduced (1889), and the financial situation was regarded as
satisfactory. In December 1891 a stable cabinet was at
last formed by Lascar Catargiu. The new ministry during
their four years' tenure of office passed several useful measures
through parliament. The state credit was improved by the con-
version of the public debt; the sale of the state lands to the
peasantry was actively continued; a law was passed making
irremovable the judges of the court of appeal and the presidents
of tribunals, and other important judicial reforms were carried
out; a mining law was passed with the object of introducing
foreign capital; and the commercial marine was developed
by the formation of a state ocean service of passsenger and
cargo steamers. Great reforms, which had been unsuccessfully
attempted by former governments, were made in the service
of public instruction and in the organization of the clergy.
In 1893 and 1894 commercial and extradition treaties and a
trade-mark convention were made with Great Britain, Austria-
Hungary and Germany. Meanwhile the Liberal opposition
was being reorganized. On the death of I. C. Bratianu, in
1891, his brother Dimitrie was proclaimed chief of the united
Liberal party, but he also died in June 1892, and the veteran
statesman Dimitrie Sturdza was recognized as the head of the
Liberals. In 1894 he started a very violent agitation in favour
of the Rumanians in Hungary. Another popular opposition
cry was " Rumania for the Rumanians. " The new mining
law, among other concessions, gave foreigners the right to
lease lands for long periods for the working of petroleum, and
this was denounced by the opposition as being hostile to national
interests, and also as being against the spirit of the constitution,
RUMANIA
[HISTORY
which prohibited foreigners from holding lands. The bill was
carried by the government in April 1895, as well as another
important measure favouring the construction of local rail-
ways by private contractors. The Liberal opposition pro-
tested, retired from the chamber, and took no further part in
legislative proceedings. The Liberal party had been out of
office for eight years, the Conservative -Junimist coalition
had practically carried out its complete programme, and legis-
lation was at a deadlock owing to the abstention of the Liberal
opposition. As the electorate showed itself in favour of a
change of ministry, Catargiu resigned, and a new Liberal
government was formed by D. Sturdza.
The advent to power of a statesman who had recently been
making such violent attacks on the Hungarian government
_. caused some anxiety in Austria-Hungary. When
Liberal once office was obtained, it was to the interest of the
admiais- new government that the agitation should subside.
tration of >phe o ffi c i a l opening by the emperor of Austria of the
1895-99. new c ij anne i through the Iron Gates of the Danube,
on the ayth of September 1896, was the means of bringing
about a great improvement in the relations between the two
countries. It led to an exchange of visits between the emperor
and King Charles, who also visited the tsar Nicholas II. in August
1898. The visit was the symbol of a reconciliation between
the Rumanians and the Russians, the relations between whom
had been the reverse of cordial since 1878. As regards home
politics, the overwhelming majority of the Liberal party at
the elections of 1895, instead of being a source of strength,
proved the very reverse. It caused the party to split up into
factions Sturdzists, Aurelianists and Flevists, so called after
the names of their respective chiefs. Sturdza himself soon
had to retire. The head of the Orthodox Church, the metro-
politan Gennadius, had for some years past, as head of the
philanthropic establishments founded by the princess Bran-
covan, desired to obtain the entire management of these wealthy
foundations, and had made violent attacks on the two adminis-
trators, Prince George Bibescu and Prince Stirbei, both
members of the Brancovan family. In the quarrel that ensued
the prelate was openly accused of simony, of heresy, and other
matters more suitable for a criminal court. After a public
trial before the Holy Synod, he was found guilty of certain
canonical offences, and sentenced to be deposed. The same
night, he was seized by the police, and removed by force to a
neighbouring monastery. This harsh treatment of the head
of the Church led to an attack on Sturdza. On the 3rd of
December 1896, the president of the council, M. Aurelian,
was called on to reconstitute a Liberal cabinet, with the principal
object of calming public opinion by the settlement of this
question. Aurelian then appealed to the patriotic sentiments
of the Conservative party to help to solve the difficulty, and
with the aid of Lascar Catargiu and Tache lonescu the fol-
lowing decision was reached: the Holy Synod was to reverse
its judgment, and the metropolitan was to be restored to his
ecclesiastical rank; but, after holding it for a few days, he was
voluntarily to resign and to receive as compensation a handsome
pension. Calm was thus restored, but Aurelian and his col-
leagues were not inclined to hand over their portfolios to Sturdza
and his partisans. The struggle terminated in the success of
Sturdza, who in April 1897 returned to power and remained
president of the council until 1899. Few of the important
measures promised in the Liberal programme were passed, one
for the reform of public instruction being the most noteworthy.
Sturdza's government, which had risen to power mainly on
the national question, was also destined to fall on it. A popular
agitation was raised on the subject of certain subsidies made by
the Rumanians for the support of the Rumanian schools at Kron-
stadt in Transylvania, and Sturdza was accused of too great
subserviency to the Hungarian government. The agitation cul-
minated in street riots at Bucharest. On the same evening that
Sturdza tendered his resignation to the king (April 1899) the
veteran Conservative statesman Lascar Catargiu suddenly died.
The Conservatives, led by G. G. Cantacuzene, returned to
office with an overwhelming majority. They were immediately
confronted by an acute economic crisis. The financial Tbe
position of the country had hitherto on the surface financial
been very satisfactory. The public debt, mostly crisis of
placed in Germany, amounted to about 51,000,000. '*?^~
The interest had been regularly paid. But the facility
with which money had always been borrowed gave rise to great
extravagance. Expenses which ought to have been defrayed
out of the ordinary budget, such as the erection of magnificent
public offices at Bucharest, were frequently defrayed out of the
loans; and the custom had arisen when money was scarce of
issuing treasury bonds. When the Conservatives came into
office they found that the payment of 2 millions of these
bonds would shortly become due, and there were no resources
in the treasury to meet them. Owing to the Transvaal War
and other causes, the money market was most unfavourable,
especially in Germany; and there was an almost entire failure
of the harvest. The value of cereals exported in 1898 was about
9 millions sterling, in 1899 only 35 millions. The government
managed to extricate itself from its immediate difficulties in
the autumn of 1890, by raising a loan of 7,000,000 in Berlin,
but on very stringent terms. Besides paying a much higher
rate of interest than heretofore, it bound itself not to contract
any further loans until this one was paid. The Conservatives
were united in wishing to meet the financial crisis by a moderate
reduction *of expenditure and a large increase of taxation,
while the Liberal opposition advocated the permanent reduction
of the annual expenditure of 800,000, which would necessitate
the raising of 200,000 only by fresh taxation. The Con-
servative programme was naturally unpopular; Carp and the
.Junimists were unwilling to co-operate with the government, and,
on the 26th of February 1901, D. Sturdza again became premier.
His administration lasted until the 3ist of December 1904,
and averted the impending bankruptcy of Rumania by a policy
of strict retrenchment. In 1904 Sturdza was able to Financial
exceed the proposed limit of annual expenditure, reform,
8,740,000, owing to a great increase in the value I90I ^ S -
of the tobacco monopoly. Even a recurrence of agricultural
depression during the same year left the national credit intact.
Another financial reform was undertaken by the Conserva-
tives, who returned to power on the 4th of January 1905,
with G. G. Cantacuzene as prime minister, and in May floated
the conversion loan, already described.
The chief causes of the agrarian insurrection in March
1907 have been outlined above (under Land Tenure). But
an additional cause was the harsh treatment of the Agrarian
peasants on the state and communal lands leased to rising of
Jewish middlemen. At first an attack on the Jews l907 '
alone, the rising soon became a jacquerie directed against all
the large landowners. Numerous towns and villages were
sacked and partly burned, and 140,000 soldiers were employed
to suppress the revolt. On the 24th of March the Cantacuzene
ministry resigned and was succeeded by a Liberal government
under the leadership of D. Sturdza, who completed the restora-
tion of order by strong military measures and afterwards initi-
ated remedial legislation. He abolished the system by which
public lands were leased to middlemen, reduced the land tax
on small holdings, and granted new facilities for obtaining credit
to the peasants. After a general election in June 1907, Sturdza
remained in office with an overwhelming majority. To meet
the cost, of agrarian reform, and of the reorganization of the
army (1908), he introduced various fiscal changes, notably an
alteration in the budget system, by which the total revenue and
expenditure were shown for the first time (see Finance, above).
Rumania was little affected by the political changes in
the Balkan Peninsula (1908-10) coincident with the Turkish
revolution, the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina u omanfa
by the Dual Monarchy, the proclamation of Bulgarian aaa - u, e
independence and the erection of Montenegro Mace-
into a kingdom. South of the Danube its chief doala
political interest centred in the Kutzo-Vlach com-
munities in Macedonia, which were the object of a Panhellenic
LANGUAGE]
RUMANIA
843
propaganda most offensive to Rumanian nationalism. An
trade of the sultan Abdul Hamid had in 1906 recognized the
existence of the Kutzo-Vlachs as a religious body (millet),
forming an integral part of the Rumanian Church. This
decision was regarded by the Greeks as a blow to their own
interests, and Greek revolutionary bands were accused of
persecuting the Kutzo-Vlachs. (See also MACEDONIA.) Even
before 1906 there was keen rivalry between Greece and
Rumania, and the " Macedonian question " was the under-
lying cause of the disputes which, arising ostensibly from
quite trivial causes, led temporarily to the rupture of diplomatic
relations between Gieece and Rumania in 1905, 1906 and 1910.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. No scientific history of Rumania was published
up to the 2Oth century, but the task of collecting and editing original
documents was partially carried out by the Rumanian Academy
and by private students, especially after 1880. The so-called
Chronicle of Hurul is a modern forgery, and up to the I4th century
the only valid authorities are Slavonic, Hungarian and Byzantine
chroniclers. Thenceforward a great mass of material is available.
It is partly incorporated in the yearly Annalele of the Academy,
2nd series, from 1880; and in the 30 volumes pi E. de Hurmuzaki's
Documente privitore relative la istoria Romanilor (Bucharest, 1876,
&c.). Other important original documents, or works containing
such documents, are Verantius's 16th-century De situ Transylvaniae,
Moldaviae, et Transalpinae, in Kovachich's Scriptores rerum Hungari-
carum minores (Budapest, 1798); G. Urechia's late 16th-century
Chronigue de Moldavie, ed. J. Picot (Paris, 1878) ; Rumanian text
in Old Slavonic characters, with French translation and notes of
great value; the 17th-century Opere Complete of Miron Costiu,
ed. V. A. Urechia (Bucharest, 1886); A. M. del Chiaro, Istoria delle
moderne rivoluzioni della Valachia con la descrizipne del paese (Venice,
1878); the early 18th-century Operele principelul D. Cantemiru,
issued by the Academy (Bucharest, 1872, &c.) ; N. lorga, Acte jt
fragmente cu privire la istoria Romanilor (Bucharest, 1895-97) J
M. Kogalniceanu, Cronicele Rom&nii (Bucharest, 1872-74) ;
J. L. Carra, Histoire de Moldavie et de Valachie, avec une dissertation
sur I'etat actuel de ces deux Provinces (Jassy, 1777); A. M. Blanc de
Lanautte, Memoire sur I'etat ancien et actuel de la Moldavie, presente
a S.A.S. le prince A. Ypsilanti en 1787 (Bucharest, 1902); D. A.
Sturdza, Acte jt documenle relative la istoria renascerei Romdnii
(Bucharest, 1900, &c.) ; ibid., Scrierile si cuyintarile lu\ I. C. Bratianu
(Bucharest, 1903, &c.). On the Phanariote period see P. Eliade,
De I 'influence franchise sur I 'esprit public en Roumanie. Les origines.
Etude sur I'etat de la societe roumaine d Vepoque des regnes phanariotes
(Paris, 1898). For a general history of Rumania, see V. A. Urechia,
Istoria Romanilor (Bucharest, 1891, &c., 8 vols.); A. D. Xenopol,
Istoria Rominilor din Dacia Traiana (Jassy, 1888-93, 6 vols.
abridged French edition entitled Histoire des Roumains, 2 vols.,
Paris, 1896); and P. Negulescu, Histoire du droit et des institutions
de la Roumanie (Paris, 1898, &c.). Sketches of Rumanian history
are given in A. Sturdza, La terre et les races roumaines (Paris, 1905) ;
and W. Miller, The Balkans (London, 1896). For a comprehensive
bibliography of Rumanian history, see N. lorga's introduction to
vol. x. of the Hurmuzaki collection; vol. xxii. of the Annalele;
Bibliografia Romanesca veche 1508-1830, by C. Bianu and H. Hodos
(Bucharest, 1903, &c.) ; and D. Onciul, Originile principatelor
romane (Bucharest, 1898). (H. TR. ; X.)
LANGUAGE
' Rumanian * is, geographically, an isolated eastern member
of the group of Romance languages (q.v.), being severed from all
the rest by countries in which the predominant speech is Slavonic
or Magyar. It represents the original rustic Latin of the Roman
provincials in Moesia and Dacia, as modified by centuries of alien
rule. Structurally, its Latin characteristics have been well
preserved; but its vocabulary has undergone great changes,
becoming so far Slavonized that the ratio of words of Slavonic
origin to words of Latin origin is approximately as three to
two; large numbers of loan-words have also been added from
Turkish, Greek, Magyar and other sources. It is noteworthy,
however, that where Latin words have survived they are
sometimes purer than in the Romance languages of the West
1 i.e. the so-called Daco-Rumanian, spoken by the vast majority
of Rumans over the whole of Rumania, in Transylvania, Bukovina,
the Banat, Bessarabia, and some districts of Servia and Bulgaria
bordering on the Danube. The two most important dialects are the
Istro-Rumanjan, spoken in part of Istria but rapidly becoming
extinct, and the Macedo-Rumanian, spoken by the Kutzo-Vlachs
(see VLACHS). The Istro-Rumanian forms, as it were, a link now
completely severed between the Romance of the Balkans and the
Romance of the West. In the Macedo-Rumanian there are no
Magyar loan-words, but there is a large Albanian element, and Greek
loan-words are more numerous than Slavonic.
(e.g. Lat. domina is better represented by Rum. domna, " lady,"
than by Ital. donna, Span, dona, Port, dona, Fr. dame). Some
words indeed 2 such as laudare, to praise, ducere, to lead
retain unaltered the forms under which they were used by
Virgil and Cicero. A feature of the language which dis-
tinguishes it from all other members of the group, and appears
to be of even higher antiquity than the word-forms above
mentioned, is the retention of a suffix article e.g. frale, brother,
fratele, the brother; zi, day, ziua, the day. This usage seems
to have survived from the pre-Roman period. A similar suffix
article is retained in Albanian, which almost certainly represents
the original language of the Thraco-Illyrian tribes (see ALBANIA) ;
and these tribes belonged to the same ethnical and linguistic
group as the Daco-Moesians represented by the Vlachs.
Rumanian orthography remained in a transitional state through-
out the igth century. The Latin alphabet is used, with special
signs to represent sounds borrowed from Slavonic, &c. All the
unaccented vowels except e are pronounced as in Italian; e has the
same phonetic value as in Old Slavonic ( = French e) and is often
similarly preiotized (=ye in yet), notably at the beginning of all
words except neologisms. The accented vowels e and 6 are pro-
nounced as ea and oa (petra, rock, = peatra ; morte, death, = moarte) ;
they are written in full, as diphthongs, at the end of a word and
sometimes in other positions. The sound of the Slavonic JJ (a
guttural y) is represented by a, e or 8, though these letters occur as
frequently in words of Latin origin (e.g. ctnd = quando) as in those
derived from Slavonic ; SC ' s represented by a or f, having the nasal
sound of un in French; t and u at the end of a word are mute or
short. Of the consonants, c followed by e or i = ch (as in church),
otherwise k ; 4 or 4 resembles the English j ' ; g is hard before e and
i, otherwise soft; h is guttural, as ch in loch', j is pronounced as in
French; r as in Russian; s or j (Slav. HI) as sh;-( or ( (Slav, n,)
as ts or tz; w is wanting. The remaining consonants have the same
phonetic values as in English.
Rumanian is highly inflected. It possesses two regular sub-
stantive declensions and six cases, the vocative being in common
use. The large class of heterogeneous nouns which are masculine
in the singular and feminine in the plural constitute what is some-
times called the neuter declension. There are three regular con-
jugations, distinguished (as in Latin) according to the termination
of the present infinitive in a, e or i; e.g. (i) a ara or arare, to plough,
(2) a crede or credere, to believe, (3) a dormi or dormire, to sleep.
Verbs ending in i, however, are sometimes classed as a fourth con-
jugation. The second form of the present infinitive (arare, credere,
dormire) is used as a noun. The so-called " simple perfect " (perfectul
simplu) has often the force of an aorist. Compound tenses are
formed by the addition of certain particles and of the auxiliary
verbs a ave, to have, afi, to be, and a voi, to will. For the passive
voice, afi is used, with the past participle of the required verb. All
tenses of reflexive verbs except the imperative and present participle
are formed by prefixing the pronoun which indicates the object to
the verb, in the dative or genitive case (abbreviated) as the verb may
require; but in the reflexive imperative and present participle the
verb precedes the pronoun; e.g. a propune, to propose, a ${ propune,
to propose to oneself, but propune ft, propose to yourself.
The accentuation of Rumanian, though complex, is governed by
certain broad principles, except in the case of neologisms, many of
which have been borrowed from French and Italian without change
of accent. Nouns retain the accent of the nominative singular in
all cases and in both numbers (e.g. copila, girl, vocative plur.
coptlelor), except when a diminutive or augmentative suffix is
added ; the accent then shifts to the suffix. The language is very
rich in diminutive and augmentative forms; e.g. the name Ion or
loan (John), has the diminutives lonicd, lonifa, lonascu, lanache,
lenachel, &c. In verbs apart from a few exceptional tenses the
accent falls on the first syllable of the inflectional suffix, e.g. cu dorm,
I sleep, but eu dormlssem, I had slept. For the sake of euphony, a
vowel is frequently interpolated between two consonants; e.g.
in masculine nouns terminating in a consonant, an interpolated u
precedes / to form the suffix article (om, man, om-u-l, the man).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. (i) Dictionaries: A. de Cihac, Dictionnaire d'ety-
mologie daco-roumaine (2 vols., Frankfort, 1870-79), valuable for
non-Latin elements; B. P. Hadeu, Etymologicum magnum Romaniae
(Bucharest, Academia Rom^na, 1887, &c.); F. Dame, Dictionnaire
roumain-franfflis (Paris, 1896); S. Pu^cariu, Etymologisches Worter-
buch der rumdnischen Sprache (Heidelbeig, 1905, &c.); I. A.
Candrfci-Hecht and O. Densusianu, Dic(ionar general al Umbel
romane (Bucharest, 1909, &c.) ; I. Dalametra, Dicfionar Macedorom&n
(Bucharest, Academia Romana, 1006). (2) Grammars, &c. :
T. Cipariu, Gramatec'a Umbel romane (Bucharest, 1870-77); I.
Nadejde, Gramateca Umbel romane (Bucharest, 1884), id., Istoria
limbei jt literaturel romane (Jassy, 1886); B. P. HasdSu, Cuventt
1 Apart from certain instances in which the Latin form has been
artificially restored in comparatively modern times. (See under
Literature.)
RUMANIA
[LITERATURE
din batr&nl (Bucharest, 1878-79); L. S,aineanu, Istoria filologtel
romdne (Bucharest, 1895), id., Influenza orientald asupra limbet 31
culturei romdne (3 vols., Bucharest, 1900) ; S. C. Mandrescu, Elemente
unguresfi in limba romdnd (Bucharest, 1802); S. Pugcariu, " Studii
istroromane " inAnnalele of the Academia Roman;!, ser. 2, vol. xxviii. ;
T. Gartner, Darstellune der rumdnischen Sprache (Halle, 1904);
G. Weigand, Praktische Grammatik der rumdnischen Sprache
(Leipzig, 1903). Important studies on the separate dialects of
Moldavia, Walachi, the Dobrudja, Bessarabia, Bukovina, the
Banat, Macedonia, Istria, &c., have been published by G. Weigand,
cither in book form or jn the Leipzig Jahresbericht des Instituts fur
rumdnische Sprache, which he edited from its foundation in 1894.
(X.)
LITERATURE
The intellectual development of Rumania has never until
modern times been affected by Latin culture, but it has been
profoundly influenced first by Slavonic literature, then by
the Greek or Byzantine literature, and last, by the Western,
notably French and Italian novels. The history of Rumanian
literature can be divided into three distinct periods: the
Slavonic, from the beginnings of Rumanian literature in the
middle of the i6th century down to 1710; the Greek, from
1710-1830, corresponding with the era of Phanariote rule;
and the modern period, from 1830 to the present. The change
from Slavonic to Rumanian was very gradual. Slavonic had
been the language of the Church from the early middle ages,
and was therefore hallowed in the eyes of the people and the
clergy ; through the political connexion with the Slavonic
kingdoms of the south, Bulgaria and Servia, it had also been
the language of the chancelleries and of the court. Even
when the Rumanian language at last supplanted the Slavonic,
it did not emancipate itself from the original; the new was
merely a translation from the old, and at the beginning it was
as literal as possible. We have therefore in the first period a
medieval literature transplanted to Rumania and consisting
of translations from the Slavonic. The reason of the change
from Slavonic into Rumanian is to be sought in the influence
the Reformation had among the Rumanian inhabitants of
Transylvania.
The second period is marked by a complete waning of Slavonic
influence, through the literary activity of the Greek hospodars.
The Slavonic kingdoms of the south had lost their independence;
they had ceased to produce anything worth having, whilst the
Greeks brought with them the old literature from Byzantium
and thus drove out the last remnants of Slavonic. They also
treated Rumanian as an uncouth and barbarian language, and
imposed upon the Church their own Greek language, Greek
literature and Greek culture. This literature may be taken
to represent the period of the Renaissance in the West; but
when the yoke of the Phanariotes was shaken off, the link that
connected Rumanian literature with Greek was also broken,
and under modern influences began the romantic movement
which has dominated Rumanian literature since 1830.
Much of the Rumanian literature of the first two periods
has been preserved only in MSS.; few of these have been
investigated, and a still smaller number have been compared
with their original. The Rumanian Academy keeps jealous
watch over the treasures it has accumulated, and few have
had access to the riches entombed in its archives; nor has
any private or public collection been catalogued. An ex-
haustive history of Rumanian literature is, for the time being,
a pious wish.
First Period: c. 1550-77/0. Rumanian literature begins, like
all modern European literature, with translations from the Bible.
The oldest of these are direct translations from Slavonic texts,
following the original word for word, even in its grammatical
construction. The first impetus towards the printing of the Ru-
manian translations came from the princes and judges in Tran-
sylvania. It is under their orders and often at their expense that
the first Slavonic printing-presses were established in places like
Kronstadt (Brashoy) Orastia, Sasz-Shebesh and Belgrad (Alba
Julia, in Transylyania)where Slavonic and Rumanian books appeared.
The foremost printer and translator was a certain Diakonus Koresi,
of Greek origin, who had emigrated to Walachia and thence to
Transylvania. He was assisted in his work by the " popes "
(parish priests) of those places where he worked. The very first
book published in Rumanian is the Gospels printed in Kronstadt
between 1560 and 1561. An absolutely identical Slavonic text of
the Gospels appeared in the same year, or one year earlier, which
no doubt was the original for the Rumanian translation. Following
up the list of publications of the books of the Bible in chronological
order, we find Diakonus Koresi immediately afterwards
the date has not yet been definitely ascertained printing
a Rumanian translation of the Acts of the Apostles; in
1577 he printed at Sasz-Shebesh a Psalter in both Slavonic and
Rumanian; the Rumanian follows the Slavonic verse for verse.
A MS. Psalter more recently discovered shows close affinity to this
edition, and, in spite of the opinions held by some critics, must be
considered as a copy of it made about 1585; it even reproduces
the printer's errors of Koresi's edition. To the i6th century belong
also the first attempts to translate the historical books of the Old
Testament which appeared in Orastia in 1582, under the title Palia.
The example thus set could not fail to react upon the Rumanians
in Walachia, with whom the Transylvanians stood in close commercial
and political connexion. The Slavonic language still reigned supreme
in the Church ; yet once the example had been set in Transylvania,
and the influence of the Slavonic nations had begun to slacken, it
was inevitable that the Rumanian language should sooner or later
come to its own. It was in Transylvania that the first complete
Rumanian translation of the New Testament appeared (Belgrad,
1648). This translation was based upon the Slavonic original, but
the text had been verified and corrected, by comparison with a
Calvinistic translation, and had been collated with the Greek.
The chief author of this translation, which may be termed classical,
seems to have been a certain Hieromonach Sylvestre who lived in
Walachia and who had undertaken, by order of the prince Betlen-
gabor of Transylvania (1613-29), a translation of the whole
Bible. Upon this version, no doubt, are based the editions of
IordacheCantacuzene(Bucharest, 1682), and that of erban Greceanu
(1693), in which for the first time the Greek text is printed side by
side with the Rumanian; and the edition of Anthim the Iberian
(1703). In these may also be traced a few reminiscences of the
older version by Koresi, of which a copy, made by Radu Gramatik
(1574), and once the property of Peter Cercel, is now in the British
Museum. Sylvestre also prepared a new edition of the Psalter as
part of his Bible (Belgrad, 1651), verifying the text by reference to
the Hebrew and Greek originals. The first edition of the complete
Bible was published (1688) by order of Prince loan Serban Canta-
cuzene, by Radu Greceanu, assisted by his brother yerban and by
Metrofan the bishop of Buzeu. This may be considered as the
supreme monument of Rumanian literature in Walachia in the
1 7th century. No other Rumanian translation approaches it in
style and diction, although the authors, as they own, utilized the
older translations, and for the New Testament and the Psalter they
utilized Sylvestre's work. At least a hundred years had to pass
ere a new edition of the whole Bible was undertaken, nor was the
Bible used for private reading, except such passages as were included
in the lessons read in church. These were translated independently
by Dositheiu under the title of Pirimiar (Jassy, 1683), and were
almost the last work that came from his prolific pen. As far back
as 1600 Dositheiu had made a new translation of the Psalter from
the Slavonic and printed it in both languages (Jassy, 1680). Upon
this translation he based the rhymed Psalter at which he had worked
from 1660-73, when it appeared in Uniev. This is the first
example of rhymed psalms in Rumanian, the author following the
Polish rhymed version of Ian Kohanowski. Albert Molnar had
translated a French rhymed Psalter into Hungarian (1607) and
this served as the basis for a literal translation made by lanes Viski
(1697). About the same time Theodor Korbea attempted to versify
the Psalter and dedicated his work to Peter the Great of Russia.
A new translation of the Psalter from Slavonic, with a commentary,
the first of its kind, was made in 1697 by Alexander Dascalul
(Alexander Preceptor Polonus). All these last-mentioned Psalters
are still in MS.
Turning from the Bible to homilies and the liturgy, we find the
ancient collections of homilies in Rumania to be due to the same
Croselytizing movement. Almost the first book printed
y Koresi (at the expense of the magistrate of Kronstadt, '
Foro Miklaus, c. 1570), seems to have been a translation from some
Calvinistic compilation of homilies, one for every Sunday in the year.
A Slavonic original sent by the metropolitan Serafim of Walachia
served as the basis for a second collection of homilies known as
Evangelie invdjatoare (1580^ It differs from the former in language
and tendency and proves that Koresi was only a translator and
printer. The first collection of homilies, henceforth known as
Cazanii, appeared in Dlugopole, i.e. Campulung, in Walachia, in
1642. It was compiled by a certain Melchisedec and contained thir-
teen homilies, yery voluminous is the next collection, Evangelie
invdfdtoare tdlcuita, ^translated from the Russian by Sylvestre
(Govora, 1643). One year later appeared the first book printed in
Moldavia, the collection of homilies Carte romdneasca de invdfiturd
(Jassy, 1643). It is a volume of loco folio pages, of which the first
half is absolutely identical with Sylvestre's collection. A similar
unacknowledged loan was made by Meletie the Macedonian, compiler
of the homilies which appeared at Deal in 1644. Of special interest
LITERATURE]
RUMANIA
845
is the next publication of homilies Cheea infelesului, " the Key of
understanding," by the Walachian metropolitan Varlaam, trans-
lated from the Russian and printed at Bucharest in 1678. This, the
first book printed in Bucharest, begins the long series of editions
which have issued from the press of the " Mitropolie " in Bucharest.
From this press originated also the no less important presses at Buzeu
and Ramnicu Valcea, where in the following two centuries almost
all the books for the Church service were printed. Two or three
more collections may be mentioned herey-one called Sicriu de aur,
" the Golden treasury," by loan of Vinji (Sasz-Shebesh. 1688),
probably from some Hungarian Calvinistic collection of obituary
sermons; and the " Pearls," Mdrgaritare, an anthology made from
the Greek homilies of St Chrysostom, Epiphanius, Anastasius
Sinaita, &c., and translated from the Greek by the brothers Radu
and Serban Greceanu. The only collection of original sermons is the
Didahii delivered by the metropolitan Anthim the Iberian (q.v.), the
scholar, artist, translator, printer and great linguist, who was
the first to issue books in Arabic and even in Georgian from his
printing-presses in Bucharest. The Didahii were published at
Bucharest in 1888.
The Rumanian language was not yet introduced into the Church.
All the service books were in Slavonic, but during this period most of
j. fie them were translated, and some of them printed, although
Lit rev not y et officially used. The burial service seems to have
been the first to be translated. Two Evholoeia appeared
during the second half of the I7th century, one by the bishop Dosi-
theiu (Jassy, 1679-80), which remained almost unknown, and the other
based upon the Slavonic, by loan of Vinri (Belgrad, 1689). This
Molitdvnic (prayer-book) has been the basis of all subsequent
editions of the Rumanian Prayer-book. The Liturgy proper was
also translated by bishop Dositheiu in 1679, but a translation from
the Greek, by Jeremia Kakavela (Jassy, 1697), was the one adopted
in the churches. Passing over the numerous editions of the Akathist
and Katavasiar, some partly in Rumanian, we may mention the
Ceasoslov (Book of Hours), said to have been printed for the first
time in Transylvania in 1696, but certainly printed or reprinted by
the metropolitan Anthim (Tirgovishtea, 1715). In 1694 Alexander
Dascalul translated, and the bishops Mitrofan of Buseu and Kesarie
of Ramnicu Valcea printed (among other church books) the twelve
volumes of the Mineu in Slavonic with Rumanian rubrics, and short
lives of the saints, as well as the Triad and the Anthologion.
In addition to the activity of the Reformers in Transylvania, there
was also a Roman Catholic propaganda in Rumania, and the
Orthodox Church found it necessary to convoke a synod in Jassy for
the purpose of formulating anew its own dogmatic standpoint. It
was held in 164.2 under the presidency of Peter of Mogila, and a
formulary of the Orthodox creed was drawn up. An answer to the
Lutheran Catechism of Heidelberg (translated into Rumanian and
printed at Fogaras in 1648) was also prepared by Bishop Varlaam.
R. Greceanu translated the formulary from Greek into Rumanian
under the title Pravoslavnica martunsire (Bucharest, 1692). Of a
more decided polemical character is the Lumina of Maxim of
Peloponnesus, translated from the Greek (Bucharest, 1699).
Of far greater interest is the literature of maxims, and lives of
saints, real or apocryphal, intended to teach by example. Such are
Ethical tne max ' ms ' n the Flooerea darurilor, translated from the
liters- Greek (Sneagov, 1700), and going back to the Italian Fiore
tare. ^ e ^ tu < tne Invdt&luri creflmejti, " Christian teachings "
of Filoteos (ibid., 1700); the short moral guide, Carare
pre scurt, by loan of Vinji (Belgrad, 1685), translated from some
Hungarian original; the Mdntmrea pdcdtosilor, or "Salvation of
sinners," translated from the Greek by a certain Cozma in 1682,
which is a storehouse of medieval exempla; and above all the
Mirror of Kings, ascribed to Prince Neagoe Bassaraba, written
originally in Slavonic (or Greek, if the prince be really the author),
and translated (c. 1650) into Rumanian. This exceeds all the other
publications of its class in purity of language and excellence of
style. Of the lives of saints, the Prolog, translated from the Slavonic
at the beginning of the 1 7th century (MS.), and the Viefile Sfin(ilor.
by Dositheiu (2 vols., Jassy, 1682), are the most important. In
the latter, which is his greatest work, Dositheiu uses not only
Greek texts, but also Slavonic legends and other MS. material ; and
he includes a goodly number of the apocryphal legends of saints.
To this kind of literature belongs also the Lafsaikon, i.e. the Historia
Lausiaca of Palladius, differing, however, in some points from the
original. The legends of the saints of the Pecherskaya in Kiev were
translated by Alexander Dascalul. All these are still in MS.
The first law-books were also compiled during this period. The
Slavonic Nomokanon, which rests on Greek legislation and embodies
Law tne canonical and civil law, had previously been used in
Rumania. In 1640 there appeared in Govora the first
canonical law-book, which was at the same time the first Rumanian
book printed in Walachia. This Pravild (code) was probably the work
of the historian Moxa or Moxalie. In 1632 Evstratie the Logofet
(logothete) also translated a Pravild from the Greek, which remains
in MS. In 1646 appeared the Pravild aleasd, or " Selected Code,"
compiled, no doubt, by Evstratie and published with the authority
of the then reigning Prince Vasile Lupul (Basil the Wolf), hence
known as the Code of Vasile. In 1652 there appeared in Bucharest
a complete code of laws, translated from the Greek and Slavonic and
adapted to local needs under the direction of the prince of Walachia,
Matthias Bassaraba. The Indreptarca legii, in which Pravild of
Vasile _ was incorporated without acknowledgment, remained the
recognized code almost down to 1866. It embraces the canonical
as well as the civil law. The chief authors were Uriil Nasturel and
Daniil M. Panoneanul.
The earliest historical works are short annals, written originally
in Slavonic by monks in the monasteries of Moldavia and Walachia.
In 1620 Moxa translated from the Slavonic a short history ..
of the world down to 1498. Two other universal histories
were translated from Greek and Slavonic chronographs. One by
Pavel Danovici contains the history of the world told in the style
of the Byzantine chroniclers; it includes the legend of Troy, the
history of Pope Sylvester and the description of the various church
councils; and it concludes at the year 1636. The second is the
Hrongraf of Dorotheus of Monembasia, translated by a certain
Ion Buburezau. Both are still in MS. The Old Slavonic annals
were later on translated and new notes were added, each subsequent
writer annexing the work of his predecessor, and prefixing his name
to the entire compilation. Ancient Rumanian historiography is
thus difficult to unravel. In Moldavia, where the influence of
Poland had been great and Western writings were accessible, we
find the best chroniclers. The writers are often actors in the dramas
which they describe, and often also the victims. A history of Moldavia
from the earliest times to 1594 is ascribed to Nestor or to his son,
Gregorie Ureche, or to Simion Dascalul. It was continued by the
Evstratie mentioned above, and probably also by Missail Calugarul.
The most important author whose writings rank as classical is
Mirpn Costin, who either took up the thread where it was left by
Simion and Ureche and wrote the history of Moldavia from 1594-
1662, or continued the history from where (probably) Evstratie had
left it (c. 1630-62). Nicolae Costin (d. 1715), son of Miron, completed
the history at both ends. He starts from the creation and endeavours
to fill up the lacuna from 1662 to his own time, 1714. It is doubtful,
however, whether the portion from 1662-1701 is his work or whether
another compiler had filled up that section. Acsintie Uricariul,
1715, brings to a close the corpus of Moldavian Chronicles.
The same uncertainty holds good also for Walachia. The be-
ginnings are the work of an anonymous author, whose chronicle,
continued by a certain Constantly Capitanul, describes the history
of Walachia from Radu Negru (i.e. Rudolph the Black), c. 1290-
1688. An addition to this Chronicle from the time of the Roman
Conquest to Attila is ascribed to Tudosie Vestemianul, twice
metropolitan of Walachia (1669-73, I0 77-I73)- The Chronicle of
Capitanul was further continued by Radu Greceanu to 1707, and
finally by Radu Popescu to 1720. Two works remain still to be
mentioned a comprehensive history of both principalities by an
anonymous author, probably the Spatar Milescu, who finished his
eventful life as ambassador of Russia to China (still in MS.), and
the Hronicul Moldo-Vlahilor of Prince Demetrius Cantemir (see
CANTEMIR), more an apology for the Roman origin of the Rumanians
than a true history. Cantemir wrote the original in Latin and
translated it into Rumanian in 1710. His style shows an immense
superiority to that of the previous historians. Of poetry there is
scarcely a trace during the whole period under review except
some rhymed Psalters and a few rhymed dedications to patrons.
Second Period: 1710-1830. The Phanariote period has been
described as one of total decay; the political degradation
of Rumania was thought to be reflected in its spiritual life.
But the facts do not warrant this opinion. The few who had
taken the trouble to study Rumanian literature paid not the
slightest attention to the vast MS. material accumulated
during the years of the Phanariote dominion, and out of sheer
ignorance and political bias condemned this period as sterile.
Another influence was far more potent than the conduct of
the Greek princes, though some of them were real benefactors
of the people. In Transylvania one section of the i n n u eacf
Rumanian population had accepted the spiritual of Roman
rule of the pope; they became now Greek-Catholic, Cathoii-
instead of Greek Orthodox. Rome took good care e *" D '
to educate the priesthood far above the status of the Orthodox
priests, and continued an extensive proselytizing activity. So
long as the Rumanians were spiritually united with the other
Orthodox nations, and so long as they used the Slavonic or
Cyrillic alphabet, they would practically be cut off from the
Latin West. If, however, they could be induced to discard the
old Slavonic alphabet and substitute for it the Latin, and could
be brought to recognize their national and ethnical unity with
ancient Rome, it was hoped that then they would be more
easily induced to enter into the unity of faith. Thus a great
change was wrought towards the end of the i8th and in the
8 4 6
RUMANIA
[LITERATURE
theo-
logical
and
ethical
litera-
ture.
first half of the igth century in the whole current of Rumanian
literature. It suited the promoters of that movement to pretend
that they started a new era. But the Latin or Transylvanian
movement wrought great havoc in Rumanian literature and
caused the greatest confusion in the language. Only now are
some authors beginning to free themselves from the evil influence.
By the end of the I7th century Rumanian had become the author-
ized language of the Church, and the Rumanian translation of
LU r- tlie Go 8 ? 6 ' 3 (printed 1693) had become the Authorized
Version. Most of the liturgical books officially adopted
and revised in this period are still used for church ser-
vices. Such are the Ceasoslov, revised by Bishop Kliment
of Ramnicu Valcea (1745), the Evhologion (1764), the
Katavasiar (1753), The monumental publication of the
Mineiu, in 12 folio volumes, by Bishops Kesarie and
Filaret of Ramnicu Valcea (1776-80), is equal in im-
portance if it be not superior to the no less monumental
publication of the Lives of Saints, also in 12 huge folio volumes,
published under the direction and with the assistance of the metro-
politan Veniamin of Moldavia. The latter was translated from the
Russian, appeared in Neamtzu (1809-12), and was reprinted in
Bucharest (1835-36). In beauty, richness and lucidity of language,
and in dignity of style, these two books resemble the Bible of 1688.
Slavonic having entirely disappeared from the sources of literature,
writers and translators turned to Greek originals and for more than
a century were busy translating into Rumanian the most important
works of the older Fathers of the Church. Some of these transla-
tions were printed much later; thus the Hexaemeron of Basil the
Great (andofEpiphanius) translatedinthemiddleof the l8th century,
was printed at Bucharest in 1827. The Scala Coeli of Jon. Klimakus,
the Treasury of St Damascenus (MS. 1747 by a certain Mihalacea),
the homilies of Cyril of Alexandria, and those of Ephraem the
Syrian, were printed at Neamtzu in 1818. The Panoplia of
Euthymius Zygabenus (1775) and the Commentary of Theophylact
were printed by Veniamin (Jassy, 1805). The homilies of Theodor
Studites (MS. of 1712) were edited by Bishop Filaret and published
at Ramnicu Valcea in 1784; a translation of Gregory of Nazianzus
appeared at Bucharest in 1727. The great polemical work of
Simeon of Thessalonica, the Greek original of which was published
by Dositheiu (Jassy, 1683), had been translated into Rumanian long
before it was printed (Bucharest, 1756). The Lafsaikon, mentioned
above, was printed at Bucharest in 1754. All these translations
are written in good Rumanian. One can see how a language not
originally suited for abstract problems and theological dialectics
was slowly but surely improved and made capable of expressing
profound and subtle ideas.
In Transylvania, with the conversion to Greek-Catholicism of
Bishop Athanasius in I7OI, the Greek Orthodox had to place them-
selves down to 1850 under the protection of the Servian metropolitan
of Karlovatz. No writer of any consequence arose among them.
The " United " fared better, and many a gifted young Rumanian
was sent to Rome and helped from Vienna to obtain a serious educa-
tion and occasionally also temporal promotion. With a view prob-
ably to counteract the literary activity in Rumania, the bishops
P. P. Aaron and loan Bobb were indefatigable in the translation
of Latin writers. First and foremost a new translation of the whole
Bible was undertaken by Samuel Klain. It appeared in Blazh
(!793-95)- It falls short of the older version of 1688; it was
modernized in its language, and no doubt a careful examination
would reveal differences in the translation of those passages in
which the Catholic tradition differs from the Eastern. Bobb
translated Thomas a Kempis's Imitatio Christi (Blazh, 1812); he
wrote a Theologhie morala (ibid. 1801) and adapted the Rumanian
service-books to the new order of things. Popular catechisms and
various histories of the Church were then written. Mention may
be made of a few more moral treatises such as the U$a pocainfei,
"Gate of Penitence", (Kronstadt, 1812); Oglinda omului din
auntru, "The Mirror of the Inner Man"; or Pilde filosofe^li,
" Philosophical Saws and Maxims " (Tirgovishtea, 1715). Of greater
importance was the collection of fables with their ' ' moral " translated
and modified from the Servian of Obrenovich Fabule moralice$ti,
by Tzikindeal (Budapest, 1814). These are heavy and follow the
original too literally. Tzikindeal (d. 1818) and his contemporaries
in Hungary had lost contact with the Rumanian literature in
Walachia and Moldavia, and the same was the case with the other
writers of their school. Radovici or Dinu din Golesti, an enlightened
Walachian boyar, who was one of the first Rumanians to describe
a journey in Western Europe, is also the author of a collection of
maxims and parables, Adunare de pilde bisericejti j*' filosofejti
(Budapest, 1824); he left a larger collection in MS. part.ly edited
by Zane in his Proverbele Romanilor, vols. xi. xvi.
After 1727 Rumanian was recognized as the language of the
law-courts, and through the annexation of Bukovina by Austria
Law. (.'774) and of Bessarabia by Russia (1812), codes for the
civil and political administration of those provinces were
drawn up in Rumanian, either in accordance with the established
law of the land or in consonance with the laws of Austria and Russia.
Such legal codes reflect the German or Russian original. They were>
however, of importance as they served as models (to some extent)
for the new legislative code compiled in Moldavia under Prince
Calimach; this was originally published in Greek (1816), and after-
wards translated into Rumanian with the assistance of G. Asaki
(Jassy, 1833). The Walachian civil laws and local usages were
collected and arranged under the direction of Prince Ypsilanti
(1780) in Greek and Rumanian; and under Prince Caragea another
code was published (1817), which remained in force until 1832,
when the " Organic Law " changed the whole trend of legislation.'
One more collection, an abstract from the Greek Basilica, published
by Donici (Jassy, 1814), must be mentioned, for through it the legal
terminology of the modern codes was more or less fixed.
The last and probably the best writer of Rumanian history in
the Phanaripte period is Neculcea. He wrote a history of Moldavia
to his own time, but for the period before 1684 his work is ... .
more or less an abstract from older writers. The original s *ory.
part covers the period from 1684-1743, and is to some extent an
autobiography of a very adventurous life. Neculcea adds to his
chronicle a collection of historical legends, many of them still found
in the ballads of Moldavia. Among other historians might be
mentioned N. Roset, the continuator of Neculcea. Enaki (lanache)
Cogalniceanu wrote a history of the period 1730-1774, and followed
the example of Greek writers by introducing rhymes into it. He was
also the author of some political satires and other poems on G. Ghica,
M. Bogdan and loan Cuza. The historians of the time under
pressure of political exigencies did not scruple to invent treaties
between the Porte and the Rumanian principalities. A series of
such spurious collections of treaties were submitted to the Powers
for ratification ; in them imaginary rights and privileges alleged to
have been granted by the Turks were described, and the Rumanian
representatives asked that after the peace negotiations of 1774 they
should be sanctioned afresh. In Walachia there was not a single
historian of importance in the first half of the l8th century. In
the second we have the chronicle of Dionisie Eclesiarh (1764-1815),
a simple-minded and uncritical writer who describes contemporary
events. The ancestor of a great family of poets and writers,
I. Vacarescu described the history of the Ottoman empire from
the beginning to 1791, interpolating doggerel verses. Alexander
Beldiman describes in a rhymed epic, Eteria (1821), the first battles
between the Greeks and the Turks in Moldavia. It is a bitter satire
upon the Greeks. Similar in tendency is another rhymed chronicle
known under the name of Zilot (c. 1825).
Whilst a political and national revival was taking place in Moldavia
and Walachia, towards the beginning of the igth century, the Latin
movement went on in Transylvania. There ethical and religious
tendencies got the upper hand. Three historians had been partly
educated in Rome under the protection of Prince Borgia and the
influence of the Jesuit Minotto and the College of the Propaganda ;
they were Samuel Klain, Petru Maior and George Sincai. To
Klain's initiative can be traced most of the work of the three.
Unfortunately his writings, with a few exceptions, are still in MS.
He is the author of the first history of the Rumanians in Dacia
written according to the standards of Western science. It seems to
have described the wars between the Romans and the Dacians, and
to have been continued down to 1795; a history of the Rumanian
Church also formed part of the book. P. Maior published an almost
identical history (Budapest, 1812), and it is probable that he had
made use of Klain's composition. In both the tendency is the same
to trace the modern Rumanians directly from the ancient Romans,
and to prove their continuity in these countries from the time of
Trajan to this day. Political and religious aims were combined
in this new theory. A conflict was raging between the Hungarians
and Rumanians, and history was required to furnish proofs of the
greater antiquity of the Rumanians in Transylvania. George
Sincai (1753-1816), who was an intimate friend of Klain and colla-
borated in most of his works, succeeded him as revisor at the printing
office in Budapest. Sincai worked for nearly forty years at his
monumental History of Rumania, which the Hungarian censor did
not allow to be printed on account of its nationalist and anti-Magyar
tendencies. It remained until 1853-54, when it was printed at the
expense of Prince Gr. Ghica. The edition of 1886 is only a reprint,
though both the original MS. and a better copy had meanwhile been
discovered.
These books had no immediate influence in Walachia and Moldavia,
where fiction and the drama had developed under the influence,
first, of Greek and then to an increasing extent of French,
Italian and German models. It was towards the end of
thel 8th century that Rumanian literature began to emanci- " e
pate itself, very slowly of course, and to start on a career of
its own in poetry and belles lettres. Curiously enough, the
first novel to be translated was the " Ethiopic History " of Bishop
Heliodorus. The Odyfsey and Iliad were then translated into prose,
and the Arabian Nights, after undergoing an extraordinary change
in Italian and modern Greek, appear in Rumanian literature at
the middle of the i8th century under the name of Halima. The
Glykis, a Greek printing firm in Venice, published many popular
books in Rumanian which found their way into the principalities.
The epic of Vincenzo Cornaro was translated into prose alternating
Litera-
ture.
LITERATURE]
RUMANIA
847
with verse, first under the name of Erotocrit and then slightly changed
as Filerot 31 Antusa. Anton Pann printed it as his own composition.
Kritil $i Andronius (Jassy, 1794) is almost the last novel or story
translated direct from the Greek. The young men of Walachia had
come into contact with Western literature, which they were anxious
to transplant to their own country. Some had been sent to Paris
for their education, such as Poteca, Marcovici, the Voinescus, Moroiu
and others, who developed an almost feverish activity in translation.
Most of the writings of Florian, Marmontel, Le Sage, Montesquieu
and others were rapidly translated into Rumanian. The picaresque
novel Lazarillo de Tormes also found its translator, and appeared
in 1839, Paul and Virginia in 1831. Campe's German Robinson
Crusoe (1816) and his Discovery of America were translated by
Draghici (1835). G. Asaki and Alexander Bcidiman in Moldavia
developed a similar activity. Beldiman copied a number of ancient
chronicles, wrote a satire on the Greeks, and translated and adapted
a number of French tragedies and dramas, in verse and prose.
Nowhere has the theatre played a more important r6le in the
history of civilization than in Walachia and Moldavia, more in the
Tllf former than in the latter. It formed the rallying-ground for
the new generation which chafed under the tyranny of a
urama. /^ i * ** r*~>i * i_ ;
Greek court. A certain Anstia, of Greek origin, but soon
acclimatized to his surroundings as teacher at the high school in
Bucharest, was the first to adapt foreign dramas for the Rumanian
stage. These were first performed in Greek and afterwards trans-
lated into Rumanian. The plays produced on the Rumanian
stage included most of the dramas of Moliere, some of Corneille,
Kotzebue and Metastasio, whose Achille in Schiro was the first
drama translated into Rumanian (by lordache Slatineau, printed
at Sibiu in 1797). Schiller was also translated, and a few plays
of Shakespeare (Hamlet, &c.) from a French version. Victor
Hugo's A ngelo and Maria Tudor were translated by Constantin
Negrutin. Those who kept in touch with the old literature men
such as Beldiman, Marcovici and Negrutin were able even in
their metrical translations to do justice to the originals and at the
same time not to distort the character of the Rumanian language.
Among such translators was Skavinschi, who came originally from
Transylvania to Jassy, and translated Regnald's Democnt into verse.
The lyrical and epic poetry of the time follows somewhat the
same lines, but with certain notable differences. The individuality
Poetry. of the authors is more marked, and they advance much
sooner from translations to independent poetry. Tran-
sylvania, which awoke to a new life towards the end of the i8th
century, produced some of the most popular poets. Among them
were Vasile Aaron .(1770-1822) and Ion Barak (1779-1848). Aaron
wrote the Passion, in 10,000 verses (1802; often reprinted);
the lyrical romances of Piram jt Tisbe (1808) and Sofronim $i
Hariti (1821); and the humorous Leonat 31 Dorofala, a satire
on bad women and on drunken husbands, now a chapbpok. Barak
wrote Rasipirea lerusalimului (1821), " The Destruction of Jeru-
salem," almost as long as Aaron's Passion ; and he versified a Magyar
folktale, Argkir si Elena, which has also become a chapbook, and has
been interpreted as a political poem with a hidden meaning. He
also translated the Arabian Nights from the German. In Walachia
a certain Ion Budai Deleanu, a man of great learning, author of a
hitherto unpublished Rumanian dictionary of great value, wrote
a satirical epos in which gipsies play the chief part. It is called
Tiganiafa (1812) and consists of 12 songs and of many thousand
verses. The author displays a profound knowledge of the life
and the customs of the gipsies, and of Western literature from the
Batrachomyomachia to the Pucelle of Voltaire.
The love-songs of the time are primitive imitations of the Neo-
Greek lyric dithyrambs and rhapsodies, which through the teaching
of the princes of Walachia were considered as the fountainhead of
poetical inspiration. But a closer acquaintance with the West
led to greater independence in poetical composition. In the three
generations of the Vacarescu one can follow this process of rapid
evolution. lanache Vacarescu, author of the first native Rumanian
grammar on independent lines, was also the first who tried his hand
at poetry, following Greek examples. He then studied Italian,
French and German poetry, and made translations from Voltaire
and Goethe. His son Alecu (b. 1795) followed his example. Both
were overshadowed by the grandson loan (b. 1818), who was more
than any other man both the representative of an epoch fast vanish-
ing and the harbinger of the new spirit that was stirring young
Rumania. The collected poems of I. Vacarescu were published in
1848; but among them were some of the poems of lanache and
Alecu, which were confused with his own work. In this volume,
Colec[ie din poeziile domnului mare logofet I. Vacarescu, there are
odes, hymns, patriotic poems, ballads, lyrical and didactic poems,
some of them among the most beautiful in the language. A con-
temporary of his earlier period, Paris Mumuleanu (1794-1837),
wrote his Rost de poezie (1820) under Greek influence, but after-
wards passed under the spell of Maior and Tzikindea, whose Latin
propaganda he was one of the first to advocate in Rumania. In
his Caractere (Bucharest, 1828) Latin forms are common. One more
poet, and a real one, is Vasile Carlova (1809-1831), whose Ruins of
Tirgovishtec sufficed to place him among the foremost Rumanian
poets of the igth century.
In Moldavia a similar development took place, translations leading
up to independent production. The most prominent figure is that
of the scholar and linguist Constantin Konaki (1777-1849), who
might be termed the Rumanian Longfellow for the facility and
felicity of his translations from Western poetry and for his short
poems, easily set to music and very popular. His Alcatuiri jt
appeared in 1858. Constantin Negrutin, who was at
first influenced by the Russian poets, notably Pushkin, successfully
translated poems of Victor Hugo, and rivalled Konaki in his dex-
terity and fidelity to the original.
Third Period: 1830- . The agitation for the trans-
literation of the alphabet, the elimination of all non-Latin
words from the language and the ostracism of the old literature,
completely crippled all literary activity, first in Transylvania
and then in Rumania. The Latin movement was first brought
into Walachia by a certain George Lazar from across the moun-
tains. Lazar was appointed teacher at the St Sava school
of Bucharest, where he spread the new doctrine of the Latin
origin of the Rumanians; Latinizing tendencies were, however,
not yet imported into the language. Of his pupils there was
one whose influence became decisive: Ion Eliade (Heliade),
afterwards also known as I. E. Radulescu (1802-1872),
a man of immense activity, of great power of initiative
and of still greater imagination. He it was who ushered in
the new epoch, and for close upon forty years he stood at the
head of almost every literary undertaking.
There were two periods in his life the latter the exact opposite
and negation of the former. Up to 1848 he was closely connected
with politics, the theatre and the school he was the successor
to Lazar; he wrote grammars, and the introductions to his grammars
are models of lucidity, combined with a wide historical view. He
was the founder of the first political and literary review, and he had
a genius for discovering talent, and the merit of assisting it. Through
his reviews he trained the middle-class to read and to take an
active interest in literary problems. Through his Curier de ambt sexe
(1837-41) he disseminated translations from political and other
works, thus paving the way for the political change of 1848. About
this time he turned to philology, and fell under the spell of the
Transylvanian school. Slowly he developed his theories about
language and writing, and he ended as a fanatic wedded to extra-
ordinary views. He was a prolific writer and translator of dramas
and novels from French and Italian, the latter appearing mostly
in his periodical. The number of his publications is legion.
All the prominent Rumanians of that period were politicians;
they strove to obtain the emancipation of the country from Turkish
dominion, and, later on, the union of Walachia and Mol- ....
davia. Everything was placedat theserviceof this national
aspiration, which is the keynote of the poems of Bolinti-
neanu (1826-1873). He also was discovered by Radulescu, who
published his first and best known poem, " The Dying Virgin." In
1848 he was exiled, together with the other leaders of the revolution,
and he spent the next nine years in travels in the East. There he
gathered the materials for his lyrical poems " Macedonele " and
" Florile Bosforului ? " Returning in 1857 to Walachia, he occupied
high administrative posts, and he wrote a number of historical
novels (Traian, Mircea, tefan, &c.), dramas (Lapu^neanu, Mihnea,
Mihaiu, &c.), longer poems (Sorin, Conrad), and his politico-philo-
sophical novel Elena. These mostly patriotic compositions were as
a rule less felicitous than his political satires (Nemesis, Menade, &c.).
His peculiar strength lay in the historical ballad, which he was the
first to introduce into Rumanian poetry, and in the vivid portraiture
of Oriental scenery and emotions. He died in a lunatic asylum
forgotten by all, and even his writings have, save in one early edition,
not been published without unwarranted alterations by the editor
Sion.
A contemporary of Bolintineanu was Grigorie Alexandrescu
(1812-1885), also a pupil of Eliade. Imperfect in his rhyme and
rhythm, his poetry is of a didactical nature, and his best _ ^ fc
poems are rhymed fables, many of which are thinly dis- a ' nd "
guised political satires. He also translated the Alzire
(1834) and Merope (1847) of Voltaire. Among his contemporaries
may be mentioned G. Crejeanu (1829-1887) and A. Sihleanu (1834-
1857), who left some weak poems of a sentimental and patriotic char-
acter. A Depararianu (1835-1865), whose language shows traces of
the new Latinizing school ; and Nicolae Nicoleanu (1833-1871), whose
powerful poems, full of deep and often mystical reflections, lead on
from Alexandrescu to Eminescu, all three being the poets of pessim-
ism. InTeodorerbanescu (b. 1839) we find the reflex of Bolintineanu
of the earlier period, in the beauty and simplicity of his lyrical
poems not yet published in complete form. Like erbinescu, Vasile
Alecsandri (1821-1890), the greatest of Rumanian lyrical poets (see
ALECSANDRI), was a Moldavian. In France, under the influence
of Beranger and the romantic school, he was led to turn to popular
8 4 8
RUMANIA
[LITERATURE
Prate
Writers.
poetry for inspiration. He collected Rumanian popular songs and
ballads (Doine, 1844) (Lacrdmioare, 1853). In Paslelun
rfrf (1867) he introduced admirable pictures of popular life into
Rumanian poetry. In Legends (1871) and Ostasii nojtrii
(1877) he strikes the patriotic note. His fame rests on his lyrical
poetry alone, which retains some of the charm of popular poetry.
Alecsandri is less successful in his dramas, most of which are adapta-
tions from French originals; the only merit of his novels is that
amidst the phonetic and philological turmoil he kept to the purer
language of the people.
From Alecsandri there is a natural transition to his great rival,
who was also his superior in depth of thought and in mastery of
form and language, the great poet of pessimism, Mihail
Emlaescu. gminescu ( g . r .). Mention may also be made of Matilde
Cugler Poni (b. 1853), who published some admirable short poems
in the Rumanian reviews (Poesii, 1888). Veronica Micle (1853-1889)
belongs to the same circle of gifted Moldavian women (Poesii, 1887).
But all these men or women disappear with the appearance of
Eminescu, who, like Bolintineanu, started a new school of poetry
and left a deep and growing influence upon the new generation.
His best follower, though possessing originality of his own, is A.
Vlahuta (b. 1859). G. Cosbuc, who has risen more recently to fame,
is the poet of the unfortunate Rumanian peasant, emancipated
only in name and on paper, and a prey to greedy landowners and to
a medieval administration. The poets of this school drew their
inspiration from popular poetry, and all of them were sons of the
lower middle class or of peasants, who by dint of heavy work and
great hardship were able to rise above the narrow social conditions
in which they were born.
Somewhat different has been the development of the Rumanian
prose writers. They suffered in consequence of the philological
confusion brought about by Eliade and his assistants,
mostly men who after 1848 immigrated from Transylvania
and brought with them their own prejudices and narrow
intolerance. Too great influence was accorded to them, and the
result was that for a long time scarcely a single Rumanian novelist
or historian can be mentioned. It was only after N. Balcescu had
undertaken the edition of the ancient Walachian chronicles, and had
found in them admirable prose writers, that he ventured on a con-
tinuous history (1851-52) of the Rumanians under Michael the Brave,
written not as a didactic treatise but as a poem in prose full of colour
and of energy. A. Odobescu, the friend and literary executor of
Balcescu, was a consummate scholar of ancient and medieval anti-
quities, and wrote a history of ancient art. His Pseudkynegetikos is
an unsurpassed model of elegant writing and of fine irony. What
Alecsandri was for verse, Odobescu was for prose. He also created
the Rumanian historical novel, by his Mihnea Voda (1858) and
Doamna Kiajna (1860). The first novel describing human nature in
everyday life is the Ciocoii vechi s_i noi (1863) of Nioolae Filimon
(1819-1865). In Moldavia where the knowledge of thepld chroniclers
had not entirely died out and disturbing philological influences
were not so acutely felt, we find the vigorous writings of Mihail
Cogalniceanu one of the leading spirits of the igth century, the
greatest mind and the real founder of Rumania. Cogalniceanu
published various reviews, some of a political, others of a more
literary character, such as the Dacia literard (1840) and Archiva
romdneasca (1845-46) ; he has also the great merit of having published
for the first time a collection of the Moldavian chronicles. G. Asaki
(1788-1871), a second Eliade, helped to inaugurate a literary reform
in Moldavia; but the result was disappointing, until the literary
society known as the Junimea was started, in the 'seventies, by
Titu Maiorescu (b. 1839), who was then a professor at Jassy. Titu
Maiorescu put a stop to the prevailing Latinism, and turned the
current of Rumanian literature into a more healthy channel, by
the publication of his Critice (1874).
loan Ghica, a contemporary of the revolutionaries of 1848,
gathered his recollections of those agitated times into two volumes,
Amintiri (1890) and Scrisori cdtre V, Alecsandri (1887), which
besides their historical value have become a model of Rumanian
prose. Among writers of fiction three names stand out prominently:
Ion Slavic! (b. 1848) describes the life of the people, notably of the
Transylvanian peasants, in short stories, Nuvele din popor. Barbu
Stefanescu de la Vrancea (b. 1858) also wrote short popular stories
characterized by a wealth of imagery and richness of language;
but the characters are all mostly unreal and exaggerated. The best
known collections are Sultdnica (1885) and Trubadurul (1887).
loan Caragiali (b. 1852), the most popular Rumanian dramatist
of modern times, who has brought on the stage living types of the
lower and middle classes, and has skilfully portrayed the effect of
modern veneer on old customs, is also the author of the powerful
short novel Faclia de paste. Dobrogeanu Gherea (b. 1853) has in his
Studii critice (1890 sqq.) been a ruthless but none the less judicious
critic.
Curiously enough, there is not a single novel in the Rumanian
literature with a sustained plot; none which presents a study of the
development of human character amid the multifarious vicissitudes
of life. The reason for this deficiency is perhaps the unsettled
conditions of Rumanian life, and the lack of a profound and long-
established civilization; or it may be found in the unstable and
Popular
litera-
ture:
Folklore,
Ballads,
Tales.
fickle character of the people. Whatever the cause may be, while
Rumanian poetry could well compare with that of any Western
nation, in the domain of prose writing, and of novels in particular, one
must look to the future to fill up the gap now existing.
There existed in Rumania another set of literary monuments
at least as old as any of the books hitherto enumerated,
but which appealed to a wider circle. Rumanian
folk-literature contains both popular written books
and oral songs, ballads, &c. It is advisable to group
the material in three sections: (i) the romantic and
secular literature; (2) the religious literature; both
of these being written and (3) the modern collections of
ballads, songs, tales, &c.
To the first belong the oldest books, such as the History of Alex-
ander the Great, which was known in Rumania in the lyth century.
It rests mostly upon a Sloyeno-Greek text and is of the utmost
interest for the study of this cycle of legends. The first printed
copy appeared in 1794, and has been reprinted in innumerable
editions. Next comes the legend of Constantine, of his town and
his exploits a remarkable collection of purely Byzantine legends.
In addition to these there is the history of St Sylvester and the
conversion of Constantine, &c., all still in MS. The History of
Barlaam and loasaf (see BARLAAM AND JOSAPHAT) may also be
mentioned here, for it appealed to the people not so much for
its religious interest as for the romantic career of the hero. The
parables and apologues contained in the legend were incorporated
into the Teachings of Prince Neagoe, and were also circulated separ-
ately; they are found in many old MSS. Udrite (Uriil) Nasturel
translated the History from the Slavonic in 1640. One of its
episodes, the farewell song of the prince departing into the forest,
has since become one of the most widespread popular songs. Of
similar oriental origin is the Dream of Mamer, the interpretation
of which goes back to the Panchatantra, and must have reached
Rumania early in the i8th century, probably in Slavonic. The
history of Syntippa and the Seven Masters has also become a popular
book. It was translated from the Greek version. To the same
cycle of oriental tales belongs the Halima, already described,
which G. Gorjeanu printed (3 vols., 1835-37) as his own work.
The History of Arkir and Anadam, printed by Anton Pann from
older MSS., is the now famous Old Testament apocryphon of
Akyrios the Wise, mentioned in Tobit and found in many languages.
In Rumanian it rests on an older Greek-Slavonic text, and owes
its great popularity to the wise and witty proverbs it contains.
" Esop," whose wonderful biography (by Planudes) agrees in
many points with Arkir, has also become one of the Rumanian
popular books. The history of Bertoldo, which, though of Italian
origin, reached Rumania through a Greek translation, belongs
to the same cycle of rustic wisdom and cunning, and is the last
representative of an old series of legends clustering round the
figures of Solomon and Ashmodai, or Solomon and Markolph.
These books are of course anonymous, most of them being trans-
lations and adaptations. One man, however, stands put pro-
minently in this section of romantic and secular folk-literature.
This was Anton Pann, who was born in 1797 at Slivden, of Bul-
garian parentage, and died at Bucharest in 1854. Carried away
by the Russians in his early youth, he settled in Rumania, learned
Church music, and became one of its best exponents, married four
times, had an adventurous life, but lived among the people for
whom he wrote and composed his tunes. In about twenty years
he published no less than fifty books, all of them still popular.
Besides his edition of the Rumanian Church service-books with
musical notation, he published a series of tales, proverbs and songs
either from older texts or from oral information; and he made
the first collection of popular songs, Spitalul amorului, " The
Hospital of Love " (1850-53), with tunes either composed by himself
or obtained from the gipsy musicians who alone performed them.
Of his numerous writings two or three are of the greatest interest
to folklore. His Povestea vorbii (first ed. I vol., 1847; 2nd ed.
3 vols., 1851-53) is a large collection of proverbs ingeniously con-
nected with one another and leading up to or starting from a
popular tale exemplifying the proverb. The Fabule $i istorioare
(2 vols., 1839-41) is a collection of short popular stories in rhyme;
Sezs,toarea la tard (1852-53) is a description of the Rumanian
Spinnstube, for which the peasants gather in one of their houses
on a winter's night, the girls and women spinning and working,
the young men telling tales, proverbs, riddles, singing songs, &c.
Pann also collected the jokes of the Turkish jester, Nasreddin,
under the title of Nasdrdvaniile lui Nastratin Hogea (1853), also in
rhyme. He also published a collection of Christmas carols, set
to music by himself; -these are still sung by boys on Christmas
night.
Far larger than the secular is the religious popular literature; it
comprises many apocryphal tales from the Old and the New Testa-
ments, and not a few of the heretical tales circulated by the various
sects of Asia Minor and Thracia, which percolated into Rumania
through the medium of Slavonic. A brief enumeration of the
RUMELIA RUMFORD
849
chief tales must suffice. Only a few of them have hitherto been
published. They exist in numerous MSS. which testify to their
great popularity; in the popular songs one finds many traces of
their influence upon the people's imagination. They include the
History of Adam and Eve, the Legend of the Cross, The Apocalypse
of Abraham, the History of the Sibyl, the Legends of Solomon;
numerous New Testament apocryphal tales, starting with legends
of St John the Baptist; a very remarkable version of the Gospel
of Nicodemus; and the Epistle of Pilate. Printed in tens of
thousands of copies are certain apocalyptic legends dealing with
eschatological problems. The ancient Apocalypse of Peter appears
here under the name of Paul, then there is an Apocalypse of the
Virgin Mary, who, like Peter, is carried by the Archangel through
the torments of Hell and the bliss of Paradise, and through whose
intervention sufferers are granted pardon on certain days of the
year. Combined with these is the Sunday Epistle, sent from
Heaven, enjoining strict observance, not only of Sunday, but also
of Friday and Wednesday, as holy days. Most of these texts
date in their Rumanian form from the i6th and i;th centuries;
the Sunday Epistle is well known in connexion with the Flagellants.
In the same pamphlet as the Sunday Epistle was published the
legend of St Sisoe and sometimes that of Avestitza, the former
saved the children of his sister from the attacks of the devil, who
had devoured them and had to restore them alive; the latter is
the female child-stealing demon, who is prevented by an angel
from carrying out her evil design. In both cases the repetition
of the legend and the recitation of a string of mystical names
serve, like some other tales, apocryphal and otherwise, as amulets,
sufficient to protect from the devil. Upon the recitation of some
of these texts rest many popular charms and incantations. Therein
lies the importance of this written literature, for it gives us the
clue to much that now lives in the mouths of the people, and is
by some considered to be of immemorial antiquity. A number
of astrological calendars and prognostics are among the best known
and most widely circulated popular books, and the lives of St
Alexius, Xenophon, &c. have become chapbooks.
The whole of this popular literature belongs to what may be
called the cycle of the Balkan nations, in every one of which exact
parallels are to be found. Not that there was any direct, deliberate
borrowing by one nation from the other, but all of them seem
to have stood for a long time under identical psychological in-
fluences and to have developed on similar lines. The superstitions
of one are often found to be those of the others, and in such a
form that they could not have been taken over independently
from a third source; they show too much family likeness. Thus
also the popular songs of Rumania, the " doine," the " hora," the
" cantece," " colinde," " legende," i.e. the love songs, the heroic
ballads, legends, songs at the ring-dance, hymns and carols, though
instinct with a charm of their own, find their counterparts in
many a song, ballad, &c. of the Balkan nations. The heroes are
often the same: Serbs, Bulgars and Rumanians sing the heroic
deeds of Baba Novak and recite the legend of the Monastery of
Argesh, or the ballad of lorgovan, found in the Malorussian Byliny.
One of the first to collect these treasures of Rumanian poetry was
V. Alecsandri (1852-1866), who, however, retained only their poetical
beauty and did not reproduce them with that strict accuracy
which modern study of folklore demands. A. M. Marienescu
collected those of Transylvania (1859); S. F. Marian, those of the
Bukovina (1873); T. T. Burada, those of the Dobrudja (1880);
but the most complete collection is that of G. Dem. Teodprescu,
Poesii populare romdne (Bucharest, 1885). The collection of
fairy tales started later than that of the ballads. The first collec-
tion is the German translation of tales heard by the Brothers
Schott (1845). The most important collections, now deservedly
considered as classical from every point of view, are the successive
publications of P. Ispirescu. The collected tales of the Moldavian
Ion Creanga (1837-89) appeared in his Opere complecte (1908). Ex-
cellent collections are those of D, Stancescu, Basme (1885-1893),
I. G. Sbiera, Basme (1886), Frdncu s.i Candrea (1888). Kutzo-Vlach
tales and folklore will be found in G. Weigand, Die Aromunen,
vol. ii. The only review devoted to the study of folklore is the
Sazatoare, founded in 1892.
In recent times a kind of stagnation seems to have overtaken
Rumania, and although attempts have been made to place the
intellectual life of the nation on a sounder basis, the work of transi-
tion from the past to the present has hitherto absorbed more energy
than appears necessary. Whatever the causes may have been, the
fact remains, that now there is a great dearth of talent and great
poverty in output.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. M. Gaster, Chrestomathie roumaine (2 vols.,
Leipzig, 1891); id., Literatura populara romana (Bucharest, 1883);
id., " Geschichte der rumanischen Litteratur," in Grpber, Grundriss
der romanischen Philologie, ii. pp. 264-428; L. Saineanu, Autorii
romdni moderni (Bucharest, 1891). (M. G.)
RUMELIA, or ROUMELIA (Turkish RumUi, " the land of
the Romans," i.e. the East Roman or Byzantine empire), a
name commonly used, from the i sth century onwards, to denote
that part of the Balkan Peninsula which was subject to Turkey.
More precisely it was the country bounded N. by Bulgaria,
W. by Albania and S. by the Morea, or in other words the
ancient provinces, including Constantinople and Salonica, of
Thrace and Macedonia. The name was ultimately applied more
especially to a province composed of central Albania and western
Macedonia, having Monastir for its chief town. Owing to
administrative changes effected between 1870 and 1875, the
name ceased to correspond with any political division. Eastern
Rumelia was constituted an autonomous province of the
Turkish empire by the Berlin treaty of 1878; but on the i8th
of September 1885, after a bloodless revolution, it was united
with Bulgaria (q.v.).
RUMFORD, BENJAMIN THOMPSON, COUNT (1753-1814),
British- American man of science, philanthropist and adminis-
trator, was born at Woburn, in Massachusetts, on the 26th of
March 1753. The Thompson family had been settled in New
England since the middle of the previous century, and belonged
to the class of moderately wealthy farmers. His father died
while he was very young, and his mother speedily married a second
time. But he seems to have been well cared for, and he was at
the age of fourteen sufficiently advanced " in algebra, geometry,
astronomy, and even the higher mathematics," to calculate a
solar eclipse within four seconds of accuracy. In 1766 he was
apprenticed to a storekeeper at Salem, in New England, and
while in that employment occupied himself in chemical and
mechanical experiments, as well as in engraving, in which he
attained to some proficiency. The outbreak of the American
War put a stop to the trade of his master, and he thereupon
left Salem and went to Boston, where he engaged himself as
assistant in another store. He was at that ' period between
seventeen and eighteen years old, and at nineteen, he says, " I
married, or rather I was married." His wife was the widow of
Colonel Benjamin Rolfe, and the daughter of Timothy Walker,
" a highly respectable minister, and one of the first settlers at
Rumford," now called Concord, in New Hampshire. His wife
was possessed of considerable property, and was his senior by
fourteen years.
This marriage was the foundation of his success. Soon after
it he became acquainted with Governor Wentworth of New
Hampshire, who conferred on him the majority of a local
regiment of militia. He speedily became the object of distrust
among the friends of the American cause, and it was considered
prudent that he should seek an early opportunity of leaving
the country. On the evacuation of Boston by the royal troops,
therefore, in 1776, he was selected by Governor Wentworth
to carry despatches to England. On his arrival in London
Lord George Germain, secretary of state, appointed him to a
clerkship in his office. Within a few months he was advanced
to the post of secretary of the province of Georgia, and in about
four years he was made under-secretary of state. His official
duties, however, did not interfere with the prosecution of
scientific pursuits, and in 1779 he was elected a fellow of the
Royal Society. Among the subjects to which he especially
directed his attention were the explosive force of gunpowder,
the construction of firearms, and a system of signalling at
sea. In connexion with the last, he made a cruise in the
Channel fleet, on board the " Victory," as a volunteer under the
command of Admiral Sir Charles Hardy. On the resignation of
Lord North's administration, of which Lord George Germain
was one of the least popular members, he left the civil service,
and was nominated to a cavalry command in the revolted
provinces of America. But the War of Independence was
practically at an end , and in 1 783 he finally quitted active
service, with the rank and half-pay of a lieutenant-colonel. He
now formed the design of joining the Austrian army, for the
purpose of campaigning against the Turks, and so crossed over
from Dover to Calais with Gibbon, who, writing to his friend
Lord Sheffield, calls his fellow-passenger " Mr Secretary-
Colonel-Admiral-Philosopher Thompson." At Strassburg he
was introduced to Prince Maximilian, afterwards elector of
Bavaria, and was by him invited to enter the civil and military
service of that state. Having obtained the leave of the British
850
RUMI
government to accept the prince's offer, he received the honour
of knighthood from George III., and during eleven years he
remained at Munich as minister of war, minister of police, and
grand chamberlain to the elector. His political and courtly
employments, however, did not absorb all his time, and he
contributed during his stay in Bavaria a number of papers to
the Philosophical Transactions. But that he was sufficiently alert
as the principal adviser of the elector the results of his labours
in that capacity amply prove. He reorganized the Bavarian
army; he immensely improved the condition of the industrial
classes throughout the country by providing them with work
and instructing them in the practice of domestic economy;
and he did much to suppress mendicity. The multitude of
beggars in Bavaria had long been a public nuisance and danger.
In one day he caused no fewer than 2600 of these outcasts and
depredators in Munich and its suburbs alone to be arrested by
military patrols, and transferred by them to an industrial
establishment which he had prepared for their reception. In
this institution they were both housed and fed, and they not
only supported themselves by their labours but earned a surplus
for the benefit of the electoral revenues. The principle on which
their treatment proceeded is stated by him in the following
memorable words: " To make vicious and abandoned people
happy," he says, " it has generally been supposed necessary
first to make them virtuous. But why not reverse this order?
Why not make them first happy, and then virtuous? "
In 1791 he was created a count of the Holy Roman Empire,
and chose his title of Rumford from the name as it then was of
the American township to which his wife's family belonged.
In 1795 he visited England, one incident of his journey being
the loss of all his private papers, including the materials for
an autobiography, which were contained in a box stolen from
off his postchaise in St Paul's Churchyard. During his residence
in London he applied himself to the discovery of methods for
curing smoky chimneys and the contrivance of improvements
in the construction of fireplaces. But he was quickly recalled
to Bavaria, Munich being threatened at once by an Austrian
and a French army. The elector fled from his capital, and it
was entirely owing to Rumford that a hostile occupation of the
city was prevented. It was now proposed that he should
be accredited as Bavarian ambassador in London; but the
circumstance that he was a British subject presented an insur-
mountable obstacle. He, however, again came to England,
and remained there in a private station for several years.
In 1798 he presented to the Royal Society his "Enquiry
concerning the Source of Heat which is excited by Friction,"
in which he combated the current view that heat was a material
substance, and regarded it as a mode of motion. In 1799 he,
in conjunction with Sir Joseph Banks, projected the establish-
ment of the Royal Institution. It received its charter of
incorporation from George III. in- 1800, and Rumford himself
selected Sir Humphry Davy as scientific lecturer there. Until
1804 he lived at the Royal Institution in Albemarle Street,
London, or at a house which he rented at Brompton, and he
then established himself in Paris, marrying (his first wife having
died in 1792) as his second wife the wealthy widow of Lavoisier,
the celebrated chemist. With this lady he led an extremely
uncomfortable life, till at last they agreed to separate. He
took up his residence at Auteuil, where he died suddenly on
the zist of August 1814, in the sixty-second year of his age.
Rumford was the founder and the first recipient of the Rumford
medal of the Royal Society. He was also the founder of the Rum-
ford medal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and of
the Rumford professorship in Harvard University. His complete
works with a memoir by G. E. Ellis were published by the American
Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1870-75.
RUMI, (1207-1273). Mahommed b. Mahommed b. Husain
albalkhi, better known as Maulana Jalal-uddin Rumi (or simply
Jalal-uddin, or Jelal-eddm), the greatest Sufic poet of Persia,
was born on the 3oth of September 1 207 (604 A.H. 6th of Rabi' I.)
at Balkh, in Khorasan, where his family had resided from time
immemorial. He claimed descent from the caliph Abubekr,
and from the Khwarizm-Shah Sultan 'Ala-uddin b. Tukush
(1190-1220), whose 'only daughter, Malika-i-Jahan, had been
married to JalSl-uddin's grandfather. Her son, Mahommed,
commonly called Baha-uddin Walad, was famous for his learn-
ing and piety, but being afraid of the sultan's jealousy, he
emigrated to Asia Minor in 1212. After residing for some
time at Malatia and afterwards at Erzingan in Armenia, Baha-
uddin was called to Laranda in Asia Minor, as principal of the
local college. Here young Jalal-uddin grew up, and in 1226
married Jauhar Khatun, the daughter of Lala Sharaf-uddin
of Samarkand. Finally, Baha-uddin was invited to Iconium
by 'Ala-uddin Kaikubad (1210-1236), the sultan of Asia Minor,
or, as it is commonly called in the East, Rum whence Jalal-
uddln's surname (takhallus) Rumi.
After Baha-uddin's death in 1231, Jalal-uddm went to
Aleppo and Damascus for a short time to study, but, dissatisfied
with the exact sciences, he returned to Iconium, where he
became by and by professor of four separate colleges, and
devoted himself to the study of mystic theosophy. His first
spiritual instructor was Sayyid Burhan-uddln Husainl of
Tirmidh, one of his father's disciples, and, later on, the wander-
ing Sufi Shams-uddin of Tabriz, who soon acquired a most
powerful influence over Jalal-uddin. Shams-uddln's aggressive
character roused the people of Iconium against him, and during
a riot in which Jalal-uddln's eldest son, * Ala-uddin, was killed,
he was arrested and probably executed; at least he was no
more seen. In remembrance of these victims of popular
wrath Jalal-uddin founded the order of the Maulawl (in Turkish
Mevlevi) dervishes, famous for their piety as well as for their
peculiar garb of mourning, their music and their mystic dance
(sama), which is the outward representation of the circling
movement of the spheres, and the inward symbol of the circling
movement of the soul caused by the vibrations of a Sufi's
fervent love to God. The establishment of this order, which
still possesses numerous cloisters throughout the Turkish
empire, and the leadership of which has been kept in Jalal-
uddln's family in Iconium uninterruptedly for the last six
hundred years, gave a new stimulus to his zeal and poetical
inspiration. Most of his matchless odes were composed in
honour of the Maulawl dervishes, and even his opus magnum,
the Mathnawi (Mesnevi), or, as it is usually called, The Spiritual
Mathnawi (mathnawl-i-ma nawi) , in six books or daftars,
with 30,000 to 40,000 double-rhymed verses, can be traced to
the same source. The idea of this immense collection of ethical
and moral precepts was first suggested to the poet by his
favourite disciple Hasan, better known as Husam-uddln, who
in 1258 became Jalal-uddln's chief assistant. Jalal-uddin
dictated to him, with a short interruption, the whole work
during the remaining years of his life. Soon after its comple-
tion Jalal-uddin died, on the I7th of December 1273 (672 A.H.
5th of Jornada II.). His first successor in the rectorship of
the Maulawi fraternity was Husam-uddln himself, after whose
death in 1284 Jalal-uddln's younger and only surviving son,
Shaikh Bahaudd-m Ahmed, commonly called Sultan Walad,
and favourably known as author of the mystical mathnawi
Rababnama, or the Book of the Guitar (died 1312), was duly
installed as grand-master of the order.
Afi
the most important portions of which have been translated by . . ...
Redhouse in the preface to his English metrical version of The
Mesnevi, Book the First (London, 1881); there is also an abridged
translation of the Mathnawi, with introduction on Sufism, by E. H.
Whinfield (and ed., 1898). Complete editions have been printed in
Bombay, Lucknow, Tabriz, Constantinople and in Bulaq (with a
Turkish translation, 1268 A.H.), at the end of which a seventh daftar
is added, the genuineness of which is refuted by a remark of Jalal-
uddin himself in one "of the Bodleian copies of the poem, Ouseley,
294 (f. 3280 seq.). A revised edition was made by 'Abd-ullatif
between 1024 and 1032 A.H., and the same author's commentary on
the Mathnawi, Lata'if-ulma'nawi, and his glossary, Lata'if-allughal,
have been lithographed in Cawnpore (1876) and Lucknow (1877)
respectively, the latter under the title Farhang-i-malhnam. For
the other numerous commentaries and for further biographical and
literary particulars of Jalal-uddin, see Rieu's Cat. of the Persian MSS
RUMINANTIA RUNEBERG
851
of the Brit. Mus., vol. ii. p. 584 seq. ; A. Sprenger's Oudh Cat., p. 489 ;
Sir Gore Ouseley, Notices of Persian Poets, p. 1 12 seq.; H. Ethd, in
Morgenldndische Studien (Leipzig, 1870), p. 95 seq., and in Geiger
and Kuhn's Grundriss der iranischen Philologie (Stuttgart, 1896-
1904), vol. ii. pp. 287-292. Selections from Jalal-uddln's diwan
(often styled Diwan-i-Shams-i-Tabriz) are translated in German
verse by V. von Rosenzweig (Vienna, 1838); into English by R. A.
Nicholson (2nd ed., 1898) and W. Hastie (1903). (H. E.)
RUMINANTIA, a term employed by Cuvier to include all
the existing artiodactyle ruminating ungulate mammals now
classed under the groups Pecora, Tylopoda and Tragulina. By
Professor Max Weber it is employed as a collective designation
for these groups, together with the extinct Anthracotheroidea
and Dichobunoidea; but its use seems best restricted to a
general term rather than a definite systematic group. (See
ARTIODACTYLA, PECORA, TYLOPODA.)
RUMKER, CARL LUDWIG CHRISTIAN (1788-1862), German
astronomer, was born in Mecklenburg on the 28th of May 1788.
He served in the British navy from 1807 until 1817, and was
director of the school of navigation at Hamburg from 1819
till 1820. In 1821 he went to New South Wales as astronomer
at the observatory built at Parramatta by Sir Thomas Brisbane.
He returned to Europe in 1830 and took charge -of the obser-
vatory at Hamburg. His chief work was concerned with
the cataloguing of stars: a preliminary catalogue of the stars
of the S. hemisphere was published in 1832 at Hamburg, and
in 1846-52 he published his great catalogue of 12,000 stars.
In 1857 he went to reside at Lisbon, where he died on the 2ist
of December 1862.
His son, GEORGE FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1832-1900), born on
the 3ist of December 1832, at Hamburg, was astronomer at
the observatory at Durham, England, from 1853 to 1856.
He then became assistant at the Hamburg observatory, and
in 1862 was appointed director of the same institution. From
1884 he was the Hamburg delegate for the International
Earth Measurement. He died on the 3rd of March 1900.
RUNCIMAN, ALEXANDER (1736-1785), Scottish historical
painter, was born in Edinburgh in 1736. He studied at
Foulis's Academy, Glasgow, and at the age of thirty proceeded
to Rome, where he spent five years. It was at this time that
he became acquainted with Fuseli. The painter's earliest
efforts had been in landscape; he soon, however, turned to
historical and imaginative subjects, exhibiting his " Nausicaa
at Play with her Maidens" in 1767 at the Free Society of British
Artists, Edinburgh. On his return from Italy, after a brief
residence in London, where in 1772 he exhibited in the Royal
Academy, he settled in Edinburgh, and was appointed master
of the Trustees' Academy. He was patronized by Sir James %
Clerk, whose hall at Penicuik House he decorated with a series
of subjects from Ossian. He also executed various religious
paintings and an altar-piece in the Cowgate Episcopal Church,
Edinburgh, and easel pictures of " Cymon and Iphigenia," " Sigis-
munda weeping over the Heart of Tancred," and " Agrippina
landing with the Ashes of Germanicus." He died in Edinburgh
on the 4th of October 1785. His works, while they show high
intention and considerable imagination, are frequently defective
in form and extravagant in gesture. His younger brother,
JOHN RUNCIMAN (1744-1766), who accompanied him to Rome,
and died at Naples in 1766, was an artist of great promise.
His " Flight into Egypt," in the National Gallery of Scotland,
is remarkable for the precision of its execution and the mellow
richness of its colouring.
RUNCORN, a market town and river-port in the Northwich
parliamentary division of Cheshire, England, on the S. of the
estuary of the Mersey 16 m. above Liverpool. Pop. of urban
district (1901) 16,491. It is served by the London & North-
Western railway, and has extensive communications by canal.
The modern prosperity of the town dates from the completion
in 1773 of the Bridgewater Canal, which here descends into
the Mersey by a flight of locks. Runcorn is a sub-port of
Manchester, with which it is connected by the Manchester
Ship Canal, and has extensive wharfage and warehouse accom-
modation. The chief exports are coal, salt and pitch; but
there is also a large traffic in potters' materials. A trans-
porter bridge between Runcorn and Widnes, with a suspended
car worked by electricity to convey passengers and vehicles
(the first bridge of the kind in England) was constructed in
1902. The town possesses shipbuilding yards, iron foundries,
rope works, tanneries, and soap and alkali works.
Owing to the Mersey being here fordable at low water,
Runcorn was in early times of considerable military importance.
On a rock which formerly jutted into the Mersey jEthelfleda
erected a castle in 916, but of the building there are now no
remains; while the rock was removed to further the cutting
of the ship canal, ^thelfleda is also said to have founded
a town, but it is not noticed in Domesday. The ferry is
noticed in a charter in the I2th century.
RUNDALE (apparently from "to run" and "dale," valley,
originally something separated off, cf. " deal" ), the name of a
form of occupation of land, somewhat resembling the English
' common field " system. The land is divided into discon-
tinuous plots, and cultivated and occupied by a number of
tenants to whom it is leased jointly. The system was common
in Ireland, especially in the western counties. In Scotland,
where the system also existed, it was termed " run-rig " (from
" run," and " rig " or " ridge ").
RUNEBERG, JOHAN LUDVIG (1804-1877), Swedish poet,
son of a sea-captain, was born at Jakobstad, in Finland, on the
5th of February 1804. He was brought up by an uncle at
Uleaborg, and entered the university of Abo in the autumn
term of 1822. In 1823 he broke off his studies to act as tutor
in two quiet Finnish villages, Saarijarvi and Ruovesi, where he
gained a thorough knowledge of the popular life and poetry,
and on his return to Abo he began to contribute verses to the
local newspapers. In the spring of 1827 he received the degree
of doctor of philosophy. The university had been removed
after the great fire of 1827 to Helsingfors, where Runeberg
became, in 1830, amanuensis to the council of the university.
In the same year he published at Helsingfors his first volume
of Dikter (Poems), and a collection of Serbiska folks&nger (Servian
folksongs) translated into Swedish. In 1831 his verse romance
of Finnish life, Grafven i Perrho (The Grave in Perrho), received
the small gold medal of the Swedish Academy, and the poet
married Fredrika Charlotta Tengstrom, daughter of the arch-
bishop of Finland. In the same year he was appointed
university lecturer on Roman literature. In 1832 he published
his beautiful little idyll, Elgskyttarne (The Elk-Hunters); and
in 1833 a second collection of lyrical poems. He founded in
1832 the Helsingfors Morgonblad, a paper which dealt chiefly
with aesthetic and literary questions, and exercised great
influence both in Sweden and Finland. In it appeared many of
his own poems and tales. His comedy, Friaren frdn Landet (The
Country Lover, 1834), was not a success, but in 1836 he published
Hanna, a charming idyll of Finnish country life, written in
hexameters. In 1837 Runeberg accepted the chair of Latin
at Borga College, and resided in that little town for the rest of
his life.
He was now recognized in his remote Finland retirement
as second only to Tegner among the poets of Sweden. In 1841
he published Nadeschda, a romance of modern Russian life,
and Julqvallen (Christmas Eve), another idyll of Finnish life.
The third volume of his Dikter bears the date 1843, and the
noble cycle of unrhymed verse romances called Kung Fjalar,
the setting of which is taken from old Scandinavian legend,
was published in 1844. Finally, in 1848, he achieved a great
popular success by his splendid series of poems on the war of
independence in 1808, when Swedes and Finns fought side by
side. The series bears the name of Fanrik St&ls Siigner (Ensign
Steel's Stones); a second series appeared in 1860. From
1847 to 1850 the poet was rector of Borga College, a post which
he resigned to take the only journey out of Finland which he
ever accomplished, a visit to Sweden in 1851. In 1854 he
collected his prose essays into a volume entitled Smdrre
Beriillelser. In the same year he was made president of a
committee for the preparation of a national Psalter, which
852
RUNES
issued, in 1857, a psalm-book largely contributed by Runeberg
for public use. He once more attempted comedy in his Kan ej
(Can't) in 1862, and tragedy, with infinitely more success, in
his stately Kungarne p& Salamis (The Kings at Salamis) in
1863. Runeberg died at Boiga on the 6th of May 1877. His
writings were collected by C. R. Nyblom in six volumes in 1870,
and his posthumous writings in three volumes (1878-79).
The poems of Runeberg show the influence of the Greeks
and of Goethe upon his mind; but he possesses a great
originality. It is hardly possible to over-estimate the value
of his patriotic poems as a link between the Swedish and
Finnish nations. He has remained one of the most popular
Swedish poets, although his whole life was spent in Finland.
An account of his life and works by C. R. Nyblom is prefixed to
the Samlade Skrifter of 1870. For a minute criticism of Runeberg's
principal poems, with translations, see Gosse's Studies in the
Literature of Northern Europe (1879). A selection of his lyrical pieces
was published in an English translation by Messrs Magnusson &
Palmer in 1878. There are also monographs on Runeberg by
Dietrichson and Rancken (Stockholm, 1864), by Cygnaus (Helsing-
fors, 1873), by Ljunggren (Lund, 1882-83), and Peschier (Stutt-
gart, 1881).
RUNES, RUNIC LANGUAGE AND INSCRIPTIONS. The art of
writing with an alphabet appears to have been introduced into
Germanic Europe in the Iron Age. Something hieratic and
mysterious was involved in the idea of letters as used to convey
thought, and from the earliest recorded times they were called
runes, from the Gothic runa (run, in Icelandic), which originally
means a secret thing, a mystery, and was later used to describe
a letter of the ancient language (see ALPHABET and SCAN-
DINAVIAN LANGUAGES). The Iron Age is supposed to have
existed from circa 200 to circa 650, and it is to the close of
this epoch that the beginning of the writing on Scandinavian
memorials is attributed. There are runes which have been dis-
covered in England, and some also on the Germanic mainland
of Europe, but it is in the Scandinavian peninsula that the vast
majority of inscribed monuments have been discovered. The
custom of erecting runic monuments, i.e. stones engraved with
more or less literary statements, over the bodies of the dead,
was practised first, there can be no doubt, in Norway and Sweden,
then spread to Denmark and over the whole North of Europe.
It is remarkable, however, that two of the three runic alphabets
from which our knowledge of the whole range of rune-literature
is founded, were discovered outside Scandinavia. These three
alphabets exist, the first on a thin gold bractea found in 17 74 at
Vadstena, in Sweden; the second on a bracelet, dug up at
Charnoy, in Burgundy; the third on a knife, found in the
Thames in 1857, and now in the British Museum. There are
two principal runic alphabets, the older consisting of 24 letters,
and beginning with f; the later of 16 letters. During the last
century before the introduction of Christianity, the larger
alphabet was increased by 3 letters.
The oldest runes which have been examined are those found
on the Thorsbjerg Shield-buckle, which is at present in the Kiel
Museum; here the writing, which runs from right to left in
straight lines, is of the fourth or fifth century. Other invaluable
sources of runic knowledge are the diadem of Straarur, the
Vimose comb and the brooch of Himlingoje, which was found
in the Vier Fen. Still greater importance has the Golden
Horn, discovered at Gellehuus, near Tondern, in 1734; this
monument was stolen by thieves and melted down, but for-
tunately not until a careful copy of it had been made, which is
now in the Museum at Copenhagen. It is not until the 6th
century that the runic stones begin. The most ancient are
believed to be those of Einang, of Tune, of Strand, of Varnum,
of Tanum and of Berga. Perhaps a little later are the stones
at Vaanga, Skarkind, Skaaang, Torvik, Bo and others, too
numerous to mention, but all, as seems likely, erected between
550 and 600. On the famous Tune-stone, the name of the
author of the inscription is preserved, "I Wiwar made these
runes," and this is not an isolated instance. The original
direction of the runic writing was from left to right, like Latin,
but quite early the reverse method was introduced. A union
of these forms produced more complicated systems, in which
much was left to the individual taste.
From the earliest times uninscribed memorial stones in
Scandinavia, bautasteinar , were raised to preserve the memory
of the dead, and these certainly partook of a more or less religious
and sacrificial character. It is evident that, during the Iron
Age, stones continued to be erected which had no inscriptions,
after the runic alphabets had been invented, and that at first
the runes were added only in cases of great importance or
solemnity. These runic stones were as a rule posed on the top
of the grave, or by the side of it, on mounds, of which only one
example survives, that of the stone of Einang, in Norway. But
runic stones were not infrequently placed in the grave itself.
These were smaller than those erected outside the grave, and
they did not lend themselves to lengthy or elaborate inscrip-
tions. The majority of graves containing such small rune-
stones, bearing merely the name of the deceased or a magical
sentence, have been found in Norway. But the antiquity of
most of these is questioned, that of Vatn, which is the oldest,
being now placed no earlier than the 8th century. The very
important stone of Valdby, which is the oldest Norwegian
monument employing the shorter alphabet, is attributed by
Wimmer to heathen times, indeed, but to a date no earlier
than the second half of the gth century. It is supposed that
the most ancient of the runic stones of Sweden, those respec-
tively of Vanga, Skarkind and Kinnevad, must have come
from the interior of graves, but there is no certain proof of this.
The latest criticism tends to the belief that when runes were
first inscribed on Scandinavian monuments, they were^placed
both upon and inside graves, but that after the runic letters
had been used for about a century, the latter custom tended to
exclude the former. About the year 800 both customs began
to invade Denmark, the practice of placing the rune-stones
inside, however, soon getting the upper hand. It is a curious
fact that in Iceland not a single rune-stone which can be re-
ferred back to heathen times is known to exist; the Icelandic
rune-stones all date from a period well advanced in the middle
ages. It was the old theory that the ancient stones had
mouldered away under stress of weather, but that is abandoned,
and it is now supposed that the aristocratic exiles from Norway,
who settled in Iceland, had not yet adopted in their old home
the practice of inscribed monuments to their dead. There
were bautasteinar in Iceland, as we know, but there is no evidence
that these bore runes upon them.
It is in Denmark that the runic inscriptions exist which pos-
sess the highest literary interest. These are all attributed to
the beginning of the Qth century. The Kallerup Stone was
discovered in 1826 at the village of Hojetostrup, a Danish mile
E. of Roskilde; it has been lifted and placed in its original
position. This monument contains a statement in old Danish,
to the effect that it marks the grave of Hornbora, son of Swidi.
The Stone of Snoldelev was discovered in 1768, not far from
the spot where the Kallerup Stone was found; it is now in the
Archaeological Museum at Copenhagen; this has a long and
important inscription in a form of old Scandinavian, allied to
the classical Icelandic. The Stone of Helnaes was found on the
islet of that name in 1860, and is now at Copenhagen. The
other most famous runic monuments are those of Flemlose,
Orja, Norrenaera, Glarendrup, Fryggevaelde and Ronninge,
of all of which Wimmer has published full analytical de-
scriptions.
These inscriptions are of remarkable value as historical
documents, from a period of which no other definite records
remain in existence. From a literary point of view, they re-
present what Germanic language was up to the point at which
Ulfilas created a new alphabet for his version of the Bible,
by adapting to the runic alphabets a number of Greek letters.
It was an error, now exploded, to suppose that the notae im-
pressae, which Tacitus describes in his Germania, were written
runes; these were simply signs, or mystic marks, which had no
linguistic significance. These are described in the staves of the
Edda as having been revealed to mankind by the god Odin,
RUNG RUNNING
853
and they were of a hieratic character. The suggestion is that
the written runes were introduced from the south of Europe by
a Phoenician agency, and that they were copied from Greek or
Roman coins which had found their way to Scandinavia. In
several of the sagas it is recorded that runes were inscribed
on round pieces of wood, called kefli, or runic sticks. It has been
suggested that the Eddaic poems were preserved in this way,
but the only authority for this is that the Sonatorrek is said to
have been taken down on a kefli. In Christian times runes
came to be regarded as an archaic curiosity, and were engraved
on sticks, chairs and spoons; a loto stick with runes on it
is preserved in the Bodleian library. In the Fornsogur runes
are mentioned as carved on the blade of an oar. Even cases
occur in which the normal Latin alphabet was called runamdl
or a language of Runes. A runic letter was called a rtinaslafr in
Icelandic.
AUTHORITIES. Ludwig F. A. Wimmer, Runeskriftens oprindelse
og udvikling i Norden (Copenhagen, 1874) ; L. F. A. Wimmer,
Die Runenschrift (Berlin, 1887); J. Taylor, Greeks and Goths:
a Study on the Runes (London, 1879) ; G. Stephens, The Old-
Northern Runic Monuments of Scandinavia and England (Copen-
hagen, 1879); Bugge, Tolkning of runeindskriften pa Rokstenen i
Ostergotland (Stockholm, 1878); Cleasby and Vigfussen, Icelandic-
English Dictionary (Oxford, 1874); Wilhelm Grimm, Ueber deutsche
Runen (Gottingen, 1821); Olsen, Runerne i den oldislandske Literatur
(Christiania, 1891). (E. G.)
RUNG, a short round bar or stick used as a cross-bar or rail
in a chair, and particularly as one of the steps or rounds of a
ladder. In Scottish the word retains the original meaning of a
staff or stick, especially a short thick cudgel. The O.E. hrung
is used only of a bar or rail in a wagon; the word also occurs
in O.Du. range, beam of a plough, Ger. Runge, pin, bolt.
RUNNIMEDE, or RUNNYMEDE, a meadow on the S. bank
of the river Thames, England, in the county of Surrey and the
parish of Egham. It is celebrated in connexion with the signa-
ture of Magna Carta (<?..) by King John on the I5th of June
1215. It has been disputed whether the ceremony took place
actually in the meadow or on Magna Carta or Charter Island
lying off it. The charter itself indicates Runnimede by name,
but this may have included the island, which is the traditional
site and was in 1217 the meeting-place of Henry III. and Louis
(afterwards Louis VIII.) of France.
RUNNING, the most primitive form of athletic exercise
considered as a sport. Athletic apparatus of every kind has
been improved in modern times, but the spiked running-shoe
may be said to represent the sole advantage enjoyed by the
modern runner over his Olympic prototype. As an athletic
sport running has been in vogue from the earliest times, and
the simple foot-race (dpofj.os), run straight away from starting-
point to goal, or once over the course of the stadion (a little
over 200 yds.), formed an event in the Greek pentathlon, or
quintuple games (see GAMES, CLASSICAL). It was diversified
with the race once over the course and return, and the StduXos,
a long run many times (often as many as twelve, i.e. about
2\ m.) up and down the stadion. There was also the Spo/uos
orrXirwc, a short race for warriors, who wore full armour and
carried sword and shield, which has been imitated by the
modern military race in full marching order. Except in the
warriors' race the Greek runners were naked, save occasionally
for a pair of light shoes. No records of the times made by the
runners in the Greek races have been handed down. It may
be inferred that the contests were very severe, since the ancient
Olympic chronicles preserve the memory of several runners,
of whom Ladas was the most conspicuous, who fell dead at
the completion of the long course, and were buried in state
with their brows encircled by the victor's chaplet. In ancient
Italy running was practised in circus exhibitions, as described
by Virgil (Aen. v. 286 seq.).
In the middle ages the best runners were oftenest found
among the couriers maintained by potentates and munici-
palities, those of Tartary, England, Scotland, Italy and the
Basque country having enjoyed the greatest reputation, while
the Peichs, or Persian couriers of the Turkish sultans, often
ran from Constantinople to Adrianople and back, a distance
of about 220 m., in two days and nights. Many couriers carried
silver beads in their mouths to obviate thirst. Couriers (syce)
who run before the carriages of their masters are still in use
in the East. In the districts of India not traversed by railways,
dak runners are still employed to carry the mails from village
to village, many wearing bells about their necks to frighten
away the tigers. The runners of the American Indians were
famous, and extraordinary tales are told of their swiftness and
endurance.
In all parts of Great Britain, running at short distances, as
well as steeplechases and cross-country runs, has been popu-
lar for many centuries, each district and period having its
champions, some of whom achieved national reputation. Dur-
ting the Puritan rule and that of Charles II. athletic sports all but
died out in England, only to be revived with renewed vigour
in the early part of the ipth century, when the public schools
and universities began to pay more attention to them. A
significant event in the history of running was the institution
of the famous " Crick Run" (cross-country) at Rugby in 1837.
The establishment of the Cambridge University sports (1857),
the Oxford sports (1860), and the British championship meet-
ings (1866) placed athletics upon a formal and recognized basis.
Records made thereafter received the stamp of authenticity,
those made in former years being doubtful on account of lax
measurements and timing. In the United States and Canada
authentic records date from the institution of the American
Championships in 1876. The National Association of Amateur
Athletes of America was formed in 1880.
Running at the present day is divided into sprinting (dis-
tances up to one-quarter of a mile), middle-distance running
(from one-quarter of a mile to 1000 yds.) and long-distance
running (over 1000 yds.).
Sprinting consists of running over short distances with a
full and continuous burst of speed, the chief distances being
100 yds., 220 yds. and quarter-mile. Distances up to and in-
cluding 220 yds. are in America called dashes. The course for
sprinting races, when run in the open air, is marked off in lanes
for the individual runners by means of cords stretched upon
short iron rods. Starting in sprints has now become very
expert. The old method of dropping a handkerchief was the
worst possible way to give the starting signal, since the muscles
react most slowly to impressions of sight, less so to those of
touch, and most quickly to those of sound, a difference of T^TT
of a second in reaction amounting to over one foot in a run of
100 yds. All modern foot-races are therefore started by the
pistol; the runners wait for the signal in a crouching attitude,
with the fingers of both hands resting on the ground on each
side of the body, from which position they spring upwards and
forwards at the sound of the pistol. The crouching start was
found to be much quicker in getting off the mark than the
upright attitude formerly adopted, and by 1892 had been
adopted by all first-class sprinters in America, and a year or
two later in Great Britain. Another advantage is that the
runner is steadier on the mark, and since its adoption the
prescribed penalty of being placed one yard behind the mark
for starting before the pistol-shot has been very seldom enforced,
and the risky experiment of " beating the pistol," i.e. letting
the body fall forward in the hope that the shot would come
before the feet had to be moved, has practically disappeared.
The improvement in training and the adoption of the crouch-
ing start have resulted in the continued reduction of sprinting
records. " Even time," or 10 sees., is still considered a fine
performance for the hundred yards, but has been repeatedly
beaten both in England and America. A. F. Duffey, who,
like C. A. Bradley and J. W. Morton, won the English champion-
ship in four successive years, shares with D. J. Kelly the record,
9$ sees., for 100 yds.; and J. W. Morton, a Scot, as well as
J. H. Hempton and W. T. Macpherson of New Zealand, are
credited with 9^ sees. The excellence of American runners
in the sprints is probably accounted for partly by temperament
influenced by climate; but the American practice of running
RUODLIEB
short races of from 50 to 75 yds. during the numerous indoor
meetings held in winter-time offers excellent training in start-
ing and getting rapidly into full stride.
The best time for the eighth mile (220 yds.), a distance often
run in America, is 21^ sees., made in 1896 on a straightaway
track by B. J. Wefers.
The quarter-mile (440 yds.) is almost always run on a
curved track, and hence a quick start is important, for should
the runner who has the advantage of the inside position allow
himself to be outrun in the distance to the first turn, one of his
opponents is likely to cut in and deprive him of it, while on the
other hand a runner on the outside must actually outrun the
inside man in order to be on even terms after the turn. The
element of strategy, unknown in straight sprints, thus enters
into the quarter. Speed is, of course, the chief requisite for a
quarter-miler, but a certain amount of staying power is also
necessary. The standard time for the quarter is 50 sees.,
which means an average speed of 11-3 sees, for each 100 yds.
round the course. That of M.W. Long of Columbia University,
who made the record, 47 sees., in 1900, was on that occasion
i0'68 sees, for each hundred yards.
The system of " relay races," usually run by four men each
going a quarter of the distance, is a popular variety. The
favourite distance is a mile, each man running a quarter at top
speed. This method of racing was introduced in the United
States about the year 1890 on the model of the Massachusetts
firemen's '' bean-pot " races, and has since become very popular
there. The old method was for the men running the second
quarter of the course to wait on the mark for the first relay
men to arrive, and then, snatching small flags from their hands,
to continue the race, handing over the flags to the third relay
upon completing their quarter. The flags, being cumbersome,
were afterwards abandoned, and the new runners are now
required only to touch the persons of the preceding contestants.
The i m. record, 3 min. 2i| sees., was made in 1898 by
B. J. Wefers, M. W. Long, T. E. Burke and H. S. Lyons of the
New York Athletic Club.
Middle- Distance Running. The chief middle distances are
600 yds., 660 yds., 880 yds. (half-mile) and 1000 yds., but of
these the half-mile is the only one commonly recognized in
championship sports. Endurance is more important at these
distances, though speed is essential, and the element of strategy
increases. An element unknown to sprinting enters into middle-
and long-distance runs, namely that of pace-making; even
when the real race is between two individuals at least one other
runner on each side takes part in the contest, in order to " make
the pace" for his principal. Emilio Lunghi (U.S.A.) holds
the half-mile world's record of i min. 52^ sees., made in 1909.
J. F. K. Cross of Oxford University ran the half-mile at Oxford
in 1888 in i min. 54! sees. The record for 1000 yds., 2 min.
13 sees., was made by L. E. Myers (U.S.A.). The distance of
three-quarters of a mile is seldom run now at large meetings.
Long-Distance Running. This includes all flat races of i m.
or more, as well as Steeplechasing, hare-and-hounds, and other
forms of cross-country running. Great Britain has always been
the home of long-distance running, different forms of cross-
country racing having been popular all over the kingdom for
centuries. In England at the championship meeting the
distance events on the flat are the i m., 4 m. and 10 m.
races, and in the inter-university sports the i m. and
3 m. ; in America the distances are i m., 2 m. and 5 m.;
but any and all of these distances are often included
in important British and American programmes. Hard
daily training is necessary for a distance runner. Good pace-
making and strategy in general are of great importance. The
runner must learn to " run to the watch," i.e. to cover the
different portions of the distance in a certain time, in order to
be placed most advantageously for the finish. The mile race
requires speed as well as stamina. Most champion milers are
capable of doing the half under 2 min. The record for
the mile, made in 1886 at Lillie Bridge by W. G. George, as a
professional, is 4 min., I2j sees.; the amateur record is 4 min.
Distance.
Name.
Time.
Date.
Place.
h. m. s.
2 miles
A. Shrubb
9 9t
1904
Glasgow
3
A. Shrubb
'4 '71
1903
Stamford Bridge
4
A. Shrubb
1923!
1004
Glasgow
5
A. Shrubb
2433!
1904
Stamford Bridge
10
A. Shrubb
5040!
1904
Glasgow
15
F. Appleby
I 20 4f
1902
Stamford Bridge
20
G. Crossland
i 51 54
1894
Stamford Bridge
30
J. A. Squires
3 17 3^i
1885
Balham
40
J. E. Dixon
446 54
1884
Birmingham
50
J. E. Dixon
6 18 26i
1885
Balham.
i5 sees., made by T. P. Conneff in America, J. Binks, holding
the British amateur record with 4 min. i6 sees., made at
Stamford Bridge in 1002. The longer-distance races require
more stamina than speed, and a careful husbanding of strength.
The following table gives the records (up to 1908) for the
distance runs on the flat, longer than i m. :
In addition to the records for the above-mentioned distances,
Shrubb held in 1908 the records for 6, 7, 8, 9 and II m., and also for
the greatest distance covered in I h., namely, II m. 1316 yds.
He won the 4 m. and the 10 m. British championship 1901-4 inclusive,
and the I m. championship 1903 and 1904; also the French i m.
and 3 m. championship 1902-4 inclusive. Shrubb was moreover
a first-rate cross-country runner also; he won the British 10 m.
cross-country championship 1901-4 inclusive, and the international
8 m. cross-country championship 1902-4. In 1863 a full-blooded
Seneca Indian, L. Bennet, known as " Deerfoot," ran 12 m. in
i h. 2 m. 2j sees.
Real cross-country running is a fast jog over hill and dale.
It may take the form of a race from the gymnasium or club-
house across the fields to a given spot and back again, passing
certain objects or buildings; of a practice run behind the coach
preparatory to a long-distance race on the track; or of a paper-
chase, or hare-and-hounds, the " hares," two or three in number,
starting a few minutes before the " hounds," and leaving a trail
of scraps of paper dropped from bags, which must be followed
by the " hounds." In Great Britain the standard distance is
10 m., but in America it is somewhat less, the distance for
the intercollegiate championship race being 6j m.
Steeplechasing was originally only a cross-country run over a
course plentifully provided with natural obstacles, such as
brooks, ditches, fences and hedges; but at the present day the
steeplechase takes place in the inner enclosure of an athletic
field and the obstacles are artificial. They are placed about
70 or 80 yds. apart, and consist of hurdles, a stone wall about
3 ft. high and 2 or 3 ft. broad, and a water-jump, a ditch about
6 ft. broad filled with water and guarded by a wall or fence
covered with thick furze or other thick shrubbery. Steeple-
chase courses differ widely, but the usual distance both in
Great Britain and America is 2 m. The time necessary to
cover this distance varies according to the difficulties of the
course, but a few seconds under n min. is considered very
fast time.
Team-racing is a favourite form of distance running, each team
consisting of 10 men and the distance usually 4 m., the standard
of the modern Olympic Games. Different systems of scoring are
in vogue, but the usual one allows the winner ten points, the second
to arrive nine, and so on, the tenth arrival scoring one. The team
aggregating the highest number of points wins.
Among modern distance events the Marathon Run of about
40 kilometres (24 m. 1500 yds.) is the most important. It
was introduced in the first revived Olympic Games at Athens in 1896
(see ATHLETIC SPORTS) in memory of the famous Greek runner who
was said to have brought the news of the battle of Marathon in
Athens, dropping dead when his task was finished.
RUODLIEB, a romance in Latin verse by an unknown German
poet who flourished about 1030; he was almost certainly a
monk of the Bavarian abbey of Tegernsee. The poem is one
of the earliest German romances of knightly adventure, and
its vivid picture of feudal manners gives it a certain value as an
historical document. The poet was probably an eye-witness
of the episode (11. 4231-5221) which represents the meeting of
the emperor Henry II. with Robert of France on the banks
RUPAR RUPERT, PRINCE
855
of the Maas in 1023. Ruodlieb was left unfinished, and further-
more the MS. was cut up and used for binding books, so that
the fragments were only gradually discovered (from 1807
onwards) and pieced together. The framework of the story
is borrowed from a popular mdrchen of the youth who takes
service away from home, and is paid in wise saws instead of
current coin. He receives at the same time a loaf, with
instructions not to cut it until he is once more at home. This
contains the coins. The proverbs, usually three, in number,
were increased in Ruodlieb to twelve, each of which was the
starting-point of an episode by which the hero was made to
appreciate its value.
For exampjes of the three-proverb tale see W. Bottrell, Traditions
and Hearthside Stories (Penzance, 2nd series, 1873); Cuthbert
Bede, The White Wife ... (London, 1868); K. V. K.[illingerl,
Erin (Stuttgart and Tubingen, 1849), and others in the French
romance of the Saint Graal, in the Gesta Romanorum (the three
proverbs bought by Domitian) and the old French Dit des trois
pommes. The best edition of Ruodlieb is by F. Seller (Halle, 1882).
There is a modern version by M. Heine (Leipzig, 1897), and a full
analysis of the contents is given by R. Koegel, Gesch. d. deutschen
Lit. bis zum Ausgange des Mittelalters (Strassburg, 1894-97, ii. pp.
342-412).
RUPAR, a town of British India, in Umballa district of
the Punjab, on the left bank of the river Sutlej, 43 m. N. of
Umballa, 1120 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 8888. It was
the scene of Ranjit Singh's visit to Lord William Bentinck
when governor-general in 1831. Here are the head works of
the Sirhind canal. Rupar has manufactures of cotton twill
and hardware. Hindu and Mahommedan fairs are held.
RUPEE (Hindustani rupiya, from Sanskrit rupya), the
standard coin of the monetary system in India. A silver
coin of 175 grains Troy, called tanka, approximating to the
rupee, was struck by the Mahommedan rulers of Delhi in
the i3th century; but the rupee itself, of 179 grains, was
introduced by Sher Shah in 1542. The English at first followed
various indigenous standards; but since 1835 the rupee has
uniformly weighed 180 grains, containing 165 grains of pure
silver. The weight of the rupee (one tola) is also the unit
upon which the Indian standard of weights is based. Down
to about 1873 the gold value of the rupee was zs., and ten
rupees were thus equal to i; but after 1873, owing to the
depreciation of silver, the rupee at one time sank as low in
value as is. In order to provide a remedy the government
of India decided in 1893 to close the mints, and in 1899 to
make the rupee legal tender at fifteen to i. This policy
proved successful, and since 1899 the exchange value of the
rupee has practically remained at is. 4d. Therefore a
lakh of rupees, which before 1873 was worth 10,000, is now
only worth 6666, and a crore of rupees, which was formerly
a million sterling, now only amounts to 666,666. The rupee
is divided into sixteen annas, now worth id. each, and the
anna is subdivided into 12 pies. (See INDIA, and MONEY.)
RUPERT (HRODBERT), ST, according to the Gesta Sancti
Hrodberti, which dates from the 9th century, was a kinsman
of the Merovingian house, and bishop of Worms under Childe-
bert III. (695-711). At the invitation of the duke of Bavaria,
Theodo II., Rupert went to Regensburg (Ratisbon), where
he began his apostolate. He founded the church of St Peter
near the Wallersee, and subsequently, at Salzburg, the church
of St Peter, together with a monastery and a dwelling for the
clerks, as well as a convent for women " in superiori castro
luvavensium." He died and was buried at Salzburg. He
is regarded as the apostle of the Bavarians, not that the land
was up to that time altogether heathen, but because of his
services in the promotion and consolidation of its Christianity.
See Bibliothecd hagiographica Latino, (Brussels, 1899), n. 7390-
7403; W. Levison, " Die iilteste Lebensbeschreibung Ruperts von
Salzburg" in Neves Archiv fur aeltere deutsche Geschichtskunde,
xxviii. 283 seq.; Hauck, Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands (3rd ed.),
i. 372 seq. (H. DE.)
RUPERT, PRINCE, COUNT PALATINE OF THE RHINE AND
DUKE OF BAVARIA (1610-1682), third son of the elector palatine
and " winter king " of Bohemia, Frederick V., and of Elizabeth,
daughter of James I. of England, was born at Prague on the
1 7th of December 1619. A year later his father was defeated at
the battle of the Weisser-Berg, near Prague, and driven from
Bohemia. After many wanderings the family took refuge in
Holland, where Rupert's boyhood was spent. In 1633 the boy
was present at the siege of Rheinberg in the suite of the Prince
of Orange, and in 1635 he served in this prince's bodyguard.
In 1636 he paid his first visit to. England, was entered as an
undergraduate, though only nominally, at St John's College,
Oxford, and was named as the governor of a proposed English
colony in Madagascar. But this scheme did not mature, and
Charles sent his nephew back to Holland, having, however,
formed a high opinion of his energy, talent and resolution. In
1637 he was again serving in the wars, and in 1638, after dis-
playing conspicuous bravery, he was taken prisoner by the
imperialists at the action of Vlotho (i7th October) and held
in a not very strict captivity for three years. In 1641 he was
released, and, rejoining his mother in Holland, was summoned
to England to the assistance of his uncle, for the Great Rebellion
was about to break out.
In July 1642 he landed at Tynemouth. Charles at once
made him general of the horse and independent of Lord
Lindsey, the nominal commander of the whole army. From
this point until the close of the first Civil War in 1646 Prince
Rupert is the dominant figure of the war. His battles and.
campaigns are described in the article GREAT REBELLION.
He was distinctively a cavalry leader, and it was not until the
battle of Marston Moor in 1644 that the Royalist cavalry was
beaten. The prince's strategy was bold' as well as skilful,
as was shown both in the Royalist movements of 1644 which
he proposed, and in the two far-ranging expeditions which he
carried out for the relief of Newark and of York. In November
1644, in spite of the defeat at Marston Moor, he was appointed
general of the king's army. But this appointment, though
welcome to the army, was obnoxious to the king's counsellors,
who resented the prince's independence of their control, to
some of the nobility over whose titles to consideration he had
ridden roughshod, and to some of the officers whose indiscipline
and rapacity were likely to be repressed with a heavy hand.
These dissensions culminated, after the prince's surrender of
Bristol to Fairfax, in a complete break with Charles, who
dismissed him from all his offices and bade Rupert and his
younger brother Maurice seek their fortunes beyond the seas.
Rupert's character had been tempered by these years of
responsible command. By 1645, although the parliamentary
party accused him not merely of barbarity but of ingratitude
for the kindnesses which his family had received from English
people in the days of the Palatinate War, Rupert had in fact
become a good Englishman. He was convinced, after Marston
Moor, that the king's cause was lost, in a military sense, and
moreover that the king's cause was bad. When he surrendered
Bristol without fighting to the uttermost, it was because Fair-
fax placed the political issue in the foreground, and after the
capitulation the prince rode to Oxford with his enemies, frankly
discussing the prospect of peace. Already he had deliberately
advised Charles to make peace, and had come to be suspected,
in consequence, by Charles's optimistic adviser Digby. But to
Charles himself the news of the fall of Bristol was a thunderbolt.
" It is the greatest trial to my constancy that has yet befallen
me," he wrote to the prince, " that one that is so near to me in
blood and friendship submits himself to so mean an action."
Rupert was deeply wounded by the implied stain on his honour;
he forced his way to the king and demanded a court-martial.
The verdict of this court smoothed over matters for a time, but
Rupert was now too far estranged from the prevailing party at
court to be of any assistance, and after further misfortunes and
quarrels they separated, Charles to take refuge in the camp of
the Scots, Rupert to stay, as a spectator without command,
with the Oxford garrison. He received at the capitulation a
pass from the parliament to leave England, as did also his
faithful comrade Maurice.
For some time after this Rupert commanded the troops
856
RUPERT RUSELLAE
formed of English exiles in the French army, and received a
wound at the siege of La Bassee in 1647. Charles in misfortune
had understood something of his nephew's devotion, and wrote
to him in the friendliest terms, and though the prince had by
no means forgiven Digby, Colepeper and others of the council,
he obtained command of a Royalist fleet. The king's enemies
were now no longer the Presbyterians and the majority of the
English people but the stern Independent community, with
whose aims and aspirations he could not have any sympathy
whatever. A long and unprofitable naval campaign followed,
which extended from Kinsale to Lisbon and from Toulon to
Cape Verde. But the prince again quarrelled with the council,
and spent six years (1654-60) in Germany, during which
period nothing is known of him, except that he vainly attempted
(as also before and afterwards) to obtain the apanage to which
as a younger son he was entitled from his brother the elector
palatine. At the Restoration he settled in England again,
receiving from Charles II. an annuity and becoming a member
of the privy council. He never again fought on land, but,
turning admiral like Blake and Monk, he bore a brilliant part
in the Dutch Wars. He died at his house in Spring Gardens,
Westminster, on the apth of November 1682.
Apart from his military renown, Prince Rupert is a dis-
tinguished figure in the history of art as one of the earliest
mezzotinters. It has often been said that he was the inventor
of mezzotint engraving, but this is erroneous, as he obtained
the secret from a German officer, Ludwig von Siegen. One of
the most beautiful and valuable of early mezzotints is his " Head
of St John the Baptist." He was also interested in science,
experimented with the manufacture of gunpowder, the boring
of guns and the casting of shot, and invented a modified brass
called " prince's metal."
Prince Rupert was duke of Cumberland and earl of Holder-
ness in the English peerage. He was unmarried, but left two
natural children ; one a daughter who married General Emmanuel
Scrope Howe and died in 1740, and the other a son, whose
mother (who claimed that she was married to the prince) was
Frances, daughter of Sir Henry Bard, Viscount Bellamont.
The son was killed in 1686 at the siege of Buda.
See E. Warburton's Life of Pr. Rupert (London, 1849) and addi-
tional authorities quoted in the memoir by C. H. Firth in the Diet.
Nat. Biog.
RUPERT (1352-1410), German king, and, as Rupert III.,
elector palatine of the Rhine, was a son of the elector Rupert
II. and Beatrice, daughter of Peter II., king of Sicily. He was
born at Amberg on the sth of May 1352, and from his early
years took part in the government of the Palatinate to which
he succeeded on his father's death in 1398. He was one of the
four electors who met at Oberlahnstein in August 1400 and de-
clared King Wenceslaus deposed. This was followed by the
election of Rupert as German king at Rense on the 2ist of that
month, and by his coronation at Cologne on the 6th of the
following January. Winning some recognition in S. Germany,
he made an expedition to Italy, where he hoped to receive the
imperial crown, and to crush Gian Galleazzo Visconti, duke of
Milan. In the autumn of 1401 he crossed the Alps, but his
troops, checked before Brescia, melted away, and in 1402
Rupert, too poor to continue the campaign, returned to Ger-
many. The news of this failure increased the disorder in
Germany, but the king met with some success in his efforts to
restore peace, and in October 1403 he was recognized by Pope
Boniface IX. It was only the indolence of Wenceslaus that
prevented his overthrow, and in 1406 he was compelled to make
certain concessions. The quarrel was complicated by the papal
schism, but the king was just beginning to make some headway
when he died at his castle of Landskron near Oppenheim on the
i8th of May 1410 and was buried at Heidelberg. He married
Elizabeth, daughter of Frederick IV. of Hohenzollern, burgrave
of Nuremburg, and left three sons and four daughters. Rupert,
who earned the surname of clemens, was brave and generous,
but his resources were totally inadequate to bear the strain of
the German kingship.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. ).Chme\,Regestachronologico-diplomalicaRuperti
revis Romanorum (Frankfort, 1834); C. Hofler, Ruprecht von der
Pfalz genannt Clem romischer Komg (Freiberg, 1861); L. H&usser,
Geschichle der Rheinischen Pfalz (Heidelberg, 1845); Th. Lindner,
Geschichte des Deutschen Reiches vom Ende des 14 Jahrhunderts bis
zur Reformation (Brunswick, 1875-80), part i.; A. Winkelmann,
Der Romzug Ruprechts von der Pfalz (Innsbruck, 1892}; and J.
Weizsacker, Die Urkunden der Approbation Konig Ruprechts (Berlin,
1899).
RUPERT'S LAND, a former district of Canada. The generous
charter of Charles II. given in 1670 to the Hudson's Bay Com-
pany gave rights of possession, trade and administration of
justice " of all those seas, streights and bays, rivers, lakes,
creeks and sounds, in whatsoever latitude they shall be, that lie
within the entrance of the streights commonly called Hudson's
streights, together with all the lands, countries and territories
upon the coasts and confines of the seas, streights, bays, lakes,
rivers, creeks and sounds aforesaid, which are not now actually
possessed by any of our subjects, or by the subjects of any other
Christian prince or state."
The general interpretation given to this was that it included
all the country drained into Hudson Bay. As Prince Rupert
was first governor of the Hudson's Bay Company his name was
given to the concession under the name " Rupert's Land." It
will be observed that Athabasca, New Caledonia and British
Columbia were not included in this grant. They were held under
the title Indian Territories by the Hudson's Bay Company by
licence terminable every twenty-one years, the last term closing
with 1859. Rupert's Land was transferred to Canada by the
imperial government in 1870, and ceased to exist as a political
name. It is still used as the title of the episcopal diocese, which
is in the main coincident with the province of Manitoba.
RUPILIUS, PUBLIUS, Roman statesman, consul in 132 B.C.
During the inquiry that followed the death of Tiberius Gracchus,
conducted by himself and his colleague Popillius Laenas, he
proceeded with the utmost severity against the supporters of
Gracchus. In the same year he was despatched to Sicily, where
he suppressed the revolt of the slaves under Eunus. During
131 he remained as proconsul of the island, and, with the
assistance of ten commissioners appointed by the senate, drew
up regulations for the organization of Sicily as a province.
These regulations were known by the title of leges Rupiliae,
though they were not laws in the strict sense. Rupilius was
subsequently brought to trial (123 B.C.) and condemned for
his treatment of the friends of Gracchus. The disgrace of his
condemnation, added to disappointment at the failure of his
brother to obtain the consulship in spite of the efforts of Scipio,
caused his death shortly afterwards.
See Cicero, De Am. 19, Tusc. disp. iv. 17, in Verr. ii. 13, 15;
Diod. Sic. xxxiv. I, 20; Veil. Pat. ii. 7.
RUPPIN, or Neuruppin, a town of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Brandenburg, lies on the W. bank of a small lake,
the Ruppiner See, 37 m. N.W. of Berlin by rail. Pop. (1905)
I 8,555- The town, which was rebuilt in fine, regular fashion
after a destructive fire in 1787, contains three Protestant
churches, a Roman Catholic church and various educational
and benevolent institutions. Its inhabitants are employed in
the manufacture of cloth, starch and machinery, in iron-
founding and lithography. Important cattle and horse fairs
are held here. Ruppin received municipal rights in 1256.
The small town of Altruppin, lying at the north end of the
lake, has a isth-century church and some small manufactures.
Pop. (1905) 1813.
See Heydemann, Neuere Geschichte der Stadl Neuruppin(Neuruppin ,
1863); and G. Bittkau, Altere Geschichte der Stadt Neuruppin
(Neuruppin, 1887).
RUSELLAE, an ancient town of Etruria, Italy, about 10 m.
S.E. of Vetulonia and s^m. N.E. of Grosseto, situated on a hill
with two summits, the higher 636 ft. above sea-level. It was
one of the twelve cities of the Etruscan confederation, and was
taken in 294 B.C. by the Romans. In 205 B.C. it contributed
grain and timber for the needs of Scipio's fleet. A colony was
founded here either by the Triumviri or by Augustus. The
place was deserted in 1138, and the episcopal see was transferred
RUSH, B. RUSHWORTH
57
to Grosseto. The ruins are now thickly overgrown with
brushwood; but the walls, nearly 2 m. in circumference, are
in places well preserved. They consist of large unworked
blocks of a travertine which naturally splits into roughly rect-
angular blocks; these are quite irregular, and often as much
as 9 ft. long by 4 ft. wide: in the interstices smaller pieces are
inserted. The walls are embanking walls, with a low breastwork
in places. Within the circuit which they enclose, now under
cultivation, are two summits, one occupied by a Roman amphi-
theatre [the other by a tower (?) of uncertain date]: a Roman
cistern also is visible. Some 2 m. S.S.W. are modern baths,
fed by hot springs, which were in use in Roman times also, as
the discovery of remains of Roman buildings shows.
See G. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria (London, 1883),
ii. 222. (T. As.)
RUSH, BENJAMIN (1745-1813), American physician, was
born in Byberry township, near Philadelphia, on a homestead
founded by his grandfather, a Quaker gunsmith, who had followed
Penn from England in 1683. In 1760 he graduated at Princeton.
After serving an apprenticeship of six years with a doctor in
Philadelphia, he went for two years to Edinburgh, where he
attached himself chiefly to William Cullen. He took his M.D.
degree there in 1768, spent a year more in the hospitals of
London and Paris, and began practice in Philadelphia at the
age of twenty-four, undertaking at the same time the chemistry
class at the Philadelphia medical college. He was a friend of
Franklin, a member of Congress for the state of Pennsylvania in
1776, and one of those who signed the Declaration of Indepen-
dence the same year. He had already written on the Test Laws,
"Sermons to the Rich," and on negro slavery; and in 1774
he started along with James Pemberton the first anti-slavery
society in America, and was its secretary for many years.
In 1787 he was a member of the Pennsylvania convention
which adopted the Federal constitution, and thereafter
he retired from public life, and gave himself up wholly to
medical practice. In 1789 he exchanged his chemistry lecture-
ship for that of the theory and practice of physic; and when
the medical college, which he had helped to found, was absorbed
by the university of Pennsylvania in 1791 he became professor
of the institutes of medicine and of clinical practice, succeeding
in 1796 to the chair of the theory and practice of medicine. He
gained great credit when the yellow fever devastated Phila-
delphia, in 1793, by his assiduity in visiting the sick, and by his
bold and apparently successful treatment of the disease by
bloodletting. He died in Philadelphia on the igth of April
1813, after a five days' illness from typhus fever. His son
Richard is separately noticed. Another son, James (1786-1869),
was a physician, and author of various books, such as Philosophy
of the Human Voice (1827) and Analysis of the Human Intellect
(i86 S ) ;
Benjamin Rush's writings covered an immense range of subjects,
including language, the study of Latin and Greek, the moral faculty,
capital punishment, medicine among the American Indians, maple
sugar, the blackness of the negro, the cause of animal life, tobacco
smoking, spirit drinking, as well as many more strictly professional
topics. His last work was an elaborate treatise on the Diseases of
the Mind (1812). He is best known by the five volumes of Medical
Inquiries and Observations, which he brought out at intervals from
1789 to 1798 (two later editions revised by the author).
See eulogy by his friend Dr David Hosack (Essays, i., New York,
1824), with biographical details taken from a letter of Rush to
President John Adams; also references in the works of Thacker,
Gross and Bowditch on the history of medicine in America. His part
in the yellow fever controversies is indicated by La Roche (Yellow
Fever in Philadelphia from 1699 to 1854, 2 vols., Philadelphia, 1855)
and by Bancroft (Essay on the Yellow Fever, London, 1811). His
services as an abolitionist pioneer are recorded in Clarkson's History
of the Abolition of the African Slave Trade.
RUSH, RICHARD (1780-1859), American statesman and
diplomatist, son of Dr Benjamin Rush, was born in Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, on the 29th of August 1780. He graduated at
Princeton in 1797, and was admitted to the bar in 1800. He
was attorney-general of Pennsylvania in 1811, comptroller of
the treasury of the United States in 1811-14, attorney-
general in the cabinet of President James Madison in 1814-17,
acting secretary of state from March to September 1817, minister
to Great Britain in 1817-25, secretary of the treasury in the
cabinet of President J. Q. Adams in 1825-29, and candidate for
vice-president on the Adams ticket in 1828. In 1818, while
minister to Great Britain, he, in association with Albert Gallatin,
concluded with British plenipotentiaries the important treaty
which determined the boundary line between the United States
and Canada from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Moun-
tains and provided for the joint occupation of Oregon for ten
years. He also conducted the negotiations with Canning in
1823 relating to the S. American policy of the Holy Alliance.
He followed the Adams-Clay faction of the Democratic-
Republican party in the split of 1825-28, but returned to
the Democratic party about 1834 on the bank issue. In 1835
he and Benjamin C. Howard, of Baltimore, Maryland, were
sent by President Jackson to prevent an outbreak of hostilities
in the Ohio-Michigan boundary dispute. In 1836-38 Rush was
commissioner to receive the Smithson legacy (see SMITHSONIAN
INSTITUTION), and in 1847-49 he was minister to France.
He died at Philadelphia on the 3Oth of July 1859.
He published A Narrative of a Residence at the Court of London
from 1817 to 1825 (2 vols., 1833-45; all editions after the first
edition of the 1st volume are entitled Memoranda of a Residence,
&c.); Washington in Domestic Life (1857), compiled from letters
written by Washington to his private secretary in 1790-98; and
Occasional Productions, Political, Diplomatic and Miscellaneous
(1860) ; and while attorney-general he suggested the plan for the
compilation, Laws of the Nation (5 vols., 1815), edited by John B.
Colvin.
RUSH. Under the name of rush or rushes, the stalks or
hollow stem-like leaves of several plants have minor industrial
applications. The common rushes (species of Juncus; see
JUNCACEAE) are used in many parts of the world for chair-
bottoms, mats and basket-work, and the pith serves as wicks
in open oil-lamps and for tallow candles whence rushlight.
The fibrous stems and leaves of the bulrush or reed-mace,
Typha angustifolia, are used in N. India for ropes, mats and
baskets. Scirpus and other Cyperaceae are used for chair-
bottoms, mats and thatch; the rush mats of Madras ate made
from a species of Cyperus. The sweet-rush, yielding essential
oil, is a grass, Andropogon Schoenanthus, known also as lemon
grass. Large quantities of the " horse-tail," Equisetum hit-
male, are used under the name of Dutch or scouring rush for
scouring metal and other hard surfaces on account of the large
proportion of silica the plant contains. Flowering rush is
Butomus umbellatus (see ALISMACEAE); wood -rush is the
common name for Luzula (see JUNCACEAE). Acorus Calamus,
sweet-flag, is also known as sweet-rush.
RUSHDEN, an urban district in the E. parliamentary division
of Northamptonshire, England, 66 m. N.N.W. from London
by the Midland railway. Pop. (1901) 12,453. The church
of St Mary is a fine cruciform building with western tower
and spire. It is mainly decorated, with perpendicular addi-
tions, but retains some Early English details. The growth of
Rushden as a town is modern. The industrial population is
employed in boot and shoe making, the local staple.
RUSHWORTH, JOHN (c. 1612-1690), the compiler of the
Historical Collections commonly described by his name, was
the son of Lawrence Rushworth of Acklington Park, Wark-
worth, Northumberland. When he was given the degree of
M.A. at Oxford in 1649, ne wa s said to belong to Queen's College,
but there are no traces of his presence at the university. He
was bred to the law, and in 1638 was appointed solicitor to
the town of Berwick. He was enrolled in Lincoln's Inn in
1641, and was called to the bar in 1647. He made a point of
attending on all public occasions of a political and judicial
character, such as proceedings before the Star Chamber or the
Council, and of making shorthand notes of them. On the 25th
of April 1640 he was appointed an assistant clerk to the House
of Commons. He was on duty when King Charles I. came
down to arrest the five members on the 4th of January 1642,
and made notes of his speech. The king insisted on taking
the notes, and ordered them to be published. Rushworth
858
RUSKIN
attended the trial of the earl of Strafford, and took shorthand
notes of the proceedings. He was much employed as a mes-
senger between the king and the parliament, and from the
nth of April 1644 till the gth of March 1647 was licenser of
pamphlets. When the new model army was formed he was
appointed secretary to the parliamentary general, Sir Thomas
Fairfax. He was present at the battle of Naseby, of which
he wrote an account. When Fairfax, who was offended by the
execution of the king, resigned his command, Rushworth was
for a short time secretary to Cromwell. He was afterwards
employed by the council of state and during the protectorate,
and sat in Cromwell's parliament for Berwick. When Richard
Cromwell resigned the protectorate, Rushworth was employed
by the Rump after it had been re-established by Monk. He
made his peace with the government of Charles II., and though
he was threatened with trial as a regicide he was not seriously
molested. During the reign of Charles II. he continued to act
as agent for the town of Berwick, and he sat for it in parlia-
ment. He was also for a time agent for Massachusetts, but
the colony complained that it received no advantage from his
services. During the last years of his life he fell into poverty,
and from 1684 till his death on the izth of May 1690 he
was a resident in the King's Bench prison. At this time he
had destroyed his memory by over-indulgence in drink. The
collection of papers which he made was published in eight
volumes folio between 1659 and 1701. The volumes from the
fourth onwards appeared after his death. The first, which
appeared with a dedication to Richard Cromwell, was recalled
and the dedication was suppressed.
RUSKIN, JOHN (1819-1900), English writer and critic, was
born in London, at Hunter Street, Brunswick Square, on
the 8th of February 1819, being the only child of John James
Ruskin and Margaret Cox. They were Scots, first cousins, the
grandchildren of a certain John Ruskin of Edinburgh (1732-
1780). In Praelerita the author professes small knowledge of
his ancestry. But the memoirs published on the authority
of the family trace their descent to the Adairs and Agnews
of Galloway. In this family tree are men famous in arms
and in the public service: Sir Andrew Agnew of Lochnaw,
Admiral Sir John Ross, Field-Marshal Sir Hew Dalrymple
Ross, Dr John Adair, in whose arms Wolfe died at Quebec,
and the Rev. W. Tweddale of Glenluce, to whom the
original Covenant, now in the Glasgow Museum, had been
confided. The name Ruskin is said to be a variant of Erskine,
or Roskeen, or Rogerkin, and even Roughskin. It is more
probably Rusking, an Anglian family, which passed northwards
and became Ruskyn, Rusken and Ruskin.
John Ruskin, the author's grandfather, a handsome lad
of twenty, ran away with Catherine Tweddale, daughter of
the Covenanting minister and of Catherine Adair, then a
beautiful girl of sixteen. He settled in Edinburgh and engaged
in the wine trade, lived liberally in the cultivated society of
the city, lost his health and his fortune, and ended his days
in debt. His son, John James Ruskin (1785-1864), father of
the author, was sent to the High School at Edinburgh under
Dr A. Adam, received a sound classical education, and was
well advised by his friend Dr Thomas Brown, the eminent
metaphysician. When of age, John James was sent to London
to enter the wine trade. There, in 1809, he founded the sherry
business of Ruskin, Telford & Domecq; Domecq being
proprietor of a famous vineyard in Spain, Telford contributing
the capital of the firm, and Ruskin having sole control of the
business. John James Ruskin, a typical Scot, of remarkable
energy, probity and foresight, built up a great business, paid
off his father's debts, formed near London a most hospitable
and cultured home, where he maintained his taste for litera-
ture and art, and lived and died, as his son proudly wrote
upon his tomb, " an entirely honest merchant." He was also
a man of strong brain, generous nature and fine taste. After
a delay of nine years, having at last obtained an adequate
income, he married his cousin, Margaret Cox, who had already
lived for eighteen years with his mother, the widow of John
Ruskin of Edinburgh. When this marriage of the two cousins,
who had known each other all their lives, took place in 1818,
neither of them was young. John James was thirty-three and
Margaret was thirty-seven. In the following year (8th Feb-
ruary 1819) their only child, John, was born in Hunter Street,
London.
Margaret Ruskin, the author's mother, was a handsome,
strong, stem, able, devoted woman of the old Puritan school,
Calvinist in religion, unsparing of herself and others, rigid
in her ideas of duty, proud, reserved and ungracious. She
was the daughter of Captain Cox, of Yarmouth, master mariner
in the herring fishery, who died young; whereupon his widow
maintained herself as landlady of the King's Head Inn at
Croydon. Her younger daughter married Mr Richardson, a
baker, of Croydon; the elder, Margaret, married John James
Ruskin. Jessie, a sister of John James, married Peter
Richardson, a tanner, of Perth, so that the author had cousins
of two Richardson families, unconnected with each other.
In his own memoirs he speaks much more of these than of any
Ruskins, Tweddales, Adairs or Agnews. The child was brought
up under a rigid system of nursing, physical, moral and
intellectual; kept without toys, not seldom whipped, watched
day and night, but trained from infancy in music, drawing,
reading aloud and observation of natural objects. When
he was four the family removed to a house on Herne Hill, then
a country village, with a garden and rural surroundings. The
father, who made long tours on business, took his wife, child
and nurse year after year across England as far as Cumberland
and Scotland, visiting towns, cathedrals, castles, colleges, parks,
mountains and lakes. At five the child was taken to Keswick;
at six to Paris, Brussels and Waterloo; at seven to Perth-
shire. At fourteen he was taken through Flanders, along
the Rhine, and through the Black Forest to Switzerland,
where he first imbibed his dominant passion for the Alps.
His youth was largely passed in systematic travelling in search
of everything beautiful in nature or in art. And to one so
precocious, stimulated by a parent of much culture, ample
means and great ambition, this resulted in an almost un-
exampled aesthetic education. In childhood also he began
a systematic practice of composition, both in prose and verse.
His mother trained him in reading the Bible, of which he read
through every chapter of every book year by year; and to
this study he justly attributes his early command of language
and his pure sense of style. His father read to him Shakespeare,
Scott, Don Quixote, Pope and Byron, and most of the great
English classics; and his attention was especially turned to
the formation of sentences and to the rhythm of prose. He
began to compose both in prose and verse as soon as he had
learned to read and write, both of which arts he taught himself
by the eye.
His first letter is dated 1823, when he was only four. In it
he corrects his aunt, who had put up the wooden pillars of
his Waterloo bridge " upside down." At five he was a book-
worm. At seven he began a work in four volumes, with
" copper-plates printed and composed by a little boy, and
also drawn." His first poem, correct in rhyme and form,
was written before he was seven. At nine he began " Eudosia,
a poem of the Universe." From that year until his Newdigate
Prize, at the age of twenty, he wrote enormous quantities
of verse, and began dramas, romances and imitations of
Byron, Pope, Scott and Shelley. What remain of these
effusions have no special quality except good sense, refined
feeling, accuracy of phrase, and a curious correctness of accent
and rhythm. Of true poetry in the higher sense there is hardly
a single line.
His schooling was irregular and not successful. At the age
of eleven he was taught Latin and Greek by Dr Andrews, a
scholar of Glasgow University. About the same time he had
lessons in drawing and in oil painting from Runciman. French
and Euclid were taught by Rowbotham. At fifteen he was
sent for two years to the day-school of the Rev. T. Dale of
Peckham, and at seventeen he attended some courses in
RUSKIN
859
literature at King's College, London. In painting he had
lessons from Copley Fielding and afterwards from J. D. Harding.
But in the incessant travelling, drawing, collecting specimens
and composition in prose and verse he had gained but a very
moderate classical and mathematical knowledge when he
matriculated at Oxford; nor could he ever learn to write
tolerable Latin. As a boy he was active, lively and docile;
a good walker, but ignorant of all boyish games, as naif and
as innocent as a child; and he never could learn to dance or
to ride. He was only saved by his intellect and his fine nature
from turning out an arrant prig. He was* regarded by his
parents, and seems to have regarded himself, as a genius.
As a child he had been " a savant in petticoats"; as a boy
he was a poet in breeches. At the age of seventeen he saw
Adele, the French daughter of Monsieur Domecq, Mr Ruskin's
partner, a lovely girl of fifteen. John fell rapturously in love
with her; and, it seems, the two fathers seriously contemplated
their marriage. The young poet wooed the girl with poems,
romances, dramas and mute worship, but received nothing
except chilling indifference and lively ridicule. To the gay
young beauty, familiar with Parisian society, the raw and
serious youth was not a possible parti. She was sent to an
English school, and he occasionally saw her. His unspoken
passion lasted about three years, when she married the Baron
Duquesne. Writing as an old man, long after her death,
Ruskin speaks of his early love without any sort of rapture.
But it is clear that it deeply coloured his life, and led to the
dangerous illness which for some two years interrupted his
studies and made him a wanderer over Europe.
As the father was resolved that John should have everything
that money and pains could give, and was one day to be a
bishop at least, he entered him at Christ Church, Oxford, as a
gentleman-commoner then an order reserved for men of
wealth and rank. Ruskin's Oxford career, broken by the two
years passed abroad, was not very full of incident or of useful-
ness. Though he never became either a scholar or a mathema-
tician, he did enough accurate work to be placed in the honorary
fourth class both in classics and in mathematics. By the young
bloods of the " House " he was treated pleasantly as a raw
outsider of genius. By some of the students and tutors, by
Liddell, Newton, Acland and others, he was regarded as a
youth of rare promise, and he made some lifelong friendships
with men of mark and of power. Both he and his college took
kindly the amazing proceeding of his mother, who left her
husband and her home to reside in Oxford, that she might watch
over her son's health. The one success of his Oxford career
was the winning the Newdigate Prize by his poem " Salsette
and Elephanta," which he recited in the Sheldonian Theatre
(June 1839). Two years of ill-health and absence from home
ensued. And he did not become " a Graduate of Oxford "
until 1842, in his twenty-fourth year, five years after his first
entrance at the university. In fact, his desultory school and
college life had been little more than an interruption and hin-
drance to his real education the study of nature, of art and of
literature. Long before Ruskin published books he had ap-
peared in print. In March 1834, when he was but fifteen,
Loudon's Magazine of Natural History published an essay of his
on the strata of mountains and an inquiry as to the colour of the
Rhine. He then wrote for Loudon's Magazine of Architecture,
and verses of his were inserted in Messrs Smith & Elder's
Friendship's Offering, by the editor, T. Pringle, who took the
lad to see the poet Rogers. At seventeen he wrote for Black-
wood a defence of Turner, which the painter, to whom it was first
submitted, did not take the trouble to forward to the magazine.
At eighteen he wrote a series of papers, signed Kata Phusin,
i.e. " after Nature," for Loudon's Magazine, on " The Poetry of
Architecture." In 1838 (he was then nineteen) Mr Loudon wrote
to the father, " Your son is the greatest natural genius that ever
it has been my fortune to become acquainted with."
Having recovered his health and spirits by care and foreign
travel, and having taken his degree and left Oxford, Ruskin set
to work steadily at Herne Hill on the more elaborate defence of
Turner, which was to become his first work. Modern Painters,
vol. i., by " a Graduate of Oxford," was published May 1843,
when the author was little more than twenty-four. It produced
a great and immediate sensation. It was vehemently attacked
by the critics, and coolly received by the painters. Even Turner
was somewhat disconcerted; but the painter was now known
to both Ruskins, and they freely bought his pictures. The
family then went again to the Alps, that John might study
mountain formation and ".Truth " in landscape. In 1845 he
was again abroad in Italy, working on his Modern Painters, the
second volume of which appeared in 1846. He had now plunged
into the study of Bellini and the Venetian school, Fra Angelico
and the early Tuscans, and he visited Lucca, Pisa, Florence,
Padua, Verona and Venice, passionately devoting himself to
architecture, sculpture and painting in each city of north Italy.
He wrote a few essays for the Quarterly Review and other
periodicals, and in 1849 (ael. 30) he published The Seven Lamps
of Architecture, with his own etchings, which greatly increased
the reputation acquired by his Modern Painters.
On the loth of April 1848, a day famous in the history of
Chartism, Ruskin was married at Perth to Euphemia Chalmers
Gray, a lady of great beauty, of a family long intimate with the
Ruskins. The marriage, we are told, was arranged by the
parents of the pair, and was a somewhat hurried act. It was
evidently ill-assorted, and brought no happiness to either.
They travelled, lived in London, saw society, and attended a
" Drawing-room " at Buckingham Palace. But Ruskin, im-
mersed in various studies and projects, was no husband for a
brilliant woman devoted to society. No particulars of their
life have been made public. In 1854 his 'wife left him, ob-
tained a nullification of the marriage under Scots law, and
ultimately became the wife of John Everett Millais. John
Ruskin returned to his parents, with whom he resided till their
death; and neither his marriage nor the annulling of it seems
to have affected seriously his literary career.
Ruskin's architectural studies, of which The Seven Lamps was
the first fruit, turned him from Turner and Modern Painters.
He planned a book about Venice in 1845, and The Stones of
Venice was announced in 1849 as in preparation. After intense
study in Italy and at home, early in 1851 (the year of the Great
Exhibition in London) the first volume of The Stones of Venice
appeared (aet. 32). It was by no means a mere antiquarian and
artistic study. It was a concrete expansion of the ideas of
The Seven Lamps that the buildings and art of a people are
the expression of their religion, their morality, their national
aspirations and social habits. It was, as Carlyle wrote to the
author, "a sermon in stones," " a singular sign of the times,"
" a new Renaissance." It appeared in the same year with the
Construction of Sheep/olds a plea for the reunion of Christian
churches in the same year with the essay on Pre-Raphaelilism,
the year of Turner's death (igth December). The Stones of
Venice was illustrated with engravings by some of the most
refined artists of his time. The author spent a world of pains
in having these brought up to the highest perfection of the re-
productive art, and began the system of exquisite illustration,
and those facsimiles of his own and other sketches, which make
his works rank so high in the catalogues and price-lists of
collectors. This delicate art was carried even farther in the later
volumes of Modern Painters by the school of engravers whom
Ruskin inspired and gathered round him. And these now rare
and coveted pieces remain to rebuke us for our modern
preference for the mechanical and unnatural chiaroscuro of
photogravure the successor and destroyer of the graver's art.
Although Ruskin was practised in drawing from the time that
he could hold a pencil, and had lessons in painting from some
eminent artists, he at no time attempted to paint pictures. He
said himself that he was unable to compose a picture, and he
never sought to produce anything that he would call a work of
original art. His drawings, of which he produced an enormous
quantity, were always intended by himself to be studies or
memoranda of buildings or natural objects precisely as they
appeared to his eye. Clouds, mountains, landscapes, towers,
86o
RUSKIN
churches, trees, flowers and herbs were drawn with wonderful
precision, minuteness of detail and delicacy of hand, solely
to recall some specific aspect of nature or art, of which he
wished to retain a record. In his gift for recording the most
subtle characters of architectural carvings and details, Ruskin
has hardly been surpassed by the most distinguished painters.
In 1853 The Stones of Venice was completed at Herne Hill,
and he began a series of Letters and Notes on pictures and
architecture. In this year (act. 34) he opened the long series of
public lectures wherein he came forward as an oral teacher and
preacher, not a little to the alarm of his parents and amidst
a storm of controversy. The Edinburgh Lectures (November
1853) treated Architecture, Turner, and Pre-Raphaelitism.
The Manchester Lectures (July 1857) treated the moral and
social uses of art, now embodied in A Joy for Ever. Some other
lectures are reprinted in On the Old Road and The Two Paths
(1859). These lectures did not prevent the issue of various
Notes on the Royal Academy pictures and the Turner collections;
works on the Harbours of England (1856); on the Elements of
Drawing (1857); the Elements of Perspective (1859); and at last,
after prolonged labour, the fifth and final volume of Modern
Painters was published in 1860 (aet. 41). This marks an epoch
in the career of John Ruskin; and the year 1860 closed the
series of his works on art strictly so called; indeed, this was
the last of his regular works in substantial form. The last forty
years of his life were devoted to expounding his views, or rather
his doctrines, on social and industrial problems, on education,
morals and religion, wherein art becomes an incidental and
instrumental means to a higher and more spiritual life. And
his teaching was embodied in an enormous series of Lectures,
Letters, Articles, Selections and serial pamphlets. These are
now collected in upwards of thirty volumes in the final edition.
The entire set of Ruskin's publications amounts to more than
fifty works having distinctive titles. For some years before
1860 Ruskin had been deeply stirred by reflecting on the con-
dition of all industrial work and the evils of modern society.
His lectures on art had dealt bitterly with the mode in which
buildings and other works were produced. In 1854 he joined
Mr F, D. Maurice, Mr T. Hughes, and several of the new school
of painters, in teaching classes at the Working Men's College.
But it was not until 1860 that he definitely began to propound
a new social scheme, denouncing the dogmas of political
economy. Four lectures on this topic appeared in the Cornhill
Magazine until the public disapproval led the editor, then W. M.
Thackeray, to close the series. They were published in 1862
as Unto this Last. In the same year he wrote four papers in
the same sense in Eraser's Magazine, then edited by J. A.
Froude; but he in turn was compelled to suspend the issue.
They were completed and ultimately issued under the title
Munera Pulveris. These two small books contain the earliest
and most systematic of all Ruskin's efforts to depict a new social
Utopia: they contain a vehement repudiation of the orthodox
formulas of the economists; and they are for the most part
written in a trenchant but simple style, in striking contrast to
the florid and discursive form of his works on art.
In 1864 Ruskin's father died, at the age of 79, leaving his
son a large fortune and a fine property at Denmark Hill. John
still lived there with his mother, aged 83, infirm, and failing
in sight, to whom came as a companion their cousin, Joanna
Ruskin Agnew, afterwards Mrs Arthur Severn. At the end
of the year 1864 Ruskin delivered at Manchester a new series
of lectures not on art, but on reading, education, woman's
work and social morals the expansion of his earlier treatises
on economic sophisms. This afterwards was included with a
Dublin lecture of 1868 under the fantastic title of Sesame and
Lilies (perhaps the most popular of his social essays), of which
44,000 copies were issued down to 1900. He made this, in
1871, the first volume of his collected lectures and essays, the
more popular and didactic form of his new Utopia of human
life. It contains, with Fors, the most complete sketch of
his conception of the place of woman in modern society. In
the very characteristic preface to the new edition of 1871 he
proposes never to reprint his earlier works on art; disclaims
many of the views they contained, and much in their literary
form; and specially regrets the narrow Protestantism by
which they were pervaded. In the year 1866 he published
a little book about girls, and written for girls, a mixture of
morals, theology, economics and geology, under the title of
Ethics of the Dust; and this was followed by a more important
and popular work, The Crown of Wild Olive. This in its ultimate
form contained lectures on " Work," " Traffic," " War," and
the " Future of England." It was one of his most trenchant
utterances, full of fancy, wit, eloquence and elevated thought.
But a more serious volume was Time and Tide (1867), a series
of twenty-five letters to a workman of Sunderland, upon various
points in the Ruskinian Utopia. This little collection of
" Thoughts," written with wonderful vivacity, ingenuity and
fervour, is the best summary of the author's social and economic
programme, and contains some of his wisest and finest thoughts
in the purest and most masculine English that he had at his
command. In 1869 he issued the Queen of the Air, lectures
on Greek myths, a subject he now took up, with some aid from
the late Sir C. Newton. It was followed by some other occa-
sional pieces; and in the same year he was elected Slade pro-
fessor of art in the university of Oxford. He now entered
on his professorial career, which continued with some intervals
down to 1884, and occupied a large part of his energies. His
lectures began in February 1870, and were so crowded that they
had to be given in the Sheldonian Theatre, and frequently were
repeated to a second audience. He was made honorary fellow
of Corpus Christi, and occupied rooms in the college. In
1871 his mother died, at the age of 90, and his cousin, Miss
Agnew, married Mr Arthur Severn. In that year he bought
from Mr Linton, Brantwood, an old cottage and property on
Coniston Lake, a lovely spot facing the mountain named the
Old Man. He added greatly to the house and property, and
lived in it continuously until his death in 1900. In 1871, one
of the most eventful years of his life, be began Fors Clavigera, a
small serial addressed to the working men of England, and pub-
lished only by Mr George Allen, engraver, at Keston, in Kent,
at 7d., and afterwards at iod., but without discount, and
not through the trade. This was a medley of social, moral
and religious reflections interspersed with casual thoughts
about persons, events and art. Fors means alternatively
Fate, Force or Chance, bearing the Clams, Club, Key or
Nail, i.e. power, patience and law. It was a desultory ex-
position of the Ruskinian ideal of life, manners and society,
full of wit, play, invective and sermons on things in general.
It was continued with intervals down to 1884, and contained
ninety-six letters or pamphlets, partly illustrated, which origin-
ally filled eight volumes and are now reduced to four.
The early years of his Oxford professorship were occupied
by severe labour, sundry travels, attacks of illness and another
cruel disappointment in love. In spite of this, he lectured,
founded a museum of art, to which he gave pictures and draw-
ings and 5000; he sought to form at Oxford a school of drawing;
he started a model shop for the sale of tea, and model lodgings
in Marylebone for poor tenants. At Oxford he set his pupils
to work on making roads to improve the country. He now
founded "St George's Guild," himself contributing 7000,
the object of which was to form a model industrial and social
movement, to buy lands, mills and factories, and to start
a model industry on co-operative or Socialist lines. In con-
nexion with this was a museum for the study of art and
science at Sheffield. Ruskin himself endowed the museum with
works of art and money; a full account of it has been given
in Mr E. T. Cook's Studies in Ruskin (1890), which contains
the particulars of his university lectures and of his economic
and social experiments. It is unnecessary to follow out the
history of these somewhat unpromising attempts. None of
them came to much good, except the Sheffield museum, which
is an established success, and is now transferred to the town.
In Fors, which was continued month by month for seven years,
Ruskin poured out his thoughts, proposals and rebukes on
RUSSELL (FAMILY)
861
society and persons with inexhaustible fancy, wit, eloquence
and freedom, until he was attacked with a violent brain malady
in the spring of 1878 (aet. 59); and, although he recovered in a
few months sufficiently to do some occasional work, he resigned
his professorship early in 1879. The next three years he spent
at Brantwood, mainly in retirement, and unhappy in finding
nearly all his labours interrupted by his broken health. In
1880 he was able to travel in northern France, and began
the Bible of Amiens, finished in 1885; and he issued occasional
numbers of Fors, the last of which appeared at Christmas 1884.
In 1882 he had another serious illness, with inflammation of
the brain; but he recovered sufficiently to travel to his old
haunts in France and Italy his last visit. And in the following
year he was re-elected professor at Oxford and resumed his
lectures; but increasing brain excitement, and indignation at
the establishment of a laboratory to which vivisection was
admitted, led him to resign his Oxford career, and he retired
in 1884 to Brantwood, which he never left. He now suffered
from frequent attacks of brain irritation and exhaustion,
and had many causes of sorrow and disappointment. His
lectures were published at intervals from 1870 to 1885 in Aralra
Pentelici, The Eagle's Nest, Love'i Meime, Ariadne Florentina,
Val d'Arno, Proserpina, Deucalion, The Laws of Fcsole, The
Bible of Amiens, The Art of England and The Pleasures of
England, together with a series of pamphlets, letters, articles,
notes, catalogues and circulars.
In the retirement of Brantwood he began his last work,
Praeterita, a desultory autobiography with personal anecdotes
and reminiscences. He was again attacked with the same
mental malady in 1885, which henceforth left him fit only for
occasional letters and notes. In 1887 it was found that he had
exhausted (spent, and given away) the whole of the fortune
he had received from his father, amounting, it is said, to some-
thing like 200,000; and he was dependent on the vast and
increasing sale of his works, which produced an average income
of 4000 a year, and at times on the sale of his pictures and
realizable property. In 1872 a correspondent had remonstrated
with him in vain as to taking " usury," i.e. interest on capital
lent to others for use. In 1874 Ruskin himself had begun to
doubt its lawfulness. In 1876 he fiercely assailed the practice
of receiving interest or rent, and he henceforth lived on his
capital, which he gave freely to friends, dependants, public
societies, charitable and social objects. The course of his
opinions and his practice is fully explained in successive letters
in Fors. Until 1889 he continued to write chapters of Praeterita,
which was designed to record memories of his life down to the
year 1875 (aet. 56). It was, in fact, only completed in regular
series down to 1858 (aet. 39), with a separate chapter as to Mrs
Arthur Severn, and a fragment called Dilecta, containing letters
and early recollections of friends, especially of Turner. These
two books were published between 1885 and 1889; and except
for occasional letters, notes and prefaces, they form the last
writings of the author of Modern Painters. HB literary career
thus extends over fifty years. But he has left nothing more
graceful, naive and pathetic than his early memories in Praeterita
a book which must rank with the most famous " Confessions "
in any literature. The last ten years of his life were passed
in complete retirement at Brantwood, in the loving care of
the Severn family, to whom the estate was transferred, with
occasional visits from friends, but with no sustained work
beyond correspondence, the revision of his works, and a few
notes and prefatory words to the books of others. He wished
to withdraw his early art writings from circulation, but the
public demand made this practically impossible. And now the
whole of his writings are under the control of Mr George Allen,
in several forms and prices, including a cheap series at 55. per
volume.
The close of his life was one of entire peace and honour. He
was loaded with the degrees of the universities and membership
of numerous societies and academies. " Ruskin Societies "
were founded in many parts of the kingdom. His works were
translated and read abroad, and had an enormous circulation
in Great Britain and the United States. Many volumes about
his career and opinions were issued in his lifetime both at home
and abroad. His 8oth birthday, 8th February 1899, was
celebrated by a burst of congratulations and addresses, both
public and private. His strength failed gradually, his mind
remained feeble but unclouded, and his spirit serene. An
attack of influenza struck him down, and carried him off
suddenly after only two days' illness, 2oth January 1900. He
was buried in Coniston churchyard by his own express wish,
the family refusing the offer of a grave in Westminster Abbey.
Ruskin's literary life may be arranged in three divisions. From
1837 to 1860 (aet. 1 8 to 41) he was occupied mainly with the arts.
From 1860 to 1871 (aet. 41 to 52) he was principally occupied with
social problems. From 1871 to 1885 (aet. 52 to 66) he was again
drawn back largely to art by his lectures as professor, whilst pro-
secuting his social Utopia by speech, pen, example and purse.
But the essential break in his life was in 1860, which marks the
close of his main works on art and the opening of his attempt
to found a new social gospel. With regard to his views of art,
he himself modified and revised them from time to time; and
it is admitted that some of his judgments are founded on imperfect
study and personal bias. But the essence of his teaching has
triumphed in effect, and has profoundly modified the views of
artists, critics and the public, although it is but rarely accepted
as complete or final. The moral of his teaching that all living
art requires truth, nature, purity, earnestness has now become the
axiom of all aesthetic work or judgment. John Ruskin founded
the Reformation in Art
With regard to his economic and social ideas there is far less
general concurrence, though the years that have passed since Unto
this Last appeared have seen the practical overthrow of the rigid
plutonomy which he denounced. So, too, the vague and senti-
mental socialism which pervades Munera Pulveris, Time and Tide
and Fors is now very much in the air, and represents the aspira-
tions of many energetic reformers. But the 'negative part of
Ruskin's teaching on economics, social and political problems,
has been much more effective than the positive part of his teaching.
It must be admitted that nearly the whole of his practical experi-
ments to realize his dreams have come_ to nothing, which is not
unnatural, seeing his defiance of the ordinary habits and standards
of the world. A more serious defect was his practice of violently
assailing philosophers, economists and men of science, of whom
he knew almost nothing, and whom he perversely misunderstood:
men such as Adam Smith, Comte, Mill, Spencer, Darwin and all
who followed them. In art, Ruskin had enjoyed an unexampled
training, which made him a consummate expert. In philosophy
and science he was an amateur, seeking to found a new sociology
and a Utopian polity out of his own inner consciousness and study
of nature, of poetry and the Bible. It is not wonderful if, in
doing this, he poured forth a quantity of crude conceits and some
glaring blunders. But in the most Quixotic of his schemes, and
the most Laputan of his theories, his pure and chivalrous nature,
his _marvellous insight into the heart of things and men, and his
genius to seize on all that is true, real and noble in life, made
his most startling proposals pregnant with meaning, and even his
casual play full of fascination and moral suggestion.
In mastery of prose language he has never been surpassed, when
he chose to curb his florid imagination and his discursive eagerness
of soul. The beauty and gorgeous imagery of his art works bore
away the public from the first, in spite of their heretical dogmatism
and their too frequent extravagance of rhetoric. But his later
economic and social pieces, such as Unto this Last, Time and Tide,
Sesame and Lilies, are composed in the purest and most lucid of
English styles. And many of his simply technical and explanatory
notes have the same quality. Towards the close of his life, in
Fors and in Praeterita, will be found passages of tenderness, charm
and subtlety which have never been surpassed in our language.
Ruskin's life and writings have been the subject of many works
composed by friends, disciples and admirers. The principal is the
Life, by W. G. Collingwood, his friend, neighbour and secretary
(1900). His pupil, Mr E. T. Cook, published his Studies in Ruskin
in 1890, with full details of his career as professor. Mr J. A. Hobson,
in John Ruskin, Social Reformer (2nd ed., 1899), has elaborately
discussed his social and economic teaching, and claims him as
" the greatest social teacher of his age." An analysis of his works
has been written by Mrs Meynell (1900). His art theories have
been discussed by Professor Charles Waldstein of Cambridge in The
Work of John Ruskin (1894), by Robert de la Sizeranne in Ruskin
et la religion de la beaute (1897), and by Professor H. J. Brunhes of
Fribourg in Ruskin et la Bible (1901). The monumental " library
edition ' of Ruskin's works (begun in 1903), prepared by Mr E. T.
Cook, with Mr A. Wedderburn, is the greatest of all the tributes
of literary admiration. (F. HA.)
RUSSELL (FAMILY). The great English Whig house of the
Russells, earls and dukes of Bedford, rose under the favour
of Henry VIII. Obsequious genealogists have traced their
862
RUSSELL, I. C.
lineage from " Hugh de Rozel," alias " Hugh Bertrand, lord of
le Rozel," a companion of the Conqueror, padding their fiction
with the pedigree of certain Russells who are found holding
Kingston Russell in Dorset as early as the reign of King John.
But the first undoubted ancestor of the Bedford line is Henry
Russell, a Weymouth merchant, returned as a burgess for that
borough in four parliaments between 1425 and 1442. He may
well have been the son of Stephen Russell, another Weymouth
merchant, whose name is just before his in the list of those men
of substance in Dorsetshire who, in 1434, under the act of
parliament, were to be sworn not to maintain breakers of the
peace. Stephen Russell, having served the office of bailiff of
Weymouth, was returned as burgess to the parliament of 1395,
and one William Russell was returned for King's Melcombe in
1340. Both Stephen and Henry were in the wine trade with
Bordeaux, and in 1427 Henry Russell was deputy to the chief
butler of England for the port of Melcombe. In 1442 a pardon
under the privy seal significantly describes Henry Russell of
Weymouth, merchant, as alias Henry Gascoign, gentleman,
and it is therefore probable that the ducal house of Bedford
springs from a family of Gascon wine-merchants settled in a
port of Dorsetshire, a county remarkable for the number of such
French settlers.
Henry Russell of Weymouth made a firm footing upon the
land by his marriage with Elizabeth Hering, one of the two
daughters and co-heirs of John Hering of Chaldon Hering, a
Dorsetshire squire of old family, heir of the Winterbournes of
Winterbourne Clenston and of the Cernes of Draycot Cerne.
John Russell, eldest son of this match, born before 1432, and
returned to parliament for Weymouth in 1450, had his seat at
Berwick in Swyre, he and his son and heir, James Russell,
being buried in the parish church of Swyre.
Thus John Russell, son and heir of James, was born in a
family of squire's rank, whose younger branches went on for
many generations as merchants and shipowners at Weymouth.
A happy accident is said to have brought him to court. The
archduke Philip, son of the emperor Maximilian, was driven by
heavy weather into Weymouth, whence Sir Thomas Trenchard
had him escorted to the king at Windsor. According to tradition,
John Russell, Trenchard's young kinsman, was lately home from
his travels with a knowledge of foreign tongues, those travels
being probably made in the mercantile interests of his family.
As travelling companion, or as a spy upon the strange guests,
young Russell was sent with the archduke, who is said to have
commended him to King Henry. Certain it is that on the
accession of Henry VIII. John Russell advanced rapidly, serv-
ing the crown as soldier and as diplomatic agent. He fought
well at Therouanne, saw the Field of Cloth of Gold and the
French disaster at Pavia, lost an eye by an arrow at Morlaix.
In 1523 he was knight-marshal of the king's household. In
1526 he married a rich widow, Anne, daughter and co-heir of
Sir Guy Sapcotes by the co-heir of Sir Guy Wolston, a match
which brought to the Russells the Buckinghamshire estate of
Chenies, in whose chapel many generations of them lie buried.
His peerage as Lord Russell of Chenies dated from 1539, and in
_ the same year he had the Garter. Having held many high
offices lord high admiral, lord president of Devon, Cornwall,
Dorset and Somerset, and lord privy seal he was named by
Henry VIII. as one of his executors. At the crowning of Edward
VI. he was lord high steward, and after his defeat of the western
rebels was raised, in 1550, to the earldom of Bedford. Queen
Mary, like her brother, made him lord privy seal, although he is
said to have favoured that Reformation which enriched him.
He died in London in 1555, leaving to his son a vast estate of
church lands and lands forfeited by less successful navigators
of the troubled sea of Tudor politics. In the west he had the
abbey lands of Tavistock, which give a marquess's title to his
descendants. In Cambridgeshire he had the abbatial estate
of Thorney, in Bedfordshire the Cistercian house of Woburn,
now the chief seat of the Russells. In London he had Covent
Garden with the " Long Acre." Thus the future wealth of his
house was secured by those " immoderate grants " which made
a text for Edmund Burke's furious attack upon a duke of
Bedford.
He left an only son, Francis, second earl of Bedford, K.G.
(c. 1527-1585), who, being concerned in Wyatt's plot, escaped
to the Continent and joined those exiles at Geneva whose
religious sympathies he shared. He returned in 1557, and
was employed by Queen Mary before her death. Under Queen
Elizabeth he governed Berwick, and was lord-lieutenant of
the northern counties. Three of his four sons died before him,
the third, killed in a border fray, being father of Edward, third
earl of Bedford, who died without issue in 1627. The fourth
son, William, created Lord Russell of Thornhaugh in 1603,
was a soldier who fought fiercely before Zutphen beside his
friend Sir Philip Sidney, whom he succeeded as governor of
Flushing, and was from 1594 to 1597 lord-deputy of Ireland.
He died in 1613, leaving an only son, Francis, who in 1627 suc-
ceeded his cousin as fourth earl of Bedford. This earl built the
square of Covent Garden, and headed the " undertakers " who
began the scheme for draining the great Fen Level. He op-
posed the king in the House of Lords, but might have played
a part as mediator between the sovereign and the popular
party who accepted his leadership had he not died suddenly
of the smallpox in 1641 on the day of the king's assent to
the bill for Strafford's attainder. William, the eldest surviving
son, succeeded as fifth earl, Edward, the youngest son, being
father of Edward Russell (1653-1727), admiral of the fleet,
who, having held the chief command in the victory of La Hogue,
was created in 1697 earl of Orford. The fifth earl of Bedford,
after fighting for the parliament at Edgehill and for the king
at Newbury, surrendered to Essex and occupied himself with
completing the drainage of the Bedford Level. He carried
St Edward's staff at the crowning of Charles II., but quitted
political life after the execution of his son, Lord Russell, in
1683. In 1694 he was created duke of Bedford and marquess
of Tavistock, titles to which his grandson, Wrothesley Russell,
succeeded in 1700. The "patriot" Lord Russell had added
to the family estates by his marriage with Rachel, daughter
and co-heir of Thomas Wrothesley, the fourth earl of South-
ampton, from whom she finally inherited the earl's property
in Bloomsbury, with Southampton House, afterwards called
Bedford House. Her son, the second duke of Bedford, married
the daughter of a rich citizen, John Howland of Streatham, a
match strangely commemorated by the barony of Howland of
Streatham, created for the bridegroom's grandfather, the first
duke, in 1695. The third duke, another Wrothesley Russell
(1708-1732), died without issue, his brother John (1710-1771)
succeeding him. This fourth duke, opposing Sir Robert Wai-
pole, became, by reason of his rank and territorial importance,
a recognized leader of the Whigs. In the duke of Devonshire's
administration he was lord-lieutenant of Ireland, and he served
as lord high constable at the coronation in 1760. His son
Francis, styled marquess of Tavistock, was killed in 1767 by
a fall in the hunting field, and Lord Tavistock's son Francis
(1765-1802) became the fifth duke. This was the peer whom
Burke, smarting from a criticism of his own pension, assailed
as " the Leviathan of the creatures of the crown," enriched
by grants that " outraged economy and even staggered credi-
bility." He pulled down Bedford House, built by Inigo Jones,
Russell Square and Tavistock Square rising on the site of its
gardens and courts. Dying unmarried, he was succeeded by
his brother John, the sixth duke (1766-1839), whose third son
was the statesman created in 1861, Earl Russell of Kingston
Russell, better known as Lord John Russell. Lord Odo Russell,
a nephew of " Lord John," and ambassador at Berlin from
1871 to his death in 1884, was created Lord Ampthill in 1881.
Herbrand Arthur Russell (b. 1858), the eleventh duke and
fifteenth earl, succeeded an elder brother in 1893. (O. BA.)
RUSSELL, ISRAEL COOK (1852- ), 'American geologist,
was born at Garrattsville, New York, on the loth of December
1852. He graduated at New York University in 1872, and later
studied at the School of Mines, Columbia, where he was
assistant professor of geology from 1875-77. He was assistant
RUSSELL, J. RUSSELL, IST EARL
863
Geologist on the United States Geographical and Geological Sur-
veys in 1878, and in 1880 became attached to the Geological
Survey of the United States. In 1892 he was appointed pro-
fessor of geology in the university of Michigan.
His publications include Sketch of the Geological History of Lake
Lahontan (1885); The Newark System (Bulletin No. 85 U.S.
Geol. Survey, 1892); Present and Extinct Lakes of Nevada (1896);
Glaciers of North America (1897); Volcanoes of North America
(1897); Glaciers of Mount Rainier (Ann. Rep. U.S. Geol. Survey,
1898); and North America (1900).
RUSSELL, JOHN (1745-1806), British portrait painter in
pastel, was born at Guildford, Surrey. At an early age he
entered the studio of Francis Cotes, R.A., from whom he
derived his artistic education, and set up his own studio in
1767. Russell was a man of remarkable religious character,
a devout follower of Whitefield. He began an elaborate intro-
spective diary in. Byrom's shorthand in 1766 and continued
it to the time of his death. In it he records his own mental
condition and religious exercises, entering with a certain morbid
ingenuity into long disquisitions, and only occasionally record-
ing information concerning his sitters. His religious life is
the key to his complex character, as it actuated his whole career.
He obtained the gold medal at the Royal Academy for figure
drawing in 1770 and exhibited from the beginning of the
Academy down to 1805. He was the finest painter in crayons
England ever produced, and although he painted in oil, in
water-colours and in miniature, it was by his works in crayon
that his reputation was made. He wrote the Elements of
Painting in Crayon, and described in it his method. He made
his own crayons, blending them on his pictures by a peculiar
method termed " sweetening." This he carried out with his
fingers, rubbing in the colours and softening them in outline,
uniting colour to colour so accurately that they melt into one
another with a characteristic cadence. His pastel work is to
oil painting " what the vaudeville is to the tragedy or the
sonnet to the epic." His colours were pure and his blending
so perfect that no change is to be seen in his works since they
were executed. Sir Joseph Banks, writing in 1789 respecting
his portraits of the president, of Lady, Mrs and Miss Banks,
stated that " the oil pictures of the present time fade quicker
than the persons they are intended to present, but the colours
made use of by Russell will stand for ever," and in that prophecy
is so far justified.
An important picture by him hangs in the Louvre (" Child
with Cherries "), and two, including " The Old Bathing Man
at Brighton," are owned by the crown. At the Royal Academy,
of which he was a member, he exhibited three hundred and
thirty works, and his portraits were engraved by Collyer,
Turner, Heath, Dean, Bartolozzi, Trotter and other prominent
engravers. Russell received warrants of appointment to the
king, queen, prince of Wales and the duke of York. He was
interested in astronomy, *a friend of Sir W. Herschell, and
no mean mathematician. He drew an exceedingly accurate
map of the moon, and invented a piece of complicated mechan-
ism for exhibiting its phenomena, publishing a pamphlet,
illustrated by his own drawings, describing the apparatus.
Two of his sons inherited their father's talent, and one of
them, William (1780-1870), exhibited five fine portraits in the
Royal Academy.
See George C. Williamson, John Russell (London, 1894).
(G. C. W.)
RUSSELL, JOHN (d. 1494), English bishop and chancellor,
was admitted to Winchester College in 1443, and in 1449 went
to Oxford as fellow of New College. He resigned his fellowship
in 1462, and appears to have entered the royal service. In
April 1467 and January 1468 he was employed on missions to
Charles the Bold at Bruges. He was there again in February
1470 as one of the envoys to invest Charles with the Garter:
the Latin speech which Russell delivered on this last occasion
was one of Caxton's earliest publications, probably printed for
him at Bruges by Colard Mansion (see Blades, Life of Caxton,
i. p. vii, ii. 29-31). In May 1474 he was promoted to be
keeper of the privy seal, and retained his office even after his
consecration as bishop of Rochester on the 22nd of September
1476, and translation to Lincoln on the gth of September 1480.
As a trusted minister of Edward IV., he was one of the executors
of the king's will; but on the I3th of May 1483 he accepted
the office of chancellor in the interest of Richard of Gloucester,
apparently with great reluctance. He retained the great seal
till the 2gth of July 1485. Russell was above all things an
official, and was sometimes employed by Henry VII. in public
affairs. But his last years were occupied chiefly with the
business of his diocese, and of the university of Oxford, of
which he had been elected chancellor in 1483. He died at
Nettleham on the 3oth of December 1494, and was buried at
Lincoln Cathedral.
Sir Thomas More calls Russell " a wise manne and a good,
and of much experience, and one of the best-learned men,
undoubtedly, that England had in hys time." Two English
speeches composed by Russell, for the intended parliament
of Edward V., and the first parliament of Richard III., are
printed in Nichols's Grants of Edward V. (Camden Soc.). Some
other writings of less interest remain in manuscript.
For contemporary notices see especially More's Life of Richard
III., the Continuation of the Croyland Chronicle, ap. Freeman
Scriptores, and Bentley's Excerpta Historica, pp. 16-17. See also
Wood's History and Antiquities of the University of Oxford, and
. Kirby, Winchester Scholars, and Annals of Winchester College.
There are modern biographies in Campbell's Lives of the Chancellors,
and Foss's Judges of England. (C. L. K.)
RUSSELL, JOHN RUSSELL, IST EARL (1792-1878), British
statesman, third son of the 6th duke of Bedford, by Georgiana
Elizabeth Byng, second daughter of the 4th yiscount Torring-
ton, was born in London on the i8th of August 1792. He was
sent to a private school at Sunbury in 1800, and from 1803 to
1804 he was at Westminster School, but was then withdrawn
on account of his delicate health. From 1805 to 1808 he was
with a private tutor at Woodnesborough, near Sandwich.
After travelling in Scotland and in Spain, he studied from the
autumn of 1809 to 1812 at the university of Edinburgh, then
the academic centre of Liberalism, and dwelt in the house of
Professor John Playfair. On leaving the university, he travelled
in Portugal and Spain, but on the 4th of May 1813 he was
returned for the ducal borough of Tavistock and thereupon
came back to England.
In foreign politics Lord John Russell's oratorical talents
were especially shown in his struggles to prevent the union
of Norway and Sweden. In domestic questions he cast in his
lot with those who opposed the repressive measures of 1817,
and protested that the causes of the discontent at home should
be removed by remedial legislation. When failure attended
all his efforts he resigned his seat for Tavistock in March 1817,
and meditated permanent withdrawal from public life, but
was dissuaded from this step by the arguments of his friends,
and especially by a poetic appeal from his friend Tom Moore.
In the parliament of 1818-20 he again represented the family
borough in Devon, and in May 1819 began his long advocacy
of parliamentary reform by moving for an inquiry into the
corruption which prevailed, in the Cornish constituency of
Grampound. During the first parliament (1820-26) of George IV.
he sat for the county of Huntingdon, and secured in 1821
the disfranchisement of Grampound, but the seats were not
transferred to the constituency which he desired. Lord John
Russell paid the penalty for his advocacy of Catholic emancipa-
tion with the loss in 1826 of his seat for Huntingdon county,
but he found a shelter in the Irish borough of Bandon Bridge.
He led the attack against the Test Acts by carrying in February
1828 with a majority of forty-four a motion for a committee
to inquire into their operations, and after this decisive victory
they were repealed (gth of May 1828). He warmly supported
the Wellington ministry when it realized that the king's govern-
ment could only be carried on by the passing of a Catholic
Relief Act (April 1829). For the greater part of the short-
lived parliament of 1830-31 he served his old constituency of
Tavistock, having been beaten in a contest for Bedford county
at the general election by one vote; and when Lord Grey's
864
RUSSELL, J. S.
Reform ministry was formed, in November 1830, Lord John
Russell accepted the office of paymaster-general without a
seat in the cabinet. This exclusion was the more remarkable
in that he was chosen (ist of March 1831) to explain the pro-
visions of the Reform Bill, to which the cabinet had given its
formal sanction. The Whig ministry was soon defeated, but
an appeal to the country increased the number of their ad-
herents, and Lord John Russell was returned by the freeholders
of Devon. After many a period of doubt and defeat, " the bill,
the whole bill, and nothing but the bill " passed into law (yth
of June 1832), and Lord John stood forth in the mind of the
people as its champion. After the passing of the Reform Bill
he sat for the S. division of Devon, and continued to retain
the place of paymaster-general in the ministries of Lord Grey
and Lord Melbourne. The former of these cabinets was broken
up by the withdrawal of Mr Stanley, afterwards Lord Derby.
Lord John Russell had visited Ireland in the autumn of
1833 and had come back with a keen conviction of the necessity
for readjusting the revenues of the Irish church. To these
views he gave expression in a debate on the Irish Tithe Bill
(May 1834), whereupon Stanley, with the remark that " Johnny
has upset the coach," resigned his place. The latter was
abruptly, if not rudely, dismissed by William IV. when the
death of Lord Spencer promoted the leader of the House of
Commons, Lord Althorp, to the peerage, and Lord John Russell
was proposed as the spokesman of the ministry in the Commons
(Nov. 1834). At the general election which ensued the Tories
received a considerable accession of strength, but not sufficient
to ensure their continuance in office, and the adoption by the
House of Commons of the proposition, that the surplus funds
of the Irish church should be applied to general education,
necessitated the resignation of Sir Robert Peel's ministry
(April 1835). In Lord Melbourne's new administration Lord
John Russell became home secretary and leader of the House
of Commons, but on his seeking a renewal of confidence from
the electors of South Devon, he was defeated and driven to
Stroud. The Whig ministry succeeded in passing a Municipal
Reform Bill (7th of Sept. 1835), and a settlement of the tithe
question in England and Ireland (1836). In May 1839, on an
adverse motion concerning the administration of Jamaica,
the ministry was left with a majority of five only, and promptly
resigned. Sir Robert Peel's attempt to form a ministry was,
however, frustrated by the refusal of the queen to dismiss
the ladies of the bedchamber, and the Whigs resumed their
places with Lord John Russell as secretary of state for the
colonies. Their prospects brightened when Sir John Yarde
Buller's motion of " no confidence " at the opening of the
session of 1840 was defeated by twenty-one, but a similar
vote was some months later carried by a majority of one,
whereupon the Whig leader announced a dissolution of parlia-
ment (June 1841). At the polling-booth his friends sustained
a crushing defeat; the return of Lord John Russell for the
City of London was almost their solitary triumph.
On Sir Robert Peel's resignation (1846) the task of forming
an administration was entrusted to Lord John Russell, and he
remained at the head of affairs from July 1846 to Feb. 1852,
but his tenure of office was not marked by any great legislative
enactments. His celebrated Durham letter (4th of Nov. 1850) on
the threatened assumption of ecclesiastical titles by the Roman
Catholic bishops weakened the attachment of the " Peelites "
and alienated his Irish supporters. The impotence of their
opponents, rather than the strength of their friends, kept the
Whig ministry in power, and, although beaten by a majority
of nearly two to one on Mr Locke King's County Franchise
Bill in February 1851, it could not divest itself of office. Lord
Palmerston's unauthorized recognition of the French coup
d'etat was followed by his dismissal from the post of foreign
secretary (Dec. 1851), but he had his revenge in the ejectment
of his old colleagues in February 1852. During Lord Aberdeen's
administration Lord John Russell led the Lower House, at
first as foreign secretary (to the 2ist of February 1853), then
without portfolio, and lastly as president of the council (June
1854). In 1854 he brought in a Reform Bill, but in consequence
of the war with Russia the bill was allowed to drop. His
popularity was diminished by this failure, and although he
resigned in January 1855, on Mr Roebuck's motion for an
inquiry into the conduct of the war in the Crimea, he did not
regain his old position in the country. At the Vienna conference
(1855) Lord John Russell was England's representative, and
immediately on his return he became secretary of the colonies
(May 1855), but the errors in his negotiations at the Austrian
capital followed him and forced him to retire in July of the
same year.
For some years after this he was the " stormy petrel " of
politics. He was the chief instrument in defeating Lord
Palmerston in 1857. He led the attack on the Tory Reform
Bill of 1859. A reconciliation was then effected between the
rival Whig leaders, and Lord John Russell consented to become
foreign secretary in Lord Palmerston's ministry (1860) and
to accept an earldom (July 1861). During the American War
Earl Russell's sympathies with the North restrained his country
from taking sides in the contest, and he warmly sympathized
with the efforts for the unification of Italy, but he was not
equally successful in preventing the spoliation of Denmark.
On Lord Palmerston's death (October 1865) Earl Russell was
once more summoned to form a cabinet, but the defeat of
his ministry in the following June on the Reform Bill which
they had introduced was followed by his retirement from
public life. His leisure hours were spent after this event in
the preparation of numberless letters and speeches, and in
the composition of his Recollections and Suggestions (1875),
but everything he wrote was marked by the belief that all
philosophy, political or social, was summed up in the Whig
creed of fifty years previously. Earl Russell died at Pembroke
Lodge, Richmond Park, 28th May 1878.
Earl Russell was twice married first in 1835, to Adelaide,
daughter of Mr Thomas Lister, and widow of Thomas, second
Lord Ribblesdale, and secondly, in 1841, to Lady Frances Ann
Maria, daughter of Gilbert, second earl of Minto. By the
former he had two daughters, by the latter three sons and
one daughter. His eldest son, Lord Amberley, who married
a daughter of the second Baron Stanley of Alderley, predeceased
him on the 9th of January 1876, and their eldest son (b. 1865)
succeeded as second Earl Russell.
Lord Russell played some part as an author. His tales, tragedies
and essays (including The Nun of Arrouca, 1822, and Essays and
Sketches by a Gentleman who has left his Lodgings, 1820) are for-
gotten, but his historical works, Life of William Lord Russell
(1819), Memoirs of the Affairs of Europe (1824-29, 2 vols.), Cor-
respondence of John, 4th Duke of Bedford (1842-46, 3 vols.), Memorials
and Correspondence of C. J. Fox (1853-57, 4 vols.) and Life and
Times of C. J. Fox (1859-66,3 vols.) are amongthe chief authorities
on Whig politics. He also edited the Memoirs, Journal and Cor-
respondence of Thomas Moore (1853-56, vols.).
The chief biography is that by Sir Spencer Wai pole (1891, 2
vols.). The volume by Stuart J. Reid (1895, " Prime Ministers of
Queen Victoria" Series) should also be consulted. (W. P. C.)
RUSSELL, JOHN SCOTT (1808-1882), British engineer, was
born in 1808 near Glasgow, a " son of the manse," and was
at first destined for the ministry. But this intention on his
father's part was changed in consequence of the boy's early
leanings towards practical science. He attended in succession
the universities of St Andrews, Edinburgh and Glasgow,
taking his degree in the last-named at the age of sixteen.
After spending a couple of years in workshops, he settled in
Edinburgh as a lecturer on science, and soon attracted large
classes. In 1832-33 he was engaged to give the natural
philosophy course at the university, the chair having become
vacant by the death of Sir John Leslie. In the following year he
began his remarkable series of observations on waves. Having
been consulted as to \he possibility of utilizing steam-naviga-
tion on the Edinburgh & Glasgow canal, he replied that the
question could not be answered without experiments, which
he was willing to undertake if a portion of the canal were placed
at his disposal. The results of this inquiry are to be found
in the Trans. Roy. Soc. Ed. (vol. xiv.), and in the British
RUSSELL, T. RUSSELL, SIR W. H.
865
Association Reports (seventh meeting). The existence of the
long wave, or wave of translation, with many of its most important
features, was here first recognized, and it was clearly pointed
out why there is a special rate, depending on the depth of
the water, at which a canal-boat can be towed at the least
expenditure of effort by the horse. The elementary mathe-
matical theory of the long wave was soon supplied by com-
mentators on Scott Russell's work, and a more complete investi-
gation was subsequently given by Sir G. G. Stokes. Russell
indulged in many extraordinary and groundless speculations,
some of which were published in a posthumous volume, The
Wave of Translation (1885). His observations led him to
propose and experiment on a new system of shaping vessels,
known as the wave system, which culminated in the building
of the " Great Eastern." His activity and ingenuity were
also displayed in many other fields, steam-coaches for roads,
improvements in boilers and in marine engines, the immense
iron dome of the Vienna Exhibition, cellular double bottoms
for iron ships, &c. With Mr Stafford Northcote (afterwards
Lord Iddesjeigh), he was joint-secretary of the Great Exhibi-
tion of 1851; and he was one of the chief founders of the
Institution of Naval Architects. He died at Ventnor on the
8th of June 1882.
RUSSELL, THOMAS (1762-1788), English poet, was born
at Beaminster, early in 1762. He was the son of John Russell,
an attorney at Bridport, in Dorsetshire, and his mother was
Miss Virtue Brickie, of Shaftesbury. He was educated at the
grammar school of Bridport, and in 1777 proceeded to Win-
chester, where he stayed three years, under Dr Joseph Warton,
and Thomas Warton, the professor of poetry. In 1780 Russell
became a member of New College, Oxford. He graduated
B.A. in 1784 and was ordained priest in 1786. During his
residence at the university he devoted himself to French,
Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Provencal and even German
literature. His health, however, broke down, and he retired
to Bristol hot wells to drink the waters; but in vain, for he
died there on the 3ist of July 1788. He was buried in Power-
stock churchyard, Dorset. In 1789 was published a thin
volume, containing his Sonnets and Miscellaneous Poems, now a
very rare book. It contained twenty-three sonnets, of regular
form, and a few paraphrases and original lyrics. The sonnets
are the best, and it is by right of these that Russell takes his
place as one of the most interesting precursors of the romantic
school. " War, Love, the Wizard, and the Fay he sung "-
in other words, he rejected entirely the narrow circle of subjects
laid down for 18th-century poets. In this he was certainly
influenced both by Chatterton and by Collins. But he was
still more clearly the disciple of Petrarch, of Boccaccio and
of Camoens, each of whom he had carefully and enthusiastically
studied. His sonnet, " Suppos'd to be written at Lemnos,"
is his masterpiece, and is unquestionably the greatest English
sonnet of the i8th century.
The anonymous editor of Russell's solitary volume is said to
have been William Howley (1766-1848), long afterwards arch-
bishop of Canterbury, who was a youthful bachelor of New College
when Russell, who had been his tutor, died. His memoir of the
poet is very perfunctory, and the fullest account of Russell is that
published in 1897 by T. Seccombe.
RUSSELL, WILLIAM CLARK (1844- ), British author, was
born at the Carlton House Hotel, New York, on the 24th of
February 1844, the son of Henry Russell, author of " Cheer,
Boys, Cheer," and other popular songs. He went to school
at Winchester, and then at Boulogne, joining the merchant
service at thirteen, and serving for eight years. This apprentice-
ship to a seafaring life was turned to account in a series of
stories which have fascinated two generations of boy readers.
John Holdsworth, Chief Mate (1874), immediately made his
reputation. Other successful stories were: The Wreck of the
Grosvenor (1875), in which he pleaded for better food for
English seamen; The Frozen Pirate (1877), An Ocean Tragedy
(1881), The Emigrant Ship (1894), The Ship, Her Story (1894),
The Convict Ship (1895), What Cheer! (1895), The Two Captains
(1897), The Romance of a Midshipman (1898), The Ship's
XXIII. 28
Adventure (1899), Overdue (1903), Abandoned (1904), His Island
Princess (1905). He joined the staff of the Newcastle Daily
Chronicle, and afterwards became a leader writer on the Daily
Telegraph, but the double labour of journalism and novel-
writing threatened his health, and he resigned in 1887. Many
of the papers which he contributed to the Daily Telegraph were
collected in volume form in Round the Galley Fire and other
volumes. He also wrote a Life of Lord Collingwood (1891),
and, with W. H. Jacques, Nelson and the Naval Supremacy of
England (New York, 1890).
RUSSELL, SIR WILLIAM HOWARD (1821-1907), English
war correspondent, was born at Lilyvale, near Tallaght, in
the county of Dublin, on the 28th of March 1821, being one
of the Russells of Limerick, whose settlement in Ireland
dates from the time of Richard II. He entered Trinity College
in 1838. Three years later he was thrown very much on his
own resources, but a relative, Mr R. W. Russell, who had been
sent to Ireland by The Times, deputed him to report the Irish
elections at Longford, and his success definitely turned his
attention to journalism. Coming to London in 1842, he went to
Cambridge, but left before taking a degree. In the following
year he was sent by The Times to Ireland to report the O'Connell
meetings. In 1845 he was appointed to superintend the reports
on the Irish railways, and was shortly afterwards sent by The
Times to inspect the O'Connell property in S.W. Ireland, when
his plain speaking drew forth a characteristic tirade from the
" Liberator." For a short period in 1847 his services were
temporarily transferred to the Morning Chronicle, but with
that exception he remained permanently connected with The
Times. He was sent as special correspondent to Denmark in
the war of 1849-50. He did not, however, at once relinquish
a legal career, and was called to the bar at the Middle Temple
in 1851. On the outbreak of the Crimean War in 1853 he went
out as special correspondent, and, accompanying the light
division to Gallipoli, proceeded with the first detachment to
Varna. On the embarkation for the Crimea he was attached
to the second division, and landed with it on the i4th of
September. He was present at the battle of the Alma on the
20th of September, at the investment of Sevastopol, at Bala-
clava on the 25th of October and Inkerman on the sth of
November.
Towards the end of May 1855 he accompanied the expedition
to Kertch, and did not return to the Crimea until the following
August. In September and October he described the attacks
on the Malakoff and Redan, the occupation of Sevastopol and
the capture of Fort Kinbum. The popularity of The Times
Crimea correspondence led to its republication in two volumes
under the title of The War, 1855-56. Russell's letters to The
Times were mainly responsible for the enlightenment of the
public at home as to the conduct of affairs at the scene of action,
and his exposure of the mismanagement during the winter of
1854 did more than anything else to cause the downfall of Lord
Aberdeen's ministry. In 1856 Russell was sent to Moscow
to describe the coronation of the tsar, and in the following
year was attached to the headquarters of Lord Clyde in India.
He was present at the siege and capture of Lucknow in 1858,
the operations in Oude, the battle of Bareilly and the actions
in Rohilkhand, and he received the Indian war medal with the
Lucknow clasp. The events of those stirring times are vividly
recorded in My Diary in India in 1858-59. Next year he was
sent to Italy, but arrived on the eve of the armistice at Villa-
franca. On the 7th of January 1860 appeared the first number
of the Army and Navy Gazette, which he founded, and of which
he was editor and principal proprietor. In 1861 Russell pro-
ceeded to Washington, and reached M'Dowell's headquarters
just before the first battle of Bull Run, and his account of
the Federal retreat drew much hostile criticism. He published
a full account of the war, in so far as he had witnessed it, in
My Diary, North and South, during the Civil War in America,
1862. Returning to England in 1863, he remained at home
until 1866, when he proceeded to the headquarters of General
Benedek and witnessed the battle of Koniggratz, 3rd of July.
866
RUSSELL, LORD W.
During the interval of peace that followed he accompanied the
prince of Wales to the Nile, Constantinople, the Crimea and
Greece in 1868, and published an account of the tour in the
following year, when he also contested the borough of Chelsea
unsuccessfully in the Conservative interest. On the out-
break of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, Russell was with the
crown prince from the battle of Worth, 6th of August, and
Sedan, izth of September, till the capitulation of Paris. His
account appeared in 1874 under the title of My Diary during
the Last Great War. His description of the burning of Paris
by the Communards was not the least of his journalistic
triumphs. In 1875-76 he was honorary private secretary to
the prince of Wales during his tour through India, of which
he published an account in 1877. When Lord Wolseley was
sent to quell the Zulu rebellion in 1879, Russell was attached
to his staff as correspondent. In 1881 he went with the duke
of Sutherland's party for a tour in the United States and Canada,
described in Hesperothen, and in 1882 he was again with Lord
Wolseley in the Egyptian campaign. In 1895 he published a
personal retrospect entitled The Great War with Russia. Russell
was knighted in May 1895, and was the recipient of numerous
war medals and various foreign orders. He married twice,
first in 1846 Miss Burrowes, who died not long afterwards, and
secondly in 1884 the Countess A. Malvezzi. He died on the
nth of February 1907.
RUSSELL, LORD WILLIAM (1639-1683), English politician,
was the third son of the ist duke of Bedford and was born
on the 29th of September 1639. About 1654 he was sent to
Cambridge with his elder brother Francis (on whose death in
1678 he obtained the courtesy title of Lord Russell). On
leaving the university, the two brothers travelled abroad, visit-
ing Lyons and Geneva, and residing for some while at Augsburg.
William's account of his impressions is spirited and interesting.
He was at Paris in 1658, but had returned to Woburn in December
1659. At the Restoration he was elected for the family borough
of Tavistock. For a long time he appears to have taken no
part in public affairs, but rather to have indulged in the follies
of court life and intrigue; for both in 1663 and 1664 he was
engaged in duels, in the latter of which he was wounded. In
1669 he married Rachel (1636-1723), second daughter of the
4th earl of Southampton, and widow of Lord Vaughan, thus
becoming connected with Shaftesbury, who had married South-
ampton's niece. With his wife Russell always lived on terms
of the greatest affection and confidence. She corresponded
with Tillotson and other distinguished men, and a collection of
her admirable letters was published in 1773.
It was not until the formation of the " country party,"
in opposition to the policy of the Cabal and Charles's French-
Catholic plots, that Russell began to take an active part in
affairs. He then joined Cavendish, Birch, Hampden, Powell,
Lyttleton and others in vehement antagonism to the court.
With a passionate hatred and distrust of the Catholics, and an
intense love of political liberty, he united the desire for ease
to Protestant Dissenters. His first speech appears to have been
on the 22nd of January 1673, in which he inveighed against
the stop of the exchequer, the attack on the Smyrna fleet, the
corruption of courtiers with French money, and " the ill ministers
about the king." He also supported the proceedings against
the duke of Buckingham. In 1675 he moved an address to the
king for the removal of Danby (see LEEDS, DUKE OF) from
the royal councils, and for his impeachment. On the isth of
February 1677, in the debate on the fifteen months' prorogation,
he moved the dissolution of parliament; and in March 1678 he
seconded the address praying the king to declare war against
France. The enmity of the country party against Danby and
James, and their desire for a dissolution and the disbanding
of the army, were greater than their enmity to Louis. The
French king therefore found it easy to form a temporary alli-
ance with Russell, Hollis and the opposition leaders, by which
they engaged to cripple the king's power of hurting France and
to compel him to seek Louis's friendship, that friendship, how-
ever, to be given only on the condition that they in their turn
should have Louis's support for their cherished objects. Russell
in particular entered into close communication with the marquis
de Ruvigny (Lady Russell's maternal uncle), who came over with
money for distribution among members of parliament. By the
testimony of Barillon, however, it is clear that Russell himself
utterly refused to take any part in the intended corruption.
By the wild alarms which culminated in the Popish Terror
Russell appears to have been affected more completely than his
otherwise sober character would have led people to expect. He
threw himself into the party which looked to Monmouth as the
representative of Protestant interests, a grave political blunder,
though he afterwards was in confidential communication with
Orange. On the 4th of November 1678 he moved an address
to the king to remove the duke of York from his person and
councils. At the dissolution of the pensionary parliament, he
was, in the new elections, returned for Bedfordshire. Danby
was at once overthrown, and in April 1679 Russell was one of the
new privy cpuncil formed by Charles on the advice of Temple.
Only six days after this we find him moving for a committee
to draw up a bill to secure religion and property in case of a
popish successor. He does not, however, appear to have taken
part in the exclusion debates at this time. In June, on the
occasion of the Covenanters' rising in Scotland, he attacked
Lauderdale personally in full council.
In January 1680 Russell, along with Cavendish, Capell,
Powell, Essex and Lyttleton, tendered his resignation to the
king, which was received by Charles " with all my heart."
On the 1 6th of June he accompanied Shaftesbury, when the
latter indicted James at Westminster as a popish recusant;
and on the 26th of October he took the extreme step of moving
"how to suppress popery and prevent a popish successor";
while on the 2nd of November, now at the height of his influence,
he went still further by seconding the motion for exclusion in its
most emphatic shape, and on the igth carried the bill to the
House of Lords for their concurrence. The limitation scheme he
opposed, on the ground that monarchy under the conditions
expressed in it would be an absurdity. The statement, made
by Echard alone (Hist, of England, ii.), that he joined in opposing
the indulgence shown to Lord Strafford by Charles in dispensing
with the more horrible parts of the sentence of death an
indulgence afterwards shown to Russell himself is entirely
unworthy of credence. On December 18 he moved to refuse
supplies until the king passed the Exclusion Bill. The prince
of Orange having come over at this time, there was a tendency
on the part of the opposition leaders to accept his endeavours to
secure a compromise on the exclusion question. Russell, how-
ever, refused to give way a hair's-breadth.
On the 26th of March 1681, in the parliament held at Oxford,
Russell again .seconded the Exclusion Bill. Upon the dissolu-
tion he retired into privacy at his country seat of Stratton in
Hampshire. It was, however, no doubt at his wish that his
chaplain wrote the Life of Julian the Apostate, in reply to Dr
Hickes's sermons, in which the lawfulness of resistance in extreme
cases was defended. In the wild schemes of Shaftesbury after
the election of Tory sheriffs for London in 1682 he had no share;
upon the violation of the charters, however, in 1683, he began
seriously to consider as to the best means of resisting the govern-
ment, and on one occasion attended a meeting at which treason,
or what might be construed as treason, was talked. Monmouth,
Essex, Hampden, Sidney and Howard of Escrick were the
principal of those who met to consult. On the breaking out of
the Rye House Plot, of which neither he, Essex, nor Sidney had
the slightest knowledge, he was accused by informers of promis-
ing his assistance to raise an insurrection and compass the
death of the king. Refusing to attempt to escape, he was
brought before the council, when his attendance at the meeting
referred to was charged against him. He was sent on the
26th of June 1683 to the Tower, and, looking upon himself as
a dying man, betook himself wholly to preparation for death.
Monmouth offered to appear to take his trial, if thereby he
could help Russell, and Essex refused to abscond for fear of
injuring his friend's chance of escape. Before a committee of
RUSSELL OF KILLOWEN, LORD
867
the council Russell, on the 28th of June, acknowledged his
presence at the meeting, but denied all knowledge of the proposed
insurrection. He reserved his defence, however, until his trial.
He would probably have saved his life but for the perjury of
Lord Howard. The suicide of Essex, the news of which was
brought into court during the trial, was quoted as additional
evidence against him, as pointing to the certainty of Essex's
guilt. On July 19 he was tried at the Old Bailey, his wife
assisting him in his defence. Evidence was given by an in-
former that, while at Shaftesbury's hiding-place in Wapping,
Russell had joined in the proposal to seize the king's guard, a
charge indignantly denied by him in his farewell paper, and
that he was one of a committee of six appointed to prepare the
scheme for an insurrection. Howard, too, expressly declared
that Russell had urged the entering into communications
with Argyll in Scotland. Howard's perjury is clear from
other witnesses, but the evidence was accepted. Russell spoke
with spirit and dignity in his own defence, and, in especial,
vehemently denied that he had ever been party to a design
so wicked and so foolish as those of the murder of the king and
of rebellion. It will be observed that the legality of the trial,
in so far as the jurors were not properly qualified and the law
of treason was shamefully strained, was denied in the act of
i William & Mary which annulled the attainder. Hallam
maintains that the only overt act of treason proved against
Russell was his concurrence in the project of a rising at Taunton,
which he denied, and which, Ramsay being the only witness,
was not sufficient to warrant a conviction.
Russell was sentenced to die. Many attempts were made to
save his life. The old earl of Bedford offered 50,000 or 100,000,
and Monmouth, Legge, Lady Ranelagh, and Rochester added
their intercessions. Russell himself, in petitions to Charles and
James, offered to live abroad if his life were spared, and never
again to meddle in the affairs of England. He refused, however,
to yield to the influence of Burnet and Tillotson, who endeavoured
to make him grant the unlawfulness of resistance, although it is
more than probable that compliance in this would have saved
his life. He drew up, with Burnet's assistance, a paper con-
taining his apology, and he wrote to the king a letter, to be
delivered after his death, in which he asked Charles's pardon
for any wrong he had done him. A suggestion of escape from
Lord Cavendish he refused. He behaved with his usual quiet
cheerfulness during his stay in the Tower, spending his last day
on earth as he had intended to spend the following Sunday if he
had reached it. He received the sacrament from Tillotson, and
Burnet twice preached to him. Having supped with his wife,
the parting from whom was his only great trial, he slept peace-
fully, and spent the last morning in devotion with Burnet. He
went to the place of execution in Lincoln's Inn Fields with
perfect calmness, which was preserved to the last. He died on
the 2ist of July 1683, in the forty-fourth year of his age. His
attainder was reversed in 1689, and his son Wriothesley (1680-
1711) succeeded his grandfather as 2nd duke of Bedford in 1700.
A true and moderate summing-up of his character will be found
in his Life, by Lord John Russell (1820). (O. A.)
RUSSELL OF KILLOWEN, CHARLES RUSSELL, BARON
(1832-1900), lord chief justice of England, was born at Newry,
county Down, on the loth of November 1832. He was the
elder son of Arthur Russell, a Roman Catholic gentleman,
who was engaged in commerce and brewing in Newry. Edu-
cated first at Belfast, afterwards in Newry, and finally at St
Vincent's College, Castleknock, Dublin, in 1849, he was articled
to a firm of solicitors in Newry. In 1854 he was admitted,
and began to practise his profession. Disturbances between
Roman Catholics and Orangemen were at that time prevalent
in this part of Ireland, and in the legal proceedings which
ensued at quarter and petty sessions young Russell distinguished
himself as a bold and skilful advocate in the cause of his
co-religionists. The political zeal which always formed an
important element in Russell's character happily harmonized
with these professional duties. After practising, however, for
two years, he determined to seek a wider field for his abilities,
and to become a barrister in England. It was a wise ambition,
early conceived by young Russell, stimulated by his present
success, and encouraged by the counsel of at least one competent
adviser, Judge Jones, who was much impressed by Russell's
ability in the conduct of a case at the Newry quarter sessions.
He believed, moreover, that to succeed at the Irish bar he would
have (to use his own phrase) to " swallow his convictions."
With this end in view Russell, whilst still practising and residing
in Belfast, became a student of Trinity College, Dubh'n. He
matriculated there in 1855, and passed examinations from
time to time, but did not wait to become a graduate. In 1856
he went to London and became a student of Lincoln's Inn.
In 1858 he married, in Belfast, Ellen, the eldest daughter of
Dr Mulholland, a physician of distinction in that city. In
1859 he was called to the bar, after gaining by examination
a first-class honour certificate, and joined the Northern Circuit.
Except some valuable introductions to friends in London and
Liverpool, which his uncle, the president of Maynooth, had
given to him, Russell brought to the work of his profession no
external aids. He had to rely upon himself. But the equip-
ment was sufficient. A well-built frame; a strong, striking
face, with broad forehead, keen grey eyes, and a full and sensitive
mouth; a voice which, though not musical, was rich, and
responded well to strong emotions, whether of indignation,
or scorn, or pity; an amazing power of concentrating thought;
an intellectual grasp, promptly seizing the real points of the
most entangled case, and rejecting all that was secondary, or
petty, or irrelevant; a faculty of lucid and forcible expression,
which, without literary ornateness or grace of. style, could on
fit occasions rise to impassioned eloquence all these things
Russell had. But beyond and above all these was his immense
personality, an embodiment of energetic will which riveted
attention, dominated his audience, and bore down opposition.
His successful advocacy in the Colin Campbell divorce case in
1886, and his famous cross-examination of hostile witnesses
and still more famous speech before the Parnell Commission in
1888, afforded perhaps the best examples of Russell's character-
istic powers. He was not a learned lawyer in the sense in which
Willes, or Mellish, or Blackburn were learned lawyers; he did
not possess the fine legal acumen of his great contemporary,
Herschell; but he had a sufficient apprehension of legal prin-
ciples. He handled a point of law with telling directness and
force. His argument as the leading counsel for Great Britain
in the Bering Sea Arbitration in 1893, and his address at Saratoga
Springs on International Law and International Arbitration in
August 1896, were expositions of law in its practical application
to matters of state which the most learned jurist must admire
for their thoroughness and perspicuity.
Russell's success, after he joined the Northern Circuit, did
not, of course, come to him at once. For some time his work
in court was principally in the Court of Passage at Liverpool,
which he regularly attended from London. He wrote a book
on its procedure, which was published in 1862. This ancient
local court, possessing both common law and Admiralty juris-
diction, had as its presiding judge then styled "assessor"
an eminent leader of the Northern Circuit, Mr Edward James.
Substantial commercial cases were tried there, and of these
Russell soon had a goodly portion. Steadily, and, for a barrister,
speedily, Russell's fortune grew. His biographer, Mr Barry
O'Brien, has given, in The Life of Lord Russell of Killowen (1901),
an account of Russell's fees, which shows that they were,
in round figures: in 1859, 117; in 1862, 1016; in 1866,
2367; and in 1870, 4230. At the beginning of this period
Russell wrote occasionally for the newspapers, and especially
for the Irish press. From early boyhood onwards he maintained
a keen interest in politics, and pre-eminently in the public affairs
of Ireland. In 1859 he published a pamphlet entitled The
Catholic in the Workhouse, and an article from his pen is to be
found in The Dublin Review, vol. xlviii. p. 497. His legal work
was not wholly confined to the north of England. He was
employed at the Guildhall and elsewhere by solicitors of position
in the City of London. He was one of the counsel engaged in
868
RUSSELL OF KILLOWEN, LORD
the Windham lunacy case in 1861, and in the action of Saurin v.
5/arr in 1869. In 1865 he argued in ex parte Chavasse before
Lord Westbury, L.C., and soon afterwards was honoured by him
with the offer of a county court judgeship.
In 1872 Russell took " silk," and from that date for some
time he divided the best leading work of the circuit with Holker,
Herschell and Pope. In 1874 Holker became solicitor-
general in the Conservative administration. In 1880 Herschell
accepted the same office in a Liberal ministry, and about the
same time Pope practically left the circuit, to become in a short
time one of the most successful advocates at the parliamentary
bar. Russell's success as a Q.C. during this period of his career
was prodigious. He excelled in the conduct alike of com-
mercial cases and of those involving, as he used to say, " a
human interest," although undoubtedly it was the latter which
more attracted him. He was seen to the least advantage in
cases which involved technical or scientific detail. If his
advocacy suffered a defeat, however, it was never an inglorious
defeat. Those who were on the Northern Circuit at the time
will not easily forget the case of Dixon v. Plimsoll a libel action
brought by a Liverpool shipowner against Mr S. Plimsoll tried
before Baron Amphlett and a Liverpool special jury, in which
Holker won a notable victory for the defendant; or Nuttall v.
Wilde, a breach of promise action, in which Pope led brilliantly
for the successful plaintiff, and Russell's speech for the defence
was one of the finest in point of passion and pathos that was
ever heard upon the Northern Circuit. At the same time, with
all his fighting power, Russell was eminently a sagacious adviser.
No barrister knew better how and when to settle a case, where
the client's true interest called for a settlement.
In 1880 a new phase of Russell's arduous life began. He
was returned to parliament as an independent Liberal member
for Dundalk, a constituency which he had twice before un-
successfully contested. From that time forward until his
appointment to a lordship of appeal in succession to Lord
Bowen in 1894, he sat in the House of Commons: for Dundalk
until 1885, and afterwards for South Hackney, where he was
returned as the Liberal member on four successive occasions
once in 1885, twice in 1886, and again in 1892. The entrance
into parliament laid upon Russell's time and labour a heavy
additional tax. His was a nature which could not, in work or
even in pleasure, be content to do anything lightly or by halves.
He was essentially a man of action; intensity at times almost
fierce intensity both of purpose and of devotion to its fulfil-
ment characterized everything he did. Upon such a man
parliamentary life between 1880 and 1894 necessarily entailed
a severe strain. During the whole of this epoch, in home affairs,
Irish business almost monopolized the political stage; and
Russell was Irish to the core. From 1880 to 1886, as a private
member, and as the attorney-general in Mr Gladstone's ad-
ministrations of 1886 and 1892, he worked in and out of parlia-
ment for the Liberal policy in regard to the treatment of Ireland
as few men except Russell could or would work. He never
spared himself. After a long day in the turmoil of the courts,
he cheerfully gave a long evening to a distant and often, from
the standpoint of personal notoriety, an obscure, platform.
His position throughout was clear and consistent. Before
1886 on several occasions he supported the action of the Irish
Nationalist party. He opposed coercion, voted for compensa-
tion for disturbance, advocated the release of political prisoners
and voted for the Maamtrasna inquiry. He wrote to the Daily
Telegraph a series of letters on the Irish land question, which
were afterwards published (1889) in a collected form. But he
never became a member of the Irish Home Rule or of the
Parnellite party; he was elected at Dundalk as an independent
Liberal, and such he remained. He was proud of the kingdom
in whose might and glory Ireland could claim so large a part;
and when, as attorney-general in the Gladstone administration,
he warmly advocated the establishment of a subordinate parlia-
ment in Ireland, he did so because he sought the amelioration
and not the destruction of Ireland's relations with the rest of
that kingdom. " I am absolutely opposed," he said (The Life
of Lord Russell of Killowen, p. 194) to the South Hackney
voters, " to separation; but, reserving imperial control on all
imperial questions, I think Irishmen on Irish soil should have
the power of dealing in the way which seems best to them
with all questions that concern them." It is impossible to
say that Russell's success in the House of Commons,
considerable as it was, was comparable to his success as an
advocate in the courts of justice. He was listened to, always
with respect and often with admiration, but he was not made
for a debater; and the position of a law officer has generally
not proved favourable to the attainment of parliamentary
eminence. In great public affairs the law officer advises and
supports, but not for him is the glory of initiating public policy.
Russell's parliamentary duties, fully as he discharged them,
first as a private member and afterwards as attorney-general,
were not allowed by him to obstruct his professional career.
He rapidly became in London what he was already in Lanca-
shire, the favourite leader in nisi prius actions. The list of
causes cttebres in the period 1880-94 is really a record of
Russell's cases, and, for a great part, of Russell's victories.
The best known of the exceptions from the latter category
was the libel action Belt v. Lowes in 1882, which, after a trial
before Baron Huddleston and a special jury lasting more than
forty days, resulted in a verdict for the plaintiff, for whom
Sir Hardinge Giffard (afterwards Lord Chancellor Halsbury)
appeared as leading counsel. The triumph of his client in
the Colin Campbell divorce suit in 1886 afforded perhaps the
most brilh'ant instance of Russell's forensic capacity in private
litigation. His fees in 1885, the year before he became attorney-
general, amounted to nearly 17,000. More important, however,
as well as more famous, than any of his successes in the ordinary
courts of law during this period were his performances as an
advocate in two public transactions of mark in British history.
The first of these in point of date was the Parnell Commission
of 1888-90, in which Sir Charles Russell appeared as leading
counsel for Mr Parnell. The commission held its first sitting
on the 22nd of October 1888, and presented its report in Feb-
ruary 1890. In April 1889, after 63 sittings of the commission,
in the course of which 340 witnesses had been examined, Sir
Charles Russell, who had already destroyed the chief personal
charge against Mr Parnell by a brilliant cross-examination, in
which he proved it to have been based upon a forgery, made
his great opening speech for the defence. It lasted several
days, and concluded on the i2th of April. This speech, besides
its merit as a wonderful piece of advocacy, possesses permanent
value as an historical survey of the Irish question during the
last century, from the point of view of an Irish Liberal. It
was in the same year published after careful revision by its
author (1889). The second public transaction was the Bering
Sea Arbitration, held in Paris in 1893. Sir Charles Russell,
then attorney-general, with Sir Richard Webster (afterwards
Lord Alverstone, L.C.J.), was the leading counsel for Great
Britain. Russell, in the course of his very powerful argument
before the tribunal, maintained the proposition, which he again
handled in his Saratoga address to the American Bar Association
in 1896, that " international law is neither more nor less than
what civilized nations have agreed shall be binding on one
another as international law." The award was, substantially,
in favour of Great Britain. In recognition of their distinguished
services, the queen bestowed upon both the leading repre-
sentatives of Great Britain the honour of the grand cross of
St Michael and St George.
In 1894 Russell's career as an advocate ended. A judgeship,
if he had wished it, had been within his reach twelve years
before. In 1894, on the death of Lord Bowen, he accepted
the position of a lord of appeal. A month later he was appointed
lord chief justice ^>f England in succession to Lord Coleridge,
to whose memory he devoted in the following September a paper
in the North American Review. To the discharge of his func-
tions as a judge Russell brought with him all the qualities of
intellect and character which had made him so eminent as an
advocate, and their greatness was not less conspicuous in his
RUSSELL OF THORNHAUGH, IST BARON RUSSIA 869
new position. Brief as was his tenure of the office, he proved
himself well worthy of it. He was dignified without pompous-
ness, quick without being irritable, and masterful without
tyranny. He was scrupulously punctual. Suitors and hearers
could not but be impressed by the manifest determina-
tion of the lord chief justice to get at the truth, and to do
so without waste of time. If this was a fault, it was that
of excessive zeal for despatch. When, occasionally, there were
flashes of impatience, they were elicited by the exhibition, as
he deemed it, of want of preparation, or slovenliness, or ver-
bosity on the part of the advocate before him. Even the
youngest and most obscure practitioner could always count
upon the assiduous attention of the lord chief justice to a
pertinent and thoughtful argument. In 1896 Lord Russell
(Pollock B. and Hawkins J. being on this occasion his colleagues
on the bench) presided at the trial at bar of the leaders of the
Jameson Raid. It was a state trial of grave importance.
Russell's conduct of it, in the midst of much popular excitement,
was by itself sufficient to establish his reputation as a great
judge. One other event at least in his career while lord chief
justice deserves a record, namely, his share in the Venezuela
Arbitration in 1899. Lord Herschell, who had been nominated
to act with Lord Justice Collins (afterwards Master of the
Rolls), as a British representative on the Commission of Arbitra-
tion, of which the distinguished Russian jurist M. Martens
was president, died somewhat suddenly in America before the
beginning of the proceedings. The lord chief justice accepted
the invitation to take the vacant place, and performed his
very onerous duty with conspicuous ability.
Nor was it only on the bench or as an international judge
that Lord Russell of Killowen sought, during the last years of
his busy life, to do service to his country. He signalized
his zeal as a law reformer by the public advocacy of radical
changes in the system of legal education in the Inns of Court,
and by the promotion of measures to put down the vice of
secret and illicit commissions in commercial and business life.
On the former subject he delivered in 1895 an address in
Lincoln's Inn Hall, under the auspices of the Council of Legal
Education, which was afterwards printed and published. In
1899, dealing with the latter question, he introduced in the
House of Lords a bill, which had its first reading. He again
introduced a bill in the session of 1900, which was read a
second time, but did not become law. On the loth of
August 1900 the great advocate and great judge passed
quietly away at his London residence, after a short illness due
to an internal malady.
In private as in public life Russell was always strenuous,
and most attracted by things that called for the exercise of
activity, whether bodily or intellectual. Inaction he disliked
both for himself and in others. Though not an athlete, he
took an interest in manly pastimes: he was fond of riding and
of breeding horses; he liked being on the racecourse; and he
enjoyed games, both of skill and of chance. A student of books
he was not; he could lay no claim to wide learning or elegant
scholarship; but he could appreciate a good book; he was
versed in Shakespeare; and he knew and loved the poetry
and the songs of his native land. When he wrote, his style,
inornate, clear and forcible, reflected the character of his
thought. He was a staunch and sympathetic friend, ever
ready, in an unostentatious way, to help, where help was really
needed. While he undoubtedly exhibited at times, chiefly
during the earlier part of his career, a certain brusqueness and
impetuousness of speech and demeanour, those who came
into contact with him recognized that such occasional out-
bursts never sprang from any desire to hurt, or from any
unkindness of disposition. In his contests at the bar he
never made an enemy. He was a strong man, and he liked
to have his way; but he was also large-hearted and without
a tinge of rancour in his disposition. He was never offended
by opposition. Whilst he did not himself shine as a wit or a
humorist in conversation or in after-dinner oratory, he heartily
enjoyed fun and humour in others; and, wherever he was, the
force and distinctness of his personality never failed to impress
his company. Probably no English lawyer ever excited abroad
the admiration which was accorded to Lord Russell of Killowen,
alike on the continent of Europe and in America. To the
United States he paid two visits, the first in 1883 and the
second in 1896. On both occasions he won golden opinions,
which were manifested in widespread and warm expressions
of sympathy and regret when the news of the death of Lord
Russell of Killowen passed across the Atlantic. Between 1894
and 1897 Lord Russell of Killowen received the degree of
Doctor of Laws honoris causa from the universities of Dublin,
Edinburgh and Cambridge, and from the Laval university,
Quebec. In 1892 he was treasurer of Lincoln's Inn. He left
surviving him, besides his widow, five sons and four daughters.
His sister Katherine (in religion, Sister Mary Baptist Joseph),
pioneer sister of mercy in California, had died two years before
at San Francisco. (W. R. K.)
RUSSELL OF THORNHAUGH, WILLIAM, ist BARON
(c. 1558-1613), English soldier, was a younger son of Francis
Russell, and earl of Bedford, and was educated at Magdalen
College, Oxford. After spending a few years abroad, he went
to Ireland in 1580, and having seen some service in that country
he was knighted in September 1581. In 1585 he joined the
English forces in the Netherlands, being made lieutenant-general
of cavalry; in September 1586 he so distinguished himself
at Zutphen that the Spaniards pronounced him " a devil and
not a man"; and in 1587 he became governor of Flushing
in succession to his late friend, Sir Philip Sidney. He differed
with the estates of Holland and with his' superior, Lord
Willoughby de Eresby; consequently, on his own initiative,
he was recalled to England in July 1588. In May 1594 Russell
was made lord deputy of Ireland in place of Sir William Fitz-
william. He relieved Enniskillen, but his attempts to capture
the insurgent leaders, Hugh O'Neill, earl of Tyrone, and Fiagh
MacHugh O'Byrne, came to nothing. In May 1595 Sir John
Norris landed in Ireland, his orders being to help the lord deputy
in his difficult task. Russell was somewhat chagrined at the
choice, as he and Norris were not very good friends, but for a
short time they acted together against the rebels in the N.
of Ireland. Russell then led an expedition into Connaught,
but soon he and Norris were at variance. Having captured
O'Byrne in May 1597, Russell laid down his office and left Ireland
later in the month. In 1603 he was created Baron Russell
of Thornhaugh, and he died on the 9th of August 1613. In
1627 his only son Francis succeeded his cousin Edward as
4th earl of Bedford.
Russell's Journal of his doings in Ireland is in the Carew MSS.,
and many of his letters are in the British Museum. See J. H.
Wiffen, Historical Memoirs of the House of Russell (1833), and
R. Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors, vol. iii. (1890).
RUSSIA (Rossiya), the general name for the European and
Asiatic dominions of the " Tsar of All the Russias." Although
the name is thus correctly applied, both in English and Russian,
to the whole area of the Russian empire, its application is
often limited, no less correctly, to European Russia, or even to
European Russia exclusive of Finland and Poland. The use of
the name in its most comprehensive sense dates only from the
expansion of the empire in the igth century; to the historian
who writes of the earlier growth of the empire, Russia means, at
most, Russia in Europe, or Muscovy, as it was usually called
until the i8th century, from Moscow, its ancient capital.
The origin of the term " Russia " has been much disputed.
It is certainly derived, through Rossiya, from Slavonic
Rus or Ros (Byzantine 'Puts or Toxroi), a name first given
to the Scandinavians who founded a principality on the
Dnieper in the 9th century; and afterwards extended to
the collection of Russian states of which this principality
formed the nucleus. The word Rus, in former times wrongly
connected with the tribal name Rhoxolani, is more probably
derived from Ruotsi, a Finnish name for the Swedes, which
seems to be a corruption of the Swedish rothsmenn, " rowers "
or " seafarers."
8yo
RUSSIA
[PHYSICAL FEATURES
I. THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE
The Russian empire stretches over a vast territory in
E. Europe and N. Asia, with an area exceeding 8,660,000 sq. m.,
or one-sixth of the land surface of the globe (one twenty-third
of its whole superficies). It is, however, but thinly peopled
on the average, including only one-twelfth of the inhabitants
of the earth. It is almost entirely confined to the cold and
temperate zones. In Novaya Zemlya and the Taimyr peninsula,
it projects within the Arctic Circle as far as 77 6' and 77 40'
N. respectively; while its S. extremities reach 38 5' ' ln
Armenia, 35 on the Afghan frontier, and 42 30' on the
coasts of the Pacific. To the W. it advances as far as 20 40'
E. in Lapland, 17 in Poland, and 29 42' on the Black Sea;
and its E. limit East Cape on the Bering Strait is in 191 E.
The White, Barents and Kara Seas of the Arctic bound
it on the N., and the northern Pacific that is, the Seas of
Bering, Okhotsk and Japan bounds it on the E.
arte". ' The Baltic, with theGulfsof BothniaandFinland, limits
it on the N.W.; and two sinuous lines of land frontier
separate it respectively from Sweden and Norway on the N.W.
and from Prussia, Austria and Rumania on the W. On the
S. and E. the frontier has changed frequently according to
the expansion and contraction of the empire under the pressure
of political exigency and expedience. The Black Sea is the
principal demarcating feature on the S. of European Russia.
On the W. side of that sea the S. frontier touches the Danube
for some 120 m.; on the E. side of the same sea it zigzags
from the Black Sea to the Caspian, utilizing the river Aras
(Araxes) for part of the distance. As the Caspian is virtually
a Russian sea, Persia may be said to form the next link in the
S. boundary of the Russian empire, followed by Afghanistan.
On the Pamirs Russia has since 1885 been conterminous with
British India (Kashmir); but the boundary then swings away
N. round Chinese Turkestan and the N. side of Mongolia, and,
since 1904-5, it has skirted the N. of Manchuria, being separated
from it by the river Amur. As thus traced, the boundary in
Central Asia includes the two khanates of Bokhara and Khiva,
which, though nominally protected states, are to all intents
and purposes integral parts of the Russian empire. But it
excludes Manchuria, with the Liao-tung peninsula and Port
Arthur, upon which Russia only placed her grasp in 1898-99,
a grasp which she was compelled by Japan to release after
the war of 1904-5. The total length of the frontier line of
the Russian empire by land is 2800 m. in Europe, and nearly
10,000 m. in Asia, and by sea over 11,000 m. in Europe and
between 19,000 and 20,000 m. in Asia.
Russia has no oceanic possessions; her islands are all
appendages of the mainland to which they belong. Such
islands are Karlo > East Kvarken, the Aland archipelago,
Dago, and Osel or Oesel in the Baltic Sea; Novaya
Zemlya, with Kolguyev and Vaigach, in the Barents Sea; the
Solovetski Islands in the White Sea; the New Siberian
archipelago, Wrangel Land and Bear Islands, off the Siberian
coast; the Commander Islands off Kamchatka; the Shantar
Islands and the N. of Sakhalin in the Sea of Okhotsk. The
Aleutian archipelago was sold to the United States in 1867,
together with Alaska, and in 1875 the Kurile Islands were ceded
to Japan.
If the border regions, that is, two narrow belts, on the N.
and S., be left out of account, a striking uniformity of physical
Leading feature prevails throughout the whole vast extent
physical of the Russian empire. High plateaus like that of
features. p amir (the Roo{ Q{ tfae World ..) and Armeniaj
and lofty mountain chains like the snow-clad Caucasus, the Alai,
the Tian-shan, the Sayan Mountains, exist only on the out-
skirts of the empire.
Viewed broadly, the Russian empire may be said to occupy
the territories to the N.W. of the great plateau formation
Plateau of the old continent the backbone of Asia which
formation stretches with decreasing altitude and width from
**'*' the high tableland of Tibet and Pamir to the lower
plateaus of Mongolia, and thence N.E. through the Vitim
region to the farthest extremity of Asia. Thus it consists
of the immense plains and flat lands which extend between
the plateau formation and the Arctic Ocean, including the series
of parallel chains and hilly spurs which skirt the former
region on the N.W. And it is only to the E. of Lake Baikal
that it climbs up on to the plateau, from which it descends
again before it reaches the Pacific.
This plateau formation the oldesv geological continent of Asia
being unfit for agriculture and for the most part unsuited for per-
manent settlement, while its oceanic slopes have from the dawn of
history been occupied by a relatively dense population, long pre-
vented Slav colonization from reaching the Pacific. The Russians
chanced to cross it in the I7th century at its narrowest and most
N. part, and thus struck the Pacific on the foggy and frozen shores
of the Sea of Okhotsk; but two centuries elapsed ere, after colonizing
the depressions around Lake Baikal, they crossed over the plateau
in a more genial zone and descended to the Pacific by the Amur.
After that they spread rapidly S., up to the nearly uninhabited valley
of the Usuri, to what is now the Gulf of Peter the Great. In the
S.W. higher portions of the plateau formation the empire has only
comparatively recently planted its foot on the Pamir, and it was
only a few years earlier that it established itself firmly on the high-
lands of Armenia.
A broad belt of hilly tracts in every respect alpine in character,
and displaying the same variety of climate and organic life as alpine
tracts usually do skirts the plateau formation throughout
its entire length on the N. and N.W., forming an inter-
mediate region between the plateau and the plains. The ' f *
Caucasus, the Elburz, the Kopet-dagh and Paropamisus,
the intricate and imperfectly known network of mountains W. of
the Pamir, the Tian-shan and the Ala-tau mountain regions, and
farther N.E. the Altai, the still unnamed complex of the Minusinsk
Mountains, the intricate mountain-chains of Sayan, with those of
the Olekma, Vitim and Aldan all arranged en echelon the former
from N.W. to S.E., and the others from S.W. to N.E. all these
belong to the same alpine belt that borders the plateau from end to
end of the series.
The flat lands which extend from the base of the Alpine foothills
to the shores of the Arctic Ocean, assume the character either of
dry deserts, as in the Aral-Caspian depression, or of low
tablelands, as in central Russia and E. Siberia, of ,
lacustrine regions in N.W. Russia and Finland, or of marshy "*
prairies in W. Siberia, and of tundras in the far N. Throughout
the whole of this vast area, their monotonous surfaces are
diversified by only a few, and, for the most part, low, hilly tracts.
Recently emerged from the Post-Pliocene sea, or freed from
their mantle of ice, they persistently maintain the self-same
features over immense areas; and the few portions that rise
above the general elevation have more the character of broad and
gentle swellings than of mountain-chains. Of this class are the
swampy plateaus of the Kola peninsula, sloping gently S. to the
lacustrine region of Finland and N.W. Russia; the Valdai table-
lands, where all the great rivers of Russia take their rise ; the broad
and gently sloping meridional belt of the Ural Mountains; and
lastly the Taimyr, Tunguzka and Verkhoyansk ranges in Siberia,
which, notwithstanding their sub-Arctic position, do not reach the
snow-line. The picturesque Bureya Mountains above the Amur,
the forest-clad Sikhota-alm on the Pacific, and the volcanic chains
of Kamchatka belong, however, to quite another orographical
construction, being the border-ridges of the terraces by which the
great plateau formation descends to the depths of the Pacific Ocean.
It is owing to these leading orographical features divined by
Carl Ritter, but only recently ascertained and established as fact
by geographical research that so many of the great
rivers of the old continent are comprised within the limits Klyen.
of the Russian empire. Taking their rise on the plateau formation,
or in its outskirts, they flow first along lofty longitudinal valleys
formerly filled with great lakes, next they cleave their way through
the rocky barriers, and finally they enter the lowlands, where they
become navigable, and, describing wide curves to avoid here and
there the minor plateaus and hilly tracts, they bring into water-
communication with one another places thousands of miles apart.
The double river-systems of the Volga and Kama, the Ob and
Irtysh, the Angara and Yenisei, the Lena and Vitim on the Arctic
slope, and the Amur and Sungari on the Pacific slope, are instances.
These were the obvious channels of Russian colonization.
A broad depression the Aral-Caspian desert has arisen where
the plateau formation reaches its greatest altitude, and at the same
time suddenly changes its direction from N.W. to N.E. This desert
is now filled to only a small extent by the salt waters of the Caspian,
Aral and Balkash inland seas; but it bears unmistakable traces of
having been during Post-Pliocene times an immense inland basin.
There the Volga, the Ural, the Syr-darya and the Amu-darya
discharge their waters without reaching the ocean, but they bring
life to the rapidly desiccating Transcaspian steppes, and link
together the most remote parts of Russia.
Geology. The most striking feature in the geology of Russia is its
PHYSICAL FEATURES]
RUSSIA
871
remarkable freedom from disturbances, either in the form of moun-
tain folding or of igneous intrusions. Over the greater part of the
"ieology unknown or unexplored shown thus ?
Cretaceous
Volgian
j Trias A Permo- Triat
3 Ptrmo- Carttoniferout
3 Carboniferous
iJOei
SHurlan A othtr Palatazoic
Hocks of tht Cantatas
Cambrian
Mgtamorphtc 4 Plutonic RoCkt
V Volcanic Hocks of the
country the strata are still nearly as flat as when they were first
laid down, and the deposits, even of the Cambrian period, are as
soft as those of the Mesozoic and Tertiary formations in England.
Only in the Urals, the Caucasus, the Timan Mountains, the region
of the Donets coalfield, and the Kielce Hills is there any sign of the
great folding from which nearly the whole of the rest of Europe has
suffered at one time or another.
_In the early part of the Palaeozoic era only the gneissic region of
Finland and Olonets and probably the Archean mass of S. Russia
remained constantly above the sea; but there were several oscilla-
tions. Gradually, however, the sea retreated from W. Russia and
in the Upper Carboniferous and Permian periods it was confined to
the E.
At the beginning of the Mesozoic era the whole country became
land, bearing upon its surface the salt lakes in which the Trias was
laid down. During the Jurassic period the sea again invaded the
region, both from the N. and from the S., but still the W. of Russia
rose above the waves. In the Cretaceous period the waters with-
drew from the N.E., but in the S. they spread W., covering the
whole of Poland and finally uniting with the ocean in which the
chalk of W. Europe was deposited. The Tertiary era was marked
by a gradual extension S. of the N. land-mass. In the later stages
arms of the sea were cut off and were converted at first into lagoons
and then into brackish or fresh-water lakes which continued to
occupy much of S. Russia until the beginning of the Quaternary
period.
During the first part of the Glacial period Russia seems to have
been covered by an immense ice-sheet, which extended also over
central Germany, and of which the E. limits cannot yet be determined.
The Archean rocks have a broad extension in Finland, N.
Russia, the Ural Mountains and the Caucasus. In S. Russia
they form the floor upon which lies a thin covering of Tertiary
beds, and they are exposed to view in the valleys of the Dnieper
and_ the Bug. They consist for the most part of red and grey
gneisses and granulites, with subordinate layers of granite and
granitite. The Finland rappa-kivi, the Serdobol gneiss, and the
Pargas and Rustiala marble (with the so-called Eozoon canadense)
yield good building stone; while iron, copper and zinc-ore are
common in Finland and in the Urals. Rocks regarded as repre-
senting the Huronian system appear also in Finland, in N.W.
Russia, as a narrow strip on the Urals, and in the Dnieper ridge.
They consist of a series of unfossiliferous crystalline slates.
The Cambrian is represented by blue clays, ungulite sandstones
and bituminous slates in Esthonia and St Petersburg. The Ordo-
vician and Silurian systems are widely developed, and it is most
probable that, with the exception of the Archean continents of
Finland and the S , the sea covered the whole of Russia. Being
concealed, however, by more recent deposits, the deposits appear
on the surface only in N.W. Russia (Esthonia, Livonia, St Peters-
burg and on the Volkhov), 'where all the subdivisions of the system
have been found; in the Timan ridge; on the W. slope of the
Urals; in the Pai-kho ridge; and in the islands of tne Arctic
Ocean. In Poland the rocks of these periods are met with in
the Kielce Mountains, and in Podolia in the deeper ravines.
The Devonian dolomites, limestones and red sandstones cover
immense tracts and appear on the surface over a much wider area.
From Esthonia these rocks extend N.E. to Lake Onega, and S.E.
to Mogilev; they form .the central plateau, as also the slopes
of the Urals and the Petchora region. In N.W. and middle Russia
they contain a special fauna, and it appears that the Lower Devonian
series of W. Europe, represented in Poland and in the Urals, is
missing in N.W. and central Russia, where only the Middle and
Upper Devonian divisions are found.
Carboniferous deposits occur over nearly the whole of E. Russia,
their W. boundary being a line drawn from Archangel to the upper
Dnieper, thence to the upper Don, and S. to the mouth of the
last-named river, with a long narrow gulf extending W. to encircle
the plateau of the Donets. They are visible, however, only on
the W. borders of this region, being covered towards the E. by
thick Permian and Triassic strata. Russia has three large coal-
bearing regions the_ Moscow basin, the Donets region and the
Urals. In the Valdai plateau there are only a few beds of mediocre
coal. In the Moscow basin, which was a broad gulf of the Carbon-
iferous sea, coal appears as isolated inconstant seams amidst littoral
deposits, the formation of which was favoured by frequent minor
subsidences of the seacoast. The coal is here confined to the
lower division of the system; the Upper Carboniferous (corre-
sponding with the English Coal-Measures) is exclusively marine,
consisting chiefly of Fusulina limestone. The Donets Coal-Measures,
containing abundant remains of a rich land-flora, cover nearly
16,000 sq. m., and comprise a valuable stock of excellent anthracite
and coal, together with iron-mines. In this basin, as in W. Europe
generally, the principal coal seams occur in the Upper Carbon-
iferous, while the Lower Carboniferous is mainly composed of
marine deposits, with, however, the first bed of coal near its summit.
Several smaller coalfields on the slopes of the Urals and on the
Timan ridge may be added to the above. The Polish coalfields
belong to another Carboniferous area of deposit, which extended
over Silesia.
The Permian limestones and marls occupy a strip in E. Russia
of much less extent than that assigned to them by Murchison.
The variegated marls of E. Russia, rich in salt-springs, but very
poor in fossils, are now held by most Russian geologists to be
Triassic. The Permian deposits contain marine shells and also
remains of plants similar to those of England and Germany. But
in the government of Vologda, on the rivers Sukhona and N.
Dvina, Glossopteris, Noeggerathiopsis and other ferns characteristic
of the Indian Gondwana beds have been found; and with these
are numerous remains of reptiles similar to those which occur in
the Indian deposits. In the Urals the marine facies is more fully
developed and the fauna shows affinities with that of the Pro-
ductus limestone of the Central Asian mountain belt.
During the Jurassic period the sea began again to invade Russia
from S.E. and N.W. The limits of the Russian Jurassic system
may be represented by a line drawn from the double valley of
the Sukhona and Vytchegda to that of the upper Volga, and thence
to Kieff, with a wide gulf penetrating towards the N.W. Within
this space three depressions, all running S.W. to N.E., are filled
up with Upper Jurassic deposits. They are much denuded in
the higher parts of this region, and appear but as isolated islands
in central Russia. In the S.E. all the older subdivisions are repre-
sented, the deposits haying the characters of a deep-sea formation
in the Aral-Caspian region and on the Caucasus.
Cretaceous beds sands, loose sandstones, marls and white
chalk occupy nearly the whole of the region S. of a line drawn
from the Niemen to the upper Oka and Don, and thence N.E. to
Simbirsk. Over a large part of this irea, however, they are con-
cealed by the later Tertiary deposits, and they are absent over
the Dnieper and Don ridge in the Yaiia Mountains and in the
higher parts of the Caucasus. They are rich in grinding stone,
and in phosphatic deposits.
The Tertiary formations occupy large areas in S. Russia. The
Eocene covers wide tracts from Lithuania to Tsaritsyn, and is
represented in the Crimea and Caucasus by thick deposits belong-
ing to the same ocean which left its deposits on the Alps and the
Himalayas. Oligocene, quite similar to that of N. Germany, and
containing brown coal and amber, has been met with only in
Poland, Courland and Lithuania. The Miocer.e (Sarmatian stage)
occupies extensive tracts in S. Russia, S. of a line drawn through
Lublin to Ekaterinoslav and Saratov. Not only the higher chains
of Caucasus and Yaila, but also the Donets ridge, rose above the
8 7 2
RUSSIA
[POPULATION
level of the Miocene sea, which was very shallow to the N. of this
last ridge, while farther S. it was connected both with the Vienna
basin and with the Aral-Caspian. The Pliocene appears only in
the coast region of the Black and Azov Seas, but it is widely
developed in the Aral-Caspian region, where, however, the Ust-Urt
and the Obshchiy Syrt rose above the sea.
The thick Quaternary, or Post-Pliocene, deposits which cover
nearly all Russia were for a long time a puzzle to geologists. They
consist of a boulder clay in the N. and of loess in the S. The
former presents an intimate mixture of boulders brought from
Finland and Olonets (with an addition of local boulders) with small
gravel, coarse sand and the finest glacial mud, the whole bearing
no trace of ever having been washed up and sorted by water in
motion, except in subordinate layers of glacial sand and gravel;
the size of the boulders decreases on the whole from N. to S., and
the boulder clay, especially in N. and central Russia, often takes
the shape of ridges parallel to the direction of the motion of the
boulders. Its S. limits, roughly corresponding with those estab-
lished by Murchison, but not yet settled in the S.E. and E., are,
according to M. Nikitin, the following: from the S. frontier of
Poland to Ovrutch, Uman, Kremenchug, Pohava and Razdornaya
(50 i N. latitude), with a curve N. to Kozelsk (?); thence due
N. to Vetluga (58 N. latitude), E. to Glazova in Vyatka, and
from this place towards the N. and W. along the watershed of
the Volga and Pechora (?). S. of the soth parallel appears the
loess, with all its usual characters (land fossils, want of stratifica-
tion, &c.), showing a remarkable uniformity of composition over
very large surfaces; it covers both watersheds and valleys, but
chiefly the former. Such being the characters of the Quaternary
deposits in Russia, the majority of Russian geologists now adopt
the opinion that Russia was covered, as far as the above limits,
with an immense ice-sheet which crept over central Russia and
central Germany from Scandinavia and N. Russia. Another ice-
covering was probably advancing at the same time from the N.E.,
that is, from the N. of the Urals, but the question as to the glacia-
tion of the Urals still remains open. As to the loess, the usual
view is that it was a steppe-deposit due to the drifting of fine sand
and dust during a dry episode in the Pleistocene period.
The deposits of the Post-Glacial period are represented through-
out Russia, Poland and Finland, as also throughout Siberia and
Central Asia, by very thick lacustrine deposits, which show that,
after the melting of the ice-sheet, the country was covered with
immense lakes, connected by broad channels (the fjarden of the
Swedes), which later on gave rise to the actual rivers. On the
outskirts of the lacustrine region, traces of marine deposits, not
higher than 200 or perhaps even 150 ft. above present sea-level,
are found alike on the Arctic Sea and on the Baltic and Black Sea
coasts. A deep gulf of the Arctic Sea advanced up the valley of
the Dvina; and the Caspian, connected by the Manych with the
Black Sea, and by the Uzboy valley with Lake Aral, penetrated
N. up the Volga valley, as far as its Samara bend. Unmistakable
traces show that, while during the Glacial period Russia had an
arctic flora and fauna, the climate of the Lacustrine period was
more genial than it is now, and a dense human population at that
time peopled the shores of the numberless lakes.
The Lacustrine period has not yet reached its close in Russia.
Finland and the N.W. hilly plateaus are still in the same geological
phase, and are dotted with numberless lakes and ponds, while the
rivers continue to dig out their yet undetermined channels. But
the great lakes which covered the country during the Lacustrine
period have disappeared, leaving behind them immense marshes
like those of the Pripet and in the N.E. The disappearance of
what still remains of them is accelerated not only by the general
decrease of moisture, but also perhaps by the gradual upheaval
of N. Russia, which is going on from Esthonia and Finland to the
Kola peninsula and Novaya Zemlya, at an average rate of about
two feet per century. This upheaval the consequences of which
have been felt even within the historic period, by the drainage
of the formerly impracticable marshes of Novgorod and at the
head of the Gulf of Finland together with the destruction of
forests (which must be considered, however, as a quite subordinate
cause), contributes towards a decrease of precipitation over Russia
and towards increased shallowness of her rivers. At the same
time, as the gradients are gradually increasing on account of the
upheaval of the continent, the rivers dig their channels deeper
and deeper. Consequently central and especially S. Russia witness
the formation of numerous miniature canons, or ovraghi (deep
ravines), the summits of which rapidly advance and ramify in the
loose surface deposits. As for the S. steppes, their desiccation,
the consequence of the above causes, is in rapid progress. 1
1 Bibliography : Memoirs, Izvestia and Geological Maps of the
Committee for the Geological Survey of Russia; Memoirs and
Sborniks of the Mineralogical Society, of the Academy of Science
and of the* Societies of Naturalists at the Universities; Mining
Journal; Murchison's Geology of Russia; Helmersen's and Moller's
Geological Maps of Russia and the Urals; Inostrantsev in Appendix
to Russian translation of Reclus's Geogr. Univ., and Manual of
Geology (Russian).
Population. The population of the empire, which was
estimated at 74,000,000 in 1859, was found to be over 129,200,000
at the census of 1897, taken over all the empire except Finland.
In 1904 it was estimated to be 143,000,000, and in 1906, accord-
ing to a detailed estimate of the Central Statistical Committee,
it was 149,299,300. Thus from 1860 to 1897 the population
increased 74$%, and from 1897 to 1904 26-3, an average
annual increase of about 35% as compared with an
average annual increase of 2j% during the period 1860-97.
The increase took place chiefly in the large cities, in Siberia,
Poland, Lithuania, S. Russia and Caucasia. The official
divisions of the empire are given here, and details are given
in separate articles.
PROVINCE OR GOVERNMENT
European Russia
Archangel
Astrakhan
Bessarabia
Chernigov
Courland
Livonia Saratov
Minsk Simbirsk
Mogilev Smolensk
Moscow Tambov
Nizhniy-Novgorod Taurida
Don Cossacks' territory Novgorod Tula
Ekaterinoslav Olonets Tver
Esthonia Orel Ufa
Grodno Orenburg Vilna
Kaluga Penza Vitebsk
Kazan Perm Vladimir
Kiev Podolia Volhynia
Kostroma Pohava Vologda
Kovno Pskov Voronezh
Kursk Ryazan Vyatka
Kharkov St Petersburg Yaroslavl
Kherson Samara
Poland
Kalisz Piotrkow Siedlce
Kielce Plock Suwalki
Lomza Radom Warsaw
Lublin
Grand-Duchy of Finland
Abo-Bjorneborg St Michel Viborg
Kuopio Tavastehus Vasa
Nyland Uleaborg
Caucasia
Kuban Stavropol Terek
Baku Elizavetpol Kutais
Black Sea territory Erivan Tiflis with Zaka-
Daghestan Kars taly
Russia in Asia
{Akmolinsk
Semipalatinsk
Turgai
Uralsk
( Semiryechensk
( Samarkand
Turkestan
( Ferghana
( Syr-darya
Transcaspia
Western Siberia
j Tobolsk
( Tomsk
Eastern Siberia
( Irkutsk Yakutsk
\ Transbaikalia Yeniseisk
Amur Region
5 Amur
Maritime Province
Sakhalin
It has been found, from a comparison of the densities of population
of the various provinces in 1859 with the distribution in 1897, that
the centre of density has distinctly moved S., towards the shores of
the Black Sea, and W., the greatest increase having taken place in
the E. Polish and in the Lithuanian provinces, along the S.W.
border, in the prairie belt beside the Black Sea, and in Orenburg.
N. Caucasia and S.W. Siberia likewise show a considerable increase.
The census of 1897 revealed in several provinces a remarkably low
proportion of men to women. This was owing to the fact that large
numbers of the men engaged in agricultural pursuits during the
summer temporarily move every year into the large industrial
centres for the winter. Consequently there were only 87-4 and 89-8
women to every 100 men in the governments of St Petersburg and
Taurida respectively, but as many as 133-8 in Yaroslavl, 119 in
Tver and 117 in Kostroma. The average number of women to
every 100 men in the Russian governments proper was 102-9; in
Poland, 98-6; in Finland, 102-2; in Caucasia, 88-9; in Siberia, 93-7;
and in Turkestan and Transcaspia, 83-0.
GOVERNMENT]
RUSSIA
873
The effects of emigration and immigration cannot be estimated
with accuracy, because only those who cross the frontier with pass-
ports are taken account of. The statistics of these show that there
was during the thirty-two years, 1856-88, an excess of emigration
over immigration of 1,146,052 in the case of Russians, and a surplus
of immigration of 2,304,717 foreigners. On the other hand, in the
six years, 1892-97, the excess of Russian emigration over immigra-
tion was 207,353, as compared with an excess of foreign immigration
over emigration of only 136,740. During the years 1900-4 inclusive
the total emigrants_ from Russia numbered 2,358,539, of whom
1,144,246 were Russians; while the immigrants numbered 2,333,053,
of whom 1,432,057 were foreigners. It is also known that the
number of Russian immigrants into the United States in 1891-1902
was 742,869, as compared with 313,469 n 1873-9. or a grand total
since 1873 of 1,056,338. By far the greater part of these were
Jews. The emigration to Siberia varies much from year to year.
It was 26,129 in 1888, and 60,000 in 1898. During the two following
years it amounted to an average of over 160,000, but in the years
1901-3 to an average of 84,638 per annum. Altogether some
800,000 peasants are estimated to have settled in Siberia during
the period 1886-96, but during the years 1893-1905 no less than
four millions in all. There is also some emigration from central
Russia to the S. Urals, as well as to some of the steppe governments.
Within the empire a very great diversity of nationalities is com-
prised, due to the amalgamation or absorption by the Slav race of a
variety of Ural-Altaic stocks, of Turko-Tatars, Turko-Mongols and
various Caucasian races. In some cases their ethnical relations have
not yet been completely determined. According to the results
obtained by the census committee of 1897^, working on a linguistic
basis, the distribution of races was as given in the table opposite : v ^-
Taken as a whole, only 13% of the population of Russia lived in
towns in 1897, but in the years 1857-60 less than 10% was urban.
ru . In Russia proper less than 2% emigrated from the
villages to the towns during the forty years ending 1897.
The following table shows the urban population in the various
divisions of the empire in 1897 :
Urban
Population.
Percentage
of Total.
European Russia ....
Poland
Finland . .
Caucasia ...
Siberia .....
Central Asia
Russian Empire .
12,027,038
2,055,892
281,216
1,010,615
473.796
936,655
12-8
21-7
II-O
10-9
9'3
I2-O
16,785,212
13-0
There were in European Russia and Poland only twelve cities with
more than 100,000 inhabitants in 1884; in 1900 there were sixteen,
namely, St Petersburg, Moscow, Warsaw, Odessa, Lodz, Riga, Kiev,
Kharkov, Vilna, Saratov, Kazan, Ekaterinoslav, Rostov-on-the Don,
Astrakhan, Tula and Kishinev. In other parts of the empire there
were four cities each having over 100,000 inhabitants in that year,
namely, Baku, Tiflis, Tashkent and Helsingfors. While only three
of these are in middle Russia (Moscow, Tula and Kazan), eight are
in S. Russia. There are thirty-four cities in European Russia and
Poland, and forty in the entire empire, with from 50,000 to 100,000
inhabitants each. The rural population live for the most part in
villages, not as a rule scattered about the country. In the inclement
regions of the N. and in the N. parts of the forest zone the villages
are very small. They are larger, but still small, in White Russia,
Lithuania and the region of the lakes; but in the steppe governments
they are very appreciably bigger, some of the Cossack stanitsas or
settlements exceeding 20,000, and many of them numbering more
than 10,000 inhabitants each. The houses are generally built of wood
and wear a poverty-stricken aspect. Owing to the great risks from
fire the villages usually coyer a large area of ground, and the houses
are scattered and straggling. The mortality in most towns is so
great that during the last ten years of the igth century, in a very
great number of cities, the deaths exceeded the births by I to 4 in
the thousand. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)
Government and Administration. Russia was described in
the Almanack de Gotha for 1910 as " a constitutional monarchy
under an autocratic tsar." This obvious contradiction in
terms well illustrates the difficulty of denning in a single formula
the system, essentially transitional and meanwhile sui generis,
established in the Russian empire since October 1905. Before
this date the fundamental laws of Russia described the power
of the emperor as " autocratic and unlimited." The imperial
style is still "Emperor and Autocrat of All the Russias";
but in the fundamental laws as remodelled between the imperial
manifesto of 17/30 October and the opening of the first Duma
1 See A. Aitoff, Peuples el langages de la Russie (Paris, 1906),
based on the report of the Russian Census Committee of 1897.
of the
Empire.
on the 27th of April 1906, while the name and principle of
autocracy was jealously preserved, the word " unlimited "
vanished. Not that the regime in Russia had become in any
true sense constitutional, far less parliamentary; but the
" unlimited autocracy " had given place to a " self-limited
autocracy," whether permanently so limited, or only at the
discretion of the autocrat, remaining a subject of heated con-
troversy between conflicting parties in the state. 2 Provisionally,
then, the Russian governmental system may perhaps be best
defined as M. Chasles suggests 3 as " a limited monarchy
under an autocratic emperor."
At the head of the government is the emperor, 4 whose power
is limited only by the provisions of the fundamental laws of
the empire. Of these some are ancient and undis-
puted: the empire may not be partitioned, but emperor.
descends entire in order of primogeniture, and by
preference to the male heir; the emperor and his consort must
belong to the Eastern Orthodox Church; the emperor can
wear no crown that entails residence abroad. By the mani-
festo of the i7/30th of October 1905 the emperor voluntarily
limited his legislative power by decreeing that no measure
was to become law without the consent of the Imperial Duma,
a freely elected national assembly. By the law of the 2oth
of February 1906 the Council of the Empire was associated
with the Duma as a legislative Upper House; and from this
time the legislative power has been exercised normally by the
emperor only in concert with the two chambers.
The Council of the Empire, or Imperial Council (Gosudar-
slvenniy Sovyef) , as reconstituted for this purpose/consists of 196
members, of whom 98 are nominated by the emperor, 7-4,
while 98 are elective. The ministers, also nominated, Council
are ex officio members. Of the elected members
3 are returned by the " black " clergy (the monks),
3 by the " white " clergy (seculars), 6 18 by the corporations
of nobles, 6 by the academy of sciences and the universities,
6 by the chambers of commerce, 6 by the industrial councils,
34 by the governments having zemstvos, 16 by those having no
zemstvos, and 6 by Poland. As a legislative body the powers
of the Council are co-ordinate with those of the Duma; in
practice, however, it has seldom if ever initiated legislation. 6
The Duma of the Empire or Imperial Duma {Gosudarstvennaya
Duma), which forms the Lower House of the Russian parlia-
ment, consists (since the ukaz of the 2nd of June 1907)
of 442 members, elected by an exceedingly complicated Duma.
process, so manipulated as to secure an overwhelming
preponderance for the wealthy, and especially the landed classes,
and also for the representatives of the Russian as opposed to
the subject peoples. Each province of the empire, except the
now disfranchised steppes of Central Asia, 7 returns a
u ic. j u Electoral
certain proportion of members (fixed in each case by , ys tem.
law in such a way as to give a preponderance to the
Russian element), in addition to those returned by certain of
2 M. Stolypin defended the ukaz of the 2nd of June 1907, which
in flat contradiction of the provisions of the fundamental laws
altered the electoral law without the consent of the legislature,
on the ground that what the autocrat had granted the autocrat
could take away. The members of the Opposition, on the other
hand, quoting Art. 84 of the fundamental laws ("The_ empire is
governed on the immutable basis of laws issued according to the
established order "), argued that the emperor himself could only
act within the limits of the order established by those laws. It
is noteworthy that even the third Duma in its address to the throne,
if it avoided the tabooed word " Constitution," avoided also all
mention of autocracy.
* Le Parlement russe, p. 151.
4 Imperator is the official style. The Russian translation is
Gosudar. Popularly, however, the emperor is known by his old
Russian title of tsar (q.v.).
6 This is the first time since Peter the Great that the clergy
have been given a voice in secular affairs in Russia.
* The number of the council was formerly not fixed, and there
are still honorary councillors who have no right to sit. Thus in
1910 the honorary president of the council was the grand-duke
Michael Nicolaievich, the actual president M. G. Akimov. The
judicial and administrative work of the old council was in 1906
assigned to separate committees.
7 These returned 23 members in the first and second Dumas.
RUSSIA
TABLE SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF RACES
[GOVERNMENT
Russia in
Europe.
Poland.
Caucasia.
Siberia.
Central
Asia.
Finland.
Totals. 1
f Great Russians .
Little Russians .
Slavs . . J white Russians .
48,558,721
20,414,866
5,823,383
267,160
335,337
29,347
1,829,793
1,305,463
19,642
4,423,803
' 223,274
12,346
587,992
101,1,1 1
829
5,939
55,673,408
22,380,551
5,885,547
Poles
L Other Slavs 2 .
1,109,934
213,268
6,755,503
7,365
25.H7
3,855
29,177
182
11,576
189
7,931,307
224,859
f Lithuanians'
1,345,160
305,322
5,121
1,877
1,042
1,658,532
Lithuanians^ ^^ ;
1,422,021
5,064
6,714
627
1,435,937
(Rumanians .
Germans . .
1,121,669
1,312,188
5,223
407-274
7,232
56,729
5-424
8,874
V.925
1,134,124
1,790,489
Greeks . . .
86,626
100,299
186,925
ARYANS . . .
Other Europeans 4
Swedes .
29,841
14,199
1,435
349,733
34,276
363,932
Armenians .
76,635
1,096,461
4,862
1,173,096
Persians
1,630
29,278
8,015
38,923
Tajiks .
350,397
350,397
Iranians .
Talyshes and
Tales
130,347
130,347
Kurds .
99,836
99,836
Ossetes
171,716
171,716
. Gypsies , .
16,004
1,056
3,041
6,253
771
27,125
SEMITES Jews
3,714,995
1,267,194
40,498
32,597
7,872
5,063,156
r Esthonians .
989,883
4,372
4,281
4,202
1,002,738
r
Finns
143,068
2,352,990
2,496,058
Lapps .
1,812
1,300
3,1 12
Mordvinians
989,959
20,802
13,080
1,023,841
Finns . .
Karelians
208,101
.
.
208,101
Cheremisses .
375,439
375,439
Syryenians .
146,535
7,083
I53,6i8
Permiaks
103,339
103,339
Votyaks
420,970
.
420,970
L Other Finns 6
43,393
24,453
67,846
Samoyedes .
3,940
11,929
15,869
Tatars .
1,953,155
4,336
1,509,785
210,154
60,197
3,737,627
URAL-ALTAIANS.
Chuvashes .
Bashkirs
837,872
1,488,297
929
83
411
953
4,232
978
3"
2,672
843,755
1,492,983
Turks (Osmanlis)
68,807
156
139,419
172
268
208,822
Turko-
Tatars .
Turkomans .
Kirghiz
Sarts
7,938
264,059
184
6
123
24,522
98
158
124
32,648
305
248,767
3,988,893
968,008
281,357
4,084,139
968,655
Uzbegs
43
77
726,414
726,534
Yakuts
227,384
227,384
Kara-kalpaks
i
2
104,271
104,274
. Others .
466
204,561
63
518,949
724,039
Tunguses
70,064
70,064
Mongols . /Kalmucks . .
l_ Bunats
170,865
14,409
288,663
. .
185,274
288,663
f Georgian Races 6 . . . .
1,352,455
..
..
1,352,455
CAUCASIANS J Circassians and
[ oJ/ser Caucasians 1 .
1,091,782
1,091,782
KORYAKS, CHUKCHIS, &c. . ...
39,349
39.349
CHINESE, JAPANESE AND KOREANS
86,113
86,113
1 These totals include in some cases small linguistic groups not mentioned in the table.
2 About 77% Bulgarians, the rest mostly Bohemians (Czechs). 'Inclusive of 448,022 Zhmuds.
1 Principally Frenchmen, with Englishmen, Italians, Norwegians, Danes, Dutchmen and Spaniards.
6 Ethnologically the Bulgarians ought perhaps to come here; but, as a large admixture of Slav blood flows in their veins and they speak
a distinctly Slav language, they have in this table been grouped with the Slavs.
6 Includes Georgians, Mingrelians, Imeretians, Lazes and Svanetians.
7 For details, see table under the heading CAUCASIA. Of the total given here, 20 % are Circassians.
the great cities. The members of the Duma are elected by
electoral colleges in each government, and these in their turn
are elected, like the zemstvos (see below), by -electoral assemblies
chosen by the three classes of landed proprietors, citizens and
peasants. In these assemblies the large proprietors sit in
person, being thus electors in the second degree; the lesser
proprietors are represented by delegates, and therefore elect
in the third degree. The urban population, divided into two
categories according to their taxable wealth, elects delegates
direct to the college of the government (Guberniya), and is
thus represented in the second degree; but the system of division
into categories, according not to the number of taxpayers
but to the amount they pay, gives a great preponderance to
the richer classes. The peasants are represented only in the
fourth degree, since the delegates to the electoral college are
elected by the volosts (see below). The workmen, finally,
are specially treated. Every industrial concern employing fifty
hands or over elects one or more delegates to the electoral
SOU' IERN RUSSIA
C A S P I
* L A eft
CAUCASIA
Capitals of Governments & Provinces...
Boundaries of Governments & Provinces
Fortifications "W 1 Railway 8 ....
Ruins .. -- Passes
'"'"- ',..
GOVERNMENT]
RUSSIA
875
college of the government, in which, like the others, they form
a separate curia.
In the college itself the voting secret and by ballot through-
out is by majority; and since this majority consists, under the
actual system, of very conservative elements (the landowners
and urban delegates having fths of the votes), the progres-
sive elements however much they might preponderate in the
country would have no chance of representation at all save
for the curious provision that one member at least in each
government must be chosen from each of the five classes
represented in the college. For example, were there no re-
actionary peasant among the delegates, a reactionary majority
might be forced to return a Social Democrat to the Duma. As
it is, though a fixed minimum of peasant delegates must be
returned, they by no means probably represent the opinion of
the peasantry. That in the Duma any Radical elements
survive at all is mainly due to the peculiar franchise enjoyed by
the seven largest towns St Petersburg, Moscow, Kiev, Odessa,
Riga and the Polish cities of Warsaw and Lodz. These elect
their delegates to the Duma direct, and though their votes are
divided into two curias (on the basis of taxable property) in
such a;, way as to give the advantage to wealth, each returning the
same number of delegates, the democratic colleges can at least
return members of their own complexion. 1
The competence of the Russian parliament 2 thus constituted
is strictly limited. It shares with the emperor the legislative
Powers power, including the discussion and sanctioning of
of the the budget. But, so far as the parliament is concerned,
Duma. tjjjg p Ower ; s subject to numerous and important
exceptions. All measures, e.g. dealing with the organization
of the army .and navy are outside its competence; these are
no longer called " laws " but " ordinary administrative rules."
Moreover, the procedure of the Houses practically places the
control of legislation in the hands of ministers. Any member
may bring in a " project of law," but it has to be submitted to
the minister of the department concerned, who is allowed a
month to consider it, and himself prepares the final draft laid
on the table of the House. Amendments, however, may be
and have been carried against the government. Ministers are
responsible, moreover, not to parliament but to the emperor.
They may be interpellated, but only on the legality, not the
policy, of their acts. In the words of M. Stolypin, there is no
intention of converting the ministerial bench into a prisoners'
dock. If by a two-thirds majority the action of a minister
be arraigned, the president of the Imperial Council lays
the case before the emperor, who decides. The powers of the
parliament over the budget are even more limited, though not
altogether illusory. No legislation by means of the budget
is allowed, i.e. no alteration may be made in credits necessary
for carrying out a law. This deprives parliament of control
over the administrative departments, all the ministries being
. thus " armour-plated " to use the cant phrase current in
Russia except that of ways and communications (railways).
The sum of 700,000,000 roubles per annum is thus excepted
from the control of the chambers. Other exceptions are the
" Institutions of the Empress Marie," which absorb, inter alia,
the duties on playing-cards and the taxes on places of public
entertainment; the imperial civil list, so far as this does not
exceed the sum fixed in 1906 (16,359,595 roubles!); the ex-
penses of the two imperial chanceries, 10,000,000 roubles per
annum, which constitute in effect a secret service fund. Al-
together, half the annual expenditure of the country is outside
the control of parliament. Nor is this all. If the budget be not
sanctioned by the emperor, that of the previous year remains in
force, and the government has power, motu proprio, to impose the
extra taxes necessary to carry out new laws. In certain circum-
stances, too, the emperor reserves the right to raise fresh loans.
1 Thus M. Guchkov, leader of the Octobrists, and M. Miliukov,
leader of the cadets, were both returned by the second curia of
St Petersburg to the third Duma.
1 Strictly speaking, the title is inapplicable, there being no col-
lective official name for the two chambers. The word parliament
may, however, be used as a convenient term, failing a better.
Further, the emperor has the power to issue ordinances
having the force of law, i.e. under extraordinary circumstances
when the Duma is not sitting. These ordinances must, how-
ever, be of a temporary nature, must not infringe the funda-
mental laws or statutes passed by the two chambers, or change
the electoral system, and must be laid upon the table of the
Duma at the first opportunity. Since, however, the emperor
has the -power of proroguing or dissolving the Duma as often
as he pleases, it is clear that these temporary ordinances might
in effect be made permanent. Finally, the emperor has the
right to proclaim anywhere and at any time a state of siege.
In this way the fundamental laws were suspended not only in
Poland but in St Petersburg and other parts of the empire
during the greater part of the four years succeeding the grant
of the constitution.
It should be noted, none the less, that the third Duma suc-
ceeded in establishing its position, and that in view of its useful
activities even the extreme Right came to realize that there
could be no return to the old undisguised absolutist regime
(see History, below, ad fin.)..
By the law of the i8th of October (November i) 1005, to
assist the emperor in the supreme administration a Council
of Ministers (Sovyet Ministrov) was created, under a
minister president, the first appearance of a prime
minister in Russia. This council consists of all the
ministers and of the heads of the principal administrations.
The ministries are as follows: (i) of the Imperial Court,
to which the administration of the apanages, the chapter of
the imperial orders, the imperial palaces and theatres, and
the Academy of Fine Arts are subordinated; (2) Foreign
Affairs; (3) War and Marine; (4) Finance; (5) Commerce and
Industry (created in 1905); (6) Interior (including police,
health, censorship and press, posts and telegraphs, foreign
religions, statistics); (7) Agriculture; (8) Ways and Com-
munications; (9) Justice; (10) Public Instruction. Dependent
on the Council of Ministers are two other councils: the Holy
Synod and the Senate.
The Holy Synod (established in 1721) is the supreme organ
of government of the Orthodox Church in Russia. It is
presided over by a lay procurator, representing the
emperor, and consists, for the rest, of the three saod
metropolitans of Moscow, St Petersburg and Kiev,
the archbishop of Georgia, and a number of bishops sitting
in rotation.
The Senate (PravUelstvuyushchi Senat, i.e. directing or
governing senate), originally established by Peter the Great,
consists of members nominated by the emperor. Its
functions, which are exceedingly various, are carried
out by the different departments into which it is
divided. It is the supreme court of cassation (see Judicial
System, below); an audit office, a high oourt of justice for all
political offences; one of its departments fulfils the functions
of a heralds' college. It also has supreme jurisdiction in all
disputes arising out of the administration of the empire, notably
differences between the representatives of "the central power and
the elected organs of local self-government. Lastly, it examines
into registers and promulgates new laws, a function which, in
theory, gives it a power, akin to that of the Supreme Court of
the United States, of rejecting measures not in accordance
with the fundamental laws.
For purposes of provincial administration Russia is divided
into 78 governments (guberniya), 18 provinces (oblast) and
i district (okrug). Of these n governments, 17 p^,.
provinces and i district (Sakhalin) belong to Asiatic vincM
Russia. Of the rest 8 governments are in Finland, <imiais-
10 in Poland. European Russia thus embraces 59
governments and i province (that of the Don). The
Don province is under the direct jurisdiction of the ministry
of war; the rest have each a governor and deputy-governor,
the latter presiding over the administrative council. In
addition there are governors-general, generally placed over
several governments and armed with more extensive powers,
The
Senate.
8y6
RUSSIA
[ADMINISTRATIVE BODIES
usually including the command of the troops within the limits
of their jurisdiction. In 1906 there were governors-general
in Finland, Warsaw, Vilna, Kiev, Moscow and Riga. The
larger cities (St Petersburg, Moscow, Odessa, Sevastopol, Kertch-
Yenikala, Nikolayev, Rostov) have an administrative system
of their own, independent of the governments; in these the
PoUce chief of police acts as governor. As organs of the
central government there are further, the isprawiki,
chiefs of police in the districts into which the governments are
divided. These are nominated by the governors, 1 and have
under their orders in the principal localities commissaries
(stanovoi pristav). Ispravniki and slanovoi alike are armed
with large and ill-defined powers; and, since they are for the
most part illiterate and wholly ignorant of the law, they
have proved exasperating engines of oppression. Towards
the end of the reign of Alexander II., the government, in order
to preserve order in the country districts, also created a special
class of mounted rural policemen (uryadniki, from uriad, order),
who, armed with power to arrest all suspects on the spot,
rapidly became the terror of the countryside. 2 Finally, in the
towns every house is provided with a detective policeman in
the person of the porter (dvornik), who is charged with the duty
of reporting to the police the presence of any suspicious
characters or anything else that may interest them. 3
In addition to the above there is also a police organization,
in direct subordination to the ministry of the interior, of
which the principal function is the discovery, pre-
vention and extirpation of political sedition. A
secret police, armed with inquisitorial and arbitrary
powers, has always existed in autocratic Russia. Its most
famous development was the so-called " Third Section " (of the
imperial chancery) instituted by the emperor Nicholas I. in
1826. This was entirely independent of the ordinary police,
but was associated with the previously existing corps of
gendarmes (Korpus Zhandarmov), whose chief was placed at
its head. Its object had originally been to keep the emperor
in close touch with all the branches of the administration and
to bring to his notice any abuses and irregularities (see
NICHOLAS I.), and for this purpose its chief was in constant
personal intercourse with the sovereign. Actually, however,
its activity, directed mainly to the discovery of political
offences, degenerated into a hideous reign of terror. Its
organization was spread all over Russia; its procedure was
secret and summary (transportation by administrative order);
and, its instruments being for the most part ignorant and
largely corrupt, its victims were counted by thousands.
The " Third Section " was suppressed by Alexander II. in
1880, but only in name. In fact it was transformed into a
separate department of the ministry of the interior, and,
provided with an enormous secret service fund, soon dominated
the whole ministry. The corps of gendarmes was also incor-
porated in this department, the under-secretary of the interior
being placed at its head and at that of the police generally,
with practically unlimited jurisdiction in all cases which,
in the judgment of the minister of the interior, required to be
dealt with by processes outside the ordinary law. In 1896
the powers of the minister were extended at the expense of
those of the under-secretary, who remained only at the head
of the corps of gendarmes; but by a law of the 24th of September
1904 this was again reversed, and the under-secretary was again
placed at the head of all the police with the title of under-
secretary for the administration of the police.
Local Elected Administrative Bodies. Alongside the local
organs of the central government in Russia there are three
classes of local elected bodies charged with administrative
functions: (i) the peasant assemblies in the mir and the wlost,
1 From Catherine II. 's time to that of Alexander II. they were
elected by the nobles. This was changed in consequence of the
emancipation of the serfs.
* They were soon nicknamed Kuryadniki, chicken-stealers (from
Kura, hen). See Leroy-Beaulieu, L' Empire des tsars, ii. 134.
s _The dvornik is on duty for sixteen hours at a stretch, during
which he is not allowed to sleep or even to shelter in the porch.
The
volost.
(2) the zemstvos in the 34 governments of Russia proper,
(3) the municipal dumas. Of these the peasant assemblies are
the most interesting and in some respects the most important ,
since the peasants (i.e. three-quarters of the population of
Russia) form a class apart, 4 largely excepted from f be mir
the incidence of the ordinary law, and governed in
accordance with their local customs. The mir itself, with its
customs, is of immemorial antiquity (see VILLAGE COM-
MUNITIES) ; it was not, however, till the emancipation of the
serfs in 1861 that the village community was withdrawn from
the patrimonial jurisdiction of the landowning nobility and
endowed with self-government. The assembly of the mir
consists of all the peasant householders of the village.' These
elect a head-man (starosta) and a collector of taxes, who was
responsible, at least until the ukaz of October 1006, which
abolished communal responsibility for the payment of taxes,
for the repartition among individuals of the taxes imposed on the
commune. A number of mirs are united into a wlost,
or canton, which has an assembly consisting of elected
delegates from the mirs. These elect an elder (starshina)
and, hitherto, a court of justice (wlostnye sud). See Judicial
System, below. The self-government of the mirs and volosts is,
however, tempered by the authority of the police commissaries
(stanovoi) and by the power of general oversight given to the
nominated " district committees for the affairs of the peasants."
The system of local self-government is continued, so far
as the 34 governments of old Russia are concerned, 6 in the
elective district and provincial assemblies (zemstvos).
These bodies, one for each district and another for xe
each province or government, were created by Alex-
ander II. in 1864. They consist of a representative council
(zemskoye sobranye) and of an executive board (zemskaya uprava)
nominated by the former. The board consists of five classes
of members: (i) large landed proprietors (nobles owning 590
acres and over), who sit in person; (2) delegates of the small
landowners, including the clergy in their capacity of landed
proprietors; (3) delegates of ^the wealthier townsmen; (4)
delegates of the less wealthy urban classes; (5) delegates of
the peasants, elected by the volosts. 7 The rules governing
elections to the zemstvos were taken as a model for the electoral
law of 1906 and are sufficiently indicated by the account of this
given below. The zemstvos were originally given large powers
in relation to the incidence of taxation, and such questions as
education, public health, roads and the like. These powers
were, however, severely restricted by the emperor Alexander
III. (law of 12/25 June 1890), the zemstvos being absolutely
subordinated to the governors, whose consent was necessary
to the validity of all their decisions, and who received drastic
powers of discipline over the members. 8 It was not till 1905
that the zemstvos regained, at least de facto, some of their inde-
pendent initiative. The part played by the congress of zemstvos
in the earlier stages of the Russian revolution is outlined below .
(see History: 2. Development of the Russian Constitution).
4 Until the ukaz of October 18, 1906, the peasant class was stereo-
typed under the electoral law. No peasant, however rich, could
qualify for a vote in any but the peasants' electoral colleges.
The ukaz allowed peasants with the requisite qualifications to
vote as landowners. At the same time the Senate interpreted the
law so as to exclude all but heads of families actually engaged in
farming from the vote for the Duma.
6 None but peasants not even the noble-landowner has a voice
in the assembly of the mir.
6 Sixteen provinces have no zemstvos, i.e. the three Baltic pro-
vinces, the nine western governments annexed from Poland by
Catherine II., and the Cossack provinces of the Don, Astrakhan,
Orenburg and Stavropol.
7 By the law of the I2th (25th) of June 1890 the peasant members
of the zemstvos were to be nominated by the governor of the govern-
ment or province from a list elected by the volosts.
8 In spite of these restrictions and of an electoral system which
tended to make these assemblies as strait-laced and reactionary
as any government bureau, the zemstvos did good work, notably
educational, in those provinces where the proprietors were inspi'red
with a more liberal spirit. Many zemstvos also made extensive
and valuable inquiries into the condition of agriculture, industry
and the like.
JUDICIAL SYSTEM]
RUSSIA
877
Since 1870 the municipalities in European Russia have had
institutions like those of the zemstvos. All owners of houses,
Municipal anc ^ tax-paying merchants, artisans and workmen
dumas. are enrolled on lists in a descending order according
to their assessed wealth. The total valuation is then
divided into three equal parts, representing three groups of
electors very unequal in number, each of which elects an equal
number of delegates to the municipal dumu. The executive
is in the hands of an elective mayor and an uprmia, which
consists of several members elected by the duma. Under
Alexander III., however, by laws promulgated in 1892 and 1894,
the municipal dumas were subordinated to the governors in the
same way as the zemstvos. In 1894 municipal institutions,
with still more restricted powers, were granted to several towns
in Siberia, and in 1895 to some in Caucasia.
In the Baltic provinces (Courland, Livonia and Esthonia)
the landowning classes formerly enjoyed considerable powers
g-f. f self-government and numerous privileges in matters
provinces, affecting education, police and the administration of
local justice. But by laws promulgated in 1888 and
1889 the rights of police and manorial justice were transferred
from the landlords to officials of the central government. Since
about the same time a process of rigorous Russification has
been carried through in the same provinces, in all departments
of administration, in the higher schools and in the university
of Dorpat, the name of which was altered to Yuriev. In 1893
district committees for the management of the peasants' affairs,
similar to those in the purely Russian governments, were intro-
duced into this part of the empire.
Judicial System. Not the least valuable of the gifts of the
" tsar emancipator," Alexander II., to Russia was the judicial
System system established by the statute (Sudebni Ustaii) of
before the 2oth of November 1864. The system which this
l864 - superseded was not indigenous to Russia, but had
been set up by Peter the Great, who had taken as his
model the inquisitorial procedure at that time in vogue on
the continent of western Europe. Both civil and criminal
procedure were secret. All the proceedings were conducted
in writing, and the judges were not confronted with either
the parties or the witnesses until they emerged to deliver judg-
ment. This secrecy, combined with the fact that the judges
were very ill paid, led to universal bribery and corruption. To
check this courts were multiplied (there were five, six or more
instances), which only multiplied the evil. Documents accumu-
lated from court to court, till none but the clerks who had
written them could tell their gist; costs were piled up; and all
this, combined with the confusion caused by the chaotic mass of
imperial ukazes, ordinances and ancient laws often inconsistent
or flatly contradictory made the administration of justice, if
possible, more dilatory and capricious than in the old, unreformed
English court of chancery. Above all, there was no dividing
line between the judiciary and the administrative functions.
The judges were not so by profession; they were merely members
of the official class (chinovniks) , the prejudices and vices of which
they shared.
Of this system except so far as the confusion of the laws is
concerned the reform of 1864 made a clean sweep. The new
system established based partly on English, partly
on French models was built up on certain broad
principles: the separation of the judicial and ad-
ministrative functions, the independence of the judges and
courts, the publicity of trials and oral procedure, the equality
of all classes before the law. Moreover, a democratic element
was introduced by the adoption of the jury system and so far
as one order of tribunal was concerned the election of judges.
The establishment of a judicial system on these principles
constituted, as M. Leroy-Beaulieu justly observes, a funda-
mental change in the conception of the Russian state, which,
by placing the administration of justice outside the sphere of
the executive power, ceased to be a despotism. This fact
made the new system especially obnoxious to the bureaucracy,
and during the latter years of Alexander II. and the reign of
Law of
1864.
Alexander III. there was a piecemeal taking back of what had
been given. It was reserved for the third Duma, after the
revolution, to begin the reversal of this process. 1
The system established by the law of 1864 is remarkable
in that it set up two wholly separate orders of tribunals, each
having their own courts of appeal and coming in contact only
in the senate, as the supreme court of cassation. The first of
these, based on the English model, are the courts of the
elected justices of the peace, with jurisdiction over petty
causes, whether civil or criminal; the second, based on
the French model, are the ordinary tribunals of nominated
judges, sitting with or without a jury to hear important
cases.
The justices of the peace, who must be landowners 2 or
(in towns) persons of moderate property, are elected by the
municipal dumas in the towns, and by the zemstvos justice*
in the country districts, for a term of three years. of the
They are of two classes: (i) acting justices (uchastokvye P eace -
mirovye sudi); (2) honorary justices (pochetnye mirovye sudi).
The acting justice sits normally alone to hear causes in his
canton of the peace (uchastok), but, at the request of both
parties to a suit, he may call in an honorary justice as
assessor or substitute. 8 In all civil cases involving less than
30 roubles, and in criminal cases punishable by no more than
three days' arrest, his judgment is final. In other cases appeal
can be made to the " assize of the peace " (mirovye syezd),
consisting of three or more justices of the peace meeting
monthly (cf. the English quarter sessions), which acts both as
a court of appeal and of cassation. From this, again appeal can
be made on points of law or disputed procedure to the senate,
which may send the case back for retrial by an assize of the peace
in another district.
The ordinary tribunals, in their organization, personnel and
procedure, are modelled very closely on those of France (see
FRANCE, Law and Institutions). From the town The
judge (ispravnik), who, in spite of the principle laid ordinary
down in 1864, combines judicial and administrative trtouauli -
functions, an appeal lies (as in the case of the justices of
the peace) to an assembly of such judges; from these again
there is an appeal to the district court (okrugniya sud), con-
sisting of three judges; 4 from this to the court of appeal
(sudebniya palata); while over this again is the senate, which,
as the supreme court of cassation, can send a case for retrial
for reason shown. The district court, sitting with a jury,
can try criminal cases without appeal, but only by special
leave in each case of the court of appeal. The senate, as
supreme court of cassation, has two departments, one for
civil and one for criminal cases. As a court of justice its
main drawback is that it is wholly unable to cope with the
vast mass of documents representing appeals from all parts
of the empire.
Two important classes in Russia stood more or less outside
the competence of the above systems: the clergy and the
peasants. The ecclesiastical courts still retain a Ecclesl-
jurisdiction over the clergy which they have lost *<**/
elsewhere in Europe; and in them the old secret "ourf*.
written procedure survives. Their interest for the laity lies
1 An ukaz of 1879 gave the governors the right to report secretly
on the qualifications of candidates for the office of justice of the
peace. In 1889 Alexander III. abolished the election of justices
of the peace, except in certain large towns and some outlying
parts of the empire, and greatly restricted the right of trial by
jury. The confusion of the judicial and administrative functions
was introduced again by the appointment of officials as judges.
In 1909 the third Duma restored the election of justices of the
peace.
1 The justices, though noble-landowners, are almost exclusively
of very moderate means, and, though elected by the land-owning
class, they are according to M. Leroy-Beaulieu preiudicea in
favour of the poor mujik rather than of the wealthy landlord.
3 These honorary justices are mainly recruited from the ranks
of the higher bureaucracy and the army.
* This corresponds to the French cour d'arrondissement, but its
jurisdiction is, territorially, much wider, often covering several
districts or even a whole government.
RUSSIA
[EDUCATION
Ml/OKI
courts.
mainly in the fact that marriage and divorce fall within
their competence; and their reform has been postponed largely
because the wealthy and corrupt society of the Russian capital
preferred a system which makes divorce easily purchasable
and avoids at the same time the scandal of publicity. The
case of the peasants is more interesting, and deserves a some-
what more detailed notice.
The peasants, as already stated, form a class apart, untouched
by the influence of Western civilization, the principles of which
they are quite incapable of understanding or appreci-
ating. This fact was recognized by the legislators of
1864, and beneath the statutory tribunals created in
that year the special courts of the peasants were suffered to
survive. These were indeed but a few years older. Up to
1861, the date of the emancipation, the peasant serfs had been
under the patrimonial jurisdiction of their lords. The edict of
emancipation abolished this jurisdiction, and set up instead in
each volost a court particular to the peasants (wlostnye sud), of
which the judges and jury, themselves peasants, were elected
by the assembly of the volost (wloslnye skhod) each year. In
these courts the ordinary written law had little to say; the
decisions of the wlost courts were based on the local customary
law, which alone the peasants, and the peasants alone, under-
stand. The justice administered in them was patriarchal and
rough, but not ineffective. All civil cases involving less than
loo roubles value were within their competence, and more
important cases by consent of the parties. They acted also
as police courts in the case of petty thefts, breaches of the
peace and the like. They were also charged with the mainten-
ance of order in the mir and the family, punishing infractions
of the religious law, husbands who beat their wives, and parents
who ill-treated their children. The penalty of flogging, pre-
ferred by the peasants to fine or imprisonment, was not unknown.
The judges were, of course, wholly illiterate, and this tended to
throw the ultimate power into the hands of the clerk (pisar)
of the court, who was rarely above corruption.
In 1880, according to the observations of M. Leroy-Beaulieu, 1
the fines inflicted by the court were commonly paid in vodka,
which was consumed on the premises by the judges and the
parties to the suit; there is no reason to suppose that this
amiable custom has been abandoned.
The peasants are not compelled to go to the wlost court.
They can apply to the police commissaries (stanovoi) or to
the justices of the peace; but the great distances to be traversed
in a country so sparsely populated makes this course highly
inconvenient. 2 On the other hand, from the volost court there
is no appeal, unless it has acted ultra vires or illegally. In the
latter case a court of cassation is provided in the district com-
mittee for the affairs of the peasants (Uyezdnoe po krestianskim
dolam prisutstviye} , which has superseded the assembly of
arbiters of the peace (mirovye posredniki) established in i866. 3
(W. A. P.)
Previous to the revolution of 1905 but little progress had been made
in Russia as regards education. 4 Distrust of the natural sciences,
_ . even in their technical applications, and of Western
ideas of free government; desire to make university
education, and even secondary education, a privilege
of the wealthier classes; neglect of primary education, coupled
with suppression by the ministry of public instruction of all initia-
tive, private and public, in the matter of disseminating education
among the illiterate classes these were the distinctive features
of the educational policy of the last twenty years of the igth century.
1 L 'Empire des tsars, ii. p. 310.
1 In the ordinary tribunals weight is given to the " customs "
of the peasants, even when these conflict with the written law.
* The abolition of the special courts of the peasants was an-
nounced in the same imperial ukaz (l8th of October 1906) which
promised the relief of the peasants from the arbitrary control of the
communes, and permission for them to migrate elsewhere without
losing their communal rights. This was made part of the general
reform of Russian local government, which in the autumn of 1910
was still under the consideration of the Duma.
4 Of the effects of the political changes in Russia on the educa-
tional system of the country it was, even in the autumn of 1910,
too early to say anything save that an undoubted impetus had
It was only towards its close that a change took place in the attitude
of the government towards technical education, and a few high
and middle technical schools were opened. It was only then,
too, that a reform was started in secondary education, with the
object of revising the so-called " classical ' system favoured in
the lyceums since the 'seventies, the complete failure of which
has been demonstrated after nearly thirty years of experiment.
Apart from the schools under the ministry of war (Cossack voiikos
and schools at the barracks), the great bulk of the primary schools
are either under the ministry of public instruction or of the Holy
Synod. Those under the latter body are of recent growth, the
policy of the last twenty years of the I9th century having been
to hand over the budget allowances for primary instruction to
the Holy Synod, which opened parish schools under the local
priests. The schools under the Synod are themselves divided
into two categories: parish schools and reading schools of an
inferior grade. No teaching certificate is required by the teachers
in either class of school, the permission of the bishop (like the
French lettre d' obedience of 1849) being sufficient. The conse-
quence is, that the village priests, being too much occupied with
their parochial duties, cannot give more than casual or perfunctory
attention to the schools, and the numerous pupils either exist on
paper only, or are handed over to half-educated cantors, deacons
or hired teachers. One good feature of the Russian primary
school system, however, is that in many villages there are school
gardens or fields; in nearly 1000 schools, bee-keeping, and in
300 silkworm culture is taught; while in some 900 schools the
children receive instruction in various trades; and in 300 schools
in slojd (a system of manual training originated in Finland). Girls
are taught handwork in many schools. Nearly 50 % of the teachers
are women. The total expenditure on primary schools in 1900
was 5,300,000 (about the average in recent years), of which 20%
was supplied by the state, 23% by the zemstvos, 35 % by the
village communities and the municipalities and nj% by private
persons. The middle schools are maintained by the state, which
contributes 25% of the expenditure of the classical and technical
schools, by the fees of the pupils (30%), and by donations from
the zemstvos and municipalities. The total grants from the state
exchequer for education of all grades in all parts of the empire
amounted in 1906 to 8,107,000. The progress of primary educa-
tion is illustrated by the fact that, while in 1885 there was one
school for every 2665 inhabitants and one pupil for every 48
inhabitants, in 1898 the figures were 1643 and 31 inhabitants
respectively. According to the census of 1897 the number of
illiterates varied from 89-2 to 44-9% of the population in the
rural districts, and from 63-6 to 37-2 % in the urban.
For higher education there were in 1904 only 9 universities
(Yuriev or Dorpat, Kazan, Kharkov, Kiev, Moscow, Odessa, St
Petersburg, Warsaw and Tomsk), with 19,400 students, 6 medical
academies (one for women), 6 theological academies, 6 military
academies, 5 philological institutes, 3 Eastern languages institutes,
3 law schools, 4 veterinary institutes, 4 agricultural colleges, 2
mining institutes, 4 engineering institutes, 2 universities for women
(930 students at St Petersburg), 3 technical pedagogic schools,
10 technical institutes, I forestry and I topographical school.
There has, however, been much activity since 1905 in the establish-
ment of new educational institutions, notably technical and com-
mercial schools, which are placed under the new minister of
commerce and industry. Finland has a university of its own
at Helsingfors.
The standard of teaching in the universities is on the whole very
high, and may be compared to that of the German universities.
The students are hard working, and generally very intelligent.
Mostly sons of poor parents, they live in extreme poverty, sup-
porting themselves chiefly by translating and by tutorial work.
The state of secondary education still leaves much to be desired.
The steady tendency of Russian society towards increasing the
number of secondary schools, where instruction would be based
on the study of the natural sciences, is checked by the government
in favour of the classical gymnasiums. 6 Sunday schools and
public lectures are virtually prohibited.
A characteristic feature of the intellectual movement in Russia
is its tendency to extend to women the means of higher instruction.
The gymnasiums for girls are both numerous and good. In addi-
tion to these, notwithstanding government opposition, a series
been given to the effort for improvement, and that the question
had been seriously taken in hand by the imperial administration
and the Duma. What form it would ultimately take depended
still on the balance between the forces of conservatism and change,
the suspicious temper of the autocracy being revealed, during the
years of unstable equilibrium, by the alternate concession and with-
drawal of privileges, e.g. in the matter of the independence of the
universities. Any account of the educational system cannot,
therefore, be otherwise than historical and provisional [En.].
6 An imperial rescript of loth of June 1902 foreshadowed a re-
organization of secondary education, and an imperial ukaz of isth
of March 1903 laid down the lines on which this was to proceed.
The old curriculum of the Real schools is now superseded.
EUROPEAN RUSSIA]
RUSSIA
879
Scientific
societies.
of higher schools, in which careful instruction is gjven in natural
and social sciences, have been opened in the chief cities under
the name of " pedagogical courses." At St Petersburg a women's
medical academy, the examinations of which were even more
searching than those of the ordinary academy (especially as regards
diseases of women and children), was opened, but after about one
hundred women had received the degree of M.D. it was suppressed
by government. In several university towns there are free teaching
establishments for women, supported by subscription, with pro-
grammes and examinations equal to those of the universities.
The natural sciences are much cultivated in Russia. Besides
the Academy of Science, the Moscow Society of Naturalists, the
Mineralogical Society, the Geographical Society, with its
Caucasian and Siberian branches, the archaeological
societies and the scientific societies of the Baltic pro-
vinces, all of which are of old and recognized standing, there have
lately sprung up a series of new societies in connexion with each
university, and their serials are yearly growing in importance, as,
too, are those of the Moscow Society of Friends of Natural Science,
the Chemico-Physical Society, and various medical, educational
and other associations. The work achieved by Russian savants,
especially in biology, physiology and chemistry, and in the sciences
descriptive of the vast territory of Russia, is well known to Europe.
The ordinary revenue of the empire is in excess of the ordinary
expenditure, but the extraordinary expenditure not only swallows
P. up this surplus, but necessitates the raising of fresh
loans every year. On the other hand, there is a good
deal to show for this extraordinary expenditure. A considerable
number of new railways, including the Siberian, have been built
with money obtained from that source. But since 1894 all extra-
ordinary items of expenditure, with the exception of those for
the construction of new lines of railway, have been defrayed out
of ordinary revenue. The only sources of extraordinary revenue
still remaining under that head are the money derived from loans
and the perpetual deposits in the Imperial Bank. The ordinary
revenue, obtained principally from the sale of spirits (28%),
which is a state monopoly, from state railways (23!%) and customs
(loj%), steadily rose from a total of 132,750,000 in 1895 to a
total of 214,360,000 in 1905. Other noteworthy sources of
revenue are trade licences, direct taxes on lands and forests, stamp
duties, posts and telegraphs, indirect taxes on tobacco, sugar
and other commodities, the crown forests, and land redemption
payable annually by the peasants since 1861. At the same time
the total ordinary expenditure has increased at a similarly steady
rate, namely, from l 19,391,000 in 1895 to 202,544,000 in 1905. In
1904, 8iJ% of the extraordinary expenditure, namely, 71,550,000,
was incurred in consequence of the war with Japan, and to
this must be added in 1906 a further expenditure of 42,085,000.
The total national debt of Russia nearly trebled between 1852
(57,038,600) and 1862 (145,500,000), and again between 1872
(242,277,000) and 1892 (526,109,000) it more than doubled,
while by 1906 it amounted altogether to 812,040,000. Of the
total, 77% stands at 4% and 17 at less than 4%.
The system of obligatory military service for all, introduced in
1874, has been maintained, but the six years' term of service has
Army been reduced to five, while the privileges granted to
young men who have received various degrees of education
have been slightly extended. During the reign of Alexander III.
efforts were mainly directed towards (l) reducing the time required
for the mobilization of the army; (2) increasing the immediate
readiness of cavalry for war and its fitness for serving as mounted
infantry (dragoon regiments taking the place of hussars and
lancers); (3) strengthening the W. frontier by fortresses .and
railways; and (4) increasing the artillery, siege and train reserves.
Further, the age releasing from service was raised from 40 to 43
years and the militia (landsturm) was reorganized. The measures
taken during the reign of Nicholas II. have been chiefly directed
towards increasing the fighting capacity and readiness for im-
mediate service of the troops in Asia, and towards the better re-
organization of the local irregular militia forces. Broadly speaking,
the army is divided into regulars, Cossacks and militia. The
peace strength of the army is estimated at 42,000 officers and
1,100,000 men (about 950,000 combatants), while the war strength
is approximately 75,000 officers and 4,500,000 men. However,
this latter figure is merely nominal, the available artillery and
train service being much below the strength which would be
required for such an army; estimates which put the military
forces of Russia in time of war at 2,750,000 irrespective of the
armies which may be levied during the war itself seem to approach
more nearly the strength of the forces which could actually be
mustered. The infantry and rifles are armed with small-bore
magazine rifles, and the active artillery have steel breech-loaders
with extreme ranges of 4150 to 4700 yds.
Before the Japanese war Russia maintained four separate
squadrons: the Baltic, the Black Sea, the Pacific and the Caspian.
But in the operations before Port Arthur and in the
disastrous battle of Tsushima the Russian fleets were
almost completely annihilated. The bulk of the Black Sea fleet
and a few other battleships were, however, still left, and since 1904
steps have been taken to build new ships, both battleships and
powerful cruisers. Kronstadt is the naval headquarters in the
Baltic, Sevastopol in the Black Sea and Vladivostok on the
Pacific.
Fortresses. The chief first-class fortresses of Russia are Warsaw
and Noyogeorgievsk in Poland, and Brest-Litovsk and Kovno in
Lithuania. The second-class fortresses are Kronstadt and Sveaborg
in the Gulf of Finland, Ivangorod in Poland, Libau on the Baltic
Sea, Kerch on the Black Sea and Vladivostok on the Pacific.
In the third class are Viborg in Finland, Ossovcts and Ust Dvinsk
(or Dunamiinde) in Lithuania, Sevastopol and Ochakov on the
Black Sea, and Kars and Batum in Caucasia. There are, more-
over, 46 forts and fortresses unclassed, of which 6 are in Poland,
8 in W. and S.W. Russia, and the remainder (mere fortified posts)
in the Asiatic dominions.
II. EUROPEAN RUSSIA
Geography. The administrative boundaries of European
Russia, apart from Finland, coincide broadly with the natural
limits of the East-European plains. In the N. it is
bounded by the Arctic Ocean; the islands of Novaya-
Zemlya, Kolguyev and Vaigach also belong to it, but
the Kara Sea is reckoned to Siberia. To the E. it has the
Asiatic dominions of the empire, Siberia and the Kirghiz steppes,
from both of which it is separated by the Ural Mountains, the
Ural river and the Caspian the administrative boundary,
however, partly extending into Asia on the Siberian slope of
the Urals. To the S. it has the Black Sea and Caucasia, being
separated from the latter by the Manych depression, which in
Post-Pliocene times connected the Sea of Azov with the Caspian.
The W. boundary is purely conventional: it crosses the peninsula
of Kola from the Varanger Fjord to the Gulf of Bothnia; thence
it runs to the Kurisches Haff in the southern'Baltic, and thence
to the mouth of the Danube, taking a great circular sweep to the
W. to embrace Poland, and separating Russia from Prussia,
Austrian Galicia and Rumania.
It is a special feature of Russia that she has no free outlet to
the open sea except on the ice-bound shores of the Arctic Ocean.
Even the White Sea is merely a gulf of that ocean. The deep
indentations of the gulfs of Bothnia and Finland are surrounded
by what is ethnologically Finnish territory, and it is only at the
very head of the latter gulf that the Russians have taken firm
foothold by erecting their capital at the mouth of the Neva.
The Gulf of Riga and the Baltic belong also to territory which
is not inhabited by Slavs, but by Finnish races and by Germans.
It is only within the last hundred and thirty years that the
Russians have definitely taken possession of the N. shores of the
Black Sea and the Sea of Azov. The E. coast of the Black Sea
belongs properly to Transcaucasia, a great chain of mountains
separating it from Russia. But even this sheet of water is an
inland sea, the only outlet of which, the Bosphorus, is in foreign
hands, while the Caspian, an immense shallow lake, mostly
bordered by deserts, possesses more importance as a link between
Russia and her Asiatic settlements than as a channel for inter-
course with other countries.
The great territory occupied by European Russia 1600 m.
in length from N. to S., and nearly as much from E. to W. is on
the whole a broad elevated plain, ranging between 500 and
900 ft. above sea-level, deeply cut into by river-
valleys, and bounded on all sides by broad swellings
or low mountain-ranges: the lake plateaus of Finland
and the Maanselka heights in the N.W.; the Baltic coast-ridge
and spurs of the Carpathians in the W., with a broad depression
between the two, occupied by Poland; the Crimean and
Caucasian mountains in the S.; and the broad but moderately
high swelling of the Ural Mountains in the E.
From a central plateau, which comprises the governments of Tver,
Moscow, Smolensk and Kursk, and projects E. towards Samara,
attaining an average elevation of 800 to 900 ft. above the sea, the
surface slopes gently in all directions to a level of 300 to 500 ft.
Then it again rises gradually as it approaches the hilly tracts which
enclose the great plain. This central swelling may be considered a
continuation towards the E.N.E. of the great line of upheavals of
N.W. Europe; the elevated grounds of Finland would then repre-
sent a continuation of the Scanian plateaus of S. Sweden, and the
northern mountains of Finland a continuation of Kjolen (the Keel)
which separate Sweden from Norway, while the other great line of
88o
RUSSIA
[EUROPEAN RUSSIA
upheaval of the old continent, which runs N.W. to S.E., would be
represented in Russia by the Caucasus in the S. and by the Timan
ridge of the Pechora basin in the N.
The hilly aspect of several parts of the central plateau is not due to
foldings of the strata, which for the most part appear to be hori-
zontal, but chiefly to the excavating action of the rivers, whose
valleys are deeply eroded in the plateau, especially on its borders.
The round flattened summits of the Valdai plateau do not rise
above lioo ft., and they present the appearance of mountains only
in consequence of the depths of the valleys the rivers which flow
towards the depression of Lake Peipus being only 200 to 250 ft.
above the sea. The same is true of the plateaus of Livonia, " Wendish
Switzerland," and the government of Kovno, which do not exceed
1000 ft. atjtheir highest points; and again of the E. spurs of the
Baltic coast-ridge between the governments of Grodno and Minsk.
The same elevation is reached by a very few flat summits of the
plateau about Kursk, and farther E. on the Volga about Kamyshin,
where the valleys are excavated to a depth of 800 or 900 ft., giving
quite a hilly aspect to the country. It is only in the S.W., where
spurs of the Carpathians enter the governments of Volhynia, Podolia
and Bessarabia, that ridges reaching lioo ft. are met with, these
again intersected by deep ravines.
The depressions which gap the borders of the central plateau thus
acquire a greater importance than the small differences in its vertical
elevation. Such is the broad depression of the middle Volga and
lower Kama, bounded on the N. by the faint swelling of the Uvaly,
the watershed between the Arctic Ocean and the Volga basin.
Another broad depression, 250 to 500 ft. above the sea, still filled
by Lakes Peipus, Ladoga, Onega, Byelo-ozero, Lacha, Vozhe, and
many thousands of smaller lakes, skirts the central plateau on the
N., and follows the same E.N.E. direction. Only a few low swellings
penetrate into it from the N.W., about Lake Onega, and reach 900 ft.,
while in the N.E. it is enclosed by the Timan ridge (1000 ft.). A
third depression, traversed by the Pripet and the middle Dnieper,
extends to the W. and penetrates into Poland. This immense
lacustrine basin is now broken up into numberless ponds, lakes and
marshes (see MINSK). It is bounded on the S. by the broad plateaus
which spread out E. of the Carpathians. S. of 50 N. the central
plateau slopes gently towards the S., and we find there a fourth
depression stretching W. and E. through Pohava and Kharkov,
but still reaching in its higher parts 500 to 700 ft. It is separated
from the Black Sea by a gentle swelling which may be traced from
Kremenets in Volhynia to the lower Don, and perhaps farther S.E.
This swelling includes the Donets coal-measures and the middle
granitic ridges which give rise to the rapids of the Dnieper. Finally
a fifth depression, which descends below the level of the ocean,
extends for more than 200 m. to the N. of the Caspian, comprising
the lower Volga and the Ural and Emba rivers, and establishing a
link between Russia and the Aral-Caspian region. It is continued
farther N. by plains below 300 ft., which join the depression of the
middle Volga, and extend as far as the mouth of the Oka.
The Ural Mountains present the aspect of a broad swelling whose
strata no longer exhibit the horizontality which is characteristic of
central Russia, and moreover are deeply cut into by rivers. They
are connected in the W. with broad plateaus which join those of
central Russia, but their orpgraphical relations to other upheavals
must be more closely studied before they can be definitely pro-
nounced on.
The rhomboidal peninsula of the Crimea, connected by only a
narrow isthmus with the continent, is occupied by an arid plateau
sloping gently N. and E., and bordered on the S.E. by the Yaila
Mountains, the summits of which range between 4000 and 5000 ft.
Owing to the orographical structure of the East-European plains,
the river systems have become more than usually prominent and
. important features of the configuration. Taking their
origin from a series of lacustrine basins scattered over the
plateaus and differing slightly in elevation, the Russian rivers
describe immense curves before reaching the sea, and flow with a very
gentle gradient, while numerous large tributaries collect their waters
from over vast areas. Thus the Volga, the Dnieper and the Don
attain respectively lengths of 2325, 1410 and 1325 m., and their
basins run to 563,300, 202,140 and 166,000 sq. m. respectively.
Moreover, the chief rivers, the Volga, the W. Dvina, the Dnieper, and
even the Lovat and the Oka, take their rise (in the N.W. of the
central plateau) so close to one another that they may be said to
radiate from the same centre. The sources of the Don interlace
with the tributaries of the Oka, while the upper tributaries of the
Kama join _those of the N. Dvina and Pechora. In consequence of
this, the rivers of Russia have been from remote antiquity the
principal channels of trade_ and migration, and have contributed
much more to the elaboration of national unity than any political
institutions. Boats could be conveyed over flat and easy portages
from one river-basin to another, and these portages were subse-
quently transformed with a relatively small amount of labour into
navigable canals, and even at the present day the canals have more
importance for the traffic of the country than have most of the
railways. By their means the plains of the central plateau the
very heart of Russia, whose natural outlet was the Caspian were
brought into water-communication with the Baltic, and the Volga
basin was connected with the Gulf of Finland. The White Sea has
also been brought into connexion with the central Volga basin
while the sister-river of the Volga the Kama became the main
artery of communication with Siberia.
But although the rivers of Russia rank before the rivers of W.
Europe in respect of length, they are far behind them as regards the
volumes of water which they discharge. They freeze in winter and
dry up in summer, and most of them are navigable only during the
spring floods; even the Volga becomes so shallow during the hot
season that none but boats of light draught can pass over its shoals.
Arctic Ocean Basin. The Pechora rises in the N. Urals, and
enters the ocean by a large estuary at the Gulf of Pechora. Its
basin, thinly-peopled and available only for cattle-breeding and for
hunting, is quite isolated from Russia by the Timan ridge. The
river is navigable for 770 m. ; grain and a variety of goods conveyed
from the upper Kama are floated down, while furs, fish and other
products of the sea are shipped up the river to be transported to
Cherdyn on the Kama. The Mezen enters the Bay of Mezen; it is
navigable for 450 m., and is the channel of a considerable export of
timber. The N. Dvina is formed by the union of the'Yug and the
Sukhona. The latter, although it flows over a great number of
rapids, is navigable throughout its length (330 m.); it is connected
by canal with the Caspian and the Baltic. The Vychegda, which
flows W.S.W. to join the Sukhona, through a woody region, thinly
peopled, is navigable for 500 m. and in its upper portion is connected
by a canal with the upper Kama. The N. Dvina flows with a very
slight gradient through a broad valley, and reaches the White Sea at
Archangel. Notwithstanding serious obstacles offered by shallows,
corn, fish, salt and timber are largely shipped to and from Archangel.
The Onega, which flows into Onega Bay, has rapids; but timber
is floated down in spring, and fishing and some navigation are carried
on in the lower portion.
Baltic Basin. The Neva (40 m.) flows from Lake Ladoga into the
Gulf of Finland. The Volkhov, discharging into Lake Ladoga, and
forming part of the Vyshniy-Volpchok system of canals, is an
important channel for navigation ; it flows from Lake Ilmen, which
receives the Msta, connected with the Volga, and the Lovat. The
Svir, also discharging into Lake Ladoga, flows from Lake Onega, and,
being part of the Mariinsk canal system, is of great importance for
navigation. The Narova flows out of Lake Peipus into the Gulf of
Finland at Narva; it has remarkable rapids, which are used to
generate power for cotton-mills; in spite of this, the river is navi-
gated. Lake Peipus, or Chudskoye, receives the Velikaya, a channel
of traffic with S. Russia from a remote antiquity, but now navigable
only in its lower portion, and the Embach, navigated by steamers
to Dorpat (Yuryev). The S. Dvina, which falls into the sea below
Riga, is shallow above the rapids of Jacobstadt, but navigation is
carried on as far as Vitebsk corn, timber, potash, flax, &c., being
the principal shipments of its navigable tributaries (the Obsha,
Ulla and Kasplya). The Ulla is connected by the Berezina canals
with the Dnieper. The Memel (Niemen), with a course of 470 m. in
Russia, rises in the N. of Minsk, leaves Russia at Yurburg, and
enters the Kurisches Haff ; rafts are floated upon it almost from its
source, and steamers ply as far as Kovno; it is connected by the
Oginsky canal with the Dnieper. For the Vistula, with the Bug and
Narew, see POLAND.
Black Sea Basin. The Pruth rises in Austrian Bukovina, and
separates Russia from Rumania; it enters the Danube, which flows
along the Russian frontier for 100 m. below Reni, touching it with
its Kilia branch. The Dniester (530 m. in Russia) rises in Galicia.
Light boats and rafts are floated at all points, and steamers ply on
its lower portion ; its estuary has important fisheries. The Dnieper,
with a basin of 202,140 sq. m., drains 13 governments, the aggregate
population of which numbers over 28,000,000. It also originates
in the N.W. parts of the central plateau, in the same marshy lakes
which give rise to the Volga and the W. Dvina, and enters the
Black Sea. In the middle navigable part of its course, from Dorogo-
buzh to Ekaterinoslav, it is an active channel for traffic. It receives
several large tributaries: on the right, the Berezina, connected
with the W. Dvina, and the Pripet, both very important for naviga-
tion as well as several smaller tributaries on which rafts are
floated ; on the left the Sozh, the Desna, one of the most important
rivers of Russia, navigated by steamers as far as Bryansk, the Sula,
the Psiol and the Vorskla. Below Ekaterinoslav the Dnieper
flows for 46 m. over a series of rapids. At Kherson it enters its long
(40 m.) but shallow estuary, which receives the S. Bug and the Ingut.
The Don, with a basin of 166,000 sq. m., and navigable for 880 m.,
rises in the government of Tula and enters the Sea of Azov
at Rostov, after describing a great curve to the E. at Tsaritsyn,
approaching the Volga, with which it is connected by a railway
(45 m.). Its navigation is of great importance, especially for goods
brought from the Volga, and its fisheries are extensive. The chief
tributaries are the Sosna and North Donets on the right, and the
Voronezh, Khoper, Medvyeditsa and Manych on the left. The
Ylya, the Kuban and the Rion belong to Caucasia.
The Caspian Basin. The Volga, the chief river of Russia, has a
length of 2325 m., and its basin, about 563,300 sq. m. in area, contains
a population of nearly 40,000,000. It is connected with the Baltic
by three systems of canals (see VOLGA). The Ural, in its lower
EUROPEAN RUSSIA]
RUSSIA
881
part, constitutes the frontier between European Russia and the
Kirghiz steppe; it receives the Sakmara on the right and the Ilek
on the left. The Kuma, the Terek and the Kura, with the Aras,
which receives the waters of Lake Gok-cha, belong to Caucasia. 1
The soil of Russia depends chiefly on the distribution of the
boulder-clay and loess, on the degree to which the rivers have
_ severally excavated their valleys, and on the moistness of.
the climate. Vast areas in Russia are quite unfit for
cultivation, 19% of the aggregate surface of European Russia
(apart from Poland and Finland) being occupied by lakes, marshes,
sand, &c., 39 % byj forests, 16 % by prairies, and only 26 % being
under cultivation. The distribution of all these is, however, very
unequal, and the five following subdivisions may be established:
(i) the tundras; (2) the forest region; (3) the middle region, com-
prising the surface available for agriculture and partly covered with
forests; (4) the black-earth (chernozyoni) region; and (5) the steppes.
Of these the black-earth region about 150,000,000 acres which
reaches from the Carpathians to the Urals, from the Pinsk marshes
in the S.W. to the upper Oka in the N.E., is the most important.
It is covered with a thick sheet of black earth, a kind of loess, mixed
with 5 to 15 % of humus, due to the decomposition of an herbaceous
vegetation, which developed luxuriantly during the Lacustrine
period on a continent relatively dry even at that epoch. On the
three-fields system corn has been grown upon it for fifty to seventy
consecutive years without manure. Isolated black-earth islands,
though less fertile, occur also in Courland and Kovno, in the Oka-
Volga-Kama depression, on the slopes of the Urals, and in a few
patches in the N. Towards the Black Sea coast its thickness
diminishes, and it disappears in the valleys. In the extensive
region covered with boulder-clay the black earth appears only in
isolated places, and the soil consists for the most part of a sandy clay,
containing a much smaller admixture of humus. There cultivation
is possible only with the aid of a considerable quantity of manure.
Drainage finding no outlet through the thick clay, the soil of the
forest region is often hidden beneath extensive marshes, and the
forests themselves are often mere thickets choking marshy ground ;
large tracts of sand appear in the W., and the admixture of boulders
with the clay in the N.W. renders agriculture difficult. On the
Arctic coast the forests disappear, giving place to the tundras.
Finally, in the S.E., towards the Caspian, on the slopes of the southern
Urals and the plateau of Obshchiy Syrt, as also in the interior of
the Crimea, and in several parts of Bessarabia, there are large tracts
of real desert, buried under coarse sand and devoid of vegetation.
Notwithstanding the fact that Russia extends from N. to S.
through 30 of latitude, the climate of its different portions, apart
Climate Irom the Crimea and Caucasia, presents a striking uni-
formity. The aerial currents cyclones, anti-cyclones
and dry S.E. winds prevail over extensive areas, and sweep across
the flat plains without hindrance. Everywhere the winter is cold
and the summer hot, both varying in their duration, but differing
relatively little in the extremes of temperature recorded. There is
no place in Russia, Archangel and Astrakhan included, where the
thermometer does not rise in summer nearly to 86 Fahr. and descend
in winter to -13 and -22. It is only on the Black Sea coast that the
absolute range of temperature does not exceed 108, while in the
remainder of Russia it reaches 126 to 144, the oscillations being
between 22 "and 31, occasionally going down as low as 54, and
rising as high as 86 to 104, or even 109 . Everywhere the rainfall
is small : if Finland and Poland on the one hand and Caucasia with
the Caspian depression on the other be excluded, the average yearly
rainfall varies between 16 and 28 in. Nowhere does the maximum
rainfall take place in winter (as in W. Europe), but it occurs in
summer, and everywhere the months of advanced spring are warmer
than the corresponding months of autumn.
Though thus exhibiting the distinctive features of a continental
climate, Russia does not lie altogether outside the reach of the
moderating influence of the ocean. The Atlantic cyclones penetrate
to the Russian plains, mitigating to some extent the cold of winter,
and in summer bringing with them their moist winds and thunder-
storms. Their influence is chiefly felt in W. Russia, though it does
reach as far as the Urals and beyond. They thus check the extension
and limit the duration of the cold anticyclones.
'Bibliography of Geography: see Tillo, in Izveslia of Russian
Geogr. Soc. (1883); P.P. Semenov, Geogr. and Statist. Dictionary
of the Russian Empire (in Russian, 5 vols., St Petersburg, 1863-84),
the most trustworthy source for the geography of Russia; the
official Svod Materialov, with regard to Russian rivers (1876);
Statistical Sbornik of the Ministry of Communications, vol. x.
(freezing of Russian rivers, and navigation). A great variety of
monographs dealing with separate rivers and basins are available;
e.g. S. Martynov, 'Das Petschoragebiet (St Petersburg, 1905) ;
G. von Helmersen, Das Olonezische Bergrevier (St Petersburg, 1860) ;
Turbin, The Dnieper; Prasolenko, The Dniester," in Engin.
Journ. (1881); Danilevsky, "Kuban," in Mem. Geogr. Soc. i.;
K. E. 'von Baer, Kaspische Studien (St Petersburg, 1857-59);
V. Ragozin, Volga (St Petersburg, 1890); Peretyatkovich, Volga;
and Mikhailov, Kama. An orohydrographical map of Russia in
four sheets was published in 1878.
Throughout Russia the winter is of long duration. The last days
of frost are experienced for the most part in April, but as late as May
to the N. of 55 N. The spring is exceptionally beautiful in central
Russia; late as it usually is, it sets in with vigour, and vegetation
develops with a rapidity which gives to this season in Russia a
special charm, unknown in warmer climates. The rapid melting of
the snow at the same time causes the rivers to swell, and renders a
great many minor streams navigable for a few weeks. But a return
of cold weather, injurious to vegetation, is very frequently observed
in central and E. Russia between May the l8th and the 24th, so
that it is only in June that warm weather sets in definitely, and it
reaches its maximum in the first half of July (or of August on the
Black Sea coast). In S.E. Russia the summer is much warmer than
in the corresponding latitudes of France, and really hot weather is
experienced everywhere. It does not, however, prevail for long,
and in the first half of September frosts begin on the middle Urals.
They descend upon W. and S. Russia in the beginning of October,
and are felt on the Caucasus about the middle of November. The
temperature drops so rapidly that a month later, about October the
loth on the middle Urals and November the isth throughout Russia,
the thermometer ceases to rise above the freezing-point. The
rivers freeze rapidly; towards November aoth all the streams of
the White Sea basin are ice-bound, and so remain for an average of
167 days; those of the Baltic, Black Sea and Caspian basins freeze
later, but about December the 2Oth nearly all the rivers of the
country are highways for sledges. The Volga remains frozen for
a period varying between 150 days in the N. andgo days at Astrakhan ,
the Don for 100 to no days, and the Dnieper for 83 to 122 days.
On the W. Dvina ice prevents navigation for 125 days, and even the
Vistula at Warsaw remains frozen for 77 days. The lowest tempera-
tures are experienced in January, the average being as low as 20
to 5 Fahr. throughout Russia; in the west only does it rise above
22. On the whole, February and March continue to be cold, and
their average temperatures rise above zero nowhere except on the
Black Sea coast. Even at Kiev and Lugansk the average of March
is below 30, while in central Russia it is 25" to 22, and as low as
20 and 16 at Samara and Orenburg.
All Russia is comprised between the isotherms of 32 and 54.
On the whole, they are more remote from one another than even
on the plains of ,N. America, those of 46 to 32 being distributed
over twenty degrees of latitude. They are, on the whole, inclined
towards the S. in E. Russia; thus the isotherm of 39 runs from
St Petersburg to Orenburg, and that of 35 from Tornea in Finland
to Uralsk. The inflexion is still greater for the winter isotherms.
Closely following one another, they run almost N. and S. ; thus
Odessa and Konigsberg are situated on the same winter isotherm
of 28; St Petersburg, Orel and the mouth of the Ural river on
about 20; and Mezen and Ufa on 9. The summer isotherms cross
the winter isotherms nearly at right angles, so that Kiev and Ufa,
Warsaw and Tobolsk, Riga and the upper Kama have the same
average summer temperatures of 64, 62 J and 6 1 respectively.
The laws and relations of the cyclones and anti-cyclones in
Russia are not yet thoroughly understood. It appears, however,
that in January the cyclones mostly travel across N.W. Russia
(N. of 55 and W. of 40 E.), following directions which vary
between N.E. and S.E. In July they are pushed farther towards
the N., and cross the Gulf of Bothnia, while another series of
cyclones sweep across middle Russia, between 50 and 55 N.
Nor are the laws of the anti-cyclones established. The winds
closely depend on the routes followed by both. Generally, how-
ever, it may be said that alike in January and in July W. and
S.W. winds prevail in W. Russia, while E. winds are most common
in S.E. Russia. N. winds are predominant on the Black Sea coast.
The strength of the wind is greater, on the whole, than in the
continental parts of W. Europe, and it attains its maximum velocity
in winter. Terrible tempests blow from October to March, especi-
ally on the S. steppes and on the tundras. Hurricanes accompanied
with snow (burans, myatels), and lasting from two to three days,
or N. blizzards without snow, are especially dangerous to man
and beast. The average relative moisture reaches 80 to 85%
in the N., and only 70 to 81 % in S. and E. Russia. In the steppes
it is only 60% during summer, and still less (57) at Astrakhan.
The average amount of cloud is 73 to 75 % on the White Sea and
in Lithuania, 68 to 64 in central Russia, and only 59 to 53 in the
S. and S.E. The amount of rainfall is shown in the Table on
next page. 2
The flora of Russia, which represents an intermediate link between
the flora of Germany and the flora of Siberia, is strikingly uniform
over a very large area. Though not p_oor at any given Ftort.
place, it appears so if the space occupied by Russia be
taken into account, only 3300 species of phanerogams and ferns
'Bibliography of Meteorology: Memoirs of the Central Physical
Observatory; Repertorium fur Meteorologie and Meteorological
Sbornik, published by the same body; Veselovsky, Climate of
Russia (Russian); H. Wild, Temperatur-Verhaltnisse des Russ.
Reiches (1881); Voyeikov, The Climates of the Globe (Russ., 1884),
containing the best general information about the climate of
Russia.
882
RUSSIA
[EUROPEAN RUSSIA
being known. Four regions may be distinguished: the Arctic,
the Forest, the Steppe and the Circum-Mediterranean.
North
Height
above
Average Temperatures.
Average Rainfall
in Inches.
Latitude.
Sea in
Feet.
Year.
Janu-
ary.
July.
Year.
November
to March.
/
o
o
O
Archangel .
64 34
30
32-7
7.6
60-6
16-2
4'3
Petrozavodsk
61 47
160
36-4
II-8
62-1
Helsingfors .
60 10
40
39-o
19-5
61-5
19-6
7'3
St Petersburg
59 57
2O
38-4
15-0
64-0
18-3
5-3
Bogoslovsk .
59 45
630?
29-4
-3-8
62-5
15-8
3-1
Dorpat
58 22
2 2O
39-5
17-6
63-1
24-9
7'3
Kostroma .
57 46
3 60
37-3
9'4
66-3
19-4
5-2
Ekaterinburg
56 49
890
32-8
2-2
63-5
14-1
1-6
Kazan .
55 47
26O
37-2
7-0
67-3
18-0
5-4
Moscow
55 45
520
39-0
I2-I
66-0
23-0
7-3
Vilna .
54 41
390
43-8
22-1
65-6
Warsaw
52 14
360
44-9
2 3 -8
65-4
22-8
6-7
Orenburg
51 45
360
37-9
4'7
70-9
17-1
5-8
Kursk .
5 1 44
690
41-0
13-7
67-2
19-9
5'6
Kiev .
50 27
59
44-2
2I-O
66-3
20- 1
6-0
Tsaritsyn
48 42
IOO
44-4
13-4
74-6
Lugansk
48 27
2OO
45'6
17-0
73-o
14-3
4-3
Odessa .
46 29
270
49-0
24-8
72-3
15-6
5'4
Astrakhan .
46 21
-70
49-0
19-2
77-9
5-7
i-5
Sevastopol .
44 37
IS"
53-7
35-2
73-8
15-4
7-2
Poti .
42 9
o
58-4
39-o
73-3
64-9
23-4
Tiflis .
4i 42
1440
54-5
33-o
75-7
19-3
4'3
The Arctic Region comprises the tundras of the Arctic littoral
beyond the N. limit of the forests, which closely follows the coast-
line, with deviations towards the N. in the river valleys (70 N.
in Finland and on the Arctic Circle about Archangel, 68 N. on
the Urals, 71 in W. Siberia). The shortness of the summer, the
deficiency of drainage and the depth to which the soil freezes in
winter, are the circumstances which determine the characteristic
features of the vegetation of the tundras. Their flora is far closer
akin to the floras of N. Siberia and N. America than to that of
central Europe. Mosses and lichens are distinctive, as also are
the birch, the dwarf willow and several shrubs; but where the
soil is drier, and humus has been able to accumulate, a variety
of herbaceous flowering plants, some of them familiar in W. Europe,
make their appearance. Only 275 to 280 phanerogams are found
within this region.
The Forest Region of the Russian botanists includes the greater
part of the country, from the Arctic tundras to the steppes, and
over this immense expanse it maintains a remarkable uniformity
of character. Beketov subdivides it into two portions the forest
region proper and the " Ante-Steppe " (predstepie). The N. limit
of the ante-steppe is represented by a line drawn from the Pruth
through Zhitomir, Kursk, Tambov and Stavropol-on- Volga to the
sources of the Ural river. But the forest region proper presents
a different aspect in the N. from that in the S., and must in turn
be subdivided into two parts the coniferous region and the region
of the oak forests these being separated by a line drawn through
Pskov, Kostroma, Kazan and Ufa. Of course the oak occurs
farther N. than this, and coniferous forests extend farther S.,
advancing even to the border-region of the steppes. To the N.
of this line the forests are of great extent and densely grown,
more frequently diversified by marshes than by meadows or culti-
vated fields. Vast and impenetrable forests, impassable marches
and thickets, numerous lakes, swampy meadows, with cleared and
dry spaces here and there occupied by villages, are the leading
features of this region. Fishing and hunting are the most important
sources of livelihood. The characteristics of the oak region, which
comprises all central Russia, are totally different. The surface
is undulatory; marshy meadow lands no longer exist on the flat
watersheds, and only a few in the deeper and broader river valleys.
Forests are still numerous where they have not been destroyed
by the hand of man, but their character has changed. Conifers
are rare, and the Scotch pine, which is abundant on the sandy
plains, takes the place of the Abies. The forests are composed of
the birch, oak and other deciduous trees, the soil is dry, and the
woodlands are divided by green prairies. Viewed from rising
ground, the landscape presents a pleasing variety of cornfield and
forest, while the horizon is broken by the bell-towers of the numerous
villages strung along the banks of the streams.
Viewed as a whole, the flora of the forest region is to be regarded
as European-Siberian; and, though certain species disappear
towards the E., while new ones make their appearance, it maintains,
on the whole, the same features throughout from Poland to Kam-
chatka. Thus the beech (Fagus sylvatica) is unable to survive
the continental climate of Russia, and does not penetrate beyond
Poland and the S.W. provinces, reappearing again in the Crimea.
The silver fir does not extend over Russia, and the oak does not
cross the Urals. On the other hand, several Asiatic species (Siberian
pine, larch, cedar) grow freely in the N.E., while numerous shrubs
and herbaceous plants, originally from the Asiatic steppes, have
found their way into the S.E. But all these do not greatly alter
the general character of the vegetation. The coniferous forests of
the north contain, besides conifers, the birch (Belula alba, B. pub-
escens, B. fruticosa and B. verrucosa), which extends from the
Pechora to the Caucasus, the aspen, two species of alder, the
mountain-ash (Sorbus aucuparia), the wild cherry and three
species of willow. S. of 62^ N. appears the lime tree, which
multiplies rapidly and, notwithstanding the rapidity with which
it is being exterminated, constitutes entire forests in the east
(central Volga, Ufa). Farther S. the ash (Fraxinus excelsior) and
the oak make their appearance, the latter (Quercus pedunculate.)
reaching in isolated groups and single trees as far N. as St Peters-
burg and South Finland (Q. Robur appears only in the S.W.). The
hornbeam is prevalent in the .Ukraine, and die maple begins to
appear in the S. of the coniferous region. In the forest region
no fewer than 772 flowering species are found, of which 568 dicotyle-
dons occur in the Archangel government (only 436 to the E. of
the White Sea, which is a botanical limit for many species). In
central Russia the species become still more numerous, and, though
the local floras are not yet complete, they number 850 to 1050
species in the separate governments, and about 1600 in the best
explored parts of the S.W. Corn is cultivated throughout this
region. Its N. limits advance almost to the Arctic coast at Var-
anger Fjord, farther E. they hardly reach N. of Archangel, and
the limit is still lower towards the Urals. The N. boundary of
rye closely corresponds to that of barley. Wheat is cultivated
in S. Finland, but in W. Russia it hardly gets N. of 58 N. Its
true domains are the oak region and the steppes. Fruit trees are
cultivated as far as 62 N. in Finland, and as far as 58 in the E.
Apricots and walnuts flourish at Warsaw, but in Russia they do
not thrive beyond 50. Apples, pears and cherries are grown
throughout the oak region.
The Region of the Steppes, which is coincident with the whole of
S. Russia, may be subdivided into two zones an intermediate zone
and that of the steppes proper. The ante-steppe of the preceding
region and the intermediate zone of the steppes include those
tracts in which the W. European climate contends against the
Asiatic, and where a struggle is carried on between the forest and
the steppe. It is comprised between the summer isotherms of
59 and 63, being bounded on the S. by a line which runs through
Ekaterinoslav and Lugansk. S. of this line begin the steppes proper,
which extend to the sea and penetrate to the foot of the Caucasus.
The steppes proper are very fertile, elevated plains, slightly
undulating, and intersected by numerous ravines which are dry
in summer. The undulations are scarcely apparent. Not a tree
is to be seen, the few woods and thickets being hidden in the depres-
sions and deep valleys of the rivers. On the thick layer of black
earth by which the steppe is covered a luxuriant vegetation develops
in spring; after the old grass has been burned a bright green pre-
vails over immense stretches, but this rapidly disappears under
the burning rays of the sun and the hot E. winds. The colouring
of the steppe changes as if by magic, and only the silvery plumes
of the steppe-grass (Stipa pennata) wave in the wind, tinting the
steppe a bright yellow. For days together the traveller sees no
other vegetation; even this, however, disappears as he approaches
the regions recently left dry by the Caspian, where saline clays,
bearing a few Salsolaceae, or mere sand, take the place of the
black earth. Here begins the Aral-Caspian desert. The steppe,
however, is not so devoid of trees as at first sight appears. In-
numerable clusters of wild cherries (Prunus Chamaecerasus) , wild
apricots (Amygdalus nana), the Siberian pea-tree (Caragana fru-
tescens), and other deep-rooted shrubs grow at the bottoms of the
depressions and on the slopes of the ravines, imparting to the
steppe that charm which manifests itself in the popular poetry.
Unfortunately the spread of cultivation is fatal to these oases
(they are often called " islands " by the inhabitants) ; the axe and
the plough ruthlessly destroy them.
The vegetation in the marshy bottoms of the ravines and in
the valleys of the streams and rivers is totally different. The
moist soil encourages luxuriant thickets of willows (Salicineae),
surrounded by dense cheyaux-de-frise of wormwood and thorn-
bearing Compositae, and interspersed with rich but not extensive
prairies, harbouring a great variety of herbaceous plants; while
in the deltas of the Black Sea rivers impenetrable beds of reeds
(Arundo phragmites) shelter a forest fauna. But cultivation
rapidly changes the physiognomy of the steppe. The prairies are
superseded by wheat-fields, and flocks of sheep destroy the true
steppe-grass (Stipa pennata).
A great many species unknown in the forest region make their
appearance in the steppes. The Scotch pine still grows on all
sandy spaces, and the maple (Acer tatarica and A. campestre), the
hornbeam and the black and white poplar are very common.
The number of species of herbaceous plants rapidly increases,
while beyond the Volga a variety of Asiatic species are added to
the W. European flora.
The Circum-Mediterranean Region is represented by a narrow
ETHNOGRAPHY]
RUSSIA
883
strip on the S. coast of the Crimea, where a climate similar to that
of the Mediterranean coast has permitted the development of a
flora closely resembling that of the valley of the Arno in Italy.
Human cultivation has destroyed the abundant forests which sixty
years ago made deer-hunting possible at Khersones. The olive
and the chestnut are rare; but the beech reappears, and the Pinus
pinaster recalls the Italian pines. At a few points, such as Nikita
near Livadia and Alupka, where plants have been acclimatized by
human agency, the Californian Wellingtonia, the Lebanon cedar,
many evergreen trees, the laurel, the cypress, and even the Anatolian
palm (Chamaerops excelsa) flourish. The grass vegetation is very
rich, and, according to lists still incomplete, no fewer than 1654
flowering plants are known. But on the whole, the Crimean flora
has little in common with that of the Caucasus. 1
Russia belongs to the same zoo-geographical region as central
Europe and N. Asia, the same fauna extending in Siberia as far
as the Yenisei and the Lena. In the forests not many
Fauna. animals which have disappeared from W. Europe have
held their ground; while in the Urals only a few now Siberian,
but formerly also European are met with. In S.E. Russia,
however, towards the Caspian, there is a notable admixture of
Asiatic species. Three separate sub-regions may, however, be dis-
tinguished on the E. European plains the tundras, including the
Arctic islands, the forest region, especially the coniferous part of
it, and the ante-steppe and steppes of the black earth region.
The Ural Mountains might be distinguished as a fourth sub-region,
while the S. coast of the Crimea and Caucasia, as well as the Caspian
deserts, have each their own individuality.
The fauna of the Arctic Ocean off the Norwegian coast corre-
sponds, in its W. parts at least, to that of the N. Atlantic Gulf
Stream. The White Sea and the Arctic Ocean to the E. of Svyatoi
Nos on the Kola peninsula belong to a separate zoological region,
connected with, and hardly separable from, that part of the Arctic
Ocean which washes the Siberian coast as far as the mouth of the
Lena. The Black Sea, the fauna of which appears to be very rich,
belongs to the Mediterranean region, slightly modified, while the
Caspian partakes of the characteristic fauna inhabiting the lakes
and seas of the Aral-Caspian depression.
In the region of the tundras life has to contend with such un-
favourable conditions that it cannot be abundant. Still, the
reindeer frequents it for its lichens, and on the drier slopes of the
moraine deposits there occur four species of lemming, hunted by
the Arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus). The willow-grouse (Lagopus
albus), the ptarmigan (L. alpinus or mutus), the lark, the snow-
bunting (Plectrophanes nivalis), two or three species of Sylvia, one
Phylloscopus and a Motacilla must be added. Numberless aquatic
birds visit jt for breeding purposes. Ducks, divers, geese, gulls,
all the Russian species of snipes and sandpipers (Limicolae, Tringae),
&c., swarm on the marshes of the tundras and on the crags of the
Lapland coast.
The forest region, and especially its coniferous portion, though
it has lost some of its representatives within historic times, still
possesses an abundant fauna. The reindeer, rapidly disappearing,
is now met with only in the governments of Olonets and Vologda;
Cervus pygargus is found everywhere, and reaches Novgorod. The
weasel, the fox and the hare are exceedingly common, as also are
the wolf and the bear in the N., but the glutton (Gulo borealis),
the lynx and the elk (C. alces) are rapidly disappearing. The
wild boar is confined to the basin of the W. Dvina, and the Bison
europea to the Byelovyezh forest in Grodno. The sable has quite
disappeared, being found only on the Urals; the beaver may be
trapped at a few places in Minsk, and the otter is very rare. On
the other hand, the hare, grey partridge (Perdix cinerea), hedgehog,
quail, lark, rook and stork find their way into the coniferous
region as the forests are cleared. The avifauna of this region is
very rich; it includes all the forest and garden birds known in
W. Europe, as well as a very great variety of aquatic birds. A
list, still incomplete, of the birds of St Petersburg runs to 251
species. Hunting and shooting give occupation to a great number
of persons. The reptiles are few. As for fishes, all those of W.
Europe, except the carp, are met with in the lakes and rivers in
immense quantities, the characteristic feature of the region being
its wealth in Coregoni and in Salmonidae generally.
In the ante-steppe the forest species proper, such as Pleromys
volans and Tamias striatus, disappear, but common squirrel (Sciurus
vulgaris), weasel and bear are still met with in the forests. The
hare is increasing rapidly, as well as the fox. The avifauna, of
course, becomes poorer; nevertheless, the woods of the steppe,
and still more the forests of the ante-steppe, give refuge to many
1 Bibliography of Flora : Beketov, Appendix to Russian transla-
tion of Griesebach and Reclus's Geogr. univ.; C. F. von Ledebour,
Flora Rossica (Stuttgart, 1842-53); E. R. von Trautvetter, Rossiae
Arcticae Planlae (1880), and Florae Rossicae Ponies (St Petersburg,
1880). For flora of the tundras, Beketov's " Flora of Archangel,"
in Mem. Soc. Natur. of St Petersburg University, xy. (1884);
Regel, Flora Rossica (1884); Brown, Forestry in the Mining Dis-
tricts of the Urals (1885); Reports by Commissioners of Woods and
Forests in Russia (1884).
birds, even to hazel-hen (Tetrao bonasa), capercailzie (7". telrix)
and woodcock (T. urogallus). The fauna of the scrub in the river
valleys is decidedly rich, and includes aquatic birds. The destruc-
tion of the forests and the advance of wheat into the prairies are
rapidly thinning the steppe fauna. The various species of rapacious
animals are disappearing, together with the colonies of marmots;
the insectivores are also becoming scarce in consequence of the
destruction of insects; while vermin, such as the suslik, or pouched
marmot (Spermophilus), and the destructive insects which are a
scourge to agriculture, become a real plague. The absence of
Coregoni is a characteristic feature of the fish-fauna of the steppes;
the carp, on the contrary, reappears, and the rivers abound in
sturgeon (Acipenseridae). In the Volga below Nizhniy-Novgorod
the sturgeon (Acipenser ruthenus), and others of -the same family,
as well as a very great variety of ganoids and Teleostei, appear in
such quantities that they give occupation to nearly 100,000 people.
The mouths of the Caspian rivers are especially celebrated for their
wealth of fish. 2
Ethnography. Remains of Palaeolithic man, contemporary
with the large Quaternary mammals, are few in Russia; they
have been discovered only in Poland, Poltava and Voronezh,
and perhaps also on the Oka. Those of the later Lacustrine
period, on the contrary, are so numerous that there is scarcely
one lacustrine basin in the regions of the Oka, the Kama, the
Dnieper, not to speak of the lake-region itself, and even the
White Sea coasts, where remains of Neolithic man have not been
discovered. The Russian plains have been, however, the scene
of so many migrations of successive races, that at many places
a series of deposits belonging to widely distant epochs are found
one upon another. Settlements belonging to the Stone age,
and manufactories of stone implements, burial-grounds of the
Bronze epoch, earthen forts and burial-mounds (kurgans) of
this last four different types are known, the' earliest belonging
to the Bronze period are superposed, rendering the task of
unravelling their several relations one of great difficulty.
Two different races a brachycephalic and a dolichocephalic
can be distinguished among the remains of the earlier Stone
period (Lacustrine period) as having inhabited the plains of E.
Europe. But they are separated by so many generations from
the earliest historic times that sure conclusions regarding them
are impossible; at all events, as yet Russian archaeologists are
not agreed as to whether the ancestors of the Slavs were Sar-
matians only or Scythians also, whose skulls have nothing in
common with those of the Mongol race. The earliest data
which may be regarded as established belong to the ist century,
when the Finns migrated from the N. Dvina region towards
the W., and the Sarmatians were compelled to abandon the
region of the Don, and cross the Russian steppes from E. to W.,
under the pressure of the Aorzes (the Mordvinian Erzya) and
Siraks, who in their turn were soon followed by the Huns and
Uigur-Turkish Avars.
In the 7th century S. Russia was the seat of the empire of the
Khazars, who drove the Bulgarians, descendants of the Huns,
from the Don, one section of them migrating up the Volga to
found there the Bulgarian empire, and the remainder travelling
towards the Danube. This migration compelled the N. Finns to
advance farther W., and a body of intermingled Tavasts and
Karelians penetrated to the S. of the Gulf of Finland.
2 Bibliography of Fauna: see Pallas, Zoographia Rosso-Asiatica;
Syevertsov for the birds of south-eastern Russia; M. A. Bogdanoy,
Birds and Mammals of the Black-Earth Region of the Volga Basin (in
Russian, Kazan, 1871); Karelin for the. southern Urals; Kessler
for fishes; Strauch, Die Schlangen des Russ. Reiches, for reptiles
generally ; Rodoszkowski and the publications of the Entomological
Society generally for insects; Czerniavsky for the marine fauna
of the Black Sea; Kessler for that of Lakes Onega and Ladoga;
Grimm for the Caspian. The fauna of the Baltic provinces is
described in full in the Memoirs of the scientific bodies of these
provinces. A. T. von Middendorf's Sibirische Reise, vol. iv.,
Zoology (St Petersburg, 1875), though dealing more especially with
Siberia, is an invaluable source of information for the Russian fauna
generally. A. E. Nordenskiold's Vega-expeditionens Vetenskaplita
lakttagelser (5 vols., Stockholm, 1872-87) may be consulted for the
mammals of the tundra region and marine fauna. For more detailed
bibliographical information see Aperfu des travaux zoo-gfoeraphiques,
published at St Petersburg in connexion with the Exhibition of
1878; and the index Ukazatel Russkoi Littratury for natural science,
mathematics and medicine, published since 1872 by the Society of
the Kiev University.
884
RUSSIA
[ETHNOGRAPHY
As early as the 8th century, and probably still earlier, a stream
of Slav colonization, advancing E. from the Danube, poured
over the plains of S.W. Russia. It is also most probable that
another similar stream the N., coming from the Elbe, through
the basin of the Vistula ought to be distinguished. In the
9th century the Slavs occupied the upper Vistula, the S. of the
Russian lacustrine region, and the W. of the central plateau.
They had Lithuanians to the W.; various Finnish tribes, inter-
mingled towards the S.E. with Turkish (the present Bashkirs) ;
the Bulgars, whose origin still remains doubtful, on the middle
Volga and Kama; and to the S.E. the Turkish-Mongol races of
the Pechenegs, Polovtsi, Uzes, &c., while in the S., along the
Black Sea, was the empire of the Khazars, who had under their
rule several Slav tribes, and perhaps also some of Finnish origin.
In the gth century also the Ugrians are supposed to have left
their Ural abodes and to have traversed S.E. and S. Russia
on their way to the basin of the Danube. If the Slavs be
subdivided into three branches the W. (Poles, Czechs and
Wends), the S. (Servians, Bulgarians, Croatians, &c.),and the E.
(Great, Little and White Russians), it will be seen that, with
the exception of some 3,000,0x30 Little Russians, now settled
in East Galicia and in Poland, and of a few on the southern slope
of the Carpathians, the whole of the E. Slavs occupy, as a compact
body, W., central and S. Russia.
Like other races of mankind, the Russian race is not pure.
The Russians have absorbed and assimilated in the course of
their history a variety of Finnish and Turko-Finnish elements.
Still, craniological researches show that, notwithstanding this
fact, the Slav type has been maintained with remarkable per-
sistency: Slav skulls ten and thirteen centuries old exhibit
the same anthropological features as those which characterize
the Slavs of our own day. This may be explained by a variety
of causes, of which the chief is the maintenance by the Slavs
down to a very late period of gentile or tribal organization and
gentile marriages, a fact vouched for, not only in the pages of
the Russian chronicler Nestor, but still more by visible social
evidences, the gens later developing into the village community,
and the colonization being carried on by large co-ordinated
bodies of people. The Russians do not emigrate as isolated
individuals; they migrate in whole villages. The overwhelming
numerical superiority of the Slavs, and the very great differences
in ethnical type, belief and mythology between the Indo-
European and the Ural-Altaic races, may have contributed to
the same end. Moreover, while a Russian man, far away from
home among Siberians, readily marries a native, the Russian
woman seldom does the like. All these causes, and especially
the first-mentioned, have enabled the Slavs to maintain their
ethnical purity in a relatively high degree, whereby they have
been enabled to assimilate foreign elements and make them
intensify or improve the ethnical type, without giving rise to
half-breed races. The very same N. Russian type has thus been
maintained from Novgorod to the Pacific, with but minor
differentiations on the outskirts and this notwithstanding the
great variety of races with which the Russians have come into
contact. But a closer observation of what is going on in the
recently colonized confines of the empire where whole villages
live without mixing with the natives, but slowly bringing them
over to the Russian manner of life, and then slowly taking in a
few female elements from them gives the key to this feature of
Russian life.
Not so with the national customs. There are features the
wooden house, the oven, the bath which the Russian never
abandons, even when swamped in an alien population. But
when settled among these the Russian the N. Russian
readily adapts himself to many other differences. He speaks
Finnish with Finns, Mongolian with Burials, Ostiak with
Ostiaks; he shows remarkable facility in adapting his agri-
cultural practices to new conditions, without, however, abandon-
ing the village community; he becomes hunter, cattle-breeder
or fisherman, and carries on these occupations according to
local usage; he modifies his dress and adapts his religious
beliefs to the locality he inhabits. In consequence of all this,
the Russian peasant (not, be it noted, the trader) proves himself
to be an excellent colonist.
Three different branches can be distinguished among the Russians
from the dawn of their history: the Great Russians, the Little
Russians (Malorusses or Ukrainians), and the White
Russians (the Byelorusses). These correspond to the two *"
currents of immigration mentioned above the N. and S.,
with perhaps an intermediate stream, the proper place
of the White Russians not having been as yet exactly
determined. The primary distinctions between these branches
have been increased during the last nine centuries by their contact
with different nationalities the Great Russians absorbing Finnish
elements, the Little Russians undergoing an admixture of Turkish
blood, and the White Russians submitting to Lithuanian influence.
Moreover, notwithstanding the unity of language, it is easy to de-
tect among the Great Russians themselves two separate branches,
differing from one another by slight divergences of language and
type and deep diversities of national character the Central
Russians and the Npvgorodians. _ The latter extend throughout
N. Russia into Siberia. Many minor anthropological differentiae
can be distinguished among both the Great and the Little Russians,
depending probably on the assimilation of various minor subdivisions
of the Ural-Altaians.
The Great Russians occupy in one compact mass the space
enclosed by a line drawn from the White Sea to Lake Pskov, the
upper courses of the W. Dvina and the Donets, and thence, through
the mouth of the Sura, by the Vetluga, to the Mezen. To the E. of
this boundary they are intermingled with Turko-Finns, but in the
Ural mountains they reappear in a second compact body, and thence
extend through S. Siberia and along the courses of the Lena and the
Amur. Great Russian Nonconformists are disseminated among
Little Russians in the governments of Chernigov and Mogilev, and
they reappear in greater masses in Novoroissa (i.e. S. Russia), as also
in N. Caucasia.
The Little Russians occupy the steppes of S. Russia, the S.W.
slopes of the central plateau and those of the Carpathian and Lublin
mountains, and the Carpathian plateau, that is, the governments of
Podolia, Volhynia, Poltava, and Kiev. The Zaporozhian Cossacks
colonized the steppes farther E., towards the Don, where they met
with a large population of Great Russian runaways, constituting
the present Don Cossacks. The Zaporozhian Cossacks, sent by
Catherine II. to colonize the E. coast of the Sea of Azov, constituted
there the Black Sea and later the Kuban Cossacks (part of whom,
the Nekrasovsty, migrated to Turkey). They have also peopled
large parts of the government of Stavropol and of N. Caucasia.
The White Russians, intermingled to some extent with Great and
Little Russians, Poles and Lithuanians, occupy the upper parts of
the W. slope of the central plateau.
The Finnish races, which in prehistoric times extended from the
Ob all over N. Russia, even then were subdivided into Ugrians,
Permyaks, Bulgarians and Finns proper, who drove back the pre-
vious Lapp population from what is now Finland, and about tne
7th century penetrated to the S. of the Gulf of Finland, in the region
of the Livs and Kurs, where they fused to some extent with the
Lithuanians and the Letts. At present the races of Finnish origin
are represented in Russia by the following: (a) the W. Finns;
the Ta vasts, in central Finland; the Kvaens, in N.W. Finland;
the Karelians, in the E., who also occupy the lake regions of Olonets
and Archangel, and have settlements in Novgorod and Tver; the
Izhores, on the Neva and the S.E. coast of the Gulf of Finland;
the Esths, in Esthonia and the N. of Livonia; the Livs, on the Gulf
of Riga; and the Kurs, intermingled with the Letts; (6) the N.
Finns, or Lapps, in N. Finland and on the Kola peninsula, and the
Samoyedes in Archangel and W. Siberia; (c) the Volga Finns, or
rather the old Bulgarian branch, to which belong the Mordvinians,
and the Cheremisses in Kazan, Kostroma and Vyatka, though they
are classified by some authors with the following: (d) the Permyaks,
or Cis-Uralian Finns, including the Votiaks on the E. of Vyatka, the
Permyaks in Perm, the Syryemans or Zyryans in Vologda, Archangel,
Vyatka and Perm ; (f) the Ugrians, or Trans-Uralian Finns, includ-
ing the Voguls on both slopes of the Urals, the Ostiaks in Tobolsk
and partly in Tomsk, and the Magyars, or Ugrians.
The following are the chief subdivisions of the Turko-Tatars in
European Russia : (i) The Tatars, of whom three different branches
must be distinguished : (a) the Kazan Tatars on both banks of the
Volga, below the mouth of the Oka, and on the lower Kama, but
penetrating farther S. in Ryazan, Tambov, Samara, Simbirsk and
Penza ; (6) the Tatars of Astrakhan at the mouth of the Volga ; and
(c) those of the Crimea, a great many of whom emigrated to Turkey
after the Crimean War (1854-56). There are, besides, a certain
number of Tatars in the S.E. in Minsk, Grodno and Vilna. (2) The
Bashkirs, who inhabiuthe slopes of the S. Urals, that is, the steppes
of Ufa and Orenburg, extend also into Perm and Samara. (3) The
Chuvashes, on the right bank of the Volga, in Kazan and Simbirsk.
(4) The Meshcheryaks, a tribe of Finnish origin who formerly
inhabited the basin of the Oka, and, driven thence during the I5th
century by the Russian colonists, immigrated into Ufa and Perm,
where they now live among tne Baskhirs, having adopted their
religion and customs. (5) The Teptyars, also of Finnish origin,
RELIGION]
RUSSIA
885
settled among the Tatars and Bashkirs in Samara and Vyatka.
The Bashkirs, Meshcheryaks and Teptyars rendered able service
to the Russian government against the Khirgiz, and until 1863 they
constituted a separate Cossack army. (6) The Khirgiz, whose true
abodes were in Asia, in the Ishim and Khirgiz steppe. One section
of them crossed the Urals and occupied the steppes between the
Urals and the Volga; the remainder belong to Turkestan and
Siberia.
The Mongol race is represented in Russia by the Kalmucks, who
inhabit the steppes of Astrakhan between the Volga, the Don and
the Kuma. They are Lamaists by religion and immigrated to the
mouth of the Volga from Dzungaria, in. the 1 7th century, driving
out the Tatars and Nogais, and after many wars with the Don
Cossacks, one part of them was taken in by the Don Cossacks, so
that even now there are among these Cossacks several Kalmuck
sotnias or squadrons. They live for the most part in tents, and
support themselves by breeding live stock, and partly by agriculture.
The Semitic race is represented by upwards of 5,000,000 Jews.
They first entered Poland from Germany during the era of the
crusades, and soon spread through Lithuania, Courland, the Ukraine,
and, in the i8th century, Bessarabia. The rapidity with which
they peopled certain towns (e.g. Odessa) and the whole provinces was
really prodigious. The law of Russia prohibits them from entering
Great Russia, only the wealthiest and best educated enjoying this
privilege; nevertheless they are met with everywhere, even on
the Urals. Their chief abodes, however, continue to be Poland, the
W. provinces of Lithuania, White and Little Russia, and Bessarabia.
In Russian Poland they constitute 13$% of the total population.
In Kovno, Vilna, Mogilev, Grodno, Volhynia, Podolia, Minsk,
Vitebsk, Kiev, Bessarabia and Kherson, they constitute, on the
average, 12 to 17$ % of the population, while in the cities and towns
of these governments they reach 30 to 59% of the population.
Organized as they are into a kind of community for mutual pro-
tection and mutual help, they soon become masters of the trade
wherever they penetrate. In the villages they are mostly innkeepers,
intermediaries in trade and pawnbrokers. In many towns most of
the skilled labourers and a great many of the unskilled (for instance,
the grain-porters at Odessa and elsewhere) are Jews.
The Jews of the Karaite sect differ entirely from the orthodox
Jews both in worship and in mode of life. They, too, are inclined to
trade, but they also carry on agriculture successfully. Those
inhabiting the Crimea speak Tatar, and the few who are settled
in W. Russia speak Polish. They are on good terms with the
Russians.
Of W. Europeans, the Germans only attain considerable numbers
in European Russia. In the Baltic provinces they constitute the
ennobled landlord class, and are the tradesmen and artisans in the
towns. Considerable numbers of Germans, tradesmen and artisans,
settled at the invitation of the Russian government in many of the
larger towns as early as the l6th century, and to a much greater
extent in the l8th century. Numbers were invited in 1762 to
settle in S. Russia, as separate agricultural colonies, and these have
since then gradually extended into the Don region and N. Caucasia.
Protected as they were by the right of self-government, exempted
from military service, and endowed with considerable allotments
of good land, these colonies are much wealthier than the neighbouring
Russian peasants, from whom they have adopted the slowly modified
village community. They are chiefly Lutherans, but many of them
belong to other religious sects Anabaptists, Moravians, Mennonites.
During the closing years of the igth century great numbers of
Germans flocked into the industrial governments of Poland, namely,
Piotrkow, Warsaw and Kalisz.
The Rumanians (Moldavians) inhabit the governments of Bessa-
rabia, Podolia, Kherson and Ekaterinoslav. In Bessarabia they
constitute from one-fourth to three-fourths of the population of
certain districts, and nearly 50% of the entire population of the
government. On the whole the Novorossian governments (Bessa-
rabia, Kherson, Ekaterinoslav and Taurida) exhibit the greatest
variety of population. Little and Great Russians, Rumanians,
Bulgarians, Germans, Greeks, Frenchmen, Poles, Tatars and Jews
are mingled together and scattered about in small colonies, especially
in Bessarabia. The Greeks inhabit chiefly the towns, where they
are traders, as also do the Armenians, scattered through the towns
of S. Russia, and appearing in larger numbers only in the district of
Rostov.
The Lithuanians prevail in Kovno, Vilna and Suwalki; and the
Letts, who are, however, more scattered, are chiefly concentrated
in Vitebsk, Courland and Livonia.
In the Baltic provinces (Esthonia, Livonia and Courland) the
prevailing population is Esthonian, Kuronian or Lettish, the
Germans being respectively only v8, 7-6 and 8-2 % of the population.
The relations of the Esths and Letts with their landlords are any-
thing but friendly.
The governments of St Petersburg (apart from the capital),
Olonets and Archangel contain an admixture of Karelians, Samo-
yedes and Syryenians, the remainder being Great Russians. In
the E. and S.E. provinces of the Volga (Nizhniy-Novgorod, Sim-
birsk, Samara, Penza and Saratov) the Great Russians prevail, the
remainder being chiefly Mordvinians, Tatars, Chuvashes and
Religion.
Bashkirs, Germans in Samara and Saratov, and Little Russians in
the last named. In the Ural governments of Perm and Vyatka
Great Russians are in the majority, the remainder being a variety of
Finno-Tatars. In the S. Ural governments (Uralsk, Orenburg,
Ufa) the admixture of Turko-Tatars of Kirghiz in Uralsk, Bashkirs
in Orenburg and Ufa, and less important races becomes con-
siderable.
The state religion is that of the Orthodox Greek Church
(Orthodox Catholic or Orthodox Eastern Church). Its head
is the tsar; but although he makes and annuls all
appointments, he does not determine questions of
dogmatic theology. The principal ecclesiastical authority
is the Holy Synod, the head of which, the Procurator, is one of
the council of ministers and exercises very wide powers in
ecclesiastical matters. In theory all religions may be freely
professed, except that certain restrictions, such as domicile, 1
are laid upon the Jews; but in actual fact the dissenting sects
are more or less severely treated. According to returns
published in 1905 the adherents of the different religious com-
munities in the whole of the Russian empire numbered ap-
proximately as follows, though the heading Orthodox Greek
includes a very great many Raskolniki or Dissenters. Indeed
it is estimated that there are more than 12,000,000 Dissenters
in Great Russia alone.
Orthodox Greek .
Dissenters
Armenian Gregorians
Armenian Catholics
Roman Catholics
Lutherans
Reformed
Baptists
Mennonites .
Anglicans
Other Christians .
Karaite Jews
Jews
Mahommedans
Buddhists
Other non-Christians
. 87,123,600
2,204,600
1,179,240
38.840
. 11,468,000
3.572.650
85,400
38,140
. . 66,560
4,180
3,950
12,900
5,215,800
13,907,000
433,860
285,300
Total . 125,640,020
The ecclesiastical heads of the national Orthodox Greek Church
consist of three metropolitans (St Petersburg, Moscow, Kiev),
fourteen archbishops and fifty bishops, all drawn from the ranks of
the monastic (celibate) clergy. The parochial clergy are celibate in
so far as they must be married when appointed, but if left widowers
may not marry again.
All Russians, with the exception of a number of White Russians
who belong to the United Greek Church (see ROMAN CATHOLIC
CHURCH), profess the Orthodox Greek faith or belong toone or other
of the numberless dissident sects. The Poles and most of the
Lithuanians are Roman Catholics. The Esths and all other Western
Finns, the Germans and the Swedes are Protestant. The Tatars,
Bashkirs and Kirghiz are Mahommedans; but the last-named
have to a great extent maintained along with Mahommedanism their
old Shamanism. The same holds good of the Meshcheryaks, both
Moslem and Christian. The Mordvinians are nearly all Orthodox
Greek, as also are the Votyaks, Voguls, Cheremisses and Chuvashes,
but their religions are, in reality, modifications of Shamanism under
the influence of some Christian and Moslem beliefs. The Moguls,
though baptized, are in fact believers in fetishism as much as
the unconverted Samoyedes. Finally, the Kalmucks are Lamaite
Buddhists.
In his relations with Moslems, Buddhists and even fetishists
the Russian peasant looks rather to conduct than to creed, the
latter being in his view simply a matter of nationality. Indeed,
towards paganism, at least, he is perhaps even more than
tolerant, preferring on the whole to keep on good terms with
pagan divinities. The numerous outbreaks against the Jews
are directed, not against their creed, but against them as keen
business men and extortionate money-lenders. Any idea of
proselytism is quite foreign to the ordinary Russian mind,
and the outbursts of proselytizing zeal occasionally manifested
by the clergy are really due to the desire for " Russification,"
and traceable to the influence of the higher clergy and of the
government.
1 The restrictions on domicile were to some extent relaxed in the
beginning of 1907.
886
RUSSIA
[RELIGION
It is this political rather than religious spirit which also
underlies the repressive attitude of the government, and of the
Orthodox Church as the organ of the government,
*" towards the various dissident sects (Raskolniki, from
raskol, schism), which for more than two centuries past
have played an important part in the popular life of Russia,
and, since the political developments of the end of the igth
and early years of the zoth century, have tended to do so more
and more. To understand the problem of the Raskolniki it is
necessary to bear two things in mind: the fundamental principle
of Eastern Orthodoxy as distinct from Western Catholicism,
and the practical identification in Russia of the National Church
with the National State. The very basis of Orthodoxy is that
the Church is by Christ's ordinance unalterable, that its tradi-
tional forms, every one of which is a vehicle of saving grace,
were established in the beginning by Christ and his apostles,
and that consequently nothing may be added or altered. The
trouble began early in the I7th century with the attempt, made
in connexion with the printing of the liturgical books, to emend
certain ritual details in which there was proved to have been
a departure from primitive usage; 1 it came to a head under
the patriarch Nikon (?..). Under his influence a synod
endorsed the changes in 1654; one bishop alone, Paul of
Colomna, dissented, and he was deposed, knouted and kept
in prison till he died mad. In 1656 the synod anathematized
the adherents of the old forms, and the anathema was confirmed
by those of 1666 and 1667. To the conservatives, known
subsequently as Old Ritualists or Old Believers, this marked
the beginning of the reign of Antichrist (was not 666 the number
of the Beast?); but they continued the struggle, conservative
opposition to the Westernizing policy of the tsars, which was
held responsible for the introduction of Polish luxury and Latin
heresy, giving it a political as well as a religious character.
The rising of the Strelitsi in 1682 all but gave them the victory;
the crushing of the rising relegated them definitely to the status
of schismatics. They were placed in still completer antagonism
to the established Orthodox Church by the innovations of
Peter the Great. The Muscovite tsars had pursued them with
fire and sword. The Russian emperors, having established them-
selves as heads of the Church and the Holy Synod as a state
department, were not likely willingly to tolerate their existence.
The Raskol was threatened with extinction by the gradual
dying out of its priests, which led to a further schism within
itself, into the Popovshchina (with priests) and the Bezpopovsh-
china (without priests). The Popovsti, who were served by
priests converted from the Orthodox Church, made their head-
quarters in the island of Werka, in a tributary of the Dnieper,
in Poland (1695), and after its destruction by the government
in 1735 and again in 1764, at Starodubye in the government of
Chernigov, whence their doctrine spread in the country of the
Don. In 1771 their headquarters were fixed at Moscow, in the
Rogoshkiy cemetery assigned to them during the plague;
here they had a monastery, seminary and consistory, until they
were ejected by the emperor Nicholas I. In 1832 priests were
forbidden to join them, and they had to apply to a deposed
Bosnian metropolitan, who became their chief bishop, estab-
lishing his see in the monastery of Belokrinitsa in Bukovina.
In 1862 the synod of the Popovshchina passed a circular letter
making advances to the government with a view to a com-
promise, which was arranged on the basis of the Old Believers
consenting to accept the ministrations of Orthodox priests on
condition that they should use the unrevised books. This led
to a further schism into three sections: those who recognize
the metropolitan and the compromise (Edinovyertsi) , those
who recognize the metropolitan but repudiate the compromise,
those who repudiate both (Bieglopopovtsi). There had already
been other schisms on such questions as the right way to swing
a censer and the legality of self-immolation for the Lord's sake.
The Bezpopovtsi, known also as Pomoranye, because they are
1 The most important alterations were the repetition twice,
instead of three times, of the " Alleluiah " at the Eucharist, and the
making the sign of the cross with two fingers instead of three.
mainly found in the sparsely populated country near the White
Sea, are in some ways more remarkable. They reject the
ministration of priests altogether, since in the time of Antichrist
(i.e. the heretic tsar) the only sacrament that remains is baptism.
They therefore elect elders, who expound the Scriptures, baptize
and hear confessions. They are, however, in no sense evan-
gelicals in the Western sense; for they observe rigorous fasts,
reverence icons, and believe implicitly in the efficacy of the
multiplication of crossings, bowings and prostrations. They
have, moreover, thrown off from time to time a number of
extravagant offshoots. Such are the Philippoiisti, founded
by one Philip (who burned himself alive for Christ's sake in
1 743)> wno have exalted self-immolation into a principle; the
Stranniki (pilgrims) and Byeguni (runners), who interpret
Matt. x. 37 ff. literally, and reject legal marriage; the Nyetovsti
(denyers), who deny the necessity for common worship, since
there are no priests; the M olchalyniki (mutes), whom no
torture can persuade to utter a word.
Closely akin to these, though not derived from the Old
Believers, are certain mystic sects which deny the efficacy
of the sacraments altogether. Of these the most remarkable
are the so-called Khlysti (" flagellants," from klyesat, " to strike,
lash," but possibly a corruption of Khristi, " Christs "). They
originated in 1645, when, according to their belief, God the
Father descended in a chariot of fire on Mount Gorodim, in the
province of Vladimir, and took up his abode in a peasant named
Daniel Philippov, who chose another peasant, named Ivan
Suslov, for his son, the Christ. Suslov selected a " mother of
God " and twelve apostles. Though twice crucified and once
flayed by order of the tsar, he always rose again, and did not die
till 1716. Suslov chose a successor in one Prokopiy Lupkin,
and since then in the belief of the sect every generation,
even every community, has had its Christ and its " mother of
God," who are worshipped by reason of the Divine Spirit dwell-
ing in them. It is the duty of all believers to strive to become
one or other of these by subduing the flesh, which is the product
of Evil, and all motions of the will. Ea.ch community is pre-
sided over by an " angel," or prophet, and a prophetess, whose
word is law. All alike are subject to the twelve command-
ments issued by the " Sabaoth," that is to say Daniel Philip-
pov. These include the prohibition of alcoholic drink, of fleshly
sins and of marriage, and the inculcation of faith in the Holy
Ghost and complete surrender to his influence. At their prayer-
meetings the Khlysti dance to the accompaniment of hymns,
the dance gradually developing into a wild dervish-like spinning
which is kept up till they drop, foaming at the mouth and pro-
phesying. Perhaps the most remarkable fact about this sect is
that it is secret, and that its members ostensibly belong to the
Orthodox Church.
An offshoot of the Khlysti is the more celebrated secret sect
of the Skoptsi (skopets, a eunuch), which represents an extreme
ascetic reaction from the promiscuous immorality of some
(by no means all) of the Khlysti. Their idea of attaining salva-
tion is self-mutilation according to the counsel of perfection
implied in Matt. xix. 12 and xviii. 8, 9. The " royal seal " is
complete self -castration; partial mutilation is known as the
" second purity." In the case of women the mutilation usually
takes the form of amputation of the breasts. This horrible
sect, which was founded by one Selivanov in the last quarter of
the 1 8th century, seems to have a morbid attraction for people
of all classes in Russia, and all the efforts of the government
have not succeeded in stamping it out (see SKOPTSI).
Closer akin to certain Western forms of dissidence from
traditional Catholicism, though of native growth, are the Molo-
kani, so called popularly because they continue to drink milk
(moloko) during fasts. Their origin is unknown, but they are
officially mentioned as early as 1765. They style themselves
" truly spiritual Christians," and in their rejection of the sacra-
ments, their indifference to outward forms, and their insistence
on the spiritual interpretation of the Bible (" the letter killeth "),
they are closely akin to the Quakers, whom they, resemble also
in their inoffensive mode of life and the practice of mutual help.
SOCIAL CONDITIONS]
RUSSIA
887
From the Molokani the Dukhobortsi, in England better known
as Doukhobors (q.v.), are distinguished by their subordination
of the Scriptures to the authority of the " inner light." They
are dualists, like the Bogomils (q.v,), ascribing the body to a fall
from a state when the soul was on the same plane as God.
The Incarnation was no isolated historical occurrence, but it
is repeated over and over again in the faithful, each one of
whom is in a certain sense God, by virtue of the indwelling
Spirit. Both the Molokani and the Dukhobortsi deny the
authority of the civil government as such, and object on
principle to military service. The former, however, give little
trouble; on the other hand, the government has from time to
time proceeded with extreme severity against the Dukhobortsi,
whose refusal to serve in the army, if allowed to go unpunished,
would have set a contagious example.
Dissidence of all kinds has made a considerable advance since the
emancipation of the serfs in 1861, the increase as might be expected
in a wholly illiterate population being greatest in the more extrava-
gant sects. On the other hand, Western Protestantism has also
made great headway, notably the Stundists, whose rationalistic-
Protestant teaching has gained a firm foothold especially in Little
Russia, where the Raskol never penetrated. The Baptists have
also made considerable progress, notably among the Molokani. 1
Social Conditions. The old subdivisions of the population
into orders possessed of unequal rights is still maintained. The
great mass of the people, 81-6%, belong to the peasant
order, the others being: nobility, 1-3%; clergy, 0-9;
the burghers and merchants, 9-3; and military, 6-1. Thus
more than 88 millions of the Russians are peasants. Half of
them were formerly serfs (10,447,149 males in 1858) the
remainder being " state peasants " (9,194,891 males in 1858,
exclusive of the Archangel government) and " domain peasants "
(842,740 males the same year).
The serfdom which had sprung up in Russia in the i6th
century, and became consecrated by law in 1609, taking, how-
ever, nearly one hundred and fifty years to attain its full growth,
was abolished in 1861. This act liberated the serfs from a yoke
which was really terrible, even under the best landlords, and
from this point of view it was obviously an immense benefit. 2
But it was far from securing corresponding economic results.
The household servants or dependents attached to the
personal service of their masters were merely set free; and
they entirely went to reinforce the town proletariat. The
peasants proper received their houses and orchards, and allot-
ments of arable land. These allotments were given over to the
rural commune (mir), which was made responsible, as a whole,
for the payment of taxes for the allotments. For these allot-
ments the peasants had to pay, as before, either by personal
labour or by a fixed rent. The allotments could be redeemed
by them with the help of the crown, and then they were freed
from all obligations to the landlord. The crown paid the land-
lord in obligations representing the capitalized rent, and the
peasants had to pay the crown, for forty-nine years, 6%
interest on this capital. The redemption was not calculated
on the value of the allotments of land, but was considered as a
compensation for the loss of the compulsory labour of the
serfs; so that throughout Russia, with the exception of a few
provinces in the S.E., it was and still remains, notwithstanding
a very great increase in the value of land much higher than
the market value of the allotment. Moreover, many proprietors
contrived to curtail seriously the allotments which the peasants
had possessed under serfdom, and frequently they deprived
them of precisely the parts which they were most in need of,
namely, pasture lands around their houses, and forests. The
effect of this, craftily calculated beforehand, was to compel the
peasants to rent pasture lands from the landlord at any price.
'See N. Tsakni, Russie sectaire (1888); A. Leroy-Beaulieu,
L'Empire des Tsars, tome iii. (1889; trans. 1896); C. K. Grass,
Russische Sekten (1907 sqq.). Further useful references are given
in Bonwetsch's article, Raskolniken," in Herzog-Hauck, Real-
encyklop. (3rd ed., 1905), vol. xvi. p. 436.
* It was only as late as 1904, however, that the landed proprietors
were forbidden by law to inflict corporal punishment upon the
peasants.
The present condition of the peasants according to official
documents appears to be as follows. In the twelve central
governments they grow, on the average, sufficient rye-bread for
only 200 days in the year often for only 180 and 100 days. One
quarter of them have received allotments of only 2-9 acres per
male, and one-half less than 8-5 to 11-4 acres the normal size
of the allotment necessary to the subsistence of a family under
the three-fields system being estimated at 28 to 42 acres. Land
must thus of necessity be rented from the landlords at fabulous
prices. The aggregate value of the redemption and land taxes often
reaches 185 to 275% of the normal rental value of the allotments,
not to speak of taxes for recruiting purposes, the church, roads,
local administration and so on, chiefly levied from the peasants.
The arrears increase every year; one-fifth of the inhabitants have
left their houses; cattle are disappearing. Every year more than
half the adult males (in some districts three-fourths of the men and
one-third of the women) quit their homes and wander throughout
Russia in search of labour. In the governments of the black-earth
region the state of matters is hardly better. Many peasants took
the " gratuitous allotments," whose amount was about one-eighth
of the normal allotments.
The average allotment in Kherson is only 0-90 acre, and for
allotments from 2-9 to 5^8 acres the peasants pay 5 to 10 roubles
of redemption tax. The state peasants are better off, but still
they are emigrating in masses. It is only in the steppe govern-
ments that the situation is more hopeful. In Little Russia, where
the allotments were personal (the mir existing only among state
peasants), the state of affairs does not differ for the better, on
account of the high redemption taxes. In the W. provinces, where
the land was valued cheaper and the allotments somewhat increased
after the Polish insurrection, the general situation might be better
were it not for the former misery of the peasants. Finally, in the
Baltic provinces nearly all the land belongs to the German land-
lords, who either farm the land themselves, with hired labourers, or let
it in small farms. Only one-fourth of the peasants are farmers, the re-
mainder being mere labourers, who are emigrating in great numbers.
The situation of the former serf-proprietors is also unsatisfactory.
Accustomed to the use of compulsory labour, they have failed to
accommodate themselves to the new conditions. The millions of
roubles of redemption money received from the crown have been
spent without any real or lasting agricultural improvements having
been affected. The forests have been sold, and only those land-
lords are prospering who exact rack-rents for the land without
which the peasants could not live upon their allotments. During
the years 1861 to 1892 the land owned by the nobles decreased
30%, or from 210,000,000 to 150,000,000 acres; during the follow-
ing four years an additional 2,119,500 acres were sold; and since
then the sales have gone on at an accelerated rate, until in 1903
alone close upon 2,000,000 acres passed out of their hands. On
the other hand, since 1861, and more especially since 1882, when
the Peasant Land Bank was founded for making advances to
peasants who were desirous of purchasing land, the former serfs,
or rather their descendants, have between 1883 and 1904 bought
about 19,500,000 acres from their former masters. There nas been
an increase of wealth among the few, but along with this a general
impoverishment of the mass of the people, and the peculiar institu-
tion of the mir, framed on the principle of community of ownership
and occupation of the land, was not conducive to the growth
of individual effort. In November 1906, however, the emperor
Nicholas II. promulgated a provisional ukaz permitting the peasants
to become freeholders of allotments made at the time of emancipa-
tion, all redemption dues being remitted. This measure, which
was endorsed by the third Duma in an act passed on the 2ist of
December 1908, is calculated to have far-reaching and profound
effects upon the rural economy of Russia. Thirteen years pre-
viously the government had endeavoured to secure greater fixity
and permanence of tenure by providing that at least twelve years
must elapse between every two redistributions of the land belonging
to a mir amongst those entitled to share in it. 3 The ukaz of
November 1906 had provided that the various strips of land held
by each peasant should be merged into a single holding ; the Duma,
however, on the advice of the government, left this to the future,
as an ideal that could only gradually be realized.
The co-operative spirit of the Great Russians shows itself in
another sphere in the artel, which has been a prominent feature
of Russian life since the dawn of history. The artel .. .
very much resembles the co-operative society of W.
Europe, with this difference that it makes its appearance without
* See Collection of Materials on the Village Community, vol. i. ;
Collection of Materials on Landholding, and Statistical Descriptions
of Separate Governments, published by several zemstvos (Moscow,
Tver, Nyzhniy-Novgorod, Tula, Ryazan, Tambov, Poltava, Saratov,
&c.); Kawelin, The Peasant Question; Vasilchikov, Land Property
and Agriculture (2 vols.), ancf Village Life and Agriculture; Ivan-
ukov, The Fall of Serfdom in Russia ; Shashkov, " Peasantry in
the Baltic Provinces, in Russkaya My si. (1883), iii. and ix. ;
V. V., Agric. Sketches of Russia; Golovachov, Capital and Peasant
Farming; Engelhardt's Letters from the Country.
888
RUSSIA
[AGRICULTURE
any impulse from theory, simply as a spontaneous outgrowth of
popular life. When workmen from any province come, for instance,
to St Petersburg to engage in the textile industries, or to work as
carpenters, masons, &c., they immediately unite in groups of ten
to fifty persons, settle in a house together, keep a common table
and pay each his part of the expense to the elected elder of the
artel. All over Russia there is a network of such artels in the
cities, in the forests, on the banks of the rivers, on journeys and
even in the prisons.
The industrial artel is almost as frequent as the preceding, in
all those trades which admit of it. Artels of one or two hundred
carpenters, bricklayers, &c., are common wherever new buildings
have to be erected, or railways or bridges constructed; the con-
tractors always prefer to deal with an artel, rather than with
separate workmen. It is needless to add that the wages divided
by the artels are higher than those earned by isolated workmen.
Finally, a great number of artels on the stock exchange, in the
seaports, in the great cities, during the great fairs and on railways
have grown up, and have acquired the confidence of tradespeople
to such an extent that considerable sums of money and complicated
banking operations are frequently handed over to an artelshik
(member of an artel) without any receipt, his number or his name
being accepted as sufficient guarantee. These artels are recruited
only on personal acquaintance with the candidates for membership.
Co-operative societies have also been organized by several zemstvos.
They have achieved good results, but do not exhibit, on the whole,
the same unity of organization as those which have arisen in a
natural way among the peasants and artisans.
The chief occupation of approximately seven-eighths of the
population of European Russia is agriculture, but its character
varies considerably according to the soil, the climate and
the geographical position of the different regions. A
"* sinuous line drawn from Zhitomir via Kiev, Tula and
Kazan to Ufa that is, from W.S.W. to E.N.E. separates the
" northern soils " from the " southern soils." To the S. of this
line, as far as the sandy deserts of Astrakhan and the steppes of
N. Caucasia, lies the black earth " region. Broadly speaking,
the forests here yield to steppes, and the soil is very fertile; but
the whole region suffers periodically from drought. The " northern
soils," which are glacial deposits more or less redistributed by
water, are much less fertile as a rule, and consist of all possible
varieties from a tough boulder clay to loose sand. Both N. and
S. of this line it is customary to distinguish several zones, lying,
generally, parallel to it, and differentiated chiefly by climatic
differences. In the tundras of the extreme N. agriculture does
not exist; the reindeer constitutes the principal wealth of the
nomad Samoyedes and Lapps. In the forest region S. of the
tundras, which extends over an area of more than 500,000 sq. m.,
agriculture is carried on with great difficulty, not only because of
the infertility of the soil, but also because of the severity of the
climate and the fact that there are only three to four months in
the year during which agriculture can be carried on. Apart from
hunting and fishing, the exploitation of the forests provides the
principal occupation of the inhabitants.. Crops, chiefly barley,
rye, oats, turnips and green crops, are, however, grown on clearings
in the forest, though the yield is poor. S. of 60 N. agriculture
becomes the predominant industry, while the exploitation of the
forests plays only a secondary part. In this zone, which extends
over an area of nearly 600,000 sq. m., and on the S. touches the
agrarian line already mentioned, the principal crops are rye and
oats, with barley and wheat coming next, though flax and green
crops are also grown. Cattle have to be housed for the winter.
In the W. of this zone, that is in the Baltic provinces, the climate
is less severe as well as moister. Agriculture is carried on in a more
intelligent manner, and the yield is higher. Flax is almost of as
much importance as wheat, and the potato is more cultivated than
in any other part of Russia. Hardy fruit thrives, and live-stock
breeding prospers. In the W. governments of Kovno, Vitebsk,
Vilna, Mogilev, Minsk and Grodno the climate is more temperate,
but agriculture is more backward than in the Baltic provinces.
The three-field system of cropping a patch of land until its fertility
is exhausted, and then allowing it to revert to the primeval con-
dition, is still pursued, and both landowners and peasantry suffer
from want of capital and lack of agricultural training. Flax is
one of the principal exports of this region, timber being another.
In middle Russia the winters are both longer and harder, and
agriculture is consequently carried on under greater difficulties.
One of the most serious of these is caused not by the unfavourable
character of the climate but by the shortness of labour. Since
their emancipation in 1861, the peasants of the central govern-
ments of Russia have in large numbers drifted away into" the black
earth zone, or have gone to the factories. The methods of agri-
culture are still unscientific and unprogressive. Rye is the staple
crop, though buckwheat, flax, green crops and the potato are
cultivated in considerable quantities.
Agriculture is most advanced in the W. of the black earth zone,
that is in the governments of Kiev, Podolia, Poltava and in part
of Kharkov. The winters are less severe, and modern agricultural
machinery is generally employed, at all events on the larger estates.
In consequence of these more favourable conditions there is greater
variety in the cropping; a good deal of wheat is grown, as well
as beetroot for sugar, fibre plants and oleaginous plants, fruit,
and even (W. of the Dnieper) the vine. Live-stock breeding is
likewise in a more prosperous condition. The rest of the black
earth zone, which stretches from these governments N.E. to the
Volga, is less favoured by nature; the winters are longer and
more inclement, and droughts are not uncommon. When this
happens there is great suffering from famine, for wheat is the crop
upon which the people principally depend, though rye, buckwheat
and oats are also cultivated. But a long course of continuous
cropping with these grain crops, without affording compensation
to the soil in the form of manure or deep cultivation, has so ex-
hausted it that its productiveness has sadly deteriorated. The
consequence is that the peasantry are constantly in a state bordering
on destitution, and exposed to the horrors of famine, like those
which visited them in 1890 and 1898, and threatened in 1907.
S. of the above zone come the S. steppes. In the W., in Bess-
arabia, the three chief products are maize, wine and hardy fruit,
especially plums. Here the climate is temperate and fairly moist,
but farther E. it is distinctly more arid. Wheat is the principal
crop, with barley second. Water-melons, sun-flowers and flax,
both the last two for oil, are usual crops. But the breeding of
horses and sheep is of equal importance with agriculture. Here
again both capital and labour are short, and the cultivation of the
soil suffers from the fact that, owing to the absence of timber,
dry dung is used for fuel instead of being employed as manure.
The steppe conditions extend over the greater part of the Crimea
and up to the foothills of the Caucasus. The actual distribution
of arable land, forests and meadows, in European Russia and
Poland is shown in the following table :
European Russia.
Poland.
Acres.
Per-
centage.
Acres.
Per-
centage.
Arable land
Meadows and
pasturages .
Forests
Uncultivated .
Total
301,435,000
185,498,000
" 452,152,000
220,279,000
26
16
39
19
16,900,000
6,059,000
7,334,000
1,594,000
53
19
23
5
1,159,364,000
IOO
31,887,000
IOO
The land in European Russia and Poland (Caucasia being ex-
cluded) is divided amongst the different classes of owners as
follows:
European Russia.
Poland.
Acres.
Per-
centage.
Acres.
Per-
centage.
State and im-
perial family
Peasants .
Private owners,
towns, &c.
Unfit for culti-
vation .
Total .
400,816,000
446,657,000
245,835.000
66,056,000
35,
38*
21
5i
1,808,000
13,584,000
15,106,000
1,389,000
5 f
42i
47i
4*
1,159,364,000
IOO
31,887,000
IOO
Down to January 1st 1903, the peasants had actually redeemed
out of the land allotted to them in 1861 a total of 280,530,516 acres.
In Poland the peasants as a body have, in addition to the land
thus assigned to them by the government, bought some 2\ million
acres since 1863, and of this quantity they purchased no less than
1,600,000 acres, or 64% of the whole, between 1893 and 1905.
Taking the whole of European Russia and Poland, almost exactly
two-thirds_ of the total area is sown every year with cereals. But
generally in from 18 to 33 out of the 72 governments in European
Russia (including Caucasia) and Poland the yield of cereals is not
sufficient for the wants of the people. In 30 to 40 governments,
however, there is in most years a surplus available for export.
Out of the total acreage under cereals 34% is generally sown with
rye, 26% with wheat, 20% with oats and iOj% with barley.
Beetroot (6-8 million tons annually) for sugar is especially cul-
tivated in Poland, the governments of Kiev, Podolia, Volhynia,
Kharkov, Bessarabia x and Kherson. About 100,000 tons of
tobacco are grown annually in the S. Flax and hemp occupy
considerable acreages in central and N.W. Russia. The vine is
cultivated as far N. as 49 N. (in Bessarabia, Crimea, Don Cossacks
territory and Caucasia), the annual production of wine amounting
t 35~5 million gallons, three-fifths in Caucasia. Market-garden-
ing and fruit-growing are profitable occupations in certain parts of
S. and central Russia, and have led recently to the establishment
INDUSTRIES]
RUSSIA
889
of factories for canning fruit and for making jam and pickles.
Transcaucasia supplies, chiefly from the government of Eriyan,
some 12,000 tons of raw cotton annually. The tea plant thrives
and is being planted fairly rapidly on the Black Sea littoral in
Transcaucasia.
Live-stock are diminishing in numbers all round: in the case
of horses, from 21 per 100 inhabitants in 1882 to II per 100 in-
habitants in 1904; of cattle, from 31 in 1851 to 23 in 1882 and 27
in 1904; sheep, from 56 to 46 and 41 in the years named respectively;
and pigs, from 13 to 9 and 10 respectively. Recent investigations
in the government of Moscow have revealed that 40% of the
peasant households possessed no horses, and similar inquiries in
41 governments elicited the fact that 28 % of the peasant house-
holds were without horses, although of the total number of horses
in the country 82 % belong to the peasantry. The animal
commonly met with is small and possessed of very little strength;
the best are those of Poland, the W. governments and the S.
steppe country. Both the horses of the Cossacks and the bityug
race of S. Russia are fine animals, and those of the Kirghiz, though
not big, are famous for their endurance. Finland ponies are
exported in large numbers. The best bred races of cattle are
those of Poland, the W. provinces, Little Russia and the far N.
(Kholmogory). Of the 55 million sheep kept in Russia only about
15 millions belong to the fine merino breed, and these are pastured
chiefly on the Black Sea steppes. Modern dairy-farming is only
just beginning in Russia, but butter is being exported in increas-
ing quantities to W. Europe, including Great Britain. Poultry-
farming is being more extensively engaged in, and vast numbers
of eggs are exported.
Agriculture stands at a low level in Russia. The landowners
are often poor, and suffer from want of capital and lack of enter-
prise. The peasantry are impoverished, and in many parts live
on the verge of starvation for the greater part of the year. While
the methods of agriculture have generally shown little, if any,
advance, the population is increasing rapidly; and although since
the emancipation of the peasants the average annual export of
cereals has increased from less than ij million tons in 1860 to
over 6 million tons in 1900, this result has been attained largely
by the repeated cropping to exhaustion of the soil. Thus the
cultivators, whether noble or peasant, have not profited much
from the change in their economic circumsta.nces brought about
by the social emancipation of 1861. Agriculture suffers from the
widespread poverty of the agricultural classes, from the taxation
which weighs unjustly upon the peasantry, from their lack of
education, their technical ignorance and national indolence, and
from the absence of those progressive institutions (e.g. co-operative
buying) by means of which the peasantry of Denmark have so
wonderfully improved their position. As illustrating the general
impoverishment of the Russian peasantry, it may be stated that
the arrears of taxation owed by them have increased enormously
since 1882, when they amounted to 2,854,000, until in 1900 the
total amount was put at 15,222,000. And, strange to say, the
heaviest arrears are due from the fertile black earth region of
S. Russia, namely, 80% of their total indebtedness. Within
recent years, however, some efforts have been made both by the
Ministry of Agriculture and by the more enlightened of the zemstvos
to improve the education of the peasantry, but the progress achieved
has been small. The methods adopted by the zemstvos for improv-
ing the condition of agriculture have included the formation of
agricultural councils, the appointment of inspectors, and the
founding of museums, meteorological stations and depots for the
sale of agricultural machinery. Measures are being taken by
the zemstvos to increase the very low productivity of the forests.
These cover a considerable area, as may be seen by the following
table for 1904:
Region.
Square Miles.
Percentage of
Total Area.
European Russia
Poland
Finland
Caucasia
Total .
706,500
11,500
79,000
29,200
39
23
55
16
826,200
39
The distribution of forests is very unequal, the area covered by
them in the various governments varying from 70% of the total
area in the Ural governments of Perm and Ufa, and 68 % in Olonets
and Archangel, down to 2 % in the S.E. The state is the chief
owner of forests (almost exclusive owner in Archangel), and owns
no less than 289,226,000 acres in European Russia and Poland
(235,000,000 acres of good forests), while private persons own
171,800,000 acres, the peasant communities 67,250,000 and the
imperial family 22,400,000 acres.
Sericulture, which was in a flourishing condition in the 'sixties
both in Caucasia and in S. Russia, was reduced to a very low ebb,
in consequence of the silkworm disease, and was only renewed with
any vigour towards the end of the 'eighties. At the beginning of
Mining
and n-
iMted In-
dustrie*.
the 2Oth century it was most developed in Transcaucasia (Kutais,
Elisavetpol), and extended into N. Caucasia. Sericulture is taught
in a number of special schools and in a great number of village
schools. Attempts are being made to re-establish the silkworm
industry in S. Russia and in Poland. Altogether raw silk and silk
yarn to an annual value exceeding I J millions sterling are exported
from Russia.
Notwithstanding the wealth of the country in minerals and
metals of all kinds, and the endeavours made by government to
encourage mining, including the imposition of protective
tariffs even against Finland (in 1885), this and the related
industries are still at a low stage of development. The
remoteness of the mining from the industrial centres, the
want of technical instruction and of capital, and the
existence of vexatious regulations, aggravated by the disturbed
condition of the country, which hinder credit, confidence and
enterprise, are amongst the chief reasons for this. The imports of
foreign metals in the rough and of coal are steadily increasing, while
the exports, never otherwise than insignificant, show no advance.
As a producer of iron Russia nevertheless runs France neck and neck
for the fourth place amongst the iron-producing countries of the
world, her annual output having increased from 1,004,800 metric
tons in 1891 to 2,808,000 in 1901 and to 2,900,000 in 1904. The two
principal mining centres of European Russia are the Urals, Elcater-
inoslav, Kharkov and the Don Cossacks territory. The Ural
industry is the older, and is still conducted on primitive methods,
wood being largely used for fuel, and the ore and metals being
transported by water down the Kama and other rivers. The
minerals chiefly produced in the Urals are iron, coal, gold, platinum,
copper, salt and precious stones. The production of pig-iron nearjy
doubled between 1890 and 1900, increasing from 446,800 tons in
the former year to 801,600 in the latter; but since 1900 the output
has declined, the total for 1904 (inclusive of Siberia) being 644,000
tons. The amount of iron and steel produced in the Urals is not
quite 20% of the total in all European Russia and Poland. The
output of coal in the Urals is, altogether, less than 3 % of the total
for all the empire and 4% of the output of European Russia (ex-
clusive of Poland) alone. The annual increase is but small, 261,300
tons having been the total in 1891, and 517,000 tons the total in
1904. Gold has been mined in the Urals since 1820; but since 1892
the output has fallen off very considerably. Whereas in the latter
year the yield amounted to 395,500 oz., in 1900 it was only
291,250 oz. No less than 96% of the world's supply of platinum
comes from the Urals; but the total output only ranges between
10,000 and 16,000 Ib annually. The copper industry has greatly
declined since the i8th century; whereas then it kept 20 smelting
works employed, now one-tenth of that number can hardly be kept
going. The output for the year is less than 4000 tons. At one time
all Russia was supplied with salt from the Urals, but at the present
time the output is extremely small, less than 350 tons annually.
Salt has been mined there since the i6th century.
The mining region of S. Russia is much more important. It is of
comparatively recent foundation (1860), and is carried on largely
with French and Belgian capital, with modern appliances and with
modern scientific knowledge. Out of an average of some 2,700,000
tons of pig-iron produced annually in the whole of the Russian
empire, 61-5 % is produced in the basin of the Donets, and out of an
average of 2,160,500 tons of worked iron and steel 48-7 % are
prepared in the same region. The principal consumer of this iron
and steel is the government, for its railways, locomotives, wagons,
arsenals, artillery, &c. The output of coal in the Russian empire
has increased from a total of less than 300,000 tons in 1860 to
3,280,000 in 1880, 15,878,200 in 1900, and 18,620,000 tons in 1904.
Of these totals something like 70% is produced in the S. coal-field.
Coal takes, however, an altogether secondary place as a fuel in
Russia; wood is much more extensively used, not only for domestic,
but also for industrial purposes. It is estimated that for domestic
purposes nearly 150,000,000 tons of wood are consumed every year,
while the steamships, railways and factories consume another 20 or 25
million tons. At the same time large quantities of petroleum refuse
are used as fuel in the railways of S.E. Russia and Caucasia, and on
the steamboats of the Volga system. For the petroleum industry
and the mining of the Caucasus region, see CAUCASIA. Mining in
Poland and Siberia are more fully discussed under those headings. 1
Since the time of Peter the Great, the Russian government has
been unceasing in its efforts for the creation and development of
home manufactures. Important monopolies in the i8th
century, and prohibitive import duties, as well as large
money bounties, in the 19th, contributed towards the
accumulation of immense private fortunes, but manu-
factures have on the whole developed but slowly. A
great upward movement has, however, been observable since 1863.
About that time a thorough reform of the machinery in use was
effected whereby the number of hands employed was reduced, but
the yearly production doubled or trebled. Manufacturing industry
in the modern sense can hardly be said to have existed in Russia
1 See Russian Journal of Financial Statistics, in English (2 vols.,
St Petersburg, 1901).
Manufac-
tures and
8go
RUSSIA
[INDUSTRIES
before the igth century, that is to say, industries carried on with
capital and machinery in large factories. Industry of this character
was first established in Poland in 1820, and it has grown there
rapidly, though never so rapidly as during the last few years of the
igth century. The principal centre is Lodz in the government of
Piotrkow, the staple industry being cottons. A good many factories
have sprung up also in Warsaw and at Spsnowice and Bendzin in
the extreme S.W. corner of Poland. Besides cottons the products
include woollens and cloth, silks, chemicals, machinery, ironware,
beer and flour. At Lodz alone the workmen, in great part Germans
and Jews, number between 50,000 and 60,000, and the total output
of the factories is estimated at 9,000,000 [to 10,500,000 annually.
Similar industries, carried on by similar methods, exist at St Peters-
burg, Riga, Narva and Odessa. In S. Russia, more particularly at
Ekaterinoslav, a very vigorous metallurgical industry has grown up
since 1860 in conjunction with the iron and coal mining.
The peculiar feature of Russian industry is the development out
of the domestic petty handicrafts of central Russia of a semi-
factory on a large scale. Owing to the forced abstention from
agricultural labour in the winter months the peasants of central
Russia, more especially those of the governments of Moscow,
Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Tver, Smolensk and Ryazan have
for centuries carried on a variety of domestic handicrafts during the
period of compulsory leisure. The usual practice was for the whole
of the people in one village to devote themselves to one special
occupation. Thus, while one village would produce nothing but
felt shoes, another would carve sacred images (ikons), and a third
spin flax only, a fourth make wooden spoons, a fifth nails, a sixth
iron chains, and so on. In the same way certain governments
become famous for certain commodities, as Moscow for osier
baskets, flower baskets, wicker furniture and lace; Kostroma for
lace, wooden utensils, toys, wooden spoons, cups and bowls, bast
sacks and mats, bast boots and garden products; Yaroslavl for
furniture, brass samovars, saucepans, spurs, rings, &c. ; Vladimir
for furniture, osier baskets and flower-stands and sickles; Nizhniy-
Novgorod for bast mats and sacks, knives, forks and scissors; Tver
for lace, nails, sieves, anchors, fish-hooks, locks, coarse clay pottery,
saddlery and harness, boots and shoes, and so on. Out of these
have grown large factories, employing as many as 10,000 to 12,000
men each; but when harvest comes round, these men leave the
factories and repair to their fields, and meantime the factories stand
still for two or three months. Nor do the people work on the
holidays of the church, the number of days they lose in this way
amounting to nearly one-third of the whole year. Hence, although
wages are painfully low, the cost of production to the manufacturer
is relatively high ; and it is still further increased by the cost of the
raw materials, by the heavy rates of transport owing to the distance
from the sea, by the dearness of capital and by the scarcity of fuel.
As a consequence this central Russian industry, even when sup-
ported by very high protective duties, is only able to produce for
the home market and the markets of the adjacent territories in
Asia which are under Russian political control. Here again cotton
is the principal product; and the remarkable growth of the industry
is illustrated by the fact that, whereas in 1843 there were only
350,000 spindles at work, fifty years later there were 4,332,000 so
employed, and in 1900, 6,554, 6op. The number of looms increased
from 87,190 in 1890 to 154,600 in 1900. Next after cottons come
woollens, silk, cloth, chemicals, machinery, paper, furniture, hats,
cement, leather, glass and china and other products. From the
governments of Vyatka and Vladimir large numbers of bricklayers,
carpenters and other handicraftsmen migrate temporarily to the
S. governments every year, and similarly plasterers and painters
from the government of Moscow.
The growth of Russian industry is set forth in the following
table, which compares the number of workers for 1887, 1897 and
1902, of all factories throughout the empire of which the annual
production was valued at more than 210:
Number of Workers.
Branch of Industry.
1887.
1897.
1902.
Textiles . . . .
399-178
642,520
708,186
Food products
205,223
255,357
303,213
Animal products .
38,876
64,418
Wood
30,703
86,273
79,664
Paper ... .
19,491
46,190
78,395
Chemical products
21,134
35,320
60,108
Ceramics ....
67,346
143,291
150,809
Mining and metals
390,915
544,333
549,000
Metal goods
103,300
214,3"
252,215
Various ....
41,882
66,249
78,183
Total
1,318,048
2,098,262
2,259,773
With regard to Russian industry generally, the extravagant
prices which have to be paid for iron and all iron goods, owing
to the prohibitive tariffs, combined with the obstacles put in the
way of education, hamper the development of all industries. The
cotton factories excel chiefly in the production of red and printed
cottons. In the flax-mills the tendency is to produce the finest
tissues as well as the coarser. The silk-mills employ silk obtained
from the Caucasus, Italy and France. The growth of the sugar
industry is shown by the fact that in 1888-93 the average
annual production of sugar was 444,520 tons, in 1902-3 it was
1,180,293 tons. Since 1894 the government has had a monopoly
in retailing spirituous liquors, but not wine or beer; but distilling,
a very widespread industry, is left in private hands. Beer is
chiefly brewed in Poland and the Baltic provinces. Tanneries
exist in nearly every government, but it is especially at Warsaw
and St Petersburg, and after these at Moscow, that the largest
and best modern tanneries and shoe and glove factories are estab-
lished. The governments of Orel (shoe factories), Kherson,
Vyatka, Nizhniy-Novgorod, Perm, Kiev and Kazan rank next
in this respect. Furniture factories are developing greatly, as is
the paper industry. Flour-mills play an important part in the
general industry of Russia, and there are several tobacco and
hemp factories.
Far from being destroyed by the competition of the " modern "
factories, domestic industries have well maintained their ground,
new branches of petty trade having sprung up in some districts,
among them the manufacture of agricultural machinery (thrashing
machines in Ryazan, Vyatka and Perm; ploughs in Smolensk,
&c.) deserves notice.
The wealth of Russia consisting mainly of raw produce, the
trade of the country turns chiefly on the purchase of this for export,
and on the sale of manufactured and imported goods .
in exchange. This traffic is in the hands of a great trade
number of middlemen, in the W. Jews, and elsewhere
Russians, to whom the peasants are for the most part in debt,
as they purchase in advance on security of subsequent payments
in corn, tar, wooden wares, &c. A good deal of the internal trade
is carried on by travelling merchants.
The fairs are very numerous. Those of Nizhniy-Novgorod,
with a return of 20 millions sterling, of Irbit and Kharkov, of
Menzelinsk in Ufa, and Omsk and Ishim in Siberia, have con-
siderable importance both for trade and for home manufactures.
Altogether, no fewer than 16,600 fairs are held in Russia, 85%
of them in European Russia. Of these, 30 show returns of goods
imported to the value of over 100,000 each, 41 from 50,000 to
100,000, and 437 from 10,000 to 50,000 each.
The external trade of the Russian empire (bullion and the
external trade of Finland not included) since the year 1886 is
shown in the following table :
Years (average).
Exports.
Imports.
1886-1891 .
1892-1896
1897-1901
1902-1905 .
72,200,000
60,360,000
68,500,000
103,448,000
43,250,000
46,100,000
55,180,000
66,533,000
The exports rank in the following order: cereals (wheat, barley,
rye, oats, maize, buckwheat) and flour, 49-2 % ; timber and wooden
wares, 7-2; petroleum, 5-8; eggs, 5-4; flax, 5; butter, 3; sugar,
2-4; cottons and oilcake, 2 each; oleaginous seeds, &c., 1-5;
with hemp, spirits, poultry, game, bristles, hair, furs, leather,
manganese ore, wool, caviare, live-stock, gutta-percha, vegetables
and fruit, and tobacco. The two best customers of Russia a.-e
Germany, which takes 23-3 % of her total exports, and the United
Kingdom, which takes 22-9%. Then follow the Netherlands
(9-8%), France, Italy, Finland, Belgium, Austria-Hungary, Den-
mark, Turkey and Sweden. The commodities which the United
Kingdom principally takes are wheat, wool, barley, eggs, oats and
flax. With regard to the imports into Russia they consist mainly
of raw materials and machinery for the manufactures, and of
provisions, the principal items being raw cotton, 17% of the
aggregate; machinery and metal goods, 13%; tea, 5%; mineral
ores, 5%; gums and resins, 4%; wool and woollen yarns, 3i%;
textiles, 3%; fish, 3%; with leather and hides, chemicals, silks,
wine and spirits, colours, fruits, coffee, tobacco and rice. The
countries from which Russia buys most extensively are Germany
(34%), the United Kingdom (15^) and the United States (9$).
Machinery, coal, iron, woollens, ships, lead and copper are the
commodities supplied by the United Kingdom.
The total mercantile marine of Russia does not aggregate
700,000 tons; and it is distributed in the following proportions:
35-4% in the Caspian Sea, 34-7% in the Black Sea and ,;;,,_
Sea of Azov, 24-7% in the Baltic Sea and 5-2% in
the White Sea. And these proportions represent fairly well the
tonnages entering and clearing at the ports of these respective
seas. But of the vessels that visit the Russian ports in the way of
trade every year only 8-3% are Russian, the rest being of course
foreign. Russian craft play, however, a much more important
part on the internal waterways, the traffic on which increases
rapidly, e.g. whilst in 1894 it amounted to an aggregate of
23,293,400 tons, in 1904 it reached a total of 38,720,240, or an
increase of over 66 % in the ten years. During the same period
the tonnage of the craft themselves more than doubled, while the
INDEPENDENT PRINCIPALITIES]
RUSSIA
891
crews increased 19$ %, the number of men employed in the latter
year being approximately 150,000.
In 1860 Russia possessed less than 1000 m. of railways; by 1885
this had increased to 16,155 m., and by the middle of 1905 there
.. were open for traffic over 40,500 m. of railway, of which
wvr ' 34,150 m. or 84-3 % were in European Russia and nearly
6400 m. (15-7 %) in Asiatic Russia. Between 1895 and 1905 the
building of railways proceeded at a rapid rate, the total length
nearly doubling within the ten years, namely, from 22,600 to
40,500 m. The European railways cost on an average 10,465 per
mile to construct, and the Asiatic railways 5092 per mile.
A considerable number of new railways, some of great strategic
as well as commercial importance, were built during the last twenty
years of the igth century. At the same time the chief lines of
railway which had been built by public companies with a state
guarantee, and which represented a loss to the empire of 3,171,25
per annum, as well as a growing indebtedness, were bought by the
state. On the whole, the state derives profit from its railways,
although several of the later lines, while imperative for state pur-
poses, must necessarily yield but a very small revenue, or be worked
at a loss. The most important of the new railways is the Siberian,
of which the first section, Chelyabinsk to Omsk, was opened in
December 1895, and which, except for a short section round Lake
Baikal, in 1901 was completed right through to Stryetensk, on the
Shilka, the head of navigation on the Shilka and the Amur, 2710 m.
from Chelyabinsk and 4076 miles from Moscow, via Samara and
Chelyabinsk. The section round the S. end of Lake Baikal was
completed in 1905. At the Pacific end of the Siberian railway a
line connecting Vladivostok with Khabarovsk (479 m.) at the
junction of the Amur and the Usuri, was first of all built, following
the valley of the Usuri. But it was soon found that the cost of the
section- required to complete the railway between Stryetensk and
Khabarovsk, along the Shilka (246 m.) and the Amur (1160 m.),
would be enormous, while neither the wild mountainous tracts of
the lower Shilka and upper Amur, nor the marshy, often inundated
region between Khabarovsk and the Little Khingan mountains,
could ever be the seat of a numerous population. Consequently a
company was formed by the Russian government in 1896 to con-
struct, with the consent of the Chinese government, a railway from
Vladivostok across Manchuria to Karymskaya near Chita in Trans-
baikalia. This runs for 222 m. on Russian territory and for 1080 m.
on Manchurian territory, and from Kharbin sends off a branch to
Dalny near Port Arthur on the Liao-tung peninsula. The first
portion of the Manchurian railway, built by Russian engineers,
with Chinese labour, was finished in 1902. At the same time
several secondary lines were built in connexion with the Siberian
line. Chelyabinsk was linked by a transverse line with the middle
Urals railway, which connects Perm, the head of navigation in
the Volga basin, with Tyumen, the head of navigation on the Ob and
Irtysh, passing through Ekaterinburg and other mining centres of
the middle Urals. Tomsk is now connected with the main line by
a short side branch. A railway has also been built to connect Perm
with Kotlas, near the confluence of the Sukhona with the Yug,
at the head of the N. Dvina. This N. portion of the Russian railway
system was further completed by the opening in 1906 of a line from
St Petersburg via Vologda to Vyatka, intersecting the Moscow-
Archangel line at Vologda.
Another line of great strategic importance was built across the
Transcaspian territory to Ferghana. Starting from Krasnovodsk,
it runs S.E. to Merv (560 m.), with a branch line (194 m.) to Kushk,
near Herat, then N.E. across the desert to Charjui, on the Amur
river, Bokhara and the Russian fort Katta-kurgan, and then to
Samarkand, Kokand and Andijan in Ferghana, 710 m. from Merv,
with a branch to Tashkent (220 m.). This railway has become
important for the export of raw cotton from Central Asia to Russia.
In 1905 a second totally independent line was opened from Tashkent
down the Syr-darya to Kazalinsk, and thence to Orenburg.
A third line of great importance is the junction line between the
Transcaucasian railway which runs from Batum and Poti to Baku,
via Tiflis, with a branch line to Kars and the railway system of
Russia proper. This junction has been effected not across the main
Caucasus range, but at its E. extremity, that is, via the Caspian
ports of Baku and Petrovsk, which are connected with Vladikavkaz
(Beslan junction). The Black Sea port of Novorossiysk, in W.
Caucasia, having been connected with the Rostov-Vladikavkaz
line, has consequently also been brought into touch with the Russian
railways. The Volga is reached from central Russia by seven lines
of railways, including one to Kazan, and three main lines radiate
from the Volga E. (one to Siberia and two to the Ural river), while the
upper Volga (Yaroslavl) is connected with Archangel by a line 523 m.
long. A zone tariff was introduced on the Russian railways in 1894,
and the cost of long journeys was considerably reduced ; a journey of
623 m. can be made third class at a cost of only about 17 shillings,
while for less than twice as much 1990 m. can be covered.
Fish form an important article of national food. The numerous
fasts of the national church prescribe a fish diet on many days in the
_. . . year, and the continuous frost of winter is favourable to
"*' the transportation of fish for great distances. Along the
Murman coast of the Arctic Ocean and in the White Sea, where many
millions of herrings are caught annually by some 3000 persons, the
yearly produce' is estimated at the value of 140,000. In the Baltic
Sea, as well as in the lakes of its basin (Ladoga, Onega, II men, &c.),
the yearly value is estimated at 200,000. Of anchovies alone,
10,000,000 jars are prepared annually, while salted fish is, next after
bread, the staple food of large masses of the population. The Black
Sea fisheries, in which about 4000 men are engaged, yield fish
valued at 300,000 per annum. The value of the fish has much
increased owing to the introduction of cold storage; as a result of
the employment of this method of packing, fish is now exported in a
fresh state from the Black Sea to all parts of S.W. Russia, and even
to Moscow. The annual yield of the Azov Sea fisheries, occupying
15,000 men, is valued at 600,000. In the Volga section of the
Caspian Sea fish are caught to the value of about i ,000,000 annually ;
in the Ural section over 40,000 tons of fish and nearly 1500 tons of
caviare are obtained. The total value of the Caspian fisheries is
estimated at 3,000,000 per annum. Taking the Lake Aral and
Siberian river fisheries into account, it is estimated that altogether
the fishing industries yield a revenue to the state of 330,000
annually. 1 In addition from 13,000 to 60,000 seals and about 200
whales are killed annually off the Murman coast. Hunting is an
occupation of considerable importance in N. and N.E. Russia, and
along the shores of the Arctic Ocean.
AUTHORITIES. The Russkiy Encydopedicheskiy Slovar, edited
by Brockhaus and Efron, was begun in 1890, with the idea of giving
a Russian version of Brockhaus s Conversations Lexikon, but from
the very first volumes it became a monumental encyclopaedia,
and is, indeed, an inexhaustible source of information on everything
Russian. A general popular description of Russia entitled Rossiya,
containing excellent geographical, geological and other descriptions
of separate regions, and very well-chosen illustrations, was begun
in 1899 under the editorship of V. P. Semenov. La Russie S la
fin du xix" silde, under the editorship of W. W. Kovalevsky, is
especially worthy of notice. See also H. Norman, All the Russias
(London, 1902); Sir D. Mackenzie Wallace, Russia (2 vols., new ed.,
1905, London); A. Leroy-Beaulieu, L'Empire des tsars (3 vols.,
1882-88 ; Eng. trans., London, 1803-96) ; A. Hettrier, Das europaische
Russland (Leipzig, 1905) ; R. Martin, The Future of Russia (Eng.
trans., London, 1906); M. M. Kovalevsky, Russian Political Institu-
tions (Chicago, 1902), Modern Customs and Ancient Laws of Russia
(London, 1891), Le Regime economique de la Russie (Paris, 1898), and
Die produktiven Krafte Russlands (Paris, 1896); A. M. B.
Meakin, Russia (London, 1906); G. von Schulze-Gavernitz, Volks-
wirthschaftliche Studien aus Russland (Leipzig, 1899) ; J. Machat,
La Developpement economique de la Russie (Paris, 1902) ; Industries
of Russia, by the Department of Trade and Manufactures (English
by J. M. Crawford, 5 vols., St Petersburg, 1893); A. F. Rittich,
" Die Ethnographic Russlands " in Petermanns Mitteilungen,
Erganzungsheft 54 (Gotha, 1878); C. Joubert, Russia as it really
is (London, 1904). (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)
HISTORY
The history of Russia may be conveniently divided into
four consecutive periods: (i) the period of Independent
Principalities; (2) the Mongol Domination; (3) the Tsardom
of Muscovy; and (4) the Modern Empire.
i . A Conglomeration of Independent Principalities. The first
period, like the early history of many other countries, begins
with a legend. Nestor, an old monkish chronicler origin
of Kiev, relates that in the middle of the gth century of the
the Slav and Finnish tribes inhabiting the forest *"'
region around Lake Umen, between Lake Ladoga and the upper
waters of the Dnieper, paid tribute to military adventurers
from the land of Rus, which is commonly supposed to have
been a part of Sweden. In the year 859 these tribes expelled
the Northmen, but finding that they quarrelled among
themselves, they invited them, three years later, to return.
Our land, said the deputation sent to Rus for this purpose, is
great and fertile, but there is no order in it ; come and reign
and rule over us. Three brothers, princes of Rus, called re-
spectively Rurik, Sineus and Truvor, accepted the invitation
and founded a dynasty, from which many of the Russian
princes of the present day claim descent.
Who were those warlike men of Rus who are universally
recognized as the founders of the Russian Empire? This
question has given rise to an enormous amount of discussion
among learned men, and some of the disputants have not yet
laid down their arms; but for impartial outsiders who have
carefully studied the evidence there can be little doubt that
1 See Researches into the State of Fisheries in Russia (9 vols.),
edited by Minister of Finance (1896, Russian); Kusnetzow's
Fischerei und Thiererbeutung in den Gewassern Russlands (1898).
892
RUSSIA
[MONGOL DOMINATION
the men of ROs, or Variags, as they were sometimes called,
were simply the hardy Norsemen or Normans who at that
time, in various countries of Europe, appeared first as armed
marauders and then lived in the invaded territory as a dominant
military caste until they were gradually absorbed by the native
population. Lake Ilmen and the river Volkhov, on which
stands Novgorod, Rurik's capital, formed part of the great
waterway from the Baltic to the Black Sea, and we know
that by this route travelled from Scandinavia to Constantinople
the tall fair-haired Northmen who composed the famous
Varangian bodyguard of the Byzantine emperors.
The new rulers did not long confine their attention to the
tribes who had invited them. They at once began to conquer
the surrounding country in all directions, and before
two centuries had passed they had established them-
ditions. selves firmly at Kiev on the Dnieper, invaded
The Byzantine territory, threatened Constantinople with
a fleet of small craft, obtained as consort for one
of their princes, Vladimir I, (q.v.), a sister of the
Byzantine emperor on condition of the prince becoming
a Christian, adopted Christianity for themselves and their
subjects, learned to hold in check the nomadic hordes of the
steppe, and formed matrimonial alliances with the reigning
families of Poland, Hungary, Norway and France. In short,
they became a considerable power in eastern Europe, and
might be regarded as one of the claimants for the inheritance
of the decrepit East Roman Empire. Unfortunately for the
political future of this new state, its internal consolidation did
not keep pace with its territorial expansion. In theory the
whole Russian land was a gigantic family estate belonging to
the Rurik dynasty, and each member of that great family
considered himself entitled to a share of it. It had to be
divided, therefore, into a number of independent principalities,
but it continued to be loosely held together by the dynastic
sentiment of the descendants of Rurik and by the patriarchal
authority a sort of patria potestas of the senior member of
the family, called the grand-prince, who ruled in Kiev, " the
mother of Russian cities." His administrative authority was
confined to his own principality, but when territorial disputes
arose between two or more of his relations, his paternal influence
was exercised in the interests of peace and justice. What
added to the practical difficulties of this arrangement was that
the post of grand-prince was not an hereditary dignity in the
sense of descending from father to son, but was always to be
held by the senior member of the dynasty; and in the sub-
ordinate principalities the same principle of succession was
applied, so that reigning princes had to be frequently shifted
about from one district to another, according as they could
establish the strongest claim to vacant principalities. What
constituted in this primitive system of inheritance the strength
of a claim was often not easily determined, and even when
the legal question was clear enough the law was not always
respected by the contending parties. Hence family quarrels
became very frequent. These princes were, in fact, men of
like passions with ourselves, and acted as powerful men generally
do in a rude state of society. Instead of conforming to abstract
principles of public law and hereditary succession, they strove
to enlarge their territories at the expense of their rivals, and
to leave them at their death to their sons rather than to their
brothers, nephews and more distant relations. In these
circumstances, the traditional authority of the grand-prince,
never very great, rapidly declined, and the complicated law
of succession, never scrupulously respected, was gradually
replaced by " the good old rule, the simple plan, that he
should take who has the power, and he should keep who can."
Yaroslav, surnamed the Great, a man of commanding person-
ality, was the last grand-prince who upheld vigorously the old
system. After his death in 1054 the process of disintegration went
on apace and the family feuds multiplied at an alarming rate.
During the next 170 years (1054-1224) no less than 64 princi-
palities had a more or less ephemeral existence, 293 princes put
forward succession-claims, and their disputes led to 83 civil wars.
During these interminable struggles of rival princes, Kiev,
which had been so long the residence of the grand-prince and
of the metropolitan, was repeatedly taken by storm and
ruthlessly pillaged, and finally the' whole valley of the Dnieper
fell a prey to the marauding tribes of the steppe. Thereupon
Russian colonization and political influence retreated north-
wards, and from that time the continuous stream of Russian
history is to be sought in the land where the Vikings first
settled and in the adjoining basin of the upper Volga. Here
new principalities were founded and new agglomerations of prin-
cipalities came into existence, some of them having a grand-
prince who no longer professed allegiance to Kiev. Thus
appeared the grand-prince of . Suzdal or Vladimir, of Tver,
of Ryazan and of Moscow all irreconcilable rivals with little
or no feeling of blood-relationship. The more ambitious and
powerful among them aspired not to succeed but to subdue the
others and to take possession of their territory, and the armed
retainers, who were wont formerly to wander about as free
lances, gave up their roving mode of life, settled down per-
manently in one principality, became landed proprietors, and
sought to share as boyars the princes' authority.
Among the principalities of that northern region the first
place was long held by Novgorod. Since the days when Rurik
had first chosen it as his headquarters, the little town Republic
on the Volkhov had grown into a great commercial ofNov-
city and a member of the Hanseatic league, and it had *""*
brought under subjection a vast expanse of territory, stretch-
ing from the shores of the Baltic to the Ural Mountains, and
containing several subordinate towns, of which the principal
were Pskov, Nizhniy-Novgorod and Vyatka. Unlike the
ordinary Russian principalities, it had a republican rather than
a monarchical form of government. Indeed, it was not so much
a principality as a municipal republic of the Venetian type. It
always had a prince, no doubt, but he was engaged by formal
contract without much attention being paid to hereditary
rights, and he was merely leader of the troops, while all the
political power remained in the hands of the civil officials and
the Vetche, a popular assembly which was called together in the
market-place, as occasion required, by the tolling of the great
bell. Descendants of Rurik, impregnated with the pride of
a dominant military caste, did not much like serving those
truculent, wilful burghers, and some of them, after a time,
voluntarily laid down their office and retired to more congenial
surroundings. Those of them who tried to have their own way
and came into conflict with the authorities had always to yield
in the long run, and they were liable to be treated very uncere-
moniously, so that the vulgar adage, " If the prince is bad, into
the mud with him!" became a maxim of state policy.
There was here in the Russian land the germ of republicanism
or constitutional monarchy, but it was not destined to be
developed. The principality which was to become the nucleus
of the future Russian empire was not Novgorod with its demo-
cratic institutions, but its eastern neighbour Moscow, in which
the popular assembly played a very insignificant part, and the
supreme law was the will of the prince. The opposition which
he encountered came not from the burghers but from the boyars
and the nobles.
II. The Mongol or Tatar Domination, 1238-1462. Between
Moscow and Novgorod there was a long and bitter rivalry,
breaking out occasionally into armed conflicts, and Mongol
among the princes of the other principalities the old and
struggle for precedence and territory went on un-
ceasingly until it was suddenly interrupted, in the
first half of the thirteenth century, by the unexpected irruption
of an irresistible foreign foe coming from the mysterious
regions of the Far E^ast. " For our sins," says the Russian
chronicler of the time, " unknown nations arrived. No one
knew their origin or whence they came, or what religion they
practised. That is known only to God, and perhaps to wise
men learned in books." The Russian princes first heard of
them from the wild nomadic Polovtsi, who usually pillaged
the Russian settlers on the frontier but who now preferred
TSARDOM OF MUSCOVY]
RUSSIA
893
friendship and said: " These terrible strangers have taken our
country, and to-morrow they will take yours if you do not come
and help us." In response to this call some Russian princes
formed a league and went out eastward to meet the foe, but they
were utterly defeated in a great battle on the banks of the
Kalka (1224), which has remained to this day in the memory
of the Russian common people. Now the country was at the
mercy of the invaders, but, instead of advancing, they suddenly
retreated and did not reappear for thirteen years, during which
the princes went on quarrelling and fighting as before, till they
were startled by a new invasion much more formidable than
its predecessor. This time the invaders came to stay, and they
built for themselves a capital, called Sarai, on the lower Volga.
Here the commander of " the Golden Horde," as the western
The section of the Mongol empire was called, fixed his
Golden headquarters and represented the majesty of his
Horde. sovereign the grand khan who lived with the Great
Horde in the valley of the Amur. About the origin and
character of these terrible invaders we are much better in-
formed than the early Russian chroniclers. The nucleus of
the invading horde was a small pastoral tribe in Mongolia, the
chief of which, known subsequently to Europe as Jenghiz
Khan (q.v.), became a mighty conqueror and created a vast
empire stretching from China, across northern and central
Asia, to the shores of the Baltic and the valley of the Danube
a heterogeneous state containing many nationalities held
together by purely administrative ties and by an enormous
military force. For forty years after the death of its founder
it remained united under the authority of a series of grand khans
chosen from among his descendants, and then it began to fall to
pieces till the various fractions of it became independent khanates.
The khanate closely connected with the history of Russia
was that of Kipchak or the Golden Horde, the khans of which
settled, as we have seen, on the lower Volga and built for them-
selves a capital called Sarai. Here they had their headquarters
and held Russia in subjection for nearly three centuries.
The term by which this subjection is commonly designated,
the Mongol or Tatar yoke, suggests ideas of terrible oppression,
Character but in reality these barbarous invaders from the Far
of Tatar East were not such cruel, oppressive taskmasters as
"* is generally supposed. In the first place, they never
settled in the country, and they had not much direct deal-
ings with the inhabitants. In accordance with the admoni-
tions of Jenghiz to his children and grandchildren, they
retained their pastoral mode of life, so that the subject races,
agriculturists and dwellers in towns, were not disturbed in their
ordinary avocations. In religious matters they were extremely
tolerant. When they first appeared in Europe they were
idolaters or Shamanists, and as such they had naturally no
religious fanaticism; but even when they adopted Islam they
remained as tolerant as before, and the khan of the Golden
Horde (Berkai) who first became a Mussulman allowed the
Russians to found a Christian bishopric in his capital. One of
his successors, half a century later, married a daughter of the
Byzantine emperor, and gave his own daughter in marriage to a
Russian prince. These represent the bright side of Tatar rule. It
had its dark side also. So long as a great horde of nomads was
encamped on the frontier the country was liable to be invaded
by an overwhelming force of ruthless marauders. These in-
vasions were fortunately not frequent, but when they occurred
they caused an incalculable amount of devastation and suffering.
In the intervals the people had to pay a fixed tribute. At first
it was collected in a rough-and-ready fashion by a swarm of
Tatar tax-gatherers, but about 1259 it was regulated by a census
of the population, and, finally, the collection of it was entrusted
to the native princes, so that the people were no longer brought
into direct contact with the Tatar officials.
By the princes the " yoke " was felt more keenly, and it
was very galling. In order to reply to accusations brought
against them, or in order to be confirmed in their functions,
they had to travel to the Golden Horde on the Volga or even
to the camp of the grand khan in some distant part of Siberia,
and the journey was considered so perilous that many of them,
before setting out, made their last will and testament and wrote
a parental admonition for the guidance of their children. Nor
were these precautions by any means superfluous, for not a few
princes died on the journey or were condemned to death and
executed for real or imaginary offences. Even when the visit
to the Horde did not e"nd so tragically, it involved a great deal of
anxiety and expense, for the Mongol dignitaries had to be con-
ciliated very liberally, and it was commonly believed that the
judges were more influenced by the amount of the bribes than
by the force of the arguments. The grand khan was the lord
paramount or suzerain of the Russian princes, and he had the
force required for making his authority respected. Ambitious
members of the Rurik dynasty, instead of seeking to acquire
territory by conquest in the field, now sought to attain their
ends by intrigue and bribery at the Mongol court.
Of all the princes who sought to advance their fortunes in this
way the most dexterous and successful were those of Moscow.
They made themselves responsible for the tribute of The
other principalities as well as of their own, and gradu- prince* of
ally they became lieutenants-general of their Mongol ^^^'
suzerain. So long as the Mongol empire remained oomkoi,
united and strong, they were most submissive and 1362-
obsequious, but as soon as it was weakened by internal l389 -
dissensions and began to fall to pieces, they assumed airs
of independence, intrigued with the insubordinate Tatar
generals, retained for their own use the tribute collected for
the grand khan, and finally put themselves at the head of the
patriotic movement which aimed at throwing .off completely the
hated Mongol yoke. For this purpose Dimitri Donskoi formed
in 1380 a coalition of Russian princes, and gained a great victory
over Khan Mamai of the Golden Horde on the famous battle-
field of Kulikovo, the memory of which still lives in the popular
legends. For some time longer the Tatars remained troublesome
neighbours, capable of invading and devastating large tracts of
Russian territory and of threatening even the city of Moscow,
but the Horde was now broken up into independent and
mutually hostile khanates, and the Moscow diplomatists could
generally play off one khanate against the other, so that there
was no danger of the old political domination being re-established.
Having thus freed themselves from Tatar control, the Moscow
princes continued to carry out energetically their traditional
policy of extending and consolidating their dominions at the
expense of their less powerful relations. Already Dimitri of the
Don was called the grand-prince of all Russia, but the assump-
tion of such an ambitious title was hardly justified by facts,
because there were still in his time principalities with grand-
princes who claimed to be independent. The complete suppres-
sion of these small moribund states and the creation of the
autocratic tsardom of Muscovy were the work of Ivan III.,
surnamed the Great, his son Basil and his grandson Ivan IV.,
commonly known as Ivan the Terrible, whose united reigns
cover a period of 122 years (1462-1584).
III. The Tsardom of Muscovy. What may be called the home
policy of these three remarkable rulers consisted in absorbing
the few principalities which still remained indepen- ivma HI.
dent, and in creating for themselves an uncontrolled 1462-
monarchical authority. In the pursuit of both of these I5OS '
objects they were completely successful. When Ivan III.
came to the throne the remaining independent principalities
were Great Novgorod, Pskov, Tver, Ryazan and Novgorod-
Seversk. He first directed his attention to Novgorod, and by
gradually undermining and then destroying the ancient re-
publican liberties he reduced the haughty city, which had long
styled itself Lord Novgorod the Great, to the rank of a provincial
town. Then he annexed its colonies and thereby extended his
dominions to the Polar Ocean and the Ural Mountains. At the
same time he took possession of Tver, on the ground that the
prince had allied himself with Lithuania. His sue- Basil in.
cessor Basil followed in his footsteps, and dealt with
the municipal republic of Pskov Was Ivan had dealt
with Novgorod. Finding the inhabitants too much attached to
t533 '
8 94
RUSSIA
[TSARDOM OF MUSCOVY
their ancient liberties, he abolished the popular assembly,
removed the great bell to Novgorod, installed his ovm boyars in
the administration, transported 300 of the leading^families to
other localities, replaced them by 300 families from Moscow, and
left in the town a strong garrison of his own troops. Ryazan
shared the same fate. In 1521 the prince, being suspected of
forming an alliance with the Crimean Tatars, was summoned to
Moscow and arrested. Two years later the prince of Novgorod-
Seversk was accused of intriguing with the Poles and imprisoned
for the rest of his life. Thus all the principalities were brought
under the power of Moscow, and in that respect there remained
nothing for Ivan the Terrible to do. He took precautions,
however, against any of the dead or moribund principalities
being resuscitated, and punished with merciless severity any
attempt to resist or undermine his authority.
With the suppression and absorption of the independent
principalities the problem was only half solved. The tsars of
Character Muscovy meant to be autocratic rulers alike in their
of the old and in their new territories. Their forefathers
tsardom. j^ jj een trained in the Tatar school of politics and
administration, and in their ideas of government they had come
to resemble Tatar khans much more than grand-princes of the
old patriarchal type. Their autocratic tendencies were fostered
also by the Church. As Christianity was brought into Russia
from Constantinople it was only natural that the ecclesiastics,
many of whom were Greeks, should admire Byzantine ideals and
recommend them as models to be imitated. For the ambitious
Moscow princes many of the Byzantine ideas were very accept-
able. They liked to consider themselves as the Lord's anointed,
placed high above all ordinary mortals even of the most exalted
rank; and when Constantinople fell into the hands of the infidel
they began to imagine that, as the most powerful potentates of
the Eastern Orthodox world they were the protectors of the Ortho-
dox faith and the political heirs of the East Roman emperors.
With a view to strengthen this claim Ivan III. married a niece
of the emperor Constantine Palaeologus, who had fallen fight-
ing when his capital was taken by the Turks (1453). From
that moment Ivan's subjects noticed a change in his attitude
towards them, and attributed it to the evil influence of the Greek
princess. In the old times the grand-prince was simply primus
inter pares among the minor princes, and these lived with their
boyars almost on a footing of equality. Now the tsar of Muscovy
and of all Russia adopted the airs and methods of a Tatar khan
and surrounded himself with the pomp and splendours of a
Byzantine emperor. Ivan III., notwithstanding the influence of
his Greek consort, showed some respect for the ancient traditions
and the susceptibilities of those around him, but his successor Basil
did not follow his father's example. All through his reign he
preferred to employ as officials men of humble origin, and habitu-
ally treated the boyars and great nobles very unceremoniously.
For disobedience to his orders he imprisoned a boyar who was his
own brother-in-law, and he caused another to be beheaded for
complaining that the boyar-council was not consulted in important
affairs of state. A boyar of Nizhniy-Novgorod who allowed
himself to criticize the new order of things, and attributed the
change to the influence of the Greek princess, had his tongue
cut out. From the ecclesiastics Basil likewise 'insisted on
unquestioning obedience, and he did not hesitate to depose by
his own authority a metropolitan who was at that time the
highest dignitary of the Russian Church. According to Siegmund
von Herberstein (1486-1566), an Austrian envoy who visited
Moscow at that period, no sovereign in Europe was obeyed like
the grand-prince of Muscovy, and his court was remarkable
for barbaric luxury. In his palace were numerous equerries,
chamberlains and other court dignitaries, and when he went out
he was attended by a guard of young nobles dressed in gaudy
costumes and armed with silver halberds. 1
Such radical changes naturally produced a great deal of
1 See Friedrich Adelung, Siegmund Freiherr von Herberstein, mil
besonderer Riicksicht auf seine Reisen in Russland geschildert. (St
Petersburg, 1818); autobiography of Herberstein in Fontes rerum
Austriacarum, part i. vol. i. pp. 67-396.
dissatisfaction among men of Slavonic temperament, whose
grandfathers had been independent princes, boyars or free
lances, and the malcontents could not adopt the old practice
of emigrating to some other principality. There was no longer
within the Russian land any independent principality in which
an asylum could be found, and emigration to a principality
beyond the frontier, such as Lithuania, was regarded as treason,
for which the property of the fugitive would be confiscated and
his family might be punished. In these circumstances the
only outlet for discontent was sedition, and the malcontents
awaited impatiently a favourable opportunity for an attempt
to curb or overthrow the autocratic power. That opportunity
came when Basil died in 1533, leaving as successor a child only
three years old, and the chances seemed all on the side of the
nobles; but the result belied the current expectations, for the
child came to be known in history as Ivan the Terrible, and died
half a century later in the full enjoyment of unlimited auto-
cratic power. The fierce struggle between autocratic tyranny
and oligarchic disorder, which went on in intermittent fashion
during the whole of his reign, cannot be here described in detail,
but the chief incidents may be mentioned.
During Ivan's minority the country was governed, or rather
misgoverned, first by his mother, and then by rival factions
led by great nobles such as the princes Shuiski and Iran the
Belski. Only once during this period did the young Terrible,
tsar come forward and assert his authority. Having 1533-84.
convoked his boyars he reproached them collectively with
robbing the treasury and committing acts of injustice,
and he caused one of them, a Prince Shuiski who happened
to be in power at the moment, to be seized by his hunts-
men and torn in pieces by a pack of hounds, as a warning
to others. Thus apparently he asserted his authority, but
in reality, being only thirteen years old, he was a mere
puppet in the hands of one of the opposition factions, who
wished to oust their rivals, and for the next four years the
misgovernment of the nobles went on as before. It was not till
he was about seventeen that he took an active part in the ad-
ministration, and one of his first acts foreshadowed his future
policy: he insisted on the metropolitan crowning him, not as
grand-prince of Muscovy, but as tsar of all Russia (i 547). From
the earliest times the term tsar a contraction of the word
Caesar had been applied to the kings in Biblical history and
the Byzantine emperors, and Ivan III. had already been de-
scribed in the Church service as " the ruler and autocrat of all
Russia, the new Tsar Constantine in the new city of Constantine
Moscow," but on no previous occasion had a grand-prince been
crowned under that title. A few months later occurred in
Moscow a great fire, which destroyed nearly the whole of the
city, and a serious popular tumult, in which the tsar's uncle was
murdered by the populace. Ivan regarded these events as a
punishment from Heaven for the neglect of his duties, and he
began to attend to public affairs under the influence of an en-
lightened priest called Sylvester and an official of humble origin
called Adashev. With the assistance of these two counsellors
he held in check the lawless, turbulent nobles, and ruled justly,
to the satisfaction of the people, for fourteen years. Then
suddenly, for reasons which cannot easily be explained, he
inaugurated a reign of terror which lasted for twenty-four years
and earned for him the epithet of ' 'theTerrible. ' ' Though there had
been no open insurrection, he caused many boyars and humbler
persons to be executed, and when some of the great nobles,
fearing a similar fate, fled across the frontier and tendered their
allegiance to the prince of Lithuania, his suspicion and indigna-
tion increased and he determined to adopt still more drastic
measures. For this purpose he organized, outside the regular
administration, a large corps of civil officials and armed re-
tainers, whose duty iCwas to obey him implicitly in all things;
and with this force, which rose rapidly from 1000 to 6000 men,
he acted like a savage invader in a conquered country. Ac-
companied by these so-called Oprichniki, who have been
compared to the Turkish Janissaries of the worst period, he
ruthlessly devastated large districts with no other object
TSARDOM OF MUSCOVY]
RUSSIA
895
apparently than that of terrorizing the population and reward-
ing his myrmidons and during a residence of six weeks in
Novgorod, lest the old turbulent spirit of the municipal republic
should revive, he massacred, it is said, no less than 60,000 of the
inhabitants, including many women and children. It is quite
possible, as some apologists suggest, that the number of his
victims may have been exaggerated, but that they are to be
counted by thousands there can be no doubt. In the monastery
of St Cyril has been preserved a list of those for whom he requested
the prayers of the Church, the total being 3470. The only refer-
ence to Novgorod in this curious document is: " Remember, O
Lord, the souls of thy Novgorodian servants to the number of 1 505
persons." According to the Novgorodian annalists as many as
1500 persons were sometimes put to death in a single day.
Perhaps the discrepancy is to be explained by supposing that
the pious tsar did not consider all his victims as servants of the
Lord, whose souls deserved the prayers of the faithful.
While thus uniting under their vigorous autocratic rule the
small rival principalities, the Moscow princes had to keep a
watchful eye on their eastern neighbours. The Golden
Horde, long weakened by internal dissensions, had now
fallen into several khanates, the chief of which were Kazan,
Astrakhan and the Crimea. As these independent Tatar states
were always jealous of each other, and their jealousy often
broke out in open hostility, it was easy to prevent any com-
bined action on their part; and as in each khanate there were
always several pretenders and contending factions, Muscovite
diplomacy had little difficulty in weakening them individually
and preparing for their annexation. In the case of Kazan and
Astrakhan the annexation was effected without any great effort
in 1552-54, and two years later the Bashkirs, who had likewise
formed part of the great Mongol empire, consented to pay tribute.
On the other hand, the khans of the Crimea were able, partly
from their geographical position and partly from having placed
themselves under the protection of the sultans of Turkey, to
resist annexation for more than two centuries and to give the
Muscovites a great deal of trouble, not only by frequent raids
and occasional invasions, but also by allying themselves with
the Western enemies of the tsars. As late as 1571 Moscow
was pillaged by a Tatar horde; but there was no longer any
question of permanent political subjection to the Asiatics,
and the Russian frontier was being gradually pushed forward
at the expense of the nomads of the steppe by the constant
advance of the agricultural population in quest of virgin soil.
These latter, like the colonists in the American Far West, had
to be constantly on the alert against the attacks of their trouble-
some neighbours, and they accordingly organized themselves in
semi-military fashion. Those of them who lived on the out-
skirts of the pacified territory adopted a mode of life similar
to that of their hereditary opponents, and constituted a peculiar
class known as Cossacks, living more by flocks and
Cossacks. ner ds and by marauding expeditions than by agri-
culture. In the basins of the southern rivers they
formed semi-independent military communities. Those of the
Volga and the Don professed allegiance to the tsar of Muscovy,
whilst those of the Dnieper recognized at first as their suzerain
the king of Poland. In neither case did the allegiance involve
strict obedience to orders from the superior, and their loyalty
was always in danger of being troubled by their love of inde-
pendence and equality and their desire for loot. More than
once they raided and pillaged in wholesale fashion the territory
they were supposed to protect. On the whole, however, at that
period as in more recent times, they contributed largely to the
process of territorial expansion. (See also POLAND: History.)
Before the Eastern menace had been entirely removed the am-
bilious Moscow princes had begun to look with envious
with eves beyond their western frontier. Here lay the prin-
Poiaad cipality of Lithuania and beyond it the kingdom of
and Poland, two loosely conglomerated states which had
aaia"' ^ een create( l by ths Piast and Gedymin dynasties in
pretty much the same way as the tsardom of Muscovy
had been created by the descendants of Rurik. When
the two became united under one ruler towards the end
of the 1 4th century they formed a broad strip of territory
stretching from the Baltic to the Black Sea and separating
Russia from central Europe. For Russian ambition the
barrier was a formidable one, but it did not entirely preclude
possibilities of expansion in a more or less remote future. When
examined closely it was found to contain many internal flaws.
In no sense could it be considered a homogeneous political unit,
for in Lithuania the majority of the population were Russian in
nationality, language and religion, whereas in Poland the great
majority of the inhabitants were Polish and Roman Catholic.
Gradually, it is true, the Lithuanian nobles, who possessed all
the land and held the peasantry in a state of serfage, adopted
Polish nationality and culture, but this change did not secure
homogeneity, because the masses clung obstinately to their old
nationality and religion, and all the efforts of the Church of
Rome to bring them under papal authority proved fruitless.
A further source of weakness was the political organization.
Nominally it was an hereditary monarchy, but the warlike,
turbulent nobles systematically encroached on the sovereign
power till they reduced it to a mere shadow and made it elective,
with the result that the kingdom of Poland, including the princi-
pality of Lithuania, was at last, politically speaking, the most
anarchical country in Europe.
As the Muscovite and the Lithuano-Polish princes were
equally ambitious and equally anxious to widen their borders,
they naturally came into conflict. At first the Muscovite was
decidedly the aggressor. On the death of Casimir, king of
Poland and grand-prince of Lithuania, in 1492, the kingdom
and the principality ceased to be united and Ivan III. con-
sidered he had a good opportunity for attacking the latter.
After a short campaign a peace was concluded and Ivan's
daughter was given in marriage to the Lithuanian grand-
prince, but the matrimonial alliance did not improve the
relations between the two countries. On the contrary it
served as a pretext for Ivan to interfere in Lithuanian affairs.
He not only insisted that his daughter's religion should be duly
respected, but he constituted himself the protector of the
Orthodox population and this led to a new war in 1499, which
went on till 1503, when it was concluded by the cession to
Russia of Chernigov, Starodub and 17 other towns. His
successor, Basil, tried to get himself elected grand-prince of
Lithuania when the throne became vacant by the death of
his brother-in-law in 1506, but the choice fell on the late prince's
brother Sigismund, who was likewise elected king of Poland.
The two countries were thus once more united and better able
to resist aggression, but some of the great nobles were discon-
tented and Basil hoped with their assistance to attain his ends.
He began war therefore in 1514 and at once captured Smolensk,
but in the following year he was defeated, and the war dragged
on during more than seven years, with varying successes and
without any important result. In the negotiations for peace
the inordinate pretensions of the Muscovite prince were put
forward boldly: he not only refused to restore Smolensk, but
claimed Kiev and a number of other towns on the ground that
in the old time of the independent principalities they had
belonged to descendants of Rurik.
The policy of expansion westwards, inaugurated by Ivan III.,
was modified and enlarged by Ivan the Terrible. The former
had aimed simply at making annexations in Lithuania; lyao lv
the latter aspired to obtaining a firm footing on the and
Baltic coast and establishing direct relations, diplo- western
matic and commercial, with the Western Powers. Europe.
In this respect he was a precursor of Peter the Great,
but he greatly underestimated the difficulties of the task. To
reach the Baltic he had to overcome the resistance, not only
of the Lithuanians and the Poles, but also of the Teutonic and
Livonian military orders, the Swedes and the Danes, who all had
possessions in the intervening territory and who all objected
to the barbarous Muscovites, already sufficiently formidable,
strengthening themselves by direct foreign trade with western
Europe and especially by the importation of arms and cunning
8 9 6
RUSSIA
[TSARDOM OF MUSCOVY
foreign artificers. Like the European settlers on the coast of
Africa in more recent times, they wished the barbarians of the
interior to be restricted to the use of their primitive weapons.
One of the Polish kings, for example, threatened with death
the English sailors who should attempt to carry on the illicit
trade in arms, on the ground that " the Muscovite, who is not
only our opponent of to-day but the eternal enemy of all
free nations, should not be allowed to supply himself with
cannons, bullets and munitions or with artisans who manu-
facture arms hitherto unknown to those barbarians." This
was precisely the reason why Ivan IV. was so anxious to force
his way to the coast. His grandfather had obtained from
Venice an "artist" who undertook "to build churches and
palaces, to cast big bells and cannons, to fire off the said cannons
and to make every sort of castings very cunningly"; and with
the aid of that clever Venetian he had become the proud possessor
of a " cannon-house," subsequently dignified with the name of
"arsenal." In imitation of the grandfather the grandson
gave a commission to a Saxon, in whom he had confidence, to
collect artists and artisans in Germany and bring them
to Moscow, but he was prevented from carrying out his
scheme by the Livonian Order (1547). A few years later (1553)
he found unexpectedly a different route for communication
with the West. A ship of an English squadron which was trying
Flnt to reach China by the North-East passage, entered the
niutions northern Dvina, and her captain, Richard Chancellor,
""** journeyed to Moscow in quest of opportunities for trade.
Kngiaad. jj g met w ^ gucn & f avouraD i e reception from the tsar
that on his return to England a special envoy was sent
to Moscow by Queen Mary, and he succeeded in obtaining for
his countrymen the privilege of trading freely in Russian towns.
In return the Russians were allowed to trade freely in England.
This afforded great satisfaction to Ivan, but it did not entirely
satisfy his requirements, because the new route by the White
Sea and North Cape was long and uncertain and for a great
part of the year communications were stopped by the ice. He
continued, therefore, his efforts to reach the Baltic coast, and
he soon came into collision with the Swedes. After a dilatory
war of three years he concluded a peace on the ground of free
commercial relations, and then he attacked the Livonian Order,
on the pretext that the Livonian town of Dorpat had not paid
tribute according to ancient treaties. Finding himself unable
to resist the Muscovites, the grand master of the Order put
himself under Polish protection, and this led to a seven years'
war (1563-70) with Poland, during which the Swedes and
Danes intervened on their own account. Ivan did not display
much military talent, but he showed a remarkable amount of
tenacity. No sooner had he made peace with the Poles and
failed to get himself elected as their king, than he began a war
with the Swedes which dragged on for more than a decade (1572-
1583), and before it was ended he was again at war with Poland
(1579-81). Though severely tried by disappointments and
defeats he never lost hope, and when he died in 1584 he was
preparing to renew the struggle and endeavouring to form for
that purpose an alliance with England; his great idea, however,
was not to be realized till more than a century later, and mean-
while the tsardom of Muscovy had to pass through a severe
internal crisis in which its existence was seriously endangered.
Ivan the Terrible had succeeded in stamping out ruthlessly
all open resistance to his will, and had created an autocratic
Theodore government of the Oriental type; but the elements
/., IS84- of disorder were still lying beneath the surface, and
as soon as the cunning, energetic despot died they
reappeared. His son and successor, Theodore (Feodor), was
a weak man of saintly character, very ill fitted to con-
solidate his father's work and maintain order among the
ambitious, turbulent nobles; but he had the good fortune
to have an energetic brother-in-law, with no pretensions to
sanctity, called Boris Godunov, who was able, with the tsar's
moral support, to keep his fellow-boyars in order. This he
did during fourteen years, and his administration was signalized
by two important innovations the attaching of the peasants
to the land (adscriptio glebae) and the creation of the patriarchate
both of which deserve a passing notice.
Boris has often been called the creator of serfage in Russia,
but in reality he merely accelerated a process which was the
natural result of economic conditions. In a primitive, Begin-
thinly populated, agricultural country, in which the aiag*oi
demand for agricultural labour greatly exceeds the frtdom.
supply, the value of land is in proportion to the number
of permanent labourers settled on it, and the landed pro-
prietors naturally try to attract to their estates as many
peasants as possible; and in this competition the large
proprietors have evidently an advantage over their humbler and
weaker rivals. Such had been for a considerable time the con-
dition of Russia, and the small proprietors were now becoming
so impoverished that they could no longer fulfil their duties
to the state. The remedy they proposed was that the labourers
should be prohibited from migrating from one estate to another,
and an order to that effect was issued, with the result that the
peasants, being no longer able to change their domicile and
seek new employers, fell practically under the unlimited power
of the proprietors on whose land they resided. This change
was, of course, popular among the lower and middle ranks of
the landlord class, but was very displeasing to the great nobles.
The second of the two innovations above mentioned was
popular among all classes. Hitherto the highest authority in
the Russian Church was the metropolitan, who was The
nominally under the jurisdiction of the patriarch of patri-
Constantinople, and as soon as Constantinople fell *<.
into the hands of the infidel, and the tsars of Muscovy claimed
to be the successors of the Byzantine emperors, it seemed right
and proper that the Russian Church should become autocephalous
and be governed by an independent Russian patriarch. The
change was very dexterously effected by Godunov, with the
formal assent of the Eastern Orthodox Church as a whole, and
one of his adherents was placed on the patriarchal throne.
Having thus gained the support of a large majority of the
landed proprietors and the ecclesiastics, Boris Godunov in-
creased his influence to such an extent that on the Borls
death of Tsar Feodor without male issue in 1598 he ooduoov,
was elected his successor by a Great National Assembly. **-
His short reign was not so successful as his adminis- I6 5 '
tration under the weak Feodor. The oligarchical party
considered it a disgrace to obey a simple boyar; conspiracies
were frequent, the rural districts were desolated by famine
and plague, great bands of armed brigands roamed about the
country committing all manner of atrocities, the Cossacks on
the frontier were restless, and the government showed itself
incapable of maintaining order. Under the influence of the
great nobles who had unsuccessfully opposed the election of
Godunov, the general discontent took the form of hostility
to him as a usurper, and rumours were heard that the late
tsar's younger brother Dimitri (Demetrius), supposed The
to be dead, was still alive and in hiding. In 1603 pseudo-
a man calling himself Dimitri, and professing to be Demet-
the rightful heir to the throne, appeared in Poland, rtuses -
and a few months later he crossed the frontier with a large
force of Poles, Russian exiles, German mercenaries and
Cossacks from the Dnieper and the Don. In reality the
younger son of Ivan the Terrible had been strangled before
his brother's death by orders, it was said, of Godunov and
the mysterious individual who was impersonating him was an
impostor; but he was regarded as the rightful heir by a large
section of the population, and immediately after Boris's death
in 1605 he made his triumphal entry into Moscow. Thus began
a period of Russian history commonly called " the Troublous
Times, " which lasted until 1613. (See DEMETRIUS, PSEUDO-.)
The reign of Dirilitri was short and uneventful. Before
a year had passed a conspiracy was formed against him by
an ambitious noble called Basil (Vassili) Shuiski, and Basil
he was assassinated in the Kremlin. The chief con- Shuiski,
spirator, Shuiski, seized the power and was elected '606-10.
tsar by an Assembly composed of his faction, but neither
TSARDOM OF MUSCOVY]
RUSSIA
897
the ambitious boyars, nor the pillaging Cossacks, nor the
German mercenaries were satisfied with the change, and soon
a new impostor, likewise calling himself Dimitri, son of Tsar
Ivan, came forward as the rightful heir. Like his predecessor,
Pseudo- ne enjoyed the protection and support of the Polish
Demet- king, Sigismund III., and was strong enough to
rtustt., compel Shuiski to abdicate; but as soon as the
throne was vacant Sigismund put forward as a
candidate his own son, Wladislaus. To this latter the people
of Moscow swore allegiance on condition of his maintaining
Orthodoxy and granting certain rights, and on this under-
standing the Polish troops were allowed to occupy the city
and the Kremlin. Then Sigismund unveiled his real plan,
which was to obtain the throne not for his son but for
himself. This scheme did not please any 'of the contending
factions and it roused the anti-Catholic fanaticism of the
masses. At the same time it was displeasing to the Swedes,
who had become rivals of the Poles on the Baltic coast,
and they started a false Dimitri of their own in Novgorod.
Russia was thus in a very critical condition. The throne
was vacant, the great nobles quarrelling among themselves,
Accession the Catholic Poles in the Kremlin of Moscow, the
of the Protestant Swedes in Novgorod, and enormous bands
house of o f brigands everywhere. The severity of the crisis
'* produced a remedy, in the form of a patriotic rising
of the masses under the leadership of a butcher called Minin
and a Prince Pozharski. In a short time the invaders were
expelled, and a Grand National Assembly elected as tsar
Michael Romanov, the young son of the metropolitan Philaret,
who was connected by marriage with the late dynasty.
During the reign of Michael (1613-45) the new dynasty
came to be accepted by all classes, and the country recovered
to some extent from the disorders and exhaustion
1613*45'. f rom which it had suffered so severely; but it was not
strong enough to pursue at once an aggressive foreign
policy, and the tsar prudently determined to make peace with
Sweden and conclude an armistice of fourteen years with
Poland. At the conclusion of the armistice in 1632, during
a short interregnum in Poland, he attempted to avenge past
injuries and recover lost territory; but the campaign was not
successful, and in 1634 he signed a definitive treaty by no means
favourable to Russia. That lesson was laid to heart, and he
subsequently maintained a purely defensive attitude. As a
precaution against Tatar invasions he founded fortified towns
on his southern frontiers Tambov, Kozlov, Penza and
Simbirsk; but when the Don Cossacks offered him Azov, which
they had captured from the Turks, and a National Assembly,
convoked for the purpose of considering the question, were in
favour of accepting it as a means of increasing Russian in-
fluence on the Black Sea, he decided that the town should be
restored to the sultan, much to the disappointment of its captors.
In the reign of Michael's successor, Alexius (1645-76), the
country recovered its strength so rapidly that the tsar was
tempted to revive the energetic aggressive policy
1645-76. anc ^ P u t forward claims to Livonia, Lithuania and
Little Russia, but he was obliged to moderate his
pretensions. Livonia continued to be under Swedish rule, and
Lithuania remained united with Poland. Some advantages,
however, were obtained. Smolensk and Chernigov were
definitely incorporated in the tsardom of Muscovy, and great
progress was made towards the absorption of Little Russia.
Roughly speaking, Little Russia, otherwise called the Uk-
raine, may be described as the basin of the Dnieper south-
ward of the sist parallel of latitude. In the i6th
Ukraine, century it was a thinly populated region inhabited
chiefly by Cossacks, speaking the so-called Little
Russian dialect, and until 1569 it formed nominally part of
Lithuania, but was practically independent. In that year,
when Lithuania and Poland were permanently united, it fell
under Polish rule, and the Polish government considered it
necessary to tame the wild inhabitants and bring them under
regular administration. For this decision there were good
xxiii. 29
reasons, for those turbulent sons of the steppe paid no taxes
and were much given to brigandage, and their raiding pro-
pensities occasionally created international difficulties with the
khan of the Crimea and the sultan of Turkey. It was proposed,
therefore, in 1576, that 6000 families should be registered as a
militia under a Polish Hetman for the protection of the country
against Tatar raids, and that the remainder of the inhabitants
should be assimilated to the ordinary peasants of Poland. This
arrangement was very distasteful to all classes. The registered
Cossacks objected to being placed under a Hetman not freely
chosen by themselves, and those who were not included in the
militia objected still more strongly to the prospect of being
reduced to the miserable condition of Polish serfs. To escape
this danger many of them moved down the river and settled
on the waste lands beyond the rapids. Here, about 1590, was
founded an independent military colony called the Setch, the
members of which, recognizing no authority but that of their
own elected officers, lived by fishing, hunting and making raids
on the Tatars, and were always ready to assist their less for-
tunate countrymen in resisting Polish aggression. For half a
century the struggle between the two races went on with varying
success, but on the whole the Polish government proved stronger
than its insubordinate subjects, and about 1638 it seemed to
have attained its object. Polish proprietors settled in large
numbers on the Cossack territory, and great efforts were made,
with the assistance of the Jesuits, to bring the Orthodox popula-
tion under papal authority. But for both proprietors and
Jesuits a surprise was in store. Threatened seriously in their
liberty and their faith, the people rose with greater enthusiasm
than before, and a general insurrection, in which the peasants
joined, spread over the whole country under the leadership of
Bogdan Chmielnicki or Khmelnitski (q.v.), whose name is still
remembered in the Ukraine. As in all previous insurrections
the Poles proved stronger in the field, and Khmelnitski in
desperation sought foreign assistance, first in Constantinople
and then in Moscow. For some time Tsar Alexius hesitated,
because he knew that intervention could entail a war with
Poland, but after consulting a National Assembly on the sub-
ject, he decided to take Little Russia under his protection, and
in January 1654 a great Cossack assembly ratified the arrange-
ment, on the understanding that a large part of the old local
autonomy should be preserved. In the expected war with
Poland, which followed quickly, the Russians were so successful
that the arrangement was upheld; but it was soon found that
the Cossacks, though they professed unbounded devotion to
the Orthodox tsar, disliked Muscovite, quite as much as Polish,
interference in their internal affairs, and some of their leaders
were in favour of substituting federation with Poland for
annexation by Russia. In these circumstances the tsar was
induced to accept a compromise, and signed in 1667 the treaty
of Andrussovo, by which the territory in dispute was partitioned
and the middle course of the Dnieper became the frontier be-
tween Russia and Poland.
In the reign of Alexius a conflict took place between the
tsar and the patriarch, which is often described as a conflict
between Church and State, and which illustrates the
relations between the temporal and the spiritual power The tsar
in Russian state-organization. Until the beginning of J^trtare*
the 1 7th century the Byzantine tradition that in
all matters outside the sphere of dogma the ecclesiastical is
subordinate to the civil power had been observed in Russia;
but the traditional conceptions had been to some extent under-
mined during the reign of Michael, when the metropolitan
Philaret, who was the tsar's father (vide supra), became patriarch
and was associated with his son in the government on a footing
of equality. Like the tsar, he had the official title of " Great
Lord " (veliki gosuddr), and he had his palace, his court-digni-
taries, his retinue, his boyars and his officials all organized
on the model of those of the sovereign. Without his assent
and blessing no important decisions were taken, all state docu-
ments emanating from the highest authority bore his signa-
ture, and he was regarded, both in the official world and by the
8 9 8
RUSSIA
[TSARDOM OF MUSCOVY
public generally, as the tsar's equal in rank and dignity. His
immediate successors, being men of humble origin and sub-
missive character, made no pretensions to such an exalted
position, but when the haughty, ambitious and energetic Nikon,
who enjoyed in large measure the affection and favour of the
devout Tsar Alexius, became patriarch, he took Philaret as his
model, and propounded, like the popes in western Europe,
the doctrine that the spiritual is higher than the temporal
power, the former corresponding to the sun and the latter to
the moon in the firmament. In accordance with this view he
declared that the patriarch was the image of Christ, the head
of the Church, and was therefore subject to no earthly authority,
and he complained of the tsar's interference in ecclesiastical
affairs. His pretensions and his haughty dictatorial manner at
last exhausted the tsar's patience, and he was formally deposed
and exiled to a monastery. As no voice was raised in his defence
and the decision of the ecclesiastical council which condemned
him was universally accepted without protest, we must con-
clude that the conflict was not really between Church and State
but simply between the haughty, ambitious Patriarch Nikon
and the devout, long-suffering Tsar Alexius. The incident
afforded a new proof, where no proof was required, that the
autocratic power in Russia was supreme. In order to prevent
such incidents in future, Peter the Great abolished the patri-
archate altogether, and entrusted the administration of the
Church to a synod entirely dependent on the government.
Much more important in its consequences was Nikon's activity
as an ecclesiastical reformer. During the Russian Dark Ages
certain clerical errors had crept into the liturgical books
of ' wkon. an d certain peculiarities had been adopted in the ritual.
These had been detected and pointed out by learned
ecclesiastics of Kiev, where some of the ancient learning of
Byzantium had been preserved, and Nikon determined to make
the necessary corrections. He determined also to introduce into
the Church many desirable reforms. His project was approved
by an ecclesiastical council and was supported by the tsar, but it
met with violent opposition from a large section of the clergy, and
it alarmed the ignorant masses, who regarded any alterations
in the ritual, however insignificant they might be, as heretical
and very dangerous to salvation. When put into execution
the project produced in the Russian Church a great schism and
numerous fantastic sects. The cruel persecutions instituted by
the authorities with a view to securing conformity increased
the number and fanaticism of the schismatics and heretics, and
created among them a widespread belief that the reign of
Antichrist, foretold in the Apocalypse, was at hand. In support
of this idea, independently of the ecclesiastical innovations,
many significant facts could be adduced. Numerous foreigners
had been allowed to settle in Moscow and to build for them-
selves a heretical church, and their strange unholy customs had
been adopted by not a few courtiers and great dignitaries.
Matveyev, the most influential of the boyars, had married a
foreigner who conversed freely with her husband's male friends,
contrary to the Muscovite notions of respectability and decorum,
and his house, in which the tsar was a frequent visitor, was
furnished and decorated in foreign fashion. Books on mundane
subjects, not at all conducive to the spiritual edification of the
faithful, were read by the tsar's counsellors, and a theatre had
been erected, in which the tsar often witnessed very unedifying
dramas and ballets. Worst of all, the Orthodox tsar occasion-
ally abandoned the decorous flowing robes of his venerated
ancestors, and appeared publicly in the unseemly costume of
heretical foreigners, whilst his consort, when carried through
the streets in a litter, did not conceal her face from the public
gaze. Such innovations troubled deeply the pious souls of the
conservative Muscovites, and confirmed them in their repugnance
to accept the ecclesiastical reforms. Though this original
fanaticism gradually cooled and the rigorists had to make many
concessions to the exigencies of practical life, a large section of the
Russian people remained outside the official fold, so that at the
present day, if we may credit the most competent authorities,
the schismatics and heretics number more than twelve millions.
While the Muscovites of the upper classes were thus beginning
to abandon their old oriental habits, their government was
preparing to make a political evolution of a similar kind.
Notwithstanding the efforts of the Poles and the
Military Orders to exclude Russia from the shores of the
Baltic and keep her in a state of isolation, she was coming slowly
into closer relations with central and western Europe. The
emperor, the governments of England, Holland, France and
Sweden, and even the Grand Turk made advances to the tsar.
Some of them wished to gain him as an ally against their rivals,
whilst others hoped to obtain from him commercial privileges
and permission to trade directly with Persia. The political
and the commercial proposals were alike received with coldness,
because the native diplomatists had aims which could not be
reconciled completely with the policy of any other country,
and the native merchants were afraid of foreign competition.
The negotiations gave, therefore, little tangible result, but they
helped to prepare the way for the new order of things which was
soon to be introduced by Alexius's son, Peter the Great.
Before reaching the new order of things, the country had to
pass through an internal crisis similar to that which followed
the death of Ivan the Terrible, but not nearly so severe. Alexius
had been twice married and had left several children by each of
his wives, and, as generally happened in such cases, a struggle
for power ensued between the two rival families. The late tsar's
eldest son, Theodore, was weak in health and died Theodore
without male issue after an uneventful reign of six '
years (1676-82). As the second son, Ivan, next in
the order of succession, was almost an imbecile, the third son,
Peter, born of the second marriage, was proclaimed tsar, and his
maternal relations became the dominant faction, but their
triumph was of very short duration. An ambitious, ener-
getic sister of Ivan, well known in Russian history as Sophia
Alexeyevna, instigated the stryeltsi(strelitz) , as the troops Sophia
of the unreformed standing army were called, to upset Aiexey-
the arrangement. After making a tumult in the Krem- warn.
lin and assassinating several of the men in power, they insisted
that Ivan should be proclaimed tsar conjointly with /van y.
Peter, and that Sophia should act as regent during the <#>,
minority of the two young sovereigns. She accepted t6S2-89.
unhesitatingly the difficult and dangerous post, and ruled auto-
cratically for seven years (1682-89), but this did not satisfy her
ambition. Having discovered that Peter, who had reached the
age of seventeen, was thinking of taking the administration into
his own hands, she conspired against him with the commander
of the stryeltsi and some of his maternal relations; but she was
circumvented by the rival faction and interned in a convent, and
Peter's mother was put in her place. The importance of these
incidents, which are very characteristic of political life in the
tsardom of Muscovy, will appear in the sequel.
If Peter really thought of taking the administration into his
own hands, he very soon abandoned the idea and returned to
the irregular suburban life he had led during his half- pg ter the
sister's regency associating with foreigners who could Great,
teach him the mechanical arts of the West, drilling 1689-
troops, building and sailing boats, forming projects
for the creation of a great navy, indulging publicly in
Bacchanalian revels and boisterous amusements not at all
to the taste of his pious countrymen, and appearing in Moscow
as Orthodox tsar only on great ceremonial occasions. Already
the desire to make his country a great naval power was becoming
his ruling passion, and when he found by experience that the
White Sea, Russia's sole maritime outlet, had great practical
inconveniences as a naval base, he revived the project of getting
a firm footing on the shores of the Black Sea or the Baltic.
At first he gave^the preference to the former, and with the
aid of a flotilla of small craft, constructed on a tributary of the
Don, he succeeded in capturing Azov from the Turks. Greatly
elated by this success, he recommended to the council of boyars
the construction of a powerful fleet for carrying on war with
the infidel, and he himself went abroad to learn more about
shipbuilding and useful foreign inventions, and to prepare
TSARDOM OF MUSCOVY]
RUSSIA
899
diplomatically the projected crusade. His foreign tour, dur-
ing which he visited Germany, Holland, England, France and
Austria, lasted nearly a year and a half, and was suddenly
interrupted, when on his way from Vienna to Venice to study
the construction of war-galleys, by the alarming news that the
turbulent stryeltsi of Moscow had mutinied anew with the
intention of placing Sophia on the throne. On arriving in
Moscow he found that the mutiny had been suppressed and
the ringleaders punished, but he considered it necessary to
reopen the investigation and act with exemplary severity.
Of the surviving mutineers over twelve hundred were executed,
some of them by his own hand, and the entire corps was dis-
banded.
From this moment may be dated the personal reign of Peter,
for he now began to direct personally all branches of the adminis-
tration, and governed with indefatigable vigour for twenty-seven
years, during which he greatly increased the area and profoundly
modified the internal condition of his country. At first he
concentrated his attention on foreign affairs. During his
foreign tour he had discovered that the idea of a grand crusade
against the infidel was irrealizable, for France was, according
to her traditional policy, the ally of the sultan, Austria wished to
avoid trouble on her eastern frontier in order to devote her
energies to the question of the Spanish succession, and all the
other countries which he wished to draw into the coalition had
good reasons of their own for desiring the maintenance of peace
in eastern Europe. For his Baltic schemes, on the contrary,
he had found the ground well prepared. During a halt of a few
days in Poland on his way back from Vienna, King Augustus
had explained to him a project for partitioning the trans-
Baltic provinces of Sweden, by which Poland should recover
Livonia and annex Esthonia, Russia should obtain Ingria
and Karelia, and Denmark should take possession of Holstein.
As Sweden was known to be exhausted by the long wars of
Gustavus Adolphus and his successors, and weakened by internal
dissensions, the dismemberment seemed an easy matter, and
Peter embarked on the scheme with a light heart; but his
illusions were quickly dispelled by the eccentric young Swedish
king, Charles XII., who arrived suddenly in Esthonia and
completely routed the Russian army before Narva. Thus
began the so-called Northern War, which lasted intermittently
for more than twenty years, and was terminated by the treaty
of Nystad (Sept. 10, 1721). By that treaty Peter acquired
not only Ingria and Karelia, as originally contemplated, but
also Livonia, Esthonia and part of Finland. The problem of
obtaining a firm footing on the Baltic coast, on which Ivan
the Terrible had squandered his resources to no purpose, was
now solved satisfactorily.
Peter's other favourite scheme, that of acquiring the com-
mand of the Black Sea, was as far from realization as ever.
In the midst of the Northern War, shortly after the great
Russian victory of Poltava (1709), the sultan, at the instigation
of Swedish and French agents, determined to recover Azov,
and made great military preparations for that purpose. Having
annihilated at Poltava the army of Charles XII., Peter was not
at all indisposed to renew the struggle with Turkey, and began
the campaign in the confident hope of making extensive con-
quests; but he had only got as far as the Pruth when he found
himself surrounded by a great Turkish army, and, in order to
extricate himself from his critical position, he had to sign a
humiliating treaty by which Azov and other conquests were
restored to the sultan. His dreams of freeing the Christians
from the yoke of the infidel had to be abandoned, and the
conquest of the northern shores of the Black Sea was postponed
till the reign of Catherine II.
Those tedious and exhausting wars did not prevent Peter
from attending to internal affairs, and he displayed as a reformer
Peter the even more vigour and tenacity than as a general in
Great's the field. His first reforms were connected with the
reforms. arm y. Several of his immediate predecessors had come
to recognize that Russia, with her antiquated military organiza-
tion, was unable to cope with her Western neighbours, and
had begun to organize, with the help of foreigners, a military
force more in accordance with modern requirements; but the
progress made in that direction had been slow and unsatis-
factory. Unlike his predecessors, Peter was in a hurry to
realize his plans, and he set to work at once. In less than two
years from the time of disbanding the stryellsi he contrived to
create an army of 40,000 men. This army, it is true, was
so inefficient that it was completely routed by the Swedish
king with a most inferior force, but it was improved gradually
until it learned to conquer its Swedish opponents. To accom-
plish such a feat it was necessary, of course, to expend large
sums of money; and as the country could ill bear an increase
of taxation, the whole financial system had to be improved
and the natural resources of the country had to be developed.
At the same time the military and financial requirements
dislocated the local and central administration, and conse-
quently a series of radical administrative reforms had to be
undertaken. Thus one reform led to another; but Peter
was not dismayed by the magnitude of the task, and worked
vigorously in all departments with a sublime disregard for the
clamour of reactionary opponents and for the feelings and
prejudices of his subjects in general. A prudent ruler in his
position would have sought to preserve the outward forms
while changing the inner substance, but Peter was ncjf at all
prudent in that sense. Very often he wantonly provoked
opposition, as when he shaved off his beard and compelled
his chief officials to do likewise, though he well knew that the
operation was regarded by the ignorant masses and the pious
of all ranks as a sinful defacing of the image of God. In his
eyes the beard was a symbol of the old regime, and as such it
must be removed. Reckless of consequences, he swept away
the venerated ceremonial formalities which his ancestors had
scrupulously observed, openly scoffed at ancient usage, habitu-
ally dressed in foreign costume, and generally chose foreign
heretics as his boon companions. In adopting foreign innova-
tions, he showed, like the Japanese of the present day, no
sentimental preference for any particular nation, and was
ready to borrow from the Germans, Dutch, English, Swedes
or French whatever seemed best suited for his purpose. The
innovations, it must be admitted, did not prove so efficient
as he expected, because human nature and traditional habits
cannot be changed as quickly as institutions. When the
Boyar Duma became the Senate, and the Prikazi or adminis-
trative departments were organized under the name of Colleges,
and when every important town was endowed with a Rathhaus,
a Polizeimeister, gilds, aldermen, and all the municipal para-
phernalia of western Europe, the vices of the old institutions
survived in the new. Notwithstanding the changes in organiza-
tion and terminology, the officials remained ignorant, indolent,
careless, indifferent to the public welfare, high-handed and
extortionate, and the local self-government which was intended
to enlighten and control them proved sadly wanting in vitality
and practically worthless. So inefficient, indeed, were the
reforms as a whole, and so unsuited to the national character
and customs, that the Slavophil critics of a later date could
maintain plausibly the paradoxical thesis that in regard to
internal administration Peter was anything but a national
benefactor. However that may be, it must be confessed even
by Slavophils that he dragged his countrymen, more by force
than by persuasion, from the paths of traditional routine and
pushed them along with all his might on the broad road of
progress in the modern sense of the term. Abandoning the
ancient Muscovite capital, where many influential personages
were fanatically hostile to his innovations and not a few of the
superstitious inhabitants regarded him with horror as Anti-
christ, he built at the mouth of the Neva a new capital which
was to serve as " a window through which his people fouada-
might look into Europe " ; and laying aside the national aoa ofSt
title of tsar he proclaimed himself (1711) emperor Peten-
(Imperator) of all Russia much to the surprise and
indignation of foreign diplomatic chancelleries, which resented
the audacity of a semi-barbarous potentate in claiming to be
goo
RUSSIA
[THE MODERN EMPIRE
equal in rank with the head of the Holy Roman Empire.
Gradually, however, the chancelleries had to withdraw their
protests, for it came to be generally recognized that the semi-
barbarian, who died at the early age of fifty-three, had trans-
formed the oriental tsardom of Muscovy into a state of the
Western type and had made it a powerful member of the
European family of nations (see PETER I.).
IV. The Modern Empire. On the death of Peter (1725)
the internal tranquillity and progress of the empire were again
seriously threatened by the uncertainty of the order of succes-
sion, and the autocratic power which he had wielded so vigor-
ously passed into the hands of a series of weak, indolent
sovereigns who were habitually guided by personal caprice and
the advice of intriguing favourites rather than by serious politi-
cal considerations. During this period, which lasted from 1725
to 1762, the male line of the Romanov dynasty became extinct,
and the succession passed to various members of the female line,
which intermarried with German princes. In this way German
influence was enormously increased, and was represented by
men of considerable capacity holding the highest official posi-
tions, such as Biren, Munnich and Ostermann. The main events
of the period may be summarized very briefly. Peter, by his
first marriage, had a son, the unhappy cesarevich Alexius (q.v.),
who figures more largely in imaginative literature than in
history a narrow-minded, obstinate, pious youth, who had
no sympathy with his father's violent innovations, and was
completely under the influence of the old Muscovite reactionary
faction. Intimidated by the paternal anger and threats he took
refuge in Austria, and when he had been induced by illusory
promises to return to Russia he was tried for high treason by a
special tribunal, and after being subjected to torture died in
prison (17:8). To avert the danger of a man of this type
succeeding to the throne Peter made a law by which the reigning
sovereign might choose his successor according to his own
judgment, and two years later he caused his second wife,
Catherine Catherine, the daughter of a Lithuanian peasant, to
be crowned with all due solemnity, " in recognition
172S-27. o tne courageous services rendered by her to the
Russian Empire." This gave Catherine a certain right
to the throne at her husband's death, and her claims were
supported by Peter's most influential coadjutors, especially
by Prince Menshikov, an ambitious man of humble origin who
had been raised by his patron to the highest offices of state.
On the other hand the great nobles of more conservative
tendencies wished to get the young son of the cesarevich
Alexius made emperor under their own control. The former
faction triumphed, and Catherine reigned for about a year and
a half, after which the son of the cesarevich Alexius, Peter II.,
Peter// occupied the throne from 1727 to 1730. At first he
1727-30.' was un der the tutelage of Menshikov, who wished him
to marry his daughter, but he soon contrived, with
the aid of the Dolgorukis and other old families, to get
his imperious tutor arrested and exiled to Siberia. The Dol-
gorukis and their friends thus came into power, and on the
death of Peter II. in 1730 they offered the throne to Anne,
duchess of Courland, a daughter of Ivan V., elder brother
of Peter the Great, on condition of her signing a formal docu-
ment by which the seat of government should be transferred
from St Petersburg to Moscow, and the autocratic power should
be limited and controlled by a grand council composed of their
Anoe own faction. Anne accepted the condition and
m^40. became empress, but when she discovered that the
attempt to limit her powers in favour of a small
conservative oligarchy was extremely unpopular among all
classes, she submitted the question to an assembly of 800
ecclesiastical and lay dignitaries, and at their request the
unlimited autocratic rule was re-established. Her reign
(1730-40) was a regime of methodical German despotism on
the lines laid down by her uncle, Peter the Great, and as she
was naturally indolent and much addicted to frivolous amuse-
ments, the administration was directed by her favourite Biren
(q.v.) and other men of German origin. Having no male issue,
she chose as her successor the infant son of her niece, Anna
Leopoldovna, duchess of Brunswick, and at her death the
child was duly proclaimed emperor, under the name of Ivan VI.,
but in little more than a year he was dethroned by the partisans
of the Princess Elizabeth, a daughter of Peter the Great and
Catherine I. As a true daughter of the great Russian Eliza-
reformer, Elizabeth (1741-61) relegated the German beth,
element to a subordinate position in the administra- "*/-/.
tion and gave her confidence to genuine Russians like
Bestuzhev, Vorontsov, Razumovski (her morganatic husband)
and the Shuvalovs. Her hatred of Germans showed itself like-
wise in her persistent struggle with Frederick the Great, which
cost Russia 300,000 men and 30 millions of roubles an enor-
mous sum for those days but in the choice of a successor she
could not follow her natural inclinations, for among the few
descendants of Michael Romanov there was no one, even in the
female line, who could be called a genuine Russian. She pro-
claimed, therefore, as heir-apparent the son of her deceased
elder sister Anna, Charles Peter Ulrich, duke of Holstein-
Gottorp, a German in character, habits and religion, and tried
to Russianize him by making him adopt the Eastern Orthodox
faith and live in St Petersburg during the whole of her reign ;
but her well-meant efforts were singularly unsuccessful. Im-
pervious to Russian influence, he remained true to his original
nationality, and by his undisguised aversion to everything in
his adopted country and his passionate, childish admiration
of Frederick the Great, he made himself so unpopular that within
a few months of his accession, in December 1761, he was
dethroned and assassinated by the partisans of his ambitious
and able consort, the famous Catherine II. 1
During the long reign of Catherine II. (1762-96) Russia
made rapid progress in civilization, and came to be fully recog-
nized as one of the Great Powers. Coming after a Catherine
series of incompetent rulers, the German princess //.
proved herself a worthy successor to Peter the Great
both in home and in foreign affairs; but she was not a
mere imitator. Peter had endeavoured to import from western
Europe the essentials of good government and such of the
useful arts as were required for the development of the natural
resources of the country; Catherine did likewise, but she did
not restrict herself to purely utilitarian aims in the narrower
sense of the term. She strove to impart also something of the
refinement and ornamental attributes of Western civilization,
and aspired to raise her adopted fatherland intellectually
and artistically to the west-European level. This new de-
parture she lost no time in proclaiming to the world. Within
a few months of her accession, having heard that the publica-
tion of the famous French Encyclopedic was in danger of being
stopped by the French government on account of its irreligious
spirit, she proposed to Diderot that he should complete his
great work in Russia under her protection. Four years later
she endeavoured to embody in a legislative form the principles
of enlightenment which she had imbibed from the study of the
French philosophers. A Grand Commission, which might be
called a consultative parliament, composed of 652 members
of all classes officials, nobles, burghers and peasants and
1 To assist the reader in threading the genealogical maze briefly
described above, the following tabular statement is inserted:
(I.) Michael, founder of the Romanov dynasty (1613-45).
(II.) Alexius (1645-76).
(III.) Theodore (IV.) Ivan V. Sophia (IV.) Peter I.+(V.) Catherine I.
(1676-82). (1682- ). (Regent 1682-89). (168271725). (1725-27).
I.) Ann
Catherine, (VII.) Anne Cesarevich Alexius
duchess of (1730-40).
Mecklenburg.
Anna Leopoldovna,
duchess of Brunswick.
(VIII.) Ivan VI.
(1740-41).
(VI.) Peter II.
(1727-30)-
Anna. (IX.) Elizabeth
duchessof (1741-61).
Holstein.
(X.) Peter III.+(XI.) Catherine
(:?6i-62). II.
(1762-96).
THE MODERN EMPIRE]
RUSSIA
901
of various nationalities, was called together at Moscow to
consider the needs of the empire and the means of satisfying
them. The instructions for the guidance of the Assembly
were prepared by the empress herself and were, as she frankly
admitted, the result of " pillaging the philosophers of the
West," especially Montesquieu and Beccaria. As many of the
democratic principles frightened her more moderate and ex-
perienced advisers, she wisely refrained from immediately
putting them into execution. After holding more than 200
sittings the so-called Commission was dissolved without getting
beyond the realm of theory and pia desideria. Subsequently
very important reforms were introduced, not by the vote of an
assembly, but by the fiat of the autocratic power. The large
Admints- territorial units of administration created by Peter the
trative Great were broken up into so-called " governments "
reforms, (gubernii) and further subdivided into districts (uyezdy) ,
and each government was confided to the care of a governor
and a vice-governor assisted by a council. A certain amount
of local self-government was entrusted to the nobles and the
burghers, and the judicial administration was thoroughly
reorganized in an enlightened and humane spirit. The great
estates of the Church, on which were settled about a million
serfs, were secularized and assimilated with the state-domains.
At one moment the idea of emancipating all the serfs was
entertained, but the project was speedily abandoned, because
it would have alienated the nobles the only class on which
Catherine could rely for support. To conciliate them she
greatly extended the area of serfage by making large grants
of land and serfs to courtiers and public servants who had
specially distinguished themselves. About education a great
deal was spoken and written, and a certain amount of progress
was effected. Whilst primary education was neglected, sec-
ondary schools were created in the principal towns and a
Russian Academy was founded in St Petersburg. In the imperial
court, so far as outward decorum and refinement were con-
cerned, there was an immense improvement, and the upper
section of the old Russian Dvorianslvo became a noblesse with
French aristocratic conceptions and ideals. A taste for French
literature spread rapidly, and the poets and dramatists of Paris
found clever imitators in St Petersburg.
By such means Catherine made herself very popular in the
upper ranks of society, but as a woman and a usurper who
did little or nothing to lighten the burdens of the people she
failed to gain the loyalty and devotion of the masses. In
the first part of her reign popular discontent found expression
in various forms, and on one occasion it produced a serious
insurrection. In 1773 a Don Cossack called Pugachev, who
was so uneducated that he could not even sign the manifestoes
written for him, declared himself to be Peter III., and announced
that he was going to St Petersburg to punish his faithless wife
and place his son Paul on the throne. Many believed, or
affected to believe, in the pretender, and in a short time he
gathered around him a large force of Cossacks, peasants, Tatars
and Tchuvash, swept over the basin of the lower Volga, exe-
cuted mercilessly the landed proprietors, seized and pillaged
the town of Kazan, and kept the whole country in a state of
alarm for more than a year. Finally, after a crushing defeat
in which 2003 of the insurgents were killed and 6000 taken
prisoners, he was betrayed by some of his followers and executed
in Moscow. His name and exploits still live in the popular
legends, and the insurrection is often referred to in revolutionary
pamphlets as a laudable popular protest against tyrannical
autocracy.
In foreign affairs Catherine devoted her attention mainly
to pushing forward the Russian frontier westwards and south-
Foreiga wards, and as France was the traditional ally of
policy of Sweden, Poland and Turkey, she adopted at first
the so-called systeme du Nord, that is to say, a close
alliance with Prussia, England and Denmark against
France and Austria, who had buried their traditional enmity
in the famous alliance of 1756. The first step westwards was
taken in Courland, which lay between Russian territory and
Poland.
the Baltic coast. At the time of her accession the duchy was
ruled by a son of the Polish king Augustus III., and he gave
a pretext for aggression by refusing to allow Russian troops
returning from the Seven Years' War to pass through his
territory. For this unfriendly act he was deposed and replaced
by Biren, who had previously been duke of Courland (1737-40)
and had since been an exile in Siberia and Yaroslav. Under
Biren (1763-69) and his son and successor (1769-95), as
nominees of Catherine, Courland was completely under Russian
influence until 1795, when it was formally incorporated with
the empire. The next country to feel the expansive tendencies
of Russia was Poland, which had now very little
power of resistance. Whilst Russia, Austria, Prussia
and France were becoming powerful monarchies with centralized
administration, Poland had remained a weak feudal republic with
an elected king chosen under foreign influence and fettered
by constitutional restrictions. All political authority was in
the hands of turbulent nobles who quarrelled among them-
selves, who were always inclined to submit the questions at
issue to the arbitrament of arms, and who did not scruple to
invite foreign powers to intervene on their behalf. The middle
classes, which were making other countries rich and powerful,
existed only in an embryonic condition. Instead of a well-
organized army of the modern type there was merely an
undisciplined militia composed almost exclusively of irregular
cavalry; and the national defences as a whole were so weak
that, in the opinion of such a competent authority as Maurice
of Saxony, the country might easily be conquered by a regular
army of 48,000 men. Here was a tempting field for the
application of Catherine's aggressive policy, and if she had had
to deal merely with the Poles she would have had an easy task.
Unfortunately for the success of her schemes she had to reckon
with stronger states which were anxious to check the Russian
advance, and which were determined, in the event of aggression,
to have a share of the plunder. Frederick the Great was at
that moment impatient to extend and consolidate his kingdom
by getting possession of the basin of the lower Vistula, which
separated eastern Prussia from the rest of his dominions, while
Austria had also claims on Polish territory and would certainly
not submit to be excluded by her two rivals. In these cir-
cumstances Catherine hesitated to bring matters to a crisis,
but her hand was forced by Frederick, and in 1772 the first
partition of Poland took place without any very strenuous
resistance on the part of the victim. This national disaster
opened the eyes of many Polish patriots to the necessity of
changing radically the old order of things, and an attempt was
made by them to remove some of the more glaring absurdities
of the existing constitution: the throne was declared to be
hereditary, the liberum veto by which any petty noble could
annul the most important decision of the national assembly
was abolished, the royal authority was greatly strengthened,
and the towns were empowered to send deputies to the Diet
(1791). Such salutary reforms were naturally unwelcome to
the aggressive neighbours who wished to preserve the traditional
anarchy in order to have new facilities for intervention, and
as Russia had signed with the puppet-king in 1768 a treaty
by which the constitution could not be modified without her
consent, she had a plausible ground for protest. She waited,
however, until a deputation of the malcontents, who regretted
the loss of liberum veto and who were afraid that the party of
reform might undertake the emancipation of the serfs, came
to St Petersburg and asked for support in defence of the
ancient liberties. Then an imperial manifesto reminding the
Poles of the treaty of 1768 was issued and a large Russian force
entered the Ukraine. This led to the second partition (1793),
by which Russia obtained the eastern provinces with three
millions of inhabitants. Even now the work of spoliation was
not complete. When the patriots under Koscziusko made a
desperate effort to recover the national independence the struggle
produced a third partition (1795), by which the remainder of the
kingdom was again divided between Russia, Prussia and Austria.
Thus Poland disappeared for a time from the map of Europe.
902
RUSSIA
[THE MODERN EMPIRE
Russia's advance westward raised indirectly the Eastern
Question, because it threatened two of France's traditional
Treaty at allies, Sweden and Poland, and Choiseul considered
Kuchuk- that the best means of checkmating Catherine's
aggressive schemes was to incite France's third
traditional ally, Turkey, to attack her. This was not
a difficult matter, because the Sublime Porte had many things
to complain of in the past and had good reason to fear
aggression in the near future. War was accordingly declared
in 1768, but it proved disastrous for the sultan; and he had
to sign in 1774 the treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji, which gave
Russia a firm hold on the Black Sea and the lower Danube
(see TURKEY : History) . The Tatars of the Bug, of the Crimea and
of the Kuban were liberated from the suzerainty of the Porte;
Azov, Kinburn and all the fortified places of the Crimea were
ceded to Russia; the Bosphorus and Dardanelles were opened
to Russian merchant vessels; and Russian ambassadors
obtained the right to intervene in favour of the inhabitants of
the Danubian principalities. Ten years later the semblance
of independence which was left to the khans of the Crimea
was destroyed and the peninsula formally annexed to the empire.
The peace concluded at Kuchuk-Kainarji was not of long
duration. Catherine had conceived an ambitious plan of
solving radically the Eastern Question by partitioning Turkey
as she and her allies had partitioned Poland, and she had
persuaded the emperor Joseph II. to take part in the scheme.
It was intended that Russia should take what remained of the
northern coast of the Black Sea, Austria should annex the
Turkish provinces contiguous to her territory, the Danubian
principalities and Bessarabia should be formed into an in-
dependent kingdom called Dacia, the Turks should be
expelled from Europe, the Byzantine empire should be resus-
citated, and the grand-duke Constantino, second son of the
Russian heir-apparent, should be placed on the throne of the
Palaeologi. Rumours of this gigantic scheme reached Con-
stantinople, and as Catherine's menacing attitude left little
doubt as to her aggressive intentions the Porte presented an
ultimatum and finally declared war (1787). Fortune again
favoured the Russian arms, but as Austria was less successful
and signed a separate peace at Sistova in 1791, Catherine did
not obtain much material advantage from the campaign. By
the peace of Jassy, signed in January 1792, she retained Ochakov
and the coast between the Bug and the Dniester, and she secured
certain privileges for the Danubian principalities, but the Turks
remained in Constantinople, and the realization of the famous
Gre.k project, as it was termed, had to be indefinitely postponed.
During the first years of the French Revolution Catherine's
sympathy with philosophic liberalism rapidly evaporated, and
Catherine sne did all in her power to stimulate the hostility of
and the the European sovereigns to the democratic movement ;
but she carefully abstained from joining the Coalition,
and waited patiently for the moment when the
complications in western Europe would give her an oppor-
tunity of solving independently the Eastern Question in ac-
cordance with Russian interests. That moment never came.
In November 1796, when the country was not yet prepared
to enter on a decisive struggle with Turkey, Catherine died at
the age of sixty-six, and was succeeded by her son Paul, whom
she had kept during her long reign in a state of semi-captivity.
The short reign of Paul (1796-1801) resembled in many points
the still shorter one of his father, Peter III. Both sovereigns
Paul. were childishly wayward and capriciously autocratic;
both were recklessly indifferent to the feelings, convic-
tions and wishes of those around them; both took a passionate
interest in the minutiae of military affairs; as Peter had
conceived a boundless admiration for Frederick the Great, so
Paul conceived a similar admiration for Napoleon, and both
suddenly reversed the national policy to suit this feeling; both
were singularly blind to the consequences of their foolish
conduct; and both fell victims to court conspiracies which
could be in some measure justified, or at least excused, on
patriotic grounds.
Paul left no deep, permanent mark on Russian history. In
internal affairs he wished to undo what his mother had done,
but his impulsive, incoherent efforts in that direction merely
dislocated the administrative mechanism without producing
any tangible results. In foreign affairs he displayed the same
capriciousness and want of perseverance. After proclaiming
his intention of conferring on his subjects the blessings of
peace, he joined in 1798 an Anglo- Austrian coalition against
France; but when Austria paid more attention to her own
interests than to the interests of monarchical institutions in
general, and when England did not respect the independence
of Malta, which he had taken under his protection, he succumbed
to the artful blandishments of Napoleon and formed with him
a plan for ruining the British empire by the conquest of India.
Having roused, by what ought perhaps to be called his insanity,
the enmity, distrust and fear of all around him, including some
members of his own family, he was assassinated on the night
of the 23rd to 24th of March 1801, and was succeeded by his
son Alexander I.
The early part of Alexander's reign (1801-25) w as a period
of generous ideas and liberal reforms. Under the influence
of his Swiss tutor, Frederick Cesar de Laharpe, he Alex-
had imbibed many of the democratic ideas of the aider I.,
time, and he aspired to put them in practice, with I80I ~ 2S -
the assistance at first of three young friends, Novosiltsov,
Adam Czartoryski and Strogonov, who were his intimate
counsellors and were popularly known as the Triumvirate, and
later of Mikhail Speranski (q.v.). Some of the more oppressive
measures of the previous reign were abolished; the clergy,
the nobles and the merchants were exempted from corporal
punishment; the central organs of administration were
modernized and the Council of the Empire was created; the
idea of granting a constitution was academically discussed;
great schemes for educating the people were entertained;
parish schools, gymnasia, training colleges and ecclesiastical
seminaries were founded; the existing universities of Moscow,
Vilna and Dorpat were reorganized and new ones founded
in Kazan and Kharkov; the great work of serf -emancipation
was begun in the Baltic provinces. In all these schemes
Alexander took a keen personal interest; but his enthusiasm
was soon cooled by practical difficulties, and his attention
became more and more engrossed by foreign affairs.
At that time, in respect of foreign affairs, Russia was entering
on a new phase of her history. Hitherto she had confined her
efforts to territorial expansion in eastern Europe and in Asia,
and she had sought foreign alliances merely as temporary
expedients to facilitate the attainment of that object. Now
she was beginning to consider herself a powerful member of
the European family of nations, and she aspired to exercise a
predominant influence in all European questions. This tendency
was already shown by Catherine when she created the League
of Neutrals as an arm against the naval supremacy of England,
and by Paul when he insisted that his peace negotiations with
Bonaparte should be regarded as part of a general European
pacification, in which he must be consulted. Alexander
insisted still more strongly on this claim, and in the convention
which he concluded with the First Consul in October Aiex-
1801 it was agreed that the maintenance of a just ander aid
equilibrium between Austria and Prussia should be Na P leoa -
taken as an invariable principle in the plans of both
parties, that the integrity of the kingdom of the Two Sicilies
should be respected, that the duke of Wiirttemberg should
receive in Germany an indemnity proportionate to his losses,
that the dominions of the elector of Bavaria should be preserved
intact, and that the independence of the Ionian Islands should
not be violated. Having obtained these important concessions
the tsar imagined for a moment that in any further territorial
changes he would be consulted and his advice allowed due
weight, and he seems even to have indulged in the hope that
the affairs of Europe might be directed by himself and his new
ally. His illusion was soon dispelled, because the aims and
policy of the two potentates were utterly irreconcilable. Whilst
THE MODERN EMPIRE]
RUSSIA
903
the one strove to erect bulwarks against French aggression,
the other was preparing the ground for fresh annexations.
During 1803-4 the breach between the two rivals widened,
because Napoleon became more and more aggressive and
unceremonious in Italy and Germany. Before the end of 1803
Alexander had come to perceive the necessity of resisting him
energetically in order to save Europe from complete subjection,
and in August 1804 he recognized that an armed conflict was
inevitable. It broke out in the following year, and after the
battles of Austerlitz (December 1805) and Friedland (June 1807),
in which the Russians were completely defeated, the two
sovereigns had their famous interviews at Tilsit, at which they
not only made peace but agreed to divide the world between
them, with a sublime indifference to the interests of other
states. The grandiose project was at once vaguely outlined
in three formal documents, to the intense satisfaction of both
parties, and on both sides there was much rejoicing at the
conclusion of such an auspicious alliance; but the diplomatic
honeymoon was not of long duration. The mutual assurances
of unbounded confidence, admiration and sympathy, if there
was any genuine sincerity in them, represented merely a
transient state of feeling. Napoleon, who could brook no
equal, was nourishing the secret hope that his confederate
might be used as a docile subordinate in the realization of
his own plans, and the confederate soon came to suspect that
he was being duped. His suspicions were intensified by the
hostile criticisms of the Tilsit arrangement among his own
subjects and by the arbitrary conduct of his ally, who continued
his aggressions in reckless fashion as if he were sole master
of Europe. The sovereigns of Sardinia, Naples, Portugal
and Spain were dethroned, the pope was driven from Rome,
the Rhine Confederation was extended till France obtained a
footing on the Baltic, the grand-duchy of Warsaw was re-
organized and strengthened, the promised evacuation of Prussia
was indefinitely postponed, an armistice between Russia and
Turkey was negotiated by French diplomacy in such a way
that the Russian troops should evacuate the Danubian prin-
cipalities, which Alexander intended to annex to his empire,
and the scheme for breaking up the Ottoman empire and
ruining England by the conquest of India, which had been
one of the most attractive baits in the Tilsit negotiations, but^
which had not been formulated in the treaty, was no longer
spoken of. At the same time Napoleon threatened openly
to crush Austria, and in 1809 he carried out his threat by
defeating the Austrian armies at Wagram and elsewhere, and
dictating the treaty of Schonbrunn (October 14).
Russia now remained the only unconquered power on the
continent, and it was evident that the final struggle with her
could not be long delayed. It began in 1812 by the advance of
the Grande Armte on Moscow, and it ended in 1815 at Waterloo.
During those three years Alexander was the chief antagonist of
Napoleon, and it was largely due to his skill and persistency that
the allies held together and freed Europe permanently from the
Napoleonic domination. When peace was finally concluded, he
had obtained that predominant position in European politics
which had been the object of his ambition since the commence-
ment of his reign, and he now believed firmly that he had been
chosen by Providence to secure the happiness of the world in
general and of the European nations in particular. In the
fulfilment of this supposed mission he was not very successful,
Aklm because his conception of national happiness and the
andcrand means of obtaining it differed widely from that of the
the re- peoples whom he wished to benefit. They had fought
action la or f reec i om j n order to liberate themselves not only
from the yoke of Napoleon but also from the tyranny
of their own governments, whereas he expected them to remain
submissively under the patriarchal institutions which their native
rulers imposed on them. Thus, in spite of his academic sym-
pathy with liberal ideas, he became, together with Metternich,
a champion of political stagnation, and co-operated willingly
in the reactionary measures against the revolutionary move-
ments in Germany, Italy and Spain. In the affairs of his own
country he refrained from developing and extending the liberal
institutions which he had created immediately after his accession,
and he finally adopted in all departments of administration a
strongly reactionary policy. This naturally caused profound
disappointment and dissatisfaction in the liberal section of the
educated classes and especially among the young officers of
the regiments which had spent some years in western Europe.
Some of these officers had been in touch with the revolutionary
movements, and had adopted the idea then prevalent in France,
Germany and Italy that the best instrument for assuring
political progress was to be found in secret societies. In Russia
such societies began to be formed about 1816. The tsar, though
he came to know of their existence, refrained from taking re-
pressive measures against them, and when he died suddenly at
Taganrog on the ist of December 1825, two of them made an
attempt to realize their political aspirations. The heir to the
throne was the late tsar's eldest brother, Constantine, but he
declined, for private reasons, to accept the succession,
and a few days elapsed before the second brother, I.,
Nicholas, was proclaimed emperor. Taking advantage
of this short interregnum, some members of the secret societies,
mostly officers of the Guards, organized a mutiny among the
troops quartered in St Petersburg and in Podolia, with a view
to effecting a political revolution, but the movement was easily
suppressed, and the ringleaders, known subsequently as the
Decembrists, were severely punished (see NICHOLAS I.).
Nicholas was a blunt soldier incapable of comprehending
his brother's sentimental sympathy with liberalism. The
Decembrists' abortive attempt at revolution- and the Polish
insurrection of 1831, which he crushed with great severity,
confirmed . him in his conviction that Russia must be ruled
with a strong hand. That conviction he put into practice
with extreme rigour during the thirty years of his reign (1825-
55), endeavouring by every means at his disposal to prevent
revolutionary ideas from germinating spontaneously among
his subjects and from being imported from abroad. For this
purpose he created a very severe press-censorship and an
expensive system of passports, which made it more difficult for
Russians to visit foreign countries. It would be unjust, however,
to say that he was the determined enemy of all progress.
Progress was to be made in certain directions and in a certain
way. Not only was the army to be well drilled and the fleet
to be carefully equipped, but railways were to be constructed,
river-navigation was to be facilitated, manufacturing industry
was to be developed, commerce was to be encouraged, the
administration was to be improved, the laws were to be codified
and the tribunals were to be reorganized. All this was to be
done, however, under the strict supervision and guidance of the
autocratic power, with as little aid as possible from private
initiative and with no control whatever of public opinion,
because influential public opinion is apt to produce insubordina-
tion. When the results proved unsatisfactory, remedies were
sought in increased administrative supervision, draconian
legislation and severe punishment, and no attempt "was made
to get out of the vicious circle. In the last months of his life,
under the influence of a great national disaster, the conscientious,
persistent autocrat began to suspect that his system was a
mistake, but he still clung to it obstinately. " My successor,"
he is reported to have said on his death-bed, " may do as he
pleases, but I cannot change ! "
This steadfast faith in autocratic methods and the exaggerated
fear of revolutionary principles were shown in foreign as well as
in home affairs. Like Alexander in the last period of his reign,
Nicholas considered himself the supreme guardian of European
order, and was ever on the watch to oppose revolution in all its
forms. Hence he was generally in strained relations with France,
especially in the time of Louis Philippe, who became king not
by the grace of God but by the will of the people. During the
revolutionary ferment of 1848-49 he urged the Prussian king
to refuse the imperial crown, co-operated with the Austrian
emperor in suppressing the Hungarian insurrection, and com-
pelled the Prussians to withdraw their support from the insurgents
94
RUSSIA
[THE MODERN EMPIRE
in Schleswig-Holstein. Unfortunately for the peace of the
world his habitual policy of maintaining the existing state of
things was frequently obscured and disturbed by his desire to
maintain and increase his own and his country's prestige,
influence and territory. By the Persian War, which broke out
in 1826, in consequence of frontier disputes, he annexed the
provinces of Erivan and Nakhichevan, and during the whole
of his reign the conquest of the Caucasus was systematically
carried on. With regard also to the Ottoman empire his policy
cannot be said to have been strictly conservative. As protector
Nicholas l tne Orthodox Christians he espoused the cause of
I. and the the rayahs in Greece, Servia and Rumania. Under a
Ottoman threat of war he obtained in 1826 the Convention of
empire. Akerman, by which theautonomy of Moldavia,Walachia
and Servia was confirmed, free passage of the straits was secured
for merchant ships and disputed territory on the Asiatic frontier
was annexed, and in July 1827 he signed with England and
France the treaty of London for the solution of the Greek
question by the mediation of the Powers. As the sultan rejected
the mediation, his fleet was destroyed by the combined squadrons
of the three Powers at Navarino; and as this " untoward event "
did not suffice to overcome his resistance, a Russian army crossed
the Danube and after two hard-fought campaigns advanced to
Adrianople. Here, on the I4th of September 1829, was signed
a treaty by which the Porte ceded to Russia the islands at the
mouth of the Danube and several districts on the Asiatic frontier,
granted full liberty to Russian navigation and commerce in the
Black Sea, and guaranteed the autonomous rights previously
accorded to Moldavia, Walachia and Servia. By the loth
article of the treaty, moreover, Turkey acceded to the protocol
of the 22nd of March 1829, by which the Powers had agreed to
the erection of Greece into a tributary principality. This attempt
of Russia to secure the sole prestige of liberating Greece was,
however, frustrated by the action of the other Powers in putting
forward the principle of the independence of the new Greek
state, with a further extension of frontiers.
The result of the war was to make Russia supreme at Con-
stantinople; and before long an opportunity of further increasing
her influence was created by Mehemet Ali, the ambitious
pasha of Egypt, who in November 1831 began a war with his
sovereign in Syria, gained a series of victories over the Turkish
forces in Asia Minor and threatened Constantinople. Sultan
Madmud II. after appealing in vain to Great Britain for active
assistance turned in despair to Russia. Nicholas immediately
sent his Black Sea fleet into the Bosphorus, landed on the Asiatic
shore a force of 10,000 men, and advanced another large force
towards the Turkish frontier in Bessarabia. Under pressure from
Treaty of England and France the Egyptians retreated and the
itnkiar- Russian forces were withdrawn, but the tsar had mean-
fwj eSS/ ' while (J uly 8> l833 ) concluded with the sultan the
treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi, which constituted ostensibly
a defensive and offensive alliance between the two Powers and
established virtually a Russian protectorate over Turkey. In
a secret article of the treaty the sultan undertook in the event
of a casus foederis arising, and in consideration of being relieved
of his obligations under the articles of the public treaty, to
close the Dardanelles to the warships of all nations " au besoin,"
which meant in effect that in the event of Russia being threatened
with an attack from the Mediterranean he would close the
Dardanelles against the invader. England and France pro-
tested energetically and the treaty remained a dead letter,
but the question came up again in 1840, after Mahmud's renewed
attempt to crush Mehemet Ali had ended in the utter defeat
of the Turks by Ibrahim at Nezib (June 24, 1839). This time
Mehemet Ali was supported by the French government, which
aimed at establishing predominant influence in Egypt, but he
was successfully opposed by a coalition of Great Britain, Russia,
Austria and Prussia, which checkmated the aggressive de-
signs of France by the convention of London (July 15, 1840)
(see MEHEMET ALI and TURKEY). In this way the development
of Russian policy with regard to Turkey was checked for some
years, but the project of confirming and extending the Russian
protectorate over the Orthodox Christians was revived in 1852,
when Napoleon III. obtained for the Roman Catholics
certain privileges with regard to the Holy Places in
Palestine. At the same time Austria intervened in
Montenegrin affairs and induced the sultan to withdraw his
troops from the principality. In these two incidents the tsar
perceived a diminution of Russian prestige and influence in
Turkey, and Prince Menshikov was sent on a special mission to
Constantinople to obtain reparation in the form of a treaty
which should guarantee the rights of the Orthodox Church
with regard to the Holy Places and confirm the protectorate
of Russia over the Orthodox rayahs, established by the treaties
of Kainarji, Bucharest and Adrianople. The resistance of
the sultan, supported by Great Britain and France, led to the
Crimean War, which was terminated by the taking of The
Sevastopol (September '1855) and the treaty of Paris Crimean
(March 30, 1856). By that important document Russia War '
reluctantly consented to a strict limitation of her armaments in
the Black Sea, to withdrawal from the mouths of the Danube
by the retrocession of Bessarabia which she had annexed in
1812, and finally to a renunciation of all special rights of inter-
vention between the sultan and his Christian subjects. Nicholas
did not live to experience this humiliation. He had died at
St Petersburg on the 2nd of March 1855 and had been succeeded
by his eldest son, Alexander II.
The first decade of Alexander's reign is commonly known in
Russia as " the epoch of the great reforms," and may be de-
scribed as a violent reaction against the political and Aiex-
intellectual stagnation of the preceding period. The ander //.,
repressive system of Nicholas, in which all other public '***-*'
interests were sacrificed to that of making Russia a great
military power, the guardian of order in Europe and the pre-
dominant factor in the Eastern Question, had been tried and
found wanting. Ending in a military disaster and a diplomatic
humiliation, it had failed to attain even the narrow object for
which it had been created. This was clearly perceived and
keenly felt by the educated classes, and as soon as the strong
hand of the uncompromising autocrat was withdrawn, they
clamoured loudly for radical changes in the aims and methods
of their rulers. Russia must adopt, it was said, those enlightened
principles and liberal institutions which made the Western
nations superior to her not only in the arts of peace but even
in the art of war; only by imitating her rivals could she hope to
overtake and surpass them in the race of progress. On that
subject there was wonderful unanimity, and the few persons
who could not join in the chorus had the prudence to remain
silent. For the first time in the history of Russia public opinion
in the modern sense became a power in the state and influenced
strongly the policy of the government. Though the young
emperor was of too phlegmatic a temperament to be carried
away by the prevailing excitement and of too practical a turn
of mind to adopt wholesale the doctrinaire theories of his self-
constituted, irresponsible advisers, he recognized that great
administrative and economic changes were required, and after a
short period of hesitation he entered on a series of drastic re-
forms, of which the most important were the emancipation of
the serfs, the thorough reorganization of the judicial administra-
tion and the development of local self-government. All these
undertakings, in which the humane, liberal-minded autocrat
received the sympathy, support and co-operation of the more
enlightened of his subjects, were successfully accomplished. The
serfs were liberated entirely from the arbitrary rule of the land-
owners and became proprietors of the communal land; the old
tribunals which could be justly described as " dens of iniquity
and incompetence," were replaced by civil and criminal law-
courts of the French type, in which justice was dispensed by
trained jurists according to codified legislation, and from which
the traditional bribery and corruption were rigidly excluded; and
the administration of local affairs roads, schools, hospitals, &c.
was entrusted to provincial and district councils freely elected by
all classes of the population. In addition to these great and bene-
ficent changes, means were taken for developing more rapidly the
THE MODERN EMPIRE]
RUSSIA
95
vast natural resources of the country, public instruction received
an unprecedented impetus, a considerable amount of liberty was
accorded to the press, a strong spirit of liberalism pervaded
rapidly all sections of the educated classes, a new imaginative
and critical literature dealing with economic, philosophical and
political questions sprang into existence, and for a time the young
generation fondly imagined that Russia, awakening from her tradi-
tional lethargy, was about to overtake, and soon to surpass, on the
path of national progress, the older nations of western Europe.
These sanguine expectations were not fully realized. The
economic and moral condition of the peasantry was little
improved by freedom, and in many districts there were signs
of positive impoverishment and demoralization. The local
self-government institutions after a short period of feverish
and not always well-directed activity, showed symptoms of
organic exhaustion. The reformed tribunals, though incom-
parably better than their predecessors, did not give universal
satisfaction. In the imperial administration, the corruption
and long-established abuses which had momentarily vanished,
began to reappear. Industrial enterprises did not always succeed .
Education produced many unforeseen and undesirable practical
results. The liberty of the press not unfrequently degenerated
into licence, and sane liberalism was often replaced by socialistic
dreaming. In short, it became only too evident that there was
no royal road to national prosperity, and that Russia, like other
nations, must be content to advance slowly and laboriously
along the rough path of painful experience. In these circum-
stances sanguine enthusiasm naturally gave way to despondency,
and the reforming zeal of the government was replaced by tend-
encies of a decidedly reactionary kind. Partly from disappoint-
ment and nervous exhaustion, and partly from a conviction that
the country required rest in order to judge the practical results
of the reforms already accomplished, the tsar refrained from
further initiating new legislation, and the government gave it to
be understood that the epoch of the great reforms was closed.
In the younger ranks of the educated classes this state of
things produced keen dissatisfaction, which soon found vent
Revolu- i* 1 revolutionary agitation. At first the agitation
tioaary was of an academic character and was dealt with by
props- the press-censure; but it gradually took the form of
ganda. secre t associations, and the police had to interfere.
There were no great, well-organized secret societies, but there
were many small groups, composed chiefly of male and female
students of the universities and technical schools, which worked
independently for a common purpose. Finding that the walls
of autocracy could not be overturned by blasts of revolutionary
trumpets in the periodical press and in clandestinely printed
seditious proclamations, the young enthusiasts determined to
seek the support of the masses, or, as they termed it, " to go
in among the people " (idti v nardd). Under the disguise of
doctors, midwives, school teachers, governesses, factory hands
or common labourers, they sought to make proselytes among
the peasantry and the workmen in the industrial centres by
revolutionary pamphlets and oral explanations. For a time
the propaganda had very little success, because the unedu-
cated peasants and factory workers could not understand the
phraseology and abstract principles of socialism; but when the
propagandists descended to a lower platform and spread rumours
that the tsar had given all the land to the peasants, and was
prevented by the proprietors and officials from carrying out
his benevolent intentions, there was a serious danger of agrarian
disorders, and energetic measures were adopted by the authori-
ties. Wholesale arrests were made by the police, and many
of the accused were imprisoned or exiled to distant provinces,
some by the regular tribunals, and others by so-called " adminis-
trative procedure " without a formal trial. The activity of
the police and the sufferings of the victims naturally produced
intense excitement and bitterness among those who escaped
arrest, and a secret organization calling itself the Executive
Committee announced in its clandestinely printed organs that
the functionaries who distinguished themselves in the sup-
pression of the propaganda would be " removed." A number
of prominent officials were accordingly condemned to death
by this secret terrorist tribunal, and in some cases the sentences
were carried out. General Mezentsov, the head of the political
police, was assassinated in broad daylight in one of the principal
streets of St Petersburg, and in the provinces a good many
officials of various grades shared the same fate. As these acts
of terrorism had quite the opposite of the desired effect, re-
peated attempts were made on the life of the emperor, and at
last the carefully laid plans of the conspirators were successful.
On the I3th of March 1881, when returning from a military
parade to the Winter Palace, Alexander II. was terribly wounded
by the explosion of a bomb, and died shortly afterwards. (For
details of this revolutionary movement, see NIHILISM.)
In respect of foreign policy the reign of Alexander II. differed
widely from that of Nicholas. The Eastern Colossus no longer
inspired respect and fear in Europe. Until the country
had completely recovered from the exhaustion of the policy.
Crimean War the government remained in the back-
ground of European politics. Its attitude was graphically
described in the famous declaration of Prince Gorchakov:
" La Russie ne boude pas; elle se recueille." On one point,
however, this description was not accurate; Russia sulked
so far as Austria was concerned, for she could not forget that
the emperor Francis Joseph, by his wavering and unfriendly
conduct towards her during the Crimean War, had ill repaid her
assistance to the Habsburg Monarchy in 1849, and had fulfilled
the cynical prediction of Prince Schwarzenberg that his country
would astonish the world by her ingratitude. It was not
without secret satisfaction, therefore, that Prince Gorchakov
watched the repeated defeats of the Austrian army in the
Italian campaign of 1859, and he felt inclined to respond to the
advances made to him by Napoleon III.; but the germs of a
Russo-French alliance, which had come into existence immedi-
ately after the Crimean War, ripened very slowly, and they were
completely destroyed in 1863 when the French emperor wounded
Russian sensibilities deeply by giving moral and diplomatic
support to the Polish insurrection. On that occasion Bismarck
helped Gorchakov to ward off the threatened intervention of
France and England, and he thereby founded the cordial
relations which subsisted between the cabinets of Berlin and
St Petersburg down to 1878, and which contributed powerfully
to the creation of the German empire by defending the Prussian
cabinet against the jealousy and enmity of Austria and France.
In return for these services Bismarck helped Russia to recover
a portion of what she had lost by the Crimean War, for it was
thanks to his connivance and diplomatic support that she was
able in 1871 to denounce with impunity the clauses of the
treaty of Paris which limited Russian armament in the Black
Sea. Had the tsar been satisfied with this important success,
which enabled him to rebuild Sevastopol and construct a Black
Sea fleet, his reign might have been a peaceful and prosperous
one, but he tried to recover the remainder of what KUSSO-
had been lost by the Crimean War, the province of Turkish
Bessarabia and predominant influence in Turkey. War of
To effect this, he embarked on the Turkish War of l877 - 78 -
1877-78, which "ended in disappointment Though the cam-
paign enabled him to recover Bessarabia at the expense of his
Rumanian ally, it did not increase Russian prestige in the East,
because the Russian army was repeatedly repulsed by the
Turks, and when at last it reached Constantinople, it was pre-
vented from entering the city by the threatening attitude of
England and Austria. In the field of diplomacy there was like-
wise disappointment. The concessions extorted from the Porte
in the preliminary treaty of San Stefano (March 3, 1878) were
revived and considerably modified in favour of Turkey by the
congress of Berlin (June I3~july 13, 1878); see EUROPE: history.
Much greater success attended the efforts of Russian diplomacy
and Russian arms in Asia. By the treaty of Aigun (May 28,
1858), and without any military operations, the Russian
cession of a great part of the basin of the Amur was expansion
obtained from China. Six years later began the *'***
rapid expansion of Russia in Central Asia, and at the end
906
RUSSIA
[THE MODERN EMPIRE
of Alexander II. 's reign her domination had been firmly
established throughout nearly the whole of the vast expanse
of territory lying between Siberia on the north and Persia and
Afghanistan on the south, and stretching without interruption
from the eastern coast of the Caspian to the Chinese frontier.
The greater part of the territory was formally incorporated
into the empire, and the petty potentates, such as the khan of
Khiva and the amir of Bokhara, who were allowed to retain
a semblance of their former sovereignty, became obsequious
vassals of the White Tsar.
The assassination of Alexander II. by the terrorists made a
profound impression on his son and successor, and determined
Alex- the general character of his rule. Alexander III.
anticriii., (1881-94), who had never sympathized with liberalism
1881-94. m anv f ormj entered frankly on a reactionary policy,
which was pursued consistently during the whole of his
reign. He could not, of course, undo the great reforms of
Reaction his predecessor, but he amended them in such a way
under as to counteract what he considered the exaggerations
Alexander o f liberalism. Local self-government in the village
communes, the rural districts and the towns was
carefully restricted, and placed to a greater extent under the
control of the regular officials. The reformers of the previous
reign had endeavoured to make the emancipated peasantry
administratively and economically independent of the landed
proprietors; the conservatives of this later era, proceeding
on the assumption that the peasants did not know how to
make a proper use of the liberty prematurely conferred upon
them, endeavoured to re-establish the influence of the landed
proprietors by appointing from amongst them " land-chiefs,"
who were to exercise over the peasants of their district a certain
amount of patriarchal jurisdiction. The reformers of the
previous reign had sought to make the new local administration
(zemstvo) a system of genuine rural self-government and a basis
for future parliamentary institutions; these later conservatives
transformed it into a mere branch of the ordinary state adminis-
tration, and took precautions against its ever assuming a
political character. Even municipal institutions, which had
never shown much vitality, were subjected to similar restrictions.
In short, the various forms of local self-government, which were
intended to raise the nation gradually to the higher political
level of western Europe, were condemned as unsuited to the
national character and traditions, and as productive of disorder
and demoralization. They were accordingly replaced in great
measure by the old autocratic methods of administration, and
much of the administrative corruption which had been cured,
or at least repressed, by the reform enthusiasm again flourished
luxuriantly.
In a small but influential section of the educated classes there
was a conviction that the revolutionary tendencies, which
culminated in Nihilism and Anarchism, proceeded from the
adoption of cosmopolitan rather than national principles in all
spheres of educational and administrative activity, and that
the best remedy for the evils from which the country was
suffering was to be found in a return to the three great principles
of Nationality, Orthodoxy and Autocracy. This doctrine, which
had been invented by the Slavophils of a previous generation,
was early instilled into the mind of Alexander III. by Pobe-
donostsev (g.v.), who was one of his teachers, and later his most
trusted adviser, and its influence can be traced in all the more
important acts of the government during that monarch's reign.
His determination to maintain autocracy was officially pro-
claimed a few days after his accession. Nationality and
Eastern Orthodoxy, which are so closely connected as to be
almost blended together in the Russian mind, received not less
attention. Even in European Russia the regions near the
frontier contain a great variety of nationalities, languages
and religions. In Finland the population is composed of
Finnish-speaking and Swedish-speaking Protestants; the
Baltic provinces are inhabited by German-speaking, Lett-
speaking and Esth-speaking Lutherans; the inhabitants of
the south-western provinces are chiefly Polish-speaking Roman
Catholics and Yiddish-speaking Jews; in the Crimea and on
the Middle Volga there are a considerable number of Tatar-
speaking Mahommedans; and in the Caucasus there is a
conglomeration of races and languages such as is to be found
on no other portion of the earth's surface. Until recent times
these various nationalities were allowed to retain unmolested
the language, religion and peculiar local administration of
their ancestors; but when the new nationality doctrine came
into fashion, attempts were made to spread among them the
language, religion and administrative institutions of the
dominant race. In the reigns of Nicholas I. and Alexander II.
these attempts were merely occasional and intermittent;
under Alexander III. they were made systematically and
with very little consideration for the feelings, wishes and
interests of the people concerned. The local institutions
were assimilated to those of the purely Russian provinces;
the use of the Russian language was made obligatory in the
administration, in the tribunals and to some extent in the
schools; the spread of Eastern Orthodoxy was encouraged by
the authorities, whilst the other confessions were placed under
severe restrictions; foreigners were prohibited from possessing
landed property; and in some provinces administrative measures
were taken for making the land pass into the hands of Orthodox
Russians. In this process some of the local officials displayed
probably an amount of zeal beyond the intentions of the govern-
ment, but any attempt to oppose the movement was rigorously
punished. Of all the various races the Jews were the most
severely treated. The great majority of them had long been
confined to the western and south-western provinces. In the
rest of the country they had not been allowed to reside in the
villages, because their habits of keeping vodka-shops and
lending money at usurious interest were found to demoralize
the peasantry, and even in the towns their numbers and occupa-
tions had been restricted by the authorities. But, partly from
the usual laxity of the administration and partly from the
readiness of the Jews to conciliate the needy officials, the rules
had been by no means strictly applied. As soon as this fact
became known to Alexander III. he ordered the rules to be
strictly carried out, without considering what an enormous
amount of hardship and suffering such an order entailed. He
also caused new rules to be enacted by which his Jewish sub-
jects were heavily handicapped in education and professional
advancement. In short, complete Russification of all non-
Russian populations and institutions was the chief aim of the
government in home affairs.
In the foreign policy of the empire Alexander III. likewise
introduced considerable changes. During his father's reign
its main objects were: in the west, the maintenance
of the alliance with Germany; in south-eastern Europe, poiky
the recovery of what had been lost by the Crimean War,
the gradual weakening of the Sultan's authority, and the
increase of Russian influence among the minor Slav nation-
alities; in Asia, the gradual but cautious expansion of
Russian domination. In the reign of Alexander III. the first
of these objects was abandoned. Already, before his accession,
the bonds of friendship which united Russia to Germany had
been weakened by the action of Bismarck in giving to the cabinet
of St Petersburg at the Berlin congress less diplomatic support
than was expected, and by the Austro-German treaty of alliance
(October 1879), concluded avowedly for the purpose of opposing
Russian aggression; but the old relations were partly re-
established by secret negotiations in 1880, by a meeting of the
young tsar and the old emperor at Danzig in 1881, and by the
meeting of the three emperors at Skierniewice in 1884, by which
the Three Emperors' League was reconstituted for a term of
three years (see ^EUROPE: History). Gradually, however, a
great change took place in the tsar's views with regard to the
German alliance. He suspected Bismarck of harbouring hostile
designs against Russia, and he came to recognize that the
permanent weakening of France was not in accordance with
Russian political interests. He determined, therefore, to
oppose any further disturbance of the balance of power in favour
THE MODERN EMPIRE]
RUSSIA
907
of Germany, and when the treaty of Skierniewice expired in
1887 he declined to renew it. From that time Russia gravitated
slowly towards an alliance with France, and sought to create
a counterpoise against the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria
and Italy. The tsar was reluctant to bind himself by a formal
treaty, because the French government did not offer the re-
quisite guarantees of stability, and because he feared that it
might be induced, by the prospect of Russian support, to assume
an aggressive attitude towards Germany. He recognized,
however, that in the event of a great European war the two
nations would in all probability be found fighting on the same
side, and that if they made no preparations for concerted military
action they would be placed at a grave disadvantage in com-
parison with their opponents of the Triple Alliance, who were
believed to have already worked out an elaborate plan of
campaign. In view of this contingency the Russian and French
military authorities studied the military questions in common,
and the result of their labours was the preparation of a military
convention, which was finally ratified in 1894. During this
period the relations between the two governments and the
two countries became much more cordial. In the summer of
1891 the visit to Kronstadt of a French squadron under Admiral
Gervais was made the occasion for an enthusiastic demonstration
in favour of a Franco-Russian alliance; and two years later
(October 1893) a still more enthusiastic reception was given to
the Russian Admiral Avelan and his officers when they visited
Toulon and Paris. But it was not till after the death of Alex-
ander III. that the word " alliance " was used publicly by
official personages. In 1895 the term was first publicly em-
ployed by M. Ribot, then president of the council, in the Chamber
of Deputies, but the expressions he used were so vague that they
did not entirely remove the prevailing doubts as to the exist-
ence of a formal treaty. Two years later (August 1897), during
the official visit of M. Felix Faure to St Petersburg, a little
more light was thrown on the subject. In the complimentary
speeches delivered by the president of the French Republic and
the tsar, France and Russia were referred to as allies, and the
term " nations alliees " was afterwards repeatedly used on
occasions of a similar kind.
In south-eastern Europe Alexander III. adopted an attitude
of reserve and expectancy. He greatly increased and strength-
ened his Black Sea fleet, so as to be ready for any emergency
that might arise, and in June 1886, contrary to the declaration
made in the Treaty of Berlin (Art. 59), he ordered Batum to be
transformed into a fortified naval port, but in the Balkan Pen-
insula he persistently refrained, under a good deal of provoca-
tion, from any intervention that might lead to a European
war. The Bulgarian government, first under Prince Alexander
and afterwards under the direction of M. Stamboloff, pursued
systematically an anti-Russian policy, but the cabinet of St
Petersburg confined itself officially to breaking off diplomatic
relations and making diplomatic protests, and unofficially to
giving tacit encouragement to revolutionary agitation.
In Asia, during the reign of Alexander III. the expansion of
Russian domination made considerable progress. A few weeks
after his accession he sanctioned the annexation of the territory
of the Tekke Turkomans, which had been conquered by General
Skobelev, and in 1884 he formally annexed the Merv oasis without
military operations. He then allowed the military authorities
to push forward in the direction of Afghanistan, until in March
1885 an engagement took place between Russian and Afghan
forces at Par.jdeh. Thereupon the British government, which
had been for some time carrying on negotiations with the
cabinet of St Petersburg for a delimitation of the Russo-Afghan
frontier, intervened energetically and prepared for war; but a
compromise was effected, and after more than two years of
negotiation a delimitation convention was signed at St Peters-
burg on 20th July 1887. The forward movement of Russia
was thus stopped in the direction of Herat, but it continued
with great activity farther east in the region of the Pamirs,
until another Anglo-Russian convention was signed in 1895.
During the whole reign of Alexander III. the increase of terri-
tory in Central Asia is calculated by Russian authorities at
429,895 square kilometres.
On ist November 1894 Alexander III. died, and was succeeded
by his son, Nicholas II., who, partly from similarity of character
and partly from veneration for his father's memory,
continued the existing lines of policy in home and
foreign affairs. The expectation entertained in many /// >
quarters that great legislative changes would at once <*'<> of
be made in a liberal sense was not realized. When H*" **
an influential deputation from the province of Tver,
which had long enjoyed a reputation for liberalism, ventured to
hint in a loyal address that the time had come for changes
in the existing autocratic regime, they received a reply
which showed that the emperor had no intention of making
any such changes. Private suggestions in the same sense,
offered directly and respectfully, were no better received, and
no important changes were made in the legislation of the pre-
ceding reign. But a great alteration took place noiselessly in
the manner of carrying out the laws and ministerial circulars.
Though resembling his father in the main points of his character,
the young tsar was of a more humane disposition* and he was
much less of a doctrinaire. With his father's aspiration of
making Holy Russia a homogeneous empire he thoroughly
sympathized in principle, but he disliked the systematic perse-
cution of Jews, heretics and schismatics to which it gave rise,
and he let it be understood, without any formal order or pro-
clamation, that the severe measures hitherto employed would
not meet with his approval. The officials were not slow to take
the hint, and their undue zeal at once disappeared. Nicholas II.
showed, however, that his father's policy of Russification was
neither to be reversed nor to be abandoned. When an in-
fluential deputation was sent from Finland to St Petersburg to
represent to him respectfully that the officials were infringing
the local rights and privileges solemnly accorded at the time of
the annexation, it was refused an audience, and the leaders of
the movement were informed indirectly that local interests
must be subordinated to the general welfare of the empire. In
accordance with this declaration, the policy of Russification in
Finland was steadily maintained, and caused much disappoint-
ment, not only to the Finlanders, but also to the other nation-
alities who desired the preservation of their ancient rights.
In foreign affairs Nicholas II. likewise continued the policy
of his predecessor, with certain modifications suggested by the
change of circumstances. He strengthened the cordial under-
standing with France by a formal agreement, the terms of which
were not divulged, but he never encouraged the French govern-
ment in any aggressive designs, and he maintained friendly
relations with Germany. In the Balkan Peninsula a slight
change of attitude took place. Alexander III., indignant at
what he considered the ingratitude of the Slav nationalities,
remained coldly aloof, as far as possible, from all intervention
in their affairs. About three months after his death, de Giers,
who thoroughly approved of this attitude, died (26th January
1895), and his successor, Prince Lobanov, minister of foreign
affairs from igth March 1895 to 3oth August 1896, endeavoured
to recover what he considered Russia's legitimate influence
in the Slav world. For this purpose Russian diplomacy became
more active in south-eastern Europe. The result was perceived
first in Montenegro and Servia, and then in Bulgaria. Prince
Ferdinand of Bulgaria had long been anxious to legalize his
position by a reconciliation, and as soon as he got rid of Stam-
boloff he made advances to the Russian government. They
were well received, and a reconciliation was effected on certain
conditions, the first of which was that Prince Ferdinand's eldest
son and heir should become a member of the Eastern Orthodox
Church. As another means of opposing Western influence in
south-eastern Europe, Prince Lobanov inclined to the policy of
protecting rather than weakening the Ottoman empire. When
the British government seemed disposed to use coercive meas-
ures for the protection of the Armenians, he gave it clearly to
be understood that any such proceeding would be opposed by
Russia. After Prince Lobanov's death and the appointment
908
RUSSIA
[THE MODERN EMPIRE
of Count Muraviev as his successor in January 1897, this
tendency of Russian policy became less marked. In April 1897,
it is true, when the Greeks provoked a war with Turkey, they
received no support from St Petersburg, but at the close of the
war the tsar showed himself more friendly to them; and after-
wards, when it proved extremely difficult to find a suitable
person as governor-general of Crete (see CRETE), he recom-
mended the appointment of his cousin, Prince George of Greece
a selection which was pretty sure to accelerate the union of
the island with the Hellenic kingdom. How far the recom-
mendation was due to personal feeling, as opposed to political
considerations, it is impossible to say.
In Asia, after the accession of Nicholas II., the expansion
of Russia, following the line of least resistance and stimulated
Kussia by the construction of the Trans-Siberian railway,
in, j japan took the direction of northern China and the effete
la the little kingdom of Korea. A great part of the eastern
Far Bast, section of the railway was constructed on Chinese
territory, and elaborate preparations were made for bringing
Manchuria within the sphere of Russian influence. With
this view, the cabinet of St Petersburg, at the close of the
Chino-Japanese War in 1895, objected to all annexations by
Japan in that quarter, and insisted on having the treaty of
Shimonoseki modified accordingly. Subsequently, by ob-
taining from the Tsungli-Yaman a long lease of Port Arthur
and Talienwan and a concession to unite those ports with
the Trans-Siberian by a branch line, she tightened her hold
on that portion of the Chinese empire and prepared to complete
the work of aggression by so-called " spontaneous infiltration."
From Manchuria, it was assumed, the political influence and
spontaneous infiltration would naturally spread to Korea, and
on the deeply indented coast of the Hermit Kingdom might
be constructed new ports and arsenals more spacious and
strategically more important than Port Arthur.
This grandiose project was unexpectedly destroyed by the
energetic resistance of Japan, who had ear-marked the Hermit
Kingdom for herself, and who declared plainly that she would
never tolerate the exclusive influence of Russia in Manchuria.
In vain the Russian diplomatists sought to overcome her
opposition by dilatory negotiations, in the firm conviction
that a small island kingdom in the Pacific would never have
the audacity to attack a power which had conquered and
absorbed the whole of Northern Asia. Their calculations proved
erroneous. Convinced that the onward march of the Colossus
could not be permanently arrested by mere diplomatic con-
ventions, the cabinet of Tokio suddenly broke off diplomatic
relations and commenced hostilities (February 8, 1904). For
Russia the war proved a series of uninterrupted reverses both
on land and on sea, until it was terminated by the treaty of
Portsmouth in October 1905 (see RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR).
What contributed powerfully to the conclusion of peace
was the fact that the Russian government was hampered by
Revoto- internal troubles. The old Liberal movement and the
tionary terrorist organizations which had been suppressed by
movement Alexander III. were being resuscitated, and the liberal
in Russia. anc j revolutionary leaders, taking advantage of the
unpopularity of the war, were agitating for the convocation
of a Constituent Assembly, which should replace the hated
bureaucratic regime by democratic institutions. With great
reluctance the tsar consented to convoke a consultative cham-
ber of deputies as a sop to public opinion, but that conces-
sion stimulated rather than calmed public opinion, and
shortly after the conclusion of peace the Liberals and the
Revolutionaries, combining their forces, brought about a
general strike in St Petersburg together with the stoppage of
railway communication all over the empire. Panic-stricken
for a moment, the government issued a manifesto proclaiming
Liberal principles and promising in vague language all manner
of political reforms (October 30, 1905), and when the inordinate
expectations created by this extraordinary document were not
at once realized, preparations were made for overthrowing
the existing regime by means of an armed insurrection. Many
believed that the end of autocracy had come, and an extem-
porized Council of Labour Deputies, anxious to play the part
of a Comilt de Solut Public, was ready to take over the supreme
power and exercise it in the interests of the proletariat. In
reality the revolutionary movement was not so strong and
the government not so weak as was generally supposed.
Mutinies occurred, it is true, during the next few weeks in
Kronstadt and Sevastopol, and in December there was street-
fighting for several days in Moscow, but such serious disorders
were speedily suppressed, and thereafter the revolutionary
manifestations were confined to mass meetings, processions
with red flags, attempts on the lives of officials and policemen,
robberies under arms and agrarian disturbances.
Notwithstanding the unsatisfactory results of the October
manifesto the tsar kept his promise of convoking a legislative
assembly, and on the icth of May 1906 the first Duma was
opened by his majesty in person; but it was so systematically
and violently hostile to the government and so determined
to obtain executive, in addition to its legislative, functions,
that it was dissolved on the 23rd of July without any legislative
work being accomplished. The second Duma, which met on
the sth of March 1907, avoided some of the mistakes of its
predecessor, but as a legislative assembly it showed itself
equally incompetent, and a large section of its members were
implicated in a well-organized attempt to spread sedition in
the army by revolutionary propaganda. It was dissolved,
therefore, on the i6th of June 1907, and the electoral law
which had given such unsatisfactory results was modified by
imperial ukase.
The third Duma was subsequently convoked for the I4th of
November 1907. (D. M. W.)
Development of the Russian Constitution. At the end of 1910
the Russian revolution, which seemed at one time to promise
an overturn as complete as that of the ancien regime in France,
would seem to have entered on a path of orderly and conservative
development, and it is possible, now that the smoke of combat
has cleared away, to form some estimate of the forces through
the interplay of which this result has been achieved. At the
outset the superficial resemblance between the revolutionary
movement in Russia and that of 1789 in France was j- fte
striking: there was the same breakdown of the Russian
traditional machinery of government, the same general revoiu-
outcry for control by a representative national assembly, ** BB *
the same gradual and reluctant concessions wrung from the
crown under pressure of disaffection in the army, popular
imeutes, the assassination of unpopular officials, and the burning
of country houses by organized bands of peasants. Similar, too,
was the revelation, when freedom of speech was at last allowed,
of the unhappy effect of the long divorce of the intellect of the
country from any experience of practical politics. But here the
analogy breaks down. France in 1789, though its ancient pro-
vincial boundaries survived, had long since been welded into
a nation conscious of its common interests; Russia remains a
vast empire, composed of the most heterogeneous, sometimes
even mutually hostile, elements, whose antagonisms were bound
to be an element of weakness in any assembly truly representative
of all sections of the people. In France the Revolution had
been the work of the middle classes; in Russia an indigenous
middle class has, comparatively speaking, no existence, the
peasants forming the overwhelming majority of the population. 1
The supreme peril to the autocracy in Russia lay in the genuine
grievances of the peasants, less political than economic, which
had opened their minds to revolutionary propaganda. These
grievances once removed, and their legitimate land-hunger
satisfied, the peasants would become a bulwark of the estab-
lished order, whatever that might be, as had happened in similar
circumstances in Austria in 1849. As for the revolutionary
" intellectuals," without the lever of agrarian discontent they
1 In 1897 only 15% of the population were engaged in commerce
or industry, including the work-people. Of the middle class,
moreover, a large proportion were Jews and Germans. The
peasants numbered 75 %.
THE MODERN CONSTITUTION]
RUSSIA
909
were practically powerless, the more so as their political activity
consisted mainly in " building theories for an imaginary world."
The bourgeois revolutionists of France had all been phUosophes,
but their philosophy had at least paid lip-service to " reason ";
the Russian revolutionists who formed the majority of the first
and second Dumas, as though inspired by the exalted nonsense
preached by Tolstoi, 1 subordinated reason to sentiment, until
their impracticable temper having been advertised to all the
world it became easy for the government to treat them as a
mere excrescence on the national life, a malignant growth to be
removed by a necessary operation. In 1909 the number of
exiles for political reasons from Russia was reckoned at 180,000;
but the third Duma, purged and packed by an ingenious franchise
system, was in its third year passing measures of beneficent
legislation, in complete harmony with the government. It is
proposed to trace briefly the steps by which this result was
obtained.
In order to explain the course of the revolution which came to a
head in 1905 it is necessary to say a few words about constitu-
( tional plans and liberal experiments, initiated from
reforms, above, which had preceded it. Of the ancient zemski
sobor (assembly of the country) it is unnecessary here to
say much, though Nicholas II. was pressed by the more reaction-
ary elements to model his parliament on this rough equivalent of
the Western states-general. The zemski sobor, which had played
a considerable part in the struggle of the tsars against the great
boyars in the lyth century, had met but once since the days of
Peter the Great. 2 The origin of the present constitution of
Russia must be sought, not in this ancient and obsolete institu-
tion, but in the artificial constitution elaborated by Mikhail
Speranski (q.v.) in 1809 at the instance of the emperor Alexander
I. Of Speranski's plan only the establishment of the Imperial
Council (January ist, 1810) was realized in his lifetime. 3 In
1864, however, the emperor Alexander II. carried the scheme
a step further by the creation of elected provincial assemblies
(zemstvos), to which in 1870 elected municipal councils (dumas)
were added. The opportunity thus given for debate naturally
stimulated the movement in favour of constitutional govern-
ment, which received new impulses from the sympathetic attitude
of the emperor Alexander II., his grant in 1879 of a constitution
to the liberated principality of Bulgaria, and the multiplication
of Nihilist outrages which pointed to the necessity of conciliating
Liberal opinion in order to present a united front against re-
volutionary agitation. In January 1881 Count Loris-Melikov,
minister of the interior, proposed to convene a " general com-
mission " to examine legislative proposals before these were laid
before the Imperial Council; this commission was to consist of
members elected by the zemstws and the larger towns, and
others nominated in the provinces having no zemstws. The
plan was approved by Alexander II. on the very morning of
his assassination (February i7th, 1881), but it was never pro-
mulgated. The new tsar, Alexander III., was an apt pupil of his
tutor Pobedonostsev (q.v.), the celebrated procurator of the
Reaction Holy Synod, for whom the representative system was
under " a modern lie," and his reign covered a period of frank
Alexander reac ti O n, during which there was not only no question of
granting any fresh liberties but those already conceded
(e.g. the principle of the separation of the administrative and
judicial functions) were largely curtailed. The result of this
policy of repression, associated as it was with gross incom-
petence and corruption in the organs of the administration,
was the rapid spread of the revolutionary movement, which
gradually permeated the intelligent classes and ultimately
1 " Tolstoi' observed that that was argument and reason, and
that he paid no attention to them; he only guided himself (he
said) by sentiment, which he felt sure told him what was good
and right! " Interview with Metchnikoff in Sir Ray Lankester's
Science from an Easy Chair, p. 43.
2 In 1767, when Catherine II. in a mood of encyclopaedist
enlightenment summoned it. The meeting confined its attention
to economic questions, and had no political character whatever.
3 In his speech at the opening of the first Polish parliament at
Warsaw in 1818, Alexander I. publicly announced his intention
of granting free institutions to Russia.
affected even the stolid and apparently immovable masses of
the peasantry.
The movement came to a head, as a result of the disasters
of the war with Japan, in 1904. The assassination of the
minister of the interior Plehve, on the I4th of July, taflueace
by the revolutionist Sazonov was remarkable as a of the
symptom mainly owing to the widespread sympathy Japanese
of the European press of all shades of opinion with War '
the motives of the assassin. It was clear that the system with
which the murdered minister's name had been associated stood
all but universally condemned, and in the appointment of
the conciliatory Prince Sviatopolk-Mirski as his successor
the tsar himself seemed to concede the necessity for a change
of policy. 4 In November, with the tacit consent of Meeting
the police, a private assembly of eminent members o/zemat-
of local zemstvos and municipal dumas was held vos-
in St Petersburg to discuss the situation. The majority of
this decided to approach the crown with a suggestion for
a reform of the Russian system on the basis of a national
representative assembly, an extension of local self-government,
and wider guarantees for individual liberty. The day on
which the deputation laid these views before Prince Mirski
was hailed by public opinion as recalling the sth of May 1789,
the date of the meeting of the French states-general at
Versailles. The emperor, however, whatever his own views,
was surrounded by reactionary influences, of which the most
powerful were the empress-mother, Pobedonostsev the pro-
curator of the Holy Synod, Count Muraviev and the Grand-
duke Sergius. The imperial ukaz of the izth of December
enunciating reforms affecting the peasants, workmen and
local zemstvos failed to satisfy public opinion; for there was
no word in it of constitutional government. Petitions con-
tinued to flow in to the emperor's cabinet, praying for a national
representation, from the zemstvos, from the nobles Agitation
and from the professional classes, and their moral and
was enforced by general agitation, by partial strikes, outrages.
and by outrages which culminated at Moscow in the
murder of the Grand-duke Sergius (February 4th, 1905). In
the imperial counsels the resisting forces still seemed to have
the upper hand. Prince Mirski resigned, his resignation being
immediately followed by a reactionary imperial manifesto
reaffirming the principle of autocracy (February i8th).
Bulygin, Mirski's successor, had no knowledge of this until
after its publication; he hastened to the tsar and obtained
the issue on the same day of a rescript which, while reserving
the " fundamental laws of the empire " inviolate, stated the
emperor's intention of summoning the representatives of the
people to aid in " the preparation and examination of legislative
proposals." A commission of inquiry, under the emperor's
presidency, was now established to elaborate the means for
carrying this promise into effect. On the 6th of June, in reply
to a deputation of the second congress of zemstvos headed by
Prince Trubetzkoi, the emperor promised the speedy convoca-
tion of a National Assembly. When, however, on the 6th of
August, the new law was promulgated, it was found that the
" Imperial Duma " 6 was to be no more than a consultative
body, charged with the examination of legislative proposals
before these came before the Imperial Council, the duty
and right of passing them into law being still reserved for the
autocrat alone. (The members of the Duma, moreover, were
placed at the mercy of the government by a clause empower-
ing the Directing Senate to suspend or deprive them.) The
promulgation of this truncated constitution was greeted by a
furious agitation, culminating in September in a general strike,
rightly described as the most remarkable political phenomenon
of modern times. For days the whole mechanism of
civilized existence in Russia was at a standstill, all intercourse
4 Sazonov's sentence of twenty years' hard labour was commuted
by Nicliolas II. to fourteen years.
6 Duma = council, assembly (dumat, to think over, reflect upon).
The name was first suggested by Speranski, under Alexander I.,
for the suggested parliament of delegates from the zemstvos and
local dumas.
910
RUSSIA
[THE MODERN CONSTITUTION
Russian
People."
with the outside world cut off; until at last the govern-
ment was forced to yield, and on the i7/3oth of
</O"H/'" October 1905 the tsar issued the famous manifesto
manifesto promising to Russia a constitution based on the
of October main principles of modern Liberalism: national re-
'1905' presentation, freedom of conscience and opinion,
guarantees for individual liberty.
The enormous programme of constitutional reform fore-
shadowed in the manifesto had to be elaborated in haste by
Count Witte, the minister of the interior, under circumstances
by no means promising. The organs of government seemed
paralysed by the repudiation of the principle on which their
authority was based, and the empire to be in danger of falling
into complete anarchy. The revolutionary terrorists took
advantage of the situation to multiply outrages; popular
agitation was fomented by a multitude of new journals preaching
every kind of extravagant doctrine, now that the censor no
The longer dared to act; in December the trouble
"Uoioa culminated in a formidable rising in Moscow. The
of the revolutionary terrorists were countered by the
terrorists of the reaction who, under the name of
" the Union of the Russian People," began an
organized extermination of the elements supposed to be
hostile to the traditional regime. The " black band " (chernaya
sotnia), or " black hundreds," as they were branded by public
opinion, directed their attacks especially against the Jews,
and pogroms, 1 i.e. organized wholesale robbery and murder
of Jews, occurred in many places, it was believed with the
connivance of the police and veiled approval in exalted
quarters.
Meanwhile the political parties which were to divide the
new Duma had taken shape. Apart from the extremists on
Develop- one s 'd e or t ^ le otner > frank reactionaries on the
meat of Right and Socialists on the Left, two main divisions
political of opinion revealed themselves in the congresses of
parties. ^ e zemstvos that met at Moscow in September and
November. In the former there had been a fusion between the
Radicals, supporters of the autonomy of Poland and a federal
constitution for the empire, and the Independence party
(Osvobozhdenya) formed by political exiles at Paris in 1903,
the fusion taking the name of Constitutional Democrats, known
(from a word-play on the initials K.D.) as " Cadets." The
more moderate elements found a rallying cry in the manifesto
of October, took the name of " the Party of 17 October," and
became known as " Octobrists." In the zemstvo congress of
November the " Cadets " protested against the " grant " of
a constitution already elaborated, and demanded the con-
vocation of a Constituent Assembly. The Octobrists, on the
other hand, supported Count Witte's moderate programme,
the most important provisions of which were the extension
(n December 1905) of the suffrage under the stillborn con-
stitution of August, and (20 February 1906) the reorganization
of the Duma as the Lower House, and of the Imperial Council
(half of which was to be elective) as the Upper House 2 in the
new parliament.
The elections were held in March 1906, and on the 27th of
April the emperor Nicholas II. solemnly opened the first Duma
The first ^ ^ Empire. The " Cadets " commanded an over-
Duma, whelming majority in the Lower House, and their
intractable temper and ignorance of affairs became at
once apparent. The address in reply to the speech from the
throne, voted after a debate in which abstract theories had
triumphed over common sense, demanded universal suffrage,
the establishment of pure parliamentary government, the
abolition of capital punishment, the expropriation of the land-
lords, a political amnesty, and the suppression of the Imperial
Council. When the minister of the interior, M. Goremykin,
who had succeeded Witte at the head of the government, met
these preposterous demands with a flat refusal, the House Voted,
on the motion of M. Kuzmin-Karaviev, for an appeal to the
1 Pogrom = pillage, destruction.
1 See the section Government and Administration, above.
people (July 4).* Four days later the government dissolved the
Duma, M. Goremykin at the same time being replaced by M.
Stolypin. The " Cadets " refused to accept this action and, in
imitation of the famous meeting in the tennis-court at Versailles,
adjourned to Vyborg in Finland, where, under the ex- Tlle
president of the Duma, M. Muromtsov, they drew up Vyborg
and issued a manifesto calling on the Russian people man/-
to refuse taxes and military service. Its sole result, fest0 '
apart from the punishment which afterwards fell on its authors, 4
was to show how little the majority of the dissolved Duma had
represented the Russian people. Isolated mutinies in the army
followed, and terrorist outrages here and there notably, in
August, the dastardly bomb outrage in the Isle of Apothecaries
at St Petersburg, which seriously injured one of M. Stolypin's
little daughters; but the mass of the nation and of the army
remained wholly unmoved, while the repetition of troubles was
made more difficult by the establishment of field courts martial
with summary powers.
The second Duma met on the 6th of March 1907. M. Stolypin
had not ventured to alter the electoral law without parliamentary
consent, but with the aid of a complaisant Senate the pro- The
visions of the existing law were interpreted in a restrictive steonrf
sense for the purpose of influencing the elections. The Duma.
result was, however, hardly more satisfactory to the government.
The " Cadets," it is true, lost many seats both to the Socialists
and to the extreme Right, but they held the balance of the House,
of which the Octobrists and the Right together only constituted
one-fifth, and their leader, M. Golovin, was elected president of
the House. The temper of the second Duma, was, indeed, even
more democratic than that of the first; but M. Stolypin did his
best to work in harmony 'with it, realizing that under the
existing law another dissolution could but lead to a like result,
and shrinking from the only alternative an alteration of the law
by a coup d'etat, a course which could only be justified on the plea
of extreme necessity. On the igth of March he laid before the
House his programme of reforms, which included the emancipa-
tion of the peasants from the control of the communes and the
handing over to them of the crown lands and imperial estates.
The majority, however, refused to be reconciled. The abolition
of the field courts martial was demanded; on the i3th of April
a bill for the expropriation of landlords was carried by a two-
thirds majority, 5 and the 3oth the Army Bill would have been
lost but for the Polish vote. The crisis came with the discovery
of a treasonable plot for the subornation of the army, in which
many Socialist members of the Duma were involved. On the
1 4th of June Stolypin's proposal for the arrest of 16 members and
the indictment of 55 was shelved by being referred to a committee.
The excuse for which the government had been waiting
was thus provided, and two days later the Duma was
dissolved. An imperial ukaz fixed the new elections
for the i4th of September, and the meeting of the
third Duma for the i4th of November; at the same
time, in violation of the October manifesto, the electoral law
was altered, so as to secure a representation at once more
Russian and more conservative. The non-Russian frontier
provinces (okrainas) had even before been under-represented
(one member for every 350,000 inhabitants, as against one for
every 250,000 in the central provinces) ; the members returned by
Poland, the Caucasus and Siberia were now reduced from 89 to
39, those from the Central Asian steppes (23) were swept away
altogether; the total number of deputies was reduced from 524
to 442. Even more drastic were the changes in the electoral
machinery, by far the most complicated in Europe, established
by the law of 1905. This was based on the principle of indirect
3 Of this M. Chasles remarks that it would have been a revolu-
tionary act even in republican France.
4 They were condemned in 1907 to three months' imprisonment
and loss of civil rights.
6 This was reversed, on the 8th of June, by 238 votes to 191,
after a patient exposition by M. Stolypin of the fact that there
was plenty of land in Russia for the peasants without any attack
on private property.
6 The electoral law covers 107 octavo pages.
Alteration
by ukaz
of the
electoral
law.
THE MODERN CONSTITUTION]
RUSSIA
911
election, through a series of electoral colleges. It was a simple
matter to manipulate these so as to throw the effective power
into the hands of the propertied classes without ostensibly
The depriving any one of the vote. 1 The result was that
third in the third Duma, which met on the i $th of November
Duma. 1907, the conservative Right preponderated as much
as the Left had done in its two predecessors. Its president,
M. Khomiakov, had been one of the founders of the " Union
of 17 October," but even the Octobrists formed but a third of
the House and were compelled to act with the reactionaries
of the Right; and the vice-president, Prince Volkonsky, was a
member of the Union of the Russian People.
On the whole, the new Duma was fairly representative of the
changed temper of the Russian people, disillusioned and weary
of anarchy. The government had done wisely in obscuring
the passion for democratic ideals by an appeal to Russian
chauvinism, an appeal soon to bear fruit in disuniting the
revolutionary parties. The congress of zemstvos, hitherto the
focus of Liberalism, had petitioned the government, before the
opening of the third Duma, to take measures for the restoration
of order. The authorities began to exhibit something of their
old spirit. M. Dubrovin, president of the Union of the Russian
People and organizer of pogroms, having written a letter of con-
gratulation to the tsar on the occasion of the coup d'etat, received
a gracious reply; the hideous reign of terror of the " Black
Hundred " in Odessa did not prevent the Grand-duke Constan-
tine from accepting the badge of membership of the Union.
The ordinary laws, too, had been suspended; the fining and
confiscation of newspapers had been resumed, and the " Cadets "
had been forbidden to hold a congress. All this, however,
did not argue an intention on the part of the government to
revert to the autocratic status quo. M. Stolypin indeed defended
the coup d'tlal in the Duma on the ground that the autocrat
had merely altered what the autocrat had originally granted;
but, while laying stress on the necessity for restoring order in
the body politic, he announced a long programme of reforms,
including agrarian measures, reform of local government and
its extension in the frontier provinces, and state insurance of
workmen. The most far-reaching of these reforms, carried in
the first session of the third Duma, was the partial abolition
of the communal and family ownership of land, which involved
the establishment of a class of true peasant-proprietors. 2 Be-
sides this, the Duma had passed before its adjournment on the
28th of October 1908 much useful legislation, some 300 bills in
all, including two for the building of important railways on the
Amur and in Siberia. Nor had it exhibited by any means
a wholly docile spirit. On the 7th of June, for instance, M.
Guchkov attacked the maladministration in the navy, pointing
out that no reforms were possible so long as grand-dukes were
at the head of its departments. The Duma endorsed this all
but unanimously, and as the result the Grand-dukes Peter and
Sergius resigned their posts of inspector-general of Engineers
and Ordnance respectively, and the' Grand-duke Nicholas his
chairmanship of the Committee of National Defence. A year
later the Duma again came into collision with the government
in a matter highly illuminating of the struggle between the
ancient traditions and the new ideas in Russia. On the
i4th of June 1909 a bill was passed removing the disabilities
hitherto attaching to some 15,000,000 of Old Believers. In spite
of strenuous government opposition, inspired by the authorities
of the Orthodox Church, amendments were carried allowing dissi-
dent ministers to assume ecclesiastical titles and to preach, and
permitting Christians to join non-Christian religions or even to
describe themselves as unbelievers. Thus a step forward was made
in securing the freedom of conscience proclaimed in the October
manifesto and denounced by a synod of Orthodox bishops at Kiev
in 1908, though the rights granted by the Duma were seriously
curtailed in the Imperial Council, and have been largely
rendered a dead letter by the action of the administration.
1 See above, Government and Administration.
* The law establishing individual peasant-proprietorship was
passed on December 2 1st.
Meanwhile the pan-Russian movement had been gaining
apace. At first it had seemed that the new birth of Russia
would lead to a revival of pan-Slavism, directed not, /v eo -s/av
as in the middle of the iyth century, against Austria aadpao-
but against Germany. In May 1908 a deputation of Ku**iaa
the Slav members of the Austrian Reichsrat paid a "
ceremonial visit to the Duma at St Petersburg, and in
this " neo-Slav " demonstration M. Dmowski, leader of the Polish
party in the Duma, took part. In the following year, however,
the situation was completely altered, a result due to the grow-
ing anti-Polish feeling in the Duma and, more especially, to the
support given by the Austrian Slavs to the annexation of Bosnia
and Herzegovina. This event caused the utmost excitement in
Russia; the crown prince of Servia, who arrived in St Peters-
burg on the 28th of October to ask for the armed assistance of
the tsar, was received with enthusiasm by all classes of the
people; and, though armed intervention was impossible, M.
Isvolsky took the lead in the abortive demand for a European
conference (see EUROPE: History). Neo-Slav dreams were now
replaced by a passionate desire to consolidate the Russian
empire on a purely Russian basis. Even the remnant of the
" Cadets " had by this time renounced their sympathy with
Polish aspirations, and in the matter of Finland the Duma
proved itself even more imperial than the emperor himself.
The Finnish question is dealt with elsewhere (see FINLAND:
History). Here it may suffice to mention, as illustrating the
changed temper of the Russian national assembly, TheDuma
that the Russian majority of the Duma included "'
among the imperial questions in Finland which the
Finnish diet ought to refer to the imperial legislature not
only all military matters as the tsar demanded (Rescript
of October 14) but the question of the use of the Russian
language in the grand-duchy, the principles of the Finnish
administration, police, justice, education, formation of business
companies and of associations, public meetings, the press, the
customs tariff, the monetary system, means of communication,
and the pilot and lighthouse system. The old tendency illus-
trated by the outcome of the revolutionary movements of 1848
was once more in evidence the tendency of merely artificial
theories of democratic liberty to succumb to the immemorial
instinct of race and race ascendancy.
As an international force Russia had been, of course, all but
completely crippled by the outcome of the Japanese War and
the subsequent revolution. Her recovery, however, i n t?r-
revealed the immense reserves of her strength. On national
the 30th of July 1907 she signed a convention with
Japan of mutual respect for treaty and territorial
rights, and guaranteeing the integrity of China. On the 3ist
of August of the same year the long period of mutual
suspicion between Great Britain and Russia was closed by
a convention for an amicable settlement of all questions likely
to disturb the relations of the two Powers in Asia generally,
including the demarcation of Persia into spheres of influence
(see PERSIA: History). This new entente with Great Britain,
cemented by a visit paid by King Edward VII. to the tsar at
Reval on the 9th June 1908, helped to knit close once more the
loosened alliance with France, and so to preserve the threatened
balance of Europe. That in the work of restoring its military
position the Russian government had the support of the Russian
parliament was proved by a subsidy of 11,000,000 voted by the
Duma, on the 3oth of December 1909, for the special service of
the reorganization and redistribution of the army. (W. A. P.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The history of Russia, especially that of the last
few years, has formed the subject of a vast number of works, of
very varying authority, in many languages. In Russia itself the
first great history of the Russian empire was that of N. M. Karamzin
(12 vols., St Petersburg, 1818^-29; French translation, 1 1 vols.,
1819-26), which, though reactionary in tone and largely super-
seded, remains a classic. The next monumental history of Russia,
that of Sergei Mikhailovich Soloviev (29 vols., Moscow, 1863-75),
marks the enormous advance made since Karamzin's day in his-
torical method and research. Soloviev's history, from the earliest
times to 1774, is based throughout on original investigation of
sources, and therefore, though inferior to Karamzin's work as
912
RUSSIAN LANGUAGE
literature, is incomparably superior to it in authority. Of other
works it is only possible to give a classified selection. In general,
the reader must be warned that most Russian works on history,
especially those dealing with recent years, are inspired by a violent
party bias the inevitable result of the conflict of diametrically
opposed political ideals,-^and this quality is shared by not a few
foreign books about Russia.
Sources. See Sienkiewicz, Recueil de documents relatifs & la
Russie, 1502-1842 (1852); Soloviev, Russian Historical Writers
(Pisateli russkoe ist. in collected works, vol. xviii. sqq.); Nikolai
Ivanovich Kostomarov (1817-1885), professor of history at Kiev
and St Petersburg, whose monographs and researches are collected
in his Sobranye sochinenye (collected works, 21 vols., St Petersburg,
1903-6); V. Burtscv and S. M. Kraychinski, Za sto lyet, 1800-
1896. Documents relating to the political and social movements in
Russia (London, 1897). There is a French translation by L. Leger
(Paris, 1884), of the chronicle of Nestor, the main source Tor
early Russian history. The publications of the Imperial Russian
Historical Society of St Petersburg, amounting to upwards of
100 vols., are of great value. For diplomatic history, see F. F.
de Martens, Recueil des traites conclus par la Russie avec les puis-
sances etrangkres (St Petersburg, from 1878 still incomplete), which
contains valuable historical introductions based on unpublished
sources; A. N. Rambaud, Recueil des instructions aux ambassadeurs
de France, vols. viii. and ix., Russie, 1657-1793 (Paris, 1890).
General Works. In addition to those of Karamzin and Soloviev,
already mentioned, see R. Nisbet Bain, The Pupils of Peter the
Great . . . 1697-1740 (Westminster, 1897); The Daughter of Peter
the Great . . . A History of Russian Diplomacy under the Empress
Elizabeth Petrovna, 1741-1762 (1899); The First Romanovs, 1613-
1725 (1905); K. N. Bestuzhev-Riumin, Russkaya istoriya (2 vols.,
St Petersburg, 1872), especially for internal history and social
life; A. Bruckner, Gesch. Russlands . . . bis zum Tode Peters des
Grossen (Gotha, 1896); Gaston Crdhange, Histoire de la Russie
depuis la mart de Paul I. (Paris, 1882; 2nd ed. extended to 1894,
ibid. 1896); T. von Bernhardi, Geschichte Russlands . . . 18141831
(3 vols., Leipzig, 1868-78); j. W. A. von Eckardt, Russland vor
und nach dem Kriege (1879; Eng. trans. 1880); N. Flerovski,
Three Political Systems: Nicholas I., Alexander II., Alexander HI.
(Russ., Geneva, 1897; Germ, transl., Berlin, 1898); V. Kluchevski,
Kurs russkoe istoriy (1904-8); A. Kleinschmidt, Drei Jahrhun-
derte russischer Geschichte, 1598-1808 (Berlin, 1898); A. Krausse,
Russia in Asia, 1558-1899 (1899); W. R. Morfill, Russia (Story
of the Nations Series, New York, 1891), History of Russia (New
York, 1902); H. H. Munro, Rise of the Russian Empire (Boston,
1900); F. Neuburger, Russland unter Kaiser Alexander III.
(Berlin, 1895); W. R. S. Ralston, Early Russian History~i6i3
(1874); A. N. Rambaud, Histoire de la Russie (Paris, 1878; new
ed. 1900; Eng. transl. of 1st ed. by L. B. Lang, 2 vols., 1879);
Theodor Schiemann, Russland, Polen und Livland bis im xvii.
Jahrhundert (2 vols., in Oncken's Allgemeine Gesch., Berlin, 1886-
87), Gesch. Russlands unter Kaiser Nikolaus I. (vol. i., " Kaiser
Alexander I. und die Ergebnisse seiner Lebensarbeit," Berlin,
1904, vol. ii. 1908), with appendices giving many unpublished
documents; J. H. Schnitzler, Gesch. des Russischen Reichs (Leipzig,
1874); F. H. Skrine, The Expansion of Russia, 1815-1900 (Cam-
bridge, 1903); V. L. P. Thomsen, The Relation between Ancient
Russia and Scandinavia and the Origin of the Russian State (London,
1877); the series of works by K. Waliszewski under the general
title of Les Origines de la Russie moderne: L'Heritage de Pierre le
Grand, 1725-41 (Paris, 1900), La Derniere des Romanov (1902), La
Crise revolutionnaire, 1584-1614 (1906), Le Berceau d'une dynastie.
Les Premiers Romanov (1909). For the relations of Russia with
the papacy, see T. Pierling, Russie et le Saint-Siege, 1417-1758
(4 vols., 1896-1907). The only history of Little Russia is that in
Russian by D. N. Bantysh-Kamenski (Moscow, 1842). Of the
numerous^books on the Russian revolutionary movement, besides
those of " Stepniak," Kropptkin, and other revolutionary writers,
the following may be mentioned: C. A. de Arnaud, The New Era
in Russia (Washington, 1890); E. von der Briiggen, Das heulige
Russland (Eng. trans. "Russia of To-day," 1904); G. Drage
Russian Affairs (New York, 1904) ; P. N. Miliukov, La Crise russe
(Paris, 1907; an earlier English edition appeared in 1905); Bernard
Pares, Russia and Reform (1907); A. Thun, Geschichte der revolu-
tionaren Bewegungen in Russland (Leipzig, 1883) ; Konni Zilliacus,
The Russian Revolutionary movement (London, 1905).
Economic Works. Georges Alfassa, La Crise agraire en Russie
(Paris, 1905) ; Anatole Leroy-Beaulieu, L'Empire des Tsars (3 vols.,
Paris, 1882-88; Eng. trans., 1896), an admirable account, partly
historical, partly based on personal observation of the government,
religion and the social and economic conditions of Russia; Combes
de Lestrade, La Russie economique et sociale (Paris, 1896);
Nikolai " (pseudonym of Danielson), Histoire des developpement
economique de la Russie depuis I' abolition du servage (Paris, 1899)
Law and Constitution. A. Chasles, Le Parlement russe (Paris
1910); H. D. Edwards, Das Staatsrecht Russlands (vol. iv of
Marquardsen's Handbuch des offentlichen Rechts, Freiburg 1888)-
S. N Harper, The New Electoral Law for the Russian Duma (Chicago,
I 9); J- Kapnist, Code d' organisation judiciaire russe (Paris,
1893); V. Kluchovski, Boyarskaya Duma (1882), an account of
the boyars' duma from the loth to the I7th century; Maksim M.
Kovalevsky, Modern Customs and Ancient Laws of Russia (London,
1891); Max von Ottingen, Abriss des russischen Staatsrechts (1899);
F. de Rocca, Les Assembles dans la Russie ancienne; Zemskie
Sobers (1899); L. Z. Slonimsky, Pplit. entsiklopyediya (t. I, 1907),
compiled from the Liberal standpoint.
There is a fuller bibliography of Russian history in vol. xvii.
of the Historians' History of the World (" Times " ed., 1907), which
also includes considerable extracts from Russian works not else-
where translated. Many additional works will be found s.v.
" Russia " in the Subject Index of the London Library (1900)
(WVA. P.)
RUSSIAN LANGUAGE. For the characteristics which this
special branch of the Slavonic family shares with the rest, for
a table showing the Russian alphabet and the transliterations
of it used in this and in other (non-linguistic) articles of the
Encyclopaedia, and for the points which distinguish Russian
alike from the Southern (Balkan) and from the North-Western
(Polish, Cech, &c.) branches of Slavonic, see SLAVS. These
latter points, fully treated under corresponding sections of the
article SLAVS, are here summarized:
I. Proto-Slavonic (Proto-Sl.) half vowels & and t have dis-
appeared as such: ii (i>), though still written at the ends of
words, is mute; it serves but to show that the foregoing con-
sonant is " hard." See V. below for " hard " and " soft "
(denoted by ') consonants, not the " hard " = surd, tenuis,
" soft " = sonant, media of Eng. usage. Where a vowel was
indispensable to help out a group of consonants, & has been
replaced by o or e, but these vowels sometimes appear without
such justification (e.g. ogont, Lat. ignis); f when so needed
becomes e, otherwise it disappears or else leaves a trace in the
" softness " of the preceding consonant, in which case it is still
written: Old Slavonic (O.S.), sunii, "sleep"; dint, "day";
R. sonu (H mute), denl(d'en').
II. Proto-Sl. y survives in R. and Polish. The sound is
a " high-mixed-narrow i, " pronounced with the lips as for * and
the tongue as for u, not unlike Eng. y in " rhythm." After
labials there is a distinct w sound before the vowel. After
gutturals it has become *'.
III. Treatment of Liquids: retention of / instead of the f of
N.W. Slav.; retention as in Polish of hard / (between / and w,
not unlike Eng. / in " milk," " people "); helping out of sonant
r and / by a vowel put in before the r or /; especially the so-
called full vocalism by which, e.g. Proto-Sl. * gordu, " town,"
became R. gorodii, O.S. gradu, Polish, grdd; Proto-Sl. *melko,
" milk," R. moloko, O.S. mleko, Polish, mleko.
IV. Proto-Sl. nasals: a. (Fr. .on), became R. ; f (Fr. in),
R. 'a,ja: O.S. pat!, " way "; p ? tl, " five," R. putt, p'att.
V. Softening (Palatalization, &c): Proto-Sl. tj, dj gave R. I,
, Proto-Sl. *ST>ltja, "candle"; *medja, "boundary"; R.
svlla, m'eia. Proto-Sl. pj, bj, vj, mj gave R. and S. Slav, pi, bl,
ol, ml, e.g. R. z' eml'a; Polish, ziemia, " land." Before Proto-Sl.
soft vowels e, I, f, i, f consonants were affected, the tongue being
raised in anticipation of the narrow vowel, and so not making so
clean a contact with the palate. Then what amounted to a
new/ developed in R., as f became practically j; e and e (orig. e)
came to sound as je, f as ja at the beginning of a syllable, and
all together with ' began very much to soften the preceding
consonant in literary R.; however, this new/ never broke down
the consonant into a palatalized sibilant or affricate, though it
had this effect in White Russian (Wh. R.) and Polish.
The result is that almost every consonant in Russian can be
pronounced "hard" or "soft," a distinction which is very
difficult for a foreigner to make, as his tendency is to overdo
the softness and pronounce a full / after the consonant instead
of the palatal element melting into it. This is encouraged by
the alphabetic system by which the letters e (i), K), u, stand for
je, ju, ja at the beginning of a syllable, but after a consonant
merely indicate that the consonant is soft, the vowel being the
same as in 3 , y, a (e, u, a), e.g. T x stands for t'-a rather than
for t-ja. A soft consonant in its turn narrows the vowel before
it, e.g. the vowel injelt, " fir," is like a in " Yale "; that injilti,
* marks a hypothetical form-
RUSSIAN LANGUAGE
" ate," like e in " yell ": e and i (I) are now indistinguishable,
except that accented e before a hard consonant has a tendency
to be pronounced /o, e.g. s' elti, " of villages," is pronounced s' ol,
but slia, " sat," *' el: e =jo is sometimes denoted by 6.
VI. Great Russian has kept g where Little Russian (Lit. R.)
and Wh. R., like Cech and High Sorb, now have h.
VII. A specially Russian point is that Proto-Sl. je and ju
beginning a word, appear in R. as and u; O.S. jedinu, " one,"
jutro, " morning," R. odinii, ittro.
VIII. Russian has lost the distinctions of quantity which
survive in Cech and S. Slav., but its accent is free as in S. Slav.
The accent is extremely capricious, often falling differently in
different cases of the same noun, or persons of the same tense,
also it is an expiratory accent, so strong that the unaccented
syllables are much slurred over and their vowels dulled. In
learning Russian it is therefore most important to pay great
attention to the accent, and at first to read accented texts.
The above phonetic peculiarities have marked Russian as far
back as we can trace it. In the earliest documents it appears
with an apparatus of grammatical forms practically identical
with that ascribed to primitive Slavonic. The history of the
language is not so much that of its phonetic decay as that of its
morphological simplification and syntactic development. The
tracing of this process is rendered difficult by the fact that
O.S. was the ecclesiastical and literary language until the i;th
century, and though in the end the O.S. texts suffer modifica-
tions, producing the Russian form of Church Slavonic, it is
only by accident that the Russian forms appear in them.
Russian is better represented in additions made by the scribe,
as in the colophon of the Ostromfr gospel (A.D. 1056/57), the
oldest dated O.S. MS. In a certain number of legal documents
dating from the I2th century onwards Russian forms definitely
predominate, but the subject-matter is too limited to offer much
material.
Borrowings. The effect of the Church language upon Russian
has been very strong, comparable to that of Latin upon French
or English: O.S. forms of words and suffixes, betrayed by
their phonetic peculiarities though pronounced more or less
d la russe, have in some cases ousted the native forms, in other
cases the two exist side by side; the Slav, form generally has
the more dignified or metaphorical, the Russian the simpler
and more direct sense: even some of the grammatical termina-
tions (e.g. pres. part, act.; certain forms of the adj., &c.) are
Slavonic; but speakers are quite unconscious of using any-
thing that is not Russian (see S. BuliC, Church Slavonic Elements
in Modern Russian, St P., 1893), and not till the i8th century
did even grammarians understand the difference. Less
important elements have been the Tatar which gave names for
many Oriental things such as weapons, jewels, stuffs, garments
and some terms concerned with government, and the Polish,
which during the lyth century supplied many terms needed
to express European things and ideas. In the i8th century
such importations were made from Latin and all the Western
European languages, in Peter's time mostly from German and
Dutch (for nautical terms, English supplied some), in Catherine's
rather from French, which had become the language of the
aristocracy. During the first quarter of the igth century
modern Russian found itself and discarded superfluous Slavonic
and European borrowings alike. Since then fresh loan-words
have mostly belonged to the international quasi-Greek ter-
minology, though like German R. sometimes prefers analogous
compounds made from its own roots.
Literary Russian as spoken by educated people throughout
the empire is the Moscow dialect (see below) modified by these
influences. It is still a highly inflected language, comparable
in that respect rather to Latin and Greek than to the languages
of western Europe, though during historic time it has lost
many of the grammatical forms whose full development we
can study in O.S., and whose presence we can assert in the scanty
remains of Old R. This process has relieved it of the dual
number, save for certain survivals; in the nouns, of the
vocative case (save for certain ecclesiastical forms), and many
of the distinctions between the declensions, especially in the
plural, the oblique cases of the simple, and the more cumbrous
forms of the compound, adjective; in the verbs, of the supine,
the imperfect, the aorist and the conditional (now reduced
to a particle); but this simplification leaves it with six cases,
Nom., Ace., Gen., Dal., Instrumental and Locative, three
genders, three substantival declensions, -a, -o, -i, and traces
of -it and consonantal stems, a special pronominal declension
with many tricky forms, an adjective which takes its place
between them, and a system of numerals in which a com-
promise between grammar and logic has produced a kind of
maze. The forms of the verb are easier, as only the present
indie, has three persons, the imperat. has but the and, and the
past is a participle, which, having discarded the copula, dis-
tinguishes only gender and number. The infinitive and four
participles offer no special difficulty, but the gerundives
or verbal adverbs, from the old masc. nom. sing., are
troublesome. The curious mechanism by which these few
verbal forms are by means of the aspects made to express
most of our tenses and other shades of meaning of which even
English is incapable, is briefly explained under SLAVS. On the
whole the syntax is simple, the periods which imitation of
Latin and German once brought into fashion having given place
to the shorter sentences of French and English models.
Such a language, though less difficult than it is generally
supposed, is learned much better if some preliminary study is
devoted to the accidence, before the student launches out into
conversation, as otherwise the habit may be acquired of dis-
regarding the terminations and speaking very incorrectly.
Dialects. Russian dialects fall into two main divisions
Great (Velikorusskij), including White (Belorusskij) Russian,
and Little Russian (Malorusskij). The latter is spoken in a
belt reaching from Galicia and the Northern Carpathians (see
RUTHENIANS) through Podolia and Volhynia and the govern-
ments of Kiev, Chernfgov, Poltava, Kharkov and the southern
part of Voronezh to the Don and the Kubdn upon which the
Dnepr Cossacks were settled. To the south of this belt in " New
Russia " the population is much mixed, but Little Russians on
the whole predominate. In all there must be about 30,000,000
Little Russians.
The Great Russian division includes all other Russian
speakers the main body to the N. and E. of the Little
Russians, the settlers in Siberia, the Caucasus and along the
southern coast, the educated classes, officials and many towns-
men throughout the empire, probably not less than 70,000,000
speakers exclusive of White Russians. On the whole it is very
conservative, and therefore, in spite of its vast extent, is wonder-
fully uniform. It falls into two main dialect groups the
northern or o group and the southern or a group. The line
between them runs roughly E.S.E. from Pskov to the Oka and
then eastwards to the Urals. The northern group is the more
conservative and pronounces very nearly according to the
spelling, unaccented o remaining o, but o is in general rather
like u, while e before hard consonants is apt to be jo and before
soft consonants i. The southern part of this group, compris-
ing most of the governments of Vladimir and Yaroslavl with
adjoining parts of Tver and Kostroma, are alone free from a
further peculiarity, a tendency to mix up c and c which can be
traced in the ancient documents of N6vgorod and has spread
with the Novgorod colonists across the whole of N. Russia to the
Urals and Siberia. These distant dialects have adopted many
words from the Ugro- Finnish natives. The southern or a group
of dialects pronounces unaccented o, e and even i as a or ja;
with this goes a tendency to pronounce g as h, and to mix up u
and v. The Moscow dialect, which is the foundation of the
literary language, and White Russian, are both best classed with
the a dialect.
The Moscow dialect really covers a very small area, not even
the whole of the government of Moscow, but political causes
have made it the language of the governing classes and hence
of literature. It is a border dialect, having the southern pro-
nunciation of unaccented o as a, but in the jo for accented e
RUSSIAN LITERATURE
before a hard consonant it is akin to the North and it has also
kept the northern pronunciation of g instead of the southern h.
So too unaccented e sounds like i oiji.
White Russian, in the governments of Vitebsk, Mohile'v and
Minsk, and adjoining parts of Pskov, Smolensk, Chernigov and
Vflna (some 10,000,000 speakers), appears at first so different
from Great Russian that it was long classed as a separate
division. It was the official language of the Lithuanian princi-
pality afterwards merged in Poland and hence was under strong
Polish influence. Little R. was under somewhat similar in-
fluence, so that the two dialects have approximated in some
respects; but originally White Russian was not much nearer
Lit. R. than was any other south Gt. R. dialect. In its main
characteristic Wh. R. approximates to Polish, but this likeness
goes deeper than the surface Polonisms above referred to, as it
falls into its natural place in the classification of Slavonic lan-
guages by the phenomena of " softening." Accordingly t and d,
when soft or before soft , become t and dz, e.g. R.tfelo, " body,"
d'ilo, " deed," m'edv'tdl, " bear," Wh. R. celo, dzelo, m'adzv'edz',
Polish ciaio, dtieto, niedzwiedz. Other special points which
distinguish Wh. R. from the other a dialects are a tendency to
confuse u and v and to pronounce either of them as a w, the
same sound also taking the place of hard / closing a syllable;
r is always hard;/, a sound essentially non-Slavonic, appears
as ch or chv, e.g. chrancuz, R.francuz, " a Frenchman," Chv'odar,
R. F'odor, " Theodore."
In accidence we may note the preservation of the vocative;
of the sibilants before case terminations where R. has restored
gutturals by analogy, e.g. locatives naze, nice, sase, R. noge, ruke.
soche, from nogd, " foot," ruka, " hand," sochd, " plough "; and
of the 3rd sing. pres. ind. in c for t', or without any /. V'adz'ec
or v'adz'e for R. ved'oiu, " leads."
On the boundary between Wh. R. and the Novgorod dialect
the former has the latter's confusion of c and c.
The best account of Wh. R. is E. Karskij, Sketch of the Sounds
and Forms of Wh. R. Speech (Moscow, 1886); there is a dic-
tionary by Nosovic (St P., 1875). Bezsonov, Wh. R. Songs
(Moscow, 1871), and P. V. Schein in a whole series of publica-
tions give good specimens of the dialect.
The Little Russian dialect claims to be a literary language;
it has established this claim in Galicia (see RUTHENIANS), but
its use as such is much restricted in Russia. The Little Russians
differ from the Great Russians not only in language but in
physical type, customs, domestic architecture and folk-lore;
but though Russophobes have tried to prove that this is due
to the Finnish element in the Great Russians, it cannot be sub-
stantiated, and the Little Russians, especially the descendants of
the Cossacks, have no small Tatar element in them. For the last
three centuries they have been under strong Polish influence,
and this has had great effect upon the vocabulary but not much
on phonetics or morphology. Little Russian is divided into
three main groups of dialects: those of Hungary, which show an
approximation to Slovak; those of Galicia, which rather recall
Polish; and those of the Ukrain and other districts in Russia,
which gradually shade into South Great Russian and White R.,
though the love of the sound a is noticeably absent. Little
Russian is rather characterized by itacism; for original y and
original i have coincided in a sound between i and y not unlike
the Eng. short i, and original e, also e and even o after having
been lengthened in compensation for lost semi-vowels are now
represented by i.
Further, Little Russian has reduced the common Russian
softening, only keeping it before a and o and i for I and o, and
hardening the consonant before e and original i. In common
with Wh. R. it has h for g, a vocative case, gutturals made
sibilant before i (for I) in oblique cases, 3rd sing, without the t,
ist plur. in -mo and -me instead of ma, nn for nj, II for Ij, tt for tj,
w for u, i> and hard /, but all these occur more or less throughout
S. Russian and only tend to a superficial resemblance.
These phonetic peculiarities are not universal, but the presence
of the narrowed e, e and o is sufficient to mark a dialect as Little
Russian. The Russian alphabet is modified for Little Russian
use as r = A and hence t =g; t is used for the e which does not
soften the preceding vowel, for the thick and i for the pure *.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Dictionaries: Diet, of the R. Language, published
by the Second Section of the Imperial Academy of Sciences (4 vols.,
St Petersburg, 1847; new ed., 1891 ); V. I. Dahl, Explanatory
D. of Living Great R. Language (Moscow, 1880), re-ed. by J. Baudouin
de Courtenay (1906); I. I. Sreznevskij, Materials for a Diet, of Old
R. Language (to T.) (St P., 1903); Attempt (Opytu) at a Great R.
Provincial Diet. (Supplement to the old Diet, of the Acad.) (St P.,
1852); A. Alexandrow, R.-Eng. and Eng.-R. Diet. (2 vols., St P.);
J. Pawlowsky, R.-Deutsches Worterbuch (Riga, 1900).
Little Russian Dictionary: Eug. 2elechowski, Rulhenisch-Deutsches
Worterbuch (Lemberg, 1886).
Grammars: Th. Buslaev, Historical Grammar of the R. Language
(Moscow, 1875); A. Sobolevskij, Lectures on the History of the R.
Language (St P., 1891); id., Attempt at R. Dialectology, pt. i. (Gt.
and Wh. R.) (St P., 1897); W. R. Morfill, R. Grammar (Oxford,
1887); P. Motti, R. Conversation Grammar (London, 1890); C R.
Reiff, R. Grammar (London, 1883); O. Asboth, Kurze R. Grammatik
(Leipzig, 1900); R. Abicht, Die Hauptschwieriekeiten der R. Sprache
(Leipzig, 1897); P. Boyer, M. Speranski and S. Harper, Russian
Reader (Chicago, 1906).
Little Russian Grammar: St. Smal'-Stockyi and Fed. Gartner,
Ruska Grammatyka (Lemberg, 1893); see also Miklosich, Vergl.
Gram. d.Slav. Sprachen, passim (Vienna, 1875-83).
Many accented texts are published by R. Gerhard, Leipzig. Th.
Buslaev, Historical R. Chrestomathy (Moscow, 1861), gives specimens
of Russo-Slayonic, Old R. and Dialects. The chief periodicajs
containing scientific papers on the R. language are the Sbornik
(Miscellany) and Izvestia (Bulletin) of the Second Section of the
St P. Academy, and the Zapiski (Transactions) of the Philological
Faculties of the Russian universities. Old Russian Texts are
published mostly by the Obscestvo L'ubitelej Drevnej Pis'mennosti
(Soc. of Lovers of Ancient Literature) in St Petersburg. (E. H. M .)
RUSSIAN LITERATURE. To get a clear idea of Russian
literature, it will be most convenient for us to divide it into
oral and written. The first of these sections includes the
interesting byliny, or " tales of old time," as the word may be
translated, which have come down to us in great numbers, as
they have been sung by wandering minstrels all over the country.
The scholars who have given their attention to these composi-
tions have made the following division of them into cycles:
(i) that of the older heroes; (2) that of Vladimir, prince of
Kiev; (3) that of Novgorod; (4) that of Moscow; (5) that of
the Cossacks; (6) that of Peter the Great; (7) the
modern period. These poems, if they may be so
styled, are not in rhyme; the ear is satisfied with
a certain cadence which is observed throughout. For a
long time they were neglected, and the collection of them
began only towards the conclusion of the i7th century.
The style of Russian literature which prevailed from the
time of Lomonosov was wholly based upon the French or
pseudo-classical school. It was, therefore, hardly likely that
these peasant songs would attract attention. But when the
gospel of romanticism was preached and the History of
Karamzin appeared, a new impulse was given to the collection
of all the remains of popular literature. In 1804 appeared
a volume based upon those which had been gathered together
by Cyril or Kirsha Danilov, a Cossack, at the beginning of
the 1 8th century. They were received with much enthusiasm,
and a second edition was published in 1818. In the following
year there appeared at Leipzig a translation of many of these
pieces into German, in consequence of which they became
known much more widely. This little book of 160 pages is
important because the originals of some of the byliny translated
in it are now lost. Since that time large collections of these poems
have been'published, edited by Rybnikov,Hilferding,Sreznevskiy,
Avenarius and others.
These curious productions have all the characteristics of
popular poetry in the endless repetitions of certain conventional
phrases the " green wine," " the bright sun " (applied to a
hero), " the damp earth " and others. The heroes of the first
cycle are monstrous beings, and seem to be merely impersonifica-
tions of the powers of nature; such are Volga Vseslavich,
Mikula Selianinovich and Sviatogor. They are called the
bogatyri starshie. Sometimes we have the giants of the mountain,
as Sviatogor, and the serpent Gorinich, the root of part of both
RUSSIAN LITERATURE
names being gora (mountain). The serpent Gorinich lives in
caves, and has the care of the precious metals. Sometimes
animal natures are mixed up with them, as zmei-bogatyr, who
unites the qualities of the serpent and the giant, and bears
the name of Tugarin Zmievich. There is the Pagan Idol
(Idolistche Poganskoe), a great glutton, and Nightingale the
Robber (Solovey Razboinik), who terrifies travellers and lives
in a nest built upon six oaks.
In the second cycle the legends group themselves round the
celebrated Prince Vladimir of Kiev. The chief hero is Ilya
Muromets, who performs prodigies of valour, and is of gigantic
stature and superhuman strength. The cycle of Novgorod
deals with the stories of Vasilii Buslaevich and Sadko, the rich
merchant. The fourth cycle deals with the autocracy; already
Moscow has become the capital of the future empire. We are
told of the taking of Kazan, of the conquest of Siberia by
Yermak, of Ivan the Terrible and his confidant Maliuta Skur-
latovich. It is observable that in the popular tradition Ivan
is not spoken of with any hatred. As early as 1619 some of
these byliny were committed to writing by Richard James,
an Oxford graduate who was in Russia as chaplain of the
embassy. The most pathetic is that relating to the unfortunate
Xenia, the daughter of Boris Godunov. Yermak, the conqueror
of Siberia, forms the subject of a very spirited lay, and there is
another on the death of Ivan the Terrible. Considering the
relation in which she stood to the Russians, we cannot wonder
that Marina, the wife of the false Demetrius, appears as a
magician. Many spirited poems are consecrated to the achieve-
ments of Stenka Razin, the bold robber of the Volga, who was
for a long time a popular hero. The cycle of Peter the Great
is a very interesting one. We have songs in abundance on the
achievements of the tsar, as the taking of Azov in 1696. There
is also a poem on the execution of the strciisy, and another
on the death of Peter. In the more modern period there are
many songs on Napoleon. The Cossack songs, written in the
Little Russian language, dwell upon the glories of the seek, the
sufferings of the people from the invasions of the Turks and
Mongols, the exploits of the Haidamaks and, lastly, the fall of
the Cossack republic. Besides these, the Russians can boast
of large collections of religious poems, many of them containing
very curious legends. In them we have a complete store of the
beliefs of the Middle Ages. A rich field may be found here for
the study of comparative mythology and folk-lore. Many of
them are of considerable antiquity, and some seem to have been
derived from the Midrash. Some of the more important of
these have been collected by Beszonov. Besides the byliny or
legendary poems, the Russians have large collections of skazki
or folk-tales, which have been gathered together by Sakharov,
Afanasiev and others. They also are full of valuable materials
for the study of comparative mythology.
Leaving the popular and oral literature, we come to what
has been committed to writing. The earliest specimen of
Earliest Russian, properly so called, must be considered the
written Ostromir Codex, written by the diak Gregory at the
literature. on j er o f Ostromir, the posodnik or governor of Novgo-
rod. This is a Russian recension of the Slavonic Gospels, of the
date 1056-57. Of the year 1073 we have the Izbornik or " Mis-
cellany " of Sviatoslav. It was written by John the diak or
deacon for that prince, and is a kind of Russian encyclopaedia,
drawn from Greek sources. The date is 1076. The style is
praised by Buslaev as clear and simple. The next monument
of the language is the Discourse concerning the Old and New
Testament, by Hilarion, metropolitan of Kiev. In this work
there is a panegyric on Prince Vladimir of Kiev, the hero of so
much of the Russian popular poetry. Other writers are Theo-
dosius, a monk of the Pestcherskiy cloister, who wrote on the
Latin faith and some Pouchenia or " Instructions, " and Luke
Zhidiata, bishop of Novgorod, who has left us a curious Discourse
to the Brethren. From the writings of Theodosius we see that
many pagan habits were still in vogue among the people. He
finds fault with them for allowing these to continue, and also
for their drunkenness; nor do the monks escape his censures.
Zhidiata writes in a more vernacular style than many of
his contemporaries; he eschews the declamatory tone of the
Byzantine authors.
With the so-called Chronicle of Nestor (q.v.) begins the long
series of the Russian annalists. There is a regular catena of
these chronicles, extending with only two breaks Annalist*
to the time of Alexis Mikhailovich, the father of Peter fd
the Great. Besides the work attributed to Nestor, tr ' ve " en -
we have chronicles of Novgorod, Kiev, Volhynia and many
others. Every town of any importance could boast of its
annalists, Pskov and Suzdal among others. In some respects
these compilations, the productions of monks in their cloisters,
remind us of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, dry details alternating
with 'here and there a picturesque incident; and many of
these annals abound with the quaintest stories. There are
also works of early travellers, as the igumen Daniel, who visited
the Holy Land at the end of the nth and beginning of the izth
century. A later traveller was Athanasius Nikitin, a merchant
of Tver, who visited India in 1470. He has left a record of his
adventures, which has been translated into English and pub-
lished for the Hakluyt Society. Later also is the account written
by the two merchants, Korobeinikov and Grekov. They were
sent with a sum of money to the Holy Sepulchre to entreat the
monks to pray without ceasing for the soul of the son of Ivan
the Terrible, whom his father had killed. A curious monument
of old Slavonic times is the Pouchenie (" Instruction "), written
by Vladimir Monomakh for the benefit of his sons. This com-
position is generally found inserted in the Chronicle of Nestor;
it gives a quaint picture of the daily life of a Slavonic prince.
In the 1 2th century we have the sermons of Cyril, the bishop
of Turov, which are attempts to imitate in Russian the florid
Byzantine style. In his sermon on Holy Week,
Christianity is represented under the form of spring,
Paganism and Judaism under that of winter, and evil
thoughts are spoken of as boisterous winds. And here may
be mentioned the many lives of the saints and the Fathers to be
found in early Russian literature. Some of these have been
edited by Count Bezborodko in his Pametniki Starinnoy Russkoy
Literatury (" Memorials of Ancient Russian Literature ").
We now come to the story of the expedition of Prince Igor,
which is a kind of bylina in prose, and narrates the expedi-
tion of Igor, prince of Novgorod-Severskiy, against the
Polovtzes. The manuscript was at one time preserved of /. < "'
in a monastery at Yaroslavl, but was burnt in the great
fire at Moscow in the year 1812. Luckily the story had been
edited (after a fashion) by Count Musin-Pushkin, and a tran-
script was also found among the papers of the empress Catherine.
The original was seen by several men of letters in Russia, Karam-
zin among the number. There is a mixture of Christian and
heathen allusions, but there are parallels to this style of writing
in such a piece as the " Discourse of a Lover of Christ and
Advocate of the True Faith, " from which an extract has been
given by Buslaev in his Chreslomathy. There is a great deal of
poetical spirit in the story of Igor, and the metaphors are
frequently very vigorous. Mention is made in it of another bard
named Boyan, but none of his inspirations have come down
to us. A strange legend is that of the tsar Solomon and
Kitovras, but the story occurs in the popular literatures other
of many countries. Some similar productions among the popular
Russians are merely adaptations of old Bulgarian tales, t* 1 * 3 -
especially the so-called apocryphal writings. The Zodonslchina
is a sort of prose poem much in the style of the " Story of Igor, "
and the resemblance of the latter to this piece and to many
other of the skazania included in or attached to the Russian
chronicle, furnishes an additional proof of its genuineness.
The account of the battle of the " Field of Woodcocks, " which
was gained by Dmitri Donskoy over the Mongols in 1380, has
come down in three important versions. The first bears the
title " Story of the Fight of the Prince Dmitri Ivanovich with
Mamai "; it is rather meagre in details but full of expressions
showing the patriotism of the writer. The second version is
more complete in its historical details, but still is not without
916
RUSSIAN LITERATURE
Codes of
law*.
anachronisms. The third is altogether poetical. The Poviest o
Drakule (" Story of Drakula ") is a collection of anecdotes
relating to a cruel prince of Walachia who lived in the isth
century. (See RUMANIA, History.) Several of the barbarities
described inMt have also been assigned to Ivan the Terrible.
The early Russian laws present many features of interest, such
as the Russkaya Pravda of Yaroslav, which is preserved in the
chronicle of Novgorod; the date is between 1018 and
1054. The laws show Russia at that time to have
been in civilization quite on a level with the rest
of Europe. But the evil influence of the Mongols was
soon to make itself felt. The next important code is
the Sudebnik of Ivan III., the date of which is 1497;
this was followed by that of Ivan IV. of the year 15513, in
which we have a republication by the tsar of his grand-
father's laws, with additions. In the time of this emperor
also was issued the Stoglav (1551), a body of ecclesiastical
regulations. Mention must also be made of the Ulozhenie or
" Ordinance " of the tsar Alexis. This abounds with enact-
ments of sanguinary punishment: women are buried alive
for murdering their husbands; torture is recognized as a
means of procuring evidence; and the knout and mutilation
are mentioned on almost every page. Some of the penalties
are whimsical: for instance, the man who uses tobacco is to
have his nose cut off; this was altered by Peter the Great,
who himself practised the habit and encouraged it in others.
In 1553 a printing press was established at Moscow,
and in 1564 the first book was printed, an " Apostol," as it
latroduc- is called, i.e. a book containing the Acts of the Apostles
tioaof and the Epistles. The printers were Ivan Feodorov
priming. an( j p e [ er Timofieiev; a monument has been erected
to the memory of the former. As early as 1548 Ivan had
invited printers to Russia, but they were detained on their
journey. Feodorov and his companions were soon, however,
compelled to leave Russia, and found a protector in Sigismund
III. The cause appears to have been the enmity of the copyists
of books, who succeeded in drawing over to their side the more
fanatical priests. The first Slavonic Bible was printed at
Ostrog in Volhynia in 1581. Another press, however, was
soon established at Moscow; up to 1600 sixteen books had
been issued there.
A curious work of the time of Ivan the Terrible is the
Domostroy, or " Book of Household Management," which is
Time at said to have been written by the monk Sylvester.
Ivan the This priest was at one time very influential with
Terrible. j vanj but ultimately was banished to the Solovetskoy
monastery on the White Sea. The work was originally intended
by Sylvester for his son Anthemius and his daughter-in-law
Pelagia, but it soon became very popular. We have a faithful
picture of the Russia of the time, with all its barbarisms and
ignorance. We see the unbounded authority of the husband
in his own household: he may inflict personal chastisement
upon his wife; and her chief duty lies in ministering to his
wants. To the reign of Ivan the Terrible must also be assigned
the Chelii-Minei or " Book of Monthly Readings," con-
taining extracts from the Greek fathers, arranged for every
day of the week. The work was compiled by the metropolitan
Macarius, and was the labour of twelve years. An important
writer of -the same period was Prince Andrew Kurbskiy, de-
scended from the sovereigns of Yaroslavl, who was born about
1528. In his early days Kurbskiy saw a great deal of service,
having fought at Kazan and in Livonia. But he quarrelled
with Ivan, who had begun to persecute the followers of Sylvester
and Adashev, and fled to Lithuania in 1563, where he was
well received by Sigismund Augustus. From his retreat he
commenced a correspondence with Ivan, in which he reproached
him for his many cruelties. Ivan in his answer declared that he
was quite justified in taking the lives of his slaves if he thought
it right to do so. Kurbskiy died in exile in 1583. He also wrote
a life of Ivan, but Bestuzhev Riumin thinks that his hatred
of Ivan led him to exaggerate, and he regrets that Karamzin
should have followed him so closely. Besides the answers of
17th
century.
Ivan to Kurbskiy, there is his letter to Cosmas and the brother-
hood of the Cyrillian monastery on the White Lake (Bielo Ozero),
in which he reproaches them for the self-indulgent lives they
are leading. Other works of the i6th century are the Stepennaya
Kniga, or " Book of Degrees " (or " Pedigrees "), in which his-
torical events are grouped under the reigns of the grand-dukes,
whose pedigrees are also given ; and the Life of the Tsar Feodor
Ivanovich (1584-98), written by the patriarch Job.
To the beginning of the lyth century belongs the Chronograph
of Sergius Kubasov of Tobolsk. His work extends from the
creation of the world to the accession of Michael
Romanov, and contains interesting accounts of such
of the members of the Russian royal family as Kubasov
had himself seen. Something of the same kind must have
been the journal of Prince Mstislavskiy, which he showed the
English ambassador Jerome Horsey, but which is now lost. 1
To the time of the first Romanovs belongs the story of the
siege of Azov, a prose poem, which tells us, in an inflated style,
how in 1637 a body of Cossacks triumphantly repelled the
attacks of the Turks. There is also an account of the siege of
the Troitza monastery by the Poles during the " Smutnoe
Vremya," or Period of Troubles, as it is called that which
deals with the adventures of the false Demetrius and the Polish
invasion which followed. But all these are surpassed by the
work on Russia of Gregory Karpov Kotoshikhin. He
served in the ambassador's office (posolskiy prikaz),
and when called upon to give information against
his colleagues fled to Poland about 1664. Thence he passed
into Sweden and wrote his account of Russia under Alexis
Mikhailovich at the request of Count Delagardie, the chancellor.
He was executed in 1667 for slaying in a quarrel the master of
the house in which he lived. The manuscript was found by
Professor Soloviev of Helsingfors at Upsala and printed in 1840.
The picture which Kotoshikhin draws of his native country
is a sad one, and from his description, and the facts we gather
from the Domostroy, we can reconstruct the Old Russia of the
time before Peter the Great. Perhaps, as an exile, Kotoshikhin
allowed himself to write too bitterly. A curious .work is the
Uriadnik Sokolnichia Puti (" Directions for Falconry "), which
was written for the use of the emperor Alexis, who, like many
Russians of old time, was much addicted to this pastime. The
Serb, Yuri Krzhanich, who wrote in Russian, was the
first pan-Slavist, anticipating Kollar by one hundred
and fifty years or more. He wrote a critical Servian
grammar (with comparison of the Russian, Polish, Croatian
and White Russian), which was edited from the manuscripts by
Bodianski in 1848. For his time he had a very good insight
into Slavonic philology. His pan-Slavism, however, sometimes
took a form by no means practical. He went so far as to main-
tain that a common Slavonic language might be made for all
the peoples of that race an impossible project which has been
the dream of many enthusiasts. He was banished to Siberia,
and finished his grammar at Tobolsk. He also wrote a work
on the Russian empire in the middle of the i;th century, com-
pleted in 1676, which was edited by Beszonov in 1860. The
picture drawn, as in the corresponding production of Koto-
shikhin, is a very gloomy one. To this period belongs the life
of the patriarch Nikon by Shusherin. The struggles of Nikon
with the tsar, and his emendations of the sacred books, which
led to a great schism in Russia, are well known. They have
been made familiar to Englishmen by the eloquent pages of
the late Dean Stanley. 2 From this revision may be dated the
rise of the Raskolniks (Dissenters) or Staro-obriadtsi poiotxti
(those who adhere to the old ritual). With Simeon
Polotzki (Polotskiy) (1628-1680) the old period of Russian
1 Horsey says: " Tread in their cronickells written and kept in
secreat by a great priem prince of that country named Knez Ivan
Fedorowich Mistisloskoie, who, owt of his love and favour, imparted
unto me many secreats observed in the memory and procis of his
tyme, which was fowerscore years, of the state, natur, and govern-
ment of that comonweelth. Bond, Russia at the Close of the
Sixteenth Century (Hakluyt Society, 1856).
2 Lectures on the Eastern Church.
Knba-
nkb.
RUSSIAN LITERATURE
917
Lomoao-
sor.
literature may be closed. He was tutor to the tsar
Feodor, son of Alexis, and may be said to have helped to intro-
duce the culture of the West into Russia, as he was educated
at Kiev, then a portion of Polish territory. Polotzki came
to Moscow about 1664. He wrote religious works (Vienets
Viery, " The Garland of Faith "), and composed poems and
religious dramas (The Prodigal Son, Nebuchadnezzar, &c.).
He has left us some droll verses on the tsar's new palace of
Kolomenskoe, which are very curious doggerel. The artificial
lions that roared, moved their eyes, and walked especially
delighted him. There does not seem to be any ground for the
assertion (often met with even in Russian writers) that Sophia,
the sister of Peter the Great, was acquainted with French, and
translated some of the plays of Moliere.
And now all things were to be changed. Russia was to
adopt the forms of literature in use in the West. One of the
The chief helpers of Peter the Great in the education of
modern the people was Feofane (Theophanes) Procopovich
period. (1681-1736), author of the Ecclesiastical Regulations
and some plays, who advocated the cause of science;
the old school was defended by Stephen Yavorskiy (1658-1722),
whose Rock of Faith was written to refute the Lutherans and
Calvinists. Another remarkable writer of the times of Peter
the Great was Pososhkov (b. 1673), a peasant by birth, who
produced a valuable work on Poverty and Riches. Antiokh
Kantemir (1708-1744), son of a former hospodar of Moldavia,
wrote some clever satires still read; they are imitated from
Boileau. He also translated parts of Horace. Besides his
satires, he published versions of Fontenelle's Pluralite des
Mondes and the histories of Justin and Cornelius Nepos. He
was for some time Russian ambassador at the courts of London
and Paris. But more celebrated than these men was
Michael Lomonosov (q.v.). He was an indefatigable
writer of verse and prose, and has left odes, tragedies,
didactic poetry, essays and fragments of epics.
Vassilii Tatistchev (1686-1750) was the author of a Russian history
which is interesting as the first attempt in that field. He was dis-
graced for peculation, and died at Astrakhan, as governor, in 1750.
His work was not given to the world till after his death. There had
been a slight sketch published before by Khilkov, entitled the Marrow
of Russian History. Basil Trediakovski (17031769) was
born at Astrakhan, and we are told that Peter, passing
through that city at the time of his Persian expedition,
had Trediakovski pointed out to him as one of the most promising
boys of the school there. Whereupon, having questioned him, the
tsar said, with truly prophetic insight, " A busy worker, but master
of nothing." His Telemakhida, a poem in which he versified the
Telemaque of Fenelon, drew upon him the derision of the wits of
the time. He had frequently to endure the rough horse-play of the
courtiers, for the position of a literary man at that time in Russia
was not altogether a cheerful one. His services, however, to the
Russian language were great.
From the commencement of the reign of Elizabeth Russian
literature made great progress, the French furnishing models.
Sumaro- Alexander Sumarokov (1718-1777) wrote prose and verse
ov in abundance ^comedies, tragedies, idyls, satires and
epigrams. He is, perhaps, best entitled to remembrance
for his plays, which are rhymed, and in the French style. His
Dmitri Samozvanels (" Demetrius the Pretender ") is certainly not
without merit. Some of the pieces of Kniazhnin had
great success in their time, such as The Chatterbox, The
Originals and especially The Fatal Carriage. He is now
almost forgotten. In 1756 the first theatre was opened at St
Petersburg, the director being Sumarokov. Up to this time the
Russians had acted only religious plays, such as those written by
Simeon Polotzki. The reign of Catherine II. (1762-96), herself a
voluminous writer, saw the rise of a whole generation of court poets.
Everything in Russia was to be forced like plants in a hot-house;
she was to have Homers, Pindars, Horaces and Virgils. Michael
Kbera- Kheraskov (1733-1807) wrote besides other poems two
skov enormous epics the Rossioda in twelve books, and
Vladimir in eighteen; they are now but little read.
Bozdaa- Hippolitus Bogdanovich (1743-1803) wrote a pretty lyric
ovlch piece, Dushenka, based upon La Fontaine, and telling the
old story of the loves of Cupid and Psyche. With Ivan
Khem* Khemnitzer begins the long list of fabulists; this half-
altzer oriental form of literature, so common in countries ruled
absolutely, has been very popular in Russia. Khemnitzer
(1744-1784), whose name seems to imply a German origin, began by
translating the fables of Gellert, but afterwards produced original
Kniazh-
nin.
Der-
z ha via.
specimens. A writer of real national comedy appeared in Denis
von Visin, probably of German extraction, but born
at Moscow (1744-1792). His best production is Nedorosl "!.
(" The Minor "), in which he satirizes the coarse features of Russian
society, the ill-treatment of the serfs, and other matters. He saw
France on the eve of the great Revolution, and has well described
what he did see. Russian as he was, and accustomed to serfdom,
he was yet astonished at the wretched condition of the French
peasants. The great poet of the age of Catherine, the laureate of
her glories, was Gabriel Derzhayin (1743-1816). He
essayed many styles of composition, and was a great
master of his native language. There is something
grandiose and organ-like in his high-sounding verses; unfortunately
he occasionally degenerates into bombast. His versification is
perfect ; and he had the courage to write satirically of many persons
of high rank. His Ode to God is the best known of his poems in
Western countries. He was a student of Ossian, and of Edward
Young, the author of the Night Thoughts. Other celebrated poems
of Derzhavin are Felitza, Odes on the Death of Prince Mestcherskiy,
The Nobleman, The Taking of Ismail, and The Taking of Warsaw.
His Memoirs were published in 1857.
An unfortunate author of the days of Catherine was Alexander
Radistchev (1749-1802), who, having, in a small work, A Journey
to St Petersburg and Moscow, spoken too severely of the -., ,
miserable condition of the serfs, was punished by banish-
ment to Siberia, from which he was afterwards allowed to
return, but not till his health had been permanently injured by
his sufferings. An equally sad fate befell the spirited writer Nicholas
Novikov (1744-1818), who, after having worked hard as a fj ov it or
journalist, and done much for education in Russia, fell
under the suspicion of the government, and was imprisoned by
Catherine. On her death he was released by her successor. The
short reign of Paul was not favourable to literary production ; the
censorship of the press was extremely severe, and many foreign
books were excluded from Russia.
But a better state of things came with the reign of Alexander,
one of the glories of whose day was Nicholai Karamzin (q.v.). His
chief work is his History of the Russian Empire, but he Kurua-
appeared in the fourfold aspect of historian, novelist, ,/ 0t
essayist and poet. Nor need we do more than mention
the celebrated Archbishop Platon (q.v.). Ivan Dmitriev Platan.
(1760-1837) wrote some pleasing lyrics and epistles, ^^
but without much force. He appears from his trans- '
lations to have been well acquainted with the English poets.
Ozerov (1769-1816) wrote a great many tragedies, which fl
are but little read now. They are in rhyming alex-
andrines. He occasionally handled native subjects with success,
as in his Dmitri Donskoy (1807) and Yaropolk and Oleg (1798).
In Ivan Kriloff (q.v.) the Russians found their most Krlloff.
genial fabulist. As Derzhavin was the poet of the age
of Catherine, so Vasilii Zhukovskiy (1783-1852) may be Zbutm
said to have been that of the age of Alexander. He is ovsUy.
more remarkable, however, as a translator than as an original
poet. With him Romanticism began in Russia. He became
reader to the empress and afterwards tutor to her children. In
1802 he published his version of Gray's Elegy, which at once
became a highly popular poem in Russia. Zhukovskiy translated
many pieces from the German (Goethe, Schiller, uhland) and
English (Byron, Moore, Southey). One of his original produc-
tions, "The Poet in the Camp of the Russian Warriors," was on
the lips of every one at the time of the War of the Fatherland
(Otechestvennaia Voina) in 1812. He produced versions of the
episode of Nala and Damayanti from the Mahabharata, of Rustum
and Zohrab from the Shah-Namah, and of a part of the Odyssey.
In the case of these, three masterpieces, however, he was obliged
to work from literal translations (mostly German), as he was
unacquainted with the original languages. The Iliad was trans-
lated during this period by Gnedich, who was familiar .
with Greek. He has produced a faithful and spirited
version, and has naturalized the hexameter in the Russian language
with much skill. Constantine Batiushkov (1787-1855) Batl ,
was the author of many elegant poems, and at the outset U sbkoY.
of his career promised much, but sank into imbecility, and
lived in this condition to an advanced age. Merzliakov and Tziganov
deserve a passing notice as the writers of songs some of which
still keep their popularity. During his short life (1799-1837)
Alexander Pushkin produced many celebrated poems, Pushkin.
which will be found enumerated in the article devoted oriboye-
to him (see PUSHKIN). In Alexander Griboyedov (1795- tfov-
1829) (q.v.) the Russians saw the writer of one of their
most clever comedies (Gore ot Uma), which may perhaps be trans-
lated " The Misfortune of being Too Clever " (lit. " Grief out of
Wit "). Ivan Kozlov (1774-1838) was author of some K ,ia V
pretty original lyrics, and some translations from the
English, among others Burns's Cottar's Saturday Night. He
became a cripple and blind, and his misfortunes elicited some
cheering and sympathetic lines from Pushkin, which will always
be read with pleasure.
Pushkin found a successor in Michael Lermontov (q.v.), who
918
RUSSIAN LITERATURE
has left us many exquisite lyrics. A genuine bard of the people,
Lemon- an d one of their most truly national authors, was Alexis
Koltsov (1809-1842), the son of a tallow merchant of
Voronezh. He has left us a few exquisite lyrics, which
Koltsnv. are to jjg f oun( j in all the collections of Russian poetry.
He died of consumption after a protracted illness. Another poet
who much resembled Koltsov was Ivan Nikitin (1826-
Nlkitin. !86l), born in the same town, Voronezh. His best
poem was Kulak. Nikitin, to support his relations, was obliged
to keep an inn; this he was afterwards enabled to change for the
more congenial occupation of a bookseller. The novel in Russia
has had its cultivators in Zagoskin and Lazhechnikov, who imitated
Sir Walter Scott. The most celebrated of the romances
Zagoskin. Q j Zagoskin was Yuri Miloslavskiy, a tale of the expulsion
of the Poles from Russia in 1612. The book may even yet be
read with interest: it gives a very spirited picture of the times;
unfortunately, a gloss is put upon the barbarity of the manners
of the period. Among the better known productions of Lazhech-
nikov are The Heretic and The Palace of Ice. A flashy but now
forgotten writer of novels was Thaddeus Bulgarin (1789-1859)
author of Ivan Vyshigin, a work which once enjoyed considerable
popularity.
The first Russian novelist of great and original talent was
Nicholai Gogol (1809-1852) (q.v.). In his Dead Souls he satirized
all classes of society, some of the portraits being wonder-
(ioxol. fully vivid. Being a native of Little Russia, he describes
its scenery and the habits of the people, especially in such stories
as the Old-Fashioned Household, or in the more powerful Taras
Bulba. This last is a highly wrought story, giving us a picture
of the savage warfare carried on between the Cossacks and Poles.
Gogol was also the author of a good comedy, The Reviser, wherein
the petty pilferings of Russian municipal authorities are satirized.
In his Memoirs of a Madman and Portrait, he shows a weird and
fantastic power which proves him to have been a man of strong
imagination. The same may be said of The Cloak, and the curious
tale Vii (" The Demon "), where he gives us a picture of Kiev in
the old days.
In the field of fiction Gogol had various famous successors, con-
cerning whom details will be found in separate articles. It must
suffice here to enumerate Alexander Herzen (d. 1869);
Later Ivan Goncharov (1812-1891); Dmitri Grigorovich (1822-
aoveUsts. jggg), author of The Fisherman and The Emigrants;
Alexis Pisemskiy (1822-1900); Michael Saltikov (1826-1889);
Feodor Dostoievskiy (1821-1881); Alexander Ostrovskiy (1823-
1886); Feodor Ricshetnikov (1841-1871); Count A. Tolstoy
(1817-1875), also famous as a dramatist; and greater than all these
Ivan Turgeniev (1819-1883), and Count L. Tolstoy (1828-1910),
the last of whom ranks as much more than a man of letters.
In Vissarion Belinski the Russians produced their best
critic. For thirteen years (183447) he was the Aristarchus of
Russian literature and exercised a healthy influence. In his later
days he addressed a withering epistle to Gogol on the newly adopted
reactionary views of the latter.
Since the time of Karamzin the study of Russian history has
made great strides. He was followed by Nicholas Polevoy (1775-
1842), who wrote what he called the History of the Russian
People (6 vols., 1829-33), but his work was not received
las ' with much favour. Polevoy was a self-educated man, the
son of a Siberian merchant; besides editing a well-known Russian
journal, The Telegraph (suppressed in 1834), he was also the author
of many plays, among others a translation of Hamlet. Since his
time, however, the English dramatist has been produced in a more
perfect dress by Kroneberg, Druzhinin and others. Sergius Solo-
viev (1820-1879) was the author of a History of Russia which
may be described rather as a quarry of materials for future his-
torians of Russia than an actual history. In 1885 died N. Kosto-
marov, the writer of many valuable monographs, of which those
on Bpgdan Khmelnitskiy and the False Demetrius deserve special
mention. From 1847 to 1854 Kostomarov, whose interest in the
history of Little Russia and its literature made him suspected of
separatist views, wrote nothing, having been banished to Saratov,
and forbidden to teach or publish. But after this time his literary
activity began again, and, besides separate works, the leading
Russian reviews, such as Old and New Russia, The Historical
Messenger, and The Messenger of Europe, contained many con-
tributions from his pen of the highest value. Constantine Kavelin
(1818-1855) was the author of many valuable works on Russian
law, and Kalatchev published a classical edition of the old Russian
codes. Ilovaiskiy and Gedeonov attempted to upset the general
belief that the founders of the Russian empire were Scandinavians.
A good history of Russia (1855) was published by N. Ustrialov,
but his most celebrated work was his Tzarstvovanie Petra Velikago
(" Reign of Peter the Great "); in this many important documants
first saw the light, and the circumstances of the death of the un-
fortunate Alexis were made clear. Russian writers of history
have not generally occupied themselves with any other subject
than that of their own country, but an exception may be found
in the writings of Timofei Granovskiy (1813-1855), such as Abbe
Suger (1849) and Four Historical Portraits (1850). So also Kudriav-
tsov, who died in 1850, wrote on " The Fortunes of Italy, from
the Fall of the Roman Empire of the West till its Reconstruction
by Charlemagne." He also wrote on " The Roman Women as
described by Tacitus." We may add Kareyev, professor at Warsaw,
who wrote on the condition of the French peasantry before the
Revolution. Other writers on Russian history have been H.
Pogodine (d. 1873), who compiled a History of Russia till the In-
vasion of the Mongols (1871), and especially I. Zabielin, who has
written a History of Russian Life from the most Remote Times
(1876), and the Private Lives of the Czarinas and Czars (1869 and
1872) and a History of Moscow. Leshkov has written a History
of Russian Law to the i8th Century, and Tchitcherin a History of
Provincial Institutions in Russia in the i?th Century (1856). To
these must be added the work of Zagoskin, History of Law in the
State of Muscovy (Kazan, 1877). Professor Michael Kovalcvskiy, of
the university of Moscow, wrote an excellent work on Communal
Land Tenure, in which he investigates the remains of this custom
throughout the world. In 1885 Dubrovin published an excellent
history of the revolt of Pugachev. The valuable work by Alex-
ander Pypin (b. 1833) and Vladimir Spasovich, History of Slavonic
Literatures, is the most complete account of the subject, and has
been made more generally accessible by the German _ translation
of Pech. N. Tikhonravpy (1832-1893) wrote a Chronicle of Russian
Literature and Antiquities (5 vols., 1859^-61). The History of
Slavonic Literature by Schafarik, published in 1826, has long been
antiquated. A history of Russian literature by Paul Polevoy has
appeared, which has gone through two editions. The account of
the Polish rebellion of 1863 by Berg, published in 1873, which
gave many startling and picturesque episodes of the celebrated
struggle, was withdrawn from circulation. It appeared originally
in the pages of the Russian magazine Starina.
Nicholas Nekrasov, who died in 1877, left six volumes of poetry
which in many respects remind us of the writings of Crabbe; the
poet is of that realistic school in which Russian authors ^^
so much resemble English. Another writer of poetry
deserving mention is Ogariev, for a long time the companion in
exile of Herzen in England; many of his compositions appeared
in the Polar Star of the latter, which contains the interesting
autobiographical sketches of Herzen, entitled Byloe i Dumi (" The
Past and my Thoughts "). Apollon Maikoy (1821-1847) at one
time enjoyed great popularity as a poet; he is a kind of link with
Pushkin, of whose elegance of versification he is an imitator.
Another poet of a past generation was Prince Viazemskiy (1792-
1878). Graceful lyrics were written by Mei, Fet (whose name
would apparently prove Dutch extraction, Veth), Stcherbina, and,
going a little further back, Yazykov, the friend of Pushkin, and
Khomiakov, celebrated for his Slavophile propensities. To these
may be added Mdlle Zhadovskaya, Benediktov, Podplinskiy and
Tiutchev. Polonskiy (18201898) contributed exquisite lyrics to
the Viestnik Yevropi.
Excellent works on subjects connected with Slavonic philology
have been published by Vostokov, who edited the Ostromir Codex,
and Sreznevskiy and Bodianskiy , who put forth an edition
of the celebrated codex used at Reims for the coronation
of the French kings. After their deaths their work was
carried on by Professor Grot (Philological Investigations, also many
critical editions of Russian classics), Budilovich, professor at Warsaw,
Potebnya of Kharkov, and Baudoin de Courtenay, who, among
other services to philology, has described the Slavonic dialect
spoken by the Resanians, a tribe living in Italy, in two villages
of the Julian Alps. The songs (byliny) of the Russians have been
collected by Zakrevskiy, Rybnikov, Hilferding, Barsov and others,
and their national tales by Sakharov, Afanasiev and Erlenvein.
Kotliarevskiy, Tereshenko and others have treated of their customs
and superstitions. S. Stanislaus Mikutskiy, professor at the uni-
versity of Warsaw, has published his Materials for a Dictionary of
the Roots of the Russian and all Slavonic Dialects, but it represents
a somewhat obsolete school of philology. The Early Russian
Text Society continues its useful labours, and has edited many
interesting monuments of the older Slavonic literature. Two
valuable codices have been printed in Russia, Zographus and
Marianus, interesting versions of the Gospels in Palaeoslavonic.
They were edited by the learned Croat Jagic, who occupied the
chair of Sreznevskiy in St Petersburg. An excellent Tolkovi Slmar
Velikorusskago Yazika (" Explanatory Dictionary of the Great
Russian Language ") was compiled by Vladimir Dahl. Alexander
Hilferding published some valuable works on ethnology and phil-
ology, among others on the Polabs, an extinct Slavonic tribe who
once dwelt on the banks of the Elbe. The Russians have not
exhibited many works in .the field of classical or other branches
of philology. Exception, however, must be made of the studies
of Tchubinov in Georgian, Minayev in the Indian and Tsvetayev
in the old languages of Italy.
In moral and mental philosophy the Russians have produced but
few authors. We meet with some good mathematicians, Lobachevskiy
among others, and in natural science the publications of the Society
for Natural History at Moscow have attracted considerable attention.
Recent Literature. The death of Nekrasov in 1877 deprived
Russia of her most eminent poet since the days of Pushkin and
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR
Lermontov. During the last generation of the igth century most
of the Titans of her literature departed, and cannot be said to have
left successors of equal merit. Dostoievskiy, Pisemskiy, Turgeniev,
Goncharov, Ostrovskiy and Saltikov followed each other to the grave
in rapid succession. Leo Tolstoy alone remained, a veritable
patriarch, whose views on life gave him a world-interest beyond
even the contributions of his great prose fiction. In 1895 Apukhtin,
author of many graceful lyrics, died; in 1897 Apollon Maikov, and
soon afterwards Polonskiy. These men were well known throughout
Russia. A new school of poets has sprung up, consisting for the
most part of the so-called decadents and symbolists. Among them
may be mentioned A. Korinfskiy; Ivan Bunin, who has published
an excellent translation of Longfellow's Hiawatha; and Constantine
Balmont. The last of these has given to the public several volumes
of lyrics, many of which exhibit a graceful imagination. He has
been a successful translator of Shelley, and of Edgar Allan Poe,
Ibsen and Calderon. We must also mention V. Briusov and
K. Sluchevskiy, Mme. Gippius-Merezhkovskaya and Mme. Myrrha
Lokhvitskaya. Excellent historical novels have been written by
Merezhkovskiy (Merejkovsky (g.ti.)). The drama is not in ,a
flourishing condition. Very little of merit has been produced
since the great trilogy (1866-69) of Alexis Tolstoy dealing with
the reign of Ivan the Terrible full of picturesque horrors for the
dramatist and the bourgeois comedies of Ostrovskiy.
If we turn to history, in which the Russians have always shown
considerable talent, we can cite some really good work. We cannot
here find room to discuss the memoirs and other documents which
appear in the Russian Antiquary (Russkaya Starina), the Historical
Messenger (Istoricheskiy Viestnik) and other journals, the name of
which is legion. In 1897 Professor Bestuzhev-Riumin, of the
university of St Petersburg, died. He had held his chair of history
since 1865. His valuable History of Russia must now remain a
torso only, the first volume and the first half of the second having
alone appeared. Soloviev and Kostomarov are dead. The famous
school of Russian historians is thus almost extinct. But some
excellent writers in this department have come to the front. Pro-
fessor Miliukov has started his Sketches of the History of Russian
Culture (Ocherki po istorii russkoi kulturi), which has been much read.
Professor Bilbasov wrote a History of Catherine II. and N. Shilder a
Life of Alexander I. D. Evarnitskiy has added a third volume to his
interesting work on the Zaporozhian Cossacks. The Russians have
always enjoyed a considerable reputation as memoir-writers, and
the Recollections of Mme. Smirnov, which first appeared in the
Northern Messenger (Sieverny Viestnik), proved very interesting.
Pushkin appears here before us in the most minute details of his
everyday life. The centenary of his birth (1899) was signalized by
the publication of many interesting monographs on his strange
career. The details furnished by his nephew, L. Pavlistchev, were
especially noteworthy. The second volume appeared of the classical
History of the Russian Church, by E. Golubinskiy. A valuable con-
tribution to early Russian history was furnished by the Legal An-
tiquities (Yuridicheskia Drevnosti)-oi V. Serguievich, by which quite
a new light has been thrown upon the Russian sobor. The well-
known savant, Maxime Kovalevskiy, published the second volume
of his Economic Development of Europe to the Rise of Capitalism.
N. Rozhkov wrote an important work entitled Village Economy in
Muscovy in the Sixteenth Century. This book analyses the conditions
under which economic production was developed in Old Russia.
S. Platonov published a History of the Insurrections in Russia in the
Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. He holds entirely new views
on the oprichina, the famous bodyguard of Ivan the Terrible.
Professor B. Kliuchevskiy, of the university of Moscow, published in
1883 a valuable book on the Russian Duma, as the privy council
of the emperors was called, and in 1899 he issued his Aids to Lectures
on Russian History. Russian writers have not often devoted them-
selves to the political and social conditions of other countries, but
an exception must be made in the case of the books by Professor
Vinogradpv, formerly of Moscow, notably his Investigations into the
Social History of England in the Middle Ages (1887). The learned
author, who was called to Oxford as Corpus professor of juris-
prudence, also prepared an edition of this work for the English
public. In fiction no new writers appeared of equal calibre to Gogol,
Turgeniev, Dostoievskiy and Tolstoy. But A. Chekhov showed
considerable power in his short stories. Some of the tales of Gorki
(q.v.), Ertel and Yasinskiy are also of great merit. The brilliant
Garshin died insane in 1888.
A few words must be said on the literature of the Russian dialects,
the Little and White Russian. The Little Russian is rich in skazki
(tales) and songs. Peculiar to them is the duma, a narra-
' ' tive poem which corresponds in many particulars with the
Russian bylina. Since the commencement of the
or /Ma/o- centur y. the Little Russian dumy have been repeatedly
Russian edited, as by Maksimovich Metlinskiy and others, and an
elaborate edition was undertaken by Dragomanov and
Antonovich. Just as the byliny of the Great Russians, so also these
dumy of the Little Russians admit of classification, and they have
been divided by their latest editors as follows: (i) the songs of
the druzhina, treating of the early princes and their followers;
(2) the Cossack period (Kozachestvo), in which the Cossacks are
919
found in continual warfare with the Polish pans and the attempts
of the Jesuits to introduce the Roman Catholic religion; (3) the
period of the Haidamaks, who formed the nucleus of the national
party, and prolonged the struggle.
The foundation of the Little Russian literature (written, as
opposed to the oral) was laid by Ivan Kotliarevskiy (1769-1838),
whose travesty of part of the Aeneid enjoys great popularity among
some of his countrymen. Others, however, object to it as tending
to bring the language or dialect into ridicule. A truly national
poet appeared in Taras Shevchenko, born at the village of Kirilovka,
in the government of Kiev, in the condition of a sen. The strange
adventures of his early life he has told us in his autobiography.
He did not get his freedom till some time after he had reached
manhood, when he was purchased from his master by the generous
efforts of the poet Zhukovskiy and others. Besides poetry, he
occupied himself with painting, with considerable success. He
unfortunatejy became obnoxious to the government, and was
punished with exile to Siberia from 1847 to 1857. He did not
long survive his return, dying in 1861, aged forty-six. No one has
described with greater vigour than Shevchenko the old days of
the Ukraine. In his youth he listened to the village traditions
handed down by the priests, and he has faithfully reproduced them.
In the powerful poem entitled Haidamak we have a graphic picture
of the horrors enacted by Gonta and his followers at Uman. The
funeral of the poet was a vast public procession; a great cairn,
surmounted with a cross, was raised over his remains, where he lies
buried near Kaniov on the banks of the Dnieper. His grave has
been styled the " Mecca of the South Russian Revolutionists."
A complete edition of his works, with interesting biographical
notices-^one contributed by the novelist Turgeniev appeared at
Prague in 1876. Besides the national songs, excellent collections
of the South Russian folk-tales have appeared, edited by Drago-
manov, Rudchenko, and others. Many of these are still recited
by the tchumaki, or wandering pedlars. A valuable work is the
Zapiski o Yuzhnoy Rossii (" Papers on Southern Russia "), published
at St Petersburg in 1857 by Panteleimon Kulish. After he got into
trouble (with Kostomarov and Shevchenko) for his political views,
the late works of this author show him to have undergone a complete
change. Other writers using the Little Russian language are
Marko-Vovchok (that is, Madame Eugenia Markovich) and Yuri
Fedkovich, who employs a dialect of Bukovina. Fedkovich, like
Shevchenko, sprang from a peasant family, and served as a soldier
in the Austrian army against the French during the Italian campaign.
Naturally we find his poems filled with descriptions of life in the
camp. Like the Croat Preradovic, he began writing poetry in the
German language, till he was turned into more natural paths by
some patriotic friends. A collection of songs of Bukovina was
published at Kiev in 1875 by Lonachevskiy. Eugene Zelechovskiy
compiled a valuable Dictionary of Little Russian. There is a good
grammar by Osadtsa, a pupil of Miklosich.
In the White Russian dialect are to be found only a few songs,
with the exception of portions of the Scriptures and some legal
documents. A valuable dictionary has been published jv/ifte
by Nosovich, but this is one of the most neglected of the Russian
Russian dialects. Collections of White Russian songs have
, , .. , , , ., . , , oiatccif
been published by bhem and others.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. A. Pypin, History of Russ. Lit. (in Russian);
A. Bruckner, Geschichte der russ. Lit. (Leipzig, 1905; Eng. trans,
ed. E. H. Minns, London, 19x59); A. Skabichevskiy, History of the
Latest Russ. Lit., 1848-1892 (in Russian, St Petersburg, 1897) ; Gallery
of Russian Writers (in Russian, Moscow, 1901); Russian Poets, com-
piled by A. Salnikov (in Russian, St Petersburg, 1901); L. Wiener,
Anthology of Russ. Lit. (New York, 1902); Rosa Newmarch, Poetry
and Progress in Russia (London, 1907). (W. R. M.)
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR, 1904-5. The seizure by Russia
of the Chinese fortress of Port Arthur, which she had a few
years previously, in concert with other powers, compelled Japan
to relinquish, was from the Russian point of view the logical
outcome of her eastward expansion and her need for an ice-free
harbour on the Pacific. The extension of the Trans-Siberian
railway through Manchuria to Port Arthur and a large measure
of influence in Manchuria followed equally naturally. But the
whole course of this expansion had been watched with sus-
picion by Japan, from the time of the Saghalien incident of 1875,
when the island power, then barely emerging from the feudal
age, had to cede her half of the island to Russia, to the Shimono-
seki treaty of 1895, when the powers compelled her to forego
the profits of her victory over China. The subsequent occupation
of Port Arthur and other Chinese harbours by European powers,
and the evident intention of consolidating Russian influence in
Manchuria, were again and again the subject of Japanese repre-
sentations at St Petersburg, and these representations became
more vigorous when, in 1903, Russia seemed to be about to extend
her Manchurian policy into Korea. No less than ten draft treaties
920
were discussed in vain between August 1903 and February 1904,
and finally negotiations were broken off on February sth. 1
Japan had already on the 4th decided to use force, and her
military and naval preparations, unlike those of Russia, kept
pace with her diplomacy.
This was in fact an eventuality which had been foreseen and
on which the naval and military policy of Japan had been based
for ten years. She too had her projects of expansion and
hegemony, and by the Chino-Japanese War she had gained
a start over her rival. The reply of the Western powers was first
to compel the victor to maintain the territorial integrity of China,
and then within two years to establish themselves in Chinese
harbours. From that moment Japanese policy was directed
towards establishing her own hegemony and meeting the advance
of Russia with a fait accompli. But her armaments were not
then adequate to give effect to a strong-handed policy, so that
for some years thereafter the government had both to impose
heavy burdens on the people and to pursue a foreign policy of
marking time, and endured the fiercest criticism on both counts,
for the idea of war with Russia was as popular as the taxes
necessary to that object were detested. But as the army and
the navy grew year by year, the tone of Japanese policy became
firmer. In 1902 her position was strengthened by the alliance
with England; in 1903 her army, though in the event it proved
almost too small, was considered by the military authorities as
sufficiently numerous and well prepared, and the arguments
of the Japanese diplomatists stiffened with menaces. Russia,
on the other hand, was divided in policy and consequently in
military intentions and preparations. In some quarters the
force of the new Japanese army was well understood, and
the estimates of the balance of military power formed by the
minister of war, Kuropatkin, coincided so remarkably with the
facts that at the end of the summer of 1903 he saw that
the moment had come when the preponderance was on the side
of the Japanese. He therefore proposed to abandon Russian
projects in southern Manchuria and the Port Arthur region and
to restore Port Arthur to China in return for considerable con-
cessions on the side of Vladivostok. His plan was accepted,
but " a lateral influence suddenly made itself felt, and the com-
pletely unexpected result was war." Large commercial interests
were in fact involved in the forward policy, " the period of heavy
capital expenditure was over, that of profits about to commence,"
and the power and intentions of Japan were ignored or mis-
understood. Further, Dragomirov, a higher military authority
even than Kuropatkin, declared that " Far Eastern affairs
were decided in Europe." Thus Russia entered upon the war
both unprepared in a military sense, and almost entirely in-
different to its causes and its objects. To the guards and patrols
of the Manchurian railway and the garrisons of Port Arthur
and Vladivostok, 80,000 in all, Japan could, in consequence
of her recruiting law of 1896, oppose a first-line army of some
270,000 trained men. Behind these, however, there were
scarcely 200,000 trained men of the older classes, and at the
other end of the long Trans-Siberian railway Russia had almost
limitless resources. 2 The strategical problem for Japan was, how
to strike a blow sufficiently decisive to secure her object, before
the at present insignificant forces of the East Siberian army
were augmented to the point of being unassailable. It turned,
therefore, principally upon the efficiency of the Trans-Siberian rail-
way and in calculating this the Japanese made a serious under-
estimate. In consequence, far from applying the " universal
service " principle to its full extent, they trained only one-
fifth of the annual contingent of men found fit for service.
The quality of the army, thus composed of picked men (a point
which is often forgot ten), approximated to that of a professional
force; but this policy had the result that, as there was no adequate
second-line army, parts of the first-line had to be reserved,
instead of being employed at the front. And when for want
of these active troops the first great victory proved indecisive,
1 Belated declarations of war appeared on the loth.
1 The total Russian army on a peace footing is almost 1,000,000
strong.
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR
half-trained elements had to be sent to the front in considerable
numbers indeed the ration strength of the army was actually
trebled. The aim of the war, " limited " in so far that the
Japanese never deluded themselves with dreams of attacking
Russia at home, was to win such victories as would establish
the integrity of Japan herself and place her hegemony in the
Far East beyond challenge. Now the integrity of
Japan was worth little if the Russians could hope
ultimately to invade her in superior force, and as the
Port Arthur was the station of the fleet that might
convoy an invasion, as well as the symbol of the
longed-for hegemony, the fortress was necessarily the army's
first objective, a convincing Sedan was the next. For the navy,
which had materially only a narrow margin of superiority over
the Russian Pacific Squadron, the object was to keep the two
halves of that squadron, at Port Arthur and Vladivostok respect-
ively, separate and to destroy them in detail. But in February
weather these objects could not be pursued simultaneously. Prior
to the break-up of the ice, the army could only disembark at
Chemulpo, far from the objective, or at Dalny under the very
eyes of its defenders. The army could therefore, for the moment,
only occupy Korea and try to draw upon itself hostile forces that
would otherwise be available to assist Port Arthur when the
land attack opened. For the navy, instant action was im-
perative.
On the Sth of February the main battle-fleet, commanded by
Vice-Admiral Togo, was on the way to Port Arthur. During the
night his torpedo-boats surprised the Russian squadron in
harbour and inflicted serious losses, and later in the day the
battleships engaged the coast batteries. Repulsed in this
attempt, the Japanese established a stringent blockade,
which tried the endurance of the ships and the men to
the utmost. From time to time the torpedo-craft tried to
run in past the batteries, several attempts were made to
block the harbour entrance by sinking vessels in the fair-
way, and free and deadly use was made by both sides of
submarine mines. But, though not destroyed, the Port
Arthur squadron was paralysed by the instantaneous assertion
of naval superiority.
Admiral Alexeiev, the tsar's viceroy in the Far East and the
evil genius of the war, was at Port Arthur and forbade the navy
to take the risks of proceeding to sea. 3 For a time, when in
place of Admiral Starck (who was held responsible for the sur-
prise of February), Admiral Makarov, an officer of European
reputation, commanded the fleet, this lethargy was shaken off.
The new commander took his ships to sea every day. But
his energetic leadership was soon ended by a tragedy. A field
of electro-mechanical mines was laid by the Japanese Mataror
in the night of April I2th-i3th, and on the following at Port
day the Japanese cruisers stood inshore to tempt Arthur -
the enemy on to the mine-field. Makarov, however, crossed
it without accident, and pursued the cruisers until Togo's
battle-fleet appeared, whereupon he went about and steamed
for port. In doing so he recrossed the mine-field, and this time
the mines .were effectual. The flagship " Petropavlovsk " was
struck and went down with the admiral and 600 men, and
another battleship was seriously injured. Then the advocates of
passivity regained the upper hand and kept the squadron in
harbour, and henceforward for many months the Japanese navy
lay unchallenged off Port Arthur, engaging in minor operations,
covering the transport of troops to the mainland, and watching
for the moment when the advance of the army should force
the Russian fleet to come out. Meantime seven Japanese
cruisers under Vice-Admiral Kaimamura went in search of the
Russian Vladivostok squadron; this, however, evaded them for
some months, and^ inflicted some damage on the Japanese
mercantile marine and transports. The Japanese had not
waited to gain command of the sea before beginning the sea
transport of that part of their troops allotted to Korea. The
roads of that country were so poor that the landing had
3 A vivid picture of the state of affairs in the navy at this period
is given in Semenov's Rasplata (Eng. trans.).
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR
to be made, not on the Straits of Tsushima, but as far north as
possible. Chemulpo, nearer by 50 m. to Port Arthur
The
Japanese than to Japan, was selected. On the first day of
1st Army hostilities Rear- Admiral Uriu disembarked troops at
Chemulpo under the eyes of the Russian cruiser
" Variag," and next day he attacked and destroyed the
" Variag " and some smaller war-vessels in the harbour, and
the rest of the ist Army (General Kuroki) was gradually brought
over during February and March, in spite of an unbeaten and,
under Makarov's regime, an enterprising hostile navy. But
owing to the thaw and the subsequent break-up of the miser-
able Korean roads, six weeks passed before the columns of the
army (Guard, 2nd and i2th divisions), strung out along the
" Mandarin road " to a total depth of six days' march, closed
upon the head at Wiju, the frontier town on the Yalu. Opposite
to them they found a large Russian force of all arms.
The Russian commanders, at this stage at least, had not and
could not have any definite objective. Both by sea and by
land their policy was to mass their resources, repulsing mean-
time the attacks of the Japanese with as much damage to the
enemy and as little to themselves as possible. Their strategy
was to gain time without immobilizing themselves so far that the
Japanese could impose a decisive action at the moment that
suited them best. Both by sea and by land, such strategy was
an exceedingly difficult game to play. But afloat, had Makarov
survived, it would have been played to the end, and Togo's fleet
would have been steadily used up. One day, indeed (May isth),
two of Japan's largest battleships, the " Hatsume " and the
" Yashima," came in contact with free mines and were sunk.
One of them went to the bottom with five hundred souls. But
the admiral was not on board. The Russian sailors said, when
Makarov's fate was made known, " It is not the loss of a battle-
ship. The Japanese are welcome to two of them. It is he."
Not only the skill, but the force of character required for playing
with fire, was wanting to Makarov's successors.
It was much the same on land. Kuropatkin, who had taken
command of the army, saw from the first that he would have
Kuro- t g a i n three months, and disposed his forces as they
patkin's came on the scene, unit by unit, in perfect accord
plan. with the necessities of the case. His expressed intention
was to fight no battle until superiority in numbers was on his
side. He could have gained his respite by concentrating at
Harbin or even at Mukden or at Liao-Yang. But he had to
reckon with the fleet 1 at Port Arthur. He knew that the
defences of that place were defective, and that if the fleet were
destroyed whilst that of Togo kept the sea, there would be no
Russian offensive. He therefore chose Liao-Yang as the point
of concentration, and having thus to gain time by force instead
of by distance, he pushed out a strong covering detachment
towards the Yalu.
But little by little he succumbed to his milieu, the atmosphere
of false confidence and passivity created around him by Alexeiev.
After he had minutely arranged the Eastern Detachment in a
series of rearguard positions, so that each fraction of it could
contribute a little to the game of delaying the enemy before
retiring on the positions next in rear, the commander of the
detachment, Zasulich, told him that " it was not the custom
of a knight of the order of St George to retreat," and Kuropatkin
did not use his authority to recall the general, who, whether
competent or not, obviously misunderstood his mission. Thus,
whilst the detachment was still disposed as a series of rear-
guards, the foremost fractions of it stood to fight on the Yalu,
against odds of four to one.
The Japanese ist Army was carefully concealed about Wiju
until it was ready to strike. Determined that in this first battle
against a white nation they would show their mettle, the
Japanese lavished both time and forethought on the minutest
preparations. Forethought was still busy when, in accordance
with instructions from Tokio, Kuroki on the 3oth of April
ordered the attack to begin at daybreak on the ist of May.
For several miles above Antung the rivers Yalu and Aiho are
1 Not, as is often assumed, the fortress itself.
921
parallel and connected by numerous channels. The majority
of the islands thus formed were held and had been bridged by
the Japanese. The points of passage were commanded by high
ground a little farther up where the valleys definitely diverge,
and beyond the flank of the ill-concealed positions of the defence.
The first task of the right division (izth) was to cross the upper
Yalu and seize this. To the Guard and 2nd divisions was
assigned the frontal attack on the Chiuliencheng
position, where the Russians had about one-half of
their forces under Major-General Kashtalinski. On
the joth of April, Inouye's 12th division accomplished its
task of clearing the high ground up to the Aiho. The
Russians, though well aware that the force in their front
was an army, neither retired nor concentrated. Zasulich's
medieval generalship had been modified so far that he intended
to retreat when he had taught the Japanese a lesson, and there-
fore Kuropatkin's original arrangements were not sensibly
modified. So it came about that the combined attack of the
and and Guard divisions against the front, and Inouye on the
left flank and rear, found Kashtalinski without support. After
a rather ineffective artillery bombardment the Japanese advanced
in full force, without hesitation or finesse, and plunging into the
river, stormed forward under a heavy fire. A few moments after-
wards Zasulich ordered the retreat. But the pressure was far too
close now. Broken up by superior numbers the Russian line parted
into groups, each of which, after resisting bravely for a time, was
driven back. Then the frontal attack stopped and both divisions
abandoned themselves to the intoxication of victory. Mean-
while, the right attack (i2th division) encountering no very
serious resistance, crossed the Aiho and began to move on the left
rear of the Russians. On the side of the defence, each colonel had
been left to retire as best he could, and thus certain fractions
of the retreating Russians encountered Inouye's advancing
troops and were destroyed after a most gallant resistance. The
rearguard itself, at Hamatan, was almost entirely sacrificed,
owing to the wrong direction taken in retreating by its left
flankguard. Fresh attempts were made by subordinates to
form rearguards, but Zasulich made no stand even at Feng-
hwang-cheng, and the Japanese occupied that town unopposed
on the $th of May. The Japanese losses were i too out of over
40,000 present, the Russian (chiefly in "the retreat) at least 2500
out of some 7000 engaged.
The Yalu, like Valmy, was a moment in the world's history.
It mattered little that the Russians had escaped or that they
had been in inferior numbers. The serious fact was that they
had been beaten.
The general distribution of the Russian forces was now as
follows: The main army under Kuropatkin was forming, by
successive brigades, in two groups I. Siberian Corps (Stakel-
berg), Niu-chwang and Kaiping; II. Siberian Corps, Liao-Yang.
Zasulich (III. Corps and various other units) had still 21,000. In
the Port Arthur " fortified rayon," under Lieut. -General Stoessel
(IV. Corps), were 27,000 men, and General Linievich around
Vladivostok had 23,000. These are, however, paper strengths
only, and the actual number for duty cannot have been higher
than 110,000 in all. The Trans-Siberian railway was the only
line of communication with Europe and western Siberia, and
its calculated output of men was 40,000 a month in the summer.
In October 1904, therefore, supposing the Japanese to have used
part of their forces against Port Arthur, and setting this off
against the absence of Linievich and Stoessel, Kuropatkin could
expect to have a sufficient superiority in numbers to take the
offensive. His policy was still, " No battle before we are in
superior force."
For the moment it was equally Japan's interest to mark time in
Manchuria. Still intent upon the Russian Port Arthur squadron,
she had embarked her 2nd Army (General Oku, ist, 3rd, ,,//
4th and 5th divisions) during April, and sent it to O f the
Chinampo whence, as soon as the ice melted and Japaaeu
Kuroki's victory cleared the air, it sailed to the 2 a
selected landing-place near Pitszewo. Here, under the
protection of a continuous chain of war-vessels between the Elliot
922
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR
GENERAL DISPOSITIONS
after
NANSHAN
Islands and the mainland, Oku began to disembark on the sth of
May. But the difficulties of the coast were such that it took three
weeks to disembark the whole and to extend across the peninsula
to Port Adams. Oku then, leaving the sth division behind,
moved down with the rest towards Kinchow, and after storming
that place found himself face to face with a position of enormous
strength, Nanshan Hill, at the narrowest part of the peninsula,
where part of a Russian division (3000 only out of 12,000 were
actually engaged) had fortified itself with extreme care. On the
z6th of May took place the battle of Nanshan. The Japanese
attack was convergent, but there was no room for envelopment;
the Russian position moreover was " all-round " and presented
no flanks, and except for the enfilade fire of the Japanese and
Russian gunboats in the shallow bays on either side the battle
was locally at every point a frontal attack and defence. The
first rush of the assailants carried them up to the wire and other
obstacles, but they were for many hours unable to advance a step
farther. But the resolute Oku attacked time after time, and at
last the 4th division on his right, assisted by its gunboats,
Emery Walker sc.'
forced its way into the Russian position. The Russians had
just begun to retreat, in accordance with orders from Naashaa
higher authorities. But it was a second undeniable
victory. It was, moreover, a preface to those furious assaults
on Port Arthur which, because they were the expression of a
need that every soldier felt, and not merely of a tactical method,
transcend all cool-blooded criticism. The Japanese losses were
4500 out of 30,000 engaged or 15%, that of the Russians fully
half of the 3000 engaged. The victors captured many guns,
but were too exhausted to pursue the Russians, whose retirement
was not made in the best order.
The transports were now conveying the 6th and nth divisions
to Pitszewo; these^were to form the 3rd Army (Nogi) for opera-
tions against Port Arthur. Oku exchanged his ist division for
the 6th. The 2nd Army then turned northward (3rd, 4th, jth
and 6th divisions). The loth division, forming the nucleus of
the 4th Army, had begun to land at Takushan on the igth of May.
The 2nd and 4th Armies were the left wing of a widespread
converging movement on Liao-Yang. Oku had the greatest
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR
923
distance to march, Kuroki the smallest. The latter therefore
had to stand fast in the face of the Russian Eastern Detachment,
which was three days' march at most from Feng-hwang-cheng
and could be supported in three more days by Kuropatkin/s
main body, whereas the pressure of Oku's advance would not
begin to be felt by the Russian Southern Detachment until
the twelfth day at earliest. It was necessary therefore for
the first objective to make a slight concession to the second.
Oku had to start at the earliest possible moment, even though
operations against Port Arthur were thereby delayed for a
week or two. In fact, Oku's march began on June I3th, Kuroki's
on June 24th; the moves of the intermediate forces at various
dates within this time.
Meanwhile Kuropatkin, assembling the main army week
by week, was in a difficult position. His policy of gaining time
had received a severe blow in the failure of his executive officer
to realize it, and that officer, though his unpursued troops
quickly regained their moral, had himself completely lost con-
fidence. On the news of the battle (coupled with that of a fresh
army appearing on the Korean coast), 1 Kuropatkin instantly
sent off part of his embryo central mass to bar the mountain
passes of Fenshuiling and Motienling against the imagined
relentless pursuit of the victors, and prepared to shift his centre
of concentration back to Mukden. The subsidiary protective
forces on either flank of Zasulich had promptly abandoned
their look-out positions and fallen back to join him. But the
commander-in-chief, soon realizing that the Japanese were not
pursuing, reasserted himself, sent the protective troops back
to their posts, and cancelled all orders for the evacuation of Liao-
Yang. From this time forward, Kuropatkin allowed his sub-
ordinates little or no initiative. A few days later, Zasulich's
persistent requests to be allowed to retreat and the still uncertain
movements of the 2nd Army induced him once more to pre-
pare a concentration on Mukden. But on the 6th of May he
learned that the Japanese ist Army had again halted at Feng-
hwang-cheng and that the 2nd Army was disembarking at
Pitszewo, and he resumed (though less confidently) his original
idea. The Eastern protective detachment, now strengthened
and placed under the orders of Count Keller, was disposed with
a view to countering any advance on Liao-Yang from the east
by a combination of manoeuvre and fighting. 2 It was at this
moment of doubt that Alexeiev, leaving Port Arthur just in
time and profoundly impressed with the precarious state of
affairs in the fleet and the fortress, gave the order, ascommander-
Aiexetev in-chief by land and sea, for an " active " policy (ipth
and May). Kuropatkin, thus required to abandon his own
Kuro- plan, had only to choose between attacking the ist
p.it m. Army and turning upon Oku. He did not yield at once;
a second letter from the viceroy, the news of Nanshan, and
above all a signed order from the tsar himself, " Inform General
Kuropatkin that I impose upon him all the responsibility for the
fate of Port Arthur," were needed to bring him definitely to
execute a scheme which in his heart he knew to be perilous. The
path of duty for a general saddled with a plan which he dis-
approves is not easily discoverable. Napoleon in like case
refused, at the risk of enforced resignation, but so did Moreau;
the generality of lesser men have obeyed, but so did Suvarov.
Stakelberg's I. Siberian Corps was therefore reinforced
towards the end of May up to a strength of above 35,000. But
1 This was the and Army, waiting in the port of Chinampo for the
moment to sail for Pitszewo.
1 One isolated incident which deserves mention took place at this
time, the bold raid of Colonel Madritov and 500 Cossacks against
the communications of the ist Army. The raid (involving a
ride of 240 m. forward and back) was carried out in entire ignorance
of the battle of the Yalu, and on arriving at Anju Madritov found
nothing to attack, the 1st Army having after its victory adopted
a short line of communication from a sea base near the Yalu mouth.
This incident suggests two reflections first that raids or attacks
in rear of the " centre of operations " are valueless, however daring,
and second that had Zasulich, in his determination to be worthy of
his knighthood, concentrated for battle, the presence of the Madritov
detachment on the field would have prevented the lamentable and
costly misunderstandings of the retreat on Hamatan.
it remained a detachment only. The Liao-Yang central mass
was still held in hand, for the landing of the 4th Army really
only a division at present at Takushan and the wrong placing
of another Japanese division supposed to be with Kuroki
(really intended for Nogi) had aroused Kuropatkin's fears for
the holding capacity of Keller's detachment. Moreover, dis-
liking the whole enterprise, he was most unwilling to use up his
army in it. The Russians, then, at the beginning of June, were
divided into three groups, the Southern, or offensive group
(35,000), in the triangle Neuchwang-Haicheng-Kaiping; the
Eastern or defensive group (30,000), the main body of it guard-
ing the passes right and left of the Wiju-Liao-Yang road, the
left (Cossacks) in the roadless hills of the upper Aiho and Yalu
valleys, the right (Mishchenko's Cossacks and infantry supports)
guarding Fenshuiling pass and the road from Takushan; the
reserve (42,000) with Kuropatkin at Liao-Yang; the " Ussuri
Army " about Vladivostok; and Stessel's two divisions in the
Kwantung peninsula.
On the other side the ist Army was at Feng-hwang-cheng with
one brigade detached on the roads on either hand, the left being
therefore in front of the Takushan division and facing the
Fenshuiling. Oku's 2nd Army (4 divisions or 60,000 com-
batants) was about Port Adams. This last was the objective
of the attack of Stakelberg's 35,000. Kuropatkin's stakel-
orders to his subordinate were a compromise between
his own plan and Alexeiev's. Stakelberg was to crush
by a rapid and energetic advance the covering forces
of the enemy met with, and his object was " the capture of the
Nanshan position and thereafter an advance on. Port Arthur."
Yet another object was given him, to " relieve the pressure on
Port Arthur by drawing upon himself the bulk of the enemy's
forces," and he was not to allow himself to be drawn into a
decisive action against superior numbers. Lastly, on June 7th,
while Stakelberg was proceeding southward on his ill-defined
errand, Kuropatkin, imposed upon by the advance of the
Takushan column to Siu-yen, forbade him to concentrate to
the front, only removing the veto when he learned that the
4th Army had halted and entrenched at Siu-yen.
On the I4th, all his arrangements for supply and transport
being at last complete, Oku moved north. Although he was
still short of part of the 6th division, he was in superior force.
He had,' moreover, the perfectly definite purpose of fighting his
way north, and at Telissu or Wafangkou on the i4th of June,
as he expected, he came upon Stakelberg's detach-
ment in an entrenched position. On the i4th andisth,
attacking sharply on the Russian front and lapping round both
its flanks, Oku won an important and handsome victory, at a
cost of 1200 men out of 35,000 engaged, while the Russians,
with a loss of at least 3600 out of about 25,000 engaged, retired
in disorder. Thus swiftly and disastrously ended the southern
expedition.
Meantime, except for the movement on Siu-yen already
mentioned, 3 and various reconnaissances in force by Keller's
main body and by Rennenkampf's Cossacks farther inland, all
was quiet along the Motienling front. Kuroki entrenched him-
self carefully about Feng-hwang-cheng, intending, if attacked by
the Russian main army, to defend to the last extremity the
ground and the prestige gained on the ist of May.
From this point to the culmination of the advance at Liao-
Yang, the situation of the Japanese closely resembles that of
the Prussians in 1866. Haicheng represents Munchengratz,
Liao-Yang Gitschin. and the passes east of Liao-Yang Nachod
and Trautenau. The concentration of the various Japanese
armies on one battlefield was to be made, not along the circum-
ference of the long arc they occupied, but towards the centre.
Similarly, Kuropatkin was in the position of Benedek. He
possessed the interior lines and the central reserve which enables
interior lines to be utilized, and a stroke of good fortune pro-
longed the period in which he could command the situation, for
3 The occupation of Siu-yen was chiefly the work of the brigade
pushed out to his left by Kuroki. Only a portion of the loth
division from Takushan helped to drive away Mishchenko's Cossacks.
924
on the 23rd of June an unexpected sortie of the Russian Port
Arthur squadron paralysed the Japanese land offensive. In
the squadron were seen the battleships damaged in the February
attacks, and the balance of force was now against Togo, who
had lost the " Yashima " and the " Hatsuse." The squadron
nevertheless tamely returned to harbour, Togo resumed the
blockade and Nogi began his advance from Nanshan, but the
2nd and 4th Armies came to a standstill at once (naval escort
for their sea-borne supplies being no longer available), and the
ist Army, whose turn to advance had just arrived, only pushed
ahead a few miles to cover a larger supply area. On the ist of
July the Vladivostok squadron appeared in the Tsushima
Straits, and then vanished to an unknown destination, and
whether this intensified the anxiety <5f the Japanese or not, it
is the fact that the 2nd Army halted for eleven days at Kaiping,
bringing the next on its right, 4th Army, to a standstill likewise.
Its next advance brought it to the fortified position of Tashichiao,
where Kuropatkin had, by drawing heavily upon his central
reserve and even on the Eastern Detachment, massed about two
army corps.
On the 24th Oku attacked, but the Russian general, Zarubayev,
handled his troops very skilfully, and the Japanese were repulsed
with a loss of 1200 men. Zarubayev, who had used
only about half his forces in the battle, nevertheless
retired in the night, fearing to be cut off by a descent
of the approaching 4th Army on Haicheng, and well content
to have broken the spell of defeat. Oku renewed the attack
next day, but found only a rearguard in front of him, and
without following up the retiring Russians he again halted for
six days before proceeding to Haicheng to effect a junction
with the 4th Army (Nozu), which meantime had won a number
of minor actions and forced the passage of the mountains at
Fenshuiling South. 1
The ist Army, after its long halt at Feng-hwang-cheng, which
was employed in minutely organizing the supply service a
task of exceptional difficulty in these roadless mountains re-
opened the campaign on the 24th of June, but only tentatively
on account of the discouraging news from Port Arthur. A
tremendous rainstorm imposed further delays, for the coolies
and the native transport that had been laboriously collected
scattered in all directions. The Motienling pass, however, had
been seized without difficulty, and Keller's power of counter-
attack had been reduced to nothing by the despatch of most of
his forces to the concentration at Tashichiao. But Oku's 2nd
Army was now at a standstill at Kaiping, and until he was
further advanced the ist Army could not press forward. The
captured passes were therefore fortified (as Feng-hwang-cheng
had been) for passive resistance. This, and the movements of
the 4th Army, which had set its face towards Haicheng and
no longer seemed to be part of a threat on Liao-Yang, led to
the idea being entertained at Kuropatkin's headquarters that
the centre of gravity was shifting to the south. To clear up the
situation Keller's force was augmented and ordered to attack
Kuroki. It was repulsed with a loss of nearly 1000 men in the
action at the Motienling (i;th July), but it was at least ascer-
tained that considerable forces were still on the Japanese right,
Actions anc ^ u P on th e arrival of a fresh army corps from Europe
on the Kuropatkin announced his intention of attacking
eastern Kuroki. And in effect he succeeded in concentrating
fit " It the equivalent of an army corps, in addition to Keller's
force, opposite to Kuroki's right. But having secured this
advantage he stood still for five days, and Kuroki had ample
time to make his arrangements. The Japanese general occupied
some 20 m. of front in two halves, separated by 6 m. of impassable
mountain, and knowing well the danger of a " cordon " defensive,
he met the crisis in another and a bolder fashion. Calling in the
brigade detached to the assistance of Nozu as well as all other
available fractions of his scattered army, he himself attacked
1 The 5th division of the 2nd Army had been sent to join the
loth as the latter approached Hsimucheng. The Guard brigade of
Kuroki's army which had served with Nozu in the advance had now
returned to Feng-hwang-cheng.
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR
on the 3 ist of July, all along the line. It was little more than
an assertion of his will to conquer, but it was effectual. On his
left wing the attacks of the Guard and 2nd divisions (action of
Yang-tzu-ling) on the Russian front and flank failed, the frontal
attack because of the resolute defence, the flank attack from
sheer fatigue of the troops. Count Keller was killed in the
defence. Meantime on the Japanese right the I2th division
attacked the large bodies of troops that Kuropatkin had massed
(Yu-shu-ling) equally in vain. But one marked success was
achieved by the Japanese. The Russian 3$th and 36th regi-
ments (loth European Corps) were caught between two advanc-
ing columns, and, thanks to the initiative of one of the column
leaders, Okasaki, destroyed. At night, discouraged on each
wing by the fall of Count Keller and the fate of the 3$th and
36th, the whole Russian force retired on Anping, with a loss of
2400, to the Japanese 1000 men.
This was the only manifestation of the offensive spirit
on Kuropatkin's part during the six months of marking time.
It was for defence, sometimes partial and elastic, sometimes
rigid and " at-all-costs," that he had made his dispositions
throughout. His policy now was to retire on Liao-Yang as
slowly as possible and to defend himself in a series of concentric
prepared positions. In his orders for the battle around
his stronghold there is no word of counter-attack, retire*"
and his central mass, the special weapon of the com- meat on
mander-in-chief, he gave over to BUderling and to Liao-
Zarubayev to strengthen the defence in their respec- Van *-
tive sections or posted for the protection of his line of
retreat. Nevertheless he had every intention of delivering
a heavy and decisive counterstroke when the right moment
should come, and meantime his defensive tactics would certainly
have full play on this prearranged battlefield with its elaborate
redoubts, bombproofs and obstacles, and its garrison of a
strength obviously equal (and in reality superior) to that of the
assailants.
The Japanese, too, had effected their object, and as they
converged on their objective, the inner flanks of the three armies
had connected and the supreme commander Marshal Oyama
had taken command of the whole. But, as the event was to
prove, the military policy of Japan had failed to produce the
requisite number of men for the desired Sedan, and so, instead of
boldly pushing out the ist Army to such a distance that it
could manoeuvre, as Moltke did in 1866 and 1870, he attached
it to the general line of battle. It was not in two or three
powerful groups but in one long chain of seven deployed
divisions that the advance was made.
On the 25th of August the 2nd and 4th Armies from Haicheng
and the ist Army from the Yin-tsu-ling and Yu-shu-ling
began the last stage of their convergent advance. The Russian
first position extended in a semicircle from Anshantien (on the
Liao-Yang-Hai-cheng railway) into the hills at Anping, and
thence to the Taitse river above Liao-Yang; both sides had
mixed detachments farther out on the flanks. The first step in
the Japanese plan was the advance of Kuroki's army to Anping.
Throughout the 25th, night of 25th-26th, and 26th Battle ot
of August, Kuroki advanced, fighting heavily all Liao-
along the line, until on the night of the 26th the Yaa *-
defenders gave up the contested ground at Anping. Hitherto
there had only been skirmishing on a large scale on the
side of Hai-cheng. Kuropatkin having already drawn in
his line of defence on the south side towards Liao-Yang, the
2nd and 4th Japanese Armies delivered what was practically a
blow in the air. But on the zyth there was a marked change
in the Japanese plan. The right of the ist Army, when about
to continue the advance west on Liao-Yang, was diverted
northward by Oyama 's orders and ordered to prepare to cross
the Taitszeho. The retirement of the Russian Southern Force
into its entrenchments emboldened the Japanese commander-
in-chief to imitate Moltke's method to the full. On the 28th,
however, the ist Army made scarcely any progress. The
right (i2th) division reached the upper Taitszeho, but the
divisions that were to come up on its left were held fast by their
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR
925
LIAO-YANG
Scale, 1:226,000
English Mile*
' S
Russians 129-30 August!
Japanese advance .
opponents. The zgth was an uneventful day,, on which both
sides prepared for the next phase.
The Russians' semicircle, now contracted, rested on the
Taitszeho above and below the town, and their forces were
massed most closely on either side of the " Mandarin " road that
the ist Army had followed. Opposite this portion of the line
was the Guard and the 4th Army. Oku was astride the railway,
Kuroki extending towards bis proposed crossing-points just
beyond Kuropatkin's extreme left (the latter was behind the
river). On the 3oth the attack was renewed. The Guard, the 4th
Army and the and Army were completely repulsed.
On the night of the 3oth the first Japanese troops crossed
the Taitszeho near Lien-Tao-Wun, and during the 3ist three
brigades were deployed north of Kwan-tun, facing west. The
Russian left wing observed the movement all day, and within
its limited local resources made dispositions to meet it. Kuro-
patkin's opportunity was now come. The remainder of the
znd division was following the I2th, leaving a nine-mile gap
between Kuroki and Nozu, as well as the river. It was not into
this gap, which had no military significance, but upon the
isolated divisions of the ist Army that the Russian general pro-
posed to launch his counterstroke. Reorganizing his southern
defences on a shorter front, so as to regain possession of the re-
serves that he had so liberally given away to his subordinates,
he began to collect large bodies of troops opposite Kuroki, while
Stakelberg and Zarubayev, before withdrawing silently into the
lines or rather the fortress of Liao-Yang, again repulsed Oku's
determined attacks on the south side. But it was not in con-
fidence of victory that Kuropatkin began the execution of the
new plan rather as a desperate expedient to avoid being cut
off by the ist Army, whose strength he greatly overestimated.
On the morning of the ist of September the anniversary of
Sedan, as the Japanese officers told their men Oyama, whose
intentions the active Kuroki had somewhat outrun, delivered a
last attack with the znd and 4th Armies, and the Guard on the
south front, in the hope of keeping the main body of the Russians
occupied and so assisting Kuroki, but the assailants encountered
no resistance, Zarubayev having already retired into the
fortress. North of the Taitszeho the crisis was approaching.
Kuroki's left, near the river, vigorously attacked a hill called
Manjuyama which formed part of the line of defence of the
XVII. Corps from Europe. But the right of the ist Army (i2th
division) was threatened by the gathering storm of the counter-
stroke from the side of Yentai Mines, and had it not been that
the resolute Okasaki continued the attack on Manjuyama
alone, the Japanese offensive would have come to a standstill.
Manjuyama, thanks to the courage of the army commander
and of a single brigadier, was at last carried after nightfall,
and the dislodged Russians made two counter-attacks in the
dark before they would acknowledge themselves beaten. Next
morning, when Kuroki, who had conceived the mistaken idea
of a general retreat of the Russians on Mukden, was preparing
926
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR
to pursue, the storm broke. Kuropatkin had drawn together
seven divisions on the left rear of the XVII. Corps, the strength of
the whole being about 90,000. On the extreme left was Orlov's
brigade of all arms at Yentai Mines, then came the I. Siberian
Corps (Stakelberg), then the X. Corps, then the XVII. But
Orlov, perplexed by conflicting instructions and caught in
an unfavourable situation by a brigade of the I2th division
which was executing the proposed " pursuit," gave way part
of his force in actual rout and the cavalry that was with him
was driven back by the Kobi (reserve army) brigade of the
Guard. The fugitives of Orlov's command disordered the
on-coming corps of Stakelberg, and the outer flank of the great
counterstroke that was to have rolled up Kuroki's thin line
came to an entire standstill. Meantime the X. Corps furiously
attacked Okasaki on the Manjuyama, and though its first assault
drove in a portion of Okasaki's line, a second and a third, made
in the night, failed to shake the constancy of the isth brigade.
Misunderstandings and movements at cross-purposes multiplied
on the Russian side, and at midnight Kuropatkin at last obtained
information of events on the side of Yentai Mines. This was
'to the effect that Orlov was routed, Stakelberg's command much
shaken, and at the same time Zarubayev in Liao-Yang, upon
whom Oku and Nozu had pressed a last furious attack, reported
that he had only a handful of troops still in reserve. Then
Kuropatkin's resolution collapsed, although about three divisions
were still intact, and he gave the order to retreat on Mukden.
Thus the Japanese had won their great victory with inferior
forces, thanks " in the first instance to the defeat of General
Orlov. But at least as large a share in the ruin of the Russian
operations must be attributed to the steadfast gallantry of the
iSth brigade on Manjuyama." The losses of the Japanese
Russian totalled 23,000, those of the Russians 19,000. Coming,
retreat as it did, at a moment when the first attacks on Port
" Arthur had been repulsed with heavy losses, this
Mukden. Brilliantly succe ssful climax of the four months' cam-
paign more than restored the balance. But it was not the
expected Sedan. Had the two divisions still kept in Japan
been present Kuroki would have had the balance of force on his
side, the Russian retreat would have been confused, if not
actually a rout, and the war would have been ended on Japan's
own terms. As it was, after another day's fighting, Kuropatkin
drew off the whole of his forces in safety, sharply repulsing an
attempt at pursuit made by part of the I2th division on the
4th of September. The railway still delivered 30,000 men a
month at Mukden, and Japan had for a time outrun her re-
sources. At St Petersburg the talk was not of peace but of
victory, and after a period of reorganization the Russians
advanced afresh to a new trial of strength. But the remainder
of the Manchurian campaign, like the second half of the war of
1859, was nothing more than a series of violent and resultless
encounters of huge armies armies far larger than those which
had fought out the real struggle for supremacy at Liao-Yang and
Magenta.
At this time the siege of Port Arthur had only progressed so far
that the besiegers were able to realize the difficulties before them.
Nogi landed on the 1st of June, and his army (ist and I ith divisions)
gradually separated itself from Oku's and got into position for
the advance on Port Arthur. Dalny, the commercial harbour, was
seized without fighting, and a month was spent in preparing a base
N _ there. But so far from retiring within his fort-line Stessel
ad *nce too ' c up a stro "S position outside. Dislodged from this on
in Port the 26tJl ^ J une ' the Russians checked Nogi's further
Arthur advance on July 3-4 by a fierce, though unsuccessful,
counterstroke. Having been reinforced by the 9th division
and two extra brigades of infantry, Nogi advanced again on the
26th. The Russians, having had a month wherein to intrench
themselves, held out all along the line; but after two days and one
night of fighting amongst rocks and on precipitous hill-sides, the
Japanese broke through on the night of July 27-28. Stessel then
withdrew in good order into Port Arthur, which in the two months
he had gained by his fighting manoeuvre had been considerably
strengthened. Nogi had already lost 8000 men.
The defences of Port Arthur, as designed by the Russians in 1900,
and owing to the meagre allotment of funds only partially carried
out before the war, had some tincture, but no more, of modern
continental ideas. There was a continuous enceinte of plain trace
round the Old Town, at a distance of 1000 to 2000 yds. from it,
which had not and could not have had any influence on the issue
of the siege. The main line of defence followed the outer edge of
the amphitheatre of hills surrounding the harbour. These hills
had their greatest development on the N.E. side, their outer crests
being some 4000 yds. from the Old Town. _ West of the Lun
river the defensive line offered by the hills is less defined, and
the line adopted for the permanent works was on the north only
3000 yds. from the harbour and 2000 yds. from the New Town.
Running S.W. and S. back to the coast, it gradually draws in quite
close to the S.W. end of the harbour. The total length of this line
from sea to sea is some 12 m. Its most obvious weakness is
that 5000 yds. N.W. of the harbour and New Town the now famous
" 2O3-Metre Hill " overlooks both. Here it had been intended to
construct permanent works, but considerations of expenditure had
caused this to be deferred.
On this main line of defence some seven or eight permanent works
had been disposed (it is difficult to define with accuracy, as some of the
concreted works were little better than semi-permanent in character).
Some of these had been prepared with interior parapets and plat-
forms of concrete for medium guns. Fort Erh-Lung was of this
character. The general design appears to have been grounded on
the French detached forts of the "seventies (see FORTIFICATION),
as the front parapet was designed for infantry and the interior,
10 ft. higher, for guns. The ditch, 30 ft. deep, excavated in the rock,
was flanked by counterscarp galleries. The living casemates were
under the gorge parapet. A grave defect in the design was that
there was no covered communication between these casemates
and the parapets. Fort Chi-Kuan had no artillery parapet. The
ditch, 12 to 15 ft. deep, was defended by counterscarp De / cnceg
galleries. The casemates in the gorge, partially cut ofPort
off from the terreplein by a couple of deep sunk yards Arthur .
or areas, could be defended in the last resort as a keep. In
addition to this the terreplein was retrenched. In both of theee forts
there was an apparently meaningless projection at the gorge. It
is possible that these were embryonic " batteries traditores " to flank
the intervals. Fort Sung-Shu was of the same type as Chi-Kuan.
These three were the only permanent forts seriously attacked.
The permanent works were supplemented before the siege began
by a prodigious development of semi-permanent works and trenches.
Every knoll had its redoubt or battery, and the trenches were
arranged line behind line, to give supporting, cross and enfilade
fire in every direction. Thus on the north front, from Chi-Kuan
battery to Sung-Shu, a distance of about two miles, there were three
permanent forts and seven semi-permanent works and batteries.
Behind these was the " Chinese Wall," and behind that more
batteries and trenches. On the north-west front, 2O3-Metre Hill, in
advance of the main line, was occupied by strong semi-permanent
works, with trenches and redoubts to either flank; and 174-Metre
Hill, 1500 yds. beyond it, was also held. The Lun-Ho valley
where it cut through the line was closed by entanglements and
fougasses, and swept by batteries on each side. In front of the
centre, the Waterworks Redoubt, a semi-permanent work covering
the Port Arthur water supply, and connected by trenches with the
four Temple Redoubts a mile away to the west, formed a strong
advanced position. Wire entanglements were disposed in repeated
lines in front of the defences, but they were not of a strong type.
The Russians, with the resources of the fleet at their disposal (just
as at Sevastopol), used great numbers of machine guns and electric
lights, and the available garrison at first was probably, including
sailors, 47,000 men.
Such were the defences that the Japanese attacked, with a force at
the outset (3Oth of July) little more than superior numerically to the
defenders, and an entirely inadequate siege train (18 6-in. howitzers,
6o4-7-in. guns and howitzers, and about 200 field and mountain guns).
They were imperfectly informed of the strength of the garrison
and the nature of the defences. Recollections of their easy triumph
in 1894 and perhaps thoughts of Sevastopol, German theories of the
" brusque attack," the fiery ardour of the army, and above all the
need of rapidly crushing or expelling the squadron in harbour,
combined to suggest a bombardment and general assault. The
bombardment began on the igth of August and continued for three
days, while the infantry was spreading along the front and gaining
ground where it could. The real assault was made on the night of
the 2 1st on the two Pan-Lung forts (semi-permanent) on the centre
of the north-eastern front. The fighting was of the utmost severity,
and continued through the 22nd ; and although the stormers captured
the two forts they were absolutely unable to make any further pro-
gress under the fire of the permanent forts Erh-Lung and Chi-Kuan
on either side of, and the Wan-tai fort behind, Pan-Lung. Every
attempt to bring up supports to the captured positions failed, and
the Russians concentrated on the spot from all quarters. On the
night of the 23rd-24th, just as the assault was being renewed, Stessel
delivered a fierce counter-attack against the lost positions, and the
result of an all-night battle was that though the forts were not
recaptured, the assault was repulsed with over 5000 casualties, and
the Japanese in Pan-Lung were isolated. This sortie raised the
spirits of the Russians to the highest pitch. They seemed indeed
to have broken the spell of defeat. On the Japanese side 15,000
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR
927
PORT ARTHUR
Scale 1:70,000
Scale of i mile
a X i
tioadi
Fart* m. Sattlritt...-
fntrenoAmtnte
8-Sung-i/iiiA
IL = Wort* (Till/an B=ast Kikutui
R1.R2.eP<ui-/ung ndoubtt
Contour* at inttruafs of 40 metrtM
U0metrtl= 131-2 fnt)
Port Arthur
men had been killed and wounded in three weeks. The Russians
strengthened their works around the captured forts in such a way as
effectually to prevent farther advance, and the Japanese 3rd Army
had now to resign itself to a methodical siege. Small sorties,
partial attacks 1 and duels between the Japanese guns and the
Attacks generally more powerful ordnance of the fortress continued.
on the The siege approaches were first directed against theTemple-
nurth Waterworks group, which was stormed on the igth and
/root 2oth of September. Pan-Lung was connected with the
Japanese lines by covered ways, approaches were begun
towards several of the eastern forts, and on the 2oth of September
iSo-Metre Hill was stormed, though the crest was untenable under
the fire from 2O3-Metre Hill. The Japanese were now beginning
to pay more attention to the western side of the fortress, and from
the igth to the 22nd there was hard fighting around 2O3-Metre Hill,
the attack being eventually repulsed with the loss of 2000 men.
Operations in the west were thereupon abandoned for the time being,
and the eastern forts remained the principal objective of the attack.
Heavier howitzers had been sent for from Japan, and on the 1st of
October the first batteries of 28 centimetre (i i in.) howitzers came
into action. They fired a shell weighing 485 ft, with a bursting
charge of 17 lb. On the I2th, the Japanese took the trenches
between the Waterworks Redoubt and Erh-Lung, and cut the water-
supply. Saps were then pushed on against Erh-Lung, and to help in
their progress a Russian advanced work called " G " was captured
on the l6th, by a skilfully combined attack of infantry and artillery.
From this time forward there was a desperate struggle at the sap-
heads on the north front. 2
On the 26th of October another assault was made on Chi-Kuan
1 A particular feature of these constant night-fights was the
effective use of the defenders' searchlight, not only to show up the
enemy but to blind him.
1 Hand grenades and extemporized trench mortars were used on
both sides with very great effect. The Japanese hand grenades
consisted of about i lb of high explosive in a tin case; the Russian
cases were of all sorts, including old Chinese shell. The Japanese
employed wire-netting screens to stop the Russian grenades.
Various means were tried for the destruction of entanglements.
Eventually it was found that the best plan was to sap through
them.
Fort and Battery, and was continued at intervals, varied by Russian
counter-attacks, till the 2nd of November. By this time the
Japanese were becoming disheartened. They had incurred an
additional loss of 13,000 men without substantial gain, except a
lodgment on the counterscarp of Sung-Shu. This prepared the way
for mining, which had already been begun at Erh-Lung. On the
I7th of November seven mines were exploded at Sung-Shu, which
blew in the back of the counterscarp galleries. At Erh-Lung on the
2Oth of November three mines were exploded, which half filled the
ditch, and the Japanese later on sapped across to the escarp over
the debris. At Chi-Kuan, the counterscarp gallery had been breached
by an ill-managed Russian mine on the 23rd of October and the
Japanese got in through the breach and made a lodgment. They
did not, however, get possession of the whole of the counterscarp
galleries before about the middle of November. On the 22nd
of November the Japanese assaulted the trench round Chi-Kuan
battery. It was captured and retaken by counter-attack twice
between 6 p.m. and I a.m. In this fight each side was using corpses
as breastworks.
On the 26th of November another assault was made on the same
lines as that of the 3Oth of October. By this time the besiegers were
sapping under the escarps of the northern forts, and it would have
been better to delay. But the situation was serious in the extreme.
In Manchuria Kuropatkin's army had reasserted itself. From
Europe Rozhestvenski's squadron was just setting sail for the Far
East. Marshal Oyama sent his principal staff officers to stimulate
Nogi to fresh efforts, and some exhausted units of the besieging army
were replaced by fresh troops from Japan. With 100,000 men and
this urgent need of immediate victory, Nogi and the marshal's staff
officers felt bound to make a third general assault. The siege works
had indeed made considerable progress. The ditches of Sung-Shu
and Erh-Lung were partially filled^ They held most of the ditch
of Chi-Kuan Fort and were cutting down the escarp, and two
parallels had been made only 30 yds. from the Chinese Wall at
G " and Pan-Lung.
The general attack was made at I p.m. At Sung-Shu the stormers
got into the fort, but suffered much from the artillery on the western
side of the Lun-ho valley, and were beaten out of it again in 20
minutes; 2000 men tried in vain to get up the Lun-ho valley to take
Sung-Shu in rear. At Erh-Lung they could not get over the outer
parapet. At " G " they took a portion of the Chinese Wall and lost
928
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR
it again, other trenches with a cross fire being behind. At Pan-Lung
the machine guns on the Wall prevented them from leaving the
parallel. At Chi-Kuan Fort the terreplein of the fort had been
covered with entanglements defended by machine guns on the gorge
parapets, and the Japanese could make no way. Briefly, there was
a furious fight all along the line, and nothing gained. On the 27th
cf November, after losing 12,000 men, the assault was abandoned.
On the north front the Japanese returned to mining.
But so urgent was the necessity of speedy victory that the fighting
had to continue elsewhere. And at last, after every other point
had been attempted, the weight of the attack was directed
on 203-Metre Hill. A battery of ii-inch howitzers was
%f* n established only one mile away. On the 28th of November
assaults were made and failed. On the joth of Novemberan
attack with fresh troops failed again. On the ist of December there
was a heavy bombardment by the big howitzers, which obliged the
Russians to take shelter in rear of the ruined works. On the 2nd
of December the Russians tried a counter-attack. During the next
two days the artillery were busy. The engineers sapped up to the
ruins of the western work, saw the shelters on the reverse slope and
directed artillery fire by telephone. Thirty-six guns swept the
ground with shrapnel. Finally on the 5th of December the Japanese
attacked successfully. Their losses in the last ten days at 203-
Metre Hill had been probably over 10,000. Those of the Russians
were about 5000, chiefly from artillery fire.
This was the turning-point of the siege. At once the I i-inch howit-
zers, assisted by telephone from 2O3-Metre, opened upon the Russian
ships; a few days later these were wholly hors de combat, and at
the capitulation only a few destroyers were in a condition to escape.
The siege was now pressed with vigour by the construction of
batteries at and around 203 Metre, by an infantry advance against
the main western defences, and by renewed operations against the
eastern forts. The escarp of Chi-Kuan was blown up, and at the
cost of 800 men, General Sameyeda (nth division), personally lead-
ing his stormers, captured the great fort on the igth of December.
The escarp of Ehr-Lung was also blown up, and the ruins of the fort
were stormed by the 9th division on the 28th of December, though
a mere handful of the defenders prolonged the fighting for eight
hours and the assailants lost 1000 men. Sung-Shu suffered a worse
fate on the 3ist, the greater part of the fort and its defenders being
blown up, and on this day the whole defence of the eastern front
collapsed. The Japanese 7th and 1st divisions were now
advancing on the western main line; the soul of the
defence, the brave and capable General Kondratenko,
had been killed on the Itth of December, and though the
lapanese seem to have anticipated a further stand, 1 Stessel surren-
dered on the 2nd of January 1905, with 24,000 effective and slightly
wounded and 15,000 wounded and sick men, the remnant of his
original 47,000. The total losses of the 3rd Japanese Army during
the siege were about 92,000 men (58,000 casualties and 34,000 sick).
Meanwhile the Japanese navy had scored two important successes.
After months of blockade and minor fighting, the Russian Port
Arthur squadron had been brought to action on the loth of
August. Admiral Vitheft, Makarov's successor, had put to
sea shortly after the appearance of the 3rd Army on the
land front of Port Arthur. The battle opened about noon,
20 m. south of the harbour; the forces engaged on each
side varied somewhat, but Togo finally had a superiority. Admiral
Vitheft was killed. As the Russians became gradually weaker,
the Japanese closed in to within 3 m. range, and Prince Ukhtomsky
(who succeeded to the command on Vitheft's fall) gave up the
struggle at nightfall. The Russians scattered, some vessels heading
southward, the majority with the admiral making for Port Arthur,
whence they did not again emerge. All the rest were either forced
into neutral ports (where they were interned) or destroyed, among
the latter being the third-class cruiser " Novik," which had already
earned a brilliant reputation for daring, and now steamed half
round Japan before she was brought to action and run ashore.
The victors blockaded Port Arthur, until near the close of the siege,
when, after going ashore and examining the remnant of the Russian
fleet from 2O3-Metre Hill, Togo concluded that it would be safe to
return to Japan and give his ships a complete refit. Kaimura's
squadron, after various adventures, at last succeeded on the I4th
of August in engaging and defeating the Russian Vladivostok
squadron (Admiral Jessen). Thus the Russian flag disappeared
from the Pacific, and thenceforward only the Baltic fleet could hope
seriously to challenge the supremacy of the Japanese navy.
The remainder of the war on land, although it included two
"battles on a large scale and numerous minor operations, was
principally a test of endurance. After Liao-Yang there were
no extended operations, the area of conflict being confined to the
plain of the coast side of the Hun-ho and the fringe of the
Naval
bailie of
August
19.
1 As regards food and ammunition, the resources of the defence
were not by any means exhausted, and General Stessel and other
senior officers of the defence were tried by courts-martial, and some
of them convicted, on the charge of premature surrender.
mountains. Japan had partially accomplished her task, but
had employed all her trained men in this partial accomplish-
ment. It was questionable, even in October 1904, whether she
could endure the drain of men and money, if it were prolonged
much further. On the other hand, in Russia opposition to the
war, which had never been popular, gradually became the
central feature of a widespread movement against irresponsible
government. Thus while the armies in Manchuria faced one
another with every appearance of confidence, behind them
the situation was exceedingly grave for both parties. A state
of equilibrium was established, only momentarily disturbed
by Kuropatkin's offensive on the Sha-ho in October, and by
the Sandepu incident in the winter, until at last Oyama fought
a battle on a grand scale and won it. Even then, however, the
results fell far short of anticipation, and the armies settled down
into equilibrium again.
After the battle of Liao-Yang Kuropatkin reverted for a moment
to the plan of a concentration to the rear at Tieling. Politically,
however, it was important to hold Mukden, the Manchurian capital,
and since the Japanese, as on previous occasions, reorganized
instead of pursuing, he decided to stand his ground, a resolution
which had an excellent effect on his army. Moreover, growing
in strength day by day, and aware that the Japanese had outrun
their powers, he resolved, in spite of the despondency of many of
his senior officers, to take the offensive. He disposed of about
200,000 men, the Japanese had about 170,000. The latter lay
entrenched north of Liao-Yang, from a point 9 m. west of the rail-
way, through Yentai Station and Yentai Mines, to the hills farther
east. There had been a good deal of rain, and the ground was heavy.
Kuropatkin's intention was to work round the Japanese right on
the hills with his eastern wing (Stakelberg), to move his western
wing (Bilderling) slowly southwards, entrenching each strip of ground
gained, and finally with the centre i.e. Bilderling's left and
Stakelberg, to envelop and crush the 1st Army, which formed the
Japanese right, keeping the 4th Army (Nozu) and the 2nd Army
(Oku) in countenance by means of Bilderling's main body. The
manoeuvre began on the 5th of October, and by the evening of the
loth, after four days of fairly heavy advanced-guard fighting,
chiefly between Bilderling and Nozu, Stakelberg was in his assigned
position in the mountainous country, facing west towards Liao-
Yang, with his left on the Taitseho. The advance of Bilderling,
however, necessarily methodical and slow in any case, had taken
more time than was anticipated. Still, Bilderling crossed the
Sha-ho and made some progress towards Yentai, and the sha-ho.
demonstration was so far effectual that Kuroki's warn-
ings were almost disregarded by the Japanese headquarters. The
commander of the 1st Army, however, took his measures well, and
Stakelberg found the greatest trouble in deploying his forces for
action in this difficult country. Oyama became convinced of the
truth on the gth and loth, and prepared a great counter-attack.
Kuroki with only a portion of the 1st Army was left to defend at least
15 m. of front, and the entire 2nd and 4th Armies and the general
reserves were to be thrown upon Bilderling. On the nth the real
battle opened. Kuroki displayed the greatest skill, but he was of
course pressed back by the four-to-one superiority of the Russians.
Still the result of Stakelberg's attack, for which he was unable to
deploy his whole force, was disappointing, but the main Japanese
attack on Bilderling was not much more satisfactory, for the Russians
had entrenched every step of their previous advance, and fought
splendidly. The Russian commander-in-chief states in his work
on the war that Bilderling became engaged d fond instead of gradu-
ally withdrawing as Kuropatkin intended, and at any rate it is
unquestioned that in consequence of the serious position of affairs
on the western wing, not only did Stakelberg use his reserves to
support Bilderling, when the I2th division of Kuroki's army was
almost at its last gasp and must have yielded to fresh pressure, but
Kuropatkin himself suspended the general offensive on the I3th of
October. In the fighting of the I3th-i6th of October the Russians
gradually gave back as far as the line of the Sha-ho, the Japanese
following until the armies faced roughly north and south on parallel
fronts. The fighting, irregular but severe, continued. Kuropatkin
was so far averse to retreat that he ordered a new offensive, which
was carried out on the l6-!7th. Putilov and Novgorod hills,
south of the Sha-ho, were stormed by the Russians, and the Japanese
made several efforts to retake these positions without success.
Kuropatkin wished to continue the offensive, but his corps com-
manders offered so much opposition to a further offensive that he
at last gave up the idea. The positions of the rival armies from
the 1 8th of October, the close of the battle of the Sha-ho, to the 26th
of January 1905, the opening of the battle of Sandepu (Heikoutai)
a period almost entirely devoid of incident may be described by
the old-fashioned term " winter quarters." The total losses of
the Russians are stated as 42,000 men, but this is very considerably
exaggerated ; the Japanese acknowledged 20,000 casualties.
In January 1905, apart from Mishchenko's cavalry raid in rear
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR
929
of Oyama's forces (January 8th-l6th) the only change in the relative
positions of Oyama and Kuropatkin as they stood after the battle
of the Sha-ho was that the Japanese had extended somewhat west-
wards towards the Hun-ho. The Russians, 300,000 strong, were
now organized in three armies, commanded by Generals Linievich,
Grippenberg and Kaulbars; the total strength of the Japanese
1st, 2nd and 4th Armies and reserve was estimated by the Russians
at 220,000. Towards the end of January, Kuropatkin took the
offensive. He wished to inflict a severe blow before the enemy
could be reinforced by the late besiegers of Port Arthur, and sent
Grippenberg with seven divisions against Oku's two on the Japanese
left. The battle of Sandepu (Heikoutai), fought in a terrible snow-
storm on the 26th and 27th of January 1905, came near to being a
great Russian victory. But the usual decousu of Russian operations
and their own magnificent resistance saved the Japanese, and after
two days' severe fighting, although Grippenberg had not been
checked, Kuropatkin, in face of a counter-attack by Oyama, decided
to abandon the attempt. The losses were roughly 8000 Japanese
to over 10,000 Russians.
Both sides stood fast in the old positions up to the verge of
the last and greatest battle. Kuropatkin was reinforced, and
appointed Kaulbars to succeed Grippenberg and Bilderling to
the command of the 3rd Army vacated by Kaulbars. On the
other hand, Nogi's 3rd Army, released by the fall of Port Arthur,
was brought up on the Japanese left, and a new army under
Kawamura (sth), formed of one of the Port Arthur and two
reserve divisions, was working from the upper Yalu through the
mountains towards the Russian left rear. The Russian line in
front of Mukden from the Hun-ho, through the Putilov and
Novgorod hills on the Sha-ho, to the mountains, was 47 m.
long, the armies from right to left being II. (Kaulbars), III.
(Bilderling) and I. (Linievich); a general reserve was at Mukden.
On the other side from left to right, on a line 40 m. long, were
Oku (2nd Army), Nozu (4th), Kuroki (ist) and Kawamura
(5th), the general reserve in rear of the centre at Yentai and the
3rd Army in rear of Oku. Each side had about 310,000 men
present. The entire front of both armies was heavily en-
trenched. The Russians had another offensive in contemplation
xxiii. 30
Emery Walker tc.
when the Japanese forestalled them by advancing on the 2ist
of February. The sth Army gradually drove in Kuropatkin's
small detachments in the mountains, and came up Mukden.
in line with Kuroki, threatening to envelop the Russian
left. The events on this side and misleading information
induced Kuropatkin to pay particular attention to his left.
The Japanese ist and 5th Armies were now engaged (zsth
February), and elsewhere all was quiet. But on the 27th the
fighting spread to the centre, and Nogi (originally behind Oku)
was on the march to envelop the Russian right. He was held
under observation throughout by Russian cavalry, but it seems
that little attention was paid to their reports by Kuropatkin,
who was still occupied with Kuroki and Kawamura, and even
denuded his right of its reserves to reinforce his left. With a
battle-front exceeding two days' marches the wrong distribution
of reserves by both sides was a grave misfortune. Kuropatkin
was at last convinced, on the z8th of February, of the danger
from the west, and did all in his power to form a solid line of
defence on the west side of Mukden. Nogi's first attack (ist-
and March) had not much success, and a heavy counterstroke
was delivered on the 2nd. Fighting for localities and altera-
tions in the interior distribution of the opposing forces occupied
much time,' and by the 3rd, though the battle had become
severe, Kuropatkin had merely drawn in his right and right
centre (now facing W. and S.W. respectively) a little nearer
Mukden. His centre on the Sha-ho held firm, Kuroki and
Kawamura made but slight progress against his left in the
mountains. Nogi and Oyama were equally impressed with the
strength of the new (west) Russian front, and like Grant at
Petersburg in 1864, extended farther and farther to the outer
flank, the Russians following suit. The Japanese marshal now
sent up his army reserve, which had been kept far to the rear
at Yentai, to help Nogi. It was not before the evening of the
6th of March that it came up with the 3rd Army and was placed
in position opposite the centre of the Russian west front. On
930
the rest of the line severe local fighting had continued, but
the Russian positions were quite unshaken, and Kuropatkin's
reserves which would have been invaluable in backing up the
counter-attack of the 2nd of March had returned to face Nogi.
He had organized another counterstroke for the 6th, to be led
by Kaulbars, but this collapsed unexpectedly after a brief but
severe fight.
Kuropatkin now decided to draw in his centre and left towards
Mukden. On the 7th, the various columns executed their
movement to the Hun-ho with complete success, thanks to good
staff work. The Japanese followed up only slowly. Nogi and
Kaulbars stood fast, facing each other on the west front; after
the arrival of the general reserve, Nogi was able to prolong his
line to the north and eventually to bend it inwards towards the
Russian line of retreat. Bilderling and Linievich were now
close in to Mukden and along the Hun-ho. On the other side
Oku had taken over part of Nogi's line, thus freeing the 3rd
Army for further extension to the north-west, and the rest of
the 2nd Army, the 4th, the ist and the sth were approaching
the Hun-ho from the south (March Sth). On this day the
Russian fighting between Nogi and Kaulbars was very severe,
retreat on and Kuropatkin now made up his mind to retreat
Tiding. towards Tieling. On the pth, by Oyama's orders, Nogi
extended northward instead of further swinging in south-east-
ward, Oku now occupied all the original line of the 3rd Army,
Nozu alone was left on the south front, and Kuroki and Kawa-
mura began to engage Linievich seriously. But Nogi had not
yet reached the Mukden-Tieling railway when, on the night
of the gth, every preparation having been made, Kuropatkin's
retreat began. On the loth, covered by Kaulbars, who held off
Nogi, and by strong rearguards at and east of Mukden, the
movement continued, and though it was not executed with
entire precision, and the rearguards suffered very heavily, the
Russians managed to draw off in safety to the northward. On
the evening of the loth, after all their long and hardly contested
enveloping marches, Nogi's left and Kawamura's right met north
of Mukden. The circle was complete, but there were no Russians
in the centre, and a map of the positions of the Japanese on the
evening of the loth shows the seventeen divisions thoroughly
mixed up and pointing in every direction but that of the enemy.
Thus the further pursuit of the Russians could only be under-
taken after an interval of re-organization by the northernmost
troops of the sth and 3rd Armies. But the material loss in-
flicted on the Russians was far heavier than it had ever been
before. It is generally estimated that the Russian losses were
no less than 97,000, and the Japanese between 40,000 and 50,000.
Japan had had to put forth her supreme effort for the battle,
while of Russia's whole strength not one-tenth had been used.
But Russia's strength in Europe, with but one line whereby it
could be brought to bear in the Far East, was immaterial, and
on the theatre of war a quarter of the Russian field forces had
been killed, wounded or taken.
It remains to narrate briefly the tragic career of the Russian
Baltic fleet. Leaving Libau on the I3th-isth of October 1904, the
Ra best- ^ eet steamed down the North Sea, expecting every night
kl's to I 36 attacked by torpedo-boats. On the 2ist, in their
excitement, they opened fire on a fleet of British trawlers
>yage- on t he D gg er Bank (q.v.), and several fishermen were
killed. This incident provoked the wildest indignation, and Russia
was for some days on the verge of war with England. A British
fleet " shadowed " Rozhestvenski for some time, but eventually
the Russians were allowed to proceed. On reaching Madagascar,
Rozhestvenski heard of the fall of Port Arthur, and the question
of returning to Russia arose. But a reinforcement under Rear-
Admiral Nebogatov was despatched from the Baltic via Suez
early in March 1905, and the armada proceeded by the Straits of
Malacca, Nebogatov joining at Kamranh Bay in Cochin China.
The united fleet was formidable rather in number than in quality;
the battleships were of very unequal value, and the faster vessels
were tied to the movements of many " lame ducks." Rozhest-
venski had, moreover, numerous store-ships, colliers, &c. Never-
theless, the Japanese viewed his approach with considerable anxiety,
and brace_d themselves for a final struggle. Of the various courses
open to him, Togo prudently chose that of awaiting Rozhestvenski
in home waters. The Russians left Kamranh on the I4th of May,
and for a time disappeared into the Pacific. It was assumed that
RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR
they were making for Vladivostok either via Tsushima strait or by the
Pacific. Rozhestvenski chose the former course, and on the 27th of
May the fleets met near Tsushima. About 1.45 p.m., the Battle of
Russians, who were still in a close cruising formation, Tsushima
attempted to open out for battle as the Japanese ap- , Seaol
preached. The Russian battleships, originally heading j aDani
N.N.E., swerved to the E. as the Japanese battle squadron
passed across their front. Togo's fire was concentrated first on the
Osliabia," the leading Russian battleship, and by 2.25 she was
kors de combat. At this time both the battle-fleets were running
E. Togo, concentrating his fire on each ship in succession, and seek-
ing by superior speed to head off the Russians, now inclined towards
the S.E., and the Russians conformed. At 3, the Russian flagship
"Suvarov" had fallen out of the line, though still firing. Rozhest-
venski himself had been wounded, and the command had devolved
on Nebogatov. Shortly afterwards the Russians suddenly turned
N., and sought to pass, across the wake of Togo's battle-fleet, up
the straits. Thereupon the leading Japanese ships promptly
turned together, covered by the rear ships, which ran past them
on the original course and then came round in succession; this
manoeuvre was so well executed that the Japanese again headed
off their enemy, who swerved for the second time towards the E.
The Japanese thereupon executed the same manoeuvre as before,
and steamed S.E. again (about 4.40). They were not unscathed,
but the Russians were suffering far more severely. Meanwhile, the
cruisers on both sides had been heavily engaged. The Russian
cruisers kept on the right of their battleships, while the Japanese,
very superior in speed, ran S., S.E. and E. across the rear of
the enemy's main squadron, and about 3 ranged up alongside the
Russian cruisers. The latter were slower, and hampered by the
crowd of damaged battleships, store-ships and colliers; before 5
they were in the greatest confusion, which was presently increased
by the battleship squadron, now turned back and heading W., with
Togo in pursuit. The Russians again broke out northward; but
some of the Japanese squadrons hung on to the remnant of the enemy's
battle-fleet, and the others dealt with the numerous Russian vessels
that were unable to keep up. Then Togo called off his ships, and
gave the torpedo craft room and the night in which to act. At day-
light the larger ships joined in again, and before long the whole
Russian fleet, with few exceptions, had been captured or sunk.
After the disasters of Mukden and Tsushima, and being
threatened with internal disorder in European Russia, the tsar,
early in June, accepted the mediation of the president of The
the United States, and pourparlers were set on foot. Peace of
The war meanwhile drifted on through May, June and Ports J' h
July. Linievich, who succeeded Kuropatkin shortly after
the battle of Mukden, retired slowly northward, re-organizing
his forces and receiving fresh reinforcements from Europe. A
Japanese expedition occupied Saghalien (July 8-30), and another,
General Hasegawa, advanced through Korea towards Vladivos-
tok. But the fighting was desultory. The peace negotiations
were opened at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, on the gth of
August, and by the end of the month the belligerents had
agreed as to the main points at issue, that Russia should cede
the half of Saghalien, annexed in 1875, surrender her lease of the
Kwangtung peninsula and Port Arthur, evacuate Manchuria
and recognize Japan's sphere of influence in Korea. The treaty
of peace was signed on the 23rd of August 1905.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The first place in the already numerous works
on the war is by the general consent of military Europe awarded to
General Sir I. S. M. Hamilton's A Staff Officer's Scrap Booh, and the
second to the reports of the British attaches (The Russo-Japanese
War : British Officers' Reports, War Office, 1908). Other first-
hand narratives of importance are the American officers' reports
(Reports of Military Observers, General Staff, U.S.A.); Major v.
Tettau's 18 Monate beim Heere Russlands; von Schwarz, Zehn
Monate beim Heere Kuropatkin's, and Kuropatkin's own work
(part of which has been translated into English). _Of detailed
military histories the principal are the semi-official series of narra-
tives and monographs produced by the Austrian military journal
" Streffleur " (Einzelschriften iiber den russ.-japanischen Krieg) ;
the volumes of lectures delivered at the Russian Staff College after
the war, French translation (Conferences sur la guerre russo-iaponaise
faites d, I'Academie Nicolas) ; British official History of the Russo-
Japanese War (1907- ); German official Russisch-japanischer
Krieg (1906- ; English translation by K. von Donat); Loffler,
Der Russisch-Japanische Krieg (Leipzig, 1907; French trans.);
L. Gianni Trapani, La Guerra russo-giapponese (Rome, 1908);
E. Bujac, La Guerre russo-japonaise (1909). Of critical studies the
most important are Cordonnier's " Les Japonais en Mandchourie "
(Revue d'Infanterie, 1910); and Culmann, Etude sur Us carac&res
generaux de la guerre en extreme-orient (Paris, 1909). One naval
narrative of absorbing interest has, however, appeared, Semenov's
Rasplata (English trans.).
RUSSO-TURKISH WARS
RUSSO-TURKISH WARS (1828-29 and 1877-78). The earlier
wars between Russia and Turkey possess little military interest
to-day, and are scarcely remembered except as the occasion of
Suvarov's exploits. The first of the three ipth-century (1806-
1812) wars, however, though much less vigorously fought than
the preceding wars, at any rate introduced the " Eastern ques-
tion " into European politics as a factor affecting the balance
of power, and its cessation at the moment of Napoleon's advance
on Moscow had a great effect on the emperor's Russian campaign.
The second war is more celebrated. It was a reflex of the
Greek War of Independence, and began with the invasion of
Rumania by the Russians in May 1828. One corps invested
and took Braila, another passed by Bucharest and besieged
Rustchuk and Silistria, and a third crossed the Danube below
Isacka. The first and the last were united as an army under
the tsar and advanced through the Dobrudja on Shumla. But
after a considerable amount of fighting it was decided that
the Turks here were too strong for the invaders, and the tsar
drew off his forces by degrees towards Varna, which was
besieged next. But the Shumla troops were thus gradually
set free to join the Turkish field army under the grand vizier,
which, however, merely menaced, without seriously attacking,
the besiegers of Varna. The place surrendered on the loth of
October 1828, and the tsar at once turned upon the grand
vizier, attacked him on the river Kamchik (isth October) and
forced him to retreat to Aidos.
Meantime, however, Silistria offered a gallant resistance.
Even when the besiegers were reinforced from the main army
they could not master the defence, and when winter came on
the siege was abandoned, and the Russians drew off into
Rumania into winter quarters. In Asia, meanwhile, a Russian
army under Prince Paskievich had advanced from Tiflis, and
captured Kars and other places, while the Black Sea fleet
secured the surrender of Poti. Paskievich next defeated the
Turks at Akhalzik (27th August), captured Ardahan, and
advanced by Bayazid to the upper Euphrates. But coming
there into conflict with the fierce Kurds, he gave up further
enterprises and, leaving garrisons in the strong places, took
his army back into the Caucasus for the winter.
In 1829 Diebitsch took over the command of the 70,000
men on the Danube, and resolved to carry the war over the
Balkans. As a preliminary the fleet seized Sozopolis (Sisepol).
A second and vigorously pressed siege of Silistria ended with
the surrender of the place on June 3oth, the Turkish operations
for the expulsion of the Sozopolis garrison and the relief of
SUistria being dilatory as before. The Turkish army was at
this time in process of reorganization on a European model,
which added to the difficulties of their situation. The grand
vizier, Reschid Mehmet, in May attempted to combine the
Rustchuk and Shumla garrisons for the expulsion of the
Russians from Varna, but unsuccessfully, the two columns being
beaten in detail. Soon afterwards Diebitsch, with part of the
army investing Silistria, marched against him and defeated
him at Tcherkovna (nth June). Immediately after this
Diebitsch carried out the brilliant passage of the Balkans and
advanced to Adrianople, which laid Constantinople at his mercy,
and brought about an immediate peace. A month after its
signature, a Turkish army from the west, attempting to re-
capture Adrianople behind Diebitsch, was defeated on the
i6th October at Arnaut Kaliessi. In Asia, meantime, Pas-
kievich, after relieving Akhalzik, where his garrison had been
blockaded, won two victories on two successive days at Kainly
and Milli Duzov (ist and 2nd June), and captured a number of
fortresses, his victorious advance being arrested only by the
terms of peace. (X.)
The War of 1877-78. On 24th April 1877, the tsar declared
war against Turkey, with the avowed object of righting the
wrongs of the Christians hi Turkey. The Turco-Servian war
was just over. Contrary to expectation the Turks had proved
victorious. Hostilities had ceased In October 1876, though it
was not till ist March 1877 that peace had been signed. During
1876 the Turks had also quelled an insurrection of the Christians
in Bulgaria, when the treatment they meted out to the Chris-
tians and the cry of " Bulgarian atrocities " had aroused the
sentimental sympathies of Europe.
The Danube formed the Turkish frontier. Flowing west to
east along the southern boundary of Rumania, it turned to
the north and then to the east to the Black Sea, enclosing the
Dobrudja, an inhospitable and difficult region, of rectangular
shape, some 100 m. N. to S. by 30 to 60 m. E. to W., which
was the extreme northern part of the Turkish dominions.
The Russians did not anticipate that the opposition to be
encountered from the Turkish forces would be of a serious
nature. As for natural obstacles, there were the Danube and
the Balkans directly across their route, but the passage of these
was not likely to cause any serious delay.
The Turkish fortresses of the Quadrilateral Rustchuk,
Silistria, Shumla and Varna could be avoided, and Nikopol
and Vidin were more or less isolated. It would only be
necessary to cover the lines of communication from the action
of the garrisons of these places. It was known that Osman
Pasha was at Vidin with what remained of the Turkish force
which had defeated the Servians the previous year, and it would
be necessary to detach a force to operate against him. There
would be some delay in the forwarding of supplies, due to the
fact that the Rumanian railway was of different gauge to the
railways of Russia, but this would not be serious. This line,
the only railway through Rumania, ran from Galatz to Bucha-
rest, where one branch ran west by Slatina and the other to
Giurgevo on the Danube, where it connected with a line south
of the river from Rustchuk to Shumla and Varna through
Rasgrad. It was generally imagined that the advance to
Constantinople would be of the nature of a triumphal march.
By a clause of the Treaty of Paris of 1856 the Russian naval
forces in the Black Sea had been destroyed, and though this
clause was revoked in 1871, in 1877 the Turks possessed the
undoubted command of the sea. Had things been different,
an advance through the Dobrudja, with a safe line of supply
by water, would have offered many advantages. Under
existing circumstances, with Turkish gunboats on the Danube
and ironclads on the Black Sea, such a course was out of the
question.
The plan of campaign formed by the Russians was as follows:
One corps was to enter the Dobrudja to protect the line of
communication against any Turkish advance east of Plans of
the Danube, while the remainder would cross the cam-
Danube between Rustchuk and Nikopol, cross the P' 1 * -
Balkans and advance on Adrianople. Detached forces would
meanwhile mask the " Quadrilateral " and the Turkish force
at Vidin.
A Convention had been made with Rumania, allowing the
passage of the Russians through the country. The Rumanians
proclaimed their independence of Turkey, and although the
tsar declined their offer of active co-operation for the time
being, their troops occupied Calafat, facing Vidin, and early
in May their batteries engaged the guns of Vidin across the
river. The Russian army with which it was proposed to carry
on the war, consisted of six army corps and two rifle brigades.
Each corps was formed of one cavalry and two infantry divisions.
There were in addition 74 squadrons and 52 guns of Cossacks.
Each infantry division had 48, and each cavalry division 12
guns. This force had been mobilized in the November of the
previous year, and was now distributed as follows:
Commander-in-chief: The grand-duke Nicholas, with head-
quarters at Kishinev.
VII. Army Corps Odessa and Tatar Bunar.
Tarutinskaja and Kanszany.
Kishinev.
Ungheni.
Winnica.
Crimea.
Bestomak.
XI.
VIII.
XII.
IX.
X.
Rifle Brigades
The mobilization of the IV., XIII., and XIV. Army Corps
had been ordered in December 1876, but they would not be
ready to move till the following month May 1877. In
932
RUSSO-TURKISH WARS
addition to the above, there were heavy artillery with 400 siege
guns, engineers with pontoon trains, naval launches, and the
necessary supply trains. The total Russian forces numbered
200,000 combatants of all arms, with 850 field and 400 siege
guns.
For some months prior to the tsar's declaration, Turkey
had realized that war was inevitable, but such preparations
as were made were far from adequate. Abdul Kerim, who
had commanded in Servia the previous year, was still acting as
commander-in-chief, but the task set him was not an easy
one. With the Russians in front, the Servians and Monte-
negrins, whose action was known to be uncertain, on the flank,
and the Christian population of Bulgaria, in sympathy with
the Russians, in the midst, it required a younger and more
energetic man, with a greater knowledge of the art of war
than he possessed, to plan and to carry out a successful defence
of the Moslem dominions. The prospect of war had aroused
the Turks, and the nation had taken steps to prepare for the
conflict, but they lacked trained leaders. The Turkish officers
were but ill-instructed. Works on the art of war did not
exist in the Turkish language General conscription existed
in Turkey, but there was an entire absence of organization.
Theoretically, each of the six districts into which the empire
was divided should have produced an army of four corps,
but it was only on paper. Practically the troops were not
organized in corps. At the outbreak of war, Osman's force,
some 30,000 strong, was at Vidin; a few battalions were
spread along the Danube from Vidin to Silistria, with a
brigade of infantry at Nikopol, another at Sistova, and the
best part of two divisions at Rustchuk. Abdul Kerim's head-
quarters were at Shumla where there were two more infantry
divisions. A cavalry division was in process of organization.
Varna was the base of supply and was connected by rail with
Shumla and Rustchuk. Suleiman Pasha with some 40,000
men was still in Montenegro. The total Turkish forces in Europe
at that time were about 120,000 men with 450 guns, but they
were disseminated instead of being concentrated, or grouped
in view of a rapid concentration. Abdul Kerim's plan, or
rather his idea, was, that the Russians would find some
difficulty in the first place in forcing the passage of the Danube,
and when they had succeeded in this, they would be bound
to enter the zone of the Quadrilateral, where he hoped, operating
with the fortresses as supports, to deal with them successfully.
As regards the Turkish fleet, at the outset, in addition to a
fleet of 8 ironclads below Braila, there were 7 monitors and
1 8 wooden ships of war on the Danube between Hirsova and
Vidin.
In the matter of armament the Turks had the advantage.
The artillery were armed with a Krupp breech-loading gun,
which was better than the Russian bronze gun, while the
Peabody-Martini rifles of the infantry were superior to the
Russian Krenk. The firearm of the Turkish cavalry was the
Winchester repeating carbine, which was inferior to the short
Berden with which the Russian cavalry was armed. But
this advantage in armament was discounted by the fact that,
from motives of economy, the Turkish soldier had done but
little rifle practice.
Hostilities commenced on the 24th of April, when the
Russian army advanced in three columns towards Bucharest,
lsi the eastern flank covered by the XI. Corps which
PeHod.- marched to Galatz. By the end of May the bulk
The of the Russian forces were assembled at Bucharest
Advance P rac tically opposite the intended point of passage,
ana""' with the advanced guard under General Skobelev
passage at Giurgevo, and cavalry observing the river line
""*' from Turnu Magureli to Kalarashi. It was now
decided to await the arrival of the IV., XIII., and
XIV. Corps and the necessary bridging material for the passage
of the Danube.
On June isth the troops were disposed as follows: 8th
Cavalry Division at Turnu Magureli; i2th at Oltenitza; 2nd
at Kalarashi; Advanced Guard at Giurgevo; XI. Army Corps
at Oltenitza and Giurgevo; VIII., XII., XIII., ilX., at
Bucharest; IX. at Slatina; IV. at Slobodsia; XIV. at
Galatz; VII. at Odessa; X. in the Crimea. Meanwhile
steam launches were brought overland, and the Russians, by
means of torpedoes, submarine mines and their shore batteries,
had succeeded in clearing the Danube of Turkish vessels
between Nikopolis and Rustchuk. Two of the smaller iron-
clads had been sunk, the remainder of the flotilla driven under
the shelter of the fortresses, while barricades of mines effectually
isolated them and prevented them from again entering the zone
of operations. Of the large ironclads on the lower Danube,
one was sunk near Sulina, and from that time the remainder
stayed in Sulina harbour.
On June 22nd the XIV. Army Crops crossed into the
Dobrudja at Galatz and advanced south, the Turkish detach-
ment there retiring before them. Pontoons having been
brought by rail, the necessary rafts and boats (which had
been constructed at Slatina on the Aluta) were floated down
to the neighbourhood of Zimnitza, and on June 24th siege
batteries opened fire on Nikopol and Rustchuk, while the IX.
Army Corps made a feint of crossing just below Nikopol. These
measures were effective in confusing the Turkish commander
as to the Russian intentions, and on the night of June 26/27th,
1 2 companies of rifles, with a squadron and 6 guns, were landed
on the south bank opposite Zimnitza, and within twenty-four
hours the whole of the VIII. Corps had crossed the river. By
July 2nd the Russians had completed a bridge over the river,
which is 1000 yds. wide at this part. At Sistova was a
Turkish brigade of infantry. The commander, in the early
morning of the 2yth, received information from his outposts
of the crossing, but instead of moving with his whole force,
sent two battalions to oppose it. The Russians drove them
back, and when reinforced, advanced against the heights in
rear of Sistova, which were occupied with a loss of 800 men,
the Turkish troops retreating to Tirnova and Nikopol. The
Turks had remained ignorant of the Russians' concentration
in Rumania and no attempt had been made to discover their
plans. Abdul Kerim remained inactive in the fortresses of the
Quadrilateral, and even when he heard of the crossing at
Sistova, decided that it was but a demonstration. No measures
were taken to observe the Russians. They were thus able
to complete their crossing practically undisturbed, and this
although it was never likely that the Russians would voluntarily
select a point of passage leading into the Quadrilateral. Every-
thing pointed to a crossing between Nikopol and Rustchuk.
The best course for the Turks under existing circumstances
would have been to leave garrisons in the fortresses, to observe
the river line and to push reconnaissances to the north of the
river, and to dispose the field army in a central position,
whence it could concentrate on any point as soon as the enemy's
intentions were revealed.
On June 3oth Lieut.-General Gurko was put in command
of a detachment composed of 10 battalions, 31 squadrons and
32 guns, with which he was ordered to advance rapidly to 2ai
Tirnova to gain possession of a pass over the Balkans, Period.
to damage railways and telegraphs, and to endeavour Opera-
te stir up a Bulgarian revolt. He crossed the Danube Bulgaria
by the Russian bridge on July 3rd and occupied to the
Tirnova on July yth, the Turkish garrison retreating taU of
to Osman Bazar. At Tirnova he learned that the ple
Shipka Pass was occupied by 3000 Turks, and that none
of the remaining passes were held in any force. He then
determined to cross by the Hainkioi Pass and to turn
the Shipka. He started from Tirnova on the I2th July, on
which day the head of the VIII. Corps reached the town.
Hainkioi was occupied on the I4th, a detachment of 300 Turks
being driven away. Gurko then sent two squadrons to cut
the telegraph at Yeni Zagra, and leaving a garrison to hold
the pass, set out for Kazanlik on July i6th. It had been
arranged that a force from the VIII. Corps should attack the
Shipka Pass (q.v.') from the north on the iyth, Gurko attacking
simultaneously from the south; but his advance was delayed
RUSSO-TURKISH WARS
933
by small bodies of the enemy, and he failed to co-operate,
with the result that the attack from the north was repulsed.
The Turkish commander, however, evacuated the pass that
night (July i8th/igth). It was occupied by the Russians on
July igth, and held till the end of the war. Gurko's detach-
ment was followed across the Danube bridge by the XII. and
XIII. Army Corps, which crossed between July 3rd and 8th
and moved towards the Jantra river; the IX. Corps was across
by July icth and advanced on Nikopol; the XI. Corps crossed
July ioth-isth; and finally the IV. Corps between July zoth
and 3oth. The VIII. Corps had meanwhile advanced on
Tirnova, as we have seen.
On July 3rd Abdul Kerim received orders from Constanti-
nople to advance against the Russians, and set out with the
force from Shumla for Rustchuk, immediately preceded by the
cavalry division. Still no attempt was made to gain contact
with the Russians and discover their intentions. From Rust-
chuk, Abdul Kerim advanced towards the Jantra, and after
a skirmish between the Turkish cavalry and a Russian cavalry
brigade again retired. Realizing Abdul Kerim's incapacity,
and rendered anxious by Gurko's successful advance, the
authorities at Constantinople now decided to give the com-
mand to Mehemet Ali. He superseded Abdul Kerim on July
igth, and at once ordered the concentration of all available
forces at Rasgrad. Meanwhile Osman Pasha, who had till now
been condemned to inactivity at Vidin, received permission to
march.
Vidin, with its modern fortifications and heavy armament,
and with the Danube on one side and marshy ground towards
the interior, was a place of considerable strength. But with
the Russians south of the Danube there could no longer be any
justification for keeping Osman's 30,000 men isolated. Leaving
garrisons in Vidin and the other towns along the Danube from
Nikopol to Rakovitza, and to bar the roads from Servia, Osman
left Vidin with the remaining 19 battalions, 6 squadrons and
9 batteries on July I3th. His original plan was to join the
10 battalions under Hairi Pasha, then garrisoning Nikopol,
and attack the Russian flank between Biela and Tirnova; but
on July isth he received news that the Russians were attacking
Nikopol, and he then decided to march straight to Plevna,
where there was a garrison of 3000 men under Atouf Pasha.
First Osman reached Plevna (q.v.) on July igth, and at
battle of once took up a position which had been previously
Plevna. reconnoitred by Atouf Pasha, on the hills to the
north-east and east of the town. He had arrived just in time.
On July i6th the Russian IX. Corps had taken Nikopol, and
on the 1 8th orders were received to occupy Plevna with one
division. At 5 a.m. on July 2oth General Schilder-Schuldner, with
the 5th Division IX. Corps and other forces, attacked Osman's
position. No preliminary reconnaissance was made, and the
Russians, after an artillery bombardment lasting about an
hour, attacked at four points with separate columns. By
midday the Russians were in retreat, having lost over 2800
men. There was no pursuit. On July aoth Osman was rein-
forced by fourteen battalions from Sofia, and the following day
sent Rifaat Pasha with six battalions, a battery and some
Circassian cavalry to occupy Lovcha in order to secure his
communications with Sofia.
Osman's force at Plevna, within three days' march of the
one Russian bridge over the Danube and flanking their line
of operations, could not be neglected, and General Kriidener,
commanding the IX. Corps, received orders to attack again
as soon as possible. After the battle of the zoth he had been
reinforced by brigades of the IV. and XII. Corps and a cavalry
Second division. With this force, 30,000 in all, he attacked
battle of on July 3oth. Kriidener advanced in two columns,
Plevna, cavalry covering both flanks. Skobelev, with the
cavalry on the southern flank, was subsequently reinforced by
infantry, so there were practically three columns of attack. A
general reserve of one brigade was kept at Karagatsch (16 m.
east of Plevna). After an artillery engagement which lasted
from 8.30 a.m. till 2.30 p.m. the infantry advanced. The
fighting lasted till sunset, when the Russians withdrew to
Karagatsch, having lost 7300 officers and men. The Turkish
casualties were 2000. General Kriidener, having reconnoitred
the position, had hesitated to attack with the force available,
and only acted in obedience to the orders received from head-
quarters, then 80 m. distant at Tirnova. His defeat was an
unpleasant surprise for the Russians. Their plans were rudely
upset, and their attention was now directed solely to the taking
of Plevna. Headquarters were moved from Tirnova back to
Bulgareni, Gurko was called back from south of the Balkans,
the Rumanian army was called in to co-operate, orders were
issued for the Guards and Grenadier Corps and the 24th and
26th infantry divisions to mobilize, 188,000 of the ist Ban
militia and three divisions of the reserve were called out, and
the 2nd and 3rd infantry divisions and the 3rd Rifle Brigade
from Moscow district, where they had been mobilized, were at
once ordered to the front.
At this time the position of the Russians was as follows:
the XIV. and part of the VII. Corps were north of the Danube,
covering the communications; the IV. and IX. Corps were
opposed to Osman Pasha at Plevna and his garrisons of Lovcha
and Orchanie (the advanced depot of the Plevna force); the
XI., XII. and XIII. Corps were along the White Lorn facing
Mehemet Ali, who was on the line Rasgrad-Eski Djuma with a
force of about 80,000 infantry with 60 guns and a few regiments
of cavalry, in addition to the garrisons of the fortresses; a small
garrison on the Shipka Pass. Gurko was south of the Balkans,
where Suleiman Pasha had a force of some 30,000 men. The
Russian casualties since the commencement had reached 15,000,
and their numbers south of the Danube did not exceed 130,000.
Suleiman Pasha could have joined Osman or Mehemet Ali,
avoiding the Shipka, and a vigorous offensive against the
Russian flank at that time held out every prospect of success.
The Shipka Pass would of necessity have been evacuated, but
all through we find the Turkish commanders with their eyes
fixed on geographical, which were sometimes strategical, points,
and losing sight of the fact that the Russian army was their
first objective. It is true that the ministers at Constantinople
were largely responsible for the faulty strategy, but the generals
in the field were also to blame. It was the moment for vigorous
action on the part of the Turks. The moral equilibrium of the
enemy was upset and the whole army demoralized by this
second defeat at Plevna, but not a move was made. Again
Osman failed to pursue. He was weak in cavalry, but he had
sufficient to keep in touch with the enemy, who were utterly
demoralized, and could have followed on with his whole force.
He was but 35 m. distant from Sistova, and the result of
the demolition of the bridge would have been incalculable. He
was subsequently forbidden by Constantinople to assume the
offensive, but it was not necessary to consult ministers as to
pursuit after a successful battle, and they cannot be held re-
sponsible for this. The other Turkish commanders received
news of the results of the battles of Plevna with incredulity, and
likewise failed to turn them to account.
South of the Balkans was Suleiman's army. He was ordered
from Montenegro on July ist, and, leaving garrisons along the
Montenegrin frontier, embarked at Antivari on July isth.
Disembarking at Dedeagatch on the 2ist, he moved thence
by train to Adrianople. His command, increased by some
15 battalions under Reouf Pasha, raised in the Balkan zone,
amounted to approximately 30,000 men, and he was ordered to
retake the Shipka Pass and to join Osman Pasha. Suleiman
arrived at Karabunar on July 2oth and moved to Eski Sagra,
where he was joined by Reouf Pasha. Gurko, who had been
resting about the Shipka Pass, ignorant of the arrival of Sulei-
man, moved against Reouf Pasha on the 27th of July, and found
himself confronted by their combined forces on the 3 ist. He
was attacked by Suleiman that day and was forced to retire.
His force consisted of 15,000 men, including six battalions of
Bulgarian volunteers which had just been raised. The following
day he retreated across the Balkans by Hainkioi, where he left
two brigades to hold the Hainkioi and Elena Passes, the
934
RUSSO-TURKISH WARS
Bulgarian troops joining the garrison on the Shipka. Suleiman
Sulei- remained at Yeni Zagra till the iyth of August, when
man's he set out for the Shipka. On August 21 st the heights
attack on east of the pass were taken, and during the next
Shipka ew jays there was desperate fighting; but the original
garrison was gradually reinforced, and the Russians
held on. In this fighting the Russian losses amounted to close on
4000, while the Turkish casualties were about treble that number.
Suleiman now intrenched himself close to the Russian position,
and there he remained till Sept. i7th, when after a three
days' bombardment he again assaulted the position, but was
repulsed with considerable loss. This was the last assault made
on the Russian position. Suleiman replaced Mehemet Ali as
commander-in-chief on Oct. 2nd, and was himself succeeded
by Reouf Pasha. Thus, under orders from Constantinople,
Suleiman frittered away his opportunity and his army in a
fruitless attempt to retake the Shipka Pass.
It was not till the middle of August that Mehemet Ali decided
to move against the Russians and ordered an advance. The
The Cesarevich (afterwards Alexander III.), who was
fighting opposing him with the XI., XII. and XIII. Corps, in
oa the a il about 50,000, was extended on the line of the White
Lom - Lorn from Pirgos to Eski Djuma. On August 22nd
and 23rd there were engagements about Ayaslar, resulting in
the retirement of the Russians. On August 3oth he attacked
at Karahassankoi and drove the Russians across the river. On
September 3rd he crossed the White Lom and again defeated
them at Katzelevo, the enemy retiring behind the Banitcha
Lom. On September i2th Mehemet Ali continued his advance,
but halted on the I4th for a week. He then made an attack on
Cerkovna on the 2ist, but was repulsed with a loss of 1600 men,
and two days later retired his army behind the White Lom.
He had effected nothing. As will be seen later, the Russian
operations against Plevna had not been in any way disturbed.
The containing force under the Cesarevich had retired a certain
distance, but it still held the main Turkish army. Mehemet All's
original plan had been to advance by Osman Bazar, effect a
junction with Suleiman, and move on Tirnova. But Suleiman
was averse to his plan and it was negatived at Constantinople,
though if this plan had been carried out with vigour, the position
of the Russians should have been critical. He then advanced
on a front of 50 m. instead of moving concentrated, which is
the explanation of his failure. It is true that' he was much
hampered by the state of his cavalry, which was exhausted, and
consequently was without information, while the Russians were
well served. Mehemet Ali now concentrated his force, but at
this juncture he was superseded by Suleiman Pasha.
To return to Plevna. At this time the Russians were dis-
posed in a semicircle round Plevna, their right or N. flank
Third resting on Ribina and the S. flank resting on Bogot.
battle of On August 3oth Osman had moved out with a column
Pievoa. of a ]j arms towards Pelishat. The folio whig day he
engaged the Russians. The Turks lost 300 killed and 1000
wounded, and the Russian losses were about 1000. It is difficult
to say what was the object of this sortie, which was of the
nature of a reconnaissance in force. It achieved nothing. The
Turks were not defeated, but retired again into Plevna the
same evening. By the end of August the whole of the Rumanian
army had crossed the Danube, and during the first days of
September the first Russian reinforcements, consisting of the
2nd and 3rd infantry divisions and the 3rd Rifle Brigade, had
arrived and joined the forces round Plevna. Mehemet Ali's
advance and the assaults on the Shipka had been repulsed.
The Russians could expect no further reinforcements before
October, and it was therefore decided to make a third attempt
to take Plevna, but first of all to occupy Lovcha. Skobelev
had already made an unsuccessful attempt on August 6th,
and General Prince Imeretinski, with a force of two infantry
divisions and a brigade of Cossacks, in addition to
Skobelev's mixed brigade, was now entrusted with the
task. The garrison under Rifaat Pasha amounted to 8 bat-
talions, 6 guns and some Circassians. Fighting commenced
Lovcha.
on Sept. ist and on the 3rd the Turks were driven out, most of
the survivors finding their way to Plevna, and bringing 5 guns
with them. The Russians lost 1500, the Turks 2500. On
Sept. 2nd, Osman set out with a strong relieving column from
Plevna, but on the 4th, hearing that the Russians had already
occupied the town, he turned back and reached Plevna on the
6th. On Sept. sth, 8 battalions and 2 batteries reached
Orkhanie, and Osman's force, including the Lovcha troops,
numbered about 30,000 men and 72 guns. The Russian forces,
including the Rumanians, numbered about 90,000. Their
plan was, after a long artillery bombardment, to attack the
eastern front with the Rumanian forces, the south-eastern
front with the IV. and IX. Corps and the southern front with
Imeretinski's command. The attacks were to be simultaneous.
The cavalry divisions were to be kept in rear and close to the flank
of the attacking infantry. During the night of Sept. 6th/7th
the troops were moved into preparatory position, and batteries
were constructed at 3000 to 5000 yds. from the outer works.
The artillery bombardment was commenced at 6 a.m. on Sept.
7th and continued till midday Sept. nth. So far the infantry
had only been engaged on the south flank, where Skobelev had
succeeded Imeretinski in the command. He had succeeded
in advancing to within 2000 yds. of the southern Turkish
redoubts and had entrenched himself. The orders for Sept. nth
were for the infantry assaults to be delivered at 3 p.m. after a
six hours' cannonade. A dense fog interfered with the artillery
bombardment. At the end of the day the Rumanians had taken
No. i Grivitza redoubt, the attack on the S.E. front had been
repulsed and Skobelev had established himself within 1000
yds. of Plevna, having taken Kavanlik and Issa forts. On
Sept. 1 2th the Turks retook these forts and drove Skobelev
back. During the next two days the Russians continued to
bombard the works, but no further attack was made. The
Rumanians remained in possession of the Grivitza redoubt,
defeating an attempt made by the Turks to retake it on Sept.
i4th. The Russians then decided to retire and entrenched them-
selves on a line with Verbitza-Radischevo, with their cavalry
extending to the Vid on either flank. There was no question
of pursuit ; in the first and second battles the numbers had been
about equal, but now the Russians were vastly superior and
Osman would have been crushed by a powerful counter-attack.
In their third battle the Turks had lost 5000, while the
Russian casualties amounted to close on 20,000. The Russian
bombardment, lasting four days, had effected nothing. It had
not caused 200 casualties. The object of the artillery is to
cover the advance of the infantry, and the arms must work in
combination. The defender does not expose himself to the
artillery fire unless compelled to do so by the approaching
infantry. The Russians failed to realize this and practically
wasted their ammunition. They had again failed to recon-
noitre the position and attacked along the whole front instead
of pressing home in strength at the decisive points. Their
attacks were not even simultaneous, and Osman was able to
shift his reserves from point to point. In addition to this, when
the Russians retired one-third of their force had not been
engaged. The defects in their plan of action are largely attribut-
able to the fact that though control was nominally centred in
one man, senior officers were present who interfered with his
arrangements.
It was now decided to complete the investment of Plevna,
and Todleben, the defender of Sevastopol, was entrusted
with supreme control of the operations. He arrived / m . es /.
on the scene on Sept. 28th, but it was not till Oct. 24th meat and
that the investment was completed, and, meanwhile, fallof
on Sept. 24th and again on Oct. 8th, stong reinforce-
ments arrived, raising the Turkish force under Osman to 84
battalions, 25 squadrons and 96 guns, with an effective of
48,000 men. Plevna had been re-victualled and the sick and
wounded had been sent back to Orchanie. General Krilov, who
had been operating west of the Vid, with 52 squadrons and
30 horse artillery guns, had failed to prevent these movements,
and was superseded by General Gurko on Oct. Sth. The Russian
RUSSO-TURKISH WARS
935
Guards Corps had all reached Plevna- by Oct. 2oth, and two
divisions were at once placed under Gutko's orders, raising
his command to 35,000 infantry, 10,000 cavalry and 48 guns.
His instructions were to capture the Turkish positions along
the Sofia road. He compelled the garrison of Dolni-Dubnik to
retire into Plevna, and captured Gorni Dubnik and Telis with
their garrisons after severe fighting on Oct. 24th and 28th.
Osman's force was thereby reduced by 12 battalions. About
the middle of November the opposing forces were distributed
as follows: 6 divisions along the Lorn, under the Cesarevich,
facing Suleiman's army; 3 divisions holding the Shipka under
Radetzky; i division at Lovcha; 2^ divisions west of the Vid
under Gurko; and 12 divisions east of the Vid, investing Plevna.
The XIV. Corps was in the Dobrudja, the VII. Corps about
Odessa and the X. Corps in the Crimea.
On the Turkish side Suleiman advanced across the Lorn,
leaving small garrisons in the fortresses, and attacked at Mechka
Turkish on Nov. igth, and at Mechka and Tristenik on Nov.
move- 26th, and again on Dec. izth, but each time without
meats. success, and he retired across the Lorn. South of the
Balkans Vessil Pasha had succeeded Reouf Pasha on the
Shipka. He continued to contain the three Russian divisions
there, but made no attempt to dislodge them, beyond small
offensive demonstrations made with the object of concealing
the departure of large drafts which were sent to Sofia.
At Sofia and Orkhanie, the Turks were forming an army of
recruits and reservists with the object of advancing to the
relief of Osman. Mehemet Ali was entrusted with the command.
Osman had already asked the sultan's permission to evacuate
Plevna, with a view to co-operating with Mehemet Ali, but
permission was refused. It was not till the investment was
completed that the sultan changed his mind, too late, and gave
his sanction to the move. The Russians received information
of Mehemet Ali's intended advance, and as the force round
Plevna amounted to 191 battalions, 120 squadrons and 650 guns,
it was decided that Gurko should move with his detachment
towards Sofia. He concentrated his force at Yablonitza on
Nov. 5th and succeeded in driving the Turkish advanced
guard from Orkhanie. Mehemet Ali now occupied a strong
position covering the Arabi Konak Pass over the Balkans, and,
with a force of 43 battalions with cavalry and guns, made
no attempt to relieve Osman.
Osman Pasha, his supplies having given out, eventually
decided on a sortie. His troops had been short of food since
3,4 the beginning of November, and the number of sick
Period. had risen to 10,000. His plan was to break through
Passage t o ^jj e wes t an( j ma ke for Sofia via Berkovitz. The
Rafkans R uss i ans observed the preparations made and con-
and ad- centrated sufficient force at the threatened point, with
vance to the result that Osman and his army of 40,000 men
c'onstan- capitulated. The Turkish losses in the action were
tinopit. a b out 6000 and the Russians lost about 1500. The
Russians now decided, notwithstanding the difficulties due
to the winter season, to push on across the Balkans. The
VII. and X. Corps were still left guarding the Russian coasts.
The Cesarevich was left north of the Balkans with 71,000
men to guard the communications. Gurko's force was
raised to 80,000. Leaving a containing force to oppose
the Turks at the Arabi Konak Pass positions, he crossed by
the Curiak Pass. The Turks retired unobserved, and after
a feeble stand at Tashkosen retreated to Kustendil. Gurko
occupied Sofia on Jan. 4th. Radetzky's force at the Shipka
was raised to 66,000, with which force, having defeated Vessil
Pasha, he was to join Gurko south of the Balkans. Radetzky
commenced operations on Jan. 5th. Keeping one division
to hold the works on the Shipka, he moved the remainder
of the force in two columns under Skobelev and Prince Mirski,
who were to cross one on each side and attack simultaneously
from the south. Vessil Pasha held an entrenched camp at
Shenovo with some 12,000 men; the remainder of his force
was in position on the mountains. Owing to the difficulties
of the crossing, Skobelev was delayed. Mirski attacked on
Jan. 8th and was repulsed. The following day Skobelev and
Mirski attacking together were successful, and Vessil Pasha
capitulated with his force, some 36,000, of whom 6000 were sick
and wounded. Vessil Pasha had pointed out the danger of
his position on Jan. 7th, but, contrary to Suleiman's advice,
the war minister, believing an armistice imminent, had ordered
him to hold on to the Shipka Pass. Mehemet Ali's force,
dangerously delayed owing to interference by the minister
of war, eventually reached Tatar-Bazardjik, which was selected
by Suleiman (now commander-in-chief) for the concentration
of his forces. Having received news of the capture of the
Shipka force he retired on Philippopolis, with Gurko's forces
closely pursuing. But Radetzky's forces had already pushed
on and practically cut Suleiman off from Adrianople. After
some engagements about Philippopolis on Jan. isth, i6th and
1 7th, he retreated towards the Aegean Sea through the Rhodope
mountains, having lost most of his guns, and reached Enos
about Jan. 28th, whence what remained of his force was con-
veyed by water to Constantinople.
Suleiman had again missed his opportunity. The Russians
crossed the Balkans in a wide front of about 180 miles, and
there was opportunity for successful action by a capable com-
mander. There were not only the columns commanded by
Gurko and Radetzky, but also a third column under General
Kartzoff, which crossed by the Trojan Pass, after which it
joined Gurko's force. There were the troops under Mehemet
Ali about Sofia, Vessil Pasha's force about the Shipka, and
the main army on the Lorn, which had been withdrawn south
of the Balkans after the fall of Plevna, so that Suleiman, who
had been appointed commander-in-chief, had an available
force of 130 battalions, 120 guns and a proportion of cavalry.
The fortified town of Adrianople offered a strong central
position at which to concentrate his forces, and with this point
as support, acting on interior lines, he could have dealt with
the invading and widely separated columns in detail. But
he missed his opportunity and left his scattered forces to be
overwhelmed by superior numbers in each instance. The
minister for war was undoubtedly responsible to a great extent
for this faulty strategy, but the blame falls on the head of
Suleiman as commander-in-chief. There was no object in
leaving Vessil Pasha on the Shipka. All available forces
should have been concentrated in a sound strategical situation.
The Servians had crossed the frontier after the fall of Plevna,
and the Montenegrins were also pressing on. On Jan. i6th
the Russians occupied Adrianople, and on Jan. 3oth they were
facing the Buyuk Tchemedji lines, with their flanks resting
on the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmora. Mehemet Ali
was in command of what remained of the Turkish armies
behind the lines. On Jan. 3ist an armistice was arranged,
and on March 3rd the treaty of San Stefano was signed, the
terms of which were modified later at the Berlin Conference
in June and July 1878.
The Russo-Turkish War proved once for all the great value
of improvised fortifications, in other words, of spade work in
warfare, and the advantages of field works as regards invisibility
against artillery fire. It was not only at Plevna that field
intrenchments were made use of. Notable instances were
the defence of Lovcha by the small Turkish garrison of 8
battalions with one battery, which from their entrenchments
kept Skobelev with over 20,000 men and 90 guns at bay for
three days, inflicting on him a loss of over 1500 men. Again,
at Gorni Dubnik on Oct. 24th, 3500 Turks with 4 guns held
their works throughout the day against 20,000 Russians with
60 guns, inflicting a loss on them of over 3300, and eventually
were forced to surrender by a surprise attack under cover
of darkness, when their ammunition had run short, and their
numbers had been reduced by 1500 casualties. In the attack
the success of Skobelev stands out, and we find that he had
realized the necessity of intrenching the ground he had gained.
The war was brought to a conclusion, but the Turks had not
been beaten in battle. With the exception of the fighting,
round Plevna and the rout of Suleiman's army at Philippopolis
RUST RUSTICATION
there had been no decisive battles. The Turks had been
defeated owing to the incapacity of their leaders, none of whom
had previously commanded an army organized according to
modern ideas. They were ignorant of strategic principles.
Then, again, the interference with the generals in the field by
the authorities at Constantinople had in each case resulted
in the disasters which invariably follow the attempt of civilian
amateurs to control warlike operations.
On the Russian side, the enemy had been at first despised,
and consequently the forces originally employed were inadequate,
which meant subsequent delays, losses and expense. The
command of the sea had proved of little value to the Turks.
Their flotilla rendered them no assistance. In the early stages
it could have materially assisted by landing reconnoitring
parties N. of the Danube, and by interfering with the Russians
when crossing the river. The Russian bridge offered a tempt-
ing objective throughout the campaign, but commanders
with the requisite dash and initiative were not forthcoming.
The defeat of the Turks was due in the first place to the failure
of their politicians to ensure the adequate organization and train-
ing of the army during peace time, in the second place to the want
of a commander who had educated himself to undertake the
responsibilities entrusted to him. (J. H. V. C.)
A separate campaign had been waged, as before, in Asia Minor.
Here the Turks under Mukhtar Pasha had 57,000 men in two corps,
the one on the side of Batoum and Ardahan, the other between
Erzerum and Kars. His opponent, Loris Melikov, had at first only
some 28,000 infantry, but a disproportionate number of Cossack
Sotnias. The Russians advanced in three weak columns. On the
i/th of May after bombardment the right column stormed Ardahan.
The right and centre columns then closed inwards upon Kars, which
they besieged, but the siege was given up in July, after Mukhtar,
advancing to its relief with 35,000 men, had repulsed Melikov's
attack at Zivin (June 26th). The left column occupied Bayazid
without difficulty, but when it had proceeded thence on the
Erzerum road the Russian garrison was blockaded by the Turks
and the column retraced its steps to relieve the place. After this
it halted at Igdir in the Araxes valley. Meanwhile the Turks on
the coast had advanced, in concert with their fleet, and raised
an insurrection amongst the Mahommedans of the littoral. They
were eventually repulsed, but the insurrection was not completely
suppressed until the summer of 1878.
In August Mukhtar, who had followed up Melikov's retreat from
Kars, and won the victory of Kizil-Tepe, led 30,000 men in front of
this position, and behind them the Kars garrison of 10,000. Ismail
on the Bayazid side had 40,000 Dervish, at Batoum 17,000. But
after an interval of two months Melikov was reinforced, while drafts
for the armies in Europe were taken from Mukhtar, and the grand-
duke Michael, assuming command of the Russians, defeated his
opponent completely in the battle of the Aladja Dagh (Oct. I5th).
The remnants of Mukhtar's army retreated on Erzerum, and while
part of the Russian army besieged Kars, and part attempted to cut
off the retreat of Ismail on the Bayazid road, while the corps from
the Araxes valley followed the latter up. Ismail slipped past
them, however, and rejoined Mukhtar at Erzerum. But the two
together were no longer able to resist the superior numbers of the
Russians, who defeated them in a last battle at Dexe Boyun
(Nov. 4th). Kars was stormed on the night of the I ith of November.
RUST (O.E. rtist, a word which appears in many Teutonic
knguages, cf. Du. roest, Ger. rost); in origin it is allied with
" ruddy " and " red," the reddish-brown powdery substance
which forms on the surface of iron or steel exposed to atmo-
spheric corrosion. Formerly the process was regarded as
oxidation pure and simple, and, although it was known that iron
did not rust in dry air, yet no attempt was made to explain
why water was necessary to the action. F. Crace-Calvert in
1871 showed that the carbon dioxide of the atmosphere was a
factor; and in 1888 Crum Brown published the theory
termed the " carbonic acid theory " that water and carbon
dioxide react with iron to form ferrous carbonate and hydrogen,
the ferrous carbonate being subsequently oxidized by moist
oxygen to ferric hydrate and regenerating carbon dioxide,
which again reacts with more iron. This theory was contro-
verted by Wyndham Dunstan, who attempted to prove that
carbon dioxide was not necessary to rusting; and in place of
the acid theory, he set up a scheme which involved the pro-
duction of hydrogen peroxide. G. T. Moody has since shown that
when all traces of carbon dioxide are removed (which is a matter
of great experimental difficulty) iron may be left in contact
with oxygen and water for long periods without rust appearing,
but on the admission of carbon dioxide specks are rapidly
formed. It also appears that rust changes in composition
on exposure to the atmosphere, both the ferrous oxide and
carbonate being in part oxidized to ferric oxide. Acids, other
than carbonic, may promote rusting; this is particularly the
case with ironwork exposed to the acids sulphurous, nitric,
&c. contained in smoke. It is probable that the action
depends upon the presence of iron, oxygen and water, and some
acid which makes the water an electrolyte.
Steel differs in many ways from iron in respect of atmospheric
corrosion; the heterogeneous nature of steel gives occasion
to a selective rusting, ferrite is much more readily attacked
than the cementite and pearlite; moreover, the introduction
of other elements may retard rusting; this is particularly the
case with the nickel-steels.
RUSTCHUK (Bulg. Russe), the capital of the department
of Rustchuk, Bulgaria, on the right bank of the Danube, where
it receives the E. Lorn. Pop. (1906) 33,552. Rustchuk is the
headquarters of a military division and of a naval flotilla
stationed on the Danube. As a river-port and the terminus of
railways from Varna and from Sofia via Trnovo, it has much
commercial importance; and it possesses tobacco and cigar-
ette factories, soap-works, breweries, aerated water factories,
dyeworks, tanneries, sawmills, brick and tile works and a
celebrated pottery.
In the time of the Romans Rustchuk was one of the fortified
points along the line of the Danube. In the Tabula Peutin-
geriana it appears as Prisca, in the Antonine Itinerary as Seran-
taprista, in the Notitia as Seragintaprista and in Ptolemy as
Priste Polis. Destroyed by barbarian invaders in the 7th
century the town recovered its importance only in comparatively
modern times. In 1810 it was captured by the Russians, who
destroyed the fortifications. It played an important part in
the Russo-Turkish Wars of 1828-29, 1853-54 and 1877-78. In
1877 it was nearly destroyed by the Russian artillery stationed
in the Rumanian town of Giurgevo, on the opposite bank of the
Danube.
RUSTENBURG, a district and town of the Transvaal,
South Africa. The district originally included all the N.W.
part of the country, but is now of much smaller dimensions.
Its S. border is marked by the Magaliesberg and other hills
forming the N. escarpment of the high veld and the watershed
between the Vaal and Limpopo. Several of the headstreams
of the Limpopo rise within the district on the N. slopes of the
Magaliesberg. The climate of the district is sub-tropical and
the principal cultivation is that of tobacco, and fruit trees,
notably oranges. The opening of the railway to Pretoria in
1906 led to a marked development of trade. In an amphi-
theatre formed by the hills and 61 m. by rail W. of Pretoria is
the town of Rustenburg with a population (1904) of 1815. The
town is one of the oldest in the Transvaal, having been founded
in 1850 by the Voortrekkers. It was at Rustenburg that the
volksraad met in March 1852 to ratify the Sand River Conven-
tion granting independence to the Transvaal Boers. At the
time it was feared that there would be civil war between Hendrik
Potgieter and Andries Pretorius, but they were reconciled in
Potgieter's tent. Later Rustenburg became the home of the
Kruger family. It was occupied by the British under R. S.
Baden Powell in June 1900.
RUSTICATION (i.e. the making " rustic " or countrified, from
Lat. rus, country; thus the term " rusticate " is used for taking a
country holiday, or in academic circles to be "rusticated" is to
be sent away from a university for punishment), hi architecture,
the technical term v (French equivalent bossage) given to masonry
in which the centre part of the face of the stone is either left
rough as it came from the quarry, or is worked in various ways
to give variety to the surface. The earliest example exists in
the platform at Pasargadae in Persia (560 B.C.), erected by
Cyrus, where the edge round the four sides of the stone forms a
draft, two or three inches wide, worked with a chisel, the centre
RUSTOW RUTEBEUF
937
part being left rough. Similar work exists at Arak-el-Emir in
Palestine (151 B.C.). The finest examples are those of the walls
of the temple at Jerusalem, and at Hebron, where the stones are
of immense size and the rustication projects sometimes over a
foot. The Crusaders' castles in Palestine are all boldly rusti-
cated, but the projecting portions have been worked over with a
chisel in diagonal lines, and this enables them to be distinguished
from the earlier masonry. In the five-sided tower at Nurem-
berg and the Burg-Capelle at Rothenburg, the rustication has a
decorative value, so that in later work it was employed for the
quoin-stones of towers. The masonry of the Palazzo Vecchio,
and of the Pitti, Strozzi and Riccardi palaces, all in Florence,
and of other palaces in Siena and Vol terra, is rusticated.
Rustication was employed in terraces and grottos in Italy,
where on account of its extravagances it gave rise to the term
" grotesque." In the later Renaissance the edges of the stone
were bevelled off, with a sunk joint in addition; and the treatment
was known as vermiculated, if in imitation of earth burrowed
by worms; marine, if with small shell holes; stalactitic, if
carved in imitation of lime deposits, &c. In Italy the projecting
portions were sometimes worked into facets. Rustication was
introduced into England by Inigo Jones, who, in old Somerset
House, York Stairs Watergate, the gateway of the Botanical
Garden at Oxford, and elsewhere, used it only in alternate
courses, his example being followed by other architects of the
Renaissance. The term is now applied to the ashlar blocks of
masonry which alternate with the circular drums of columns
in many public buildings.
RUSTOW, FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1821-1878), Swiss soldier
and military writer, was a Prussian by birth. He entered the
service of his native country, and served for some years, until
the publication of Der Deutsche Militdrstaat vor und wdhrend
der Revolution (Zurich, 1850) brought him official condemnation.
He was sentenced by a court-martial to a long term of fortress
imprisonment, but succeeded in escaping to Switzerland. He
obtained military employment in the service of the Republic,
and in 1857 was major on the engineer staff. Three years
later he accompanied Garibaldi in the famous expedition
against the two Sicilies as colonel and chief of the staff, and
to him must be ascribed the victories of Capua (igth Sept.
1860) and the Volturno (ist Oct. 1860). At the end of the
campaign he once more settled down at Zurich. At the out-
break of the war of 1870 he offered his services to Prussia,
but was not accepted. In 1878, on the foundation of a military
professorship at Zurich, Rustow applied for the post, and, on its
being given to another officer, lost heart and committed suicide.
Two younger brothers, both Prussian soldiers, were also
distinguished men. The elder, ALEXANDER (1824-1866), is
remembered for his work Der Kiistenkrieg (Berlin, 1848); the
younger, CAESAR (1826-1866), was one of the foremost experts
of his time in the design and construction of military rifles,
and the writer of several treatises on that subject, of which
we may mention Die Kriegshandfeuerwafen (Berlin, 1857-64).
Both Alexander and Caesar fell on the field of battle in the war
of 1866, at Koniggratz and Dermbach respectively.
Amongst F. W. Riistow's works, which covered nearly every
branch of the military art, a large number must be mentioned.
Historical Heerwesen und Kriegjiihrung Julius Ctisars (Gotha,
1855; 2nd ed., Nordhausen, 1862), Kommentar zu Napoleon III.'s
Geschichte Julius Cdsars (Stuttgart, 1865-67), Geschichle des Grie-
chischen Kriegswesens (in collaboration with Kochly, Aarau, 1852),
Militar. Biographen (David, Xenophon, Montluc) (Zurich, 1858),
Geschichte der Infanterie (Gotha, 1857-58; 3rd ed., 1884),
Die Ersten Feldziige Napoleons 1796 1797 (Zurich, 1867), Der Krieg
von 1805 in Deutschland und Italien (Frauenfeld, 1854), Geschichte des
Ungarischen Insurrektionkrieges 1848-49 (Zurich, 1860), reminiscences
of 1860 in Italy (Leipzig, 1861) and monographs on the campaigns
of 1848-49 in Italy (Zurich, 1849) and the Crimean War (Zurich,
1855-56). Critical and General Allgemeine Taktik (Zurich, 1858;
2nd ed., 1868), Kriegspolitik und Kriegsgebrauch (Zurich, 1876),
Militar-Handworterbuch (Zurich, 1859), Die Feldherrnkunst des
XIX Jahrhunderts (Zurich, 1857; 3rd ed., 1878-79), Der Krieg und
seine Mittel (Leipzig, 1856). He also wrote Annalen des Konigreichs
Italien (Zurich, 1862-63).
See Zernim, " F. W. Rustow," in Unsere Zeit. vol. 2 (Leipzig, 1882).
RUTEBEUF, or RUSTEBUEF (fl. 1245-1285), French trouvere,
was born in the first half of the i3th century. His name is
nowhere mentioned by his contemporaries. He frequently
plays in his verse on the word Rutebeuf, which was probably
a nom de guerre, and is variously explained by him as derived
from rude bceuf and rude ceuvre. He was evidently of humble
birth, and he was a Parisian by education and residence.
Paulin Paris thought that he began life in the lowest rank
of the minstrel profession as a jongleur. Some of his poems
have autobiographical value. In Le Mariage de Rutebeuf
he says that on the 2nd of January 1261 he married a woman
old and ugly, with neither dowry nor amiability. 1 In the
Complainte de Rutebeuf he details a series of misfortunes which
have reduced him to abject destitution. In these circumstances-
he addresses himself to Alphonse, comte de Poitiers, brother
of Louis IX., for relief. Other poems in the same vein reveal
that his own miserable circumstances were chiefly due to a
love of play, particularly a game played with dice, which was
known as griesche. It would seem that his distress could not
be due to lack of patrons, for his metrical life of Saint Elizabeth
of Hungary was written by request of Erard de Valery, who
wished to present it to Isabel, queen of Navarre; and he
wrote elegies on the deaths of Anceau de PIsle Adam, the third
of the name, who died about 1251, Eude, comte de Nevers
(d. 1267), Thibaut V. of Navarre (d. 1270), and Alphonse, comte
de Poitiers (d. 1271), which were probably paid for by the
families of the personages celebrated. In the Pauvreti de
Rutebeuf he addresses Louis IX. himself.
The piece which is most obviously intended for popular
recitation is the DU de I'Herberie, a dramatic monologue in
prose and verse supposed to be delivered by a quack doctor.
Rutebeuf was also a master in the verse conte, and the five
of his fabliaux that have come down to us are gay and amusing.
The matter, it may be added, is sufficiently gross. The
adventures of Frere Denyse le cordelier, and of " la dame qui
alia trois fois autour du moutier," find a place in the Cent
Nouvelles nouvelles.
Rutebeuf's serious work as a satirist probably dates from
about 1260. His chief topics are the iniquities of the friars,
and the defence of the secular clergy of the university of Paris
against their encroachments; and he delivered a series of
eloquent and insistent poems (1262, 1263, 1268, 1274) exhorting
princes and people to take part in the crusades. He was a
redoubtable champion of the university of Paris in its quarrel
with the religious orders who were supported by Pope Alex-
ander IV., and he boldly defended Guillaume de Saint-Amour
when he was driven into exile. The libels, indecent songs and
rhymes condemned by the pope to be burnt together with
the Perils des derniers temps attributed to Saint-Amour, were
probably the work of Rutebeuf. The satire of Renart le Bes-
tourne, which borrows from the Reynard cycle little but the
names under which the characters are disguised, was directed,
according to Paulin Paris, against Philip the Bold. To his
later years belong his religious poems, and also the Voie de
Paradis, the description of a dream, in the manner of the
Roman de la Rose.
The best work of Rutebeuf is to be found in his satires and
verse conies. A miracle play of his, Le Miracle de Theophile,
is one of the earliest dramatic pieces extant in French. The
subject of Theophilus, the Cilician monk who made a pact with
the devil, which was afterwards returned to him by the inter-
vention of the Virgin, was a familiar one with the story-tellers
of the middle ages. Rutebeuf can claim no priority in the
choice of the subject, which had been treated dramatically in
the Latin piece ascribed to the nun Hroswitha of Gandersheim,
but his piece has considerable importance in dramatic history.
The (Euvres of Rutebeuf were edited by Achille Jubinal in 1839
(new edition, 1874) ; a more critical edition is by Dr Adolf Kressncr
1 It has been suggested that Brunetto Latin! was thinking of
Rutebeuf when he wrote in his Li"re du Tresor: " Le Rire, le jeu,
voili la vie du jongleur, qui se moque de lui-me'me, de sa femme, de
ses enfants, de tout le monde."
RUTH, BOOK OF
(Rustebuefs Gedichte; WolfenbUttel, 1885). See also the article
by Paulin Paris in Hist. litt. de la France (1842), vol. xx. pp. 719-83.
and Rutebeuf (1891), by M. Leon Cledat, in the Grands Ecrivains
franfais Series.
RUTH, BOOK OF, in the Old Testament. The story of Ruth
(the Moabitess, great-grandmother of David) is one of the
Old Testament Hagiographa and is usually reckoned as the
second of the five Megilloth (Festal Rolls). This position
corresponds to the Jewish practice of reading the book at the
feast of Pentecost; Spanish MSS., however, place it at the
head of the Megilloth; and the Talmud (Baba Bathra, 146)
gives it the first place among all the Hagiographa. On the
other hand, it follows Judges in the Septuagint, the Vulgate
and the English version. But although it was very natural
that a later rearrangement should transfer Ruth from the
Hagiographa to the historical books, and place it between
Judges and Samuel, no motive can be suggested for the opposite
change, and the presumption is that it found a place in the
last part of the Jewish canon after the second (with the his-
torical books) had been definitely closed. See BIBLE: Old
Testament, section I. " Canon "; CANTICLES; LAMENTATIONS.
That the book of Ruth did not originally form part of the
series of " Former Prophets" (Joshua-Kings) is further probable
from the fact that it is quite untouched by the process of
" prophetic " or " Deuteronomistic " editing, which helped to
give that series its present shape after the fall of the kingdom
of Judah. The narrative has no affinity with the point of
view which looks on the history of Israel as a series of examples
of divine justice and mercy in the successive rebellions and
repentances of the people of God. 1 But if the book had been
known at the time when the history from Joshua to Kings
was edited it could hardly have been excluded from the collec-
tion; the ancestry of David (iv. 17, 18-22) was of greater interest
than that of Saul, which is given in i Sam. ix. i, whereas the old
history names no ancestor of David beyond his father Jesse.
; In truth the book of Ruth presents itself as dealing with
times far back (Ruth i. i), and takes delight in depicting
details of antique life and obsolete usages (iv. 7); it
views the stormy period before the institution of the
kingship through the softening atmosphere of time, which
imparts to the scene a gentle sweetness very different from
the harsher colours of the old narratives of the book of Judges.
It has indeed been argued that, as the author seems to take
no offence at the marriage of Israelites with Moabite women,
he must have lived before the time of Ezra and Nehemiah
(Ezra ix.; Neh. xiii.); but the same argument would prove
that the book of Esther was written before Ezra. The very
designation of a period of Hebrew history as " the days of the
judges " is based on the Deuteronomistic additions to the book
of Judges (ii. 16 sqq.) and does not occur till the period of the
exile. It is true that the language has some features which
appear to link it with the narratives in Samuel and Kings, but
it might fairly be assumed either that the book is the work of a
late author well acquainted with the earlier literature, or that
an old narrative had undergone some rewriting at a later age.
No definite conclusion can be drawn from the fact that the
language stands in marked contrast to that of Chronicles, Ezra,
Nehemiah, &c., since writings presumably more or less con-
temporary did not necessarily share the same characteristics
(observe, for example, the prose parts of Job).
Like the stories appended to Judges (by a post-Deuteronomic
hand) the book of Ruth connects itself with Bethlehem, the
Design traditional birthplace of David. Some connexion
between Bethlehem and Moab has been found in
the (now corrupt) text of i Chron. iv. 22 (where the Targum
and late rabbinical exegesis discover references to the story
of Ruth), and is more explicitly suggested by the isolated
i Sam. xxii. 3 seq. which evidently knew of some relationship
between Moab and the illustrious descendant of Boaz and
Ruth. Next, the writer claims the sympathy of his readers
1 The religious pragmatism lacking in the original is in part
supplied by the Targum (i. 5, 6).
for Ruth, upon whose Moabite origin he frequently insists,
and this feature is noteworthy in view of the aversion
with which intermarriage was regarded at a certain period
(Deut. xxiii. 3; Neh. xiii.; Ezra ix. seq.). The independent
evidence for the present post-exilic form of the book has
consequently led many scholars to the conclusion that it was
directed against the drastic steps associated with the reforms
of Ezra and Nehemiah, which, as is known, were not every-
where acceptable. Thus, not only do we have a beautiful
portrait of a woman of Moabite origin, but she becomes the
ancestress of David himself, and in the days of these measures
the charming and simple story would inevitably suggest the
question whether the exclusiveness of Judaism could not be
carried too far. There is no reason, however, to believe that
this was the original object of the story. It contains other
features of considerable interest to which more importance
seems to be attached, and the writer is evidently an artist
who takes manifest delight in the touching and graceful details
of his picture, and is not simply guided by a desire to impart
historical information or to enforce some particular lesson.
One does not look for absolute consistency in oriental
narratives, and even this little book contains several internal
intricacies which demand investigation. The genealogy Crltkal
from Perez to David in iv. 18-22 is of little value problems.
since Salma (Salmon) , father of Boaz, is a Calebite clan-
name, not associated with its earlier seat S. of Hebron as in
Judges i., i Sam. xxv., &c., but as " father " of Bethlehem,
representing exilic or later conditions (i Chron. ii. 51 ; see CALEB).
Apart from other signs of a late date in this list of the ancestors
and descendants of Boaz, iv. 12 certainly implies that the
genealogical lines of Perez and Boaz were not identical, and
thus verses 18-22 in the opinion of most scholars are a later
addition.
Further, the story involves points of old family usage which
are no longer clear. The well-known custom which gives the
nearest heir of the dead a right to inherit the widow is naturally
distinct from the levirate (q.v.), where it is the brother's duty
to marry his widowed sister-in-law if childless, and where the
eldest son succeeds to the name and inheritance of the deceased.
In Hebrew usage the refusal to perform the levirate brought
ignominy (see Deut. xxv. 5-10), and Gen. xxxviii. relates how
Tamar, when Shelah was not given to her, obtained a child
through her father-in-law Judah (see esp. vers. 14, 26).* In
addition to these customs to prevent the alienation of the
estate and to perpetuate the family name, the post-exilic story
in Num. xxvii. i-n, xxxvi. gives daughters the- right of
inheritance provided they do not marry outside the tribe.
Although the levirate still continued (Matt. xxii. 24 sqq.), the
late laws in Lev. xviii. 16, xx. 21, as also this story, may be
aimed against it. Finally, the goel (" next kinsman," lit.
" avenger "; see Driver, Ency. Bib. col. 1745 sqq.) has the first
right of purchase to an estate (Jer. xxxii. 6-15), and indeed
must redeem the property which his needy relative might be
compelled to sell (Lev. xxv., see ver. 25). Now it appears that
Boaz combines the essential duty of the goel in purchasing the
estate over which Naomi holds rights, and at the same time
marries, not Naomi, who is now old, but her daughter-in-law
Ruth, in order to perpetuate her husband's family. Naomi,
who had realized the impossibility of the levirate in her case
(i. ii seq.), returned home a disconsolate and childless widow
(i. 20 seq.), but the filial Ruth fell in with her plans and put
herself entirely into the hands of the kinsman Boaz (iii.). In
the happy finale, Naomi is the recipient of congratulations
upon the birth of a son to the faithful Ruth (iv. 170, "there
is a son born to Naomi ") ; the name of the dead is thus
"raised up" (iv. , 10), and the child Obed is clearly recognized
2 See further, W. R. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia,
2nd ed. p. 105; Wellhausen, Gotting. Gelehrte Anzeig. (1893),
pp. 455 seq. Ruth iv. 7 refers to the custom of drawing off the shoe
as a sign of renunciation (cf. Deut. loc. cit., and G. A. Smith, Ency.
Bib. col. 5196 head), and ver. 12 to the story of Tamar and Judah.
Compare, for the retention of simple methods of transacting business,
the striking of hands (Prov. vi. I, xxii. 26).
RUTHENIANS RUTHENIUM
939
as of the fine of Elimelech and Mahlon (Naomi's husband and
In point of fact, a nearer kinsman than Boaz had
son
agreed to purchase the estate (as gdel), which Naomi evidently
had not yet sold (see commentaries on iv. 3); but he was
unwilling to marry Ruth (reading in ver. 5, " and also Ruth thou
must buy "; cf. ver. 10), recognizing that if a son were born the
estate would revert to the line of Elimelech, thus leaving him
at a disadvantage. He was evidently unprepared for what
seems a novel condition (contrast Boaz in iii. 12 seq.), although,
from the felicitations in iv. 11-13, the issue of the marriage
is actually reckoned to the husband (Boaz). It is improbable
that these conflicting features in v. 11-13 an d ver - *7 a > an ^
all that they involve, co-existed, and it is possible that the
former (with the implied reference to the coming David) is
not part of the original. However, as in the equally com-
plicated story in Gen. xxxviii., it is difficult to trace the extent
or growth of the various motives, e.g. the primary interest in
Naomi, the romantic marriage of Ruth, the selling of the land
(which comes only in ch. iv.), &c.
LITERATURE. See S. R. Driver, Literature of Old Testament, who,
with C. F. Kent (Beginnings of Heb. Hist. p. 310 seq.), favours a pre-
exilic origin. An exilic date has found the support of Ewald and
Konig, but that it is now of the post-exilic age is the opinion of
most writers. See further W. R. Smith's art. " Ruth " iriEncy. Brit.
9th ed. (several portions of which have been retained by the present
writer), revised and supplemented by T. K. Cheyne in Ency. Bib.;
A. Bertholet, Kurzer Handkommentar (1898); W. Nowack, Hand-
kommentar (1902) ; and (with special reference to traces of earlier
mythological motives) H.Winckler, Altorient. Forschungen(\\\. 66 sqq.).
For the customs discussed above, see I. Benzinger, Ency. Bib.
col. 2949 seq.; j. A. Bewer, Theol. Stud. u. Krit. (1903), pp. 328 seq.,
502 sqq. (with G. A. Barton's art. " Ruth " in Jew. Encyc.); and
T. W. Juynboll, Theolog. Tijdschr. (1906), pp. 158 sqq.
(W. R. S. ; S. A. C.)
RUTHENIANS, a name applied to those of the Little Russians
who are Austrian subjects. The name is a form of the word
Russian. The Ruthenians were separated from the bulk of
Russians by the accident of the two feudal principalities of the
old Red Russia, Halic and Volhynia, having fallen to Lithuania,
which in turn was united with Poland. At the partition of
Poland no one troubled about ethnological boundaries. The
language is in substance like the Little Russian of the Ukraine,
though it has marked differences; the most interesting dialects
are those in the extreme W., which approach to Slovak and
that of the Huzuli in Bukovina. The Ruthenians number
some three million in Galicia, Bukovina, and in the Carpathians
along the edges of Hungary from the 2ist meridian eastwards.
Throughout Galicia the Poles form the aristocracy, though in
two-thirds of it Ruthenians form the bulk of the population,
while the middle class is Jewish or German. The Ruthenians
are therefore under an alien yoke both politically and economic-
ally: in religion they mostly belong to the Uniate Church,
acknowledging the Pope but retaining their Slavonic liturgy
and most of the outward forms of the Greek Church. Their
intellectual centre is Lemberg (Lviv or Lwow), where some
lectures in the university are given in their language, and they
are agitating for it to have equal rights with Polish. Yet here
Little Russian is freer than in the Russian empire, and in Lem-
berg is the centre of its literature, the society called by the
name of Sevcenko, the Little Russian poet. This society
publishes voluminous transactions in a special orthography
and deals with everything concerning Little Russia, its archae-
ology, people and language.
See summary of the work of the Sevcenko for ten years in Archiv
f. slavische Phil, xxvii. (1905), p. 279.
RUTHENIUM [symbol Ru, atomic weight 101-7 (O=i6)],
in chemistry, a metallic element, found associated with platinum,
in platinum ore and in osmifidium. The metal may be obtained
from the residues obtained in the separation of osmium from
osmiridium. These are washed with ammonium chloride until
the filtrate is colourless, ignited, fused with caustic potash and
nitre, the melt dissolved in water and nitric acid added to
the solution until the colour of potassium ruthenate disappears.
A precipitate of ruthenium oxide gradually separates; this is
collected and ignited in a graphite crucible and finally fused in
the oxyhydrogen furnace (H. Sainte-Claire Deville and H. J.
Debray, Ann. Mm. pftys., 1859, (3), 56, p. 406). For other
methods see C. E. Claus, Pogg. Ann., 1845, 65, p. 200; E.
Fre'my, Comptes rendus, 1854, 38, p. 1008; T. Wilm, Ber.,
1883, 16, p. 1524. A purer ruthenium is obtained by A.
Gutbier and L. Trenkner (Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1905, 45, p. 166)
by heating the crude metal (obtained by other processes) in a
current of oxygen until all the osmium is volatilized as tetroxide.
The residue is then fused with caustic potash and nitre, dis-
solved in water, saturated with chlorine and distilled on the
water-bath in a current of chlorine. Pure ruthenium tetroxide
distils over. This is then dissolved in water, reduced by alcohol
and ignited in oxygen. Ruthenium in bulk resembles platinum
in its general appearance, and has been obtained crystalline
by heating an alloy of ruthenium and tin in a current of hydro-
chloric acid gas. Its specific gravity (after fusion) is 12-063
(A. Joly, Comptes rendus, 1893, 116, p. 430). It fuses easily in
the electric arc. It oxidizes superficially when heated, but
fairly rapidly when ignited in an oxidizing blowpipe flame, form-
ing a black smoke of the oxide. It is also oxidized when fused
with caustic potash and nitre, forming a ruthenate. Acids
have practically no action on the metal, but it is soluble
in solutions of the alkaline hypochlorites. Like most of the
other metals of the group, it absorbs gases. A colloidal form
has been obtained by A. Gutbier and G. Hofmeier (Jour, prakt.
Chem., 1905, (2), 71, p. 452) by reducing ruthenium salts with
"hydrazine hydrate in the presence of gum-arabic.
Several oxides of ruthenium have been described, the definite
existence of some of which appears to be doubtful. The dioxide,
RuOs, is formed by heating sulphate, or by heating the metal
in a current of oxygen. It crystallizes in octahedra isomorphous
with stannic oxide. It is insoluble in acids and decomposes when
heated to a sufficiently high temperature. Fusion with caustic
potash converts it into a mixture of potassium ruthenate and
ruthenium sesquioxide, RusOa, which is a black, almost insoluble
powder. An oxide of composition RiuOs is obtained as a black
hydrated powder when the peroxide is heated with water for some
time. It becomes anhydrous at about 360 C., and is unattacked
by acids and alkalis. The peroxide, RuO4, is formed when a solu-
tion of potassium ruthenate is decomposed by chlorine, or by
oxidizing ruthenium compounds with potassium chlorate and
hydrochloric acid, or with potassium permanganate and sulphuric
acid. It forms a golden yellow crystalline mass, which sublimes
slowly in vacuo, and melts at 25-5 C. It blackens on exposure
to moisture, and decomposes when exposed to light. It is in-
soluble in water, but gradually decomposes, forming a hydrated
oxide, RujOs-HjO. It is readily reduced. Its vapour possesses
a characteristic smell, somewhat resembling that of ozone. Ruth-
enium dichloride, RuCl 2 , is obtained (in solution) by reducing the
sesquichloride by sulphuretted hydrogen or zinc. It is stable in
the cold. The sesquichloride, RujCU, is formed when a mixture
of chlorine and carbon monoxide is passed over finely divided
ruthenium heated to 350 C. (Joly, Comptes rendus, 1892, 114,
p. 291). It is a brown powder which is readily decomposed by
boiling water. It absorbs ammonia readily, forming RuCU-7NHa.
Numerous double chlorides are known, e.g. RuiCU-4KCl;
Ru 2 Cle-4NH4Cl, &c. The pure tetrachloride, RuCl, has not
been isolated, but is chiefly known in the form of its double salts,
such as potassium ruthenium chloride, KjRuCU, which is obtained
when finely divided ruthenium is fused with caustic potash and
potassium chloride is gradually added to the fused mass (U. Antony
and A. Luchesi, Gazz, 1899, 29, II. p. 82). It is a red-brown
crystalline powder, which is soluble in water. A similar ammonium
salt has t>een obtained. Ruthenium sulphides are obtained when
the metal is warmed with pyrites and some borax, and the fused
mass treated with hydrochloric acid first in the cold and then
hot. The insoluble residue contains a mixture of two sulphides,
one of which is converted into the sulphate by nitric acid, whilst
the other (a crystalline solid) is insoluble in acids. Ruthenium
sulphate, Ru(S(J4)s, as obtained by oxidizing the sulphide, is an
orange-yellow mass which is deliquescent and dissolves in water,
the solution possessing a strongly acid reaction. Rouge de Ruthene,
Ru 2 (OH) 2 -Cl4'(NH4)7, is obtained from ammonia and ruthenium
sesquichloride at 40 C., the product being purified by crystalliza-
tion from ammonia. It forms small brown lamellae which dis-
solve slowly in water to give a fuchsin-red solution possessing a
violet reflex. The solution possesses a considerable tinctorial
power, dyeing silk in the cold. Potassium ruthenium cyanide,
K4Ru(CN)'3H 2 O, formed when potassium ruthenate is boiled with
a solution of potassium cyanide, crystallizes in colourless plates
which are soluble in water. A ruthenium silicide, RuSi, has been
prepared by H. Moissan (Comptes rendus, 1903, 137, p. 229) by the
RUTHERFORD, M. RUTHERGLEN
940
direct combination of the two elements in the electric furnace.
It forms very hard metallic-looking crystals, burns in oxygen and
is not attacked by acids. Potassium ruthenate, K 2 RuC>4-HaO,
obtained by fusion of the metal with caustic potash and nitre,
crystallizes in prisms which become covered with a black deposit
on exposure to moist air. It is soluble in water, giving an orange-
red solution which becomes green on standing, and gradually
deposits the hydrated pentoxide, Ru 2 O 6 -HjO (H. Debray and A.
Jofy, Comptes rendus, 1888, 106, p. 1494). The per-ruthenate,
KRuO4, formed by the action of chlorine on the ruthenate, or of
alkalis on the peroxide at 50 C, is a black crystalline solid which
is stable in dry air but decomposes when heated strongly. On
the nitroso, nitroso-ammonium and nitroso-diammonium com-
pounds see C. E. Claus, Ann., 1856, 98, p. 317; A. Joly, Comptes
rendus, 1888, 107, p. 994; 1889, 108, pp. 854, 1300; 1890, in,
p. 969; L. Brizard, ibid., 1896, 122, p. 730; 1896, 123, p. 182. The
atomic weight of ruthenium was determined by A. Joly (Comptes
rendus, 1889, 188, p. 946), who obtained the values 101-5 and 101-3.
RUTHERFORD, MARK, the pen-name of William Hale
White, English author, who was born at Bedford about 1830.
His father, William White, a member of the nonconformist
community of the Bunyan Meeting, removed to London, where
he was well known as a doorkeeper of the House of Commons;
he wrote sketches of parliamentary life for the Illustrated
Times, papers afterwards collected by his son as The Inner
Life of the House of Commons (1897). The son was educated
for the Congregational ministry, but the development of his
views prevented his taking up that career, and he became a clerk
in the admiralty. He had already served an apprenticeship
to journalism before he made his name as a novelist by the*
three books " edited by Reuben Shapcott," The Autobiography
of Mark Rutherford (1881), Mark Rutherford's Deliverance (1885),
and The Revolution in Tanner's Lane (1887). Under his own
name he translated Spinoza's Ethic (1883). Later books are
Miriam's Schooling, and other Papers (1890), Catherine Furze
(2 vols., 1893), Clara Hopgood (1896), Pages from a Journal,
with other Papers (1900), and John Bunyan (1905). Though
for a long time little appreciated by the public, his novels
particularly the earlier ones have a power and style which
must always give his works a place of their own in the literary
history of their time.
RUTHERFORD, WILLIAM GUNION (1853-1907), English
scholar, was born in Peeblesshire on the i7th of July 1853. He
was educated at St Andrews and Oxford, where he graduated
in natural science, with a view to following the medical pro-
fession, which he abandoned in favour of a scholastic career.
From 1883 to 1901 he was headmaster of Westminster school;
and his death, on the igth of July 1907, deprived classical
scholarship in England of one of its most brilliant modern
representatives. Rutherford devoted special attention to
Attic idioms and the language of Aristophanes. His most
important work, the New Phrynichus (1882), dealing with the
Atticisms of the grammarian, was supplemented by his Babrius
(1883), a specimen of the later Greek, which was the chief subject
of C. A. Lobeck's earlier commentary (1820) on Phrynichus.
His edition (1896-1905) of the Aristophanic scholia from the
Ravenna MS. was less successful. Mention may also be made
of his Elementary Greek Accidence and Lex Rex, a list of cognate
words in Greek, Latin and English.
RUTHERFURD (or RUTHERFORD), SAMUEL (c. 1600-1661),
Scottish divine, was born about 1600 at the village of Nisbet,
Roxburghshire. He went to college at Edinburgh in 1617,
graduating M.A. in 1621, and two years afterwards was elected
professor of humanity. On account of an alleged indiscretion
before his marriage in 1626 he was dismissed his professorship
in that year, but, after studying theology, he was in 1627
appointed minister of Anwoth, Kirkcudbrightshire, and soon
took a leading place among the clergy of Galloway. In 1636
his first book, entitled Exercitationes Apologeticae pro Divina
Gratia an elaborate treatise against Arminianism appeared
at Amsterdam. Its severe Calvinism led to a prosecution by
the bishop, Thomas Sydserf, in the High Commission Court,
first at Wigtown and afterwards at Edinburgh, with the result
that Rutherfurd was deposed from his pastoral office, and
sentenced to confinement in Aberdeen during the king's pleasure.
His banishment lasted from September 1636 to February 1638,
and the greater number of his published Letters belong to this
period of his life. He was present at the signing of the Covenant
in Edinburgh in 1638, and at the Glasgow Assembly of the same
year he was restored to his parish. In 1639 he was appointed
professor of divinity in St Mary's College, St Andrews. He
only accepted the position on the condition that he should
be allowed to act as colleague to Robert Blair in the church
of St Andrews. He was sent up to London in 1643 as one of
the eight commissioners from Scotland to the Westminster
Assembly. Remaining at his post over three years, he did great
service to the cause of his party. In 1642 he had published his
Peaceable and Temperate Plea for Paul's Presbyterie in Scotland,
and the sequel to it in 1644 on The Due Right of Presbyteries
provoked Milton's contemptuous reference to " mere A. S.
and Rutherfurd " in his sonnet On the New Forcers of Conscience
under the Long Parliament. In 1644 also appeared Rutherfurd's
Lex Rex, a Dispute for the Just Prerogative of King and People,
which gives him a recognized place among the early writers on
constitutional law; it was followed by The Divine Right of
Church Government and Excommunication (1646), and Free
Disputation against Pretended Liberty of Conscience (1648),
characterized by Bishop Heber as " perhaps the most elaborate
defence of persecution which has ever appeared in a Christian
country." Among his other works are the Tryal and Triumph
of Faith (1645), Christ Dying and Drawing Sinners to Himself
(1647), and Survey of the Spiritual Antichrist (1648). In 1647
he returned to St Andrews to become principal of the New
College there, and in 1648 and 1651 he declined successive
invitations to theological chairs at Harderwijk and Utrecht.
After the Restoration in 1660, his Lex Rex was ordered to be
burned. He was deprived of all his offices, and on a charge of
high treason was cited to appear before the ensuing parliament.
His health utterly broke down, and he drew up, on the 26th of
February 1661, a Testimony, which was posthumously published.
He died on the 23rd of the following March.
The fame of Rutherfurd now rests principally upon his remark-
able Letters, which, to the number of 215, were first published
anonymously by M'Ward, an amanuensis, as Joshua Redivivus,
or Mr Rutherfoord" s Letters, in 1664. They have been frequently
reprinted, the best edition (365 letters) being that by Rev. A. A.
Bonar (1848), with a sketch of his life. In addition to the other
works already mentioned, Rutherfurd published in 1651 a treatise,
De Divina Providentia, against Molinism, Socinianism and Armini-
anism, of which Richard Baxter, not without justice, remarked
that " as the Letters were the best piece so this was the worst he
had ever read."
See also a short Life by Rev. Dr Andrew Thomson (1884); Dr
A. B. Grosart in Representative Nonconformists; Dr Alexander
Whyte, Samuel Rutherford and some of his Correspondents (1894);
Rev. R. Gilmour, Samuel Rutherford (1904).
RUTHERGLEN (locally pronounced Ruglen), a royal municipal
and police burgh of Lanarkshire, Scotland. Pop. of royal
burgh (1901) 18,279. It is situated on the left bank of the Clyde,
2^ m. by the Caledonian railway S.E. of Glasgow, with the
E. of which it is connected by a bridge. The parish church
stands near the spire of the ancient church where, according
to tradition, the treaty was made in 1297 with Edward I.,
by which Sir John Menteith undertook to betray Wallace to the
English. The principal public building is the town hall, dating
from 1 86 1. The industries include collieries, chemical works,
dye-works, cotton- and paper-mills, chair-making, tube-making,
pottery, rope- and twine-works and some shipbuilding. It
forms one of the Kilmarnock group of parliamentary burghs,
with Dumbarton, "Port-Glasgow, Renfrew and Kilmarnock.
Rutherglen was erected into a royal burgh by David I. in
1126. It then included a portion of Glasgow, but in 1226 the
boundaries were rectified so as to exclude the whole of the city.
In early times it had a castle, which was taken by Robert Bruce
from the English in 1313. It was kept in good repair till after
the battle of Langside (1568), when it was burnt by order of
the regent Moray. In 1679 the Covenanters published their
" Declaration and Testimony " at Rutherglen prior to the
battles of Drumclog and Bothwell Brig (1679).
RUTHIN RUTILE
941
RUTHIN (Rhudd ddin, " red fortress "), a municipal and
contributory parliamentary borough (with Denbigh and Holt)
and market town of Denbighshire, N. Wales, situated on a hill
rising from the river Clwyd, 21 m. from Chester, and 215 from
London by rail. Pop. (1901) 2643. It ' s on the Great Western
railway (Denbigh, Corwen & Ruthin branch). Apart from
the legends of Arthur and his limestone block (shown in the
market-place), the first event of note in its history is its con-
nexion with the de Grey de Ruthyn family (the first lord died
I 353)- Owen Glendower attacked it unsuccessfully in 1400.
It was sold by the de Greys to Henry VII., and Elizabeth gave
it to the earl of Warwick. In 1646, after two months' siege,
it was dismantled by the Parliamentarians. The new castle
occupies the same site, and is built of the same coloured sand-
stone as the old. New buildings for the Free Grammar School
(founded in 1 595 by Gabriel Goodman, dean of Westminster, who
also in 1590 had built the hospital for twelve decayed house-
keepers), were opened in the town in 1893. The old (conventual)
Anglican church of St Peter, once belonging to " Les Bons-
hommes," and made collegiate in 1310 by John de Grey, has a
Perpendicular north aisle roof, nearly 500 panels of carved oak,
and cloisters which have been made into a house for the warden
of the hospital. Agriculture is the staple, but there are chemical,
aerated waters, bricks, terra-cotta and other manufactures.
RUTHVEN, the name of a noble Scottish family which
traces its descent from a certain Thor, who settled in Scotland
during the reign of David I. In 1488 one of its members,
Sir William Ruthven (d. 1528), was created a lord of parliament
as Lord Ruthven. His eldest son William was killed at Flodden
in 1513, and consequently his grandson William succeeded him
in the title, and after holding the offices of extraordinary lord
of session and keeper of the privy seal died in December 1552,
leaving three sons. The eldest of these, Patrick, 3rd Lord
Ruthven (c. 1520-1566), played an important part in the
political intrigues of the i6th century as a strong Protestant
and a supporter of the lords of the congregation. He favoured
the marriage of Mary with Darnley, and was the leader of the
band which murdered Rizzio. This event was followed by
his flight into England, where he died on the I3th of June
1566. Ruthven wrote for Queen Elizabeth a Relation of the
murder, which is preserved in MSS. in the British Museum.
A descendant of the ist Lord Ruthven in a collateral line,
also named Patrick Ruthven (c. 1573-1651), distinguished him-
self in the service of Sweden, which he entered about 1606.
As a negotiator he was very useful to Gustavus Adolphus
because of his ability to " drink immeasurably and preserve
his understanding to the last," and he also won fame on the
field of battle. Having taken part in the Thirty Years' War
and been governor of Ulm, he left the Swedish service and
returned to Scotland, where he was employed by Charles I.
He defended Edinburgh Castle for the king in 1640, and when
the Civil War broke out he joined Charles at Shrewsbury. He
led the left wing at the battle of Edgehill, and after this engage-
ment was appointed general-in-chief of the Royalist army.
For his services he was created Lord Ruthven of Ettrick in
1639, earl of Forth in 1642 and earl of Brentford in 1644. The
earl compelled Essex to surrender Lostwithiel, and was wounded
at both battles of Newbury. But his faculties had begun to
decay, and in 1644 he was superseded in his command by Prince
Rupert. After visiting Sweden on a mission for Charles II.,
Brentford died at Dundee on the 2nd of February 1651. He
left no sons and his titles became extinct.
Patrick, 3rd Lord Ruthven, was succeeded as 4th lord by
his son William (c. 1541-1584), who like his father was pro-
minent in the political intrigues of the period and was also
concerned in the Rizzio murder. In 1582 he devised the
plot to seize King James VI., known as the raid of Ruthven,
and he was the last-known custodian of the famous silver
casket containing the letters alleged to have been written by
Mary, queen of Scots, to Bothwell. In 1581 he was created
earl of Gowrie, but all his honours were forfeited when he was
attainted and executed in May 1584 (see GOWRIE, 3RD EARL or).
The 2nd Lord Ruthven left a son, Alexander (d. 1599), the
founder of the family of Ruthven of Fret-land, and the grand-
father of Sir Thomas Ruthven (d. 1673), on whom Charles II.
bestowed the title of Lord Ruthven of Freeland in 1651. When
his son David died unmarried in April 1701 the title of Baroness
Ruthven was assumed by the latter's sister, Jean (d. 1722),
although according to some authorities the peerage had be-
come extinct. It was, however, assumed in 172* by Isobel
(d. 1732), wife of James Johnson, who took the name of Ruthven
on succeeding to the family estates; and their son, James
Ruthven (d. 1783), took the title and was allowed to vote at
the elections of Scots representative peers. In 1853 the barony
again descended to a female, Mary Elizabeth Thornton (c. 1784-
1864), the wife of Walter Here (d. 1878). She and her husband
took the name of Hore-Ruthven, and their grandson, Walter
James Hore-Ruthven (b. 1838), became the 8th baron in 1864.
See the Ruthven Correspondence, edited with introduction by
theRev.W.D. Macray (1868); J.H. Round, "The Barony of Ruthven
of Freeland " in Joseph Foster's Collectanea Genealoeica (1881-85); and
Sir R. Douglas, The Peerage of Scotland, (new ed. by Sir J. B. Paul).
RUTILE, the most abundant of the three native forms of
titanium dioxide (TiOj); the other forms being anatase (q.v.)
and brookite (q.v.). Like anatase, it crystallizes in the tetra-
gonal system, but with different angles and cleavages, it being
crystallographically related to cassiterite, with which it is iso-
morphous. The crystals resemble cassiterite in their prismatic
habit and terminal pyramid planes (fig. i) and also in the twin-
ning: the prism planes are striated vertically. Geniculated
twins, with e (101) as twin-plane, are of frequent occurrence,
and the twinning is usually several times repeated, giving rise
to triplets (fig. 2), sextets and octets. Twin-lamellae are often
FIG. i.
FIG. 2.
present in the crystals. Acicular crystals are sometimes twinned
together to form reticulated skeletal plates to which the name
" sagenite," from Gr. aayrivri (a net), is applied. A rarer type
of twinning, on the plane (301), gives rise to heart-shaped or
kite-shaped forms. There are distinct cleavages parallel to
the faces of the prisms m (no) and a (too). The colour is
usually reddish-brown, though yellowish in the very fine needles,
and black in the ferruginous varieties (" nigrine " and " ilmeno-
rutile ") : the streak is pale brown. The name rutile, given
by A. G. Werner in 1803, refers to the colour, being from the
Latin rutilus (red). Crystals are transparent to opaque, and
have a brilliant metallic-adamantine lustre. The hardness is
6| and the specific gravity 4-2, ranging, however, up to 5-2
in varieties containing 10% of ferric oxide. The refractive
indices and the positive birefringence are high.
Rutile occurs as a primary constituent in eruptive rocks, but
more frequently in schistose rocks. As delicate acicular crystals
it is often enclosed in mica and quartz: in mica (q.v.) it gives
rise to the phenomenon of asterism; and clear transparent quartz
(rock-crystal) enclosing rutile is often cut as a gem under the
name of "Venus' hair stone" (Veneris crinis of Pliny). Larger
crystals occur in the cavities of granite and crystalline schists;
very large twinned crystals have been found at Graves Mountain
in Lincoln county, Georgia, and good specimens have been obtained
from several places in Norway and the Swiss and Tirolese Alps.
As a secondary mineral, rutile in the form of minute needles is
of wide distribution in various sedimentary rocks, especially clays
and slates. As rounded grains it is often met with in auriferous
sands and gravels. The mineral has little economic value: it
has been used for imparting a yellow colour to glass and porce-
lain, and for this purpose is mined at Risor and other places in
Norway.
942
RUTILIUS CLAUDIUS NAMATIANUS
RUTILIUS CLAUDIUS NAMATIANUS, Roman poet, flour-
ished at the beginning of the sth century A.D. He was the
author of a Latin poem, De Reditu Suo, in elegiac metre, de-
scribing a coast voyage from Rome to Gaul in A.D. 416. The
literary excellence of the work, and the flashes of light which it
throws across a momentous but dark epoch of history, combine
to give it exceptional importance among the relics of late
Roman literature. The poem was in two books; the exordium
of the first and the greater part of the second have been lost.
What remains consists of about seven hundred lines.
The author is a native of S. Gaul (Toulouse or perhaps Poitiers) ,
and belonged, like Sidonius, to one of the great governing
families of the Gaulish provinces. His father, whom he calls
Lachanius, had held high offices in Italy and at the imperial
court, had been governor of Tuscia (Etruria and Umbria),
then imperial treasurer (comes sacrarum largitionum), imperial
recorder (quaestor), and governor of the capital itself (praejectus
urbi). Rutilius boasts his career to have been no less dis-
tinguished than his father's, and particularly indicates that he
had been secretary of state (magister officiorum) and governor
of the capital (i. 157, 427, 467, 561). After reaching manhood,
he passed through the tempestuous period between the death
of Theodosius (395) and the fall of the usurper Attalus, which
occurred near the date when his poem was written. He
witnessed the chequered career of Stilicho as actual, though
not titular, emperor of the West; he saw the hosts of Rada-
gaisus rolled back from Italy, only to sweep over Gaul and
Spain; the defeats and triumphs of Alaric; the three sieges and
final sack of Rome, followed by the marvellous recovery of
the city; Heraclian's vast armament dissipated; and the fall
of seven pretenders to the Western diadem. Undoubtedly the
sympathies of Rutilius were with those who during this period
dissented from and, when they could, opposed the general
tendencies of the imperial policy. We know from himself that
he was the intimate of those who belonged to the circle of the
great orator Symmachus men who scouted Stilicho's compact
with the Goths, and led the Roman senate to support the pre-
tenders Eugenius and Attalus in the vain hope of reinstating the
gods whom Julian had failed to save.
While making but few direct assertions about historical char-
acters or events, the poem forces on us important conclusions
concerning the politics and religion of the time. The attitude of
the writer towards paganism is remarkable. The whole poem is
intensely pagan, and is penetrated by the feeling that the world
of literature and culture is and must remain pagan; that outside
paganism lies a realm of barbarism. The poet wears an air of
exalted superiority over the religious innovators of his day, and
entertains a buoyant confidence that the future of the ancient gods
of Rome will not belie their glorious past. Invective and apology
he scorns alike, nor troubles himself to show, with Claudian, even
a suppressed grief at the indignities put upon the old religion by
the new. As a statesman, he is at pains to avoid offending those
politic Christian senators over whom pride in their country had at
least as great power as attachment to their new religion. Only
once or twice does Rutilius speak directly of Christianity, and
then only to attack the monks, whom the temporal authorities
had hardly as yet recognized, and whom, indeed, only a short
time before, a Christian emperor had forced by thousands into
the ranks of his army. Judaism Rutilius could assail without
wounding either pagans or Christians, but he intimates, not ob-
scurely, that he hates it chiefly as the evil root whence the rank
plant of Christianity had sprung.
We read in Gibbon that " Honorius excluded all persons who
were adverse to the catholic church from holding any office in the
state," that he " obstinately rejected the service of all those who
dissented from his religion," and that " the law was applied in
the utmost latitude and rigorously executed." Far different is
the picture of political life impressed upon us by Rutilius. His
voice is assuredly not that of a partisan of a discredited and over-
borne faction. We see by the aid of his poem a senate at Rome
composed of past office-holders, the majority of whom were certainly
pagan still. We discern a Christian section whose Christianity
was political rather than religious, who were Romans first and
Christians afterwards, whom a new breeze in politics might easily
have wafted back to the old religion. Between these two sec-
tions the broad old Roman toleration reigns. Some ecclesiastical
historians have fondly imagined that after the sack of Rome the
bishop Innocent returned to a position of predominance. No one
who fairly reads Rutilius can cherish this idea. The air of the
capital, perhaps even of Italy, was still charged with paganism.
The court was far in advance of the people, and the persecuting
laws were in large part incapable of execution.
Perhaps the most interesting lines in the whole poem are those
in which Rutilius assails the memory of " dire Stilicho," as he
names him. Stilicho, " fearing to suffer all that had caused himself
to be feared," annihilated those defences of Alps and Apennines
which the provident gods had interposed between the barbarians
and the Eternal City, and planted the cruel Goths, his " skin-
clad " minions, in the very sanctuary of the empire. His wile
was wickeder than the wile of the Trojan horse, than the wile of
Althaea or of Scylla. May Nero rest from all the torments of
the damned, that they may seize on Stilicho; for Nero smote his
own mother, but Stilicho the mother of the world!
We shall not err in supposing that we have here (what we find
nowhere else) an authentic expression of the feeling entertained by
a majority of the Roman senate concerning Stilicho. He had but
imitated the policy of Theodosius with regard to the barbarians;
but even that great emperor had met with passive opposition from
the old Roman families. The relations, however, between Alaric
and Stilicho had been closer and more mysterious than those
between Alaric and Theodosius, and men who had seen Stilicho
surrounded by his body-guard of Goths not unnaturally looked
on the Goths who assailed Rome as Stilicho's avengers. It is
noteworthy that Rutilius speaks of the crime of Stilicho in terms
far different from those used by Orosius and the historians of the
lower empire. They believed that Stilicho was plotting to make
his son emperor, and that he called in the Goths in order to climb
higher. Rutilius holds that he used the barbarians merely to save
himself from impending ruin. The Christian historians assert
that Stilicho designed to restore paganism. To Rutilius he is the
most uncompromising foe of paganism. His crowning sin (recorded
by the poet alone) was the destruction of the Sibylline books
a sin worthy of one who had decked his wife in the spoils of Victory,
the goddess who had for centuries presided over the deliberations
of the senate. This crime of Stilicho alone is sufficient in the
eyes of Rutilius to account for the disasters that afterwards befell
the city, just as Merobaudes, a generation or two later, traced the
miseries of his own day to the overthrow of the ancient rites of Vesta.
With regard to the form of the poem, Rutilius handles the
elegiac couplet with great metrical purity and freedom, and betrays
many signs of long study in the elegiac poetry of the Augustan
era. The Latin is unusually clean for the times, and is generally
fairly classical both in vocabulary and construction. The taste of
Rutilius, too, is comparatively pure. If he lacks the genius of
Claudian, he also lacks his overloaded gaudiness and nis large
exaggeration, and the directness of Rutilius shines by comparison
with the laboured complexity of Ausonius. It is common to call
Claudian the last of the Roman poets. That title might fairly be
claimed for Rutilius, unless it be reserved for Merobaudes. At
any rate, in passing from Rutilius to Sidonius no reader can fail to
feel that he has left the region of Latin poetry for the region of
Latin verse.
Of the many interesting details of the poem we can only mention
a few. At the outset we have an almost dithyrambic address to
the goddess Roma, whose glory has ever shone the brighter for
disaster, and who will rise once more in her might and confound
her barbarian foes. The poet shows as deep a consciousness as any
modern historian that the grandest achievement of Rome was the
spread of law. Next we get incidental but not unimportant re-
ferences to the destruction of roads and property wrought by the
Goths, to the state of the havens at the mouths of the Tiber, and
the general decay of nearly all the old commercial ports on the coast.
Most of these were as desolate then as now. Rutilius even exagger-
ates the desolation of the once important city of Cosa in Etruria,
whose walls have scarcely changed from that day to ours. The
port that served Pisae, almost alone of all those visited by Rutilius,
seems to have retained its prosperity, and to have foreshadowed
the subsequent greatness of that city. At one point on the coast
the villagers everywhere were " soothing their wearied hearts with
holy merriment," and were celebrating the festival of Osiris.
AUTHORITIES. All existing MSS. of Rutilius are later than
1494, and are copies from a lost copy of an ancient MS. once at
the monastery of Bobio, which disappeared about 1700. The
editio princeps is that by J. B. Pius (Bologna, 1520), and the prin-
cipal editions since have been those by Earth (1623), P. Burrran
(1731, in his edition of the minor Latin poets), Wernsdorf (1778,
part of a similar collection), Zumpt (1840), and the critical edition
by Lucian Miiller (Teubner, Leipzig, 1870), and another by Vessereau
(1904) ; also an annotated edition by Keene, with a translation
by G. F. Savage-Armstrong (1906). Miiller writes the poet's name
as Claudius Rutilms Namatianus, instead of the usual Rutilius
Claudius Namatianus; but if the identification of the poet's
father with the Claudius mentioned in the Theodosian Code (2,
4, 5) be correct, Miiller is probably wrong. Rutilius receives more
or less attention from all writers on the history or literature of
the times, but a lucid chapter in Beugnot, Histoire de la destruction
du Paganisme en Occident (1835), may be especially mentioned,
and one in Pichon's Verniers ecrivains profanes (1906). (J. S. R.)
RUTILIUS RUFUS RUTLAND, yrn DUKE OF
943
RUTILIUS RUFUS, PUBLIUS, Roman statesman, orator
and historian, born c. 158 B.C. He was on intimate terms with
the younger Scipio, under whom he served in the Numantine
War (134), and he also accompanied Q. Metellus Numidicus in
the campaign against Jugurtha (109). In 105 he was elected
to the consulship, and restored the discipline of the army
and introduced an improved system of drill. Subsequently, he
went as legate to Q. Mucius Scaevola, governor of Asia. By
assisting his superior in his efforts to protect the provincials
from the extortions of the publicani, or farmers of taxes, Rufus
incurred the hatred of the equestrian order, to which the
publicani belonged. In 92 he was charged with the very offence
of extortion which he had done his utmost to prevent. The
charge was absurd, but as the juries at that time were chosen
from the equites, his condemnation was only to be expected.
Rufus accepted the verdict with the resignation befitting a
Stoic and pupil of Panaetius. He retired to Mytilene, and
afterwards to Smyrna, where he spent the rest of his life, and
where Cicero saw him as late as the year 78. Although invited
by Sulla to return to Rome, Rufus refused to do so. It was
doubtless during his stay at Smyrna that he wrote his auto-
biography and a history of Rome in Greek, part of which is
known to have been devoted to the Numantine War. He
possessed a thorough knowledge of law, and wrote treatises on
that subject, some fragments of which are quoted in the Digests.
He was also well acquainted with Greek literature.
See Cicero, Pro Fonteio, 17, Brutus, 22, 30; Livy, epit. 70;
Macrobius, Sat. I. xvi. 34; Appian, Hisp. 88; Athenaeus iv.
p. 168; W. H. Suringar, De Romanis Autobiographis (Leiden, 1846) ;
H. Peter, Hist. Rom. Reliquiae, I. cclxi.-cclxviii. (life), frags, p. 187;
A. H. J. Greenidge, Hist, of Rome, i. p. 484.
RUTLAND, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The ist earl of
Rutland was Edward Plantagenet (1373-1415), son of Edmund,
duke of York, and grandson of King Edward III. In 1390 he was
created earl of Rutland, but was to hold the title only during
the lifetime of his father, on whose death in 1402 the earldom
accordingly became extinct, the earl then becoming duke
of York. The title earl of Rutland seems to have been assumed
subsequently by different members of the house of York,
though it does not appear that any of them had a legal right
to it. One of these was the ist earl's nephew, Richard Planta-
genet, duke of York, father of King Edward IV. Richard's
daughter Anne married for her second husband Sir Thomas
St Leger, and their daughter Anne married George Manners,
i2thBaronRos, orRoos(d. 1513). Their son, Thomas Manners
(d. 1543), was therefore great-grandson of Richard Plantagenet,
who had styled himself earl of Rutland among other titles. In
1525 Thomas Manners was created earl of Rutland, and his
descendants have held this title to the present day.
Thomas was a favourite of Henry VIII., who conferred on
him many offices and extensive grants of land, including Belvoir
Castle, in Leicestershire, which became henceforth the chief resi-
dence of his family. He was succeeded in the earldom by his
son Henry (c. 1516-1563); and his second son, Sir John
Manners, acquired Haddon Hall, Derbyshire, by his marriage
with Dorothy, daughter of Sir George Vernon, called " the king
of the Peak." Henry, the 2nd earl, was an admiral of the fleet
in the reign of Queen Mary, and later enjoyed the favour of Queen
Elizabeth. His son Edward, 3rd earl (c. 1548-1587), who was
also a favourite with Elizabeth, left no sons, and the barony of
Ros, which had hitherto descended with the earldom, passed
to his daughter Elizabeth (d. 1591), wife of William Cecil, earl
of Exeter; his successor in the earldom was his brother John
(d. 1588), whose son Roger, sth earl (1576-1612), married a
daughter of Sir Philip Sidney. The barony of Ros was restored
to the main line of the family in the person of Francis, 6th earl
(i578-i63'2), who inherited it in 1618 as heir general of his cousin
William Cecil, Lord Ros (1590-1618); but it was again separated
from the earldom of Rutland on the death of Francis without
male issue, and the assumption of the courtesy title of Lord
Ros by the eldest son of subsequent earls of Rutland appears
co have had no legal basis.
The Sth earl, a cousin of his predecessor and also of the 6th
earl, was John (1604-1679), eldest son of Sir George Manners
(d. 1623) of Haddon, a descendant of Sir John Manners, the
second son of the ist earl. His son John, 9th earl (1638-1711),
a partisan of the revolution of 1688, received the Princess Anne
at Belvoir Castle on her flight from London; after the accession
of Anne to the throne she created him marquess of Granby
and duke of Rutland in 1703. The ist duke was three times
married; the divorce in 1670, while he was still known as Lord
Ros, of his first wife, Anne, daughter of the marquess of Dor-
chester, was a very celebrated legal case, being the first instance
of divorce a innculo by act of parliament, a divorce a mensa et
thoro having previously been granted by the ecclesiastical courts.
His grandson John, the 3rd duke (1696-1779), was the father
of John Manners, marquess of Granby (?..), a distinguished
soldier, whose son Charles, 4th duke of Rutland (1754-1787),
succeeded his grandfather. When marquess of Granby he
represented Cambridge University in the House of Commons,
and hotly opposed the policy that led to war with the American
colonies. He was instrumental in procuring the entrance of the
younger Pitt to the House of Commons, and remained through
life an intimate friend of that statesman. After succeeding
to the dukedom in 1779, he sat in the cabinets of Shelburne
and of Pitt, and became lord lieutenant of Ireland in 1784.
He was one of the earliest to advocate a legislative union
between Ireland and Great Britain, which he recommended in
a letter to Pitt in June 1784. The poet Crabbe was for some
time private chaplain to the duke at Belvoir. His wife, Mary
Isabella (1756-1831), " the beautiful duchess,"- whose portrait
was four times painted by Sir Joshua Reynolds, was a daughter
of the 4th duke of Beaufort. His eldest son, John Henry, 5th
duke (1778-1857), was " the duke " in Disraeli's Coningsby; the
latter's two sons, the marquess of Granby and Lord John Manners,
figuring in the same novel as " the marquis of Beaumanoir "
and " Lord Henry Sidney " respectively. Both these sons
succeeded in turn to the dukedom, Lord John Manners succeed-
ing his brother Charles Cecil John, the 6th duke (1815-1888), as
7th duke of Rutland (see below) in 1888. In 1891 he was made
a knight of the Garter, being the tenth earl and the sixth duke
of Rutland of the same creation to wear this illustrious order.
RUTLAND, JOHN JAMES ROBERT MANNERS, 7x11 DUKE OF
(1818-1906), English statesman, was born at Belvoir Castle on
the I3th of December 1818, being the younger son of the sth
duke of Rutland by Lady Elizabeth Howard, daughter of
Byron's guardian, the 5th earl of Carlisle. Lord John Manners,
as he then was, was educated at Eton and Trinity College,
Cambridge. In 1841 he was returned for Newark in the Tory
interest, along with W. E. Gladstone, and sat for that borough
until 1847. Subsequently he sat for Colchester, 1850-57; for
North Leicestershire, 1857-85; and for East Leicestershire
from 1885 until in 1888 he took his seat in the House of Lords
upon succeeding to the dukedom.
Melbourne's Whig government had been doomed for some
time before it went out in June 1841. The Tories came in with
a large majority under Peel, and among Manners's friends who
were successful in the constituencies, besides Gladstone, were
Smythe, afterwards 7th Viscount Strangford, at Canterbury;
Baillie-Cochrane, afterwards ist Lord Lamington, at Bridport;
and Disraeli at Shrewsbury. Cherishing many of the ideas
of the cavaliers of the i7th century, and full of political and
literary ardour, Lord John was soon prominent in the social
group which revolved round Lady Blessington. In 1841 he
committed some of his loyalist and other fancies to a volume
called England's Trust, and other Poems, which he dedicated to
his friend Smythe, and in which occurred the familiar line about
" laws and learning " and " our old nobility." Before the
end of this year Manners had definitely associated himself
with the " Young England " party, under the leadership of
Disraeli. This party sought to extinguish the predominance
of the middle-class bourgeoisie, and to re-create the political
prestige of the aristocracy by resolutely proving its capacity
to ameliorate the social, intellectual, and material condition of
944
RUTLAND
the peasantry and the labouring classes. At the same time
its members looked for a regeneration of the Church, and the
rescue of both the Church and Ireland from the trammels
inherited from the Whig predominance of the i8th century.
Manners made an extensive tour of inspection in the industrial
parts of N. England, in the course of which he and his
friend Smythe expounded their views with a brilliancy which
frequently extorted compliments from the leaders of the
Manchester school. In 1843 he supported Lord Grey's motion
for an inquiry into the condition of England, the serious dis-
affection of the working classes of the north being a subject to
which he was constantly drawing the attention of parliament.
Among other measures that he urged were the disestablish-
ment of the Irish Church, the modification of the Mortmain
Acts, and the resumption of regular diplomatic relations with
the Vatican. In the same year he issued in pamphlet form
a strong Plea for National Holydays. In 1844 Lord John
vigorously supported the Ten-hours Bill, which, though
strongly opposed by Bright, Cobden, and other members of
the Manchester school, was ultimately passed in May 1847.
In October during that year he took part in, and spoke at,
the brilliant soiree held at the Manchester Athenaeum under
the presidency of Disraeli. A few days later he and his friends
attended a festival at Bingley, in Yorkshire, to celebrate the
allotment of land for gardens to working men, a step which,
through the agency of his father, he had done a great deal to
further. About the same time Smythe dedicated to him his
Historic Fancies as to " the Sir Philip Sidney of our generation."
Manners figured as Lord Henry Sidney in Disraeli's Coningsby,
and not a few of his ideas are represented as those of Egremont
in Sybil and Waldershare in Endymion. But the disruption of
the Young England party was already impending. Lord
John's support to Peel's decision to increase the Maynooth
grant in 1845 led to a difference with Disraeli. Divergences
of opinion with regard to Newman's secession from the English
Church produced further defections in the ranks, and the
rupture was completed by Smythe acquiescing in Peel's con-
version to Free Trade. Lord John produced another volume
of verse, known as English Ballads, chiefly patriotic and
historical, in 185. In the same year he wrote the letterpress
for an atlas of coloured views by J. C. Schetky; and he published
several pamphlets, one on the Church of England in the Colonies,
in 1851. During the three short administrations of Lord
Derby (1851, 1858, and 1866) he sat in the cabinet as first
commissioner of the office of works. On the return of the
Conservatives to power in 1874 he became postmaster-general
in Disraeli's administration, and was made G.C.B. on his
retirement in 1880. He was again postmaster-general in
Lord Salisbury's administration, 1885-86, and was head of
the department when sixpenny telegrams were introduced.
Finally, in the Conservative government of 1886-92 he was
chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. He had succeeded to
the dukedom of Rutland in March 1888, upon the death of his
elder brother. He died on the 4th of August 1906 at Belvoir
Castle.
He was succeeded as 8th duke by his eldest son (b. 1852),
who had been Conservative M.P. for the Melton division
of Leicestershire from 1888 to 1895; and whose wife, as
marchioness of Granby, became well known as a clever artist,
a volume of her Portraits of various distinguished men and
women being published in 1899.
RUTLAND, a midland county of England, bounded N. and
E. by Lincolnshire, N. and W. by Leicestershire, and S.E. by
Northamptonshire. It is the smallest county in England,
having an area of 152 sq. m. The surface is pleasantly undu-
lating, ridges of high ground running E. and W., separated
by rich valleys. The principal of these valleys is the vale of
Catmose, in the Oakham district, to the N. of which rises a
tableland commanding wide views into Leicestershire. The
vale maintains its reputation for richness of soil assigned to
it by Drayton in his Poly-Olbion. This, the N.W. part of the
county, is also the district of the well-known Cottesmore hunt.
The royal forest of Lyfield, or Leafield, which included the
greater part of the hundreds of Oakham and Martinsley, once
extended over the county between Oakham and Uppingham,
and patches of it still exist. To the S. of Uppingham it was
known as Beaumont Chase. The river Welland, flowing N E.,
forms the S.E. boundary of Rutland with Northamptonshire.
The Gwash, or Wash, which rises in Leicestershire, flows east-
ward through the centre of the county,' and just beyond its
borders in Lincolnshire joins the Welland The Chater, also
rising in Leicestershire and flowing E., enters the Welland
about 2 m. from Stamford. The Eye, forming part of the
S.W. boundary, is also tributary to the Welland.
Geology. The county consists entirely of Jurassic formations,
viz. of Classic and Oolitic strata the harder beds, chiefly limestone
containing iron, forming the hills and escarpments, and the day-
beds the slopes of the valleys. The oldest rocks are those belonging
to the Lower Lias in the N.W. The bottom of the vale of Catmose
is formed of marlstone rock belonging to the Middle Lias, and its
sides are composed of long slopes of Upper Lias clay. The Upper
Lias also covers a large area in the W. of the county, and is worked
for bricks at Luffenham and Seaton. The lowest of the Oolitic
formations is the Northampton sand, which has yielded iron ore
at Mantpn and Cottesmore. The Lincolnshire Oolitic limestone
prevails in the E. of the county N. of Stamford. It is largely
quarried for building purposes, the quarries at Ketton, Clipsham, and
Casterton being famous beyond the boundaries of the county.
The Great Oolite and Estuarine beds prevail towards the S.E.
Glacial deposits of boulder clay, sand and gravel, mask the older
strata in many places.
Industries. In the E. and S.E. districts the soil is light and
shallow. In the other districts it consists chiefly of a tenacious but
fertile loam, and in the vale of Catmose the soil is either clay or
loam, or a mixture of the two. The prevailing redness, which
colours even the streams, is owing to the ferruginous limestone
carried down from the slopes of the hills. The name of the county
is by some authorities derived from this characteristic of the soil,
but the explanation is doubtful. The E. of the county is chiefly
under tillage and the W. in grass. Nearly nine-tenths of the total
area (a high proportion) is under cultivation, wheat being by far the
most important grain crop. Turnips and swedes occupy the greater
part of the area under green crops. The rearing of sheep (Leicesters
and South Downs) and cattle (Shorthorns) occupies the chief atten-
tion of the farmer. Large quantities of cheese are manufactured
and sold as Stilton. Agriculture is practically the only industry
of importance, but there is some quarrying and boot-making.
The main line of the Great Northern railway intersects the N.E.
corner, and branches of that system, of the London & North-
Western, and of the Midland railways, serve the remainder of the
county. .
Population and Administration. The area of the ancient and
administrative county is 97,273 acres, with a population in 1891 of
20,659, an d in 1901 of 19,709. The county contains five hundreds.
There are no municipal boroughs or urban districts. The county town
is Oakham (pop. 3294), and other towns are Uppingham (2588) and
Ketton (1041). The county is in the midland circuit, and assizes
are held at Oakham. It has one court of quarter sessions, but is
not divided for petty-sessional purposes. There are 58 civil parishes.
The county is in the diocese of Peterborough, and contains 42
ecclesiastical parishes or districts, wholly or in part. It returns one
member to parliament.
History. The district which is now Rutland was probably
occupied by a tribe of Middle Angles in the 6th or 7th century,
and was subsequently absorbed in the kingdom of Mercia.
Although mentioned by name in the will of Edward the Con-
fessor, who bequeathed it to his queen Edith for life with
remainder to Westminster Abbey, Rutland did not rank as a
county at the time of the Domesday Survey, in which the term
Rutland is only applied to that portion assessed under Notting-
hamshire, while the S.E. portion of the modern county is surveyed
under Northamptonshire, where it appears as the wapentake of
Wiceslea. Rutland is first mentioned as a distinct county under
the administration of a separate sheriff in the pipe roll of 1 1 59,
but as late as the I4th century it is designated " Rutland
Soke " in the Vision of Piers Plowman, and the curious
connexion with Nottinghamshire, a county which does not
adjoin it at any point, was maintained up to the reign of Henry
III., when the sheriff of Nottingham was by statute appointed
also escheator in Rutland. Of the five modern hundreds of
Rutland, Alstoe and Martinsley appear in the Domesday Survey
of Nottinghamshire as wapentakes, Martinsley at that date
including the modern hundred of Oakham Soke; East hundred
RUTLAND RUTLEY
945
and Wrangdike hundred are mentioned in the middle of the
1 2th century, the latter formerly including the additional
hundred of Little Casterton. The shire-court for Rutland was
held at Oakham.
Rutland was originally included in the diocese of Lincoln,
and in 1291 formed a rural deanery within the archdeaconry
of Northampton; but on the erection of Peterborough to an
episcopal see by Henry VIII. in 1541, the archdeaconry of
Northampton, with the deanery of Rutland, was transferred to
that diocese. In 1879 the deanery of Rutland was subdivided
into three portions, and in 1876 it was placed within the newly-
founded archdeaconry of Oakham.
Among the most conspicuous of the Norman lords connected
with this county was Walkelin de Ferrers, who founded Oakham
Castle in the i2th century. The castle was subsequently be-
stowed by Richard II., together with the earldom of Rutland
(see above), on Edward, son of Edmund, duke of York.
Essendine (Essenden or Essingdon) was purchased in 1545 by
Richard Cecil of Burleigh, and the title of baron of Essenden
bestowed on his grandson is retained by the earls of Salisbury.
Sir Everard Digby, one of the conspirators in the Gunpowder
plot, belonged to the family of Digby, of Stoke Dry. Burley-
on-the-hill was held by Henry Despenser, the warlike bishop
of Norwich, in the reign of Richard II., and was purchased by
George Villiers, duke of Buckingham, who entertained James I.
there with Ben Jonson's Mask of the Gypsies.
The battle of Stamford was fought at Horn, near Exton, in
March 1470 between Edward IV. and the Lancastrians, when
from the precipitate flight of the latter the engagement became
known as Losecoat Field. On the outbreak of the Civil War
Rutland displayed a strong puritanical and anti-royalist senti-
ment, and in 1642 the sheriff and a large number of the gentry
and nobility of the county forwarded a petition to the House
of Lords begging that the county might be placed in a state
of defence, and that the votes of papists and prelates might be
disallowed; and again, in 1648, a memorial addressed to Lord
Fairfax protested against the design of the parliament to treat
with Charles.
Rutland has always been mainly an agricultural county.
The Domesday Survey mentions numerous mills in Rutland,
and a fishery at Ayston rendered 325 eels. In the I4th century
the county exported wool. Stilton cheese has long been made
in Leyfield Forest and the vale of Catmose, and limestone is dug
in many parts of the county. The development of the economic
resources of Rutland was helped in 1793 by the extension of the
Melton Mowbray canal to Oakham.
Two members were returned to parliament for the county of
Rutland from 1295 until under the Redistribution of Seats Act
of 1885 the representation was reduced to one member.
The only old castle of which there are important remains is
Oakham, dating from the time of Henry II. and remarkable for
its Norman hall. Of Essendine Castle only the moat remains.
The Bede-house at Liddington dates from the end of the I4th
century. Hambleton Hall, now a farm-house, is a good specimen
of Jacobean architecture. Many old houses of the 1 7th and 1 8th
centuries are to be met with in the villages. An interesting feature
of the ecclesiastical architecture of the county is the frequent con-
tinuation of the round-headed arch after the Early English style
had become fully developed ; as, for instance, in the Early English
churches at Great Casterton, Stretton, Empingham, Clipsham
(Early English and Decorated), and St Peter's, Preston, where the
nave arcade is Norman on one side and Early English on the other,
but yet retains round-headed arches on both sides. Tickencote
church is a remarkable specimen of late Norman work, with one of
the finest chancel-arches extant in this style. Ketton church
is transitional Norman, Early English, and early Decorated, the
broach spire being of later date. St Mary's, Greetham, is a good
example of Decorated, with fine tower and spire.
See Victoria County History, Rutland; James Wright, History
and Antiquities of the County of Rutland (London, 1684); T. Blore,
History and Antiquities of the County of Rutland, vol. i. pt. 2 (con-
taining the East hundred and including the hundred of Casterton
Parva; Stamford, 1811); C. G. Smith, A Translation of that portion
of Domesday Book which relates to Lincolnshire and Rutland (London,
1870).
RUTLAND, a city and the county seat of Rutland county,
Vermont, U.S.A., on Otter creek, about 67 m. S. by E. of
Burlington. Pop. (1900) 11,499, of whom 1533 were foreign-
born; (1910 census) 13,546. Area, 8J sq. m. It is served
by the Delaware & Hudson (being a terminus of one of its
branches) and the Rutland (New York Central system) railways.
It is pleasantly situated within sight of the Green Mountains.
Among its public buildings and institutions are the United
States Government Building, the State House of Correction,
the Rutland Free Library (1886, with 17,500 volumes in 1908),
the H. H. Baxter Memorial Library, a Memorial Hall, the County
Court House, the City Hall, and the City Hospital. The famous
Rutland marble is quarried in W. Rutland (pop. in 1910, 3427
and Proctor (pop. in 1910, 2871), which were parts of the town-
ship of Rutland until 1886. In 1905 the value of the city's
factory products was $2,522,856 (28-8% more than in 1900).
The township of Rutland was granted by New Hampshire in
1761 to John Murray of Rutland, Massachusetts, and about the
same time it was granted (as Fairfield) by New York. No
settlement was made until 1770, and in 1772 the place was again
granted by New York under the name of Socialborough. From
1784 to 1804 Rutland was one of the capitals of Vermont, and
the Capitol, built in 1784, is the second oldest building in the
state. The Rutland Herald, one of the oldest newspapers in
Vermont still published, was established as a Federalist weekly
in 1794 a daily edition first appeared in 1861, and is now
Republican. In 1847 the village of Rutland was incorporated,
and in 1892 a portion of the township including the village was
chartered as a city.
RUTLEDGE, JOHN (1739-1800), American jurist and politician,
was born in Charleston, South Carolina, in 1739.- He studied law
in London and began to practise in Charleston in 1761. He
was a delegate to the Stamp Act Congress in 1765, and to the
Continental Congress in 1774-77 and 1782-83; he was chair-
man of the committee which framed the state constitution of
1776, and the first " president " (governor) of South Carolina in
1776-78. Disapproving of certain changes in the constitution,
he resigned in 1778, but was elected governor in the following
year, and served until 1782. From 1784 to 1789 he was a
member of the state court of chancery. In the Constitutional
Convention of 1787 he urged that the president and the Federal
judges should be chosen by the national legislature, and prefer-
ably by the Senate alone, and that the president should be
chosen for a term of seven years, and should be ineligible to
succeed himself. Rutledge championed the Constitution in
the South Carolina convention by which that instrument was
adopted on behalf of the state. He was associate justice of the
United States Supreme Court in 1789-91, and chief justice
of the supreme court of South Carolina in 1791-95. Nominated
chief justice of the Supreme Court of the United States in 1795,
he presided during the August term, but the Senate refused to
confirm the nomination, apparently because of his opposition
to the Jay Treaty. His mind failed late in 1795, and he died
in Charleston on the 23rd of July 1800.
His brother, EDWARD RCTLEDGE (1740-1800), a signer of the
Declaration of Independence, was born in Charleston on the 23rd
of November 1749. He studied law in his brother's office, and in
London in 1769-73, and began to practise in Charleston in 1773.
He served in the Continental Congress in 1774-77, and was sent
with John Adams and Benjamin Franklin to confer on terms
of peace with Lord Howe on Staten Island in September 1776.
As captain of artillery and later as lieutenant-colonel he served
against the British in South Carolina in 1779-80, but he was
captured near Charleston in 1780, and was imprisoned at
St Augustine, Florida, for a year. He was a member of the
state legislature from 1782 to 1798, and in 1791 drafted the
act which abolished primogeniture in South Carolina. From
1798 until his death in Charleston, on the 23rd of January 1800,
he was governor of South Carolina.
RUTLEY, FRANK (1842-1904), English geologist and petrog-
rapher, was born at Dover on the I4th of May 1842. He was
educated partly at Bonn, but his interest in geology was kindled
at the Royal School of Mines, where he studied from 1862-64;
he then joined the army, and served as lieutenant until 1867,
946
RUTULI RU WENZORI
when he became an Assistant Geologist on the Geological Survey.
Working then in the Lake district, he began to make a special
study of rocks and rock-forming minerals, and soon qualified
as acting petrographer on the Geological Survey. For several
years he worked in this capacity at the Museum in Jermyn
Street: he described the volcanic rocks of E. Somerset and
the Bristol district in 1876, and wrote special memoirs on
The Eruptive Rocks of Brent Tor (1878), and on The Felsitic
Lavas of England and Wales (1885). He was the author of an
exceedingly useful little book on Mineralogy (1874; I2th
ed., 1900); also of The Study of Rocks (1879; 2nd ed., 1881),
Rock-forming Minerals (1888), and Granites and Greenstones
(1894); and of a number of petrographical papers, dealing
with perlitic and spherulitic structures, with the rocks of the
Malvern Hills, &c. In 1882 he was appointed lecturer on Miner-
alogy in the Royal College of Science, and held this post until
ill-health compelled him to retire in 1898. He died in London
on the 1 6th of May 1904.
Obituary (by H. B. Woodward), with bibliography, in Geol. Mag.
(July 1904)-
RUTULI, a people of ancient Italy inhabiting Ardea and
the district round it on the coast of Latium, at no great dis-
tance from Aricia, and just W. of the territory of the Volsci.
They are ranked by the form of their name with the Siculi and
Appuli (Apuli), probably also with the Itali, whose real Italic
name would probably have been Vituli (see ITALY). This sug-
gests that they belong to a fairly early stratum of the Indo-
European population of Italy. The same is suggested by the
tradition adopted or moulded by Virgil, by which the leader
of the people of the soil in their resistance to the settlement
of Aeneas was the Rutulian prince Turnus, a name which, if any
conjecture could be founded on it, might be held to point
rather to Etruria than to any pure Italic source; he is repre-
sented as the hospes of the exiled Etruscan king Mezentius, and
as taking up arms to defend him against his angry subjects.
Pliny (iii. 6) classes them, with the Siculi, among the primitive
tribes that at one time or another inhabited part of Latium, and
it is to be observed that they are not included in the thirty
Latin communities who once took part in the Latin Festival on
the Alban Mount (see further SICULI). (R. S. C.)
RUVIGNY, HENRI DE MASSUE, MARQUIS DE, afterwards
EARL OF GALWAY (1648-1720), was born at Paris on the 9th
of April 1648, and was the son of the ist Marquis de Ruvigny,
a distinguished French diplomatist, and a relative of Rachel,
the wife of Lord William Russell. He saw service under
Turenne, who thought very highly of him. Probably on account
of his English connexions he was selected in 1678 by Louis
XIV. to carry out the secret negotiations for a compact with
Charles II., a difficult mission which he executed with great
skill. Succeeding his father as " general of the Huguenots,"
he refused Louis's offer, at the revocation of the Edict of Nantes,
to retain him in that office, and in 1690, having gone into exile
with his fellow Huguenots, he entered the service of William
III. of England as a major-general, forfeiting thereby his French
estates. In July 1601 he distinguished himself at the battle of
Aughrim, and in 1692 he was for a time commander-in-chief in
Ireland. In November of that year he was created Viscount
Galway and Baron Portarlington, and received a large grant
of forfeited estates in Ireland. In 1693 he fought at Neerwinden
and was wounded, and in 1694, with the rank of lieutenant-
general, he was sent to command a force in English pay which
was to assist the duke of Savoy against the French, and at the
same time to relieve the distressed Vaudois. But in 1695 the
duke changed sides, the Italian peninsula was neutralized, and
Gal way's force was withdrawn to the Netherlands. From 1697
to 1701, a critical period of Irish history, the Earl of Galway
(he was advanced to that rank in 1697) was practically in control
of Irish affairs as lord justice of Ireland. After some years
spent in retirement, he was appointed in 1704 to command
the allied forces in Portugal, a post which he sustained with
honour and success until the battle of Almanza in 1707, in
which Galway, in spite of care and skill on his own part, was
decisively defeated. But he scraped together a fresh army,
and, although infirm, was reappointed to his command by the
home government. After taking part in one more campaign,
and distinguishing himself by his personal bravery in action,
he retired from active life. His last service was rendered in
1715, when he was sent as one of the lords justices to Ireland
during the Jacobite insurrection. As most of his property in
Ireland had been restored to its former owners, and all his
French estates had long before been forfeited, parliament voted
him pensions amounting to 1500 a year. He died unmarried
on the 3rd of September 1720. The English peerage died with
him, but not the French marquisate. 1
RUVO, a town and episcopal see of Apulia, Italy, in the
province of Bari, 21 m. W. of the city of that name by steam
tramway, 853 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 25,245. The
cathedral, a basilica with a very lofty nave (so high, indeed,
that the gable of the facade is only slightly above the steep
sloping roofs of the aisles, and the clerestory is very small),
and with two aisles, has three apses, a square campanile and a
rich facade with three portals. It belongs probably to the
I3th century. The ulterior has a fine triforium; it contains
some interesting frescoes of the isth century, and is unique
in Apulia in having a gallery supported by corbels round the
nave (see A. Avena, Monumenti dell' Italia Meridionale, Rome,
1902, 117). S. Giovanni Rotondo is an ancient circular
baptistery with two large fonts. In the Palazzo Jatta is a famous
and beautiful collection of vases and coins found in the Apulian
tombs around the city; part of these, however, are now to be
found in the museum at Naples. The Palazzo Spinola has an
interesting Renaissance court. Ruvo occupies the site of the
ancient Rubi, on the Via Trajana (see APPIA, VIA). Coins were
issued by the city before it became Roman. (T. As.)
RUWENZORI, more correctly Runsoro, said to be known
also as Kokora, a mountain range in Central Africa, lying just
north of the equator, and intersected near its eastern edge by
30 E. It has a length of about 65 m., with a maximum breadth
of about 30 m., and its highest peaks rise above the limits of
perpetual snow. The range as a whole, the major axis of which
runs a little east of north, falls steeply on the west to the Central
African rift-valley traversed by the Semliki, the western head-
stream of the Nile, while on the east the fall is somewhat more
gradual towards the highlands of western Uganda. The upper
parts are separated by fairly low passes into six groups of snowy
summits, lying a little to the west of the central line, rising in
each case more than 15,000 ft. above the sea and reaching, in
the culminating point of the western group (Mount Stanley),
about 16,800 ft.
The origin of the range seems connected with that of the
rift-valley on the west, both being due to vertical displacements
of the earth's crust. Ruwenzori has been formed by an up-
heaval en masse of a portion of the archaean floor of the con-
tinent, bounded east and west by lines of fracture, but resulting
in a general dip from west to east. A further upheaval seems
to have produced an ellipsoidal anticline, causing the strata
to dip outwards at a generally high angle. Traces of volcanic
action are almost non-existent. Composed in its outer parts
of gneisses and mica-schists offering no great resistance to
denudation, in its centre the range consists of much more
refractory rocks (amphibolites, diorites, diabases, &c.), to which
fact, coupled with the existence of vertical fractures, the per-
sistence and separation of the higher summits is probably due.
The snow-clad area does not now extend more than ten miles
in any direction, though there is abundant evidence that the
glaciers were formerly far more extensive.
The upper region is almost entirely enveloped by day in
thick cloud, which ^descends on the east to about 9000 ft.,
and lower still on the west. It sometimes lifts towards evening,
giving a sight of the snowy peaks, but by 9 a.m. these have
1 The later Viscounts Galway are descended from John Monckton
(1695-1751), who was created viscount in 1727. His first wife's
mother, wife of the 2nd duke of Rutland, was a daughter of Lady
William Russell, and thus a connexion of the Ruvignys.
RUYSBROEK RUYSDAEL
947
once more been hidden. As a result, the climate is very humid,
the rainfall being probably at least 100 in. annually, and
the slopes are furrowed by numberless streams, the most im-
portant fed by the glaciers of the upper region, and afterwards
flowing in deeply cut valleys between the outer spurs. From
the innermost recesses between Mounts Stanley, Speke and
Baker, the main branches of the Mobuku descend to the east,
while the four principal streams on the west unite to form the
Butagu, the drainage on both sides ultimately finding its way
to the Semliki, either directly or through Lake Dweru and
the Albert Edward Nyanza.
As in other ranges of Central Africa the vegetation displays
well-marked zones, varying with the altitude; but owing to
the lower level to which the cloud descends on the west
(probably an outcome of the general climatic r6gime of Central
Africa, as the range lies between the east African plateau
and the relatively low-lying basin of the Congo), the limits of
the several zones reach a lower level on the west than on the
east. They have been denned as follows by Mr R. B. Woosnam
of the British Museum scientific expedition of 1906-7:
Upper Limits (East Side).
6,500 ft.
8,500
10,000
12,500
14.500
Zones.
Grass .
Forest .
Bamboos
Tree heaths .
Lobelias and Senecios
above which is the summit region of snow and bare rock. The
boundaries between the zones are not of course hard and fast
lines, but merely indicate the levels between which the
respective forms are specially characteristic, though they
occur also in higher or lower zones. The forest zone is perhaps
the best marked, being visible from a distance as a dark ring.
On the west it merges in part with the low-lying forest of the
Semliki valley. Owing to the abundance of moisture, mosses,
hepaticae and lichens are prevalent in several of the zones,
and bogs, with Vaccinium and other low-growing plants, are
common above the forest zone. Helichrysums are abundant
in the zone immediately below the snow, where they form large
bushes. The larger mammals are found chiefly on the lower
slopes, but bushbuck, pigs, leopards, monkeys, a hyrax and a
serval cat occur at higher altitudes. The birds include kites,
buzzards, ravens, sun-birds, touracos, a large swift, and various
warblers and other small kinds. The upper limit of human
settlement, with cultivation of colocasia and beans, has been
placed at 6700 ft.
Attempts have been made to identify the range with the
" Mountains of the Moon " of Ptolemy and other ancient writers,
the snows of which were thought to feed the Nile lakes. But
in view of the extreme vagueness of the statements and the
absence of all detailed knowledge of the geography, it is far
more likely that the rumours of snowy mountains really
referred to Mounts Kenya and Kilimanjaro, especially as they
seem to have been obtained rather from the east coast than
from the direction of the Nile. In modern times the existence
of a snowy range in this part of Africa was first made known
by Sir Henry Stanley during the Emin Pasha relief expedition
of 1887-89, though hints of high mountains had been obtained
by Stanley himself and by Romolo Gessi in 1876 and by others
from the neighbourhood of the Albert Nyanza. Stanley named
the main mass Ruwenzori, and outlying eastern peaks he
called Mt. Gordon Bennett, Mt. Lawson, Mt. Edwin Arnold,
&c. the last named lying N.E. of Lake Dweru. Subsequently
Stanley's own name was given to the chief summit. One of
Stanley's officers, Lieut. Stairs, ascended the western slopes
to over 10,000 ft. in 1889, and partial ascents were after-
wards made by Dr Stuhlmann, Mr Scott Elliot, Mr J. E.
Moore, Sir Harry Johnston, Mr Douglas Freshfield, and others.
Early in 1906 some of the secondary ridges above the snow-
line were scaled by Messrs Grauer, Tegart and Maddox, and
by Dr Wollaston and other members of the British Museum
expedition, while later in the year the duke of the Abruzzi led
a well-equipped expedition, including various scientists, to
the upper parts of the range, and with the help of trained
Alpine guides ascended not only the culminating twin summits
(which he named Margharita and Alexandra after the queens
of Italy and England), but all the principal snow-clad peaks.
The expedition produced for the first time a detailed map of
the upper region, and threw much light on the geology and
natural history of the range.
AUTHORITIES. Sir H. M.Stanley, In Darkest Africa(London, 1890
F. Stuhlmann, Mil Emin Pasha ins Herz von Afrika (Berlin, 1894
G. F. Scott-Elliot, A Naturalist in Mid-Afrua (London, 1896
J. E. S. Moore, " Tanganyika," &c., Geog. Jnl. (January 1901
To the Mountains of the Moon (London, 1901); Sir H. H. Johnston,
The Uganda Protectorate (London, 1902); The Duke of the Abruzzi,
in Geog. Jnl. (February 1907); R. B. Woosnam, ibid. (December
1907) ; F. de Filippi, Ruwenzori (London, 1908), the general account
of the Abruzzi expedition, and // Ruwenzori, Parte Sctentifica (2 vols.,
Milan, 1909) ; A. R. F. Wollaston, From Ruwenzori to ike Congo
(London, 1908) ; R. G. T. Bright, " The Uganda-Congo Boundary,'
Geog. Jnl. (1909). (E. HE.)
RUYSBROEK (orRuvsBROECK), JAN VAN (1293-1381), Dutch
mystic, was born at Ruysbroek, near Brussels, in 1293. In
1317 he was ordained priest and became vicar of St Gudule,
Brussels. When sixty years of age he withdrew with a few
companions to the monastery of Groenendael, near Waterloo,
giving himself to meditation and mystical writing, and to a
full share of the practical tasks of the society. He was known as
the " Ecstatic Teacher," and formed a link between the Friends
of God and the Brothers of the Common Life, sects which helped
to bring about the Reformation. Ruysbroek insisted that
" the soul finds God in its own depths," and noted three stages
of progress in what he called " the spiritual ladder " of Christian
attainment: (i) the active life, (2) the inward life, (3) the
contemplative life. He did not teach the fusion of the self in
God, but held that at the summit of the ascent the soul still
preserves its identity. His works, of which the most important
were De iiera contemplations and De seplem gradibus amoris, were
published in 1848 at Hanover; also Reflections from the Mirror of
a Mystic (1906) and Die Zierde der geistlichen Hochzeit (1901).
See Rufus M. Jones, Studies in Mystical Religion, pp. 308^14
(1909); M. Maeterlinck, Ruysbroek and the Mystics, with selections
from The Adornment of the Spiritual Marriage (tr. by J. T. Stoddart,
London, 1894) ; and art. MYSTICISM.
RUYSDAEL (or RUISDAAL), JACOB VAN (c. 1628-1682), the
most celebrated of the Dutch landscapists, was born at
Haarlem. He appears to have studied under his father Izaak
Ruysdael, a landscape painter, though other authorities make
him the pupil of Berghem and of Albert van Everdingen.
The earliest date that appears on his paintings and etchings is
1645. Three years later he was admitted a member of the
gild of St Luke in Haarlem; in 1659 he obtained the freedom
of the city of Amsterdam, and in 1668 his name appears there
as a witness to the marriage of Hobbema. During his lifetime
his works were little appreciated, and he seems to have suffered
from poverty. In 1681 the sect of the Mennonites, with whom
he was connected, petitioned the council of Haarlem for his
admission into the almshouse of the town, and there the artist
died on the i4th of March 1682.
The works of Ruysdael may be studied in the Louvre and
the National Gallery, London, and in the collections at the
Hague, Amsterdam, Berlin, and Dresden. His favourite
subjects are simple woodland scenes, similar to those of Ever-
dingen and Hobbema. He is especially noted as a painter of
trees, and his rendering of foliage, particularly of oak leafage,
is characterized by the greatest spirit and precision. His views
of distant cities, such as that of Haarlem in the possession of
the marquess of Bute, and that of Katwijk in the Glasgow
Corporation Galleries, clearly indicate the influence of Rem-
brandt. He frequently paints coast-scenes and sea-pieces,
but it is in his rendering of lonely forest glades that we find
him at his best. The subjects of certain of his mountain
scenes seem to be taken from Norway, and have led to the
supposition that he had travelled in that country. We have,
however, no record of such a journey, and the works in question
are probably merely adaptations from the landscapes of Van
94 8
RYAN RYAZAN
Everdingen, whose manner he copied at one period. Only a
single architectural subject from his brush is known an
admirable interior of the New Church, Amsterdam, in the
possession of the marquess of Bute. The prevailing hue of
his landscapes is a full rich green, which, however, has darkened
with time, while a clear grey tone is characteristic of his sea-
pieces. The art of Ruysdael, while it shows little of the
scientific knowledge of later kndscapists, is sensitive and
poetic in sentiment, and direct and skilful in technique. Figures
are sparingly introduced into his compositions, and such as
occur are believed to be from the pencils of Adrian Vandevelde,
Philip Wouwerman, and Jan Lingelbach.
Unlike the other great Dutch landscape painters, Ruysdael
did not aim at a pictorial record of particular scenes, but he
carefully thought out and arranged his compositions, intro-
ducing into them an infinite variety of subtle contrasts in the
formation of the clouds, the plants and tree forms, and the
play of light. He particularly excels in the painting of cloudy
skies which are spanned dome-like over the landscape, and
determine the light and shade of the objects.
Characteristic of his early period, from about 1646 to 1653,
is the choice of very simple motifs and the careful and laborious
study of the details of nature. The time between his departure
from Haarlem and his settling in Amsterdam may have been
spent in travelling and helped him to gain a broader view of
nature and to widen the horizon of his art. Mr Otto Beit
owns a magnificent view of the " Castle of Bentheim," dated
1654, from which it may be concluded that his wanderings
extended to Germany. In his last period, from about 1675
onwards, he shows a tendency towards overcrowded com-
positions, and affects a darker tonality, which may partly be
due to the use of thin paint on a dark ground. Towards the
end, in his leaning towards the romantic mood, he preferred
to draw his inspiration from other masters, instead of going
to nature direct, his favourite subjects being rushing torrents
and waterfalls, and ruined castles on mountain crests, which
are frequently borrowed from the Swiss views by Roghman.
Ruysdael etched a few plates, which were reproduced by Amand
Durand in 1878, with text by Georges Duplessis. The " Cornfield "
and the "Travellers" are characterized by M. Duplessis as prints
of a high order which may be regarded as the most significant
expressions of landscape art in the Low Countries.
RYAN, LACY (c. 1694-1760), English actor, appeared at the
Haymarket about 1709. By 1718 he had joined the company
at Lincoln's Inn Fields, where he shared the lead with his friend
Quin. In 1732 he followed the company to Covent Garden,
and there he remained until his death. lago, Cassius, Edgar
(in King Lear) and Macduff were among his best parts.
RYAZAN, a government of central Russia, bounded by the
governments of Moscow and Tula on the W., by Vladimir on the
N., and by Tambov on the E. and S., with an area of 16,250
sq. m. Ryazan is an intermediate link between the central
Great Russian governments and the steppe governments of the
S.E. the wide and deep valley of the Oka being the natural
boundary between the two. On the left of the Oka the surface
often consists of sand, marshes and forests; while on the right
the fertile black-earth prairies begin, occupying especially the
districts of Ranenburg, Sapozhok and Dankov. The whole of
Ryazan is a plateau about 700 ft. above the sea, but deeply cut
by the river- valleys and numerous ravines. Iron-ores, lime-
stone, grindstone grits, potters' clays, and thick beds of peat are
worked, besides coal. The N. belongs to the forest regions, and,
notwithstanding the wholesale destruction of forests, these
(chiefly coniferous) in several districts still cover one-third of the
surface. In the S., where the proximity of the steppes is felt,
they are much less extensive, the prevailing species being oak,
birch, and other deciduous trees. Altogether forests cover
about one-fifth of the total area.
The Oka is the chief river; it is navigable throughout, and
receives the navigable Pronya and Pra, besides a great many smaller
streams utilized for floating timber. Steamers ply on the Oka to
Kasimov and Nizhniy-Novgorod. The Don belongs to Ryazan
in its upper course only. On the whole, the S. districts are not
well watered. Small lakes are numerous in the broad depression
of the Oka and elsewhere, while extensive marshes occur in the
N.E. districts; a few attempts at draining some of these beside
the Oka have resulted in the reclamation of excellent pasture lands.
The climate is a little warmer than at Moscow, the average tempera-
ture at the city of Ryazan being 40; February, 3-2; July, 67 .
The estimated population in 1906 was 2,100,900, and is nearly
Great Russian throughout, containing only a trifling admixture
of Tatars, Poles and Jews in towns. Some Tatars immigrated
into the Kasimov region in the i$th century, and are noted for
their honesty of character as well as for their agricultural
prosperity. The people of the Pra river are described as Mesh-
cheryaks, but their manners and customs do not differ from
those of the Russians. The chief occupation is agriculture.
Out of the total area only 8% is unfit for tillage, and between
50 and 60% is under crops; although the area under cultiva-
tion and the crops themselves are increasing, yet even here, in
one of the wealthiest governments of Russia, the situation of
the peasants is far from satisfactory. Live-stock breeding is
rapidly falling off on account of want of pasture lands, but hay,
which is abundant, especially on the rich meadow lands of the
Oka, is exported. More than half of the land (52%) is owned
by the village communities, 40% by private owners, 5% by the
crown, and 2% by various institutions. During the last thirty
years of the igth century the nobles sold 36% (1,261,000 acres)
of their lands, mainly to merchants and peasants; the latter
cultivate two-thirds of the total cultivated area.
The principal crops are oats, rye and potatoes, with wheat,
barley, buckwheat, flax, hemp, tobacco, hops and fruit. But the
crops are insufficient for the needs of the inhabitants. Tobacco,
hops, vegetables and fruit, however, are grown for export. Bee-
keeping is developing and manufactures increasing, the factories
being chiefly cotton and flax mills, flour mills, machine works,
tanneries, soap works, boot, cement, glass and match factories,
distilleries, and chemical works.
The government is divided into twelve districts, the chief towns
of which are Ryazan, Dankov, Egorievsk, Kasimov, Mikhailov,
Pronsk, Ranenburg, Ryazhsk, Sapozhok, Skopin, Spask and
Zaraisk. Small industries, such as boat-building, the preparation
of pitch and tar, the making of wooden vessels and sledges, mat-
weaving and boot-making, are carried on in the villages, especially
in the N., which belongs, properly speaking, to the Vladimir industrial
region. Domestic trades, such as lace-making (supported by two
schools) and embroidering on leather, give occupation to 40,000
women. Trade, especially in corn and manufactured goods, is
brisk, and has been stimulated by the opening of coal-mines, e.g.
in the district of Skopin. Considerable efforts have been made by
the local governing bodies to increase the number of schools. Most
interesting archaeological finds have been made in the government,
and have been placed in the new museum at the city of Ryazan.
The Slavs began to colonize the region of Ryazan as early as the
gth century, penetrating thither both from the N.W. (Great Russians)
and from the Dnieper (Little Russians). As early as the loth century
the principality of Murom and Ryazan is mentioned in the chronicles.
During the following centuries this principality increased both in
extent and in wealth, and included parts of what are now the govern-
ments of Kaluga and Moscow. Owing to the fertility of the soil,
its Russian population rapidly increased, while the Finnish tribes
which formerly inhabited it migrated farther E., or became merged
among the Slavs. The Mongol invasion of 1239-^42 stopped all
development. The principality, however, still continued to exist ;
its princes strongly opposed the annexation by Moscow, making
alliance with the Mongols and with Lithuania, but they finally
succumbed, and the principality was definitely annexed in 1517.
RYAZAN, a town of Russia, capital of the government of
the same name, 1 24 m. by rail S.E. of Moscow, on the elevated
right bank of the Trubezh, a mile above its confluence with
the Oka. Pop. (1897) 44,552. A wide praiiie dotted with large
villages, the bottom of a former lake, spreads out from the
base of the crag on which Ryazan stands, and actually has the
aspect of an immense lake when it is inundated in the spring.
Ryazan is the see of an archbishop of the Orthodox Greek
Church. The cathedral, first built in the i7th century, was
reconstructed in 1776. The Krestovozdvizhensk church con-
tains tombs of the princes of the i5th and i6th centuries.
The capital of Ryazan principality was Ryazan now Old
Ryazan, a village close to Spask, also on the Oka. It is
mentioned in annals as early as 1097, but continued to be the
chief town of the principality only until the i4th century. In
the nth century one of the Kiev princes founded, on the banks
RYAZHSK RYE
949
of a small lake, a fort which received the name of Pereyaslav-
Ryazanskiy. In 1294 (or in 1335) the bishop of Murom, com-
pelled to leave his own town, settled in Pereyaslav-Ryazanskiy.
The princes of Ryazan followed his example, and by and by
completely abandoned the old republican town of Ryazan. In
1300 a congress of Russian princes was held there, and in the
following year the town was taken by the Moscow prince. It
continued, however, to be the residence of the Ryazan princes
until 1517. In 1365 and 1377 it was plundered and burned by
the Tatars, but in 1460, 1513, 1521 and 1564 it was strong
enough to repel them. Earthen walls with towers were erected
after 1301; and in the I7th century a kreml or citadel still
stood on the high crag above the Trubezh.
RYAZHSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Ryazan,
72 m. by rail S. of the city of Ryazan. Pop. (1897) 12,993. It
is one of the chief railway junctions of Russia, where meet the
lines from Moscow to S. Russia and Caucasia and from Poland
to Samara and Siberia. It has become a centre for all the corn-
growing regions of Russia, and is a wealthy place.
RYBINSK, or RUIBINSK, a town of Russia, in the govern-
ment of Yaroslavl, 60 m. by river N.W. of Yaroslavl. It
is connected by rail (186 m.) with Bologoye, on the line
between St Petersburg and Moscow. It derives its import-
ance from its situation on the Volga, opposite the mouth of
the Sheksna, which connects the Volga with the regions around
Lake Ladoga. Rybinsk has also an active trade in agricultural
products from the neighbouring districts. The permanent
population, which was 25,223 in 1897, is increased in the summer
by nearly 100,000 workers from different parts of Russia.
RYDBER6, ABRAHAM VIKTOR (1828-1895), Swedish
author and publicist, was born in Jonkoping on i8th December
1828. He was educated at the high school of Vaxio, and passed
on to the university of Lund in 1851. While at school he was
publishing verse and prose in the periodicals; some of these
early miscellanies he collected in 1894 in the volumes called
Varia. As a student he turned to more precise labours, and
devoted himself to science. He had almost determined to
adopt the profession of an engineer, when he was offered in
1855 a post on the staff of one of the largest Swedish news-
papers. This caused his thoughts to return to imaginative
literature, and it was in the feuilleton of this journal (the
Goteborgs Handels-och sjofartstidning) that Viktor Rydberg's
romances successively appeared; he was editorially connected
with it until 1876. The Freebooter on the Baltic (1857) and The
Last of the Athenians (1859) gave Rydberg a place in the front
rank of contemporary novelists. It was a surprise to his
admirers to see him presently turn to theology, but with The
Bible's Teaching about Christ (1862), in which the aspects of
modern Biblical criticism were first placed before Swedish
readers, he enjoyed a vast success. He followed this up by
a number of contributions to the popular philosophy of religion,
all inspired by the same reverent and yet searching spirit of
inquiry. The modernity of his views led to his being opposed
by the orthodox clergy, but by the wider public he was greatly
esteemed. Nevertheless, it is said that it was his religious
criticism which so long excluded him from the Swedish Academy,
since he was not elected until 1877, when he had long been
the first living author of Sweden. Roman Days is a series of
archaeological essays on Italy (1876). He collected his poems
in 1882; his version of Faust dates from 1876. In 1884 he
was appointed professor of ecclesiastical history at Stockholm.
He died, after a short illness, on the 22nd of September 1895.
In Viktor Rydberg Sweden possessed a writer of the first order,
who carried on the tradition of Bostrom and Geijer in philo-
sophy and history, and possessed in addition a glow of imagina-
tion and a marvellous charm of style. He was an idealist of
the old romantic type which Sweden had known for three-
quarters of a century; he was the last of that race, and perhaps,
as a mere writer, the greatest. In personal character Rydberg
was extremely like his writings stately, ardent and cere-
monious, with a fund of amiability which made him universally
beloved. His premature death was the subject of national
mourning, and had even a historical significance, for with him
the old romantic influence in Swedish literature ceased to be
paramount. (E. G.)
RYDE, a municipal borough and watering-place in the
Isle of Wight, England, 5 m. S.S.W. of Portsmouth. Pop.
(1901) 11,043. It is beautifully situated on rising ground
on the N.E. coast, overlooking Spithead. It occupies the site
of a village called La Rye or La Riche, which was destroyed
by the French in the reign of Edward II. About the close
of the i8th century it was a small fishing hamlet, but it rapidly
grew into favour as a watering-place. Ryde is connected by
rail with the other towns in the island, and there is also steam-
boat communication with Portsmouth, Southampton, Southsea,
Portsea and Stoke's Bay. The pier, built originally in 1812,
but since then greatly extended, forms a delightful promenade
half a mile in length. The railway trains run out to its head,
and an electric tramway also runs along it. The principal
buildings are All Saints church, erected in 1870 from the designs
of Sir Gilbert Scott, and other churches, the market house and
town hall, the Royal Victoria Yacht club-house, the theatre and
the Royal Isle of Wight Infirmary. There are golf-links near the
town. The town was incorporated in 1868, and is governed by
a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 819 acres.
RYDER, ALBERT PINKHAM (1847- ), American artist,
was born at New Bedford, Mass., on the igth of March 1847. He
was a pupil of William E. Marshall and of the schools of the
National Academy of Design. Among his better known paint-
ings are: " Temple of the Mind," " Jonah and the Whale,"
" Christ appearing unto Mary," " The Flying Dutchman,"
" Charity," and " The Little Maid of Arcadie." He became
a member of the Society of American Artists in 1878, and a
National Academician in 1906.
RYE, a market town and municipal borough in the Rye
parliamentary division of Sussex, England, n m. N.E. by
E. from Hastings, on the South-Eastern & Chatham railway.
Pop. (1901) 3900. It rises on a sharp eminence above the
S. of Romney Marsh, which within historic times was an inlet
of the English Channel. The sea began to recede in the i6th
century, and now the river Rother forms a small estuary with
its mouth 2 m. from the town; this serves as a small harbour
with a depth of 15 ft. at high tide, and there is some trade in
coal, grain and timber. Fishing and shipbuilding are carried
on, and there is a market for sheep (which are pastured in
great numbers on the marshes), wool, grain and hops. The
church of St Mary is of mixed architecture, chiefly Transitional,
Norman and Early English; it is cruciform, with a low central
tower. Of the old fortifications there remain portions of the
town wall, a strong quadrangular tower built by William of
Ypres, earl of Kent, and lord warden in the time of Stephen,
and now forming part of the police station, and a handsome
gate with a round tower on each side, known as the Land Gate,
at the entrance into Rye from the London road. Picturesque
old houses are numerous. In the low land S. of the town stands
Camber Castle, one of the coastal defensive works of Henry
VIII. In the vicinity are golf-links, to which a steam tram
runs from the town. The municipal borough is under a mayor,
4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 985 acres.
In the time of Edward the Confessor, Rye (Ria, Ryerot, La
Rie) was a fishing village and, as part of the manor of " Rames-
lie," was granted by the king to the abbot and convent of
Fecamp, by whom it was retained until Henry III. resumed it.
By 1086 Rye was probably a port of consequence, and a charter
of Richard I. shows that in the reign of Henry II., if not before,
it had been added to the Cinque Ports. The fluctuations of the
sea and attacks of the French caused its decline in the I3th and
1 4th centuries, and the walls were therefore built in the reign
of Edward III. The decay of Winchelsea contributed to the
partial revival of Rye in the isth and i6th centuries, when it
was a chief port of passage. Towards the end of the i6th century
the decay of the port began, and notwithstanding frequent
attempts to improve the harbour it never recovered its ancient
prosperity. Rye was incorporated under a mayor and jurats
950
RYE RYLE
by the beginning of the uth century, but possesses no charter
distinct from the Cinque Ports. As a member of the Cinque
Ports, which were summoned from 1322 onwards, Rye returned
two representatives to parliament from 1366 until 1832; after
that date one only until 1885. In 1290 the barons of the royal
port of Rye were granted a three days' fair in September, altered
in 1305 to March. The mayor and commonalty evidently held
weekly markets on Wednesday and Friday before 1405, as in
that year the Friday market was changed to Saturday. Ship-
building has been carried on since the i3th century.
RYE. This cereal, known botanically as Secale cereale, is
supposed to be the cultivated form of 5. montanum, a wild
perennial species occurring in the more elevated districts of
parts of the Mediterranean region, and W. to Central Asia.
Its cultivation does not appear to have been practised at a
very early date,
relatively speaking.
Alphonse de Can-
dolle, who has col-
lected the evidence
on this point, draws
attention to the
fact that no traces
of this cereal have
hitherto been found
in Egyptian monu-
ments, or in the
earlier Swiss dwell-
ings, though seeds
have been found
in association with
weapons of the
Bronze period at
Olmiitz. The ab-
sence of any special
name for it in the
Semi tic, Chinese and
Sanskrit languages
is also adduced as
an indication of its
comparatively re-
cent culture. On
the other hand, the
general occurrence
of the name in the
more modern Ian-
Rye (Secale cereale), one-fourth nat. size, guaees of N
I, single spikelet; 2, single flower with 5. ~ .
awned plume and palea; 3, pistil; 4, grain. Europe, under
i, 2, 4, about two-thirds nat. size. various modifica-
tions, points to the
cultivation of the plant then, as now, in those regions. The
origin of the Latin name secale, which exists in a modified
form among the Basques and Bretons, is not explained.
Rye is a tall-growing annual grass, with fibrous roots, flat,
narrow, ribbon-like bluish-green leaves, and erect or decurved
cylindrical slender spikes like those of barley. The spikelets
contain two or three flowers, of which the uppermost is
usually imperfect. The outer glumes are acute and glabrous,
the flowering glumes lance-shaped, with a comb-like keel
at the back, and the outer or lower one prolonged at the
apex into a very long bristly awn. Within these are three
stamens surrounding a compressed ovary, with two feathery
stigmas. When ripe, the grain is of an elongated oval form,
with a few hairs at the summit. When the ovaries of the plant
become affected with a peculiar fungus (Claviceps purpurea) they
become blackened and distorted, constituting ergot (q.v.).
In the S. of Great Britain rye is chiefly or solely cultivated
as a forage-plant for cattle and horses, being usually sown in
autumn for spring use, after the crop of roots, turnips, &c., is
exhausted, and before the clover and lucerne are ready. For
forage purposes it is best to cut early, before the leaves and
haulms have been exhausted of their supplies to benefit the
grain. In the N. of Europe, and more especially in Scandinavia,
Russia and parts of N. Germany, rye is the principal cereal;
and in nutritive value, as measured by the amount of gluten it
contains, it stands next to wheat, a fact which furnishes the ex-
planation of its culture in N. latitudes ill-suited for the growth of
wheat. Rye bread or black bread is in general use in N. Europe.
The straw, which is prized on account of its length, is used for
making hats and in the manufacture of paper. The bran is used
for cattle-food and poultices, and the grain in the distillery.
RYEZHITSA, a town of Russia, in the government of
Vitebsk, 150 m. N.W. from the town of Vitebsk and on the
railway between St Petersburg and Warsaw. Its population
increased from 7306 in 1867 to 10,681 in 1897 ; but its im-
portance is mainly historical. The cathedral is a modern
building (1846). Ryezhitsa, or, as it is called in the Livonian
chronicles, Roziten, was founded in 1285 by the Teutonic
Knights to keep in subjection the Lithuanians and Letts. The
castle was continually the object of hostile attacks. In 1561
the Teutonic Knights gave it in pawn to Poland, and, though it
was captured by the Russians in 1567 and 1577, and had its
fortifications dismantled by the Swedes during the war of
1656-60, it continued Polish till 1773, when White Russia was
united with the Russian empire.
RYLAND, WILLIAM WYNNE (1738-1783), English engraver,
was born in London in July 1738, the son of an engraver
and copper-plate printer. He studied under Ravenet, and in
Paris under Boucher and J. P. le Bas. After spending five
years on the continent he returned to England, and having
engraved portraits of George III. and Lord Bute after Ramsay,
and a portrait of Queen Charlotte and the Princess Royal after
Francis Cotes, R.A., he was appointed engraver to the king.
In 1766 he became a member of the Incorporated Society of
Artists, and he exhibited with them and in the Royal Academy.
In his later life Ryland abandoned line-engraving, and intro-
duced " chalk-engraving," in which the line is composed of
stippled dots, and in which he transcribed Mortimer's " King
John Signing Magna Charta," and copied the drawings of the old
masters and the works of Angelica Kauffman. In consequence
of his extravagant habits his affairs became involved; he was
convicted of forging bills upon the East India Company, and,
after attempting to commit suicide, was executed at Tyburn
on the 29th of August 1783.
RYLANDS, JOHN (1801-1888), English manufacturer and mer-
chant, was born at St Helens, Lancashire, on the 7th of February
1801, and was educated at the grammar school in that town. In
1819 he, his elder brothers and his father, a manufacturer of
cotton goods, founded the firm of Rylands & Sons, cotton goods
and linen manufacturers, at Wigan. The business rapidly
increased, dye-works and bleach-works were added, and the
discovery of coal under some of the firm's property added materi-
ally to its wealth. In 1825 the partners became merchants as
well as manufacturers, and subsequently acquired spinning mills
at Bolton and elsewhere. In 1847, his father being dead and
his brothers having retired, John Rylands assumed entire
control of the business, which in 1873 was turned into a limited
liability company. It has mills at Manchester, Bolton, and
Wigan, and is now probably the largest .concern of the kind in
Great Britain. John Rylands was a benefactor to various
charities, and was one of the original financiers of the Man-
chester Ship Canal. He died at Stretford on the nth of
December 1888. A permanent memorial, the John Rylands
Library, was erected by his widow in Manchester in 1899.
RYLE, JOHN CHARLES (1816-1900), English bishop, was born
at Macclesfield on the loth of May 1816, and was educated at Eton
and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he was Craven Scholar in
1836. After holding a curacy at Exbury in Hampshire, he
became rector of St Thomas's, Winchester (1843), rector of
Helmingham, Suffolk (1844), vicar of Stradbroke ( 1 86 1), honorary
canon of Norwich (1872), and dean of Salisbury (1880) ; but before
taking this office was advanced to the new see of Liverpool,
where he remained until his resignation, which took place three
months before his death at Lowes toft on the loth of June 1900.
RYLSK RYMER
Ryle was a strong supporter of the evangelical school. Among
his longer works are Christian Leaders of the Eighteenth Century
(1869), Expository Thoughts on the Gospels (7 vols., 1856-69),
Principles for Churchmen (1884). His second son, HERBERT
EDWARD RYLE (b. .1856), a distinguished Old Testament
scholar, was made bishop of Exeter in 1901, and in 1903
bishop of Winchester.
RYLSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Kursk, 71
m. by rail W.S.W. of the town of Kursk. It is connected by a
branch line with the Kursk-Kiev railway. Pop. (1897) 11,415.
It has oil works, blast furnaces, and manufactories of soap and
tallow, and an active trade in corn, hemp, and scythes imported
from Austria. It was founded in the gth century, and is
frequently mentioned in the annals from 1152 onwards. Its
cathedral was built in the I5th century.
RYMER, THOMAS (1641-1713), English historiographer royal,
was the younger son of Ralph Rymer, lord of the manor of
Brafferton in Yorkshire, described by Clarendon as " possessed
of a good estate," and executed for his share in the " Presby-
terian rising " of 1663. Thomas was probably born at Yafforth
Hall early in 1641, and was educated at a private school kept at
Danby-Wiske by Thomas Smelt, a noted Royalist, with whom
Rymer was " a great favourite," and " well known for his great
critical skill in human learning, especially in poetry and history." *
He was admitted as pensionarius minor at Sidney Sussex
College, Cambridge, on April 29, 1658, but left the university
without taking a degree. On May 2, 1666, he became a member
of Gray's Inn, and was called to the bar on June 16, 1673. His
first appearance in print was as translator of Cicero's Prince
(1668), from the Latin treatise (1608) drawn up for Prince Henry.
He also translated Rapin's Reflections on Aristotle's Treatise of
Poesie (1674), with a preface in defence of the classical rules
for unity in the drama, and followed the principles there set
forth in a tragedy in verse, licensed September 13, 1677, called
Edgar, or the English Monarch, which was a failure. The printed
editions of 1678, 1691 and 1693 belong to the same issue, with
new title-pages. Rymer's views on the drama were again given
to the world in the shape of a printed letter to Fleetwood
Shepheard, the friend of Prior, under the title of The Tragedies
of the Last Age Consider'd (1678, 2nd ed. 1692). To Ovid's
Epistles Translated by Several Hands (1680), with preface by
Dryden, " Penelope to Ulysses " was contributed by Rymer,
who was also one of the " hands "who" Englished " the Plutarch
of 1683-86. The life of Nicias fell to his share. He furnished
a preface to Whitelocke's Memorials of English Affairs (1682),
and wrote in 1681 A General Draught and Prospect of the Govern-
ment of Europe, reprinted in 1689 and 1714 as Of the Antiquity,
Power, and Decay of Parliaments, where, ignorant of his future
dignity, the critic had the misfortune to observe, " You are not
to expect truth from an historiographer royal." He contributed
three pieces to the collection of Poems to the Memory of Edmund
Waller (1688), afterwards reprinted in Dryden's Miscellany
Poems, and is said to have written the Latin inscription on
Waller's monument in Beaconsfield churchyard. The preface
to the posthumous Historia Ecclesiastica (1688) of Thomas
Hobbes is said to have been by Rymer, but the Life of Hobbes
(1681) sometimes ascribed to him was written by Richard
Blackburne. He produced a congratulatory poem upon the
arrival of Queen Mary in 1689. His next piece of authorship
was to translate the sixth elegy of the third book of Ovid's
Tristia for Dryden's Miscellany Poems (1692, p. 148). On the
death of Thomas Shadwell in 1692 Rymer received the appoint-
ment of historiographer royal, at a yearly salary of 200. Imme-
diately afterwards appeared his much discussed Short View of
Tragedy (1693), criticizing Shakespeare and Ben Jonson, which
produced The Imperial Critick (1693) of Dennis, the epigram of
Dryden, 2 and the judgment of Macaulay that Rymer was " the
1 See Hickes, Memoirs of John Kettlewell (1718), pp. 10-14.
2 " The corruption of a poet is the generation of a critic " (Ded.
of the Third Miscellany, in Works (1821), xii. p. 49), which i? much
more pointed than Beaconsfield's reference to critics as " men who
have failed in literature and art " (Lothair, chap, xxxv.) or Balzac's
sly hit at M6rim6e in similar terms. The poet's remarks on the
worst critic that ever lived." John Dunton (Life and Letters,
P- 354), however, considered him " orthodox and modest," and
Pope " one of the best critics we ever had " (Spence's Anecdotes).
Rymer contended that although Shakespeare possessed humour
he had no genius for tragedy, Othello being merely " a bloody
farce without salt or savour."
Within eight months of his official appointment Rymer was
directed (August 26, 1693) to carry out that great national
undertaking with which his name will always be honourably
connected, and of which there is reason to believe that Lords
Somers and Halifax were the original promoters. The Codex
Juris Gentium Diplomatics (1693) of Leibnitz was taken by the
editor as the model of the Foedera. The plan was to publish
all records of alliances and other transactions in which England
was concerned with foreign powers from 1101 to the time of
publication, limiting the collection to original documents in the
royal archives and the great national libraries. Unfortunately,
this was not uniformly carried out, and the work contains some
extracts from printed chronicles. From 1694 he corresponded
with Leibnitz, by whom he was greatly influenced with respect
to the plan and formation of the Foedera. While collecting
materials, Rymer unwisely engraved a spurious charter of King
Malcolm, acknowledging that Scotland was held in homage
from Edward the Confessor. When this came to be known
the Scottish antiquaries were extremely indignant. G. Redpath
published a MS. on the independence of the Scottish crown, by
Sir T. Craig, entitled Scotland's Sovereignly Asserted (1695), an ^
the subject was referred to by Bishop Nicolson in his Scottish
Historical Library (1702). This led Rymer to address three
Letters to the Bishop of Carlisle (1702-1706) explaining his action,
and discussing other antiquarian matters. Sir Robert Sibbald
answered the second letter (1704). The first and second letters
are usually found together; the third is extremely rare. Rymer
had now been for some years working with great industry,
but was constantly obliged to petition the crown for money to
carry on the undertaking. Up to August 1698 he had expended
1253, and had only received 500 on account.
At last, on November 20, 1704, was issued the first folio volume
of the Foedera, Comentiones, Litterae et cujuscunque generis Acta
Publica inter reges Angliae e.t olios quosvis imperatores, reges, &c.,
ab. A.D.IIOI .ad nostra usque tempora habita out tractala. The
publication proceeded with great rapidity, and fifteen volumes
were brought out by Rymer in nine years. Two hundred and
fifty copies were printed; but, as nearly all of them were presented
to persons of distinction, the work soon became so scarce
that it was priced by booksellers at one hundred guineas. A
hundred and twenty sheets of the fifteenth volume and the copy
for the remainder were burnt at a fire at William Bowyer's, the
printer, on January 30, 1712-13. Rymer died shortly after the
appearance of this volume, but he had prepared materials for
carrying the work down to the end of the reign of James I.
These were placed in the hands of Robert Sanderson, his assistant.
For the greater part of his life Rymer derived his chief sub-
sistence from a mortgage assigned to him by his father. His
miscellaneous literary work could not have been very profitable.
At one time he was reduced to offer his MSS. for a new edition
for sale to the earl of Oxford. About 1703 his affairs became
more settled, and he afterwards regularly received his salary as
historiographer, besides an additional 200 a year as editor of the
Foedera. Twenty-five copies of each volume were also allotted
to him. He died at Afundel Street, Strand, December 14, 1713,
and was buried in the church of St Clement Danes. His will
was dated July 10, 1713. Tonson issued an edition of Rochester's
Works (1714), with a short preface by the late historiographer.
Another posthumous publication was in a miscellaneous collec-
tion called Curious Amusements,by M. B. (1714), which included
" some translations from Greek, Latin and Italian poets, by T.
Tragedies of the Last Age have been reprinted in his Works (1821), xv.
PP- 3 8 3-39 6 . and '" Johnson's Life of Dryden. See also Dryden's
Works, i. 377, vi. 251, xi. 60, xiii. 20. " I never came across a worse
critic than Thomas Rymer," says Prof. George Saintsbury, who
discusses his theories at length in History of Criticism (1902), pp.
39!~397- See also A. Hofherr, T. Rymers dramatische Kritik (1908).
952
RYOT RZHEV
Rymer." Some of his poetical pieces were also inserted in
J. Nichols's Select Collection (1780-86, 8 vols.), and two are
reproduced in A. H. Bullen's Musa Proterva (1895).
Two more volumes of the Foedera were issued by Sanderson in
1715 and 1717, and the last three volumes (xviii., xix. and xx.) by
the same editor, but upon a slightly different plan, in 1726-35. The
latter volumes were published by Tonson, all the former by Churchill.
Under Rymer it was carried down to 1586, and continued by San-
derson to 1654. The rarity and importance of the work induced
Tonson to obtain a licence for a second edition, and George Holmes,
deputy keeper of the Tower records, was appointed editor. The
new edition appeared between 1727 and 1735. The last three
volumes are the same in both issues. There are some corrections,
enumerated in a volume, The Emendations in the New Edition oj Mr
Rymer' s Foedera, printed by Tonson in 1730, and on the whole the
second is an improvement upon the first edition. A third edition,
embodying Holmes's collation, was commenced at the Hague in 1737
and finished in 1745. It is in smaller type than the others, and is
compressed within ten folio volumes. The arrangement is rather
more convenient ; there is some additional matter ; the index is
better; the type is not so good, but it is to be preferred to either of the
previous editions. When the volumes of the Foedera first appeared
they were analysed by Lcclerc and Rapin in the Bibliotheque choisie
and Bibliotheque ancienne et moderne. Rapin's articles were col-
lected together and appended, under the title of Abrege historique
des actes publiques de I' Angleterre, to the Hague edition. A trans-
lation, called Ada Regia, was published by Stephen Whatley,
(1726-27), 4 vols. 8vo, reprinted both in 8vo and folio, the latter
edition containing an analysis of the cancelled sheets, relating to
the journals of the first parliament of Charles I., of the i8th volume
of the Foedera.
In 1810 the Record Commissioners authorized Dr Adam Clarke to
prepare a new and improved edition of the Foedera. Six parts, large
folio, edited by Clarke, Caley and Holbrooke, were published between
1816 and 1830. Considerable additions were made, but the editing
was performed in so unsatisfactory a manner that the publication
was suspended in the middle of printing a seventh part. The latter
portion, bringing the work down to 1383, was ultimately issued in
1869. A general introduction to the Foedera was issued by the
Record Commission in 1817, ^tp.
The wide learning and untiring labours of Rymer have received
the warmest praise from historians. His industry was praised by
Hearne (Collections, ii. 296). Sir T. D. Hardy styles the Foedera " a
work of which this nation has every reason to be proud, for with
all its blemishes and what work is faultless? it has no rival in its
class " (Syllabus, vol. ii. xxxvi.), and Mr J. B. Mulllnger calls it " a
collection of the highest value and authority " (Gardiner and
Mullinger's Introduction to English History, p. 224).
The best account of Rymer is to be found in the prefaces to Sir T.
D. Hardy's Syllabus (1869-85, 3 vols. 8vo). There is an unpublished
life by Des Maizeaux (Brit. Mus. Add. MS. No. 4223), and a few
memoranda in Bishop Kennet's collections (Lansd. MS. No. 987).
See also Diet, of Nat. Biogr. vol. 1. In Caulfield's Portraits, &c.
(1819), i. o, may be seen an engraving of Rymer, with a description
of a satirical print of him as " a garreteer poet." Rymer's two
critical works on the drama are discussed by Sir T. N. Talfourd in the
Retrospective Review (1820), vol. i. pp. 1-15.
Sir T. D. Hardy's Syllabus gives in English a condensed notice of
each instrument in the several editions of the Foedera, arranged in
chronological order. The third volume contains a complete index
of names and places, with a catalogue of the volumes of transcripts
collected for the Record edition of the Foedera. In 1869 the Record
Office printed, for private destribution, Appendices A to E " to a
report on the Foedera intended to have been submitted by C. Purton
Cooper to the late Commissioners of Public Records," 3 vols. 8vo
(including accounts of MSS. in foreign archives relating to Great
Britain, with facsimiles). In the British Museum is preserved
(Add. MS. 24699) a folio volume of reports and papers relating to
the Record edition. Rymer left extensive materials for a new
edition of the Foedera, bound in 59 vols. folio, and embracing the
period from 1 1 15 to 1698. This was the collection offered to the earl
of Oxford. It was purchased by the Treasury for 215 from a
Mrs Anna Parnell, to whom Rymer left all his property, and is now
in the British Museum (Add. MSS. Nos. 4573 to 4630, and 18911).
A catalogue and index may be consulted in the I7th volume of
Tonson's edition of the Foedera. The Public Record Office possesses
a MS. volume, compiled by Robert Lemon about 1800, containing
instruments in the Patent Rolls omitted by Rymer. In the same
place may be seen a volume of reports, orders, &c., on the Foedera,
1808-11, and the transcripts collected for the new and unfinished
edition. (H. R. T.)
RYOT, or RAY AT (from the Arabic ra'a, "to pasture"),
properly a subject, then a tenant of the soil. The word is used
throughout India for the general body of cultivators; but it
has a special meaning in different provinces. The ryotwari
tenure is one of the two main revenue systems in India. Where
the land revenue is imposed on an individual or community
owning an estate, and occupying a position analogous to that
of a landlord, the assessment is known as zamindari; and
where the land revenue is imposed on individuals who are the
actual occupants, the assessment is known as ryotwari. Under
zamindari tenure the land is held as independent property;
while under ryotwari tenure it is held of the crown in a right of
occupancy, which is under British rule both heritable and trans-
ferable. The former system prevails in northern and central
India, and the latter in Bombay, Madras, Assam and Burma.
RYSWICK, TREATY OF, the peace which in 1697 ended the
war between France on the one side and the Empire, England,
Spain and Holland, on the other. Begun in 1689 under the
leadership of the new king of England, William III., its object
was to put a check on the ambitious designs of Louis XIV., and
it raged in the Netherlands, the Rhineland, Italy, Ireland
and Spain, in India and America and on the sea (see GRAND
ALLIANCE, WAR OF THE). Negotiations for peace had begun in
1696, but they were soon broken off, William III. and the
English parliament at this time refusing to treat except " with
our swords in our hands." But in May 1697 they were renewed
under the mediation of the king of Sweden. The French repre-
sentatives had their headquarters at the Hague and those
of the allies at Delft, the conferences between them taking
place at Ryswick. For the first few weeks no result was reached,
and in June William III. and Louis XIV., the protagonists
in the struggle, each appointed one representative to meet
together privately. The two chosen were William Bentinck,
earl of Portland, and marshal Boufflers, and they soon drew up
the terms of an agreement, to which, however, the emperor
Leopold I. and the king of Spain would not assent. But in a
short time Spain gave way, and on the 2oth of September 1697
a treaty of peace was signed between France and the three
powers, England, Spain and Holland, the Empire still holding
aloof. William then persuaded Leopold to make peace, and a
treaty between France and the Empire was signed on the joth
of October following.
The basis of the peace was that all towns and districts seized
since the treaty of Nijmwegen in 1679 should be restored. Then
France surrendered Freiburg, Breisach and Philippsburg to
Germany, although she kept Strassburg. On the other hand,
she regained Pondicherry and Nova Scotia, while Spain recovered
Catalonia, and the barrier fortresses of Mons, Luxemburg and
Courtrai. The duchy of Lorraine, which for many years had
been in the possession of France, was restored to Leopold Joseph,
a son of duke Charles V., and the Dutch were to be allowed to
garrison some of the chief fortresses in the Netherlands, including
Namur and Ypres. Louis undertook to recognize William as
king of England, and promised to give no further assistance to
James II.; he abandoned his interference in the electorate of
Cologne and also the claim which he had put forward to some
of the lands of the Rhenish Palatinate.
For further details see C. W. von Koch and F. Scholl, Histoire
abregee des traites de paix (1817-18); A. Moetjens, Actes et memoires
de la paix de Ryswick (The Hague, 1725); A. Legrelle, Notes et
documents sur la paix de Ryswick (Lille, 1894); and H. Vast, Les
Grands Traites du rkgne de Louis XIV (Paris, 1893-99). See also
L. von Ranke, Englische Geschichte, English translation as History of
England (Oxford, 1875).
RZHEV, or RZHOV, a town of Russia, in the government of
Tver, 76 m. S.W. of the town of Tver, occupying the bluffs
on both banks of the Volga (here 350 ft. wide) near the con-
fluence of the Vazuza. Pop. (1900) 31,514. It is the terminus
of a branch line (85 m.) from the St Petersburg & Moscow
railway, and is the centre of a large transit trade between
Orel, Kaluga and Smolensk and the ports of St Petersburg and
Riga. In the I2th century Rzhev belonged to the principality
of Smolensk. Under the rulers of Novgorod it became from
1225 a subordinate principality, and in the isth century the
two portions of the town were held by two independent princes.
S SAAR
953
Sthe twenty-first letter of the Phoenician alphabet, is one
of the four sibilants which that alphabet possesses. In
the Phoenician alphabet it takes a form closely resem-
bling the English W, and this when moved through an
angle of 90 is the ordinary Greek sigma 2. In Phoenician itself
and in the other Semitic alphabets the position of the middle legs
of the W is altered so that the symbol takes such forms as \JX or V
oruj ,ultimatelyendingsometimesinaformlikeKlaidsideways,^
In Greek, where S is the twentieth letter of the alphabet, or,
if the merely numerical rand ? are excluded, the eighteenth,
another form or ( according to the direction of the writing is
also widespread. This, which is the only form of the earliest
period at Cumae, where it is also found more rounded ^ , is
the origin of the Latin S and its descendants. The development
from the angular to the curved shape of S may be seen in its
occurrences on the early cippus found in the Roman Forum in
1899. Apart from doubtful instances it is there six times clearly
engraved; four of the instances are angular, the other two are
more or less rounded. The Semitic name of the symbol is shin;
the Greek name sigma may mean merely the hissing letter and
may be a genuine Greek derivative from the verb ffifoj, hiss.
Some, however, see in it a corruption of the Semitic name
samekh, the letter which corresponds in alphabetic position
and in shape to the Greek (x). The Dorian Greeks, however,
as Herodotus tells us (i. 139), called that letter san which the
Ionian Greeks called sigma; san seems more likely to be an
attempt to reproduce the Semitic name. Herodotus says nothing
of a difference in shape, but most authorities regard the form M
which with the value of s is practically confined to Doric areas,
as being san. In the compound <raij.<j>6pas, san like koppa
(/iojnrcmas) was known to the Athenians as a brand for highbred
horses (cf. Aristophanes, Clouds, 122, 1298, 23, 438). For the
symbol T which was used at Ephesus and other places in Asia
Minor and elsewhere for the sound represented by -aa- in Ionic
Greek, by -TT- in Attic, see ALPHABET. Further points of diffi-
culty in connexion with the sibilants are discussed under X and Z.
The pronunciation of s was originally unvoiced: in English it is
often used for the voiced sound as well, compare lose with loose,
house with houses. At the end of words the voiced sound is often
written with -s, the unvoiced with -ss as in his and hiss. In
other cases the pronunciation can be ascertained only from the
context, as in use, unvoiced for the substantive, voiced for the
verb. Sometimes a difference of meaning is indicated by difference
of spelling though the sounds in the two words are identical,
as in furs and furze. The voiced form of s (i.e. z) readily passes
into r in many languages: compare the Eng. hare with the Ger.
Hase, the Eng. ear and Lat. auris with the Gothic auso and
Lithuanian ausis, " ear." Here also should be mentioned the
sound sh, which, like th, is not a combination of sounds though
written with two symbols. Hence in transcription from foreign
languages and in works on phonetics it is represented by $ or I.
The difference in formation between i' and f is that the former
is dental or alveolar, the latter is produced farther back and has
at least two varieties. In the usual Eng. sh the tip of the tongue
is bent backwards so that the tongue becomes spoon-shaped.
The voiced sound to this is generally written z as in azure, but
sometimes s as in pleasure. The sound of sh is also sometimes
represented by s, as in sure, sugar. This is occasioned by the
y-sound with which u now begins, and is carried further in dialect
than in the literary language, sue and suit, for example, being
pronounced in Scotland like the Eng. shoe and shoot. The
sh sound is sometimes not even written with a sibilant, as in
the pronunciation of the ci and ti of words like rhetorician and
nation. (P. Gi.)
SAALE, a river of Germany, a tributary of the Elbe, rises
between Bayreuth and Hof in the N.E. of Bavaria, springing out
of the Fichtelgebirge at an altitude of 2390 ft. It pursues a
winding course in a northerly direction, and after passing the
manufacturing town of Hof, flows amid well-wooded hills until
it reaches the pleasant vale of Saalberg. Here it receives the
waters of the Schwarza, in whose romantic valley lies the castle
of Schwarzburg, the ancestral scat of the princes of the ruling
house of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt. From Saalberg the Saale
enters the dreary limestone formation of Thuringia, sweeps
beneath the barren, conical hills lying opposite to the university
town of Jena, passes the pleasant watering-place of Rosen,
washes numerous vine-clad hills and, after receiving at Naumburg
the deep and navigable Unstrut, flows past Weissenfels, Merse-
burg, Halle, Bernburg and Kalbe, and joins the Elbe just above
Barby, after traversing a distance of 226 m. It is navigable
from Naumburg, 100 m., with the help of sluices, and is con-
nected with the Elster near Leipzig by a canal. The soil of the
lower part of its valley is of exceptional fertility, and produces,
amongst other crops, large supplies of sugar beetroot. Among
its affluents are the Elster, Regnitz and Orla on the right bank,
and the Ilm, Unstrut, Salza, Wipper and Bode on the left. Its
upper course is rapid. Its valley, down to Merseburg, is pictur-
esque, and even romantic, because of the many castles which
crown the enclosing heights. It is sometimes called the Thuringian
or Saxon Saale, to distinguish it from another Saale (70 m. long),
a right-bank tributary of the Main, in the Bavarian district of
Lower Franconia.
See Hertzberg, Die historische Bedeutung des Saaletals (Halle,
1895)-
SAALFELD, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Saxe-
Meiningen, picturesquely situated on the left bank of the Saale,
24 m. S. of Weimar and 77 S.W. of Leipzig by rail. Pop. (1905)
13,245. One of the most ancient towns in Thuringia, Saalfeld,
once the capital of the extinct duchy of Saxe-Saalfeld, is still
partly surrounded by old walls and bastions, and contains some
interesting medieval buildings, among them being a palace,
built in 1679 on the site of the Benedictine abbey of St Peter,
which was destroyed during the Peasants' War. Other notable
edifices are the Gothic church of St John, dating from the
beginning of the i3th century; the Gothic town hall, completed
in 1537; and, standing on an eminence above the river, the
Kitzerstein, a palace said to have been originally erected by
the German king Henry I., although the present building is not
older than the i6th century. But perhaps the most interesting
relic of the past in Saalfeld is the striking ruin of the Hoher
Schwarm, called later the Sorbenburg, said to have been erected
in the 7th century. Saalfeld is situated in one of the busiest parts
of Meiningen and has a number of prosperous industries, including
the manufacture of machinery, bricks, colours, malt, cigars,
hosiery and vinegar. Other industries are brewing, printing
and iron-founding, and there are ochre and iron mines in the
neighbourhood.
Saalfeld grew up around the abbey founded in 1075 by Anno,
archbishop of Cologne, and the palace built by the emperor
Frederick I. In 1389 it was purchased by the landgrave of
Thuringia, and with this district it formed part of Saxony.
In 1680 it became the capital of a separate duchy, but in 1699 it
was united with Saxe-Coburg, passing to Saxe-Meiningen in
1826. On the loth of October :8o6 a battle took place near
Saalfeld between the French and the Prussians, during which
Prince Louis Ferdinand of Prussia was killed.
See Wagner and Grobe, Chronik der Stadt Saalfeld (Saalfeld,
1865-1867), and Thummel, Kriegstage aus Saaljelds Vergangenhett
(Berlin, 1882).
SAAR, a river of Germany, a right-bank tributary of the
Mosel. It rises in the Donon, an eminence of the Vosges, close to
the Franco-German frontier, and flows at first north, then
north-west and finally north again to its junction with the Mosel
SAARBRUCKEN SAAVEDRA FAJARDO
954
at Konz. Its length is 143 m. The middle part of its valley
is an important industrial district, with coal-mines and a variety
of manufactures; the Saar wines are also well known. The
principal towns on the Saar are Saargemlind, Saarbriicken and
St Johann (which face each other across the river), Saarlouis and
Saarburg. The river is navigable up to Saargemiind, a distance
of 75 m. From here there is connexion with the Rhine-
Marne canal by way of the Saar canal, built in 1862, and 40 m.
in length, following the Saar valley upwards for about half that
distance.
SAARBRUCKEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine
Province, on the left bank of the Saar, a navigable tributary of
the Mosel, is situated 49 m. by rail N.E. of Metz, at the south
end of one of the most extensive coal-fields in Europe, to which
it has given its name. Pop. (1885) 10,453; (i9s) 26,944.
With the towns of St Johann, immediately opposite on the right
bank of the river, and Malstatt-Burbach, Saarbrucken forms a
single community, the three places having been united in 1909.
Saarbrucken has four Protestant churches, a Roman Catholic
and an Old Catholic church, and a town hall adorned with
paintings by Anton von Werner, illustrating episodes of the war
of 1870. Other buildings are the castle, until 1793 the residence
of the princes of the house of Nassau-Saarbriicken; a gym-
nasium, founded in 1615, and a celebrated mining academy.
The industries of St Johann-Saarbrticken include wool-spinning,
brewing, and the manufacture of leather, tobacco, chemicals
and iron wares. The trade is chiefly connected with the produce
of the neighbouring coal-mines and that of the numerous im-
portant iron and glass works of the district. The Saarbrucken
coal-fields extend over 70 sq. m., are estimated to yield about
10,000,000 tons annually, and give employment to nearly
50,000 men.
Saarbrucken owes its name to a bridge which existed in
Roman times. Its early lords were the bishops of Metz, the
counts of the lower Saargau, and the counts of the Ardennes.
From 1381 to 1793 it belonged to the counts of Nassau-Saar-
briicken, and then, after having been in the possession of France
from 1801 to 1815, it passed to Prussia. In the Franco-Prussian
War Saarbrucken was seized by the French on the 2nd of August
1870, but the first German victory on the heights of Spicheren,
3 m. to the south, relieved it four days later.
See Kollner, Geschichte der Stddte Saarbrucken und St Johann
(Saarbrucken, 1865); Ruppersberg, Geschichte der ehemaligen
Grafschaft Saarbrucken (Saarbrucken, 1899-1903); and H. Kniebe,
Bilder aus Saarbruckens Vergangenheit (Saarbrucken, 1894).
SAARBURG, a town of Germany, in the imperial province of
Alsace-Lorraine, on the Saar, 44 m. N.W. from Strassburg by
rail. Pop. (1905) 9818. Its chief industries are the manufacture
of watch springs, gloves, lace, beer and machinery, and it has a
trade in grain. Saarburg, which has been identified with the
Pans Saravi of the Romans, belonged to France from 1661 to
1871, its earlier owners having been the bishops of Metz and the
dukes of Lorraine.
Another Saarburg is a town in Prussia at the confluence of the
Saar and the Leuk. Pop. (1905) 2186. It has the ruins of a
castle, formerly belonging to the electors of Trier, and is still
partly surrounded by walls. It has manufactures of bells,
furniture and cigars, other industries being tanning and vine-
growing. Saarburg dates from the loth century and received
municipal rights in 1291. From 1036 until 1727, when it passed
into the possession of France, it belonged to the electors of Trier.
It became Prussian in 1815.
See Hewer, Geschichte der Burg und Stadt Saarburg (Trier, 1862).
SAARGEMUND (Fr. Sarreguemines) , a town of Germany, in
the imperial province of Alsace-Lorraine, situated at the con-
fluence of the Blies and the Saar, 40 m. E. of Metz, 60 m. N.W. of
Strassburg by rail, and at the junction of lines to Trier and
Saarburg. Pop. (1905) 14,932. It carries on considerable
manufactures of faience, plush, velvet, leather, porcelain and
earthenware, and is a chief depot for the papier-mach6 boxes,
mostly snuff-boxes, which are made in great quantities in the
neighbourhood.
Saargemiind, originally a Roman settlement, obtained civic
rights early in the I3th century. In 1297 it was ceded by the
count of Saarbrucken to the duke of Lorraine, and passed with
Lorraine in 1766 to France, being transferred to Germany in
1871.
See Thomire, Notes historiques sur Sarreguemines (Strassburg,
1887); and Box, Notice sur le pays de la Saare (Nancy, 1903).
SAARLOUIS, a town and former fortress of Germany, in the
Prussian Rhine Province, situated in a fertile district on the
left bank of the Saar, and on the railway from Saarbrucken to
Trier, 40 m. S. of the latter. Pop. (1905) 8313. The town is well
laid out and has spacious streets and a handsome market square.
It contains a Roman Catholic and a Protestant church, a town
hall, the walls of the council chamber in which are hung with
Gobelins, the gift of Louis XIV., a classical school and a hospital.
There are coal-mines in the vicinity, and the town has consider-
able manufactures of porcelain, enamel wares and leather, as well
as a brisk trade in cattle and grain.
Saarlouis was founded in 1681 by Louis XIV. of France, and
was fortified by Vauban in 1680-1685. By the peace of Paris,
in 1815, it was ceded to the allies and by them was made over to
Prussia. The fortifications were dismantled in 1889. Marshal
Ney was born here.
See Niessen, Geschichte des Kreises Saarlouis (Saarlouis, 1893 and
1897); and Baltzer, Historische Notizen uber die Stadt Saarlouis
(Trier, 1865).
SAAVEDRA, ANGEL DE, DUKE OF RIVAS (1791-1865),
Spanish poet and politician, was born at Cordova on the igth of
March 1791. He fought in the war of independence, was a
prominent member of the advanced Liberal party from 1820 to
1823, and in the latter year was condemned to death. He
escaped to London and lived successively in Italy, Malta and
France, until the amnesty of 1834, when he returned to Spain,
shortly afterwards succeeding his brother as duke of Rivas.
In 1835 he became minister of the interior under Isturiz, and
along with his chief had again to leave the country. Returning
in 1837, he joined the moderate party, became prime minister,
and was subsequently ambassador at Paris and Naples. He
died on the 22nd of June 1865. In 1813 he published Ensayos
poelicos, and between that date and his first exile several of his
tragedies (the most notable being Alatar, 1814, and Lanuza, 1822)
were put upon the stage. Traces of foreign influence are observ-
able in El Moro Expdsito (1833), a narrative poem dedicated to
John Hookham Frere; these are still more marked in Don
Aharo 6 La Fuerza del sino (first played on the 22nd of March
1835), a drama of historical importance inasmuch as it established
the new French romanticism in Spain.
BIBLIOGRAPHY .Obras completas del Duque de Rivas (Madrid,
1894-1904); L. A. deCueto, " Discurso," in Memorias de la academia
espanola (Madrid, 1870); M. Canete, Escritores espanoles e hispano-
americanos (Madrid, 1884) ; J. Valera in El Aleneo (Madrid, December
1888-February 1889) ; E. Pineyro, El Romanticismo en Espana (Paris,
1904).
SAAVEDRA FAJARDO, DIEGO DE (1584-1648), diplomatist
and man of letters, was born of a noble family at Aigezares
(Murcia) on the 6th of May 1584. Educated for the church at
Salamanca, he took orders, and in 1606 was appointed secretary
to Cardinal Caspar Borgia, the Spanish ambassador at Rome.
Ultimately he became Spanish plenipotentiary at Regensburg
in 1636 and at Minister in 1645. He returned to Spain in 1646
and took up the post of member of the council of the Indies to
which he had been nominated in 1636, but shortly afterwards
retired to a monastery, where he died in 1648. In 1640 he
published his Empresas politicas, 6 idea de un principe politico
cristiano, a hundred short essays on the education of a prince;
these were written primarily for the son of Philip IV. Its
sententious style is still admired in Spain. It passed through a
number of editions and was translated in several languages,
the English version being by Astry (2 vols., 8vo, London, 1700).
An unfinished historical work, entitled Corona gdlica, castellana,
y austriaca politicamenie ilustrada, appeared in 1646. Another
work ascribed to Saavedra, the Reptiblica literaria, was pub-
lished posthumously in 1670; it is a satirical discussion on some
of the leading characters in the ancient and modern world of
letters.
SAAZ SABAEANS
955
Collected editions of his works appeared at Antwerp in 1677-1678,
and again at Madrid in 1789-1790; see also vol. xxv. of the Bibl. de
aut. esp. (1853).
SAAZ (Czech Zatec), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 64 m.
N.W. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 16,168, mostly German.
It lies on the Eger, which is spanned here by a suspension bridge,
210 ft. long, which is the oldest of its kind in Bohemia, having
been constructed in 1826. It possesses several ancient churches,
of which one is said to date from 1206, and a town hall built
in 1559. Saaz is the centre of the extensive hop trade of the
neighbourhood. In early times it was the seat of a royal count
(2upan orgaugraf). Acoat-of-arms was given to the inhabitants
by Ladislaus for their courage during the storming of Milan;
and the place is mentioned as a royal town under Ottokar II.
From the outbreak of the Hussite Wars to the Thirty Years'
War Saaz was Hussite or Protestant, but after the battle of the
White Mountain (1620) the greater part of the Bohemian in-
habitants left the town, which became German and Roman
Catholic.
SABADELL, a town of north-eastern Spain, in the province
of Barcelona; on the river Ripoll and on the Barcelona-Sara-
gossa railway. Pop. (1900) 23,294. The town has handsome
modern public buildings, including the town hall, schools for
primary and higher education, hospitals and theatres. Cloth,
linen, paper, flour and brandy are manufactured, and there
are iron foundries and saw-mills. About half the inhabitants
are employed in the textile factories. Sabadell is said to be the
Roman Sebendunum, but in Spanish annals it is not noticed
until the i3th century.
SABAEANS. The ancient name of the people of Yemen
(<?..) was Saba (Saba' with final hemza); and the oldest notices
of them are in the Hebrew Scriptures. The list of the sons of
Joktan in Gen. x. 26-29 contains in genealogical form a record
of peoples of South Arabia which must rest on good informa-
tion from Yemen itself. Many of these names are found on
the inscriptions or in the Arabic geographers Sheba (Saba'),
Hazarmaveth (Hadramut), Abimael (Abime'athtar), Jobab
(Yuhaibib, according to Halevy), Jerah (Warah of the geo-
graphers), Joktan (Arab Qahtan; waqata = qahata). On the
other hand, the names of some famous nations mentioned on
the inscriptions are lacking, from which it may be concluded that
they did not rise to prominence till a later date. Saba' (Sheba)
itself, which was in later times the chief name, has in Gen.
x. 28 a subordinate place; it was perhaps only a collective
name for the companies of merchants who conducted the South-
Arabian export trade (the root saba' in the inscriptions meaning
to make a trading journey), and in that case would be of such
late origin as to hold one of the last places in a list that has
genealogical form. Two other accounts in Genesis, originally
independent, give supplementary information drawn from the
Sabaean colonies, the stations and factories established to
facilitate trade through the desert. The inscriptions of Al-'Ola
published by D. H. Miiller show that there were Minaean colonies
in North Arabia. Other South Arabs, and especially the Sabaeans,
doubtless also planted settlers on the northern trade routes,
who in process of time united into one community with their
North-Arab kinsmen and neighbours. Thus we can understand
how in Gen. xxv. 2-3 Sheba and Dedan appear among the North-
Arab " sons of Keturah." Again, the Sabaeans had colonies
in Africa and there mingled with the black Africans; and so in
Gen. x. 7 Sheba and Dedan, the sons of Raamah (Raghma),
appear in the genealogy of the Cushites. With the Ethiopians
Saba' means " men," a clear indication of their Sabaean descent.
The queen of Sheba who visited Solomon may have come with
a caravan trading to Gaza, to see the great king whose ships
plied on the Red Sea. The other biblical books do not mention
the Sabaeans except incidentally, in allusion to their trade in
incense and perfumes, gold and precious stones, ivory, ebony,
and costly garments (Jer. vi. 20; Ezek. xxvii. 15, 20, 22 seq.;
Isa. Ix. 6; Job vi. 19). These passages attest the wealth and
trading importance of Saba from the days of Solomon to those
of Cyrus. When the prologue to Job speaks of plundering
Sabaeans (and Chaldaeans) on the northern skirts of Arabia,
these may be either colonists or caravans, which, like the old
Phoenician and Greek traders, combined on occasion robbery
with trade. The prologue may not be historical; but it is to
be presumed that it deals with historical possibilities, and is
good evidence thus far.
The biblical picture of the Sabaean kingdom is confirmed
and supplemented by the Assyrian inscriptions. Tiglath-
Pileser II. (733 B.C.) tells us that Teima, Saba', and Haipa
( = Ephah, Gen. xxv. 4 and Isa. Ix. 6) paid him tribute of gold,
silver and much incense. Similarly Sargon (715 B.C.) in his
Annals mentions the tribute of Shamsi, queen of Arabia, and
of Itamara of the land of Saba' gold and fragrant spices,
horses and camels.
The earliest Greek accounts of the Sabaeans and other South-
Arabian peoples are of the 3rd century B.C. Eratosthenes
(276-194 B.C.) in Strabo (xv. 4. 2) says that the extreme south
of Arabia, over against Ethiopia, is inhabited by four great
nations the Minaeans (MtivaToi, M^vaToi; Ma'In of the
inscriptions) on the Red Sea, whose chief city is Carna; next
to them the Sabaeans, whose capital is Mariaba (Mariab of the
inscriptions); then the Catabanes (Qataban of the inscriptions),
near the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, the seat of whose king is
Tamna; fourthly, and farthest east, the people of Hadramut
(Chatramotitae), with their city Sabota. The Catabanes pro-
duce frankincense and Hadramut myrrh, and there is a trade in
these and other spices with merchants who make the journey
from Aelana (Elath, on the Gulf of 'Akaba) to Minaea in seventy
days; the Gabaeans (the Gaba'an of the inscriptions, Pliny's
Gebanitae) take forty days to go to Hadramut. This short
but important and well-informed notice is followed a little later
by that of Agatharchides (120 B.C.), who speaks in glowing terms
of the wealth and greatness of the Sabaeans, but seems to have
less exact information than Eratosthenes. He knows only the
Sabaeans and thinks that Saba is the name of their capital.
He mentions, however, the " happy islands " beyond the straits,
the station of the Indian trade ( 103). Artemidorus (100 B.C.),
quoted by Strabo, gives a similar account of the Sabaeans and
their capital Mariaba, of their wealth and trade, adding the
characteristic feature that each tribe receives the wares and
passes them on to its neighbours as far as Syria and Mesopotamia.
The accounts of the wealth of the Sabaeans brought back
by traders and travellers excited the cupidity of Rome, and
Augustus entrusted Aelius Gallus with an expedition to South
Arabia, of which we have an authentic account in Strabo (xvi.
4. 22). He hoped for assistance from the friendly Nabataeans;
but, as they owed everything to their position as middlemen
for the South-Arabian trade, which a direct communication
between Rome and the Sabaeans would have ruined, their
viceroy Syllaeus, who did not dare openly to refuse help, sought
to frustrate the emperor's scheme by craft. Instead of showing
the Romans the caravan route, he induced them to sail from
Cleopatris to Leucocome, and then led them by a circuitous
way through waterless regions, so that they reached South
Arabia too much weakened to effect anything. But the expedition
brought back a considerable knowledge of the country and its
products, and the Roman leader seems to have perceived that
the best entrance to South Arabia was from the havens on the
coast. So at least we may conclude when, a hundred years
later (A.D. 77, as Dillmann has shown), in the Periplus of an
anonymous contemporary of Pliny ( 23) we read that Charibael
of Zafar, " the legitimate sovereign of two nations, the Homerites
and Sabaeans," maintained friendly relations with Rome by
frequent embassies and gifts. Pliny's account of Yemen, too,
must be largely drawn from the expedition of Gallus, though he
also used itineraries of travellers to India, like the Periplus
Maris Erythraei just quoted.
Nautical improvements, and the discovery that the south-
west monsoon (Hippalus) gave sure navigation at certain seasons,
increased the connexion of the West with South Arabia, but
also wrought such a change in the trade as involved a revolution
in the state of that country. The hegemony of the Sabaeans
956
SABAEANS
now yields to that of a new people, the Homerites or Himyar,
and the king henceforth bears the title " king of the Himyarites
and Sabaeans." Naval expeditions from Berenice and Myos-
hormus to the Arabian ports brought back the information
on which Claudius Ptolemy constructed his map, which still
surprises us by its wealth of geographical names.
Sabaean colonies in Africa have been already mentioned.
That Abyssinia was peopled from South Arabia is proved by
its language and writing; but the difference between the two
languages is such as to imply that the settlement was very early
and that there were many centuries of separation, during which
the Abyssinians were exposed to foreign influences. New
colonies, however, seem to have followed from time to time, and,
according to the Periplus ( 16), some parts of the African coast
were under the suzerainty of the Sabaean kings as late as the
Sabaeo-Himyaritic period; the district of Azania was held for
the Sabaean monarch by the governor of Maphoritis (Ma'afir),
and was exploited by a Sabaean company. Naturally difficulties
would arise between Abyssinia and the Sabaean power. In the
inscription of Adulis (2nd century) the king of Ethiopia claims to
have made war in Arabia from Leucocome to the land of the
Sabaean king. And the Ethiopians were not without successes,
for on the Greek inscription of Axum (c. the middle of the 4th
century) King Aeizanes calls himself " king of the Axumites, the
Homerites, and Raidan, and of the Ethiopians, Sabaeans, and
Silee." More serious was the conflict under Dhu-Nu'as (Dhu-
Nuwas of the Arab historians) in the beginning of the 6th century;
it ended in the overthrow of the Himyarite king and the sub-
jugation of Yemen, which was governed by a deputy of the
Axumite king, till (about 570) the conquerors were overthrown
by a small band of Persian adventurers.
With the exception of what the South-Arabian Hamdani
relates of his own observation or from authentic tradition, the
Mahommedan Arabic accounts of South Arabia and Sabaea are of
little worth. The great event they dwell on is the bursting of the
dam of Ma'rib, which led to the emigration northwards of the
Yemenite tribes. We may be sure that this event was not the
cause but the consequence of the decline of the country. When
the inland trade fell away and the traffic of the coast towns took
the sea route, the ancient metropolis and the numerous inland
emporia came to ruin, while the many colonies in the north were
broken up and their population dispersed. To this the Koran
alludes in its oracular style, when it speaks (xxxiv. 17) of well-
known cities which God appointed as trading stations between
the Sabaeans and the cities He had blessed (Egypt and Syria),
and which He destroyed because of their sins.
Inscriptions. This abstract of the history of Yemen from ancient
sources can now be verified and supplemented from inscriptions.
Doubts as to the greatness and importance of the Sabaean state, as
attested by the ancients, and as to the existence of a special Sabaean
writing, called " Musnad," of which the Arabs tell, were still current
when Niebuhr, in the l8th century, brought to Europe the first
account of the existence of ancient inscriptions (not seen by him-
self) in the neighbourhood of Yarim. Following this hint, Seetzen,
in 1810, was able to send to Europe, from porphyry blocks near
Yarim, the first copies of Sabaean inscriptions. They could not,
however, be read. But the inscriptions found by Wellsted in 1834
at Hisn Ghorab were deciphered by Gesenius and Rodiger. Soon
after this the courageous explorer Arnaud discovered the ancient
Mariab, the royal city of the Sabaeans, and at great risk copied
fifty-six inscriptions and took a plan of the walls, the dam, and the
temple to the east of the city. These, with other inscriptions on
stone and on bronze plates brought home by Englishmen, found a
cautious and sound interpreter in Osiander. The historical and
geographical researches of Kremer and Sprenger gave a fresh impulse
to inquiry. Then Joseph Halevy made his remarkable journey
through the Jauf, visiting districts and ruins which no European
foot had trod since the expedition of Gallus, and returned with
almost 800 inscriptions. Of more recent travellers S. Langer and
E. Glaser have done most for epigraphy, while Manzoni is to be
remembered for his excellent geographical work.
The alphabet of the Sabaean inscriptions is most closely akin to
the Ethiopia, but is purely consonantal, without the modifications
in the consonantal forms which Ethiopic has devised to express
vowels. There are twenty-nine letters, one more than in Arabic,
Samech and Sin being distinct forms, as in Hebrew. This alphabet,
which is probably the parent of the South-Indian character, is un-
doubtedly derived from the so-called Phoenician alphabet, the
connecting link being the forms of the Safa inscriptions and of the
Thamudaean inscriptions found by Doughty and Euting. Of the
latter we can determine twenty-six characters, while a twenty-
seventh probably corresponds to Arabic ? (t). A sign for ^jt
also probably existed, but does not occur in the known inscriptions.
In the Thamudaean and Sabaean alphabets the twenty-two original
Phoenician characters are mostly similar, and so are the differentiated
forms for and , while O, J, and probably also Jo and ^, have
been differentiated in many ways. This seems to imply that
the two alphabets had a common history up to a certain point,
but parted company before they were fully developed. The Tha-
mudaean inscriptions are locally nearer to Phoenicia, and the letters
are more like the Phoenician; this character therefore appears to
be the link connecting Phoenician with Sabaean writing. It may
be noticed that a Thamudaean legend has been found on a Baby-
lonian cylinder of about 1000 B.C., and it is remarkable that the
Sabaean safara, " write," seems to be borrowed from Assyrian
sha{arti.
The language of the inscriptions is South Semitic, forming a link
between the North Arabic and the Ethiopic, but is much nearer
the former than the latter. Of the two dialects commonly called
Sabaean and Minaean the latter might be better called Hadramitic,
inasmuch as it is the dialect of the inscriptions found in Ha^ramut,
and the Minaeans seem undoubtedly to have entered the Jauf from
Hacjramut.
The inscriptions not only give names of nations corresponding
to those in the Bible and in classical authors, but throw a good
deal of fresh light on the political history of Yemen. The inscrip-
tions and coins give the names of more than forty-five Sabaean
kings. The chronology is still vague, since only a few very late
inscriptions are dated by an era and the era itself is not certain.
But the rulers named can be assigned to three periods, according
as they bear the title " mukrab of Saba," " king of Saba," or " king
of Saba and Raidan." The last, as we know from the Axum in-
scriptions, are the latest, and those with the title " mukrab " must
be the earliest. Four princes of the oldest period bear the name
Yatha'amar, and one of these may, with the greatest probability,
be held to be the " Itamara Sabai " who paid tribute to Sargon of
Assyria. This helps us to the age of some buildings also. The
famous dam of Ma'rib and its sluices were the work of this ancient
prince structures which Arnaud in the igth century found in the
same state in which Hamdani saw them a thousand years ago.
The power of these old sovereigns extended far beyond Ma'rib, for
their names are found on buildings and monuments in the Jauf.
We cannot tell when the kings took the place of the mukrab,
but the Sabaeo-Himyaritic period seems to begin with, or a little
after, the expedition of Aelius Gallus. A fragmentary inscription
of Ma'rib (Br. Mus., 33) was made by " Ilsharh Yahghb and Ya'zil
Bayyin, the two kings of Saba and Raidan, sons of Far'm Yanhab,
king of Saba." If this Ilsharh is identical with the 'IXiaaapoj of
Strabo, king of Mariaba at the time of the Roman invasion, the
inscription preserves a trace of the influence of that event on the
union of the two kingdoms.
The inscriptions of the latest period present a series of dates 669,
640, 582, 573, 385 of an unknown era. Reinaud thought of the
Seleucid era, which is not impossible; but Halevy observes that
the fortress of Mawiyyat (now Hisn Ghorab) bears the date 640,
and is said to have been erected " when the Abyssinians overran
the country and destroyed the king of Himyar and his princes."
Referring this to the death of Dhu Nuwas (A.D. 525), Halevy fixes
115 B.C. as the epoch of the Sabaean era. This ingenious combina-
tion accords well with the circumstance that the oldest dated
inscription, of the year 385 (A.D. 270), mentions 'Athtar, Shams and
other heathen deities, while the inscriptions of 582 (A.D. 467) and
573 (A.D. 458), so far as they can be read, contain no name of a
heathen god, but do speak of a god Rahmanan- that is, the Hebrew
Rahman, " the compassionate " (Arabic, al-Rahman), agreeably
with the fact that Jewish and Christian influences were powerful in
Arabia in the 4th century. The only objections to Halevy's hypo-
thesis are (l) that we know nothing of an epoch-making event in
115 B.C., and (2) that it is a little remarkable that the latest dated
inscription, of the year 669 (A.D. 554), should_ be twenty-five years
later than the Abyssinian conquest. An inscription found by
Wrede at 'Obne is dated " in the year 120 of the Lion in Heaven,
which we must leave the astronomers to explain.
The inscriptions throw considerable light not only on the Sabaeans
but on other South-Arabian nations. The Minaeans, whose import-
ance has been already indicated, appear in the inscriptions as only
second to the Sabaeans, and with details which have put an end to
much guesswork, e.g. to the idea that they are connected with Mina
near Mecca. Their^capital, Ma'in, lay in the heart of the Sabaean
country, forming a sort of enclave on the right hand of the road
that leads northward from Ma'rib. South-west of Ma'in, on the
west of the mountain range and commanding the road from San'a
to the north, lies Baraqish, anciently Yathil, which the inscriptions
and Arabic geographers ahvays mention with Ma'in. The third
Minaean fortress, probably identical with the Kipva of the Greeks,
lies in the middle of the northern Jauf, and north of the other two.
SABAEANS
957
The three Minaean citadels He nearly in this position (.-.), with old
Sabaean settlements (Raiam) all round them, and even with some
Sabaean places (e.g. Nask and Kamna) within the triangle they
form. The dialect of the Minaeans is sharply distinguished from
the Sabaeans (see above). The inscriptions have yielded the names
of twenty-seven Minaean kings, who were quite independent, and,
as it would seem, not always friends of the Sabaeans, for neither
dynasty mentions the other on its inscriptions, while minor kings
and kingdoms are freely mentioned by both, presumably when they
stood under the protection of the one or the other respectively.
The Minaeans were evidently active rivals of the Sabaean influence,
and a war between the two is once mentioned. In Hadramut
they disputed the hegemony with one another, the government
there being at one time under a Minaean, at another under a Sabaean
prince, while the language shows now the one and now the other
influence. The religions also of the two powers present many
points of agreement, with some notable differences. Thus, puzzling
as the fact appears, it is clear that the Minaeans formed a sort of
political and linguistic island in the Sabaean country. The origin
of the Minaeans from Hadramut is rendered probable by the pre-
dominance of their dialect in the inscriptions of that country (except
in that of riisn Ghorab), by the rule, already mentioned, of a Minaean
prince in ftadramut, and by Pliny's statement (H.N. xii. 63) that
frankincense was collected at Sabota (the capital of Hadramut;
inscr. map), but exported only through the Gebanites, whose
kings received custom dues on it, compared with xii. 69, where
he speaks of Minaean myrrh " in qua et Atramitica est et Geb-
banitica et Ausaritis Gebbanitarum regno," &c., implying that
Minaean myrrh was really a Hadramite and Gebanite product. All
this suggests a close connexion between the Minaeans and Hadramut ;
and from the Minaean inscriptions we know that the Gebanites
were at one time a Minaean race, and stood in high favour with the
queen of Ma'in. Thus we are led to conclude that the Minaeans
were a Hadramite settlement in the Jauf, whose object was to
secure the northern trade road for their products. We cannot but
see that their fortified posts in the north of the Sabaean kingdom
had a strategical purpose; and so Pliny (xii. 54) says, " Attingunt
et Minaei, pagus alius, per quos evehitur uno tramite angusto [from
Hadramut]. Hi primi commercium turis fecere maximeque exer-
cent, a quibus et Minaeum dictum est." Besides this road, they
had the sea-route, for, according to Pliny, their allies, the Gebanites,
held the port of Ocelis. If the Minaeans were later immigrants
from Ha<jramut, we can understand how they are not mentioned
in Gen. x. In later times, as is proved by the Minaean colony in
Al-'Ola, which Euting has revealed to us, they superseded the
Sabaeans in some parts of the north. In the 'Ola inscriptions we
read the names of Minaean kings and gods. Notable also is the
mention in I Chron. iv. 41 of the " Bedouin encampments (D'Vnit)
and the Ma'inim " smitten by the Simeonites, which may possibly
refer to the destruction of a Minaean caravan protected by these
Bedouins. The LXX. at least renders Ma'inim by Miva/ous. It seems
bold to conjecture that the Minaeans were in accord with the Romans
under Aelius Gallus, yet it is noteworthy that no Minaean town
is named among the cities which that general destroyed, though ruin
fell on Nask and Kamna, which lie inside the Minaean territory.
The inscriptions seem to indicate that the monarchies of South
Arabia were hereditary, the son generally following the father,
though not seldom the brother of the deceased came between,
apparently on the principle of seniority, which we find also in North
Arabia. Eratosthenes (in Strabo xvi. 4, 3) says that the first child
born to one of the magnates after a king came to the throne was his
designated successor; the wives of the magnates who were pregnant
at the king's accession were carefully watched, and the first child
born was brought up as heir to the kingdom. There seems to be a
mistake in the first part of this statement; what Eratosthenes will
have said is that the oldest prince after the king was the designated
successor. This law of succession explains how we repeatedly find
two kings named together among the Sabaeans, and almost always
find two amcng the Minaeans; the second king is the heir. The
principle of seniority, as we know from North Arabian history, gives
rise to intrigues and palace revolutions, and was probably often
violated in favour of the direct heir. On the other hand, it readily
leads to a limited power of election by the magnates, and in fact good
Arabian sources speak of seven electoral princes. Some inscriptions
name, besides the king, an eponymus, whose office seems to have
been priestly, his titles being dhu frarif, eponymus and rashuw,
" sacrificer." All royal inscriptions are signed by him at the beginning
and the end, and he appears with the king on coins.
Religion. In spite of the many ruins of temples and inscriptions,
the religion of the Sabaeans is obscure. Most of the many names
of gods are mere names that appear and vanish again in particular
districts and temples. Of the great national gods of the Sabaeans and
Minaeans we know a little more. The worship of the heavenly
bodies, for which there is Arabic evidence, had really a great place
in Yemen. Sun-worship seems to have been peculiar to the Sabaeans
and Hamdanites; and, if the Sabis of Sabota (Pliny) was in fact the
sun deity Shams, this must be ascribed to Sabaean influence. The
Sabaean Shams was a goddess, while the chief divinity of the
Minaeans was the god 'Athtar, a male figure, worshipped under
several forms, of which the commonest are the Eastern 'Athtar and
'Athtar DhQ Kabd. Wadd and Nikrah, the gods of love and hate, are
possibly only other forms of the two 'Athtars. The Sabaeans also
recognize 'Athtar; but with them he is superseded by Almaqah, who,
according to Hamdani, is the planet Venus, and therefore is identical
with 'Athtar. The moon-god Sin appears on an inscription of Shab-
wat; but, according to Hamdani, Haubas, " the drier," was the
Sabaean moon-god. On the Shabwat inscription 'Athtar is the
father of Sin, and it is noteworthy that these two deities also appear
as nearly related in the Babylonian legend of 'Ishtar's descent to
Hades, where 'Ishtar is conversely the daughter of the god Sin.
The mother of 'Athtar on another inscription is probably the sun.
We find also the common Semitic II (El) and a DhQ Samai answering
to the northern Ba'al Shamayim. Three gods of the inscriptions
are named in the Koran Wadd, Yaghuth and Nasr. In the god-
name Ta'lab there may be an indication of tree-worship. The many
minor deities may be passed over; but we must mention the sanc-
tuary of Riyam, with its images of the sun and moon, and, according
to tradition, an oracle. In conformity with old Semitic usage,
pilgrimages were made at definite seasons to certain deities, and the
Sabaean pilgrim month, Dhu Hijjatan, is the northern DtuYl-I.lijj.i.
The outlines, and little more, of a few of the many temples cari still
be traced. Noteworthy are the elliptic form of the chief temples
in Ma'rib and Sirwah, and the castle of Naqab-al-Hajar with its
entrances north and south.
Sacrifices and incense were offered to the gods. The names for
altar (midhbah) and sacrifice (dhibh) are common Semitic words, and
the altar of incense has among other names that of mik(ar, as in
Hebrew. A variety of spices the wealth of the land are named
on these altars, as rand, ladanum, costus, tarum, &c. Frankincense
appears as lub&n, and there are other names not yet understood.
The gods received tithes of the produce of trade and of the field, in
kind or in ingots and golden statues, and these tributes, with freewill
offerings, erected and maintained the temples. Temples and fortifi-
cations were often combined. The golden statues were votive
offerings; thus a man and his wife offer four statues for the health
of their four children, and a man offers to Dhu Samai statues of a
man and two camels, in prayer for his own health and the protection
of his camels from disease of the joints.
Their commerce brought the Sabaeans under Christian and Jewish
influence; and, though the old gods were too closely connected with
their life and trade to be readily abandoned, the great change in
the trading policy, already spoken of, seems to have affected religion
as well as the state. The inland gods lost importance with the
failure of the overland trade, and Judaism and Christianity seem
for a time to have contended for the mastery in South Arabia.
Jewish influence appears in the name Rahman (see above), while
efforts at Christiamzation seem to have gone forth from several
places at various times. According to Philostorgius, the Homerites
were converted under Constantius II. by the Indian Theophilus, who
built churches in Zafar and Aden. Another account places their
conversion in the reign of Anastasius (4^91-518). In Nejran Syrian
missionaries seem to have introduced Christianity (Noldeke). But,
as the religion of the hostile Ethiopians, Christianity found political
obstacles to its adoption in Yemen; and, as heathenism had quite
lost its power, it is intelligible that Dhu Nuwas, who was at war
with Ethiopia before the last fatal struggle, became a Jew. His
expedition against Christian Nejran had therefore political as well
as religious motives. The Ethiopian conquest rather hurt than
helped Christianity. The famous qafts (IxicXijaia) of Abraha in
San'a seems to have been looked on as a sign of foreign dominion,
and Islam found it easy to supersede Christianity in Yemen.
Coins. In older times and in many districts coins were not
used, and trade was carried on mainly by barter. Nor have there
been many great finds of coins; indeed most of the pieces in European
collections probably come from the same hoard. At the same time
the coins throw a general light on the relations of ancient Yemen.
The oldest known pieces are imitations of the Athenian mintage
of the 4th century B.C., with the legend AGE and the owl standing
on an overturned amphora. The reverse has the head of Pallas with
a Sabaean N. Of younger coins the first series has a king's head
on the reverse, and the old obverse is enriched with two Sabaean
monograms, which have been interpreted as meaning " majesty "
and " eponymus " respectively. In a second series the Greek
legend has disappeared, and, instead of the two Sabaean mono-
grams, we have the names of the king and the eponymus. A third
series shows Roman influence and must be later than the expedition
of Gallus. As the standard of the coins of Attic type is not Attic
but Babylonian, we must not think of direct Athenian influence.
The tyoe must have been introduced either from Persia or from
Phoenicia (Gaza). One remarkable tetradrachm with the Sabaean
legend Abyath'a is imitated from an Alexander of the 2nd century
B.C., the execution being quite artistic and the weight Attic. There
are also coins struck at Raydan and Harib, which must be assigned
to the Himyarite period (ist and 2nd century A.D.). The inscriptions
speak of " bright Hayyili coins in high relief," but of these none have
been found. They also speak of seta' pieces. The sela' in late
Hebrew answers to the older shekel, and the mention of it seems to
point to Jewish or Christian influence.
LITERATURE. Fresnel, Pieces rel. aux inscrr. Himyaritesdcc. par
M. Arnaud (1845); Inscriptions in the llimyariiic Character in the
958
SABAKI SABAZIUS
British Museum (London, 1863); Praetorius, Beitr. zur Erkldrung
der himjar. Inschr. (3 parts, Halle, 1872-1874); Kremer, Siid-
arabische Sage (1866); Sprenger, Alte Geogr. Ara-biens (1873); D. H.
MUller, Sudarabische Studien (Vienna, 1877); Id., Die Bureen u.
Schlosser' Sudarabiens (2 parts, Vienna, 1879-1881) (especially for
chronology and antiquities); Mordtmann and MUller, Sabdisr.he
Denkmdler (Vienna, 1883); Derenbourg, Etudes sur I'epigraphie du
Yemen (Paris, 1884); Id., Nouv. Etud. (1885); Glaser, Mitteilungen
iiber . . . sab. Inschr. (1886); Hamdanf, Geogr. d. arab. Halbinsel,
rd. D. H. MUller, vol. i. (Leiden, 1884). See also papers by Osiander,
Z.D.M.G. xix.-xx. (1864-1865); Halevy, Journ. As. (1872-1874); D.
H. MUller, Z.D.M.G. xxix.-xxxi., xxxvii.; Prideaux, Tr. Soc. Bibl.
Arch. (1873); Derenbourg, Bab. and Or. Record (London, 1887).
Later works are: D. H. MUller, Epigro-phische Denkmdler aus
A rabien (Vienna, 1 889) ; E. Glaser, Skizze der Geschichte und Geographie
Arabians &c., I Heft (Munich, 1889), vol. ii. (Berlin, 1890); Corpus
inscriptionum Semiticarum . . ., iv., Paris, vol. i. fasc. I (1889), 2 (1892),
3(1900), 4(1908) ; Fr.Homme\,AufsatzeundAbhandluneen(i8<)2 sqq.) ;
Fr. Hommel, Sudarabische Chrestomathic (Munich, 1893) ; I. H. Mordt-
mann, Himjarische Jnschriften und Altertumer in denkgl. Museen zu
Berlin (Berlin, 1893); H. Winckler, Altorientalische Forschungen
(" das Land Musri ); D. H. MUller, Epigraphische Denkmdler aus
Abessinien (Vienna, 1894); E. Glaser, Die Abessinier in Arabien und
Afrika (Munich, 1895) ; J.H. Mordtmann, Musee Imperial Ottoman, &c.
(Constantinople, 1895); D. H. MUller, " Arabia " m Pauly-Wissowa,
Realencyclopadie des klassischen Altertums, i. 344-359 (1897); J. H.
Mordtmann, Beitrdge zur mindischen Epigraphik (Weimar, 1897) ; E.
Glaser, Zwei Inschnften iiber den Dambruch von Mdrib; D. H. MUller,
Sudarabische Altertumer im kunsthistorischen Hofmuseum (Vienna,
1899); M. Lidzbarski in Ephemeris (1901 sqq.); O. Weber, Studien
zur siidarabischen Altertumskunde, i.-iii. (1901-1908); H. Grimme,
" Verschiedene Aufsatze " in O.L.Z., &c.; D. Nielsen, Die alt-
arabische Mondreligion (1904); D. Nielsen, Neue Katabanische
Inschriften (1906); E. Glaser, Altjemenische Nachrichten, vol. i.
(1906); M. Hartman, " SUdarabisches," i.-viii., in O.L.Z. (1907-
1908); Melanges H. Derenbourg (Paris, 1909); M. Hartman, Die
arabische Frage mil einem Versuche der Archaologie Semens (Halle,
1908) ; D. Nielsen, Der Siidarabische Gott Ilmekah (1909) ; O. Weber,
" Gottes Symbole auf sUdarabischen Denkmalern " in the Hilprecht-
Buch (1909), 269-280; cf. also ARABIA, AXUM.
The lexical material, in so far as it touches the Hebrew, was in-
corporated by D. H. MUller in the ioth-i2th edition of the Gesenius
Lexicon and is now incorporated by O. Weber in the 1 5th edition of
the Gesenius-Buhl Lexicon. For collected literature see: up to
1892, F. Hommel's Sudarabische Chrestomathie ; from 1892 to 1907, O.
Weber's Studien zur siidarabischen Altertumskv.nde,\a.. (D. H. M.)
SABAKI, a river of British East Africa which enters the Indian
Ocean in 3 12' S., just north of Malinda. The Sabaki rises (as
the Athi) in i 42' S., and after flowing north-east 70 m. across
the Kapote and Athi plains, turns south-south-east under the
wooded slopes of the Yatta ridge, arhich shuts in its basin on the
east. In 3S. it turns east, and in its lower course (known as the
Sabaki) traverses the sterile quartz-land of the outer plateau.
The valley is in parts low and flat, covered with forest and scrub,
and containing small lakes and backwaters connected with the
river in the rains. At this season the stream which rises as
much as 30 ft. in places is deep and strong and of a turbid
yellow colour; but navigation is interrupted by the Lugard falls,
about 100 m. from its mouth. Its total length is about 400 m.
Apart from the numerous small feeders of the upper river, almost
the only tributary is the Tsavo, from the east side of Kilimanjaro,
which enters in about 3 S.
SABAS, ST (430-531), a Palestinian monk, born near
Caesarea of Cappadocia. Becoming a monk in his childhood, he
went to Jerusalem and lived as a hermit. After a time he
established the " Great Laura " monastery in the neighbourhood
of the Dead Sea, and later on the " New Laura," under St
Basil's Rule. In the Lauras the young monks lived a cenobitical
life, but the elders a semi-eremitical one, each in his own hut
within the precincts of the Laura, attending only the solemn
church services. Sabas was made exarch or superior of all the
monasteries in Palestine, and composed a Typicon or Rule for
their guidance. He took a prominent part, on the orthodox side,
in the Monophysite and Origenistic controversies. His Laura
long continued to be the most influential monastery in those
parts, and produced several distinguished monks, among them
St John of Damascus. It is now known as the monastery of
Mar Saba. He is commemorated on the 5th of December.
Another saint of this name, surnamed " the Goth," suffered
martyrdom at the hands of Athanaric the Visigoth in the reign
of Valentinian, and he is commemorated on the 1 2th of April in
the Roman Martyrology, on varying days from I2th to i8th in
the Greek Menolpgies.
Sabas's Life was written by his disciple Cyril of Scythopolis. The
chief modern authority is A. Ehrhard in Witzer u. Welte's Kirchen-
lexikon (ed. 2) and Romische Quartalschnft, vii. ; see also Helyot,
Histoire des ordres religieux (1714), i. c. 16, and Max Heimbucher,
Orden u. Kongregationen (1907), i, 10. (E. C. B.)
SABATIER, LOUIS AUGUSTS (1839-1901), French Protest-
ant theologian, was born at Vallon (Ardeche), in the C6vennes,
on the 22nd of October 1839, and was educated at the Protestant
theological faculty of Montauban and the universities of Tubingen
and Heidelberg. After holding the pastorate at Aubenas in the
Ardeche from 186410 1868 he was appointed professor of reformed
dogmatics in the theological faculty of Strassburg. His markedly
French sympathies during the war of 1870 led to his expulsion
from Strassburg in 1872. After five years' effort he succeeded in
establishing a Protestant theological faculty in Paris, and
became professor and then dean. In 1886 he became a teacher in
the newly founded religious science department of the Ecole des
Hautes Etudes of the Sorbonne. Among his chief works were
The Apostle Paul (3rd ed., 1896) ; Memoire sur la notion hebralquc
de V Esprit (1879) ; Les Origines litteraires de I' Apocalypse (1888) ;
The Vitality of Christian Dogmas and their Power of Evolution
(1890); Religion and Modern Culture (1897); Historical Evolution
of the Doctrine of the Atonement (1903); Outlines of a Philosophy
of Religion (1897); and his posthumous Religions of Authority and
the Religion of the Spirit (1904), to which his colleague Jean
Reville prefixed a short memoir. These works show Sabatier as
"at once an accomplished dialectician and a mystic in the best
sense of the word." He died on the i2th of April 1901.
On his theology see E. M6n6goz in Expository Times, xv. 30, and
G. B. Stevens in Hibbert Journal (April 1903).
His brother, PAUL SABATIER, was born at St Michel de
Chabrillanoux in the Cevennes on the 3rd of August 1858, and
was educated at the faculty of theology in Paris. In 1885
he became vicar of St Nicolas, Strassburg, and in 1889, declin-
ing an offer of preferment which was conditional on his becoming
a German subject, he was expelled. For four years he was
pastor of St Cierge in the Cevennes and then devoted himself
entirely to historical research. He had already produced an
edition of the Didache, and in November 1893 published his
important Life of St Francis d'Assisi. This book gave a great
stimulus to the study of medieval literary and religious docu-
ments, especially of such as are connected with the history of
the Franciscan Order. In 1908 he delivered the Jowett Lectures
on Modernism at the Passmore Edwards Settlement, London.
SABAZIUS, a Phrygian or Thracian deity, frequently identified
with Dionysus, sometimes (but less frequently) with Zeus. His
worship was closely connected with that of the great mother
Cybele and of Attis. His chief attribute as a chthonian god
was a snake, the symbol of the yearly renovation of the life
of nature. Demosthenes (De corona, p. 313) mentions various
ceremonies practised during the celebration of the mysteries
of this deity. One of the most important was the passing of a
golden snake under the clothes of the initiated across their bosom
and its withdrawal from below an old rite of adoption. From
Val. Max. i. 3, 2 it has been concluded that Sabazius was
identified in ancient times with the Jewish Sabaoth (Zebaoth).
Plutarch (Symp. iv. 6) maintains that the Jews worshipped
Dionysus, and that the day of Sabbath was a festival of Sabazius.
Whether he was the same as Sozon, a marine deity of southern
Asia Minor, is doubtful. Some explain the name as the " beer
god," from an Illyrian word sabaya, while others suggest a
connexion with Safo (god of " health ") or ci/3a$. His image
and name are often found on "votive hands," a kind of talisman
adorned with emblems, the nature of which is obscure. His ritual
and mysteries (Sacra Savadia) gained a firm footing in Rome dur-
ing the 2nd century A.D., although as early as 139 B.C. the first
Jews who settled in the capital were expelled by virtue of a law
which proscribed the propagation of the cult of Jupiter Sabazius.
See J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena to Greek Religion (1908), p. 414;
H. Usener, Gotternamen (1896), p. 44; F. Cumont, " Hypsistes io
Revue de I' instruction publique en Belgique, xl. (1899); C. S. Blinken-
berg, Archdologische Studien (1904).
SABBATAI SEBI SABBATH
959
SABBATAI SEBI (1626-1676), Jewish mystic, whose Messianic
claims produced an unparalleled sensation throughout the world,
was born in Smyrna. He was of Spanish descent and was gifted
with a personality of rare fascination. As a lad he was attracted
by the mysticism of Luria (q.v.), which impelled him to adopt
the ascetic life. He passed his days and nights in a condition
of ecstasy. He began to dream of the fulfilment of Messianic
hopes, being supported in his vision by the outbreak of English
Millenarianism. Christian visionaries fixed the year 1666 for
the millennium, and in his appeal to Cromwell on behalf of the
return of the Jews to England Menasseh ben Israel (</..) made
strong appeal to this belief. Sabbatai's father (Mordecai)
was the Smyrna agent for an English house, and often heard of
the expectations of the English Fifth Monarchy men. Dazzled
by this confirmation of his nascent confidence, Sabbatai for a
time found himself the object of suspicion and even persecution.
This treatment, so far from extinguishing the flame, eventually
converted it into a conflagration. It was in 1648 (the year which
Kabbalists had calculated as the year of salvation) that Sabbatai
proclaimed himself Messiah, and in Constantinople came across
an able but somewhat unscrupulous man, who pretended that
he had been warned by a prophetic voice that Sabbatai was
indeed the long-awaited Redeemer. Others believed hi him,
but at first his adherents were a small circle of devotees who
kept their faith a secret. He charmed men by his sweet singing
of Psalms, and children were always fascinated by him. And
now the era of his miracles begins. He journeyed to Jerusalem,
and there was the instrument for conferring unexpected services
on the community. An oppressive exaction was imposed by a
local pasha, and in order to win the succour of Raphael Halebi,
Sabbatai repaired to Cairo, being on his route at Hebron hailed
as Messiah. His mission was completely successful. At Cairo
Sabbatai married. As a boy he had been married and divorced
twice but these were merely nominal unions. Now, however,
the romantic story of a beautiful girl (Sarah) was on people's
lips; she was firm in her assertion that she was the destined bride
of the Messiah. Sabbatai had, at the same time, announced
that in a dream a spiritual bride had been promised to him. At
the house of Halebi bride and bridegroom met. The adhesion
of Halebi produced many imitators, and with a retinue of
believers, a charming wife and considerable funds, Sabbatai
returned in triumph to the Holy Land. Nathan of Gaza assumed
the r&le of Elijah, the Messiah's forerunner, proclaimed the
coming restoration of Israel and the salvation of the world
through the bloodless victory of Sabbatai " riding on a lion with
a seven-headed dragon in his jaws " (Graetz). Again 1666 was
given as the apocalyptic year. Threatened with excommunica-
tion by the Rabbis of Jerusalem, Sabbatai returned to Smyrna
(autumn of 1665). Here he was received with wild enthusiasm,
and the masses were carried beyond all bounds. With delirious
joy the Jews of Smyrna men, women and children fell down
and worshipped. They prepared for the return. Men left their
work to make ready for the start. They fasted, they rejoiced;
one hour they chilled themselves in the cemeteries, the next
they rushed frantically through the streets singing Psalmic
refrains. Nor did Sabbatai's adherents all belong to the ignorant
classes. The Rabbi Hayim Benvenisteand other men of repute
and learning shared the general delusion. It is unnecessary to
tell the rest of the story in detail. Many letters are extant,
written home to English and Dutch business-houses, in which
the marvels of Sabbatai are reported, sometimes with apparent
belief in them. From the Levant the Sabbataean movement
spread to Venice, Amsterdam, Hamburg and London. Sabbatai
was no longer able to doubt the reality of his mission. Day by
day he was hailed from all the world as king of the Jews. But
his character was too weak to sustain the part. Though he was
almost deified by many of his brethren, who at his word agreed
to modify their religious observances, yet he was unable to turn
the enthusiasm of thousands to any account. Had he boldly
led the way to Jerusalem, he would probably have carried every-
thing before him. At the beginning of the fateful year 1666
Sabbatai went (or was summoned) to Constantinople. Here
he was arrested, but reports of miracles continued, and many
of the Turks were inclined to become converts. Soon he was
transferred to Abydos, amidst the almost tragic consternation
of his deluded followers. In September Sabbatai was brought
before the Sultan, and he had not the courage to refuse to accept
Islam. And so the Messianic imposture ended in the apostacy
of Sabbatai. The reaction among the Jews was terrible, and a
sense of shame was joined to feelings of despair. But the sober-
minded among the Jews these had throughout been the vast
majority seized their opportunity to reclaim those who had
been the victims of a terrible wrong. Yet many continued to
believe in him, as he from time to time attempted to resume
his r61e. In 1676 he died in obscurity in Albania. A sect of
Sabbataeans the Dormeh of Salonica survived him, and for
many a long year the controversy for and against his claims
left an echo in Jewish life.
,The literature on the life and career of this remarkable man
is very extensive. Sabbatai Sebi figures largely in English books
of the period. A valuable account is given in particular by Graetz,
History of the Jews, vol. v. ch. iv. I. Zangwill has a brilliant sketch
of Sabbatai's career in his Dreamers of the Ghetto. (I. A.)
SABBATH, the day of cessation from work, 1 which among the
Hebrews followed six days of labour and closed the week.
i. Observance. The later Jewish Sabbath, observed in
accordance with the rules of the Scribes, was a very peculiar
institution, and formed one of the most marked distinctions
between the Hebrews and other nations, as appears in a striking
way from the fact that on this account alone the Romans found
themselves compelled to exempt the Jews from all military
service. The rules of the Scribes enumerated thirty-nine main
kinds of work forbidden on the Sabbath, and each of these
prohibitions gave rise to new subtilties. Jesus's disciples, for
example, who plucked ears of corn in passing through a field on
the holy day, had, according to Rabbinical views, violated
the third of the thirty-nine rules, 2 which forbade harvesting;
and in healing the sick Jesus Himself broke the rule that a sick
man should not receive medical aid on the Sabbath unless his life
was in danger. In fact, as our Lord puts it, the Rabbinical
theory seemed to be that the Sabbath was not made for man
but man for the Sabbath, the observance of which was so much
an end in itself that the rules prescribed for it did not require to
be justified by appeal to any larger principle of religion or
humanity. The precepts of the law were valuable in the eyes of
the Scribes because they were the seal of Jewish particularism,
the barrier erected between the world at large and the exclusive
community of Yahweh's grace. The ideal of the Sabbath which
all these rules aimed at realizing was absolute rest from every-
thing that could be called work; and even the exercise of those
offices of humanity which the strictest Christian Sabbatarians
regard as a service to God, and therefore as specially appropriate
to His day, was looked on as work. To save life was allowed, but
only because danger to life " superseded the Sabbath." In like
manner the special ritual at the temple prescribed for the
Sabbath by the Pentateuchal law was not regarded as any part
of the hallowing of the sacred day; on the contrary, the rule
was that, in this regard, " Sabbath was not kept in the sanctuary."
Strictly speaking, therefore, the Sabbath was neither a day of
relief to toiling humanity nor a day appointed for public worship;
the positive duties of its observance were to wear one's best
clothes, eat, drink and be glad (justified from Isa. Iviii. 13). A
more directly religious element, it is true, was introduced by the
practice of attending the synagogue service; but it is to be
1 The grammatical inflexions of the word " Sabbath " would show
that it is a feminine form, properly shabbat-t for shahhat-t. The root
has nothing to do with resting in the sense of enjoying repose; in
transitive forms and applications it means to " sever," to " put an
end to," and intransitively it means to " desist," to " come to an
end." The grammatical form of shabbath suggests a transitive sense,
" the divider," and apparently indicates the Sabbath as dividing
the month. It may mean the day which puts a stop to the week's
work, but this is less likely. It certainly cannot be translated " the
day of rest."
* From the Thirty-ninth was deduced the familiar " Sabbath day's
journey " (Acts i. 12), based primarily, it would seem, upon the com-
mand in Ex. xvi. 29. It was a distance of 2000 cubits.
960
SABBATH
remembered that this service was primarily regarded not as an
act of worship but as a meeting for instruction in the law.
2. Attitude of Jesus. So far, therefore, as the Sabbath existed
for any end outside itself it was an institution to help every Jew
to learn the law, and from this point of view it is regarded by
Philo and Josephus, who are accustomed to seek a philosophical
justification for the peculiar institutions of their religion. But
this certainly was not the leading point of view with the mass of
the Rabbins; 1 and at any rate it is quite certain that the
synagogue is a post-exilic institution, and therefore that the
Sabbath in old Israel must have been entirely different from the
Sabbath of the Scribes. But that it was destitute of any properly
religious observance or meaning is inconceivable, for, though
many of the religious ideas of the old Hebrews were crude, their
institutions were never arbitrary and meaningless, and when
they spoke of consecrating the Sabbath they must have had in
view some religious exercise of an intelligible kind by which they
paid worship to Yahweh. Indeed, that the old Hebrew Sabbath
was quite different from the Rabbinical Sabbath is demonstrated
in the trenchant criticism which Jesus directed against the latter
(Matt. xii. 1-14; Mark ii. 27). The general position which He
takes up, that " the Sabbath is made for man and not man for the
Sabbath," 2 is only a special application of the wider principle
that the law is not an end in itself but a help towards the realiza-
tion in life of the great ideal of love to God and man, which is the
sum of all true religion. But Jesus further maintains that this
view of the law as a whole, and the interpretation of the Sabbath
law which it involves, can be historically justified from the Old
Testament. And in this connexion He introduces two of the
main methods to which historical criticism of the Old Testament
has recurred in modern times: He appeals to the oldest history
rather than to the Pentateuchal code as proving that the later
conception of the law was unknown in ancient times (Matt. xii.
3 seq.), and to the exceptions to the Sabbath law which the Scribes
themselves allowed in the interests of worship (v. 5) or humanity
(v. n), as showing that the Sabbath must originally have been
devoted to purposes of worship and humanity, and was not
always the purposeless arbitrary thing which the schoolmen
made it to be. Modern criticism of the history of Sabbath
observance among the Hebrews has done nothing more than
follow out these arguments in detail, and show that the result is
in agreement with what is known as to the dates of the several
component parts of the Pentateuch.
3. Old Usage. Of the legal passages that speak of the Sabbath
all those which show affinity with the doctrine of the Scribes
regarding the Sabbath as an arbitrary sign between Yahweh
and Israel, entering into details as to particular acts that are
forbidden, and enforcing the observance by severe penalties,
so that it no longer has any religious value, but appears as a mere
legal constraint are post-exilic (Exod. xvi. 23-30, xxxi. 12-17,
xxxv. 1-3; Num. xv. 32-36); while the older laws only demand
such cessation from daily toil, and especially from agricultural
labour, as among all ancient peoples naturally accompanied a
day set apart as a religious festival, and in particular lay weight
on the fact that the Sabbath is a humane institution, a holiday for
the labouring classes (Exod. xxiii. 12; Deut. v. 13-15). As it
stands in these ancient laws, the Sabbath is not at all the unique
thing which it was made to be by the Scribes. " The Greeks and
the barbarians," says Strabo (x. 3, 9), " have this in common,
that they accompany their sacred rites by a festal remission of
labour." So it was in old Israel: the Sabbath was one of the
stated religious feasts, like the new moon and the three great
agricultural sacrificial celebrations (Hosea ii. 1 1) ; the new moons
and the Sabbaths alike called men to the sanctuary to do sacrifice
(Isa. i. 14); the remission of ordinary business belonged to both
1 See the Mishnah, tract. " Shabbath " and the alleviation per-
mitted in the tract. "Erubin"; and compare Schiirer, Gesch. d.
jud. VolkesW, pp. 393 seq., where the Rabbinical Sabbath is well
explained and illustrated in detail.
2 Cp. the discussion in Talmud Yoma, fol. 856: "The sabbath
is delivered into your hands, not you into the hands of the Sabbath "
(cited by S. R. Driver, Hastings' Diet. Bible, art. " Sabbath," iv.
p. 322). See also art. Midrash, 4, end.
alike (Amos viii. 5), and for precisely the same reason. Hosea
even takes it for granted that in captivity the Sabbath will be
suspended, like all the other feasts, because in his day a feast
implied a sanctuary. This conception of the Sabbath, however,
necessarily underwent an important modification when the local
sanctuaries were abolished under the " Deuteronomic " reform,
and those sacrificial rites and feasts which in Hosea's time formed
the essence of every act of religion were limited to the central
altar, which most men could visit only at rare intervals. From
this time forward the new moons, which till then had been at least
as important as the Sabbath and were celebrated by sacrificial
feasts as occasions of religious gladness, fall into insignificance,
except in the conservative temple ritual. The Sabbath did not
share the same fate, but with the abolition of local sacrifices it
became for most Israelites an institution of humanity divorced
from ritual. So it appears in the Deuteronomic decalogue, and
presumably also in Jer. xvii. 19 seq. In this form the;seventh day's
rest was one of the few outward ordinances by which the Israelite
could still show his fidelity to Yahweh and mark his separation
from the heathen. Hence we understand the importance
attached to it in the exilic literature (Isa. Ivi. 2 seq., Iviii. 13),
and the character of a sign between Yahweh and Israel ascribed
to it in the post-exilic law. This attachment to the Sabbath,
beautiful and touching so long as it was a spontaneous ex-
pression of continual devotion to Yahweh, acquired a less pleasing
character when, after the exile, it came to be enforced by the civil
arm (Neh. xiii.), and when the later law even declared Sabbath-
breaking a capital offence. This increasing strictness is exempli-
fied by the attitude of the Book of Jubilees (ii. 17-32, 1. 6-13).
But it is just to remember that without the stern discipline
of the law the community of the second temple could hardly
have escaped dissolution, and that Judaism alone preserved
for Christianity the hard-won achievements of the prophets.*
4. Early Christian Church. The Sabbath exercised a twofold
influence on the early Christian church. On the one hand,
the weekly celebration of the resurrection on the Lord's day
could not have arisen except in a circle that already knew the
week as a sacred division of time; and, moreover, the manner
in which the Lord's day was observed was directly influenced
by the synagogue service. On the other "hand, the Jewish
Christians continued to keep the Sabbath, like other points of
the old law. Eusebius (H.E. iii. 27) remarks that the Ebionites
observed both the Sabbath and the Lord's day; and this
practice obtained to some extent in much wider circles, for the
Apostolical Constitutions recommend that the Sabbath shall
be kept as a memorial feast of the creation as well as the Lord's
day as a memorial of the resurrection. The festal character
of the Sabbath was long recognized in a modified form in the
Eastern church by a prohibition of fasting on that day, which
was also a point in the Jewish Sabbath law (comp. Judith
viii. 6). On the other hand, Paul had quite distinctly laid down
from the first days of Gentile Christianity that the Jewish
Sabbath was not binding on Christians (Rom. xiv. 5 seq.;
Gal. iv. 10; Col. ii. 16), and controversy with Judaizers led in
process of time to direct condemnation of those who still kept the
Jewish day (e.g. Co. of Laodicea, A.D. 363). Nay, in the Roman
church a practice of fasting on Saturday as well as on Friday
was current before the time of Tertullian. The steps by which
the practice of resting from labour on the Lord's day instead of
on the Sabbath was established in Christendom and received civil
as well as ecclesiastical sanction are dealt with under SUNDAY;
it is enough to observe here that this practice is naturally and
even necessarily connected with the religious observance of
the Lord's day as a day of worship and religious gladness, and
is in full accordance wifh the principles laid down by Jesus in
His criticism of the Sabbath of the Scribes. But of course the
8 In actual life the Sabbath was often far from being the burden
which the Rabbinical enactments would have led us to expect. It
" is celebrated by the very people who did observe it, in hundreds
of hymns, which would fill volumes, as a day of rest and joy, of
presentiment of the pure bliss and happiness which are stored up
for the righteous in the world to come " (S. Schechter, Jewish Quart.
Review, iii. p. 763; cp. id., Studies in Judaism, pp. 296 sqq.).
SABBATH
961
complete observance of Sunday rest was not generally possible
to the early Christians before Christendom obtained civil
recognition. 1
5. Origin. As the Sabbath was originally a religious feast,
the question of the origin of the Sabbath resolves itself into an
inquiry why and in what circle a festal cycle of seven days was
first established. In Gen. ii. 1-3 and in Exod. xx. n the Sabbath
is declared to be a memorial of the completion of the work of
creation in six days. But it appears certain that the decalogue
as it lay before the Deuteronomist did not contain any allusion
to the creation (see DECALOGUE), and it is generally believed that
this reference was added by the same post-exilic hand that
wrote Gen. i. i-ii. 44. The older account of the creation in
Gen. ii. 46 seq. does not recognize the hexaemeron, and it is
even doubtful whether the original sketch of Gen. i. distributed
creation over six days. The connexion, therefore, between the
seven days' week and the work of creation is now generally
recognized as secondary. 2 But, if the week as a religious cycle
is older than the idea of the week of creation, we cannot hope to
find more than probable evidence of the origin of the Sabbath.
Unless the Sabbath was already an institution peculiarly Jewish,
it could jiot have served as a mark of distinction from heathenism.
This, however, does not necessarily imply that in its origin it
was specifically Hebrew, but only that it had acquired distin-
guishing features of a marked kind. What is certain is that the
origin of the Sabbath must be sought within a circle that used
the week as a division of time. Here again we must distinguish
between the week as such and the astrological week, i.e. the week
in which the seven days are named each after the planet which
is held to preside over its first hour. 3 It is plain, however,
that there is a long step between the astrological assignation
of each hour of the week to a planet and the recognition of the
week as an ordinary division of time by people at large. Astrology
is in its nature an occult science, and there is no trace of a day
of twenty-four hours among the ancient Hebrews. Moreover, it
is doubtful from extant remains of Assyrian calendars whether
the astrological week prevailed in civil life even among the
Babylonians and Assyrians. They did not dedicate each day
in turn to its astrological planet; and it is therefore precarious
to assume that the Sabbath was in its origin what it is in the
astrological week, the day sacred to Saturn, and that its observance
is to be derived from an ancient Hebrew worship of that planet. 4
The week, however, is found in various parts of the world in
a form that has nothing to do with astrology or the seven planets,
and with such a distribution as to make it pretty certain that
it had no artificial origin, but suggested itself independently,
and for natural reasons, to different races. In fact, the four
quarters of the moon supply an obvious division of the month;
and, wherever new moon and full moon are religious occasions,
we get in the most natural way a sacred cycle of fourteen or
1 See, further, E. Schiirer in Zeit.f. Neu-Test. Wissens. (1905), pp.
1-66. For the theological discussions whether and in what sense the
fourth commandment is binding on Christians, see DECALOGUE.
2 " The week, ended by the Sabbath, determined the ' days ' of
creation, not the ' days ' of creation the week " (S. R. Driver,
Genesis (1909), p. 35). At the same time, there was a peculiar
appropriateness in associating the Sabbath with the doctrine that
Yahweh is the Creator of all things; for we see from Isa. xl.-lxvi.
that this doctrine was a mainstay of Jewish faith in those very
days of exile which gave the Sabbath a new importance for the
faithful.
3 If the day is divided into twenty-four hours and the planets
preside in turn over each hour of the week in the order of their periodic
times (Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Sun, Venus, Mercury, Moon), we get
the order of days of the week with which we are familiar. For, if
the Sun presides over the first hour of Sunday, and therefore also
over the eighth, the fifteenth and the twenty-second, Venus will have
the twenty-third hour, Mercury the twenty-fourth, and the Moon,
as the third in order from the Sun, will preside over the first hour of
Monday. Mars, again, as third from the Moon, will preside over
Tuesday (Dies Martis, Mardi), and so forth. This astrological week
became very current in the Roman empire, but was still a novelty
in the time of Dio Cassius (xxxvii. 1 8).
4 The evidence of the worship of Saturn among the oldest Hebrews
is doubtful. Amos v. 26 (where Chiun is taken to represent Kawan-
Saturn) is of uncertain interpretation, see W. R. Harper's discussion,
Hosea, pp. 139-141 (International Crit. Comm., 1905).
xxni. 31
fifteen days, of which the week of seven or eight days (determined
by half moon) is the half. Thus the old Hindus chose the new
and the full moon as days of sacrifice; the eve of the sacrifice
was called upavasatha, and in Buddhism the same word (updsatha)
has come to denote a Sabbath observed on the full moon, on the
day when there is no moon, and on the two days which are
eighth from the full and the new moon respectively, with fasting
and other religious exercises.' From this point of view it is
most significant that in the older parts of the Hebrew Scriptures
the new moon and the Sabbath are almost invariably mentioned
together.'
Nor are other traces wanting of the connexion of sacrificial occa-
sions i.e. religious feasts with the phases of the moon among the
Semites. Thus the Harranians had four sacrificial days in every
month, and of these two at least were determined by the conjunction
and opposition of the moon. 7 That full moon as well as new moon
had a religious significance among the ancient Hebrews seems to
follow from the fact that, when the great agricultural feasts were
fixed to set days, the full moon was chosen. In older times these
feast-days appear to have been Sabbaths (Lev. xxiii. 1 1 ; romp.
the article PASSOVER). A week determined by the phases of the
moon has an average length of 29$ -5-4 = 7! days, i.e. three weeks
out of eight would have eight days. But there seems to be in
i Sam. xx. 27, compared with verses 18, 24, an indication that in old
times the feast of the new moon lasted two days.' In that case a
week of seven working days would occur only once in two months.
We cannot tell when the Sabbath became dissociated from the month ;
but the change seems to have been made before the Book of the
Covenant, which already regards the Sabbath simply as an Institution
of humanity and ignores the new moon. In both points it is followed
by Deuteronomy.' (W. R. S. ; S. A. C.)
[6. The Babylonian and Assyrian Sabbath. The Babylonian
calendars contain explicit directions for the observance of abstention
from certain secular acts on certain days which forms a close
parallel to the Jewish Sabbatical rules. Thus for the 7th, I4th,
2 1 st. 28th and also the I9th days of the intercalary Elul it is prescribed
that " the shepherd of many nations is not to eat meat roast with fire
nor any food cooked by fire, he is not to change the clothes on his
body nor put on gala dress, he may not bring sacrifices nor may the
king ride m his chariot, he is not to hold court nor may the priest
seek an oracle for him in the sanctuary, no physician may attend
the sick room, the day is not favourable for invoking curses, but
at night the king may bring his. gift into the presence ofMarduk and
Ishtar. Then he may offer sacrifice so that his prayers be accepted."
Clearly, then, it was a day of suspended activity, but it will be noted
that no religious observances are prescribed in place of the forbidden
secular matters. So far no evidence is forthcoming that the same
days of each month were observed as these of this special rarely
occurring month. Calendars exist for other months which make
no such regulations for any days. These abstentions are prescribed
for the king and a few other persons; there is no evidence that they
were observed by all the people. The iqth day is supposed to
have had its sacred nature as the 49th day from the commencement
of the preceding month, assuming that to have had 30 days. The
months often had only 29 days, when the same character ought to
have applied to the 2Oth day of the following month. There is no
evidence that these days were called shabattu, a word which is
rendered by umu nuh libbi, " day of rest of the heart," and has been
thought to be the origin of Sabbath. This name shabattu was
certainly applied to the isth day of the month, and urn nuh libbi
could mean " day of rest in the middle," referring to the moon's
pause at the full. The frequent Old Testament association of " new
moons and Sabbaths " may point to an original observance of the
1st and isfh days of the month. Many days are indicated in
the calendar as nubattu, a term which signifies rest, pause, and
especially a god's connubial rest with his consort goddess. The
observance of such days was a bar to attending even to important
diplomatic business or setting out on a journey. Such nubattu
days fell on the 3rd, 7th and i6th of the intercalary month of Elul,
and were noted as the nubattu of Marduk and his consort. It would
be precarious to assume that the same days in each month were
nubattu, for the nubattu fell on the 4th of lyar on one occasion.
5 Childcrs, Pali Diet. p. 535; Kern, Manual of Buddhism, p. 99,
Mahavagga, ii. i, I (Eng. trans, i. 239, 291).
6 Both were days of cessation from business (Amos viii. 5), and were
fitting occasions to visit a prophet (2 Kings iv. 23). They naturally
take their rise among an agricultural folk. On abstinence from
work on the New Moon by Jewish women of the present time, see
M. Friedmann, Jew. Quart. Rev. Hi. (1891), p. 712. Sec also I.
Benzinger, Encyc. Bibltca, cols. 3401 sqq.
7 The others according to the Fihrtst, 319, 14 are the I7th and
the 28th ; see Chwolsohn, Ssabier, ii. 8, 94 seq.
8 It appears from Judith viii. 6 that even in later times there were
two days at the new moon on which it was not proper to fast.
See further J. M. Meinhold, Sabbat und Woche im Alien Test.
(Gottingen, 1905) ; Zeil. f. AUtest. Wissens. 1909, pp. 81-112.
962
SABBATION
Possibly the intercalary month was abnormal, the incidence of
observances depending not on the day of the month in ordinary
months but on the day of the week reckoned consecutively through
the year. For it is obvious that if each yth day during the year was
observed as above, it would, like our Sunday or a Jewish Sabbath,
fall on a different day of the month in different months. It is
quite possible that shabattum and nubattum are from the same root
and originally denoted much the same thing a pause, abstention,
from whatever cause or for ceremonial purposes. The intercalary
month being purely arbitrary may exhibit a normal arrangement,
supposing that the month and the week begin together.
There are traces of what may be called a " five-day week, but
also some traces of a period of seven days. The former would be an
exact submultiple of the 3O-day month, but the exact relation of seven
days to the month is not very clear. If the isth always was full
moon day, the 7th would coincide well with half moon, but the 2ist
and 28th would fall away considerably from the moon's phases.
The significance of seven throughout Babylonian literature is very
marked, and most of the material has been collected by J. Hehn,
SiebenzaU und Sabbat (1907). It is quite consistent with the evidence
to suppose that a seven-day week was in use in Babylonia, but each
item may be explained differently, and a definite proof does not exist.
The enormous number of dated documents has induced some scholars
to attempt a statistical research into the observance of the 7th, I4th,
2 1st, 28th and igth days of the months as Sabbaths. This has not
been carried out with sufficient caution. If the Sabbath involved
abstention from all such business as recorded in dated documents
and always fell on these days, then the 7th, &c., should show a marked
falling off in the number of dated documents. This appears actually
to be the case in the period of the First Dynasty of Babylon and also
in the 7th century in Assyria, where early Babylonian customs were
kept up conservatively. In other cases the inclusion of documents
relating to the temple business, payments of tithes and other dues,
salaries to temple officials, and such ceremonies as marriages, &c.,
which may have demanded the presence of the congregation and
were at least partly religious in nature, have been allowed to com-
plicate the matter. Such business as did not profane the Sabbath
according to Babylonian ideas cannot be quoted against their
observance of their Sabbath. Further, if the Sabbaths fell on each
7th day through the year, any indication by dated documents of a
falling off in the number of transactions on the 7th day of the
month must obviously be completely disguised. As most of the
records appealed to are from temple archives, it may be expected
that the Sabbath days would show an increased number of records.
For reasons above indicated the whole subject is in its infancy.
Even if it could be shown that the Pentateuchal regulations were
universally observed in Israel from Mosaic times, it would not
preclude a certain indebtedness to Babylonia for at least the germ
of the institution. On the other hand, complete indentity of regu-
lations and observance in Babylonia and Israel at one period need
not show more than development on the same lines. The evidence
of Babylonian observance has not yet been exhaustively considered.
Its most suggestive likenesses are indicated above, but further
evidence may render the similarity less striking when the meaning
of it is more fully understood. (C. H. W. J.)]
7. Sabbatical Year. The Jews under the second temple
observed every seventh year as a Sabbath according to the
(post-exilic) law of Lev. xxv. 1-7. It was a year in which all
agriculture was remitted, in which the fields lay unsown and
the vines grew unpruned, only the spontaneous yield of the
land might be gathered. That this law was not observed before
the captivity we learn from Lev. xxvi. 34 seq. (cp. 2 Chron.
xxxvi. 21); indeed, so long as the Hebrews were an agricultural
people, in a land often ravaged by severe famines, the law of
the Sabbatical year could not have been observed. Even in
later times it was occasionally productive of great distress
(i Mac. vi. 49, 53; Jos. Ant. xiv. 16, 2). In the older legislation,
however, we already meet with a seven years' period in more
than one connexion. The release of a Hebrew servant after six
years' labour (Exod. xxi. 2 seq.; Deut. xv. 12 seq.) has only a
remote analogy to the Sabbatical year. But in Exod. xxiii. 10
seq. it is prescribed that the crop of every seventh year shall
be left for the poor, and after them for the beasts. The difference
between this and the later law is that the seventh year is not called
a Sabbath, and that there is no indication that all land was to
lie fallow on the same year. In this form a law prescribing one
year's fallow in seven may have been anciently observed, but
it scarcely originated from the analogy of a seventh day of rest.
It is extended in v n to the vineyard and the olive oil, but here
the culture necessary to keep the vines and olive trees in order
is not forbidden; the precept is only that the produce is to be
left to the poor. In Deuteronomy this law is not repeated,
but a fixed seven years' period is ordained for the benefit of
poor debtors, apparently in the sense that in the seventh year
no interest is to be exacted by the creditor from a Hebrew, or
that no proceedings are to be taken against the debtor in that
year (Deut. xv. i seq.). See the discussion by Driver, Internal.
Cril. Comm., ad. loc., and the commentaries on Neh. v. H.
LITERATURE. In addition to the references already made, seethe
articles in Ency. Bib. and Hastings' Diet. Bible (with references);
Fr. Bohn, Sabbat im Alien Testament u. alljudisch relig. Aberglauben
(Giitersloh, 1903: an interesting list of unlucky days from an old
Egyptian calendar on p. 57 seq.); and for post-Biblical literature,
F. Weber's Jiidiiche Theologie (Index), by Franz Delitzsch and
Schnedermann (1897). (W. R. S. ; S. A. C.)
SABBATION, or SAMBATYON, a river (real or imaginary)
in Media named in some old authorities (Palestinian Talmud,
and Midrash Gen. Rabba, Ixxiii.) the site of the exile of the Ten
Tribes. But Josephus (War, vii. v. i) has this curious passage,
from which, no doubt, many of the subsequent legends were
derived:
" Now Titus Caesar tarried some time at Berytus (Beirut) and
then removed thence and gave magnificent shows in all the cities of
Syria through which he went, and exhibited the captive Jews as
proof of the destruction of that nation. He saw on his march a river
(identified by Sir C. W. Wilson with ' the stream running from the
intermittent spring Fauwar ed-Deir in the Lebanon ') of such a
nature as deserves to be recorded in history. It runs between
Arcaea ('Arka), which is part of Agrippa's kingdom, and Rapharaea
(Rafaniyeh, at north end of the Lebanon), and has something very
wonderful and peculiar in it. For when it runs, its current is strong,
and has plenty of water ; after which its springs fail for six days
together, and leave its channel dry, as any one may see. After this
it runs on the seventh day as it did before, and as though it had
undergone no change at all, and it has been observed to keep this
order perpetually and exactly: whence they call it the Sabbatic river,
so naming it from the sacred Sabbath of the Jews."
Whiston, in his notes to Josephus, already points out that
Pliny describes the same river (Hist. Nat. xxxi. n), but accord-
ing to his account the river ran for six days and rested on the
seventh. This is the favourite form of the legend, for though there
are intermittent streams in various parts of Asia, none has yet
been found to correspond to the fixed regularity posited in the
tradition. Various medieval travellers reported such rivers,
e.g. Petahiah of Regensburg, who states that such a stream
may be found near Jabneh, but his assertion is unfounded.
Mahommedans still assert that Josephus's statement is true of
the Nahr-al-Arus in the neighbourhood in which he locates his
Sabbatic river, but modern travellers report that this stream
runs every third day. Such facts would, however, be sufficient
to explain the origin of the legend. The accounts of Josephus
and Pliny do not assert that the intermittence of the current
had any connexion with Saturday. Aqiba (q.v.) in the early
part of the 2nd century A.D., however, assumes this connexion
(Sanhedrin 65 6), and a confusion between the Sambatyon of
the Lost Tribes and the Sabbatical river of Syria begins to
manifest itself. It is owing to the narrative of Eldad the Danite
(q.v.) that the Sambatyon river rose into wide fame in the gth
century. His diary became the Arabian Nights not only of the
Jews but also of many medieval Christians and Moslems. Eldad
describes the Children of Moses, a powerful and Utopian race,
whose territory is surrounded by a wonderful river. He describes
it in these terms:
" The river Sambatyon is 200 yds. broad, about as far as a bow-
shot. It is full of sand and stones, but without water; the stones
make a great noise like the waves of the sea and a stormy wind,
so that in the night the noise is heard at a distance of half a day's
journey. There are sources of water which collect themselves in
one pool, out of which they water the fields. There are fish in it,
and all kinds of clean birds fly round it. And this river of stone and
sand rolls during the six working days and rests on the Sabbath day.
As soon as the Sabbath begins, fire surrounds the river, and the flames
remain until the next evening, when the Sabbath ends."
Noldeke (Betirage zur Geschichte des Alexanderromans, 48) has
shown that the Sambatyon appears in one version of the Alexander
Legend. Kaswini, the author of the Arab Cosmography, also
refers to the Sambatyon. So does Prester John in his letter
addressed to the emperor Frederick; in his account it is the
violence of the current of sand and stone that prevents the
Lost Tribes from reuniting. It is unnecessary to summarize
SABBIONETA SABELLIUS
the various embellishments of the legend; in one version the
river attains a width of 17 m. and throws stones as high as a
house. But there are no stones on Saturday; it then resembles
a lake of snow-white sand. Menasseh ben Israel (q.v. ), who gave
vogue to this latter story in his Hope of Israel, adds the detail
that if sand from Sambatyon be kept in a bottle it agitates
itself during six days but remains still on the Saturday.
The site of the Sambatyon varies considerably in the different
narratives. Media, Ethiopia, Persia, India, the Caspian district,
all these are suggested. Reggio identified the river with the
Euphrates, Fiinn with the Zeb in Adiabene. But as Neubauer
remarks: " It would be lost time to trouble ourselves about the
identification of this stream."
See Neubauer, " Where are the Ten Tribes? " in Jewish Quarterly
Review, vol. i. passim; M. Seligsohn in Jewish Encyclopedia, x. 681.
(I. A.)
SABBIONETA, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province
of Mantua^from which it is 20 m. S.W. by steam tramway, not
far from the N. bank of the Po, 59 ft. above sea-level. Pop.
(1901) 1835 (town); 7016 (commune). Its period of prosperity
was under Vespasiano Gonzaga (d. 1591), who was its duke;
by him it was transformed into a small " Residenzstadt." It
was well fortified and built, and from this period date the ducal
palace (now the Municipio), the theatre designed by Scomozzi,
&c. The church and the summer palace contain frescoes by
the Campi of Cremona. Here in 1567 a Hebrew printing-press
was set up.
SABELLIC, 1 the name originally given by Mommsen in his
Unteritalische Dialekte to the pre-Roman dialects of Central
Italy which was neither Oscan nor Umbrian. The progress
of study has, however, grouped them under more specific names,
such as the " North Oscan " group (see PAELIGNI) and the
" Latinian " group (see LATIN LANGUAGE), and the only content
now left for the term Sabellic consists of a group of 8 or 9 inscrip-
tions to which it certainly cannot be applied with truth. They
are probably, if not .certainly, the most ancient inscriptions in
existence on Italian soil. Since they were all found on a strip
of the eastern coast running from the mouth of the Aternus
on the south to Pesaro on the north, it is probably best to call
them simply " East Italic " or " Adriatic."
Not even the transcription of their alphabet has reached the
stage of certainty, for even in this small number of inscriptions
the alphabet seems to vary. The chief doubt is about the value
of V and V (or A and A) which appear beside the symbol A
on the same inscriptions; and of the dots in the middle of the
line which are certainly not interpuncts. They may conceivably
have some connexion with the dots in Venetic inscriptions,
which R. S. Con way has endeavoured to explain (see VENETI).
The most striking characteristic of the group of inscriptions
is that the direction of the writing in alternate lines is not merely
reversed but inverted (" serpentine boustrophedon " as on the
Etruscan stele of Capua of the 5th century B.C.) (see ETRURIA:
Language). Thus if the first line consisted of the letters ABC.
in that order, the next would be J3CI, i.e. with each letter
turned so as to face the left, and with its head downwards.
This arrangement appears in some of the Venetic inscriptions
also. The longest of the inscriptions is that from Grecchio,
now preserved in the Naples Museum. The probability is that
this and all the rest were epitaphs, but a translation is as
yet out of the question. The stone from Castrignano gives us
certain forms which seem to be recognizable as Indo-European,
namely paterefo, materefo, though it is far from certain that the
symbol f>4, which is here represented by/, really has that value.
Pauli's conjecture that these inscriptions probably represented
the language of some settlers from Illyria has little support
except that of some coincidences in tribal and local names on
the two sides of the Adriatic (e.g. " Truentum, quod solum
Liburnorum in Italia relicuum est " (Plin. Nat. Hist. iii. no),
-entum being a frequent Illyrian ending, and Liburni an Illyrian
tribe), though it is a priori likely enough.
For the authorities for the alphabets and the text of the inscrip-
tions as known down to 1897, see R. S. Conway's Italic Dialects
1 For the Sabellian tribes, see SABINE.
I" iCi 25 [er . ^eipzig, i9i. pp. 220 seq. and p. 423). Some
plausible (but wholly uncertain) conjectures by W. Deecke as
to the meaning of some of the inscriptions may be sought in the
appendix to Zvetaieff's Inscrr. Italiae inferioris dialectics; and
since 1897 a further inscription of this class has been found at
Belmonte Piceno, which is preserved in the museum at Bologna
and reported by Brizio in Notiz. degli scavi, 1903, p. 104.
It is to be noticed that a much longer and far more legible
inscription from Novilara (now in the museum at Pesaro
a cast of it is at Bologna) sometimes spoken of as Sabellic, whose
first two words are mimnis erut, is perhaps more probably to
be regarded as containing some variety of Etruscan, though
its character is far from certain. Its alphabet closely resembles
Etruscan of the 4th century B.C. It is a very interesting monu-
ment both for its own sake, since it is sculptured as well as inscribed
(there is one or more hunting or pastoral scene on the back),
and because the archaeological stratum (late Bronze period)
of the cemetery from which it is believed to have come is clearly
marked.
With a companion fragment it is fully described by Brizio in
Monumenti anttchi, v. (1895), and it has also been discussed by Elia
Lattes in Hermes (xxxi. 465 and xliii. 32). (R. S. C.)
SABELLIUS (fl. 230), early Christian presbyter and theologian,
was of Libyan origin, and came from the Pentapolis to Rome
early in the 3rd century. To understand his position a brief
review of the Christian thought of the time is necessary. Even
after the elimination of Gnosticism the church remained without
any uniform Christology; the Trinitarians and the Unitarians
continued to confront each other, the latter at the beginning of
the 3rd century still forming the large majority. These in turn
split into two principal groups the Adoptianists and the
Medalists the former holding Christ to be the man chosen of
God, on whom the Holy Spirit rested in a quite unique sense,
and who after toil and suffering, through His oneness of will with
God, became divine, the latter maintaining Christ to be a
manifestation of God Himself. Both groups had their scientific
theologians who sought to vindicate their characteristic doctrines,
the Adoptianist divines holding by the Aristotelian philosophy,
and the Medalists by that of the Stoics; while the Trinitarians
(Tertullian, Hippolytus, Origen, Novatian), on the other hand,
appealed to Plato.
In Rome Modalism was the. doctrine which prevailed from
Victor to Calixtus or Callistus (c. 190-220). The bishops just
named protected within the city the schools of Epigonus and
Cleomenes, where it was taught that the Son is identical with
the Father. But the presbyter Hippolytus was successful in
convincing the leaders of that church that the Modalistic doctrine
:aken in its strictness was contrary to Scripture. Calixtus saw
limself under the necessity of abandoning his friends and setting
up a mediating formula designed to harmonize the Trinitarian
and the Modalistic positions. But, while excommunicating
the strict Unitarians (Monarchians), he also took the same course
with Hippolytus and his followers, declaring their teaching to
je ditheism. The mediation formula, however, proposed by
Dalixtus became the bridge by which, in the course of the decades
mmediately following, the doctrine of the Trinity made its way
nto the Roman Church. In the year 250, when the Roman
>resbyter Novatian wrote his book De Trinitate, the doctrine of
rlippolytus, once discredited as ditheism, had already become
official there. At the same time Rome and most of the other
churches of the West still retained a certain leaning towards
VIodalistic monarchianism. This appears, on the one hand, in
the use of expressions having a Modalistic ring about them see
especially the poems of Commodian, written about the time of
Valerian and, on the other hand, in the rejection of the doctrine
:hat the Son is subordinate to the Father and is a creature
'witness the controversy between Dionysius of Alexandria and
Dionysius of Rome), as well as in the readiness of the West to
accept the formula of Athanasius, that the Father and the Son
are one and the same in substance (6/uooixriot).
The strict Modalists, whom Calixtus had excommunicated
along with their most zealous opponent Hippolytus, were led
9 6 4
SABIANS SABINE
by Sabellius. His party continued to subsist in Rome for a
considerable time afterwards, 1 and withstood Calixtus as an
unscrupulous apostate. In the West, however, the influence of
Sabellius seems never to have been important; in the East, on
the other hand, after the middle of the 3rd century his doctrine
found much acceptance, first in the Pentapolis and afterwards
in other provinces. 2 It was violently controverted by the
bishops, notably by Dionysius of Alexandria, and the develop-
ment in the East of the philosophical doctrine of the Trinity
after Origen (from 260 to 320) was very powerfully influenced
by the opposition to Sabellianism. Thus, for example, at the
great synod held in Antioch in 268 the word d/j.oov<nos was
rejected, as seeming to favour Unitarianism. The Sabellian
doctrine itself, however, during the decades above mentioned
underwent many changes in the East and received a philosophical
dress. In the 4th century this and the allied doctrine of Marcellus
of Ancyra were frequently confounded, so that it is exceedingly
difficult to arrive at a clear account of it in its genuine form.
Sabellianism, in fact, became a collective name for all those
Unitarian doctrines in which the divine nature of Christ was
acknowledged. The teaching of Sabellius himself was very
closely allied to the older Modalism (" Patripassianism ") of
Noetus and Praxeas, but was distinguished from it by its more
careful theological elaboration and by the account it took
of the Holy Spirit. His central proposition was to the effect
that Father, Son and Holy Spirit are the same person, three
names thus being attached to one and the same being. What
weighed most with Sabellius was the monotheistic interest. The
One Being was also named by him vunrarup an expression
purposely chosen to obviate ambiguity. To explain how one
and the same being could have various forms of manifestation,
he pointed to the tripartite nature of man (body, soul, spirit),
and to the sun, which manifests itself as a heavenly body, as a
source of light and also as a source of warmth. He further
maintained that God is not at one and the same time Father, Son
and Spirit, but, on the contrary, has been active in three appar-
ently consecutive manifestations or energies first in the
irpoatonrov of the Father as Creator and Lawgiver, then in the
irpbauTTffv of the Son as Redeemer, and lastly in the irpbawrov
of the Spirit as the Giver of Life. It is by this doctrine of the
succession of the xpotrowra that Sabellius is distinguished from
the older Medalists. In particular it is significant, in conjunction
with the reference to the Holy Spirit, that Sabellius regards the
Father also as merely a form of manifestation of the one God
in other words, has formally put Him in a position of complete
equality with the other Persons. This view prepares the way
for Augustine's doctrine of the Trinity. Sabellius himself appears
to have made use of Stoical formulas (ir\a.Tuvt(rd<n.,(rv(rTe\\ecr9ai),
but he chiefly relied upon Scripture, especially such passages as
Deut. vi. 4; Exod. xx. 3; Isa. xliv. 6; John x. 38. Of his later
history nothing is known ; his followers died out in the course of
the 4th century.
The sources of our knowledge of Sabellianism are Hippolytus
(Philos. bk. ix.), Epiphanius (Haer. Ixii.) and Dionys. Alex. (Epp.);
also various passages in Athanasius and the other fathers of the 4th
century. For modern discussions of the subject see Schleiermacher
(Theol. Ztschr. 1822, Hft. 3); Lange (Ztschr. f. hist. Theol. 1832, ii. 2);
Dollinger (Hippolyt u. Kallist. 1853), Zahn (Marcell v. Ancyra, 1867) ;
R. L. Ottley, The Doctrine of the Incarnation (1896) ; various histories
of Dogma, and Harnack (s.v. " Monarchianismus," in Herzog-
Hauck, Realencyk. fur prot. Theol. und Kirche, xiii. 303). (A. HA.)
SABIANS. The Sabians (as.-Sabi'iln) who are first mentioned
in the Koran (ii. 59, v. 73, xxii. 17) were a semi-Christian sect of
Babylonia, the Elkesaites, closely resembling the Mandaeans or
so-called " Christians of St John the Baptist," but not identical
with them. Their name is probably derived from the Aramaic
*ix, a dialectical form of =*, and signifies " those who wash
themselves "; the term al-mughtasila, which is sometimes applied
to them by Arab writers, has the same meaning, and they were
also known as i^po/3a7mo-TCu. How Mahomet understood the
1 In the 1 8th century there was discovered in one of the catacombs
of Rome an inscription containing the words " qui et Filius diceris et
Pater inveniris." This can only have come from a Sabellian.
2 Whether Sabellius himself ever visited the East is unknown.
term " Sabians " is uncertain, but he mentions them together
with the Jews and Christians. The older Mahommedan theo-
logians were agreed that they possessed a written revelation and
were entitled accordingly to enjoy a toleration not granted to
mere heathen. Curiously enough, the name " Sabian " was used
by theMeccanidolaters to denote Mahomet himself andhisMoslem
converts, apparently on account of the frequent ceremonial
ablutions which formed a striking feature of the new religion.
From these true Sabians the pseudo-Sabians of Harran
(Carrhae) in Mesopotamia must be carefully distinguished. In
A.D. 830 the Caliph Ma'mun, while marching against the Byzan-
tines, received a deputation of the inhabitants of Harran.
Astonished by the sight of their long hair and extraordinary
costume, he inquired what religion they professed, and getting
no satisfactory answer threatened to exterminate them, unless
by the time of his return from the war they should have embraced
either Islam or one of the creeds tolerated in the Koran. Con-
sequently, acting on the advice of a Mahommedan jurist, the
Harranians declared themselves to be " Sabians," a name which
shielded them from persecution in virtue of its Koranic authority
and was so vague that it enabled them to maintain their ancient
beliefs undisturbed. There is no doubt as to the general nature
of the religious beliefs and practices which they sought to mask.
Since the epoch of Alexander the Great Harran had been a
famous centre of pagan and Hellenistic culture; its people were
Syrian heathens, star-worshippers versed in astrology and
magic. In their temples the planetary powers were propitiated
by blood-offerings, and it is probable that human victims were
occasionally sacrificed even as late as the gth century of our era.
The more enlightened Harranians, however, adopted a religious
philosophy strongly tinged with Neoplatonic and Christian
elements. They produced a brilliant succession of eminent
scholars and scientists who transmitted to the Moslems the
results of Babylonian civilization and Greek learning, and their
influence at the court of Baghdad secured more or less toleration
for Sabianism, although in the reign of Harun al-Rashid the
Harranians had already found it necessary to establish a fund by
means of which the conscientious scruples of Moslem officials
might be overcome. Accounts of these false Sabians reached
the West through Maimonides, and then through Arabic sources,
long before it was understood that the name in this application
was only a disguise. Hence the utmost confusion prevailed in
all European accounts of them till Chwolsohn published in 1856
his Ssabier und der Ssabismus, in which the authorities for the
history and belief of the Harranians in the middle ages are
collected and discussed.
See also " Nouveaux documents pour I'e'tude de la religion des
Harraniens," by Dozy and De Goeje, in the Actes of the sixth Oriental
congress, ii. 281 f. (Leiden, 1885). (R. A. N.)
SABICU WOOD is the produce of a large leguminous tree,
Lysiloma Sabicu, a native of Cuba. The wood has a rich maho-
gany colour; it is exceedingly heavy, hard and durable, and
therefore most valuable for shipbuilding. Sabicu, on account of
its durability, was selected for the stairs of the Great Exhibition
(London) of 1851, and, notwithstanding the enormous traffic
which passed over them, the wood at the end was found to be
little affected by wear.
SABINE, SIR EDWARD (1788-1883), English astronomer and
geodesist, was born in Dublin on the I4th of October 1788, a
scion of a family said to be of Italian origin. He was educated
at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, and obtained a
commission in the royal artillery at the age of fifteen, attaining
the rank of major-general in 1859. His only experience of warfare
seems to have been at the siege of Fort Erie (Canada) in 1814. In
early life he devoted himself to astronomy and physical geo-
graphy, and in consequence he was appointed astronomer to
various expeditions, among others that of Sir J. Ross (1818)
in search of the North- West Passage, and that of Sir E. Parry
soon afterwards. Later, he spent long periods on the inter-
tropical coasts of Africa and America, and again among the
snows of Spitzbergen. He was associated with Henry Williams
Chisholm and others as a member of the Royal Commission of
SABINI
965
1868-1869 for standardizing weights and measures. Sabine
was for ten years (1861-1871) president of the Royal Society,
and was made K.C.B. in 1869. He died at East Sheen, Surrey,
on the 26th of May 1883.
Of Sabine's scientific work two branches in particular deserve
very high credit his determination of the length of the second's
pendulum, and his extensive researches connected with terrestrial
magnetism. The establishment of a system of magnetic obser-
vatories in various parts of British territory all over the globe
was accomplished mainly on his representations; and a great
part of his life was devoted to their direction, and to the reduc-
tion and discussion of the observations. While the majority of
his researches bear on one or other of the subjects just mentioned,
others deal with such widely different topics as the birds of Green-
land, ocean temperatures, the Gulf Stream, barometric measure-
ment of heights, arcs of meridian, glacier transport of rocks, the
volcanoes of the Hawaiian Islands, and various points of
meteorology. '
SABINI, an ancient tribe of Italy, which was more closely in
touch with the Romans from the earliest recorded period than
any other Italic people. They dwelt in the mountainous country
east of the Tiber, and north of the districts inhabited by the
Latins and the Aequians in the heart of the Central Apennines.
Their boundary, between the southern portion of the Umbrians
on the north-west, and of the Picentines on the north-east, was
probably not very closely determined. The traditions connect
them closely with the beginning of Rome, and with a
large number of its early institutions, such as the worship of
Jupiter, Mars and Quirinus, and the patrician form of marriage
(confarreatio).
Of their language as distinct from that of the Latins no
articulate memorial has survived, but we have a large number
of single words attributed to them by Latin writers, among
which such forms as (i)fircus, Lat. hircus; (2) ausum, Lat. aurum;
(3) nouensiles, Lat. nouensides (" gods of the nine seats "); (4)
the river name Farfarus, beside pure Lat. Fabaris (Servius, ad
Aen. vii. 715); and (5) the traditional name of the Sabine king,
Numa Pompilius (contrasted with Lat. Quinctilius), indicate
clearly certain peculiarities in Sabine phonology: namely, (i)
the representation of the Indo-European palatal aspirate git by
/ instead of Lat. h; (2) the retention of s between vowels; (3)
the change of medial and initial d to /; (4) the retention of medial
/ which became in Latin b or d ; and (5) the change of Ind.-Eur.
q to p. Not less clear is the well attested tradition (e.g. Paul
ex Fest. 327 M.) that the Sabines were the parent stock of the
Samnites, and this is directly confirmed by the name which the
Samnites apparently used for themselves, which, with a Latinized
ending, would be Safini (see SAMNITES and the other articles
there cited, dealing with the minor Samnite tribes).
It is one of the most important problems in ancient history
to determine what was the ethnological relation of these tribes,
whom we may call " Safine," to the people of Rome on the one
hand, and the earlier stratum or strata of population in Italy on
the other. Much light has been thrown on this group of questions
in recent years both from linguistic and from archaeological
sources. For the historical and archaeological evidence which
connects the Sabines with the patricians of Rome, see ROME,
Ancient History. The linguistic side of the matter may be
conveniently dealt with here. From this point of view the
question to be asked is what language did the Safines speak?
Was it most nearly akin to Latin or to Oscan or again to Umbrian
and Volscian?
A single monument of sth- or 4th-century Safine would be of
unique value; but in the absence of any such direct evidence
we are thrown back on a few cardinal facts: (i) Festus, though he
continually cites the Lingua Osca never spoke of Lingua Sabina,
but simply of Sabini, and the same is practically true of Varro,
who never refers to the language of the Sabines as a living
speech, though he does imply (v. 66 and 74) that the dialect used
in the district differed somewhat from urban Latin. The speech
therefore of the Sabines by Varro's time had become too Latinized
to give us more than scanty indications of what it had once been.
(2) The language of the Samnites was that which we now call
Oscan (see OSCA LINGUA). (3) The evidence of the glosses and
place-names already referred to confirms tradition by the
resemblance which they show to the phonological characteristics
of Oscan. On the other hand there are two or three forms called
Sabine by Latin writers which do appear to show the sound q
unchanged, especially the name of the Sabine god Quirinus,
which seems to be at least indirectly connected with the name of
the Sabine town Cures. We do not, however, know that the initial
sound of this word was originally a Velar q, and Professor Ridge-
way (" Who were the Romans," London, 1908, in Proceedings of
the British Academy, iii. 19) rightly lays some stress on the
fact that the name in Greek form is simply icvpivoi (not Kotpiws:
whereas Lat. Quintus is regularly transcribed noivrot), and
suggests that the initial sound may have been slightly modified
so as to correspond with the pure Latin word quirites (spearmen).
In one or two other examples of an apparent q in Safine names
or glosses it is not difficult to show that the sound was originally
a pure palatal followed by a suffixal u (e.g. tesqua, " desert places,"
probably for *ters-c-ua, cf. pas-c-ua, and Greek rtpaa-lvtiv, Lat.
terra, " dry land," from tersa), so that they would in fact offer no
difficulty.
There is further an important piece of evidence which connects
together all the Safine tribes and distinguishes them sharply,
at least in the 5th and following centuries B.C., from the earlier
strata of population in Italy. As this point arises in connexion
with so many tribes it is desirable to.offer the evidence for it here
once for all. It rests upon the different character, of the suffixes
used by particular tribes and communities to form their ethnic
name.
There are only six suffixes so used among the names of ancient
Italy. 1 These suffixes are : -ulo-, -io-, -co-, -no-,-ti- (or-ati-).-ensi-.
1. The suffix -ulo- appears only in a few old names, Siculi, Rutuli,
Appuli, Poedituli and *Vituli, which would have been the pure Latin
form instead of Itali, which was taken over from the Grecized form
'IraXoJ.
2. Excluding this small group, the frequency of the occurrence of
these suffixes in ancient Italy is shown by the following table:
Table of Ethnic Suffixes in Ancient Italy.
Dialectic Area.
-IO-.
-CO-.
-NO-.
-TI-.
-ENS1-.
Totals.
Messapii .
2
16
2
20
Peucetii .
I
15
3
19
Daunii
I
8
3
2
4
Bruttii
2
ii
2
4
19
Lucani
2
13
3
2
20
Hirpini
33
i
2
36
Frentani .
4
4
2
10
Samnites .
I
(V)
5
4
3
13
Campani .
3
(i)
43
5
3
54
Aurunci .
i
1 (0
2
i
5
Volsci
i
29
10
i
42
Hernici .
i
i
3
2
6
Marsi
i
3
4
i
9
Aequi
6
2
9
Latin!
4
1 (2)
44
8
20
77
Early Rome .
2
'9
6
27
Sabini
13
4
2
>9
Etruria (including
the Falisci)
5
2
34
9
2O
70
Marrucini
i
(I)
2
I
4
Paeligni .
5
2
7
Vestini
8
4
2
4
Piceni
(V)
15
5
'4
34
Umbri
23
35
'5
73
Totals . .
27
7
354
1 06
107
601
(7)
The figures in brackets refer to the forms in -C I NO-; see below.
3. The names in -io- seem to have been evenly distributed over the
Italian area and not to mark any particular tribe or epoch.
4. The suffix-e-can be shown to have borne a political significance.
1 This statement with those which follow is based upon the
collections of the place-names of ancient Italy, arranged according
to their locality, by R. S. Conway in The Italic Dialects (Cambridge.
1897).
9 66
SABINIANUS SABLE ISLAND
that is to say, it was used by the Romans to form the names
of the inhabitants of municipal towns, as for instance Foro-ttatenses,
the inhabitants of Forum Julii. There remain, therefore, the three
suffixes -co-, -no-, and -ti-, and it will be seen from the table that the
relative frequency of these suffixes in different dialect-areas varies
very greatly The suffix -no-, for example, has almost driven out
any other in the district of the Hirpini, and it is greatly preponderant
among the Campani, in the district of the Lucam, and among the
Latini and Sabini themselves.
5. On the other hand, the -co- suffix, which is nowhere frequent,
is practically confined to the central areas.
6. The -ti- suffix is comparatively frequent in the Volscian district
and very frequent in the Umbrian; it is also fairly well represented
in Latium and Etruria.
7 In the article VOLSCI it is shown that the addition of the -no-
suffix is often a mark of the conquest of an original -co- folk by a
Safine tribe. It is also fairly frequently added to names formed
with the -ti- suffix: Ardea gave first Ardeates and then Ardeatim;
the Picentes became Picentini, the Camertes Camertini; of such
forms there are no fewer than 54.
8. The addition of the -ati- suffix to the -no- ethmcon, as in
Iguvinates, is comparatively rare, and no doubt denotes the opposite
process, namely, the absorption of a -no- tribe by a population to
whom it was natural to use the suffix -ti-. The two opposite pro-
cesses confirm the inference that both are due to some change of
race, not merely to a change of custom in the same population in a later
age; for in that case the change would have been in one direction
only.
The assumption of the Safine origin of the -no- suffix is further
confirmed by the practice of the Romans themselves. The folk
of Latium after the Safine conquest were no longer Latiares but
Latini; and over against the old name Quiritis was the new
Populus Romanus. Just tTie same rough and ready nomen-
clature was applied to communities conquered on foreign soil;
the Sirapnarat became Spartani, the Zupaxoo-tot Syracusani,
and the 'AcricmKot Asiani, and so on.
The assumption that Latin was properly the language of the
Latian plain and of the Plebs at Rome, which the conquering
patrician nobles learnt from their subjects, and substituted for
their own kindred but different Safine idiom, renders easier to
understand the borrowing of a number of words into Latin from
some dialect (presumably Sabine) where the velars had been
labialized ; for example, the very common word bos, which in pure
Latin should have been *ws. And in general it may be stated
that the hypothesis of such an intermixture of forms from neigh-
bouring dialects has been rendered in recent years far more
credible by the striking evidence of such continual intermixture
going on within quite modern periods of time afforded by the
Atlas linguistique de la France, even in the portion which has
already been published.
The conclusion, therefore, to which the evidence appears to
lead us is that in, say, the yth century, B.C., the Safines spoke a
language not differing in any important particulars from that
of the Samnites, generally known as Oscan; and that when this
warlike tribe combined with the people of the Latian plain to
found or fortify or enlarge the city of Rome, and at the end of the
6th century to drive out from it the Etruscans, who had in that
century become its masters, they imposed upon the new com-
munity many of their own usages, especially within the sphere
of politics, but in the end adopted the language of Latium
henceforth known as lingua Latina, just as the Normans adopted
the language of the conquered English.
The glosses and place-names of the ancient Sabine district are
collected by R. S. Conway, the Italic Dialects (Cambridge, 1897),
p. 351. For the history of the Sabine district see Mommsen, C.I.L.
ix. p. 396; and Beloch, " Der italische Bund unter romischer
Hegemonic " (Leipzig, 1880) and " La Conquista Romana delta
regione Sabina," in the Rivista di storia antica (1905), ix. p. 269.
(R. S. C.)
SABINIANUS, pope from 604 to 606, successor of St Gregory the
Great. He incurred unpopularity by his unseasonable economies.
The erudite Italian Augustinian Onofrio Panvinio (1529-1568)
in his Epitome pontificum Romanorum (Venice, 1557) attributes
to this pope the introduction of the custom of ringing bells at the
canonical hours and for the celebration of the eucharist.
SABLE, the name of a small quadruped, closely akin to the
martens, and known by the zoological name of Mustela zibellina.
It is a native of Siberia and famous for its fur. The name
appears to be Slavonic in origin, cf. Russian sobol, whence it has
been adapted into various languages, cf. Ger. Zobel, Dutch
Sabel; the Mod. Fr. zibelline and Med.Lat. zibellina derive from
the Ital. form. The Eng. and Med. Lat. sabellum are from the
O. Fr. sable or saible (see MARTEN and FUR). " Sable " in
English is a rhetorical or poetical synonym .for " black." This
comes from the usage in heraldry (first in French) for the colour
equivalent to black, represented conventionally by a cross-
hatching of vertical and horizontal lines. It has usually been
assumed that this is an extension of the name of the fur, but
sable fur is brown.
SABLE, MADELEINE DE SOUVRE, MARQUISE DE (1590-
1678) French writer, was born in 1599, the daughter of Gilles
de Souvr6, marquis de Courtenvaux, tutor of Louis XIII.,
and marshal of France. In 1614 she married Philippe
Emmanuel de Laval, marquis de Sable, who died in 1640,
leaving her in somewhat straitened circumstances. With her
friend the comtesse de St Maur she took rooms in the Place
Royale, Paris, and established a literary salon. Here originated
that class of literature of which the Maximes of La Rochefoucauld
are the best-known example. The Maximes of the marquise
de Sable were in fact composed before those of La Rochefoucauld,
though not published till after her death. In 1655 she retired,
with the comtesse de St Maur, to the Convent of Port Royal
des Champs, near Marly, removing in 1661, when that establish-
ment was closed, to Auteuil. In 1669 she took up her residence
in the Port Royal convent in Paris, where she died on the i6th
of January 1678.
SABLE, a town of western France, in the department of Sarthe,
on the river Sarthe, 30 m. W.S.W. of Le Mans by rail. Pop.
(1906) 4952. Sable has a chateau of the i8th century, a fortified
gateway, relic of a medieval stronghold, and a modern church
with fine stained glass of the early 1 5th century. Its importance,
however, is chiefly due to the marble quarries of the vicinity,
the products of which are worked in the town, where flour-milling,
the manufacture of farm-implements and trade in cattle are also
carried on. A communal college is among the public institutions.
From the nth century Sable was the seat of a powerful barony,
which in 1602 was made a duchy-peerage in favour of Urbain
de Laval, marshal of France. The place afterwards came into
the possession of Colbert de Torcy, nephew of the great Colbert
who built the chateau. In 1488 a treaty which resulted in the
union of France and Brittany was concluded at Sable, between
Charles VIII. and Duke Francis II.
SABLE ANTELOPE, the English name for a large and hand-
some South African antelope (Hippolragus niger), exhibiting
the rare feature of blackness or dark colour in both sexes. The
sable and the roan antelope (H. equinus) belong to a genus nearly
related to the oryxes, with which they form a group or sub-
family. In all these antelopes long cylindrical horns are present
in both sexes; the muzzle is hairy; there is no gland below
the eye; the tail is long and tufted; and in the breadth of their
tall crowns the upper molar-teeth resemble those of the oxen.
The sable and roan antelopes are distinguished from Oryx by
the stout and thickly ringed horns rising vertically from a ridge
over the eyes at an obtuse angle to the plane of the lower part
of the face, and then sweeping backwards in a bold curve. Sable
antelope are among the handsomest of South African antelopes,
and are endowed with great speed and staying power. They
are commonly met with in herds including from ten to twenty
individuals, but on rare occasions as many as fifty have been
seen together. Forest-clad highlands are their favourite resorts.
The roan antelope is a larger animal, with shorter horns, whose
general colour in both sexes is strawberry-roan. It is typically
a South African species, but is represented by a local race in the
eastern Sudan (H. equinus bakeri) distinguished by its redder
colour and different face-makings.
SABLE ISLAND, an island of Nova Scotia, Canada, no m.
S.E. of Cape Canso, in 43 56' N. and 60 W. It is composed
of shifting sand, and is about 20 m. in length by i m. in breadth,
rising in places to a height of 85 ft. In the interior is a lake
about 10 m. in length. At either end dangerous sandbars run out
SABRE-FENCING
967
about 1 7 m. into the ocean. It has long been known as " the
graveyard of the Atlantic "; over 200 known wrecks have been
catalogued, and those unrecorded are believed greatly to exceed
this number. The coast is without a harbour and liable to fogs
and storms; irregular ocean currents of great strength sweep
round it, and its colour makes it indistinguishable until close at
hand. Since 1873 an efficient lighthouse system and life-saving
station has been maintained by the Canadian government, and
the danger has been much lessened. Since 1904 it has been
connected with the mainland by wireless telegraphy. The island
is constantly changing in shape, owing to the action on the sand
of wind and wave, and tends to diminish in size. Since 1763,
when taken over by Britain, it has shrunk from 40 m. in length
to 20, from z in breadth to i, and from 200 ft. in height to 85;
since 1873 the western lighthouse has thrice been removed
eastward. As this makes navigation still more dangerous, the
Canadian government has planted thousands of trees and
quantities of root-binding grass, and the work of destruction
has been somewhat stayed. Wild fruits grow plentifully during
the summer, and cranberries are exported. Wild ducks, gulls,
and other birds nest in large numbers, and a native breed of
ponies has long flourished.
Sable Island, estimated as being then over 100 m. in length,
was known to the early navigators under the name of Santa
Cruz. Early in the i6th century horses were left on its shores
by the Portuguese, and the native ponies, supposed to be their
descendants, are still exported. In 1598 a band of convicts
were left by the marquis de la Roche, but in 1603 the survivors
were restored to France.
See Rev. Geo Patterson in Transactions of Royal Society of Canada
(1894 and 1897).
SABRE-FENCING, the art of attack and defence with the
sabre, or broad-sword. Besides the heavy German basket-
sabre and the Sc/dager (see below) there are two varieties of
sabre used for fencing, the military sword and the so-called
light sabre. These are nearly identical in shape, being composed
of a slightly curved blade about 34 in. in length and a handle
furnished with a guard to protect the hand; but the military
sword, or broad-sword proper, the blade of which is about f in.
wide near the guard, tapering to J in. near the point, is consider-
ably heavier than the light sabre and is generally preferred by
military instructors, being almost identical with the regulation
army sabre in size and weight. Until 1900 it was the common
fencing sabre in Great Britain, the United States, and most
European countries, although its use was practically confined
to military circles. About 1900 the light Italian sabre was intro-
duced and became the recognized cut-and-thrust weapon among
fencers throughout the world. In Austria-Hungary it became
popular as early as 1885, while in Italy, the country of its origin,
it has been in use since the middle of the igth century. Its
blade is about -jV i n - wide a little below the guard, tapering to
-$ in. just under the point. For practice this is truncated and
the edge blunt, but in scoring both edge and point are assumed
to be sharp, while in countries on the continent of Europe (though
not in Great Britain or the United States) the back-edge (false-
edge) is also supposed to be sharpened for some 8 in. from the
point. In Italy when used for duelling the point and both edges
are actually sharpened.
The modern sabre is a descendant of the curved light cavalry
sword of the late i8th century, which was introduced into
Europe from the Orient by the Hungarians.
The old-time European swords used for cutting were nearly
all straight, like the Ital. schiavona and spadroon, the English
and German two-handers and the Scotch claymore (see SWORD).
There was indeed a heavy curved fencing weapon called dussack,
very popular in the German fencing schools of the i6th and I7th
centuries, which was of wood, very broad and as long as the
fencer's arm, with an elliptical hole for the hand in place of a
guard. But the dussack was introduced from Bohemia, where,
as in Hungary, swords were oriental in shape, and as it com-
pletely disappeared in the last half of the i7th century it can
hardly be considered in any way as the ancestor of the modern
sabre. The old English back-sword, the traditional English
weapon, though the curved form was not quite unknown, was
almost invariably straight. The ancient English sword-and-
buckler play (see FENCING) was, to the disgust of its devotees,
driven out as a method of serious combat by the introduction at
the beginning of the Elizabethan era of the Italian thrusting
rapier. Nevertheless it survived as a sport up to the first half
of the 1 8th century, being practised, together with the back-
sword or broad-sword play, cudgelling or single-stick fencing,
foiling and boxing, by the fencing masters of that period, whose
exhibitions, given for the most part in the popular bear-gardens,
were described by Pepys, Steele and others. The masters who
figured in these "stage-fights" were called "prize-fighters";
and at that period they regarded boxing only as an unimportant
part of their art. The most famous of them was Figg, the
" Atlas of the Sword " (see FENCING). The back-sword of
Figg's time was essentially the military sword then in use, having
a single straight edge. The blows were aimed at the head,
body or legs. Towards the close of the i8th century sticks began
to be used for back-swording, the play at first being aimed
at any part of the person; but the head soon came to
be the sole object of attack, blows on the body and arms
being used only to gain an opening. The usual defence was
from a high hanging guard. No lunging was allowed. Fencing
with the broad-sword did not, however, at any period entirely
disappear in England, and was taught by all the regular masters,
especially by the celebrated Angelo. The earlier play, of the
time of Figg and later, was simple and safe. The prevailing
defensive position was the hanging guard, high or 'medium, with
the arm extended and the point downwards. There were also
high inside and outside, tierce, quarte, low prime, seconde, and
the head or " St George," parries; the last, a guard with the
blade nearly horizontal above the head, being the supposed
position of England's patron saint from which he dealt his fatal
blow at the dragon. Owing to the great weight of the old back-
sword wristplay was almost impossible, the cuts being delivered
with a chopping stroke. Later in the i8th century a nimbler
style, called the Austrian, came into fashion, owing to the
introduction of a lighter, curved sabre, the principal guards
being the medium, with extended hand and sword held perpen-
dicularly with the point up; the hanging, with the point down,
both outside and inside; the half-circle; the " St George ";
and the spadroon, with horizontal arm and sword pointing
downwards. The spadroon (Ital. spadrone), a light, straight,
flat-bladed and two-edged sword, was also a popular iSth-century
weapon, and was used both for cutting and thrusting. The
thrusting attacks and parries were generally similar to those of
the small-sword (see FOIL- FENCING), but few or no circular
parries were used. The cuts were like those of the broad-sword.
The Germans, like the British, were once masters of the edge in
fencing, but the art declined with the introduction of the point,
and sabre-playing survived only in the army and in academic
circles with the heavy basket-sabre (see below).
The school of sabre still taught in most armies, and up to the
end of the igth century by fencing-masters of all countries except
Italy and Austria-Hungary, shows little advance from that in
vogue in Angelo's time. Two fundamental guards are usual,
one (taught at the French army school at Joinville-le-Pont)
corresponding to the guard of tierce in foil-fencing, except that
the left forearm rests in the small of the back; and the other a
high hanging guard, with crooked arm and the point of the sabre
directed slightly forwards. The methods of coming on guard
differ considerably, but have nothing to do with fencing proper.
In 1896 the Florentine (Radaelli) system of sabre was introduced
into the British army, the cavaliere F. Masiello spending some
time at Aldershot for the purpose of training the army sword-
masters; but since the year 1901 regular instruction in swords-
manship has practically been abandoned.
Fencing on horseback for cavalry is simple in comparison with
light sabre-play. The cavalry sword is of two patterns, one the
heavy, straight cuirassier's sword, and the other somewhat
lighter with a slightly curved blade. On the attack straight
9 68
SABRE-FENCING
point thrusts, and wide sweeping cuts are used. The three
principal parries are the " head " (or " high prime ") with
horizontally held blade; the " tierce," on the right, parrying
cuts at the left side of the head and body; and the " quarte,"
on the opposite side.
The modern style of fencing with the light sabre was perfected
in Italy during the last quarter of the ipth century, the most
important pioneer in its development having been G. Radaelli,
a Milanese master, who became chief instructor of the sabre
in the Royal Italian Military Fencing Academy in 1874, when
it was transferred to Milan from Parma. Radaelli's system was
described by F. Masiello, an army officer whose works remain the
chief authority on the light sabre. An old-time rivalry between
the Neapolitan and the northern Italian fencing methods came
to a crisis when M. Parise, an expert of the southern school,
secured first place for foil-fencing in a tournament instituted
by the military authorities, the result being the transfer of the
Military Fencing Academy to Rome under the title of Scuola
Magistrate di Roma. There was, however, less difference between
the two schools in sabre than in foil play, and the Radaelli
system for the former was so generally esteemed that a master
of that method was established at the Roman Academy.
The light fencing-sabre is made up of two principal parts,
the blade and the handle. The blade, from 335 to 34 in. long
and slightly and gradually curved from hilt to point (which is
truncated), has the tongue, or tang, which runs through the
handle; the heel, or thick uppermost part of the blade fitting
on to the guard; the edge, running from heel to point; the
back-edge or false-edge (sometimes not allowed), running from
the point along the back for about 8 in.; and the back, running
from point to heel (unless there is a back-edge). The blade is
fluted on both sides from the heel where the back-edge begins.
The handle consists of the guard, of thin metal, extending from
the pummel to the heel of the blade, to protect the hand; the
grip (of wood, fish-skin, or leather, often backed with metal) ,
shaped to fit the hand, through which the tongue of the blade
passes; and the pummel, or knob, a button which finishes off the
handle and holds the tongue in place.
The recognition of the light fencing-sabre as a practice weapon
only, related to the heavier military sword as the foil is to the
duelling-sword, at once makes apparent the difference between
the play of the two cut- and thrust-weapons. As a light cut with
the military sabre will be of little advantage in battle, however
prettily delivered, it is evident that in order to produce a shock
of impact sufficient to put an adversary out of action, a wide
sweeping movement with the sword (moulinet; Ital. molinelli)
is necessary. With the fencing-sabre a hit is a hit if properly
delivered with the edge or point, however light it may be. For
hits of this kind less force is necessary, and wide moulinets are
not only useless but dangerous, since in making them the point
must for a moment be directed away from the opponent, and
momentary openings are thus left of which the opponent may
take advantage by attacks on the preparation. For this reason
the cuts of the Radaelli school are delivered with moulinets of
very narrow radius, made as much as possible by a movement of
the elbow only, keeping the point directed menacingly towards
the opponent. Again, whereas in battle a wound on any part of
the person may be effective and the school of the heavy sabre
has to reckon with this fact, in fencing with the light sabre no
hit lower than the hips counts, although hits upon any part of the
person above the hips are good; in England cuts on the outside
of the thigh are allowed. This somewhat narrows the scope of the
fencing-sabre, just as the scope of the foil is narrower than that of
the duelling-sword.
The military sword is, on account of its weight, usually held
firmly in the hand with the thumb overlapping the fingers;
but in holding the light sabre the thumb is placed on the flat of
the grip, giving a perfect command over the movements of the
blade, called by the Italians pasteggio. Both attacks and parries
are executed as narrowly as possible, avoiding the wide move-
ments common in heavy sabre-play, and the moulinets (which
are ellipses described by the point as it is drawn back for a cut)
are made, not by swinging the sword round the head, but by
drawing back the hand held in front of the body, and with the
point directed forward. The thrusts with the light sabre are
made with the thumb to the left; whereas in the French school
it is turned down, so that the blade curves upward. The modern
school allows no such parries as the" St George," in executing
which the blade is held at right angles to the body, but teaches
that the point should always be directed towards the adversary
as much as possible. The attacks are either " simple," " com-
plex " or " secondary," and bear a general resemblance to those
in foil-fencing (q.v.); simple attacks being such as are not pre-
ceded by other movements, as feints; complex attacks those
preceded by feints, advances, or some other preliminary
manoeuvre; and secondary attacks those carried out while the
adversary is himself attacking or preparing to attack. The
parries also correspond in nomenclature, and generally in nature,
to those used in foil-play, but no circular or counter-parries
are taught, though sometimes employed.
Terms used in Sabre- Fencing. " Absence of the blade ": a guard
so wide as apparently to leave the body uncovered, so as to entice
the adversary to attack. " Appuntata " (Fr. remise) : a supple-
mentary cut or thrust after the failure of an attack, when the ad-
versary replies slowly or with a feint. " Assault " (Ital. assalto), a
regular bout. " Attacks on the blade " (see below under " beat,"
" disarmament," " graze " and " press "). " Beat " (Ital. battuta):
a hard dry stroke on the adversary's blade, in order to drive it aside
and push home an attack; a " re-beat " is made by beating lightly
on one side, then dropping the point quickly under the adversary s
blade and beating violently on the other side. Cavazione (see below
under " disengage "). " Completion " (see below under riposte).
" Controtempp ' : to parry an attack in such a manner that the
adversary is hit at the same time. " Deceive the blade " : when the
adversary attempts an " attack on the blade " to avoid contact
by a narrow circular movement of the point and hand ; this is gener-
ally followed by a straight thrust or cut, as the force of his blow will
carry his blade wide and leave an opening. " Development "
(attacks on the): attacks made while the adversary is making a
complex attack, i.e. one consisting of at least two movements
(feint and real attack). Deviamento (see below under " press ").
" Disarmament " (Ital. sforzo) : striking the adversary's weapon
from his hand by means of a sweeping stroke along his blade from
the point downwards. " Disengage ' (Ital. cavazione) : being on
guard (engaged) in one line, to draw one's point under the adversary's
sword and lunge on the other side: to avoid a cut by retiring the
right foot behind the left; a time-cut at the adversary's arm is
usually made at the same time. " Graze " (Ital. filo) : to run one's
blade along that of the adversary and push home the attack suddenly.
" Invitation guard ": a guard in any line with the blade intention-
ally so wide that the adversary lunges into the apparent opening,
only to meet a prepared counter. Incontro (Ital. for double-hit):
both fencers attacking at the same instant. " Lines " (of engage-
ment): the four quarters into which the trunk is divided, attacks
and parries opposite them being called after them. These are, with
the hand held in " supination " (thumb on top of sabre-grip) :
upper right, "sixte"; upper left hand, "quarte"; lower right
" octave ' (not used in sabre) ; lower left " half-circle " (not used
in sabre). When the hand is held in " pronation " (thumb down)
the lines are: upper right, "tierce" ; upper left, "prime";
lower right, "seconde"; lower left, "low prime" ("seconde"
generally used). Quinte and septime are also lines of the Italian
school. " Lunge ": the advance of the body by stepping forward
with the right foot in order to deliver a cut or thrust. " Opposition " :
pressing the hand and blade in attack towards the side the adversary's
blade is on; the object being to occupy his blade and cover one's
person from a " riposte." " Press ": forcing the adversary's blade
aside by a sudden push in order to create an opening for an attack,
either directly or on the same side after he has recovered his blade and
parried too wide on his supposed threatened side. " Preparation "
(attacks on the) : mostly made by " deceiving " when the adversary
attempts a beat, graze or press. " Re-beat " (see " beat "). " Re-
mise " (see "appuntata"). "Riposte": a quick cut or thrust
made after parrying an attack, without lunging. When the riposte
in its turn is parried and replied to with another riposte, the French
call this second riposte the tac-au-tac. Sforzo (see " disarmament ").
Scandaglio : studying an opponent's style at the beginning of a bout.
" Stop-thrust "; a direct thrust made as the adversary begins a
complex attack, j.e. one of more than one movement. The stop-
thrust must get home palpably before the adversary's attack or
the attack alone is counted, the rule of scoring being that he who
is attacked must take the parry. "Time-cut": a quick slash
at the adversary's arm as he begins a complex attack. Toccatol:
Ital. for " hit!" Touchel: French for " hit!"
Manchette-Fencing (Fr. manchette, a cuff) is a variety of sabre-
play popular in Germany, in which the fencers stand at such a
S A BZ A WAR SACCHARIC ACID
969
distance from each other that only hand and fore-arm can be
reached with the last few inches of the sword nearest the point,
both edges being supposed to be sharp. No thrusts are allowed,
and both feet must remain stationary where they are planted
when the bout begins. Narrow parries are necessary, though
many cuts are avoided by withdrawing the hand. Manchette-
fencing is not considered good practice for the light sabre and
is therefore losing ground.
The German Basket-Sabre (Krummer Sabel, or Krummsabd)
is a descendant of the heavy cavalry sabre once in use in some
branches of the German horse. It is now used almost exclusively
by students. It has a strongly curved blade about 32 in. long
and i in. broad, tapering slightly towards the end, which is
truncated, no thrusts being allowed. The hand is protected by a
large guard of heavy steel basket-work, and the handle is shaped
to fit the hand, the forefinger being run through a leathern loop.
On account of the great weight of the weapon (about aj Ib, more
than half of which is in the guard) blows delivered with a full
swing are impracticable, and all cuts are made from the elbow
and wrist, the hand being generally kept as high as possible.
The Mensur is the distance at which the combatants stand from
one another. There are three recognized distances, that in general
use being the middle, from which two sabres can be crossed at
about 15 in. from the points. Neither combatant may move his
left foot (the right in the case of a left-handed fencer) from the
position in which it is placed at the beginning of the bout, all
advances and retreats being made by the movements of the
right foot and the body. The position of the engagement is
in high tierce, the arm being held straight out towards the
adversary. The feet are planted about 24 in. apart, the right in
advance. The right shoulder is bent forward and the stomach
drawn back, imparting a slight stoop to the fencer. There are
eight cuts and as many parries. The basket-sabre is used in the
more serious students' duels; the neck, wrist, armpits and body
below the nipples being heavily bandaged.
Rapier-fencing among the students of the German universities
and technical high-schools of Germany, Austria, Switzerland
and Russia may be considered under the sabre, as the rapier,
although originally used for thrusting as well as cutting, is now
employed by students only to cut. According to the association
of German fencing-masters the modern weapon when blunt and
used only for practice is called Rapier or Haurapier, but when
sharpened for duelling, Scfddger (striker). It is derived from
the long straight sword of the German Reiters, or light cavalry,
who were famous in the i6th century and later. Its use, however,
was only occasional before the middle of the igth century,
when it gradually took the place of the dangerous Pariser, or
long French small-sword, for the semi-serious duels (Mensureri)
of the students. There are two varieties of rapier, each having
a thin flat blade about 335 in. long and -jV in. wide and
truncated at the point, but distinguished by the shape of the
handle. The bell-rapier (Glockenrapier), used only at the north
German universities of Leipzig, Berlin, Halle, Breslau, Konigs-
berg and Greifswald, is furnished with a guard consisting of a
cup or bell of iron about 45 in. in diameter and 2 in. deep, joined
to the pummel by a steel shaft protecting the hand. Its total
weight is about if Ib. The basket-rapier (Korbrapier), used at
all universities except those named above, has a handle protected
by a sort of basket of heavy steel wire. Its total weight is 2 Ib.
The balance is just below the guard. The blade of the rapier is
divided conventionally into the forte, the half next the hilt, and
the foible. These are again divided into full and half forte
and full and half foible, the half foible being the weakest quarter
of the blade, nearest the point. Every bout, whether with
sharp or blunt weapons, is preceded by the command Auf die
Mensur I (on the mark, literally distance). The two fencers
take position with feet apart and the right slightly in advance
just far enough from one another to allow their heads to be
reached by the sword without moving the feet, which remain
firm during the entire bout. During the first half of the I9th
century the objective points of the rapier included the upper
arm and breast; but later the head, including the face, became
the sole target. In practice a heavy mask of wire with felt top,
a glove with padded arm-piece (Stidp) and a padded apron to
protect body and legs are worn. There is one defensive position,
which is with the arm stretched upward bringing the hand and
hilt about 6 in. in front of and above the forehead, and the
point of the rapier directed diagonally downward across the
body and to the outside of the adversary's knees. The
fencers having at the command Bindet die Klingenl (Join
blades!) placed their hilts together with the points of the
rapiers directed upwards, attack simultaneously at the com-
mand Los! (Go!). All blows are delivered from the wrist,
slightly helped by the forearm, the hand never being dropped
below the level of the eyes. No movement of the head or
body is allowed except such as is unavoidably connected with
that of the sword-arm.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For the light sabre see La Scherma italiana di
spada e di sciabola, by Ferdinando Masiello (Florence, 1887);
Infantry Sword Exercise (British War Office, London, 1896), prac-
tically the system of Masiello; Istruzione per la scherma, &c., by S.
de Frate (Milan, 1885) ; La Scherma per la sciabola, by L. Barbasetti
(Vienna, 1898); a German translation of the foregoing Das Sdbel-
fechlen (Vienna, 1899); Die Fechtkunst, by Gustav Hergsell (Vienna,
1892). For the old-style sabre see Cold Steel, by Alfred Mutton
(London, 1889); Broadsword and Singlestick, by R. G. Allanson
Winn and C. Phillips Wolley, "All England " series (London,
1898); Foil and Sabre, by L. Rondelle (Boston, 1892), an exposition
of the French military system. For sabre-fencing for cavalry see
The Cavalry Swordsman, by Alfred Hutton (London, 1867) ; L'Escrime
du sabre a cheval, by A. Alessandri and Kmilc Andre (Paris, 1805).
For German basket-sabre and schlager. Die deutsche Hiebfechtschide
fur Korb- und Glockenrapier (Leipzig, 1887), publishedby the associa-
tion of German academic fencing-masters; L'Escrime dans Us
universites allemandes, &c., by L. C. Roux (Paris, 1885), a French
exposition of the German student fencing. (E. B.)
SABZAWAR, a town of Afghanistan, situated at an elevation
of 3550 ft. on the left bank of the river Harud, 93 m. S. of Herat.
Sabzawar was once a city of considerable size, and still possesses
a fortress with sides of about 200 or 250 yds. This fortress has
been abandoned, and the town, which is the centre of a group of
villages, is now fairly prosperous, with a bazaar of about 800
shops and a busy traffic with Seistan. The plains about Sabzawar
are highly cultivated by the Nurzai Duranis, and each village
boasts its own little mud fort.
SABZEVAR, a district of the province of Khurasan in Persia,
formerly called Baihak. It is situated between Nishapur on the
east and Shahrud-Bostam on the west, and has a length of
about 80 m. and a breadth of 50; its population is about 60,000,
and it pays to the government a yearly revenue of 8000. The
district has many flourishing villages and much cultivation;
it produces much wool, excellent cotton, some silk, partly
exported to Russia, partly manufactured into various stuffs
in the district, and fruits, exported dried in large quantities.
The export trade is chiefly done by a few Russian Armenians
who reside in Sabzevar town.
SABZEVAR, the capital of the district, is situated 150 m. E. of
Shahrud and 65 m. W. of Nishapur, in 36 12' N., 57 39' E., at
an elevation of 3100 ft. The population, which was 30,000
before the famine in 1871, is now about 15,000. There are
some good caravanserais, a well-supplied bazaar, three colleges,
two large and thirty small mosques, and post and telegraph
offices.
SACCHARIC ACID, C^H^O, or HOjQCH-OHkCOjH, in
chemistry, a tetraoxydicarboxylic acid which exists in three
itereoisomeric forms. The ordinary or dextro (d)-saccharic acid
is formed in the oxidation of cane sugar, grape sugar, d-gluconic
acid and many other carbohydrates with nitric acid. It forms
a deliquescent mass. On standing, the syrupy acid gives the
crystalline lactonic acid, CjHgO?. Sodium amalgam reduces it
to glucuronic acid, CjH.oO; or OHCICH-OHkCOjH, whilst
tiydriodic acid reduces it to adipic acid, HOjC[CH ^COjH. Nit ric
acid oxidizes it to dextro-tartaric acid and oxalic acid. Laevo (/)-
saccharic acid is formed by oxidizing /-gluconic acid with nitric
acid, whilst the inactive (d+O-acid is obtained similarly from
inactive gluconic acid. These acids closely resemble the d acid
except in their action on polarized light. For their relations
970
SACCHARIN SACCHINI
to the glucoses see SUGAR. Mucic acid (q.v.) is isomeric with
these acids.
SACCHARIN, the name given to several distinct chemical sub-
stances. The saccharin of commerce, so named from its exces-
sively sweet taste, is a coal-tar product, being the imide of ortho-
sulphobenzoic acid, CsH^go^NH. It may be prepared by
the oxidation of ortho-toluenesulphonamide CHa-CeHrSC^NHz,
with potassium permanganate (C. Fahlberg and I. Remsen, Ber.,
1879, 12, p. 469); by the electrolytic oxidation of the above
sulphonamide (German patent 35211); by the action of con-
centrated sulphuric acid on ortho-sulphamidobenzoic acid,
NH 2 -SO 2 -CHi-C0 2 H (German patent 113720); by warming the
chloride of ortho-sulphobenzoic acid phenyl ester (SOjCl-CeHr
CO 2 C 6 H6) with excess of aqueous ammonia (R. List and M.
Stein, Ber., 1898, 31, p. 1662); and from benzaldehyde ortho-
sulphonic acid by conversion into its acid chloride, which with
ammonia yields the corresponding acid-amide, which gives
saccharin on oxidation with atmospheric oxygen (German patent
94948). It is a crystalline powder which melts at 220 C. with
partial decomposition. It is soluble with difficulty in cold water,
but is moderately soluble in hot water and readily soluble in
alcohol. By the action of concentrated hydrochloric acid at
1 50 C. it is decomposed into ammonia and ortho-sulphobenzoic
acid. With phosphorus pentachloride above 200 C. it yields ortho-
chlornitrobenzene. Sodium saccharin, CeH^COHSO^-N-Na,
2H 2 O, is used under the name of " soluble saccharin " or
"crystallose," and is readily soluble in hot water. The ammonium
salt is named " sucramine." Saccharin is largely used for
sweetening purposes, pure saccharin being 500 times sweeter
than sugar. Until 1891 the commercial product contained
about 40 % of the tasteless para compound and was only 300
times as sweet as sugar; the mixture, however, is now separated
by dissolving out the saccharin with xylene, in which solvent
the para compound is insoluble. Saccharin is used as a sugar sub-
stitute for diabetic patients. It is interesting to note that
0-sulphobenzoic acid has an acid taste, and the sulphamide is
tasteless; the sweetness of saccharin therefore appears to be con-
nected with the formation of a cyclic anhydride. In the United
Kingdom there is an import duty of is. 3d. per oz. on saccharin
and similar products, and manufacturers have to take out a licence.
In the United States the import duty is $1-50+10% ad valorem
per Ib. Austria-Hungary, France, Belgium and Germany pro-
hibit the importation. On the estimation of saccharin in com-
mercial samples and for its detection in foods and beverages see
J. H. Kastle, Jour. Chem. Soc., 1905, 87, p. 503; E. M'K.
Chace, Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1904, 39, p. 1627.
The lactones of the saccharic acids are also known as " saccharins."
By boiling dextrin or laevulose with milk of lime the so-called " sac-
CH 2 OH-CH-CHOH-g(OH)-CH,
charin," a lactone of the formula,
is obtained (E. Peligot, Ber., 1880, 13, p. 196; H. Kiliani, Ber., 1882,
15, p. 2954). It crystallizes in large prisms, has a bitter taste, and
is easily soluble in hot water. Potassium permanganate oxidizes it
to carbonic and acetic acids. Heating with caustic potash to 200 C.
gives formic and lactic acids, and when reduced by hydriodic acid
and phosphorus it is converted into a7-dimethylbutyrolactone.
" Isp-saccnarin " and " meta-saccharin " are formed by the action
of lime on milk sugar (H. Kiliani, Ber., 1885, 18, p. 631). The
former melts at 95 C., and on reduction by hydriodic acid and
phosphorus is converted into cry-dimethylvalerolactone. Meta-
saccharin'melts at 141-142 C. and is easily soluble in water.
SACCHETTI, FRANCO (c. 1335-*;. 1400), Italian poet and
novelist, was the son of Benci di Uguccione, surnamed " Buono,"
of the noble and ancient Florentine family of the Sacchetti
(comp. Dante, Par. c. xvi.), and was born at Florence about the
year 1335. While still a young man he achieved repute as a
poet, and he appears to have travelled on affairs of more or less
importance as far as to Genoa, Milan and " Ischiavonia."
When a sentence of banishment was passed upon the rest of the
house of Sacchetti by the Florentine authorities in 1380 it
appears that Franco was expressly exempted, " per esser tanto
uomo buono,"and in 1383 he was one of the "eight, "discharging
the office of " prior " for the months of March and April. In 1385
he was chosen ambassador to Genoa, but preferred to go as
podesta to Bibbiena in Casentino. In 1392 he was podesta of
San Miniato, and in 1396 he held a similar office at Faenza. In
1398 he received from his fellow-citizens the post of captain of
their then province of Romagna, having his residence at Portico.
The date of his death is unknown; most probably it occurred
about 1400, though some writers place it as late as 1410.
Sacchetti left a considerable number of sonnetti, canzpni, ballate,
madrigali, &c., which have never been printed, but which are still
extant in at least one MS. in the Laurentian library of Florence.
His Novelle were first printed in 1724, from the MS. in the same
collection, which, however, is far from complete. They were
originally 300 in number, but only 258 in whole or in part now
survive. They are written in pure and elegant Tuscan, and, based
as they are for the most part on real incidents in the public and
domestic life of Florence, they are valuable for the light they throw
on the manners of that age, and occasionally also for the biographical
facts preserved in them.
SACCHI, ANDREA (c. 1600-1661), Italian painter of the later
Roman school, was born at Nettuno near Rome in 1600, or
perhaps as early as 1598. His father, Benedetto, a painter of
undistinguished position, gave him his earliest instruction in
the art; Andrea then passed into the studio of Albani, of whom
he was the last and the most eminent pupil, and under Albani
he made his reputation early. The painter of Sacchi's pre-
dilection was Raphael; he was the jealous opponent of Pietro
da Cortona, and more especially of Bernini. In process of time
he became one of the most learned designers and one of the
soundest colourists of the Roman school. He went to Venice
and to Parma to study Venetian colour and the style of Correggio;
but he found the last-named master unadaptable for his own
proper methods in art, and he returned to Rome. Sacchi was
strong in artistic theory, and in practice slow and fastidious;
it was his axiom that the merit of a painter consists in producing,
not many middling pictures, but a few and perfect ones. His
works have dignity, repose, elevated yet natural forms, severe
but not the less pleasing colour, a learned treatment of architec-
ture and perspective; he is thus a painter of the correct and
laudable academic order, admired by connoisseurs rather than by
ambitious students or the large public. His principal painting,
often spoken of as the fourth best] easel-picture in Rome in
the Vatican Gallery is " St Romuald relating his Vision to Five
Monks of his Order." The pictorial crux of dealing with these
figures, who are all in the white garb of their order, has often
been remarked upon; and as often the ingenuity and judgment
of Sacchi have been praised in varying the tints of these habits
according to the light and shade cast by a neighbouring tree.
The Vatican Gallery contains also an early painting of the master
the " Miracle of St Gregory," executed in 1624; a mosaic
of it was made in 1771 and placed in St Peter's. Other leading
examples are the " Death of St Anna," in S Carlo ai Catinari;
" St Andrew," in the Quirinal; " St Joseph," at Capo alle Case;
also, in fresco, a ceiling in the Palazzo Barberini " Divine
Wisdom " reckoned superior in expression and selection to
the rival work of Pietro da Cortona. There are likewise altar-
pieces in Perugia, Foligno and Camerino. Sacchi, who worked
almost always in Rome, left few pictures visible in private
galleries: one, of " St Bruno," is in Grosvenor House. He had a
flourishing school: Nicholas Poussin and Carlo Marat ta were his
most eminent scholars; Luigi Garzi and Francesco Lauri were
others, and Sacchi's own son Giuseppe, who died young, after
giving very high hopes. This must have been an illegitimate
son, for Andrea was unmarried when he died at Nettuno in 1661.
SACCHINI, ANTONIO MARIA GASPARE (1734-1786), Italian,
musical composer, was born at Pozzuoli, on the 23rd of July
1734. He was the son of a poor fisherman and was heard
singing on the sands by Durante, who undertook his education
at the Conservatorio di Sant' Onofrio at Naples. Durante and
Piccinni taught him composition, and Nicola Fiorenza the
violin. The intermezzo Fra Donate was written for the theatre
of the Conservatorio in 1756, but his first serious opera was
produced at Rome in 1762, and was followed by many others,
nearly all of which were successful. In 1769 he went to Venice,
and in consequence of the great success achieved there by the
SACERDOTALISM SACHEVERELL, W.
971
production of his opera Alessandro nell' Indie he was appointed
director of the Conservatorio dell' Ospedaletto, where he trained
some admirable female singers and wrote church music. In
1772 he visited London, where, notwithstanding a cruel cabal
formed against him, he achieved a brilliant success, especially
in his four new operas, Tamerlano, Lucio Vero, Nitelli e Perseo
and // Gran Cid. Later he met with an equally enthusiastic
reception in Paris, where in 1 783 his Rinaldo was produced under
the immediate patronage of Queen Marie Antoinette, to whom
he had been recommended by the emperor Joseph II. But
neither in England nor in France did his reputation continue
to the end of his visit. He seems everywhere to have been the
victim of bitter jealousy. Even Marie Antoinette was not able
to support his cause in the face of the general outcry against the .
favour shown to foreigners; and by her command, given with
the utmost reluctance, his last opera and undoubted master-
piece, (Edipe d Colons, was set aside in 1786 to make room for
Lemoine's Phedre a circumstance which so preyed upon his
mind that he died of chagrin on the 7th (or 8th) of October 1786.
Sacchini's style was rather graceful than elevated, and he was
deficient both in creative power and originality. But the
dramatic truth of his operas, more especially the later ones,
is above all praise, and he never fails to write with the care and
finish of a thorough and accomplished musician. (Edipe was
extremely successful after his death, and was performed at the
Academic nearly six hundred times.
SACERDOTALISM (from Lat. sacerdos, priest, literally one
who presents sacred offerings, sacer, sacred, and dare, to give),
a term applied, usually in a hostile sense, to the system, method
and spirit of a priestly order or class, under which the functions,
dignity and influence of the members of the priesthood are
exalted in the ministry of religion, and in the church at the expense
of the laity. This exalting of the priesthood in the Christian
church is based on the claim that the priest exercises sacrificial
and supernatural powers in the celebration of the Eucharist.
SACHEVERELL, HENRY (1674-1724), English ecclesiastic
and politician, was the son of Joshua Sacheverell, rector of St
Peter's, Marlborough. He was adopted by his godfather,
Edward Hearst, and his wife, and was sent to Magdalen College,
Oxford, in 1689, was demy of his college from 1689 to 1701
and fellow from 1701 to 1713. Addison, another Wiltshire lad,
entered at the same college two years earlier, but was also elected
a demy in 1689; he inscribed to Sacheverell in 1694 his account
of the greatest English poets. Sacheverell took his degree of
B.A. in 1693, and became M.A. in 1695 and D.D. in 1708. His
first preferment was the small vicarage of Cannock in Stafford-
shire; but he leapt into notice when holding a preachership at
St Saviour's, Southwark. His famous sermons on the church
in danger from the neglect of the Whig ministry to keep guard
over its interests were preached, the one at Derby on the isth of
August, the other at St Paul's Cathedral on the sth of November
1709. They were immediately reprinted, the latter being dedi-
cated to the lord mayor and the former to the author's kinsman,
George Sacheverell, high sheriff of Derby for the year; and, as
the passions of the whole British population were at this period
keenly exercised between the rival factions of Whig and Tory,
the vehement invectives of this furious divine on behalf of an
ecclesiastical institution which supplied the bulk of the adherents
of the Tories made him their idol. The Whig ministry, then slowly
but surely losing the support of the country, were divided in
opinion as to the propriety of prosecuting this zealous parson.
Somers was against such a measure; but Godolphin, who was
believed to be personally alluded to in one of these harangues
under the nickname of " Volpone," urged the necessity of a
prosecution, and gained the day. The trial lasted from 2 7th
February to 23rd March 1710, and the verdict was that
Sacheverell should be suspended for three years and that the
two sermons should be burnt at the Royal Exchange. This
was the decree of the state, and it had the effect of making him
a martyr in the eyes of the populace and of bringing about the
downfall of the ministry. Immediately on the expiration of
his sentence (i3th April 1713) he was instituted to the valuable
rectory of St Andrew's, Holborn, by the new Tory ministry,
who despised the author of the sermons, although they dreaded
his influence over the mob. He died at the Grove, Highgate,
on the sth of June 1724.
See Hearne's Diaries, Bloxam's Register of Magdalen and Hill
Burton's Queen Anne, vol. ii. There is an excellent bibliography by
Falconer Madan (1887).
SACHEVERELL, WILLIAM (1638-1691), English statesman,
son of Henry Sacheverell, a country gentleman, was born in
1638. His family had held a good position in Derbyshire and
Nottinghamshire since the I2th century, the name appearing as
Sent Cheveroll in the roll of Battle Abbey, and William inherited
large estates from his father. He was admitted at Gray's Inn in
1667, and in 1670 he was elected member of parliament for
Derbyshire. He immediately gained a prominent position in
the party hostile to the Court, and before he had been six months
in the House of Commons he proposed a resolution that all
" popish recusants " should be removed from military commands;
the motion, enlarged so as to include civil employment, was
carried without a division on the 28th of February 1672-1673.
This resolution was the forerunner of the Test Act, in the pre-
paration of which Sacheverell took an active part, and which
caused the break up of the cabal. He now took part in nearly
every debate in the House of Commons, being recognized as one
of the most able of the leaders of the opposition or country
party. He strongly opposed the king's policy of alliance with
France, advocating a league with the Dutch instead, and the
refusal of supplies until the demands of the Commons should
be complied with. Sacheverell took especial interest in the state
of the navy and spoke in many debates on this question. In
1677 he carried an address to the king calling upon him to
conclude an alliance with the United Provinces against Louis
XIV., and when the Speaker adjourned the House by Charles's
order Sacheverell made an eloquent protest, asserting the right
of the House itself to decide the question of its adjournment.
When parliament met early in 1678 assurances were received
from Charles II. that he had arranged the treaties demanded by
the Commons; but Sacheverell boldly questioned the king's
good faith, and warned the Commons that they were being
deceived. When the secret treaty with France became known,
thus confirming Sacheverell's insight, the latter called for the
disbandment of the forces and advocated the refusal of further
supplies for military purposes; and in June 1678 he resolutely
opposed Lord Danby's proposal to grant 300,000 per annum
to Charles II. for life. Barillon mentions Sacheverell among the
Whig leaders who accepted bribes from Louis XIV., but the
evidence against him is not conclusive.
When Titus Oates began his pretended revelations in 1678
Sacheverell was among those who most firmly believed in the
existence of a Popish plot. He was one of the most active
investigators of the affair, and one of the managers of the im-
peachment of the five Catholic peers. He also acted for a time
as chairman of the secret committee of the Commons, and drew
up the report on the examination of the Jesuit Coleman, secretary
to the duchess of York. He was a member of the committee for
drafting the articles of impeachment against Danby in 1678,
and was appointed one of the managers of the Commons; and
in 1679, when the impeachment, interrupted by the dissolution
of parliament, was resumed in the new parliament, he spoke
strongly against the validity of Danby's plea of pardon by the
king. The allegations made in Sacheverell's report on the
examination of Coleman prompted the country party to demand
the exclusion of James, duke of York, from the succession tp the
throne, the first suggestion of the famous Exclusion Bill being
made by Sacheverell on the 4th of November 1678 in a debate
" the greatest that ever was in Parliament," as it was pronounced
by contemporaries raised by Lord Russell with the object of
removing the duke from the King's Council. He vigorously
promoted the bill in the House of Commons and opposed granting
supplies till it should pass. When Charles offered an alternative
scheme (1679) for limiting the powers of a Catholic sovereign,
Sacheverell made a great speech in which he pointed out the
972
insufficiency of the king's terms for securing the object desired
by the Whigs. In the conflict between the Petitioners and the
Abhorrers he supported the former, and on the 2 7th of October
1680 brought forward a motion asserting the right of petitioning
the king to summon parliament, and proposed the impeachment
of Chief Justice North as the author of the proclamation against
tumultuous petitioning. Sacheverell was one of the managers
on behalf of the Commons at the trial of Lord Stafford in West-
minster Hall; but took no further part in public affairs till after
the elections of March 1681, when he was returned unopposed
for Derbyshire. He was prosecuted for riot in connexion with
the surrender of the charter of Nottingham in 1682, being tried
before Chief Justice Jeffreys, who fined him 500 marks.
At the general election following the death of Charles II. in
1685 Sacheverell lost his seat, and for the next four years he
lived in retirement on his estates. In the convention parliament
summoned by the prince of Orange, in which he sat for Heytes-
bury, he spoke in favour of a radical resettlement of the constitu-
tion, and served on a committee, of which Somers was chairman,
for drawing up a new constitution in the form of the Declaration
of Right; and he was one of the representatives of the Commons
in their conference with the peers on the question of declaring
the throne vacant. William III. appointed Sacheverell a lord
of the admiralty, but he resigned the office after a few months.
He procured the omission of Lord Jeffreys's name from the Act
of Indemnity. In 1690 he moved a famous amendment to the
Corporation Bill, proposing the addition of a clause the purport
of which was misrepresented by Macaulay for disqualifying for
office for seven years municipal functionaries who in defiance of
the majority of their colleagues had surrendered their charters
to the Crown. A celebrated debate on this question took place
in the House of Commons in January 1690; but the evident
intention of the Whigs to perpetuate their own ascendancy by
tampering with the franchise contributed largely to the Tory
reaction which resulted in the defeat of the Whigs in the elections
of that year. Sacheverell was elected member for Nottingham-
shire; but he died on the 9th of October 1691, before taking his
seat. In the judgment of Speaker Onslow, Sacheverell was the
" ablest parliament man " of the reign of Charles II. He was
one of the earliest of English parliamentary orators; his speeches
greatly impressed his contemporaries, and in a later generation,
as Macaulay observes, they were " a favourite theme of old men
who lived to see the conflicts of Walpole and Pulteney." Though
his fame has become dimmed in comparison with that of Shaftes-
bury, Russell and Sidney, he was not less conspicuous in the
parliamentary proceedings of Charles II. 's reign, and he left a
more permanent mark than any of them on the constitutional
changes of the period. ,
Sacheverell was twice married. His first wife was Mary,
daughter of William Staunton of Staunton; and his second was
Jane, daughter of Sir John Newton. His eldest son Robert
represented the borough of Nottingham in six parliaments and
died in 1714. The family became extinct in 1724.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Many of Sacheverell's speeches are reported in
Anchitell Grey's Debates of the House of Commons, 1667161)4 (10 vols.,
London, 1769). See also Sir George Sitwell, The First Whit (Scar-
borough, 1894); Gilbert Burnet, History of my own Time (6 vols.,
Oxford, 1833) ; Sir John Reresby, Memoirs, 1634-1689, edited by J. J.
Cartwright (London, 1875); Roger North, Autobiography, edited by
A. Jessopp (London, 1887) ; and Lives of the Right Hon. F. North,
Baron Guilford, &c. (3 vols., London, 1826) ; The Ration Corre-
spondence, edited by E. M. Thompson for the Camden Society (2 vols.,
London, 1878); Laurence Eachard, History of England (3 vols.,
London, 1707-1718); and the Histories of England by Lingard,
Von Ranke and Macaulay. (R. J. M.)
SACHS, HANS (1494-1576), German poet and dramatist,
was born at Nuremberg on the 5th of November 1494. His
father was a tailor, and he himself was trained to the calling
of a shoemaker. Before this, however, he received a good
education at the Latin school of Nuremberg, which left behind
it a lasting interest in the stories of antiquity. In the spring
of 1509 he began his apprenticeship, and was at the same time
initiated into the art of the Meistersingers by a weaver, Leonhard
Nunnenpeck. In 1 5 1 1 he set out on his Wander jahre, and worked
SACHS, H. SACHS, J. VON
at his craft in many towns, including Regensburg, Passau,
Salzburg, Munich, Osnabriick, Ltibeck and Leipzig. In 1516
he returned to Nuremberg, where he remained during the rest "
of his life, working steadily at his handiwork and devoting his
leisure time to literature. In 1517 he became master of his
gild and in 1519 married. The great event of his intellectual
life was the coming of the Reformation; he became an ardent
adherent of Luther, and in 1523 wrote in Luther's honour the
poem beginning Die witlenbergisch Nachtigall, Die manjetzt horel
iiberall, and four remarkable dialogues in prose, in which his
warm sympathy with the reformer is tempered by counsels of
moderation. In spite of this, his advocacy of the new faith
brought upon him a reproof from the town council of Nuremberg;
and he was forbidden to publish any more Buchlein oder
Reimen. It was not long, however, before the council itself
openly threw in its lot with the Reformation. After the death
of Hans Sachs's first wife in 1560 he married again. His death
took place on the igth of January 1576.
Hans Sachs was an extraordinarily fertile poet. By the year
1567 he had composed, according to his own account, 4275
Meisterlieder, 1700 tales and fables in verse, and 208 dramas,
which filled no fewer than 34 large manuscript volumes; and this
was not all, for he continued writing until 1573. The Meister-
lieder were not printed, being intended solely for the use of the
Nuremberg Meistersinger school, of which Sachs was the leading
spirit. His fame rests mainly on the Spruchgedichte, which
include his dramatic writings. His " tragedies " and " comedies "
are, however, little more than stories told in dialogue, and divided
at convenient pauses into a varying number of acts; of the
essentials of dramatic construction or the nature of dramatic
action Sachs has little idea. The subjects are drawn from the
most varied sources, the Bible, the classics and the Italian
novelists being especially laid under contribution. He succeeds
best in the short anecdotal Fastnachtsspiel or Shrovetide play,
where characterization and humorous situation are of more im-
portance than dramatic form or construction. Farces like Der
fahrende Schiiler im Parodies (i$$o),DasWildbad (1550), Dasheiss
Risen (1551), Der Bauer im Fegefeuer (1552) are inimitable in their
way, and have even been played with success on the modern stage.
Hans Sachs himself made a beginning to an edition of his collected
writings by publishing three large folio volumes (1558-1561); after
his death two other volumes appeared (1578, 1579). A critical
edition has been published by the Stuttgart Literarischer Verein,
edited by A. von Keller and E. Goetze (23 vols., 1870-1896); Samt-
liche Fastnachtsspiele, ed. by E. Goetze (7 vols., 1880-1887); Sarnt-
liche Fabeln und Schwanke, by the same (3 vols., 1893). There are
also editions of selected writings by J. Tittmann (3 vols., 1870-1871 ;
new ed., 1883-1885) and B. Arnold (2 vols., 1885). See E. K. J.
Lutzelberger, Hans Sachs (1876); C. Schweitzer, Etude sur la vie
et les czuvres de Hans Sachs (1887); K. Drescher, Hans Sachs-
Siudien (1890, 1891); E. Goetze, Hans Sachs (1891); A. L. Stiefel,
Hans Sachs-Forschungen (1894); R. Genee, Hans Sachs und seine
Zeit (1894; 2n d ed., 1902); E. Geiger, Hans Sachs als Dichter in
seinen Fastnachtsspielen (1904).
SACHS, JULIUS VON (1832-1897), German botanist, was
born at Breslau on the 2nd of October 1832. At an early age
he showed a taste for natural history, and on leaving school
he became, in 1851, private assistant to the physiologist J. E.
Purkinje at Prague. In 1856 he graduated as doctor of philo-
sophy, and then adopted a botanical career, establishing himself
as Privatdozent for plant physiology in the university of Prague.
In 1859 he was appointed physiological assistant to the Agri-
cultural Academy of Tharandt in Saxony; and in 1861 he was
called to be director of the Polytechnic at Chemnitz, but was
almost immediately transferred to the Agricultural Academy at
Poppelsdorf, near Bonn, where he remained until 1867, when
he was nominated professor of botany in the university of
Freiburg-im-Breisgau. In 1868 he accepted the chair of botany
in the university, of Wiirzburg, which he continued to occupy
(in spite of calls to all the important German universities) until
his death on the 29th of May 1897.
Sachs achieved distinction as an investigator, a writer and a
teacher; his name will ever be especially associated with the
great development of plant physiology which marked the latter
half of the igth century, though there is scarcely a branch of
SACHS SACKBUT
973
botany to which he did not materially contribute. His earlier
papers, scattered through the volumes of botanical journals
and of the publications of learned societies (a collected edition
was published in 1892-93), are of great and varied interest.
Prominent among them is the series of " Keimungsgeschichten,"
which laid the foundation of our knowledge of microchemical
methods, as also of the morphological and physiological details
of germination. Then there is his resuscitation of the method
of " water-culture," and the application of it to the investigation
of the problems of nutrition; and further, his discovery that
the starch-grains to be found in chloroplastids are the first visible
product of their assimilatory activity. His later papers were
almost exclusively published in the three volumes of the Arbeiten
des boianischen Institute in Wiirzburg (1871-88). Among these
are his investigation of the periodicity of growth in length, in
connexion with which he devised the self-registering auxano-
meter, by which he established the retarding influence of the
highly refrangible rays of the spectrum on the rate of growth;
his researches on hcliotropism and geotropism, in which he
introduced the " clinostat "; his work on the structure and the
arrangement of cells in growing-points; the elaborate experi-
mental evidence upon which he based his " imbibition-theory "
of the transpiration-current; his exhaustive study of the
assimilatory activity of the green leaf; and other papers of
interest. Sachs' first published volume was the Handbuch
der Experimentalphysiologie der Pflanzen (1865; French edition,
1868), which gives an admirable account of the state of knowledge
in certain departments of the subject, and includes a great
deal of original information. This was followed in 1868 by the
first edition of his famous Lehrbuch der Botanik, by far the best
book of its kind. It is a comprehensive work, giving an able
summary of the botanical science of the period, enriched with the
results of many original investigations. The fourth and last
German edition was published in 1874, and two English editions
were issued by the Oxford Press in 1875 and 1882 respectively.
The Lehrbuch was eventually superseded by the Vorlesungen
tiber Pflanzenphysiologie (ist ed., 1882; 2nd ed., 1887; Eng.
ed., Oxford, 1887), a work more limited in scope, but yet covering
more ground than its title would imply; though it is a remarkable
book, it has not gained the general recognition accorded to the
Lehrbuch. Finally, there is the Geschichte der Botanik (1875),
a brilliant and learned account of the development of the various
branches of botanical science from the middle of the i6th century
up to 1860, of which an English edition was published in 1890
by the Oxford Press. As a teacher Sachs exerted great influence,
for his vigorous personality and his ready and lucid utterance
enabled him not only to instruct, but to fire his students with
something of his own enthusiasm.
A full account of Sachs' life and work was given by Professor
Goebel, formerly his assistant, in Flora (1897), of which an English
translation appeared in Science Progress for 1898. There is also an
obituary notice of him in the Proc. Roy. Soc. vol. Ixii. (S. H. V*.)
SACHS, MICHAEL (1808-1864), German Rabbi. He was one
of the first of Jewish graduates of the modern universities,
taking his Ph.D. degree in 1836. He was appointed Rabbi in
Prague in 1836, and in Berlin in 1844. He took the conservative
side against the Reform agitation, and so strongly opposed the
introduction of the organ into the Synagogue that he retired
from the Rabbinate rather than acquiesce. Sachs was one of
the greatest preachers of his age, and published two volumes
of Sermons (Prediglen, 1866-1891). He co-operated with Zunz
(q.v.) in a new translation of the Bible. Sachs is best remembered
for his work on Hebrew poetry, Religiose Poesie der Juden in
Spanien (1845); his more ambitious critical work (Beilrage
zurSprach- und Alterthumsforschung, 2 vols., 1852-1854) is of less
lasting value. His poetical gifts he turned to admirable account
in his translation of the Festival Prayers (Mahzor, 9 vols., 1855),
a new feature of which was the metrical rendering of the medieval
Hebrew hymns. Another very popular work by Sachs contains
poetical paraphrases of Rabbinic legends (Stimmen vom Jordan
und Euphrat, 1853). (I- A.)
SACK, a large bag made of a coarse material such as is described
under SACKING below. The word occurs with very little variation
n all European languages, cf. Gr. OOKIUK, Lat. laccus, Fr. sac,
Span, saco, Du. zak, &c. All are borrowed from the Hebrew
sag, properly a coarse stuff made of hair, hence a bag made of
this material. Most etymologists attribute the widespread
occurrence of the word to the story of Joseph and his brethren
in Gen. xliv. The Hebrew word itself is probably Egyptian, as
is evidenced by the Coptic sok. Apart from its ordinary meaning,
the word is used as a unit of dry measure, which has varied
considerably at different times and places and for different
goods; it is the customary British measure for coals, potatoes,
apples and some other goods, and is equivalent to three bushels.
From the end of the I7th to the middle of the i8th century the
sack or " sacque " was a fashionable type of gown for women,
having a long flowing loose back hanging in pleats from
the neck. It is still used as a tailor's or dressmaker's term
for a loose straight-back coat. The Fr. sac meant also pillage,
plunder, whence saccager, to plunder a town, especially after
it had been taken by assault or after a siege. There is no doubt
that it is an extension of " sack," a bag, with a reference to the
most obvious receptacle for booty. The slang expression
" to give the sack," " to get the sack," of a person who has been
turned out of a situation or been given notice to leave is an
old French proverbial expression. Cotgrave gives On luy a
aonne so, sac el ses quilles, " he hath his passport given him, he is
turned out to grazing, said of a servant whom his master hath
put away." The New English Dictionary finds the expression
also in 15th-century Dutch.
It remains to distinguish the name, familiar from English
literature of the i6th and i7th centuries, of a Spanish wine,
which was of a strong, rough, dry kind (in Fr. vin sec, whence the
name), and therefore usually sweetened and mixed with spice
and mulled or " burnt." It became a common name for all the
stronger white wines of the South.
SACKBUT, SHAKBUSSHE, SAGBUT, DRAW or DRAWING
TRUMPET (Scotland, draucht trumpet) or FLAT TRUMPET
(Fr. saquebute, saqueboute, cacbouc, trompette harmonique;
Ger. Posaune, Busaun, Pusin, Zug-Trommet; Ital. tromba da
tirarsi or tromba spezzata; Span, sacabuche; Dutch bazuin
Schuijf trompette) , the earliest form of slide trumpet, which
afterwards developed into the trombone. As soon as the effect
of the slide in lengthening the main tube and therefore pro-
portionally deepening the pitch of the instrument was under-
stood, and its capabilities had been fully realized, the develop-
ment of a family of powerful tenor and bass instruments followed
as a matter of course. It is not known exactly in what country
the principle of- the slide was first discovered and applied to
musical instruments; if it be not an Oriental device, then the
credit is probably due to the Netherlands or to South Germany
before or during the I3th century.
The early history of the sackbut is among the most interesting
of all instruments. Various attempts have been made to fix the
etymology of the word as derived from Span, sacabuche through
French. The Rev. F. W. Galpin 1 suggests a derivation from
sacar, to draw out, and buche, identical with buchti (Lat. buxus),
used in the sense of a tube or pipe originally of boxwood. To accept
this etymology would be to lose sight of the fact that all the technical
names applied to the sackbut in various languages directly acknow-
ledge its descent from the buccina (q.v.), with the exception of
Italian, in which the recognition is indirectly made through the
synonym tromba. A clue to the etymology of sacabuche is afforded
by the well-known fact that not only did the Arabs after the conquest
introduce oriental musical instruments by way of Spain to_western
Europe, but the Arabic names also clung to the instruments in many
cases. The Arabs had a military trumpet they called Buk or Buque,
a word they had borrowed from the Cnristians, 1 and it is mentioned
in a musical treatise of the i^th century (Escorial MS. 69) among
the musical instruments then in use in Spain. It has been claimed
on philological grounds that England derived her knowledge of the
sackbut from France, but the oldest known form of the word in
English is shakbusshe, which occurs in the accounts of Henry VII.
1 " The Sackbut, its Evolution and History," in Proc. Mus. Assoc.
London (1906-1007).
2 See Edw. W. Lane, Arabic-English Lexicon (London, 1863),
bk. i. pt. i. p. 276.
974
SACKETT'S HARBOR
for the 3rd of May 1495,' and is obviously of Spanish origin. Sackbut
appears early in the i6th century.
The word sacabuche was at some time applied in Spain to the
ship's pump; and the questions naturally arise, Which came first,
ad Was the musical instrument named after the pump from the great
resemblance in their respective actions as well as in outward form?*
It is certainly significant that the Ital tromba, from which sprang
" trumpet " and " trombone," means a pump as well as a trumpet
and the trunk of an elephant. Even if it could be proved beyond
doubt that the slide had been applied to the trumpet before the word
tromba was used for it, there would still remain several difficulties
to be disposed of. (l) The word trumba, trumbin, trompe, already
general in the romances of the I2th and I3th centuries, was at first
applied to the tubas and curved horns, probably from the similar
curve of the elephant's trunk (2) If tromba referred to the pump,
it must have been applied to the slide trumpet, and tromba da
lirarsi for " sackbut is senseless tautology. (3) The etymology
given above from buk or buque, trumpet, supported by similarly
compounded words in English, Scotch, Dutch, Italian, would have
to be regarded as a strange but not unparalleled philological co-
incidence. The earliest instance yet discovered of the use of saca-
buche as a musical instrument seems to be in the I4th century. 3
The transformation of the busine (buccina) into the sackbut
involved two or three processes, the addition of the slide being
accomplished in at least two stages. It was applied first to the
straight busine made in three or four sections having rings or knobs
at the joints. The sliding portions or joints here doubtless served
much as in our modern wood wind instruments for tuning purposes
or for changing the key. The long slide, added for the purpose of
obtaining a diatonic compass, denoted a further step in the evolution.
When applied to the straight busine it differed materially from the
slide of the sackbut or trombone, for the normal position of the instru-
ment was with the slide fully drawn out, so that the knobs were
equidistant; on the slide being gradually closed the pitch was
proportionally raised in order to fill in the gaps of the first fifth by
new fundamentals, upon each of which the harmonic series would
be obtainable. An example of this early use of the slide is to be
found in a miniature from a psalterium executed in the south of
France during the I3th century, now preserved in the library of the
university of Munich (MS. 24, 410 fol. 966). Here (fig. i) the per-
former is represented playing on a busine in which two of the knobs
or rings denoting the joints or sections are
shown touching each other. The hand is
grasping the instrument just under the lower
ring in the act of pushing it up to close the
slide, as is indicated by the position of the
wrist. This is the earliest indication of the
existence of the slide yet found by the writer,
and the instrument, although straight, is one
of the earliest sackbuts. The manipulation
of the slide on the long straight busine must
have been exceedingly difficult, requiring not
only skill, but a long arm. This led to the
next step in the evolution, i.e. the bending
of the tube in three parallel branches
like a flattened S. an example of which,
also of the I3th century, is found on some
carved woodwork from the abbey of
Cluny. 4
The folding of the busine marks the advent of the new double
slide, like a |J. made to draw out and lower the pitch. This radical
change did not come all at once, the intermediate step being the
folding of the busine, with the old single slide, the whole S being
drawn up and down, as the slide closed and opened again. This
interesting development is shown (fig. 2) in a miniature by Taddeo
Cnvelli in the Borso Bible 6 (1450-1471). The two upper joints
defined by rings are clearly drawn of larger calibre than the lower
folded portion, which has been drawn out to what would approxi-
mately correspond to the third position on the trombone lowering
the pitch one tone. A single slide would require to be extended
about twice the distance of the double or folded tube on the trombone
to produce any given effect. This drawing of the sackbut must not
be taken as showing the instrument in use in Crivelli's day; it is
clearly retrospective, for sackbuts in a more advanced stage are not
uncommon in works of art of the same century. In a MS. 6 preserved
in the library of the Arsenal in Paris, executed for the dukes of
Burgundy in the middle of the I5th century, is seen a trumpet of
'See W. H. Black, Sir N. H. Nicolas, etc., Excerpta historica
(London, 1833), p. 102.
2 This question has been thoroughly investigated by the late
Professor George Case in his work on the trombone.
3 See Felipe Pedrell, Organographia musical, antivua espanola,
p. 116.
4 Illustration in Du Sommerard, Les Arts au moyen dee, Atlas
pi. i. ch. xii.
1 See Hermann Julius Hermann, " Zur Gesch. d. Miniaturmalerei
am Hofe der Este in Ferrara," in Jahrb. d. Kunstsamml. d. aller-
hochslen Kaiserhauses (Vienna, 1900), bd. xxi. pi. xiii.
Illustration in Du Sommerard, op. cit., album, 4" sdrie, pi. xvii.
FIG. i.
FIG. 2.
FIG. 3.
the cavalry type with a single straight slide drawn out so far that
the bell rests on the performer's foot (fig. 3).
The last transition immediately preceding the change into the
trombone consisted in folding the tube to form two U-shaped
bends, one of which
pointed downwards and
the other over the
shoulder, reaching to
the level of the back
of the head; the third
branch was bent over
between the other two,
but in a plane almost
at right angles above
them, the bell extend-
ing downwards beyond
I the first bend. Sack-
buts of this type are
to be seen in Durer's
picture in the Nurem-
berg town hall, and in
others by artists of the
1 5th century, as, for
instance, in Gentile
Bellini's Processions in
piazza S. Marco among
the band to the right of
the picture.
The further history and development of the sackbut are given
under TROMBONE. See also TRUMPET and BUCCINA. (K. S.)
SACKETT'S HARBOR, a village in Jefferson county, New
York, U.S.A., at the eastern end of Lake Ontario, on the south
shore of Black River Bay, about i m. from its mouth, and about
10 m. W. by S. of Watertown. Pop. (1890) 787; (1900) 1266;
(1905) 903; (1910) 868. Sackett s Harbor is served by the
New York Central & Hudson River railway. It is built on low
land, around a small, nearly enclosed harbour, the northern
shore of which is formed by Navy Point, a narrow tongue of
land extending about j m. nearly due eastward from the
mainland. About i m. to the W. by S. is Horse Island, approxi-
mately J m. long (east and west), and nearly as broad, only a
few feet above the lake level and separated from the mainland
by a narrow strait, always fordable, and sometimes almost dry;
at its eastern end is Sackett's Harbor Lighthouse. The harbour
is deep enough for the largest lake vessels. The village is a
summer resort. At Sackett's Harbor are Madison Barracks,
a United States military post, established in 1813 and including
a reservation of 99 acres; and a United States Naval Station.
In the post cemetery is the grave of General Zebulon M. Pike,
who was killed at York (now Toronto) on the 27th of April 1813.
The first settlement was made in 1801 by Augustus Sackett,
and the village was incorporated in 1821. In the War of 1812
Sackett's Harbor was an important strategic point for the
Americans, who had here a naval station, Fort Tompkins, at
the base of Navy Point, and Fort Volunteer, on the eastern side
of the harbour. In July 1812 a British squadron unsuccessfully
attempted to capture a brig and schooner in the harbour. From
Sackett's Harbor American expeditions against York (now
Toronto) and Fort George respectively set out in April and
May 1813; though scantily garrisoned it was successfully de-
fended by General Jacob Brown (who had just taken command)
against an attack, on the 29th of May, of Sir George Prevost
with a squadron under Sir James Lucas Yeo. The British
losses were 259; the American 157, including Lieut.-Colonel
Electus Backus, commander of the garrison before General
Brown's arrival. Almost all the American stores at the naval
station were destroyed to save them from the enemy. The
blockade of the harbour by Yeo was abandoned in June 1814
after the defeat of a force from the squadron sent out to capture
guns which were being brought from Oswego to Sackett's
Harbor to equip the " Superior." an American vessel launched
on the ist of May, and a smaller vessel nearly completed.
Sackett's Harbor was the starting-point of a force of 700 men
under a Pole named von Schultz, who in November 1838, during
the uprising in Upper Canada (Ontario) attempted to invade
Canada, was taken prisoner near Prescott, was tried at Kingston,
being defended by Sir John Macdonald, and with nine of his
followers was executed in Kingston in December.
SACKING AND SACK MANUFACTURE SACKVILLE 975
See A. T. Mahan, Sea-Power in its Relation to the War of 1812 (2
vols., Boston, 1905) ; and William Kingsford, The History of Canada,
vol. viii. (Toronto, 1895).
SACKING AND SACK MANUFACTURE. Sacking is a heavy
closely-woven fabric, originally made of flax, but now almost
exclusively made of jute or of hemp. The more expensive
kinds, such as are used for coal sacks for government and other
vessels, are made of hemp, but the jute fibre is extensively used
for the same purpose, and almost entirely for coal sacks for
local house supplies. The same type of fabric is used for wool
sacks, cement bags, ore bags, pea sacks and for any heavy
substance; it is also made up into a special form of bag for
packing cops and rolls of jute and flax yarns for delivery from
spinners to manufacturers. Proper sacking is essentially a
twilled fabric, in which the number of warp threads per inch
greatly exceeds the number per inch of weft. The illustration
shows a typical kind of three-leaf twill, double warp sacking.
All three-leaf twill sackings are
double in the warp, but four-leaf
sackings are single. They are
usually 27 in. wide, but other
widths are made.
The lower part of the illus-
tration shows four repeats of the
three-leaf twill, while the lines
drawn to the plan of the fabric
show that each line of the design
is reproduced in the cloth by
two warp threads. The weft is
single, but each one is usually
about four times the weight of
the warp for the same length
(about 8 Ib warp and 32 Ib weft).
Large quantities of cotton sacks
are made for flour, sugar and
similar produce: these sacks are
usually plain cloth, some woven
circular in the loom, others made
from the piece.
Large quantities of seamless bags or sacks for light substances
are woven in the loom, but these are almost invariably made with
what is termed the double plain weave, i.e. the cloth, although
circular except at the end, is perfectly plain on both sides. Circular
bags have been made both with three-leaf and four-leaf twills, but
it is found much more convenient and economical to make the cloth
for these kinds, and in most cases for all other types, in the piece,
and then to make it up into sacks by one or other of the many types
of sewing machines. The pieces are first cut up into definite lengths
by special machinery, which may be perfectly automatic, or semi-
automatic usually the latter, as many thicknesses may be cut at
the same time, each of the exact length. The lengths of cloth are
then separately doubled up, the sides sewn by special sewing machines
of the Laing or Union make (of which there are seven or eight different
kinds for different types of bags), and the ends hemmed. It will
thus be seen that the length required is twice the length of the sack
plus the amount for hemming the mouth.
The sack is now ready Tor delivery, unless the name of the
owner, some trade mark, or other particulars are required to appear
on it. These particulars are printed on in one or more colours
by the Kinmond and Kidd patent multicolour sack-printing
machine.
The chief centres for these goods are Dundee and Calcutta, all
varieties of sacks and bags being made in and around the former
city. (T. Wo.)
SACKVILLE, GEORGE, IST VISCOUNT (1716-1785), generally
remembered as Lord George Sackville or Lord George Germain,
third son of Lionel Cranfield Sackville, ist duke of Dorset, was
born on the 26th of January 1716. Educated at Westminster
School and Trinity College, Dublin, he was gazetted captain in
the 7th Cathcart's Horse (now 6th Dragoon Guards) in 1737,
and three years later was transferred to Bragg's regiment of
foot (Gloucestershire Regiment) as lieutenant-colonel; imme-
diately afterwards the regiment sailed for active service on the
Rhine, and although it was not present at the battle of Dettingen,
its lieutenant-colonel was made brevet colonel and aide-de-camp
to the king. It was not until two years later that Sackville took
part in his first battle, Fontenoy. Wounded in the charge of
Cumberland's inlantry column, he was taken to the tent of King
Louis XV. to have his wound dressed. Released, by what means
does not appear, he was sent home to serve against the Pretender
in Scotland. He was given the colonelcy of the 2Oth (Lancashire
Fusiliers), but was too late to take part in the battle of Culloden.
In 1747-1748 he was again with the duke of Cumberland in the
Low Countries, and in 1740 was transferred to the cavalry,
receiving the colonelcy of the 7th (3rd) Irish Horse (Carabineers).
With this office he combined those of first secretary to his father,
the lord-lieutenant of Ireland, and Irish secretary of war, and a
seat in each of the two Houses of Commons at Westminster and
Dublin, winning at the same time the repute of being " the
gayest man in Ireland except his father." In 1735 he was pro-
moted major-general, took an English command, and vacated
his Irish offices. In 1757 he was made lieutenant-general of the
ordnance, and transferred to a fourth colonelcy. In 1758, under
the duke of Marlborough, he shared in the ineffective raid on
Cancale Bay, and the troops, after a short sojourn in the Isle of
Wight, were sent to join the allied army of Duke Ferdinand of
Brunswick in Germany. Marlborough died shortly after they
landed, and Sackville succeeded him as commander-in-chief
of the British contingent. But no sooner had he taken over the
command than his haughty and domineering temper estranged
him both from his second-in-command, Lord Granby, and the
commander-in-chief, Prince Ferdinand. This culminated on the
day of Minden (August i, 1758). The British infantry, aided
by some of the Hanoverians, had won a brilliant success, and
every man in the army looked to the British cavalry to charge
and to make it a decisive victory. But Sackyille, in spite of
repeated orders from Prince Ferdinand, sullenly refused to allow
Granby's squadrons to advance. The crisis passed, and the
victory remained an indecisive success. Popular indignation was
unbounded, and Sackville was dismissed from his offices. But
his courage, though impugned, was sufficient to make him press
for a court-martial, and a court at last assembled in 1760. This
pronounced him guilty of disobedience, and adjudged him " unfit
to serve his Majesty in any military capacity whatsoever."
The sentence was executed with gratuitous harshness. It was
read out on parade to every regiment in the service, with a
homily attached, and placed on record in every regimental order
book. Further, it was announced in the Gazette that his Majesty
had expunged Sackville's name from the roll of the Privy Council.
This, and Sackville's own dogged perseverance, turned the scale
in his favour. No reverses to the British arms occurred to keep
alive the memory of his lost opportunity, and in 1763 his name
was restored to the list of the Privy Council. Hitherto without
party ties in parliament, in 1769 he allied himself with Lord
North. To this period belong the famous Junius Letters, with
the authorship of which Sackville was erroneously credited. In
1770, under the terms of a will, he assumed the name of Germain.
In the same year his coolness and courage in a duel with Captain
George Johnstone, M.P., assisted to rehabilitate him, and in
1775, having meantime taken an active part in politics, he became
secretary of state for the colonies in the North cabinet. Thus,
though still standing condemned as unfit for any military employ-
ment, he exercised a powerful and unfortunate influence on the
military affairs of the nation. Some of the business of the war
department in those days fell to the colonial office, and Germain
was practically the director of the war for the suppression of the
revolt in the American colonies. What hopes of success there
were in such a Struggle Germain and the North cabinet dissipated
by their misunderstanding of the situation and their friction
with the generals and the army in the theatre of war. But this
failure was not on the same footing as that of Minden, and in
spite of virulent party attacks, King George III., on the resigna-
tion of the North ministry, offered him a peerage. Sackville, in
characteristic fashion, stipulated for a viscounty, as otherwise
he would be junior to his secretary, his lawyer and to Amherst,
who had been page to his father. There was some opposition
to his taking his seat in the House of Lords. But his health was
failing and he withdrew from politics, spending his last years
as a benevolent and autocratic country magnate. He died at
976
SACKVILLE SACRAMENT
Stoneland Lodge (Buckhurst Park), Sussex, on the 26th of
August 1785.
SACKVILLE, MORTIMER SACKVILLE-WEST, IST BARON
(1820-1888), was descended from Sir Richard Sackville, a
Kentish gentleman, and a cousin of Ann Boleyn. A member of
parliament and courtier under Henry VIII., Richard Sackville
became chancellor of the court of augmentations in 1548 and
was knighted in 1540. He amassed a great deal of wealth, and
Sir Robert Naunton said his name should be " fill-sack," rather
than " Sack-ville." He was on friendly terms with Roger
Ascham, whom he advised to write his Scholemaster. In 1604
his son Thomas was created earl of Dorset, and from him the
earls and dukes of Dorset (q.v.) of the Sackville family were
descended.
Mortimer Sackville-West was a younger son of George John
Sackville- West, sth Earl de la Warr (See DE LA WARR): his
mother, Elizabeth, Baroness Buckhurst, being a daughter of
John Frederick Sackville, 3rd duke of Dorset. When in 1873
his elder brother, Reginald Windsor, became 7th Earl de la
Warr, Mortimer succeeded by arrangement to the extensive
estates of the Sackvilles, including Knole Park, their beautiful
Kentish residence, which had come to his family through his
mother. In 1876 he was created Baron Sackville of Knole, and
died on the ist of October 1888.
His brother, LIONEL SACKVILLE-WEST (1827-1908), succeeded
as 2nd baron. He had a long career in the diplomatic service.
From 1872 to 1878 he was ambassador to the Argentine Republic;
from 1878 to 1881 he represented his country at Madrid, and
from 1 88 1 to 1888 at Washington. His retirement was due to an
unfortunate interference in American domestic politics, or what
was taken as such, which caused some stir. He died in September
1908 and was succeeded by his nephew Lionel Edward (b. 1867)
as 3rd baron. By a Spanish dancer, Josefa Duran de Ortega,
known also as Pepita de Oliva, Mr Sackville-West, as the 2nd
baron then was, had several children, and soon after his death one
of these, calling himself Ernest Henri Jean Baptiste Sackville-
West, claimed to be a lawful son and his father's heir. He
asserted that between 1863 and 1867 Sackville-West had married
his mother. The case came before the English courts of law in
1909-1910, and it was decided that the children of this union
were all illegitimate, as Pepita's husband, Jean Antonio Gabriel
de Oliva, was alive during the whole period of his wife's connexion
with Sackville-West.
SAGO, a city of York county, Maine, U.S.A., on the Saco river,
and the Atlantic Ocean, opposite Biddeford, with which it is
connected by bridges, and 14 m. S.W. of Portland. Pop. (1890),
6075; (1900) 6122 (903 foreign-born); (1910) 6583. It is served
by the Boston & Maine railway, and is connected with Portland
by an electric line. The actual municipal limits include an area
of about 40 sq. m., but much of this is sparsely settled, and the
centre of settlement, or city proper, is about 5 m. above the
mouth of the Saco. The city has a public park (Pepperrell Park)
of 30 acres, the Dyer Library (1790), containing in 1908 16,000
volumes, and York Institute (established in 1866 and incorporated
in 1867), with a library of 3000 volumes in 1908; and is the seat
of Thornton Academy (co-educational), incorporated in 1811,
opened in 1813, but closed during 1848-1889 after the burning
of the old building. Old Orchard Beach, in the vicinity, extend-
ing along the shore front of the township of Old Orchard (pop.
in 1900, 964) and part of the shore fronts of Saco and Scarboro,
is a popular summer resort; in August 1907 nearly all the hotels
were burnt, but others have since been built. At Saco the river
falls about 55 ft. and provides excellent water-power. The
city's principal manufactures are cotton goods and cotton-mill
machinery. Saco was settled as early as 1631, and was the
seat of the Gorges government from 1636 to 1653, when it
passed under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts. Until 1762
Saco and Biddeford formed one town or plantation until
1718 under the name of Saco, and from 1718 to 1762 under
the name of Biddeford. In 1716 Sir William Pepperrell
acquired title to the principal part of what is now Saco,
in 1752 this was made a separate parish, and ten years later
it was incorporated as a separate township under the name of
Pepperellboro. In 1779 the Pepperrell property was confiscated
as that of a loyalist, and in 1805 the name of the township was
changed to Saco. In 1867 Saco was chartered as a city.
SACRAMENT, in religion, a property or rite denned in the
Anglican catechism as " an outward and visible sign of an in-
ward and spiritual grace"; if the grace be allowed to be inherent
in the external symbolic thing or act as well as in the faithful
who receive or do it, this definition holds good not only for the
Latin Church, but for more primitive religions as well. In the
Greek Church the equivalent word is fivarripiov, a mystery, a
usage which is explained below.
The Latin word sacramentum originally meant any bodily or
sensible thing, or an action, or a form of words solemnly endowed
with a meaning and purpose which in itself it has not. Thus the
money deposited by each of two litigants in a sacred precinct
or with a priest, was called a sacrament. The winner of the suit
got back his deposit, but the loser forfeited his to the god or to
the winning party. In Livy it signifies the oath (q.v.) which
soldiers took among themselves not to run away or desert.
Pliny uses it similarly of the oath by which the Christians of
Bithynia bound themselves at their solemn meetings not to
commit any act of wickedness. Tertullian (c. 160-240) uses it
in both senses, of an oath, as in the passage of his treatise About
Spectacles, where he says that no Christian " passes over to the
enemy 'scamp without throwing away his arms, without abandon-
ing the standards and sacraments of his chief." In the treatise
To the Nations, i. 16, he speaks of " the sacraments of our religion,"
intending, it would appear, the love-feast and Eucharist. So in
the Apology, ch. vii., he speaks of " the sacrament of infanticide
and of the eating of a murdered child and of incest following the
banquet," the crimes of which the Christians were commonly
accused. In the work Against Marcion, iv. 34, he speaks of the
sacrament of baptism and Eucharist. In the work against the
Jews, ch. xi., he speaks of the letter Tau set in ink on the fore-
heads of the men of Jerusalem (Ezek. ix. 4), as " the sacrament
of the sign," i.e. of the cross; and in chap. xiii. of the same
work he dwells on the sacrament of the wood prefigured in 2
Kings vi. 6. The stick with which Elisha made the iron to swim
in that passage, and the wood which Isaac carried up the mountain
for his own pyre " were sacraments reserved for fulfilment in the
time of Christ." In other words they were types, things which
had a prophetic significance. In the same work, chap, x., he
speaks of " the Sacrament of the Passion foreshadowed in pro-
phecies." In his work On the Soul, chap, xviii., the aeons and
genealogies of the Gnostics are " the sacraments of heretical
ideas." In the work About the Crown, chap, iii., he describes
how the faithful " take the sacrament of the Eucharist also in
their meetings held before dawn." Elsewhere he speaks of " the
sacraments of water, oil, bread." In the work Against Valen-
tinians, chap, xxxix., he speaks of the " great sacrament of the
name," here rendering the Greek word nvarripiov, mystery.
In the tract On Monogamy, chap, xi., he speaks of " the
sacrament of monogamy." Elsewhere he talks of the "sacra-
ment of faith," and " of the Resurrection," and " of human
salvation," and " of the Pascha," and " of unction," and
" of the body of Christ." Later Latin fathers use the
word with similar vagueness, e.g. Augustine speaks of the salt
administered to catechumens before baptism and of their
exorcism as sacraments; and as late as 1129 Godefrid so calls
the salt and water, oil and chrism, the ring and pastoral staff
used in ordinations. But by this time the tendency was in the
West to restrict the sense of the word. Thus Isidore Hispalensis,
c. 630, in his book of Origins, vi. 19, recognized as sacraments
baptism and the chrism, and the Body and Blood, and he writes
thus: "Under the^screen of corporeal objects a divine virtue
of the sacraments in question secretly brings about salvation;
wherefore they are called sacraments from their secret or sacred
virtues." Bernard (In coen. Dom. 4, op. ii. 88) calls the rite
of washing feet a sacrament, because without it we have no
portion with Christ (John xiii. 8), and therefore it is necessary
to salvation. Hugo de St Victor, c. 1120, in his work On the
SACRAMENT
977
Sacraments, distinguishes six, but of different grades of im-
portance. The two principal ones necessary to salvation are
baptism and the Eucharist; then come the water of aspersion
and the wearing of cinders, and so forth; these advance a man
in sanctity. Lastly come those needful to the hallowing and
instituting of other sacraments, those which concern the con-
ferring of orders or of monkish habit. In his Suntma he declares
that as there are seven chief sins, either original or of act, so
there must be seven sacraments to remedy them; but he only
enumerates six, namely baptism and the sacraments of confirma-
tion, of the altar, of penance, last unction and matrimony.
Peter Lombard (c. 1150) added as a seventh that of ordination,
and to this number the Latin Church adhered at the councils
of Florence and Trent. This enumeration was also adopted in
1575 as against the Augustan confession of the year 1540 by
Jeremiah Patriarch of Constantinople, and again in a council
held in the same city in 1639 to anathematize Cyril Lucar, who
with the Anglicans recognized two only, baptism and the
Eucharist. It is hardly fair on the strength of these two pro-
nouncements to attribute the doctrine of seven sacraments to
the Eastern churches in general; except under a sporadic
Latin influence, they have not troubled themselves so to define
their number.
In this article it is impossible to attempt a history of the
sacraments and of the controversies which in every age have
arisen about them. It is enough to formulate a few general
considerations of a kind to orientate and guide inquirers. To
begin with, it is obvious that the number of sacraments must
vary according to the criterions we use of what constitutes a
sacrament. The Anglicans recognize baptism and the Eucharist
alone, under the impression that Christ ordained these and
none other. The Latin doctors by arguments as good as those
usually put forth in such controversies have no difficulty in
proving that Christ instituted all seven. How, they argue,
could Paul (i Cor. iv. i) call himself and others " ministers of
Christ and stewards of the mysteries of God " unless the mysteries
in question had been directly instituted by Christ. They
contend even that extreme unction was so instituted, and that
St James in his Epistle did but promulgate it. So Christ in-
stituted confirmation non exhibendo sed promittendo, not by
undergoing it and so setting it forth in His own person, but by
promising to send the Paraclete. The sacrament of confession
and penance He equally instituted when He assigned the power
of the keys to the Apostles.
The Latin Church, following Gulielmus Antissiodorensis
(.1215), distinguishes in each sacrament the matter from the
form. The matter is the sensible thing which in accordance
with Christ's institution can be raised to a sacramental plane.
It is, e.g. water with immersion in the case of baptism; bread
and wine in the Eucharist; anointing and laying on of hands
in confirmation; contrition in the sacrament of penance. The
form consists of the words used in the rite, e.g. in penance,
of the formula " I absolve thee "; in the Eucharist, of the
words " This is my body " and " This is the cup of my blood "
or " This is my blood "; in confirmation, of the words " I sign
thee with sign of the cross and confirm thee with chrism of
salvation in name of Father and Son and Holy Spirit"; in
baptism, of the words " I baptize thee in the name of Father,
Son and Holy Spirit (or among the Greeks " N. or M. is baptized
in the name," &c.). Merely verbal change in these formulae
made without prejudicing the sense does not invalidate the
sacrament. On the part of the minister or priest officiating
must be present also an inward intention or will to do what
the Church does. Thus a drunkard's or a madman's sacraments
would only be mockery, even though the recipients received them
in good faith and devoutly. On the other hand, sanctity of life
on the part of the minister is not necessary in order to the
validity of the sacraments which he confers, although this was
held to be the case by the Donatists in the 4th century, and
following them by the Waldensians and Albigenses in the 12th,
and by the followers of Hus and Wycliffe in the i4th. The
latter enunciated the following rule: " If a bishop or priest be
living in mortal sin, then he neither ordains, nor consecrates-,
nor baptizes." The Cathars even held it necessary, in case a
bishop fell into mortal sin, to repeat his baptisms and ordinations,
for they had been vitiated by his sins. On such points the
Catholics followed the more sensible course.
Certain of the sacraments can obviously only be once conferred,
e.g. baptism, confirmation and orders; but can be conditionally
repeated, if there is a doubt of their having been validly con-
ferred. In conditional baptism the Latins, since about the year
1227, use the formula, " If thou art not baptized, then do I
baptize thee," &c. The Latins further insist on a strict observ-
ance of the traditional matter and form. Thus baptism is not
valid if wine or ice be used instead of water, nor the Eucharist
if water be consecrated in place of wine, nor confirmation unless
the chrism has been blessed by a bishop; also olive oil must
be used. The distinction, be it noted, of form and matter seems
more appropriate to the sacraments of baptism, Eucharist,
confirmation and last unction, than to those of orders, penance
and matrimony. The recognition by the Church of the last-
named as a sacrament was, in spite of the commendation uttered
by Jesus (Mark x. 9), slow and arduous, owing to the cncratite
enthusiasms of the first generations of believers. In many
regions baptism involved renunciation of married life, and for
at least the first two hundred years marriage was a civil rite
preceding baptism, which was deferred until the age of thirty
or even later. Liturgical forms for consecrating marriage are
of late development, and the Church took the institution under
its protection through outside social pressure rather than of
its own will and wish.
In any Latin pontifical or Greek euchologion we find numerous
prayers for the consecration, not only of men, but of things.
Here is an example of such a petition from the 9th century
codex of Heribert, archbishop of Milan: 1 " Be thou graciously
pleased by the infusion of the Holy Spirit to strengthen and
enhance the substance, of old approved by thee, of this oil here
before thee; to the end that whatsoever in the human kind
hath been touched therewith may speedily pass to a higher
nature, and that the ancient Enemy may not, after anointing
with the same, claim aught for himself, but that he may grieve
for that he is exposed to the shafts of this blessed engine of
defence, and groan because by the oil of peace the swellings
of his antique fury are kept down and repressed: through our
Lord Jesus Christ," &c.
Or again the following prayer for baptism over the water
from the Ethiopic Statutes of the Apostles as translated by
the Rev. G. Horner (London, 1904, p. 165): " God, my Lord
almighty, who madest heaven and earth . . . who mingledst
and unitedst the immortal with the mortal, who madest living
man a combination of the two, and gavest to that which was
made body a soul also, which thou causest to dwell within: stir
this water and fill it up with thy Holy Spirit, that it may become
water and Spirit for regeneration to those who are to be baptized:
work a holy work and make them to become sons and daughters
of thy holy name."
Such petitions as the above are common in the more ancient
of the Christian cults, and are all alike inspired by the idea that
a spirit or divine virtue can be confined in material objects which
are to be brought into contact with or swallowed by men and
animals. The same idea pervades old medical treatises; for
a drug was not a chemical substance taking effect naturally
on the human system, but something into which a supernatural
virtue had been magically introduced, in order the more easily
and efficaciously to be brought to bear upon the patient. The
spirits which take possession of man or animal can equally take
possession of a material substance, and even replace the substance,
leaving the outward accidents of colour, shape and size un-
changed. This primitive belief, termed " animism " by E. B.
Tylor, asserts itself everywhere in Christianity; and objects
thus invested with spiritual or curative powers are called by the
Latin doctors sacramentals. Thus in the Theologia dogmalica
1 Monumenta veteris liturgiae Ambrosianae, by M. Magistretti
and A. Ceriani (Milan, 1897), p. 99.
97 8
SACRAMENT
et moralis of P. M. Belmont, bishop of Claremont (8th ed.,
Paris, 1899, vol. iii. p. 119) the following definition is given
of sacramentalia: " Sacramentals are certain things or actions
instituted or consecrated by the Church for the production of
certain spiritual effects, and sometimes for the obtaining of a
temporal effect."
Some of the older authorities, like Caietanus and Soto, taught
that sacramentals as above denned have power to produce
their effects ex opere operato, i.e. by their own inherent virtue;
others that they produce them ex opere operantis, i.e. through
the merit and disposition of the user. But in the latter case,
argues M. Belmont, what is the use of the prayers offered up
over the substances; and how account for the differences of
effects which by the testimony of the faithful are respectively
caused by water duly blessed and by water falsely blessed?
If the mere state of mind of the person using the water deter-
mines the effect, then in the case of both kinds of benediction,
the true and the false alike, it would be one and the same. He
therefore inclines to the opinion that there is no inherent virtue
in sacramentals, but that God is moved by the prayers uttered
in their consecration to produce salutary effects in those who
use them. Thus he avoids on the one side the opus operatum
view, and on the other a merely receptionist position.
The consecration of material objects and in general their
use in religion and cult was consistently avoided by the Mani-
cheans; not because they failed to share the universal belief
of earlier ages that spirits can be inducted by means of fitting
prayers and incantations into inanimate things, but because
the external material world was held to be the creation of an
evil demiurge and so incapable of harbouring a pure spirit.
The sacramentals of the great Church were denounced by them
as vehicles of the evil one; and this class of prejudice was carried
to such a length that some of them eschewed even baptism with
water and the sacrament of bread and wine. That they retained
the laying on of hands in their spiritual baptism was an incon-
sistency which their orthodox opponents did not fail to note;
the human hand, argued the latter, is, like the rest of the body,
no less the work of the evil creator than water, oil, bread and
wine, or than the wood, metal and stone out of which altars,
images and churches are made. Relics for the same reason were
abhorred by the Manicheans; the Catholics defending them
on the ground that the bodies of saints participate in a divine
virtue and have a power of making men whole and working
miracles in the same manner as had the cloak of Elijah (2 Kings
ii. 14), or the corpse of Elisha (ibid. xiii. 21), the hem of Christ's
garment (Matt. ix. 20), Peter's shadow (Acts v. 15), the hand-
kerchiefs or aprons off Paul's body (ibid. xix. 12). The Mani-
cheans' answer to such arguments was that miracles worked by
Christ and the Apostles in the material world were only appari-
tional and not real, while those of the Old Testament were satanic.
It has been argued that the sacramental rites of the Christians
were largely imitated from the pagan mysteries; but for the
first two hundred years this is hardly true, except perhaps in
the case of certain Gnostic sects whose leaders intentionally
amalgamated the new faith with old pagan ideas and rites.
It is true that Gentile converts carried over into the new religion
many ideas and habits of cult contracted under the old; this
was inevitable, for no one lightly changes his religious habits
and categories. For long generations the doctors of the Church
fought bravely against such an infusion of heathen customs;
thus in Latin countries we find the rule to keep New Year's
day as a fast, just because the pagans feasted on it, giving one
another gifts (strenae, Fr. etrennes) and taking omens for the
coming year. But in the 4th century this puritanic zeal gave
way; and this and other pagan feasts were taken over by the
Church; a century earlier in Asia Minor Gregory the Thau-
maturge was actively transforming into shrines and cult of
martyrs the temples and idolatrous rites of heroes and demigods.
In proportion as such conversion was facile and rapid, it was
probably imperfect.
That baptism is called the Seal (aQpayis) , and Illumination
($coriT/i6j) in the 2nd century has been set down to the influence
of the pagan mysteries; but as a matter of fact the former
term is a metaphor from military discipline, and the idea con-
veyed in the latter that gnosis or imparting of divine love is
an illumining of the soul is found both in the Old and New
Testaments. Nor because the pagans regarded the close
meetings of the Christians usually held in private houses as
mysteries in which incest and cannibalism were rife, does it follow
that the Christians themselves accepted the comparison. On the
contrary, as a thousand passages in the earlier apologists attest,
they viewed the pagan mysteries with horror and detestation.
Nor were they so solicitous, as it is pretended, to conceal from the
authorities what they did and said in their liturgical meetings.
The Christians 1 of Bithynia were evidently quite frank
about them to Pliny (c. 112), and Justin in his Apology reveals
everything to a pagan emperor (c. 150). That catechumens
could not participate in the agape or love-feast (of which in
this epoch the Eucharist was merely an episode) does not give
to those feasts the character of a Greek mystery. The uncircum-
cized proselyte was similarly excluded from the Paschal meal on
which the Eucharist was largely modelled, even though it may
not have been in any way a continuation of the same. Baptism
and the agape took their rise in Palestine, and in their origin
certainly owed little or nothing to outside influences. For both
there can be found Jewish models, if necessary. The sacred
feasts of the Essenes and Therapeutae in particular, as de-
scribed by Josephus and Philo, closely resembled the Eucharistic
agape.
Undeniably Clement of Alexandria and Origen apply the
language of the Greek mysteries to Christian gnosis and life.
" These are," says Clement, " divine mysteries, hidden from
most and revealed to the few who can receive them." And
Origen compares them to the sacred vessels, and would have them
" guarded secretly behind the veil of the conscience and not
lightly produced before the public." He who so produces them
" dances out the word of the true philosophy," a technical
description of the profanation of the mysteries. It is not even
safe, according to these two fathers, to commit too much to
writing; and Clement undertakes not to reveal in writing many
secrets known to the initiated among his readers; otherwise
the indiscreet eye of the heathen may rest on them, and he will
have cast his pearls before swine. But we may discount most
such talk in these writers as bellettristic pedantry, copied as a
rule from Philo of Alexandria, their literary model. In the
latter's description of the Therapeutae (ed. Mangey, ii. 475) we
read how each ascetic had " in his house a room in which in
solitude they celebrated the mysteries of the holy life, introducing
nothing therein, either to drink or to eat, nor anything else
necessary for the uses of the flesh." And in scores of other
passages Philo dwells on " the ineffable mysteries " of Jewish
faith and allegory. He even writes thus: " O ye initiated ones,
with purified sense of hearing, shall ye accept in your souls
these truly sacred mysteries, nor divulge them to any of the
uninitiated. ... I have been initiated by Moses the friend of
God in the great mysteries." But because he uses the language
of the Greek mysteries, Philo never imitated the thing itself;
and he is ever ready to denounce it in the bitterest terms.
Clement and Origen really meant no more than he. At a later
period, however, the difficulty of screening the rites of baptism
and Eucharist from the eyes of catechumens and from their
ears the creeds and liturgies a difficulty which had ever been
formidable and which after the overthrow of paganism must
have become insurmountable seems to have provoked not only
a great outpouring on the part of the Christian rhetors, like
Basil, Chrysostom, the Gregories and the Cyrils, of phrases
borrowed from the Greek mysteries, but perhaps an actual use
of precautions. Thus the bishop of Rome, Julius (c. 340),
complained (Athanasius, Apol. cont. Arian. 31, Migne 25, 300)
that a court of law had not been cleared of catechumens, Jews
and pagans, in a case where the legal discussion introduced the
topic of the table of Christ; and the preachers of the 4th and
* Perhaps, however, Pliny refers only to the renegades among
them.
SACRAMENT ALS SACRAMENTO
979
5th centuries in their discourses often make a point of not citing
the creed or describing the Eucharist; they stop short and
ejaculate such remarks as laaaiv ol Trioroi, norunt fideles
(" the faithful know it "). Such was the Disciplina arcani.
All will admit who study the post-Nicene Church, that the
Christian sacraments have stolen the clothes of the pagan
mystenes, dethroned and forbidden by the Christian emperors.
The catechumenate, an old institution, older in most regions than
the mysteries themselves, suggested and rendered feasible such
wholesale theft, especially in an age in which the sacerdotal class
wished to be pre-eminent, and left nothing undone to enhance
in the eyes of the multitude the importance and solemnity of
rites which it was their prerogative to administer. The dis-
appearance, too, of the pagan mysteries must have left a void
in many hearts, and the clerics tried to fill it up by themselves
masquerading as hierophants.
In the age of the Council of Nice the custom arose of baptizing
children of three, because at that age they can already talk
and utter the baptismal vows and responses. Not a few homilies
of that age survive, denouncing the deferring of baptism, and
urging on parents the duty of initiating their young children.
Thus there is much evidence to show that long before A.D. 500
child baptism was in vogue. But in that case how can the creed
and ritual of baptism, the Lord's Prayer and the Eucharistic
formulae, have been kept secret? How can they have been
the " awful mysteries," the " dread and terrible canons," the
" mystic teachings," the " ineffable sentences," the " oracles
too sacred to be committed to writing " which the homilists
of that age pretend them to have been? Could our modern
freemasons continue to hide their watchwords and ritual, or
even make a pretence of doing so, if they were constrained by
public opinion to initiate every child three years of age? The
thing is absurd. When, therefore, we find such phrases in Greek
and Latin homilies of the period of 350 to 550 we must regard
them as elaborate make-believe. Because catechumens as well
as the faithful were present at the sermons, the preachers
thought it becoming to throw them in; but the audience must
have been aware that their secrets were open ones.
LITERATURE. Theologia dogmatica et moralis ad mentem S.
Thomae Aquinatis et S. Alphonsi de Ligorio (6 vols., Paris, 1899);
Gustav Anrich, Das antike Mysterienwesen (Gottingen, 1894); L.
Duchesne, Origines du culte chrktien (Paris, 1898); Joseph Bingham,
Origines ecclesiasticae (London, 1834); Adolf Harnack, Dogmen-
geschichte (Freiburg, 1897). (F. C. C.)
SACRAMENTALS (Sacramentalia) , in the Roman Catholic
Church certain acts or ordinances instituted not by Christ, but
by the Catholic Church with divine authority. They are believed,
in their application to persons and things, to communicate
quasi ex opere operato through ordained priests the grace of
God, consisting in purification, supernatural revivification and
sanctification. The term is thus used to cover the rites of
dedication, consecration and benediction, and, closely connected
with the last-named, exorcism.
SACRAMENTARIANS, the name given to those who during
the Reformation controversies not only denied the Roman
Catholic " transubstantiation," but also the Lutheran " con-
substantiation." They comprised two parties: (i) the followers
of Capito, CarlsUdt r>nd Bucer, who at the diet of Augsburg
presented the Confessio Tetrapolitana from Strassburg, Constance,
Lindau and Memmingen; (2) the followers of the Swiss reformer
Zwingli, who to the same diet presented his private confession
of faith. The doctrinal standpoint was the same an admission
of a spiritual presence of Christ which the devout soul can
receive and enjoy, but a total rejection of any physical or
corporeal presence. After holding their own view for some years
the four cities accepted the Confession of Augsburg, and were
merged in the general body of Lutherans; but Zwingli's position
was incorporated in the Helvetic Confession. It is a curious
inversion of terms that in recent years has led to the name
Sacramentarians being applied to those who hold a high or
extreme view of the efficacy of the sacraments.
SACRAMENTO, the capital of California, U.S.A., and the
county-seat of Sacramento county, 91 m. (by rail) N.E. of San
Francisco, on the eastern bank of the Sacramento river, about
in m. above its mouth, at the point where it is joined by the
American. Pop. (1850) 6820, (1890) 26,386, (1900) 29,282,
of whom 6723 were foreign-born (1371 Germans, 1293 Irish,
964 Chinese, 655 English, 446 English Canadian and 337
Japanese) and 402 were negroes, (1910, census) 44,696. Land
area (1906) 4-49 sq. m. Sacramento is on the direct east-
ward line to Ogden, Utah, of the Southern (once the Central)
Pacific railway (which has its main shops here), the starting
point of the Southern Pacific line to Portland, Oregon, the
terminus of several shorter branches of the Southern Pacific
and on the Western Pacific, which has repair shops here, and
it is served by interurban electric railways connecting with places
in the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys. The city is about
200 m. below Red Bluff, the head of river navigation for boats
drawing 2 or 2\ ft. of water; for boats drawing 4 to 5 ft. Colusa,
91 m. above Sacramento, is the head of navigation; at low
water, vessels drawing 7 ft. of water go up the river to Sacramento.
There are two daily steamer lines to San Francisco, besides
freight lines.
The city site is level (formerly in many parts 5 ft. below flood-
level of the river) and is about 30 ft. above sea-level, and the
street plan is rectangular. The business quarter has been filled
in, and levees have been built along the Sacramento and American
rivers. The climate is mild: the average annual temperature
is 60-5 F.; average for winter months, 48-3; for spring,
59-5; for summer, 71-7; for autumn, 61-5; average rainfall,
19-94 in.; average number of clear days per annum, 244. The
principal buildings are: a very fine state capitol (cornerstone
laid, 1860; completed, 1874) in a wooded park of 35 acres,
in which is an Insectary where parasites of injurious insects
are propagated; Roman Catholic and Protestant Episcopal
cathedrals; the county court-house; the city hall; the public
library (in 1008, 41,400 volumes); and the Crocker Art Gallery,
which was -presented to the city by the widow of Judge E. B.
Crocker, one of the founders of the Central Pacific, with an art
school and an exhibit of the minerals of the state. There is
a state library of 140,000 volumes in the capitol; connected
with it are travelling libraries sent out through the rural districts
of the state. In Sacramento are the large state printing establish-
ment, in which, in addition to other books and documents,
text-books for the entire state school system are printed; the
College of the Christian Brothers, Howe's Academy, Atkinson's
Business College, St Joseph's Academy, the Stanford-Lathrop
Memorial Home for Friendless Girls (1900), under the Sisters
of Mercy, two other orphanages, the Southern Pacific Railway
Hospital (1868), the Mater Misericordiae Hospital (1895,
Sisters of Mercy), Went worth Hospital, a City Receiving Hospital
(1884), the Marguerite Home (for old ladies), the Mater Miseri-
cordiae Home (1895, Sisters of Mercy) and the Peniel Rescue
Home (1899). Just outside the city limits is the State Agri-
cultural Pavilion, with race track and live-stock exhibition
grounds (where the State Agricultural Society holds its annual
" State Exposition " in September).
The city has a large wholesale trade. Its prosperity rests
upon that of the splendid Sacramento Valley, a country of grain
and fruit farms, along whose eastern side lie the gold-producing
counties of the state. It is the centre of the greatest deciduous
fruit region of California, and shipped about 11,000 car-loads
east of the Rocky Mountains in 1909. Sacramento derives
electric power from Folsom, on the American river, 22 m. away,
ind from Colgate, on the Yuba river, 119 m. distant. The
manufacturing interests of the city are large and varied: the
city's manufactures include flour (1905, value $1,172,747),
lumber, distilled liquors, canned and preserved vegetables and
fruits, packed meats, cigars and harness. In 1905 the total
value of the factory product was $10,319,416. In 1909 the
assessed valuation of the city was about $30,400,000, and the
bonded indebtedness about $1,100,000. The city owns its own
water system, which has a capacity of 22 million gallons daily,
and is a financial success.
In 1839 John Augustus Sutler (1803-1880), a Swiss military
980
SACRARIUM SACRIFICE
officer, was allowed to erect a fort on the then frontier of Cali-
fornia, on the present site of Sacramento. He became a Mexican
official (1840), and in 1841 obtained from the Mexican govern-
ment a grant of 1 1 square leagues of land. Sutler's fort, or
" New Helvetia " (a reproduction of which, with a historical
museum, in Fort Sutler Park, is one of the objects of interest
in the city), was on the direct line of overland immigration from
the East, and its position purposely selecled by Sutler with
a view to freedom of inlerference from Mexican officials made
Suller a man of great importance in the lasl years of Ihe Mexican
regime. Afler Ihe discovery of gold in 1848, made on Suiter's
land, near Ihe presenl Coloma, aboul 45 m. E.N.E. of Sacramenlo,
several rival lowns were slarled on Suller's properly near Ihe
fort. Of Ihese fortune finally favoured Sacramento a name
already frequently applied lo Ihe fort, and adopled for Ihe name
of Ihe settlement about its embarcadero or river landing in
1848. The first sale of lown lols was in January 1849. Here
began Ihe determined movement for the organization of a stale
government. The extraordinary richness of the placer mines
of '49 caused the city to grow wilh wonderful rapidily. In
October 1849 its population was probably 2000, in December
4000 and a year later 10,000. Trouble with land " squalters "
almost led lo local war in 1850. In 1849 Ihe cily offered
$1,000,000 for Ihe honour of being Ihe stale capilal, which il
finally secured in February 1854 (the legislalure having already
met here once in 1851). Belween November 1849 and January
1853 Ihe city was thrice devaslated by fearful floods, and it was
two- thirds destroyed by fire in November 1852; but though
these misfortunes caused a collapse of inflated realty values
they Hid not seriously cripple the city in ils developmenl. A
cily governmenl was organized in Augusl 1849, and in February
1850 Ihis government was incorporaled, and in 1863 reincorpor-
ated; Ihe cily and counly governments were consolidaled from
1858 lo 1863; and a new city charter was received in 1893,
coming inlo effecl in 1894. The first local sleam railway of
California was opened from Sacramento in 1855, and here in
1863 was begun the building of the Central Pacific railway across
the Sierras, the first train from the Atlanlic coasl reaching
Sacramenlo in May 1869. In 1862 Ihere was another flood,
the most destruclive in Ihe hislory of Ihe cily; since then Ihe
measures laken for proleclion have secured safety from the
river. The governmenl of Ihe city in Ihe 'fif lies was excessively
corrupl and expensive. Progress since Ihe end of Ihe flush
mining days has been sleady and conservative.
SACRARIUM, the lerm in classic architecture given to the
cella of a temple, and to the apartment in a dwelling-house which
was sacred lo a deity. In medieval archileclure Ihe lerm is
applied on Ihe European continent to that portion of a chancel,
which, enclosed with a railing or balustrade in front of the altar,
is devoted to Ihe celebration of Ihe Holy Eucharisl; this in
England is generally known as Ihe presbylery.
SACRED HEART. Devotion lo Ihe Sacred Heart of Jesus
is a cult peculiar to the modern Roman Catholic Church. The
principal object of this devolion is Ihe Saviour Himself. The
secondary and partial objecl is lhat Heart which was Ihe seat
or organ of His love, and which forms the natural symbol thereof.
Heart and love are viewed, nol physiologically, bul in Iheir
moral connexion. The chief lilurgical expressions of this cull
are Ihe institution of a feast of Ihe Sacred Heart and public
representations of it by statues and pictures.
Private worship of Christ's heart in particular is of great
antiquily in Ihe Church, and is prominent in St Gertrude and
olher myslics. It was greatly stimulated in the i7th century by
St Francis of Sales (q.v.) who gave this symbol to his Order
(the Visitation) as its badge. The Venerable Fr. Eudes musl
also be menlioned as a greal propagalor of Ihe devolion, in Ihe
same cenlury, and he was Ihe firsl lo obtain a certain public,
though only local, authorization of the new pious practices.
Blessed Margaret Mary Alacoque (1647-1690), a Visilation nun
of Paray-le-Monial, assisted by her director, the Venerable
Claude de la Colombiere, S.J. (1641-1682), was Ihe inslrumenl
of Ihe inlroduction of the specific worship of the Sacred Heart
into the Church by a decision of the supreme authority, although
their work only look effecl long afler Iheir death. Mary of
Modena, the exiled queen of James II., at the instance of the
Visilation, pelilioned in 1697 for a proper Feasl of Ihe Sacred
Heart. Neither then, however, nor on the presentation of
new petitions in 1726, was an affirmative answer oblained.
Meanwhile the chief objection, that of " novelty," was gradually
removed by the multiplication of local manifestations, the
genuineness of which was proved to the satisfaclion of Ihe Roman
Congregation of Rights, and in 1765 it was allowed for houses
of the Visitalion and certain countries. It must be added lhat
this devotion was strongly opposed, not only by the Jansenists,
bul by olhers wilhin Ihe Church, under the mislaken idea lhat
the Heart of Christ was viewed in il as separale from Ihe rest
of His Being. The formulation of Ihis objeclion by Ihe synod of
Pisloia, 1 in 1786, however, only provoked a clearer explanalion
of the doctrine, which contribuled to confirm the cult. In 1856
Pius IX. introduced the feast inlo Ihe general calendar of Ihe
Roman Calholic Church, fixing Ihe Friday afler Ihe Oclave of
Corpus Christi for its celebration. The Beatificalion of Blessed
M.M. Alacoque in 1864 gave a new impelus lo Ihe cause of
which she had been Ihe aposlle.
See Nic. Nilles, S.J., De rationibus feslorum 55. Cordis Jesu, &c.
(3rd ed., Innsbruck, 1873) ; E. Letrierc^ S.J., tudes sur le Sacre
Cceur et la Visitation (Paris, 1890). These two works contain biblio-
graphical lists. Dalgairns, The Devotion to the Heart of Jesus (1853);
H. E. Manning, The Glories of the Sacred Heart (1876); Jos. Nix,
Cultus 55. Cordis Jesu . . . cum additamento de cultu purissimi
cordis B.V. Mariae (2nd ed., Freiburg-i.-B., 1891). (H. B. M.)
SACRIFICE (from Lat. sacrificium; sacer, holy, and facere,
to make), the ritual destruclion of an objecl, or, more commonly,
Ihe slaughler of a viclim by effusion of blood, suffocalion, fire
or other means. While the Hebrew for sacrifice, rui, makes
the killing of Ihe viclim Ihe cenlral feature of the ceremony,
the Lalin word brings oul Ihe fad thai an acl of sacralizalion
(see TABOO) is an essenlial elemenl in many cases. The sacrifice
of desacralizalion is, however, also found; hence MM. Hubert
and Mauss describe a sacrifice as " a religious acl, which, by the
consecration of a victim, modifies the moral state of the sacrificer
or of certain material objects which he has in view," i.e. il eilher
confers sanclity or removes it and its analogue, impurity. It
is, in fact, " a procedure whereby communication is established
between Ihe sacred and profane spheres by a viclim, that is to
say by an objecl deslroyed in Ihe course of Ihe ceremony."
By Ihis definilion Ihe lerm sacrifice is exlended lo cover Ihe
inanimale offering which is consumed by fire, broken or otherwise
rendered useless for the purpose of human life.
Theories of Sacrifice. Explanations of sacrifice, as of other
rites, are naturally not wanting among Ihe peoples who have
praclised or slill praclise il; bul Ihey are often of Ihe nalure
of aeliological myths and give no clue to Ihe original meaning.
Scientific theories date from Ihe second half of the last century,
and were originated in the firsl inslance by Ihe English anlhropo-
logical school.
(a) According lo Ihe view pul forward by Dr Tylor, the
sacrifice is originally a gift, offered lo supernalural beings by man
for Ihe purpose of securing Iheir favour or minimizing their
hoslilily. By a natural series of transilions Ihe gift Iheory
became Iransformed, in Ihe minds of Ihe sacrificers, inlo Ihe
homage Iheory, which again passed by an easy Iransilion inlo
Ihe renunciation theory. These were, in fact, simply Ihe popular
Iheories of sacrifice pul on an evidenlial basis by facts drawn
from various stages of culture.
(b) With W. Robertson Smith, on the other hand, a new
era was reached, in which Ihe recently recognized existence
of Totemism (q.v.) was made Ihe basis of an altempl to give a
1 Scipione de Rteci, bishop of Pistoia from 1780 to 1791, on the
ex-Jesuits requesting him to consecrate a bell dedicated to this
object, issued a pastoral letter (3rd June 1784) in which he pointed
out that the spirit of true religion was " far removed from fetichism,"
and warned his flock against " cardiolatry." This pastoral was
subsequently in 1786 annexed to the resolutions passed by the re-
forming synod of Pistoia (q.v.), and was condemned with eighty-four
other propositions by papal bull in 1794. ED.
SACRIFICE
981
theory of origins. The first form of his theory distinguishes (i.)
honorific, (ii.) piacularand (iii.) mystical or sacramental sacrifices;
but the latter type is traced back to the same cycle of ideas as
that in which the piacular sacrifice originated, (i.) The essential
feature of this type was that the god and his worshippers shared
the sacrifice and might thus be regarded as commensals, or
table companions. The human commensals were the totem-kin,
whom Robertson Smith conceived to have been in the habit of
sharing a common meal in daily life, or at least of not mixing
with other kins. The object of sharing the meal with the god was
to renew the blood bond. The victim was the animal of a hostile
totem-kin or an animal commonly offered to the god. The god
was originally a stranger, taken into the kin by a rite of blood
brotherhood, and this constitutes the dark point of the theory;
for Robertson Smith regards the blood bond as relatively late;
hence we do not see how the god became associated with the
kin. (ii.) The piacular sacrifice arose from the need of atoning
for bloodshed within the kinship group; properly speaking,
the culprit himself should suffer: should he be unknown or
beyond the reach of vengeance, a substitute had to be found.
This was naturally found in the non-human member of the
totem-kin the totem animal; in a sense, therefore, the god
died for his people, (iii.) In the mystical sacrifice the god is
himself slain and eaten by his worshippers. In the Religion
of the Semites (and ed., 1894) the theory was remodelled so as
to overcome the difficulty pointed out above. The god, the
victim and the human group are regarded as of the same kin;
the animal (totem) is the earlier form of the god; the deity was
originally female, for under matrilineal rules the mother alone
is of kin to her children, but, with the rise of descent in the male
line, the god was transformed into a male. The sacrifice is in its
origin a communion; god and worshippers have a bond of
kinship between them; but it is liable to be interrupted or its
strength diminished. Ceremonies of initiation are the means
by which the alliance is established between the deity and
the young man, when the latter enters upon the rights of
manhood; and the supposed bond of kinship is thus regarded
as an artificial union from the outset, so far as the individual
is concerned, although Robertson Smith still maintains the theory
of the fatherhood of the god, where it is a question of the origin
of the totem-kin. From the communion sacrifice sprang the
piaculum, which here becomes a subsidiary form and finds its
full explanation in the ideas connected with the mystic union
of god and worshippers. For the object of the piaculum is the
re-establishment of the broken alliance, which was precisely
that of the communion sacrifice. With the decline of totemism
arose the need for human sacrifice the only means of re-establish-
ing the broken tie of kinship when the animal species was no
longer akin to man.
This theory of Robertson Smith's has been attacked from two
sides. In the first place, L. Marillier (Rev. de I'hist. des religions,
xxxvi. 243) argues that if there was an original bond of kinship
between the god and the kin, there is no need to maintain it by
sacrificial rites, and cites against Smith's view the practice of
totemic groups. To this it might be replied that the real signi-
ficance of initiation ceremonies is still obscure; it is a plausible
argument that the child does not form part of the kin till after
initiation, but this argument seems inconclusive, for in West
Australia there is solidarity, according to Grey (Journals, ii. 239),
between the whole of the kinship group, whether adult or not;
and, moreover, nowhere are rites found which are intended to
strengthen the union between a man and his totem by means
of the blood bond, unless we include the aberrant totemism of
the Arunta (Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia,
167), who eat their totems in order to gain magical powers of
increasing the stock of the totem animal. Marillier further
argues that if, on the other hand, there was no bond between
god and people but that of the common meal, it does not appear
that the god is a totem god; there is no reason why the animal
should have been a totem; and in any case this idea of sacrifice
can hardly have been anything but a slow growth and con-
sequently not the origin of the practice. In the second place,
MM. Hubert and Mauss point out that Robertson Smith is far
from having established either the historical or the logical con-
nexion between the common meal and the other types of sacrifice;
the simplest Semitic forms known to us are the most recently
recorded; further their simplicity may mean no more than
documentary insufficiency, and in any case does not imply any
priority; the piaculum is found side by side with the communion
at all times. Moreover, under piaculum are confused purification,
propitiations and expiations; Smith's contention that purifica-
tions, whose magical character he recognizes but interprets as
late, are not sacrificial, is far from conclusive.
(' ) Building in part on the foundation laid by Robertson
Smith, Dr J. G. Frazer has put forward the view that while the
sacrifice of the god may have been piacular, it was also intended
to preserve his divine life against the inroads of old age. This
theory he exemplifies by two orders of cases, (i.) the putting to
death of the man-god, who is often also the king, on whose health
is held to depend the safety of his people, of the world, or even
of the universe; and (ii.) the annual killing of the representative
of the spirit of vegetation or of the Corn-spirit (seeDEMONOLOov).
(<l) For L. Marillier sacrifice was, at its origin, essentially a
magical rite the liberation by the effusion of a victim's blood
of a magical force which was to bend the gods to the will of
man; from this arose, under the influence of cult of the dead, the
gift theory of sacrifice. Adopting the theory of W. R. Smith,
Marillier also maintained, but without clearly explaining the
relation of this part of his theory to the preceding, that a
human kinship group conceived the idea of allying itself with
one god in particular. This they did by sacrificing a victim
and effecting communion with the god by the application
of its blood to the altar; or, more directly, by the sacrifice
of the animal-god and the contact of the sacrificer with its
blood.
(e) Dr Westermarck takes the view that human sacrifice is as
a rule an act of substitution, in that men offer a victim ia
the hope of saving themselves; but he also recognizes funeral
sacrifices of various kinds. Certain sacrifices of animals he
explains as intended to transfer a conditional curse.
(/) The preceding theories are attempts, in the main, to derive
from one source all the forms of sacrifice. MM. Hubert and
Mauss, while admitting that in all sacrifices is found some idea
of purchase or substitution, decline to admit that all have issued
from one primitive form. In their view, based on an analysis of
Hebrew and Hindu forms of sacrifice, the unity of sacrifice
consists in the immediate aim of the ritual, not in the ultimate
end to be attained; for we rarely find a rite other than complex
and by the same sacrifice more than one result may be sought
or attained. The unity of procedure consists in the fact that
every sacrifice involves putting the divine in communication
with the profane by an intermediary the victim which may
be piacular or honorific, a messenger or a means of divination,
a means of alimenting the eternal life of the species or a source
of magical energy which the rite diffuses over objects in its
neighbourhood.
(g) Our knowledge of primitive forms of sacrifice is meagre;
even were it more extensive, it would probably be impossible to
determine the origin or origins of sacrifice; for no ritual has
necessarily survived unchanged in form and meaning since its
inception, and even permanence of form cannot be taken to
imply a corresponding permanence of meaning for the worshippers.
If, however, we turn to Australia, where sacrifice is unknown,
we find more than .one class of rites in which we can trace
an idea akin to some forms of sacrifice. Just as the German
reaper leaves the last ears of corn as an offering to Wodan, so
the Australian black offers a portion of a find of honey; in
New South Wales a pebble is said to have been offered or a
number of spears, in Queensland the skin removed in forming
the body-scars. Thus it appears that the gift theory may after
all be primitive; the worship of, or care for, the dead may
have supplied in other areas the motive for the transition from
offering to sacrifice or the evolution may have been due to the
spiritualization of the gods. In Australia, among the Hottentots,
982
SACRIFICE
in the Malay Peninsula and elsewhere, blood ceremonies are in
use which are unconnected with the slaughter of a victim; in
this blood ritual we may see another possible source of sacrifice.
The Arunta hold that the spirits of kangaroos are expelled by
human blood from certain rocks. By parity of reasoning a
blood ritual may have been adopted by peoples who practise
the expulsion of evils, conceiving them either animistically or as
powers; catharsis, in the sense of removal of uncleanness, is
not necessarily primitive.
Principles of Classification. It is possible to classify sacrifices
according to (a) the occasion of the rite, (b) the end to be achieved,
(c) the material object to be affected or (d) the form of the rite.
(a) The division into periodical and occasional is important
in Hindu and other higher religions, and the sutras constantly
draw the distinction; the former class is obligatory, the latter
facultative. In less developed creeds the difference tends to
remain in the background; but where sacrifices are found,
solemn annual rites, communal, purificatory or expiatory, are
celebrated, and these are held to be in like manner obligatory.
(b) The end to be achieved is, as has been shown by Hubert
and Mauss, sometimes sacralization, sometimes desacralization.
In the former case the sacrificer is raised to a higher level; he
enters into closer communion with the gods. In the latter
either some material object, not necessarily animate, is deprived
of a portion of its sanctity and made fit for human use, or the
sacrificer himself loses a portion of his sanctity or impurity.
In the sacrifice of sacralization the sanctity passes from the victim
to the object; in that of desacralization, from the object to the
victim, (c) Sacrifices may be classified into (i.) subjective or
personal, where the sacrificer himself gains or loses sanctity or
impurity; (ii.) objective, where the current of mana (see TABOO)
is directed upon some other person or object, and only a
secondary effect is produced on the sacrificer himself, (d) The
form of the sacrifice is discussed in the next section.
Ritual. For Hinduism and later Judaism we possess a wealth
of material on which to base a comparative study of the forms
of sacrifice; a form of this animal sacrifice in the Vedas
has been analysed by MM. Hubert end Mauss. For Greece
and Rome, where the instructions as to ritual were not embodied
in the elaborate codes handed down in Hinduism or Judaism,
our material is far less complete. For other areas we have often
no description of the procedure at all, but merely the briefest
outline of the actual process of slaughter, and we are ignorant
whether the form of the rite is in reality simple (either from a
loss of primitive elements or from never having advanced beyond
the stage at which we find it), or whether the absence of detail
Is due to the inattention or lack of interest of the observer. It
must therefore be understood that the following analysis of
ritual, based on the most elaborate codes known to us, is by no
means conclusive as to the primitive form or forms of sacrifice.
The necessary elements of a Hindu sacrifice are: (i) the
sacrificer, who provides the victim, and is affected, directly or
indirectly, by the sacrifice; he may or may not be identical
with (2) the officiant, who performs the rite; we have further
(3) the place, (4) the instruments of sacrifice and (5) the victim;
where the sacrificer enjoys only the secondary .results, the direct
influence of the sacrifice is directed towards (6) the object;
finally, we may distinguish (7) three moments of the rite (a) the
entry, (b) the slaughter, (c) the exit.
The sacrifices of sacralization and desacralization mentioned
above find their analogues in the Hindu scheme of the rite;
sacralization and desacralization, sometimes performed by means
of subsidiary sacrifices, are the essential elements of the prepara-
tion for sacrifice and the subsequent lustration. In the most
developed forms, such as the offering of soma, they assumed a
great importance; (i) the sacrificer had to pass from the world
of man into a world of the gods; consequently he was separated
from the common herd of mankind and purified; he underwent
ceremonies emblematic of rebirth and was then subject to number-
less taboos imposed for the purpose of maintaining his ceremonial
purity. In like manner (2) the officiant prepared himself for
his task; but in his case the natural sanctity of the priest relieved
him of the necessity of undergoing all that the common man
had to pass through; in fact, this was one of the causes which
brought him into existence, the other being the need of a
functionary familiar with the ritual, who would avoid disastrous
errors of procedure, destructive of the efficacy of the sacrifice.
(3) Where there was an appointed place of sacrifice the Temple
at Jerusalem, according to later Jewish prescription there was
no need of preparation of a place of sacrifice; but the Hindu
chose, each for himself, the site of his altar. (4) The necessary
rites included (a) the establishment of the fires, friction being
the only permitted method of kindling it, (b) the tracing on the
ground of the vedi, or magical circle, to destroy impurities, (c)
the digging of the hole which constituted the real altar, (d) the
preparation of the post which represented the sacrificer and
to which the victim was tied, and other minor details. (5)
The victim might be naturally sacred or might have to undergo
sanctification. In the former case (a) individual animals might
be distinguished by certain marks, or (b) the whole species
might be allied to the god; in the latter case the victim had to
be without blemish; (c) the age, colour or sex of the victim
might differ according to the purpose of the sacrifice. It was
first cleansed; then plied with laudatory epithets; and, thirdly,
soothed, so that it might be more acceptable to the gods and
less likely to do an injury after its death, when its spirit was set
free. It had now reached a degree of sanctity and only the
priest might touch it; it was sprinkled with water, and anointed
with butter; finally, the priest made three turns round it with
a lighted torch in his hand, which finally separated it from the
world and fitted it for its high purpose. The object of the
sacrifice being to bridge the gulf between the sacred and profane
worlds, the sacrificer had to remain in contact with the victim,
either personally, or, to avoid ritual perils, by the intermediary
of the priest. After excuses made to the animal or to the species
in general, the victim was placed in position, and silence observed
by all who were present. The cord was drawn tight and the
victim ceased to breathe; its spirit passed into the world of
the gods. But this did not conclude the ceremony, even as
far as the victim was concerned; it remained to dispose of the
corpse. After a rite intended to secure its perfect ceremonial
purity, a part of the victim, the vapa, was removed, held over
the fire and finally cast into it. The remainder, divided into
eighteen portions, was cooked; seven fell to the sacrificer, after
an invocation, which made them sacred by calling the deity to
descend into the offering and thus sanctify the sacrificer. (6)
Then followed the rites of desacralization, including burning
of certain of the instruments, lustration of the post,, destruction
of the butter, &c. Finally the priest, the sacrificer and his wife
performed a lustration, found in an exaggerated form in the
" bath " which concluded the soma sacrifice, and the ceremonies
were at an end.
How far this scheme of sacrifice holds good for other areas,
and in particular for more primitive peoples, is an open question.
Our data are nowhere so full as for India; where they are com-
paratively abundant they refer either to a civilized or semi-
civilized people, or to an area, like West Africa, where the influence
of Islam has introduced a disturbing element. Though the
moralization of gods has only proceeded pari passu with the
moralization of mankind, the deities of the more advanced
nations are perhaps felt by them to be more terrible and more
difficult of access than the divinities of lower races; herein
lies one explanation of the power of the priesthood. Even
if the conception of the relative sanctity of gods and men re-
mained unaltered, it by no means follows that in primitive times
the same precautions were necessary in approaching the* former
as were demanded by the consciousness of later generations.
With our present .knowledge the problem of the original form
of sacrifice, if there be a single primary form, is insoluble.
No general survey of sacrificial ritual is possible here, but a
few details as to the mode of slaying the victim and disposing
of the body may be given. The head of the animal or man
may be cut off (and custom often requires that a single blow
shall suffice), its spine broken or its heart torn out; it may be
SACRIFICE
983
stoned, beaten to death or shot, torn in pieces, drowned or
buried, burned to death or hung, thrown down a precipice,
strangled or squeezed to death. The sacrificer may aim at
causing a speedy death or a slow one. The corpse may be burnt,
in part or as a whole; portions may be assigned to the priest,
the sacrificer and the gods; the skull, bones, &c., may receive
special treatment; the fat or blood may be set aside, and they
or the ashes may be singled out as the share of the god, to be
offered upon the altar; the skin of the victim may be employed
as a covering for the idol or material representative of the god,
either permanently or till the next annual sacrifice. The blood
of the victim may be drunk by the priest as a means of inducing
inspiration, its entrails may be employed in divination, its flesh
consumed in a common meal, exposed to the birds and beasts
of prey or buried in the earth.
It is equally impossible to give a general survey of the purposes
of sacrifice; not only are they too numerous but it is rare to
find any but mixed forms; the scapegoat, for example, is also
a messenger to the dead, and its flesh is eaten by the sacrificers.
Certain main types may, however, be enumerated.
Cathartic Sacrifice. In primitive cults the distinction between
sacred and unclean is far from complete or well denned (see
TABOO); consequently we find two types of cathartic sacrifice
(i.) one to cleanse of impurity and make fit for common use,
(ii.) the other to rid of sanctity and in like manner render suitable
for human use or intercourse.
(i.) The most conspicuous example of the first class is the
scapegoat. Two goats were provided by the ancient Hebrews on
the Day of Atonement; the high priest sent one into the desert,
after confessing on it the sins of Israel; it was not permitted to
run free but was probably cast over a precipice; the other was
sacrificed as a sin-offering. In like manner in the purification of
lepers two birds were used; the throat of one was cut, the
living bird dipped in the blood mingled with water and the
leper sprinkled; then the bird was set free to carry away the
leprosy. In both these rites we seem to have a duplication of
ritual, and the parallelism of sacrifice and liberation is clear.
(ii.) As an example of the second class may be taken the sacrifice
of the bull to Rudra. MM. Hubert and Mauss interpret this to
mean that the sanctity of the remainder of the herd was con-
centrated on a single animal; the god, incarnate in the herd, was
eliminated by the sacrifice, and the cattle saved from the dangers
to which their association with the god exposed them. In the
Feast of Firstfruits we have another example of the same sort;
comparable with this concentration of holiness is the respect or
veneration shown to a single animal as representative of its
species (see ANIMAL WORSHIP). In both these cases the object
of the rite is the elimination of impurity or of a source of danger.
But the Nazarite was equally bound to lay aside his holiness
before mixing, with common folk and returning to ordinary life;
this he did by a sacrifice, which, with the offering of his hair upon
the altar, freed him from his vow and reduced him to the same
level of sanctity as ordinary men.
With regard to the scapegoat, it must be noted that we also meet
with a more concrete idea of expulsion of evil (see DEMONOLOGY,
EXORCISM), which is present among the most primitive peoples,
such as the Australians. This raises the problem of how far the
catharsis dealt with above is in its original form an elimination
of impurity, and how far something more definite a spirit or
other principle of evil is held to be expelled by scapegoat and
allied ceremonies.
Communal Sacrifice. In spite of the importance attached to
the idea of the common meal by Robertson Smith, it is not a
primitive rite of adoption. The custom of eating the body of
the victim does not necessarily spring from any idea of com-
munion with the god; it may also arise from a desire to incor-
porate the sanctity which has been imparted to it an idea on
a level with many other food customs (see COUVADE), and based
on the idea that eating anything causes its qualities to pass into
the eater. Where the victim is an animal specially associated
with a god (the most conspicuous case is perhaps that of the corn
spirit), it may be granted that the god is eaten; but precisely
in these cases there is no custom of giving a portion of the victim
to the god.
Deificatory Sacrifice. The object of certain sacrifices is to
provide a tutelary deity of a house, town or frontier, (a) In
Burma, as in many other countries, those who die a violent
death are held to haunt the place where they met their fate;
consequently when a town is built living men are interred beneath
the ramparts and the pillars of the gates. (6) In parts of North
America the nagual or manitu animal, of which the Indian dreams
during the initiation fast and which is to be his tutelary spirit,
is killed with certain rites, (c) Human representatives of the
corn or vegetation spirits are killed; in these, as in other cases
of the sacrifice of the man-god cited by Dr Frazer, the killing of
the old god is at the same time the making of a new god.
((/) Suicide is treated as a means of raising a human being to
the rank of a god. (e) Gods may be sacrificed (in theriomorphic
form) to themselves as a means of renewing the life of the god.
(/) The method of creating a fetish (see FETISHISM) on the
Congo resembles deificatory sacrifice; but here there is no
actual slaughter of a human being; magical means are alone
relied upon.
Honorific Sacrifices. Whatever their origin, sacrifices tend to
be interpreted as gifts to the god. Man seeks to influence his
fellow men in various ways, by intimidation, by deceit, by
bribery; and it is quite natural to find the same ideas in the
sphere of religion. Food is often given to a god because he is
believed to take pleasure in eating; the germ of this idea may
have been identical with that of some funerary sacrifices to
nourish the divine life. At a later period, pan passu with the
spiritualization of the god, comes a refinement of the tastes
attributed to him, and the finer parts of the sacrifice, finally it
may be only its savour, are alone regarded as acceptable offerings.
Just as attendants are provided for the dead, so the god receives
sacrifices intended to put slaves at his disposal. This latter idea
was the more likely to arise, as the gift theory of sacrifice is
closely associated with that of the god as the ruler or king to
whom man brings a tribute, just as he had to appear before his
earthly king bearing gifts in his hands. The honorific sacrifice is
essentially a propitiation; it must be distinguished from the
piaculum (see below), to which in some aspects it is allied.
Mortuary Sacrifice. Sacrifices, especially of human beings,
are offered immediately after a death or at a longer interval.
Their object may be (a) to provide a guide to the other world;
(b) to provide the dead with servants or a retinue suitable to his
rank; (c) to send messengers to keep the dead informed of the
things of this world; (d) to strengthen the dead by the blood or
life of a living being, in the same way that food is offered to them
or blood rituals enjoined on mourners.
Piacular Sacrifice. Whereas the god receives a gift in the
honorific sacrifice, he demands a life in the piacular. This,
according to Westermarck, is the central idea of human sacrifice:
the victim is substituted for the sacrificer, to deliver him from
perils by disease, famine or, more indefinitely, from the wrath of
the god in general. The essential feature of the piaculum is that
it is an expiation for wrong-doing, and the victim is often human.
Human Sacrifice. Many theories of the relation of human to
animal sacrifice have been put forward, most of them on an
insufficient basis of facts. It has been held that animal sacrifice
is the primitive form and that the decay of totemism or lack of
domestic animals has brought about the substitution of a
human victim; but it has also been urged that in many cases
animal victims are treated like human beings and must con-
sequently have replaced them, that human beings are smeared
with the blood of sacrifice, and must therefore have themselves
been sacrificed before a milder regime allowed an animal to
replace them. If tradition is any guide, human sacrifice seems
in many important areas to be of secondary character; in spite
of the great development of the rite among the Aztecs, tradition
says that it was unknown till two hundred years before the con-
quest; in Polynesia human sacrifices seem to be comparatively
modern; and in India they appear to have been rare among the
Vedic peoples. On the whole, human sacrifice is far commoner
9 8 4
SACRIFICE
among the semi-civilized and barbarous races than in still lower
stages of culture. In Australia, however, where sacrifice of the
ordinary type is unknown, the ritual killing of a child is practised
in connexion with the initiation of a magician; it is therefore
by no means axiomatic that animals were offered before human
beings; the problem of priority is one to be solved for each area
separately, but probably no solution is possible; in the absence
of Aztec traditions it would hardly have seemed probable that
two centuries had seen so great a transformation.
Among the forms of human sacrifice must be reckoned religious
suicide. This is perhaps mainly found in India but is not
unknown in Africa and other parts of the world. Human sacri-
fices were known in ancient India and survived till late in the
igth century (see below); both Greeks and Romans practised
them, no less than the wilder races of ancient Europe. Semites
and Egyptians, Peruvians and Aztecs, slew human victims;
Africa, especially the West Coast, till recently saw thousands
of human victims perish annually; in Polynesia, Tahiti and
Fiji were great centres of the rite in fact, it is not easy to
name an area where it has not been known.
No general survey of sacrifice on geographical lines is possible,
but some of the more important features in each area may be
noticed.
Sacrifice in Greece and Rome. Both the mainland of Greece
and the Greek colonies practised human sacrifice, usually as a
means towards expulsion of evil. Thus, the Athenians main-
tained a number of outcasts, from whom in times of national
calamity two were selected, one for the men, one for the women,
and stoned to death outside the city; at the Thargelia two
victims were annually put to death in the same way. Many
animal sacrifices were known; of especial importance is the
annual sacrifice of a goat on the Acropolis, though at other times
the animal was not permitted to enter the temple.
Important features of Greek sacrifice, though not necessarily
found in every rite, were the putting of wreaths and pieces
of wool on the victim, the gilding of its horns, the lustration of
the officiant and the sprinkling of those present with holy water.
It was held inauspicious if the animal were unwilling; if it nodded
all was well. Barley meal l was strewn on its neck, and a lock
of hair cut from its forehead and burned. The animal was then
clubbed, its throat cut and the altar sprinkled with its blood.
Finally the body was skinned and cut up and the god's share
burned on the altar.
The important Attic sacrifice of the Dipolia, known as TO.
J3ov<t>ovia, demands some notice. Cakes were laid on the altar of
Zeus Polieus and oxen driven round; the one which touched
the cakes was the victim. An officiant at once struck it with
his axe and another cut its throat; then all save the one who
struck the first blow partook of its flesh. Then the hide was
stuffed with grass and yoked to a plough; the participants
were charged with ox murder and each laid the blame on the
other; finally the axe was thrown into the sea. The interpreta-
tion of the rite is uncertain; it may perhaps be connected with
agrarian rites.
At Rome the scapegoat did not suffer death; but in the
Saturnalia a human victim seems to have been slain till the
4th century A.D. Many forms of animal sacrifice were found;
the generalized account given above for Greece is true also for
the Romans.
Sacrifice in Egypt. Of Egyptian ritual little is known; our
knowledge rests mainly on the evidence of pictures. At Deir
el Bahri we see that the animal had its throat cut in Mahommedan
fashion; it lay on its side, the legs tied together; the heart was
taken out, then the liver; the burnt sacrifice was hardly known.
Sacrifice in India. An account of animal sacrifice has been
given above. Among human sacrifices may be mentioned the
suttee, or custom of immolating a widow on the funeral pyre
of the husband, and the Khond sacrifice of the Meriah, who was
either purchased or the son of a victim father. Some days before
1 This sprinkling of the victims with sacrificial meal (Lat. mola)
is the origin of the word immature, to sacrifice, slaughter; Eng.
" immolate," " immolation."
the sacrifice, the victim, who was often kept in captivity for
long periods, was devoted by the cutting of his hair, previously
unshorn, and his sanctity was increased later by various cere-
monies of anointing. Finally he was taken in procession,
stupefied or otherwise rendered incapable of resistance, and put
to death by strangulation or pressure. The remains were
dismembered and carried to the fields, excepting the portion
offered to the earth goddess, which was buried.
Sacrifice in Africa. Especially in West Africa many forms
of sacrifice are found. In the annual " customs " of Dahomey,
now abolished, hundreds of human victims were offered. Three
main forms of human sacrifice existed in this area: (i) the
scapegoat; (2) the messenger; and (3) the expiation, but
combinations were not infrequent. The victim was often kept
in captivity and well fed; to transfer their sins people laid
their hands upon him as he was led in procession, his head covered
with ashes; on the way to the place of sacrifice were three
enclosures, the second open to chiefs and priest only, the third
to the officiant and his helper alone; the blood of the victim
was offered to the gods. At the present day the animal victim
may be burned or drowned, buried in the earth or simply exposed.
Sometimes the sacrificer's hands are kid on the victim before
it is slain, or he may be smeared with its blood; in other cases
the blood is smeared on the door posts, or the sacrificer is touched
on every part of the body with the victim's body. On the
Congo, if a man commits a murder, the community votes whether
he shall die or be expelled; if the latter, a victim is killed, of
which all must partake; but this is not, as might be imagined,
a case of Robertson Smith's piaculum for the re-establishment
of the tribal bond; for the criminal is driven out of the com-
munity.
Sacrifice in America. Sacrifice was relatively infrequent
and undeveloped among the Red Indians. The Pawnees,
however, had an elaborate ritual, in which a human victim was
sacrificed to the Morning Star; the blood of the victims was
sprinkled on the fields, and the details of the rite are not unlike
those of the Khond custom. The Iroquois sacrifice of the white
dog bore in later times the character of a scapegoat festival;
but it is doubtful how far this was an original feature. The
animals were decorated with wampum and strangled, and then
the sins of the people were transferred to them; then the remains
were burned and the ashes gathered up, taken through the village
and sprinkled before every house. In Mexico human sacrifices
were very common; the lowest estimate is 20,000 annually.
The victims were often feted for a whole year and treated as
divine; the heart was an offering to the god, the body was eaten
by the priests and nobles and the head was preserved with those
of previous victims.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. H. Hubert and M. Mauss in Annee sociologique,
ii. ; J. G. Frazer, Golden Bough, ii.,iii.; W. R. Smith, Religion of
Semites; L. Marillier, Revue de I'h. des religions, xxxyi. 208 seq. ;
E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture; Ed. Westermarck, Origin of Moral
Ideas (esp. vol. i. for Human Sacrifice). For Greece and Rome see
L. Farnell, Cults of the Greek States, especially i. 56, 88 seq. ; W. W.
Fowler, Festivals; and Pauly, Realencyclopddie, s.v. " Sacrificia."
For West Africa, J. Johnson, Yoruba Heathenism (1899, reprinted
in R. E. Dennett, At the Back of the Black Man's Mind}; and the
work of A. B. Ellis. For America see the works of Frazer and
Westermarck and the references there given. On religious suicide
see Lasch in Globus, Ixxv. 69, and Westermarck vol. ii. See also
articles " Sacrifice " in Ency. Bibl., Jewish Encyclopaedia, &c.
(N. W. T.)
The Idea of Sacrifice in the Christian Church.
There can be no doubt that the idea of sacrifice occupied
an important place in early Christianity. It had been a funda-
mental element of both Jewish and Gentile religions, and
Christianity tended 1 rather to absorb and modify such elements
than to abolish them. To a great extent the idea had been
modified already. Among the Jews the preaching of the prophets
had been a constant protest against the grosser forms of sacrifice,
and there are indications that when Christianity arose bloody
sacrifices were already beginning to fall into disuse; a saying
which was attributed by the Ebionites to Christ repeats this
SACRIFICE
985
protest in a strong form, " I have come to abolish the sacrifices;
and if ye do not cease from sacrificing the wrath of God will not
cease from you " (Epiph. xxx. 16). Among the Greeks the
philosophers had come to use both argument and ridicule
against the idea that the offering of material things could be
needed by or acceptable to the Maker of them all. Among both
Jews and Greeks the earlier forms of the idea had been rationalized
into the belief that the most appropriate offering to God is that
of a pure and penitent heart, and among them both was the
idea that the vocal expression of contrition in prayer or of
gratitude in praise is also acceptable. The best instances of
these ideas in the Old Testament are in Psalms 1. and li., and in
Greek literature the striking words which Porphyry quotes from
an earlier writer, " We ought, then, having been united and made
like to God, to offer our own conduct as a holy sacrifice to Him,
the same being also a hymn and our salvation in passionless
excellence of soul " (Euseb. Dem. ev. 3). The ideas are also
found both in the New Testament and in early Christian litera-
ture: " Let us offer up a sacrifice of praise to God continually,
that is, the fruit of lips which make confession to His name "
(Heb. xiii. 15); "That prayers and thanksgivings, made by
worthy persons, are the only perfect and acceptable sacrifices I
also admit" (Just. Mart. Trypho, c. 117); "We honour God
in prayer, and offer this as the best and holiest sacrifice with
righteousness to the righteous Word " (Clem. Alex. Strom, vii. 6).
But among the Jews two other forms of the idea expressed
themselves in usages which have been perpetuated in Christianity,
and one of which has had a singular importance for the Christian
world. The one form, which probably arose from the conception
of Yahweh as in an especial sense the protector of the poor,
was that gifts to God may properly be bestowed on the needy,
and that consequently alms have the virtue of a sacrifice.
Biblical instances of this idea are " He who doeth alms is
offering a sacrifice of praise " (Ecclus. xxxii. 2); ",To do good
and to communicate forget not, for with such sacrifices God is
well pleased " (Heb. xiii. 16); so the offerings sent by the
Philippians to Paul when a prisoner at Rome are " an odour
of a sweet smell, a sacrifice acceptable, well pleasing to God "
(Phil. iv. 18). The other form, which was probably a relic of
the conception of Yahweh as the author of natural fertility,
was that part of the fruits of the earth should be offered to God
in acknowledgment of His bounty, and that what was so offered
was especially blessed and brought a blessing upon both those
who offered it and those who afterwards partook of it. The
persistence of this form of the idea of sacrifice constitutes so
marked a feature of the history of Christianity as to require
a detailed account of it.
In the first instance it is probable that among Christians, as
among Jews, every meal, and especially every social meal, was
regarded as being in some sense a thank-offering. Thanksgiving,
blessing and offering were co-ordinate terms. Hence the
Talmudic rule, " A man shall not taste anything before blessing
it " (Tosephta Berachoth, c. 4), and hence St Paul's words, " He
that eateth, eateth unto the Lord, for he giveth God thanks "
(Rom. xiv. 6; cp. i Tim. iv. 4). But the most important
offering was the solemn oblation in the assembly on the Lord's
day. A precedent for making such oblations elsewhere than in
the temple had been afforded by the Essenes, who had endeavoured
in that way to avoid the contact with unclean persons and things
which a resort to the temple might have involved (Jos. Antig.
xviii. i. 5), and a justification for it was found in the prophecy
of Malachi, " In every place incense is offered unto my name
and a pure offering; for my name is great among the Gentiles,
saith the Lord of hosts " (Mai. i. n, repeatedly quoted in early
Christian writings, e.g. Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, c. 14;
Just. Mart. Trypho, c. 28, 41, 116; Irenaeus iv. 17. 5).
The points in relation to this offering which are clearly
demonstrable from the Christian writers of the first two centuries,
but which subsequent theories have tended to confuse, are
these, (i) It was regarded as a true offering or sacrifice; for
in the Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, in Justin Martyr and in
Irenaeus it is designated by each of the terms which are used
to designate sacrifices in the Old Testament. (2) It was primarily
an offering of the fruits of the earth to the Creator; this is clear
from both Justin Martyr and Irenaeus, the latter of whom not
only explicitly states that such oblations are continued among
Christians, but also meets the current objection to them by arguing
that they are offered to God not as though He needed anything
but to show the gratitude of the offerer (Iren. iv. 17, 18). (3)
It was offered as a thanksgiving partly for creation and pre-
servation and partly for redemption: the latter is the special
purpose mentioned (e.g.) in the Teaching of the Twelve Apostles;
the former is that upon which Irenaeus chiefly dwells; both are
mentioned together in Justin Martyr (Trypho, c. 41). (4) Those
who offered it were required to be not only baptized Christians
but also " in love and charity one with another "; there is an
indication of this latter requirement in the Sermon on the Mount
(Matt. v. 23, 24, where the word translated " gift " is the usual
LXX. word for a sacrificial offering, and is so used elsewhere
in the same Gospel, viz. Matt. viii. 4, xxiii. 19), and still more
explicitly in the Teaching, c. 14, "Let not any one who has a
dispute with his fellow come together with you (i.e. on the Lord's
day) until they have been reconciled, that your sacrifice be not
defiled." This brotherly unity was symbolized by the kiss of
peace. (5) It was offered in the assembly by the hands of the
president; this is stated by Justin Martyr (Apol. i. 65, 67),
and implied by Clement of Rome (Ep. i. 44. 4).
Combined with this sacrifice of the fruits of the earth to the
Creator in memory of creation and redemption, and probably
always immediately following it, was the sacred meal at which
part of the offerings was eaten. Such a sacred.mcal had always,
or almost always, formed part of the rites of sacrifice. There
was the idea that what had been solemnly offered to God was
especially hallowed by Him, and that the partaking of it united
the partakers in a special bond both to Him and to one another.
In the case of the bread and wine of the Christian sacrifice, it
was believed that, after having been offered and blessed, they
became to those who partook of them the body and blood of
Christ. This " communion of the body and blood of Christ,"
which in early writings is clearly distinguished from the thank-
offering which preceded it, and which furnished the materials
for it, gradually came to supersede the thank-offering in import-
ance, and to exercise a reflex influence upon it. In the time of
Cyprian, though not before, we begin to find the idea that the
body and blood of Christ were not merely partaken of by the
worshippers but also offered in sacrifice, and that the Eucharist
was not so much a thank-offering for creation and redemption
as a repetition or a showing forth anew of the self-sacrifice of
Christ. This idea is repeated in Ambrose and Augustine, and
has since been a dominant idea of both Eastern and Western
Christendom. But, though dominant, it has not been universal;
nor did it become dominant until several centuries after its
first promulgation. The history of it has yet to be written.
For, in spite of the important controversies to which it has
given birth, no one has been at the pains to distinguish between
(i.) the theories which have been from time to time put forth
by eminent writers, and wliich, though they have in some cases
ultimately won a general acceptance, have for a long period
remained as merely individual opinions, and (ii.) the current
beliefs of the great body of Christians which are expressed in
recognized formularies. A catena of opinions may be produced
in favour of almost any theory; but formularies express the
collective or average belief of any given period, and changes
in them are a sure indication that there has been a general
change in ideas.
It is clear from the evidence of the early Western liturgies
that, for at least six centuries, the primitive conception of the
nature of the Christian sacrifice remained. There is a dear
distinction between the sacrifice and the communion which
followed it, and that which is offered consists of the fruits of
the earth and not of the body and blood of Christ. Other ideas
no doubt attached themselves to the primitive conception, of
which there is no certain evidence in primitive times, e.g. the
idea of the propitiatory character of the offering, but these
9 86
SACRILEGE
ideas rather confirm than disprove the persistence of those
primitive conceptions themselves.
All Eastern liturgies, in their present form, are of later date
than the surviving fragments of the earlier Western liturgies,
and cannot form the basis of so sure an induction; but they
entirely confirm the conclusions to which the Western liturgies
lead. The main points in which the pre-medieval formularies of
both the Eastern and the Western Churches agree in relation to
the Christian sacrifice are the following, (i) It was an offering of
the fruits of the earth to the Creator, in the belief that a special
blessing would descend upon the offerers, and sometimes also
in the belief that God would be propitiated by the offerings.
The bread and wine are designated by all the names by which
sacrifices are designated (sacrificia, hostiae, libamina, and at least
once sacrificium placationis) , and the act of offering them by
the ordinary term for offering a sacrifice (immolalio). (2) The
offering of bread and wine was originally brought to the altar by
the person who offered it, and placed by him in the hands of the
presiding officer. In course of time there were two important
changes in this respect: (a) the offerings of bread and wine were
commuted for .money, with which bread and wine were purchased
by the church-officers; (b) the offerings were sometimes handed
to the deacons and by them taken to the bishop at the altar, and
sometimes, as at Rome, the bishop and deacons went round the
church to collect them. 1 (3) In offering the bread and wine the
offerer offered, as in the ancient sacrifices, primarily for himself,
but inasmuch as the offering was regarded as having a general
propitiatory value he mentioned also the names of others in
whom he was interested, and especially the departed, that they
might rest in peace. Hence, after all the offerings had been col-
lected, and before they were solemnly offered to God, it became
a custom to recite the names both of the offerers and of those
for whom they offered, the names being arranged in two lists,
which were known as diptychs. Almost all the old rituals have
prayers to be said " before the names," " after the names."
It was a further and perhaps much later development of the same
idea that the good works of those who had previously enjoyed
the favour of God were invoked to give additional weight to the
prayer of the offerer. In the later series of Western rituals,
beginning with that which is known as the Leonine Sacramentary,
this practice is almost universal. (4) The placing of the bread
and wine upon the altar was followed by the kiss of peace.
(5) Then followed the actual offering of the gifts to God (immolatio
missae). It was an act of adoration or thanksgiving, much longer
in Eastern than in Western rituals, but in both classes of rituals
beginning with the form " Lift up your hearts," and ending with
the Ter Sanctus or Trisagion. 2 The early MSS. of Western
rituals indicate the importance which was attached to this part
of the liturgy by the fact of its being written in a much more
ornate way than the other parts, e.g. in gold uncial letters
upon a purple ground, as distinguished from the vermilion
cursive letters of the rest of the MS. With this the sacrifice proper
was concluded. (6) But, since the divine injunction had been
" Do this in remembrance of me," the sacrifice was immediately
followed by a commemoration of the passion of Christ, and that
again by an invocation of the Holy Spirit (epiclesis) that He
would make the bread and wine to become the body and blood
of Christ. Of this invocation, which is constant in all Eastern
rituals, there are few, though sufficient, surviving traces in
Western rituals. 3 Then after a prayer for sanctification, or
for worthy reception, followed the Lord's Prayer, and after the
Lord's Prayer the communion.
In the course of the 8th and pth centuries, by the operation
1 Of this proceeding an elaborate account exists in the very
interesting document printed by Mabillon in his Museum Italicum
as " Ordo Romanus I." ; the small phials of wine which were brought
were emptied into a large bowl, and the loaves of bread were collected
in a bag.
2 The elements of the form are preserved exactly in the liturgy of
the Church of England.
3 It is found, e.g., in the second of Mone's masses from the Reichenau
palimpsest, and in Mabillon's Missale Gothicum, No. 12 ; it is expressly
mentioned by Isidore of Seville as the sixth element in the Eucharistic
service, De offic. cedes, i. 15.
of causes which have not yet been fully investigated, the theory
which is first found in Cyprian became the dominant belief of
Western Christendom. The central point of the sacrificial idea
was shifted from the offering of the fruits of the earth to the
offering of the body and blood of Christ. The change is marked
in the rituals by the duplication of the liturgical forms. The
prayers of intercession and oblation, which in earlier times are
found only in connexion with the former offering, are repeated
in the course of the same service in connexion with the latter.
The designations and epithets which are in earlier times applied
to the fruits of the earth are applied to the body and blood.
From that time until the Reformation the Christian sacrifice
was all but universally regarded as the offering of the body and
blood of Christ. The innumerable theories which were framed as
to the precise nature of the offering and as to the precise change in
the elements all implied that conception of it. It still remains
as the accepted doctrine of the Church of Rome. For, although
the council of Trent recognized fully the distinction which has
been mentioned above between the Eucharist and the sacrifice
of the mass, and treated of them in separate sessions (the former
in Session xiii., the latter in Session xxii.), it continued the
medieval theory of the nature of the latter. The reaction against
the medieval theory at the time of the Reformation took the
form of a return to what had no doubt been an early belief,
the idea that the Christian sacrifice consists in the offering
of a pure heart and of vocal thanksgiving. Luther at one period
(in his treatise De caplivitate Babylonica} maintained, though
not on historical grounds, that the offering of the oblations of
the people was the real origin of the conception of the sacrifice
of the mass; but he directed all the force of his vehement polemic
against the idea that any other sacrifice could be efficacious
besides the sacrifice of Christ. In the majority of Protestant
communities the idea of a sacrifice has almost lapsed. That
which among Catholics is most commonly regarded in its aspect
as an offering and spoken of as the " mass " is usually regarded
in its aspect as a participation in the symbols of Christ's death
and spoken of as the " communion." But it may be inferred
from the considerable progress of the Anglo-Catholic revival
in most English-speaking countries that the idea of sacrifice
has not yet ceased to be an important element in the general
conception of religion. (E. HA.)
SACRILEGE, the violation or profanation of sacred things, a
crime of varying scope in different religions. It is naturally much
more general and accounted more dreadful in those primitive
religions in which cultual objects play so great a part, than in
more highly spiritualized religions where they tend to disappear.
But wherever 'the idea of sacred exists, sacrilege is possible.
The word itself comes from the Lat. sacrilegium, which originally
meant merely the theft of sacred things, although already in
Cicero's time it had grown to include in popular speech any insult
or injury to them.
The history of sacrilege reflects a large phase of the evolution
of religion. In primitive religions inclusive of almost every
serious offence even in fields now regarded as merely social or
political, its scope is gradually lessened to a single part of one
section of ecclesiastical criminology, following inversely the
development of the idea of holiness from the concrete to the
abstract, from fetishism to mysticism. The primitive defence
against sacrilege lay directly in the nature of sacred things, those
that held a curse for any violation or profanation. This brings
us at once into the whole field of taboo (q.v.}. From it we pass
without a break, merely narrowing the application as the con-
ception of sacredness grew clearer and less associated with magic,
into early criminal law with its physical sanctions. The Levitical
code exacted of the offender reparation for the damage with the
addition of one-fifth of the amount, and an expiatory sacrifice
(Lev. v. 15, 16). Even the gold and silver ornaments of the
images of false gods were not to be coveted nor appropriated
for fear of being contaminated with the curse which they could
impart (cf. Deut. vii. 25). The tragic story of the stoning of
Achan, who stole some of the spoils of Jericho which Joshua
had consecrated to the treasury of Yahweh, is one of the most
SACRILEGE
987
graphic details of Old Testament history (cf. Joshua vii.
20-25).
No religion was more prodigal in rules to safeguard that which
was holy or consecrated than the Jewish, especially in its temple
laws; violation of them often led to mob violence as well as
divine chastisement. The temple rules do not apply to syna-
gogues, however, and unseemly conduct in them is liable only
to civil action. The whole wide field of Jewish taboo naturally
involves sacrilege as its reverse side. Such violations of holy
things as making mock of the Scriptures, or even reciting them
as one would ordinary literature, was sacrilege in the eyes of
the rabbi. Even imitation of the style of the Talmud has also
been accounted sacrilege.
While the Roman cults were amply protected by taboos,
there was no comprehensive term in Roman law for religious
violations and profanations in general. Sacrilegium was narrowly
construed as the theft of sacred things from a sacred place.
Sacred things, according to Gaius, were those things that had
been definitely consecrated to the gods and so had come to
partake of their holiness. Sacred places did not include private
shrines. According to Ulpian the punishment for sacrilegium
varied according to the position and standing of the culprit
and the circumstances under which the crime was committed.
For the lower classes it was crucifixion, burning or the wild beasts.
The latter penalty was also attached to theft of sacred things
by night, but stealing by day from a temple objects of little
value brought only sentence to the mines. People of higher
rank were deported. During classical times the law kept to
the narrow meaning of sacrilegium, but in popular usage it had
grown to mean about the same as the English word. Traces
of this usage are frequent in Augustan writers. The early church
Fathers use the word most frequently in the restricted sense,
although an effort has been made to read the wider meaning in
Tertullian. But by the middle of the 4th century the narrower
meaning had disappeared. In Ambrose, Augustine and Leo I.,
sacrilegium means sacrilege. The wider meaning had invaded
the law as well. Mommsen was of the opinion that sacrilegium
had no settled meaning in the laws of the 4th century. But
it was rather that an enlarged application of the idea of sacred
made the crime of sacrilege in the sense of violatio sacri a more
general one. This was partly due to the influence of Christianity,
which sought to include as objects of sacrilege all forms of church
property, rather than merely those things consecrated in pagan
cults, partly to the efforts of the later emperors to surround
themselves and everything emanating from them with highest
sanctions. In the Theodosian Code the various crimes which
are accounted sacrilege include apostasy, heresy, schism,
Judaism, paganism, attempts against the immunity of churches
and clergy or privileges of church courts, the desecration of
sacraments, &c. and even Sunday. Along with these crimes
against religion went treason to the emperor, offences against
the laws, especially counterfeiting, defraudation in taxes, seizure
of confiscated property, evil conduct of imperial officers, &c.
There is no formal definition of sacrilege in the code of Justinian
but the conception remains as wide. The church had found in
the imperial law a strong protector.
The penitentials (q.v.), or early collections of disciplinary
canons, gave much attention to sacrilege. In the earliest of them,
sacrilege in the narrower sense is not a separate class of crime,
but the wider usage goes with variations through the different
collections. There is also the greatest difference in the penalties
assigned, reaching from litile more than restitution of property
to penance of one to five or even fifteen years. The Prankish
synods emphasize the crime of seizing church property of every
kind, including the vast estates so envied by the lay nobility.
In the Pseudo-Isidore the attempt was made to include even
property on which the church had merely a legal claim. The
murder or injury of the clergy is also sacrilege in both penitentials
and capitularies. The practice of magic, superstition, &c., are
also frequently referred to as sacrilege, especially during the
long struggle with German heathenism. With the definite
triumph of the church, the profanation of its sanctuaries became
less frequent, and once robbery or seizure of ecclesiastical
possessions or violation of its privileges tended to absorb the
attention of synods and popes. Gratian's Decretum mirrors
two tendencies, the church legislation with its growingly less
extended application, and the wide meaning as in Justinian's
Code, owing to the revival of Roman law in the nth century.
It thus was once more declared to include all violations of the
divine law. A somewhat distorted, but well-substantiated use
of the word sacrilegium in medieval Latin was its application
to the fine paid by one guilty of sacrilege to the bishop.
The penalties in the canon law included, in addition to restitu-
tion, penance, fines and excommunication ; and right of asylum
was denied to the culprit. The jurisdiction was something
jointly shared with the temporal power in case corporal punish-
ment were involved. The numerous enactments of councils
to ensure the proper care of church property, prohibiting the
use of churches for secular purposes, for the storing of grain or
valuables, for dances and merry-making, do not technically
come under the head of legislation against sacrilege. The worst
sacrilege of all, defiling the Host, is mentioned frequently, and
generally brought the death penalty accompanied by the cruellest
and most ignominious tortures. The period of the Reformation
naturally increased the commonness of the crime. Under the
emperor Charles V. the penalty for stealing the Host was the
stake; that for other crimes was graded accordingly. In France,
in 1561, under Charles IX. it was forbidden under penalty of
death to demolish crosses and images and to commit other
acts of scandal and impious sedition. In the declaration of
1682, Louis XIV. decreed the same penalty for sacrilege joined
to superstition and impiety, and in the somewhat belated
religious persecution of the duke of Bourbon in 1724 those
convicted of larceny in churches, together with their accomplices,
were condemned, the men to the galleys for life or for a term of
years, the women to be branded with the letter V and im-
prisoned for life, or for a term. When one takes into account
that the next article of the declaration decreed death for domestic
theft, the legislation is not relatively cruel. Yet even in the
enlightened i8th century popular fanaticism made of sacrilege
the most heinous offence. The trial of La Barre in 1766 at
Abbeville (see VOLTAIRE) is the most famous in modem times.
Convicted of wearing his hat while a religious procession was
passing as well as of blasphemy he was accused as well of
having mutilated a crucifix standing on the town bridge. Declared
guilty, after torture, he was sentenced to have his tongue cut
out, to be beheaded and the body to be burned, a sentence
which was confirmed by the parlement of Paris and the bigoted
king Louis XV. In the midst of the French Revolution respect
for civic festivals was sternly enacted, but sacrilege was an almost
daily matter of state policy. In the penal code the penalty
for interfering with and molesting worshippers is slight, a fine
of from 16 to 300 francs and prison from six days to three
months, while damage or insult to the objects of worship brought
only 1 6 francs to 500 francs fine, and prison from fifteen days
to six months. In 1825 the reactionary parlement once more
brought back the middle ages, by decreeing the death penalty
for public profanation, the execution to be preceded by the
amende honorable before the church doors. " Theft sacrilege "
was treated in a separate series of equally savage clauses. This
was a crime not recognized in the penal code, which was therefore
to be modified by this law. No attenuating circumstances were
to be recognized, as in the general scheme of the penal code.
This ferocious legislation was expressly and summarily abrogated
in 1830. (J.T.S.*)
English Law. In English law, sacrilege is the breaking into a
place of worship and stealing therefrom. At common law benefit of
clergy was denied to robbers of churches. A statute of 1553 made
the breaking or defacing of an altar, crucifix or cross in any church,
chapel or churchyard punishable with three months' imprisonment
on conviction before two justices, the imprisonment to be continued
unless the offender entered into surety for good behaviour at quarter
sessions. The tendency of the later law has been to put the offence
of sacrilege in the same position as if the offence had not been com-
mitted in a sacred building Thus breaking into a place of worship
at night, says Coke, is burglary, for the church is the mansion house
SACRISTY SADDLERY
of Almighty God. The Larceny Act of 1861 punishes the breaking
into, or out of, a place of divine worship in the same way as burglary,
and the theft of things sacred in the same way as larceny. Now
by the Malicious Damage Act 1861 the unlawful and malicious
destroying or damaging any picture, statue, monument or other
memorial of the dead, painted glass or other monument or work of
art, in any church, chapel, meeting-place or other place of divine
worship is a misdemeanour punishable by imprisonment for six
months, and in the case of a male under the age of sixteen years
with whipping. (T. A. I.)
SACRISTY (through Fr. sacristie, from med. Lat. sacristia
or sacristina), the term in ecclesiastical architecture given to
the room or hall in a large church wherein are kept the vest-
ments and utensils (sacra) used in the services and celebrations.
Like the diaconicon in the Greek Church, it was usually situated
on the north side of the chancel, but its position varies according
to that of the chapter-house, as it is generally placed between the
latter and the church.
SACRO BOSCO, JOHANNES DE [JOHN HOLYWOOD] (d. 1244
or 1256), astronomical author, studied at Oxford and was
afterwards professor of mathematics at the university of Paris.
He wrote a treatise on spherical astronomy, Tractalus de sphaera,
first printed at Ferrara in 1472. This was the second astro-
nomical work to be printed. Although recording no advance on
the Arabian commentaries on Ptolemy, it gained a great reputa-
tion; twenty-four editions appeared before 1500, and at least
forty between 1500 and 1647, in which year the last edition was
published at Leiden. About the year 1232 he wrote De anni
ratione or De compute eccksiastico (printed editions at Paris
in 1538 (?), 1550, 1572 and at Antwerp in 1547 and 1566), in
which he points out the increasing error of the Julian calendar,
and suggests a remedy which is nearly the same as that actually
used under Gregory XIII. three hundred and fifty years later.
He also wrote Algorismus or De arle numerandi, printed in
1490 (?), in 1517 (Vienna), 1521 (Cracow), 1523 (Venice); De
astrolabio and Breviarum juris.
SADDLE (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger.
Sattel, Dut. zadel, also in Russ. siedlo and Lat. sella, for sedla;
it is not derived directly from Lat. sedile, which means a chair,
but all the words are to be referred to the root sad-, which gives
Lat. sedere, Eng. " sit," " settle," " seat," &c.), a seat, usually of
leather, fixed by girths to the back of a horse for riding; also
a padded cushion for the back of a draught horse, fastened by
girths and crupper; to it are attached the supports for the shafts,
and rings for the reins (see SADDLERY). The word is also applied
to many objects resembling a saddle in shape or function, such
as a block to support a spar in a ship, or in machinery to support
a rod, or in masonry (q.v.) the top or " apex stone " of the gable
of a roof, &c.
Saddle bars, in architecture (Fr. traverses), are narrow hori-
zontal iron bars passing from mullion to mullion, and often
through the whole window from side to side, to steady the stone
work, and to form stays, to which the lead work is secured.
When the bays of the windows are wide, the lead lights are further
strengthened by upright bars, passing through eyes forged on
the saddle bars, and called stanchions. When saddle bars pass
right through the mullions in one piece, and are secured to the
jambs, they have sometimes been called " slay bars."
SADDLERY and HARNESS, two terms which embrace the
whole equipment for the horse when used for riding or driving.
" Harness " (O. Fr. harneis, mod. harnais, Ger. Harnisch, of
unknown origin) was originally a general term for equipment,
e.g. the body armour of a soldier. It is now usually confined
to the draught horse's equipment, " saddle and bridle " being
used of that of the riding horse.
Saddlery is principally a leather trade, and the craft has been
established in England as a separate trade since the I3th century,
when the London Saddlers' Company received its charter from
Edward I. There is evidence also of its early prosperity at Birming-
ham; the principal seat of the cheaper saddlery trade is now at
Walsall. Saddler's ironmongery embraces the making of buckles,
chains, stirrups, spurs, bits, hames, &c.
The " bridle " (O.E. bridel for brigdel, from bregdan, to pull) is the
combination of straps and buckles which fits on the horse's head, the
headstall, together with the bit and reins which it keeps in position.
The headstall consists of the headpiece passing behind the ears and
joining the head-band over the forehead ; the cheek-straps run down
the head to the bit to which they are fastened ; in the driving bridle
the " blinkers," rectangular or round leather flaps which prevent the
horse from seeing anything except what lies in front, are attached
to the cheek-straps; the nose-band passes round the head above the
nostrils and the throat-lash from the top of the cheek-straps under-
neath the head. The " martingale " passes between the horse's legs
with one end fastened to the girth and the other to the bridle or nose-
band. It prevents the horse throwing up his head. The bit is the
metal contrivance inserted in the mouth to which the reins are
attached. There are innumerable patterns of bits, but they may be
divided into the " snaffle " (Du. snavel, horse's muzzle), the " curb "
and combinations of the two. The " snaffle " for the riding horse has
a smooth jointed steel mouthpiece, with straight cheek-bars, the
rings for the reins and cheek-pieces of the headstall being fixed in the
bars at the junction with the mouthpiece. A severer snaffle has the
mouthpiece twisted and fluted. The bars prevent the horse pulling
the bit through the mouth. The snaffle without bars is generally
termed a " bridoon." The commonest form of bit used in driving
is the double-ring snaffle, in which the rings work one within the
other, the headstall straps fastening to one and the reins to the
other, or, if the horse is driven on the double ring, the reins are
buckled to both rings. The curb-bit (Fr. courbe, Lat. curvus, bent,
crooked) is one to which a curb-chain or strap is attached, fastened to
hooks on the upper ends of the cheek-bars of the bit and passing
under the horse s lower jaw in the chin groove. The reins are
attached to rings at the lower ends of the cheek-bars, the leverage
thus pressing the curb-chain against the jaw. The mouthpiece of the
curb-bit is unjointed and has in the centre a " port," i.e. a raised
curve allowing liberty for the tongue and bringing the pressure on
the base of the horse's jaw. The curb-bit andthe bridoon can be
used together with separate headstalls and reins, but there are many
combination bits, such as the Pelham. In this the mouthpiece,
without port, is that of the snaffle bit (it may be uniointed), with the
rings fixed at the junction of the mouthpiece and! cheek-bars; the
lowet ends have rein rings as in the plain curb-bit.
FIG. i. a, Bridoon or snaffle; e, Curb. Polo bits: b, Rugby
Pelham; c, Hanoverian with rubber mouth; d, Kerro Pelham.
(From Messrs Champion and Wilton.)
FIG. 2. Some Types of Driving Bits. (From Messrs. Champion
and Wilton.)
The riding saddle is composed of the " tree," the framework or
skeleton, the parts of which are the pommel or head, the projection
which fits over the withers, and the side bars which curve round into
the cantle or hind-bow. The tree in the best saddles is made of
beechwood split with the grain ; thin canvas is glued over the wood
to prevent splitting, and iron or steel plates then riveted on the
head and on the cantle. Linen webs are fastened lengthwise and
across, over which is nailed canvas and serge between which the
padding is stuffed. To the tree are fastened the stirrup-bars. The
leather covering of the tree should be of pig-skin ; cheap saddles are
made of sheep-skin stamped to imitate pig-skin. The various parts of
the man's saddle are the seat, the skirt, i.e. the fold or pad of leather
on either side of the head, and the hanging flaps; knee-rolls are not
used as much as they were, except where roughly broken-in horses
are ridden. The saddle is cut straight over the withers with a square-
ended cantle, as in the hunting saddle, or cut back over the withers
with a round-ended cantle, as in the polo saddle. The saddles in
use on the continent of Europe still retain the high pommel and
cantle and heavy knee-rolls discarded by riders trained in the British
school and the hunting-field. The saddles of the East and of the
Arabs keep their primitive shape, and they are really seats in which
rather than on which the rider sits. The Mexican saddle, with its
silver adornments and embossed leather, is a characteristic type. It
has a very high padded pommel and a round-headed projecting cantle.
The lady's side-saddle when first fully developed had two heads or
pommels, between which the right leg was supported, the support for
the left being the stirrup. The third pommel or " leaping head,"
against which the left leg rests, was, it is said, invented as the result
of a match between two gentlemen riders to ride a steeplechase
on side-saddles; the winner had provided himself this support for
his left leg. At first the " leaping head " was only used! in the
SADDLEWORTH SADDUCEES
989
hunting-field and the double cow-horn was still retained; as its
usefulness became apparent the second pommel practically disap-
peared.
Space forbids the discussion of the varieties of harness for the pair-
horse carriage, the four-horse coach, the farm wagon, &c., or the
different kinds of ornamentation that are or have been lavished upon
it. The leather collar, heavily padded, passes over the head and
FIG. 3. ^a, Side-saddle; b, hunting saddle; c, officer's regulation
saddle (British army). (From models made by Messrs Champion
and Wilton.)
rests firmly on the shoulders; the hames, linked pieces of metal, fit
tightly round it and are fastened at the top by the hame-strap ; they
bear the traces, or straps which pass along the horse's sides and the
shafts and are attached by loops slipped over hooks in the body
of the carriage. Where the collar is dispensed with, the traces are
attached to a breast-strap against which the horse works. This
breast harness is much used for the lightly harnessed American trot-
ting horses, and for military draught horses. The saddle pad is a
narrow leather cushion girthed under the belly and held in position
by the crupper-dock and the crupper, a loop strap passing under the
tail. The saddle supports the shafts by the back-band and its tugs
and by the belly-band. The reins pass from the bit through " terrets "
or rings on the hames and pad. The harness on the horse's hind-
quarters consists of the breeching, passing round behind the horse
and helping in backing and stopping the vehicle, the hip-strap fastened
to the breeching and passing over the hind-quarters, and the kicking-
strap falling across the loins and fastened to the shafts. The bearing
rein, when used merely as a support to the head, or as an aid to the
improvement of the paces, consists of a separate bridoon-bit with
the reins passing through rings on the throat-band and thence slipped
over a hook on the pad. The severer form, which brings the rein
over the head-stall, keeps the horse's head up in a cramped attitude
and the mouth continually working on the bit. A recent modifica-
tion of the severer form is not attached to the bit.
Historical Sketch. Questions as to the epoch in the history of
mankind when the horse was first trained for draught and riding
are for archaeologists and anthropologists to discuss (see HORSE,
History). With the domestication of the horse came the develop-
ment of the bit; first a halter of hide bound the muzzle, then a
thong slipped into the mouth, finally replaced by wood or bone.
Stone age objects have been found in lake-dwellings, such as that at
Robenhausen, near Zurich which may have been bits; one is slightly
curved, with two knobs grooved at either end for the reins.
Bits from the bronze age and the iron age can be seen in most
museums showing that the forms have changed little. _ The
Scandinavian museums are particularly rich in early remains of
harness and horse-trappings. An early bronze age bit of bone with
horn cheek-pieces and with holes on the upper ends for the head-
stall, and on the lower ends for the reins, was found at theCorcelletes
lake dwelling, and a twisted bronze bit jointed by interlocking rings
with straight cheek-pieces and rings and loops for headstall and reins
is in the National Museum at Zurich. In the late iron age burial of a
Gaulish chief with his chariot at Somme-Bionne were found two
horse's bits of the ordinary jointed snaffle type (see ARCHAEOLOGY,
plate VI). A heavy snaffle unjointed bit with red and blue enamel
ornamentation is illustrated in the British Museum Guide to the
Late Iron Age. Assyrian and Babylonian monuments show the
harness of the chariot horses and the bridling of the riding horse,
cf. BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA, Plate II, fig. 2.
In ancient Greece and Rome the bit and bridle were used during
historic times, and allusions to riding without them refer to exhibi-
tions of horsemanship. On Trajan's column the Numidians ride
without bridles or bits, and various North African tribes trained
their horses to obey their voice alone (cf. Claudian, Epig. i. 10, of the
Gaulish essedarii, driving without bridle and reins). The locus
classicus for the bridling and saddling of the Greek horse is Xenophon,
Utpl iTrirudjf. The Greek name for the bridle bit and reins collectively
is x a ^'"*s (Lat. frenum), the bit proper is ar&iuov; in Lat. frenum is
also used of the bit itself. The headstall (xopv<t>ala) and cheek-straps
(jrap^ia) were richly decorated. In Homer (//. iv. 142) the latter
are ornamented with ivory plates stained with purple, and such have
been found on the site of Troy (Schliemann, Ilios, 476, 631). The
head-band also bore a crest (\o<t>fa, crista), and in front the 4/nry
(frontale) might be extended down the face to serve as a defence, as in
the medieval chaufrein. This frontal was a special subject of
decoration. Of the two principal types of ancient bits, the un-
jointed and the jointed mouthpiece, the latter is the most common
form. There are also other forms of bits; those with sharp points
were called lupata (Virg. Georg. iii. 208). There is a Greek bit in the
British Museum with revolving disks, a device which occurs in
medieval bits, to give the horse something to keep turning in his
mouth. The curb was also used: Xenophon distinguishes between
the snaffle (X<w \a.\ivtn) and the curb. The curb-strap or chain
was termed inroxaXii'iSia or ^AXiw, which, however, may mean a
muzzle. A bronze bit found at Pompeii has a twisted and jointed
metal mouthpiece and a plain curved bar acting as a curb-strap.
The cheek-bars of the bit take a variety of forms: straight bars,
circles with rays, square or oblong plaques, triangles and the swan-
necked or S-shaped type are all found. In medieval times compli-
cated and severe bits were used, and heavy bits with cruel mouth-
pieces and long elaborately curved cheek-bars are still used by Arabs
and the riders of Central and South America. The bit of the armed
war-horse in the middle ages was sometimes provided with very long
cheek-bars covered with sharp spikes to prevent the foot-soldier
catching hold of the bridle (see R. Tschille and R. Forrer, Die
Pferdetrense in ihrer Formen-Entwicklung, 1903, for illustrations of
bits from prehistoric times to the i6th century).
The saddle was not used in Egypt; the Assyrian monuments (cf.
the illustration noticed above) chiefly show decorated saddle-cloths
rather than any form of the saddle proper. The harness of the
chariots of Egypt and Assyria are also illustrated on the monuments
(see especially Sir J. G. Wilkinson, Manners and Customs of the
Ancient Egyptians). The ancient Greeks rode bare-backed as in the
Panathenaic frieze of the Parthenon or used a saddle-cloth (Wr-rior,
Lat. ephippium; sella as applied to a saddle is quite late). Even the
saddle-cloth does not appear to have been in use till the 5th century.
A 6th-century vase, found at Daphnae, Lower Egypt (Flinders-
Petrie and Murray, Tanis, 1888, ii. pi. xxix.), shows a woman riding
astride on a cloth, with fully developed headstall and powerful bit.
A black-figured sarcophagus, now in the British Museum, from
Clazomenae, shows a long pointed ephippium with a chest-strap.
These indicate Asiatic influence, for Daphnae was an Ionian and
Carian settlement of the 7th century B.C. In Xenophon (I.e.) we
find that the saddle-cloth had been adopted by the Athenian cavalry,
and from his advice as to the seat to be adopted pads or rolls seem to
have been added. There were no stirrups (till the time of the emperor
Maurice, A.D. 602), and the rider mounted at a vault or by blocks;
mounting by the spear used as a vaulting pole was also practised as
an athletic feat. On a funeral monument of the time of Nero in the
museum at Mainz is the figure of a horseman on a saddle-cloth with
something resembling the pommel and cantle of a saddle, but the
first saddle proper is found in the so-called column of Theodosius at
Constantinople (usually ascribed to the end of the 4th century A.D.,
though it may be more than 100 years earlier), where two figures are
riding on high-peaked saddles resting on embroidered saddle-cloths.
In medieval times the saddle was much like that of the Oriental
saddle of to-day with high peaks before and behind. In the military
saddle of the I4th and I5th century the high front parts of thesaddle
were armoured and extended to protect the legs of the rider. The
jousting saddle (cf. the example in the Tower of London) becomes
almost a box into which the rider is fixed; the high cantle fits round
the rider's loins and when charging he lifted himself into practically
a standing position in the stirrups. The saddle for use on the road or
hunting was much like the Arab saddle of to-day, and similar forms
are in use in Europe and elsewhere where the British saddle has not
been adopted. Women rode astride or on a pillion behind a male
rider. The side-saddle is said to date from the end of the I2th
century. For the harness of the ancient draught horse see CHARIOT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. J. C. Ginzrot, Wagen u. Fahrwerke d. Griechen
u. Romer, &fc. (1817); Darernberg and Saglio's Diet, des antiquMs
grecques et rom., s.w. "Ephippium," "Frenum," &c. ; Violjet-le-
Duc's Diet. rais. du mobilier franyiis, and the works referred to in the
text. See also DRIVING, RIDING and HORSE. (C. WE.)
SADDLEWORTH, an urban district in the Colne Valley
parliamentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England,
14 m. N.E. of Manchester, on the London & North Western
railway. Pop. (1901) 12,320. It lies on the western side of the
elevation of Stanedge, which here forms the watershed between
streams flowing westward to the Irish Sea and eastward to the
North Sea. Early earthworks and tumuli are numerous in the
locality. The Huddersfield canal follows the valley, and, like
the railway, is carried under Stanedge by a long tunnel.
SADDUCEES, a sect or party of the Jews mentioned in the
historical books of the New Testament (with the exception of the
fourth Gospel), by Josephus, and in the Talmud. According to
all the authorities, the essential qualification for the title is the
denial of certain beliefs which the Pharisees held to be implicitly
contained in Scripture, and therefore necessarily part of Judaism
as soon as they were formulated. From their own point of view
they were orthodox conservatives, so far as they really carol
to remain for whatever reason within the pale of Jewry and
990
SADE SA DE MIRANDA
to justify their presence there. From the standpoint of the
Pharisees who championed the hope of everlasting life and
believed in the existence of angels, through whom God could
communicate with men, they were infidels. As the Pharisees
accumulated the oral tradition which was afterwards codified
and elaborated or preserved by fragments, which served some
useful purpose, in the Talmud and other Rabbinic writings, the
Sadducees acquired concrete regulations to oppose so long as they
dared. The Pharisees even improved upon the Temple ritual,
and their popularity enabled them to force the Pharisees into
adopting the improvements.
But though some of those who bore the title may be reckoned
at their best as orthodox conservatives, their position was, as far
as our mainly Pharisaic authorities permit us to learn, merely
negative; and all the information we possess, whether it rests on
facts or on prejudice, points to their close affinity with the Jews
who renounced their faith altogether and advertised the fact-
say by habitual and unwarranted breach of the Sabbath, for
example. In fact, broadly speaking, the Sadducees for the
period during which they are reported to exist, represent and
embody the tendency to conformity with neighbouring Gentiles,
which is deplored and denounced by Jewish writers from Moses
to Philo. And there is this to be said that idolatry may be an
outward symbol of a real indebtedness to idolaters which is not
necessarily wiped out when the tangible idols are smashed.
Idolatry is plainly incompatible with the law of Moses: so were
Greek caps; but the Jews who conformed to Hellenism in the
time of Antiochus Epiphanes acquired much that was conserved
and utilized in that great attempt to convert the Greek world
to Judaism, whose best monument is the works of Philo. The
process is normal: first, there is an unqualified adoption of a
foreign culture by the Sadducees of the time being: then, after
unqualified opposition, the Pharisees of the time admit whatever
is admissible within the four corners of the Law and are con-
fronted by other Sadducees who have not followed the first into
temporary or permanent separation from the existing Jewish
way of life and absorption in the immediate foreign environment,
and who, therefore, will have none of the current innovations
which the Pharisees have in course of time selected as capable of
assimilation and reconciliation with the existing body of growing
doctrine and practice. The Jews spoiled the Egyptians: some
made a golden calf and worshipped it: others destroyed it and
turned the spoils into vessels for the sanctuary: some again
sighed for the fleshpots of Egypt, if they did not actually return
thither.
The controversies of the Pharisees and Sadducees afford a
typical example of this process. With the approval of Antiochus
Epiphanes, the Sadducean section embraced the outward forms
of Hellenism, and out of the persecution of the orthodox which
followed was born the hope of a future life which was in the
circumstances the necessary corollary of God's righteousness
and was discovered to be latent in Scripture. Later Sadducees,
who actually bore the name, resisted this and all the character-
istics of the Pharisees and continued to flatter the predominant
foreigner Greek or Roman by imitating him with less reckless
bravado than the first Hellenizers and with growing assurance.
They were men of the world, and men of this world, and, so far
as they still professed and practised Judaism, they preferred to
repudiate the additions for which they felt no need, but which had
entered into the faith of their fathers. The Pharisees, who
pruned and fed the tree of Judaism so that it might bear fruit
for the healing of the Nation and the nations in the latter days
gave them the opportunity of posing as the champions of the
primitive standards. But, though the reformers thus played
into the hands of the Sadducees, the people were not deceived
by the badge which Sadducean priests adopted and paraded
to save their faces: they loved the Pharisees and were ready to
go to death at their bidding. The Sadducees were the hypocrites
of the Jewish world, just as the Epicureans were the hypocrites
of the Greek world. The rest of the Jews rated the Sadducees
as atheists, just as the rest of the Greeks rated the Epicureans
as atheists and discerned, as Plutarch said, the sardonic grin
behind the mask of their obsequious devotion to the ceremonies
at which the force of public opinion compelled their attendance.
The Sadducee was a Jew outwardly so long as he so retained
place, power and profit. The destruction of Jerusalem, long
before it was consummated in A.D. 70, robbed them of the place
and nation which alone compensated them for the inconveniences
of their nominal allegiance. They knew well enough the power
of invincible Rome; and her advance warned them to take
themselves and their talents to the market of the wide world,
to which in heart and mind they had always belonged.
Josephus (Ant. xiii. 5. 9, 171-173, Niese) introduces the Saddu-
cees along with the Pharisees and Essenesin his account of Jonathan's
reign (161143 B.C.) as the third of the sects of the Jews, and defines
their tenets thus: " They deny the existence of God (Josephus says
' Fate,' as he is speaking to pagans) and the Divine government of
human affairs; and they assert that everything lies in our power,
so that we are responsible for our good or bad fortune." Similarly,
in the earlier history of the Jewish War (ii. 8. 14, 164-166, Niese)
to which he refers, he says: " The Sadducees do away with Destiny
altogether and set God beyond the possibility of punishing or super-
vising men. They assert that man is free to choose good or evil
since both are set before him, and that he receives good or evil
according to his choice. They deny the immortality of the soul
and the punishments and rewards of Hades. In contrast with the
mutual friendliness and loyalty of the Pharisees, their behaviour
towards one another is lacking in courtesy, and when they mix with
their fellow-countrymen, they are as offhanded as if their fellows
were aliens." Josephus might have added that they were disposed
to treat aliens as they should have treated their friends.
In the New Testament there is already a tendency to ignore the
Sadducees and to transfer to the surviving and active sect of the
Pharisees denunciations addressed to hypocrites. The feud which
set Pharisee and Sadducee against one another is ignored, and
generally the condign oblivion which overtook this sect of the Jews
is already beginning. The Christian Fathers seem to confound
them with the Samaritans, and the confusion is natural enough.
The Sadducees were as little loyal to the Judaism of Jerusalem as
the Samaritans and they were less sincere and less interested
in religion.
The Talmud reports ancient controversies on points of law; and
gives the Sadducees a founder, Zadok the disciple of Antigonus the
man of Soco who prohibited the hope of reward for service done to
God. But this explanation of the name is as worthless as the rest
of the Talmudic accounts of the Sadducees who were already dead
and gone. For the present the explanation put forward by A. E.
Cowley (Ency. Bib. 4236) holds the field: a Persian word Zindik
meaning Zoroastrian, and therefore infidel in the mouths of those
who did not hold with Zoroaster, was applied to them by their
opponents, and gradually altered so as to mean something in Hebrew
i.e. Zadokite or Righteous. Its acquired significance could be
varied by the inflexion of the voice or the suggestion of inverted
commas.
Schiirer (Geschichte des jtidischen Volkes, ii., 4th ed., pp. 447-456,
475"48Q) gives the evidence of the ancient authorities and references
to modern studies of the subject. See also JEWS. (J. H. A. H.)
SADE, DONATIEN ALPHONSE FRANCOIS, COUNT [usually
called the MARQUIS DE SADE] (1740-1814), French licentious
writer, was born in Paris on the 2nd of June 1740. He entered
the light-horse at fourteen and saw considerable military service
before returning to Paris in 1766. Here his vicious practices
became notorious, and in 1772 he was condemned to death at
Aix for an unnatural offence, and for poisoning. He fled to Italy,
but in 1777 he was arrested in Paris, removed to Aix for trial,
and there found guilty. In 1778 he escaped from prison, but
was soon re-arrested and finally committed to the Bastille.
Here he began to write plays and obscene novels. In 1789 he
was removed to the Charenton Lunatic Asylum, but was dis-
charged in 1790, only to be recommitted as incurable in 1803.
He died there on the 2nd of December 1814. Among his works,
all of the type indicated, were Justine (1791), Juliette (1792),
Philosophic dans le boudoir (1793) and Les Crimes de I' amour
(1800). The word Sadism, meaning a form of sexual perversion,
is derived from his name.
SA DE MIRANDA, FRANCISCO DE (1485-1558), Portuguese
poet, was the son of a canon of Coimbra belonging to the ancient
and noble family of Sa, and passed his early years by the banks
of the river Mondego, the source of inspiration to poets in every
age. He probably made his first studies of Greek, Latin and
philosophy in one of the colleges of the Old City, and in 1505
went to Lisbon University, beginning at the same time to frequent
SA DE MIRANDA
991
the court. Verse-making and gallantry occupied much of his
time there, and by virtue of his talents and name he became one
of a group comprising the greatest nobjes and most celebrated
poets of the age, including Bernadim Ribeiro and Christovao
Falcao, who surrounded the beautiful and gifted D. Leonor de
Mascarenhas. He seems to have resided for the most part in the
capital down to 1521, dividing his time between the palace and the
university, in the latter of which he had taken the degree of
doctor of law by 1516. Honoured by the friendship of Prince
John (afterwards John III.), he accompanied the court as it
moved from place to place during the reign of King Manoel,
and witnessed the triumphs of the Fortunate Monarch; and at
a time when the flag of Portugal floated victorious in every sea
and her ships encircled the globe, it was not surprising that the
youthful poet should aspire to be the Virgil of a new Augustus
ruling a universal monarchy. His studious and reflective mind
and sound sense did not allow him, however, to nourish these
illusions for long, and we find him pointing out in tones of
prophetic melancholy the signs of decadence and future disaster.
He had come out of the university so good a lawyer that he was
able to act as ad interim professor of his faculty, and he was
offered a judicial post, but his independent spirit and punctilious
conscience led him to refuse it. He had only embarked on a legal
career to please his father, and on the latter's death he abandoned
law for moral and stoic philosophy and poetry, and resolved to
travel. He had observed with regret the modest intellectual
position of his country, for all her wealth and epic achievements,
the latter of which had found no echo in poetry; and if he were
to learn and be able to introduce new forms of art fed by fresh
ideals, as he desired, he felt he must go abroad. The Cancioneiro
de Resende, which represented the poetical efforts of courtiers for
almost a century and contained Miranda's early verses, showed
the extent of the national poverty by its artificiality, and lack
of ideas, of sincerity and of good taste. These defects are not
surprising, seeing that during most of that long period the literary
movement had been confined to court circles and had remained
essentially imitative of Spanish models, with hardly a vestige
of national or popular inspiration about it. Portugal had been
too busy building up a world-empire to imbibe much of the
mental culture of the Renaissance, and even the classics were for
the most part only known through Spanish translations. Direct
intercourse between Portugal and Italy partook of a commercial
rather than a literary or artistic character, and, previously to
Miranda's journey, Italian poetry was practically unknown.
In the middle of July 1520 he set out across Spain for Italy,
and spent the years 1521 to 1525 abroad, visiting Milan, Venice,
Florence, Rome, Naples and Sicily " with leisure and curiosity."
He enjoyed intimacy with Giovanni Ruccellai, Lattanzio Tolomei
and Sanazarro; he saluted the illustrious Vittoria Colonna, a
distant connexion of his family, and in her house he probably
talked with Bembo and Ariosto, and perhaps met Machiavelli
and Guicciardini. He assisted at the rebirth of the Italian drama
and saw the performance of classical prose comedies, a form of
art which he was to transplant to Portugal. .Lastly he heard the
echoes of the Protestant revolt, and witnessed with horror the
dissolution of morals which prepared the way for the Reformation.
Returning home in 1525, he brought with him the sonnet and
canzone of Petrarch, the tercet of Dante, the ottava rima of
Ariosto, the eclogue in the manner of Sanazarro, and Italian
endecasyllabic verse. He did not, however, like his disciple
Antonio Ferreira (?..), abandon the national redondilha, but
rather continued to employ it and carried it to perfection in
his Cartas. Settling down in Coimbra or its environs, he lived
there from 1526-1527 until 1532. The visit of King John III.
and his court to the city enabled him to resume his old relations
with the reigning house and the cultivated members of the nobility,
who received him affably and listened with interest to the story
of his Italian tour. Gil Vicente, the court dramatist, was then at
the height of his fame, but his autos appeared poor things to
Sa de Miranda as compared with the comedies he had seen in
Italy; and urged by his friends to present an example of the new
style, he wrote the Estrangeiros. Produced in 1527-1528, it was
the first Portuguese prose comedy, and was composed on the
lines of the classical Roman drama as modified by contemporary
Italian authors like Ariosto; it had a great and immediate
success, notwithstanding the opposition of the partisans of the
popular auto, who saw themselves attacked in the prologue.
In 1528 Miranda made his first real attempt to introduce the
new forms of verse by writing in Spanish a ran/on entitled
Fabula do Mondego, and in 1530-1532 he followed it up with the
eclogue Aleixo, which among its redondilhas has some endeca-
syllables the earliest attempt at otlava rima in Portuguese.
Various sonnets dedicated to friends also belong to this period.
The foundations of the Italian school were now laid, and hence-
forth Miranda's reputation as a poet grew visibly, while he was
also one of the most esteemed of courtiers; but the opposition
of his literary foes increased with his very success. Moreover,
in the sphere of politics pessimism had taken firm hold of him.
From being a land of promise, India had become for him, as for
Camoens, " the mother of villains, the stepmother of men of
honour "; and though the wealth of the East poured into Lisbon,
Portugal remained poor because agriculture was neglected and
corn had to be imported from abroad. Miranda protested in
vigorous terms against the fever of adventure and lust of gold,
but few gave ear to his moralizings or had leisure to read
poetry, and in 1534 he left the court.
The year 1532 had marked his passage from the active to the
contemplative life, and the eclogue Basto, in the form of a pastoral
dialogue written in redondilhas, opened his new manner. It
has a pronounced personal note, and its episodes are described
in a genuinely popular tone. The shepherds Gil and Bento repre-
sent, the one city sociability, the other rustic aloofness, or the
contrast between life at court and in the country, and serve as a
vehicle for the poet's ideas. The same epoch saw the composition
of his Cartas or sententious letters in quintilhas, which, with
Basto and his satires, make up the most original, if not the most
valuable, portion of his legacy, and served as models for two
centuries. His allusion in Aleixo to the exile of Bernardim
Ribeiro, and his defence of his friend, seem to have offended
that powerful grandee, the count of Castanheira, and probably
hastened his retirement from court, and the royal gift of a
Commenda of the Order of Christ, situate by the river Neiva
on the borders of Galicia, came opportunely, because the rents
Sa de Miranda drew from it and a small private fortune enabled
him to live in modest comfort at the neighbouring Quinta da
Tapada. Poetry with him was never a mere pastime, and,
after a short period of repose, the gift of a MS. of the verses of
Garcilasso and Boscan, founders of the Italian school in Castile,
encouraged him to resume the work of reform commenced at
Coimbra; between 1535 and 1538 he composed five eclogues in
endecasyllables, four in Spanish and one in Portuguese, which
show evident traces of their influence.
Before long he heard echoes of his new song, first from the pro-
vince, then from the court. In 1536 he married D. Briolanja de
Azevedo, a lady of rare qualities and education, belonging to an
illustrious Minho family. He spent the rest of his life in retire-
ment at the Quinta da Tapada, which became a centre from which
the reform of Portuguese poetry spread ; for he developed great
poetical activity in his retreat, and while he read and annotated
Homer in the original Greek, he did not disdain domestic plea-
sures and country sports. His evenings were occupied by music
and the performance of comedies and mimes, and by readings of
Bembo and Ariosto with cultivated neighbours; and he extended
hospitality to savants like Nicholas Cleynarts and Francisco de
Hollanda,and launched on the career of letters such men as Diogo
Bernardes, the author of the Lima.
In 1538 he wrote his second classical prose comedy, the
Vilhalpandos, which was played before the Cardinal Infant
Henry, afterwards king, at his request, and on the poet's death
that prince saw to the printing of this and the earlier comedy.
During the years 1543 to 1553, except for a few occasional poems
Sa de Miranda kept silence, and the cause is not far to seek;
the Inquisition had got to work, and the Jesuits had acquired
control of the university and displaced the humanists. When
992
SADHU SA'DI
the king and court lent their presence to aulos da/S and organized
public penances, initiating a reign of fanaticisms and sadness,
there was no place for poetry. Sa de Miranda could only deplore
in private the misfortunes of his country and devote himself
to polishing his verses and educating his children. His life's
work was done, for the year 1550 saw Camoens writing his
admirable sonnets, canzons and elegies, and the Italian school had
definitely triumphed. The last eight years of Sa de Miranda's
life produced a cycle of beautiful poems evoked by the personality
of Prince John, the heir-apparent, who loved letters and especi-
ally poetry, and whose precocity of talent made him the hope
of all patriots. In 1550 and 1551, after the prince's visit to the
university of Coimbra, he honoured the master by asking for a
collection of his poems, and on three occasions we find the latter
despatching portions of his song-book to Lisbon accompanied
by dedicatory sonnets. Moreover, he had the further gratification
of receiving verses from Antonio Ferreira, Jorge de Montemayor,
Diogo Bernardes, and Andre Falcao de Rcsende, which were
so many proofs of the vitality of his school. Three misfortunes,
however, came on him in quick succession. He lost his eldest
son in 1553, Prince John died in 1554, and in 1555 his wife died.
His friend King John III. passed away in 1557, and on the isth
of March 1558 Si de Miranda followed him to the grave.
He was not a great writer and never entered into the hearts
of his countrymen, remaining the poet of the cultured, who could
understand him and pardon his metrical imperfections. He led
the way, however, in a revolution in literature, and especially in
poetry, which under his influence became higher in aim, purer in
tone and broader in sympathy. He is obviously not at ease in
the new forms which he had introduced, and his verse is, as a
rule, austere, unharmonious and often difficult of understanding,
but these remarks do not, of course, apply to his redondilhas.
Some of his sonnets are, however, admirable, and display a grave
tenderness of feeling, a refinement of thought, and a simplicity of
expression which give them a high value. As examples it is only
necessary to mention the one beginning " O sol he grande . . .,"
and the lines he composed on the death of his wife. Sa de Miranda
wrote much and successfully in Castilian, several of his best
eclogues being in that language. The charm of these com-
positions lies in their convincing descriptions of natural scenery
and country life, which he loved and comprehended to perfection.
Sa de Miranda's works were first published in 1595, but the
admirable critical edition of Madame Michaelis de Vasconcellos
(Halle, 1885), containing life, notes and glossary, supersedes all
others so far as the poems are concerned. His plays can best be
read in the 1784 edition of the collected works. No modern or
critical edition is available. See also Oswald Crawford, Portugal
Old and New (London, 1880); Dr Sousa Viterbo, Estudos sobre Sd
de Miranda (3 parts, Coimbra, 18951896); Decio Carneiro, Sd de
Miranda e a sua obra (Lisbon, 1895); and Dr Theophilo Braga, Sd
de 'Miranda (Oporto, 1896). (E. PR.)
SADHU, a Hindu ascetic, corresponding to the Mahommedan
fakir (q.v.). The Sadhus, who are known also as Sanyasis,
Gosains and Bairagis, are of various sects, hold peculiar opinions,
indulge in strange practices, and subject themselves in many
cases to cruel hardships and fantastic disciplines. They range
in moral standing from the peripatetic philosopher to the idle
vagabond. Some lead the life of contemplation, which Hindus
consider especially holy; others pose as alchemists, physicians,
fortune-tellers, palmists or acrobats; while others yet again
practise voluntary tortures, such as holding one arm upright
until it withers, or lying continually upon a bed of spikes. Some
go about almost naked, or smeared all over with ashes; but the
usual garment of an ascetic is stained an orange red with ochre.
Hence was derived the colour of the Mahratta flag. Alone
among Hindus their dead are buried instead of being burned,
usually in a sitting posture, and often in salt. During the
disturbed period of Indian history, before British rule was
firmly established, armed bodies of Sanyasis or Gosains attached
themselves to the Mahratta armies, and also ravaged Northern
Bengal in the time of Warren Hastings.
SA'Dl (c. 1184-1292). MULIH-UDDIN, or more correctly
MUSHARRIF-UDDIN B. MuLiH-UDDiN, the greatest didactic
poet and the most popular writer of Persia, was born about
1184 (A.H. 580) in Shiraz. After the premature death of his
father he was taken under the protection of Sa'd b. Zengi, the
atabeg of Fars, who sent him to pursue his studies in the famous
medresseh of Baghdad, the Nizamiyya, where he remained
about thirty years (1196-1224). About 1210 (A.H. 606) his
literary fame had spread as far as Kashgar in Turkistan, which
the young poet (who in honour of his patron had assumed the
name of Sa'di) visited in his twenty-sixth or twenty-seventh
year. After mastering all the dogmatic disciplines of the
Islamitic faith he turned his attention first to practical philo-
sophy, and later on to the more ideal tenets of Sufic pantheism,
under the spiritual guidance of the famous sheikh Shihab-uddln
Umar Suhrawardi (died 1234; A.H. 632). Between 1220 and
1225 he paid a visit to a friend in Isfahan, went from there to
Damascus, and returned to Isfahan just at the time of the
inroads of the Mongols, when the atabeg Sa'd had been deposed
by the victorious Khwarizm ruler of Ghiyass-uddln (1226).
Sadly grieved by the misfortune of his patron and disgusted
with the miserable condition of Persia, Sa'di quitted Shiraz and
entered upon the second period of his life that of his wanderings
(1226-1256). He proceeded via Balkh, Ghaznl and the Punjab
to Gujarat, on the western coast of which he visited the famous
shrine of Siva in Somnath. After a prolonged stay in Delhi,
where he learnt Hindustani, he sailed for Yemen. Overcome
with grief at the loss of a beloved child (when he had married
is not known), he undertook an expedition into Abyssinia and
a pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina. Thence he directed his
steps towards Syria and lived as a renowned sheikh for a consider-
able time in Damascus, which he had once already visited.
There and in Baalbek he added to his literary renown that of a
first-rate pulpit orator. Specimens of his spiritual addresses
are preserved in the five homilies (on the fugitiveness of human
life, on faith and fear of God, on love towards God, on rest in God
and on the search for God). At last, weary of Damascus, he
withdrew into the desert near Jerusalem and led a solitary
wandering life, till one day he was taken captive by a troop of
Prankish soldiers, brought to Tripoli, and condemned to forced
labour in the trenches of the fortress. After enduring countless
hardships, he was eventually rescued by a rich friend in Aleppo,
who paid his ransom, and gave him his daughter in marriage.
But Sa'di, unable to live with his quarrelsome wife, set out on
fresh travels, first to North Africa and then through the length
and breadth of Asia Minor and the adjoining countries. Not
until he had passed his seventieth year did he return to Shiraz
(about 1256; A.H. 653). Finding the place of his birth tranquil
and prosperous under the wise rule of Abubakr b. Sa'd, the son
of his old patron (1226-1260; A.H. 623-658), the aged poet took
up his permanent abode, interrupted only by repeated pilgrimages
to Mecca, and devoted the remainder of his life to Sufic con-
templation and poetical composition. He died at Shiraz in
1292 (A.H. 691) according to Hamdallah Mustaufi (who wrote
only forty years later), or in December 1291 (A.H. 690), at the
age of 1 10 lunar years.
The experience 9f the world gained during his travels, his
intimate acquaintance with the various countries he had visited,
his insight into human character, together with an inborn loftiness
of thought and the purest moral standard, made it easy for Sa'di
to compose in the short space of three years his two master-
pieces, which have immortalized his name, the Bustan or " Fruit-
garden " (1257) and the Gulistan or " Rose-garden " (1258),
both dedicated to the reigning atabeg Abu Bekr. The former,
also called Sa'dlnama, is a kind of didactic epopee in ten chapters
and double-rhymed verses, which passes in review the highest
philosophical and religious questions, not seldom in the very
spirit of Christianity, and abounds with sound ethical maxims
and matchless gems, of transcendental speculation. The latter
is a prose work of a similar tendency in eight chapters, inter-
spersed with numerous verses and illustrated, like the Bustan,
by a rich store of clever tales and charming anecdotes; it
discusses more or less the same topics as the larger work, but has
acquired a much greater popularity in both the East and the
West, owing to its easier and more varied style, its attractive
SADIYA SADLER, SIR R.
993
lessons of practical wisdom, and its numerous bans mots. But
Sa'dl's Diwdn, or collection of lyrical poetry, far surpasses the
Bustdn and Gulistdn, at any rate in quantity, whether in quality
also is a matter of taste. Other minor works are the Arabic
qasidas, the first of which laments the destruction of the Arabian
caliphate by the Mongols in 1258 (A.H. 656); the Persian qasidas,
partly panegyrical, partly didactical; the mardthi, or elegies,
beginning with one on the death of Abu Bekr and ending with
one on the defeat and demise of the last caliph, Mosta'sim;
the mulammadt, or poems with alternate Persian and Arabic
verses, of a rather artificial character; the tarjfdt, or refrain-
poems; the ghazals, or odes; the s.ahibiyyah and mukatla'dt, or
moral aphorisms and epigrams; the rubd'iyydt, or quatrains;
and the mufraddt, or distichs. Sa'di's lyrical poems possess
neither the easy grace and melodious charm of Hafiz's songs nor
the overpowering grandeur of Jelalud-dln Rumi's divine hymns,
but they are nevertheless full of deep pathos and show such a
fearless love of truth as is seldom met with in Eastern poetry.
Even his panegyrics, although addressed in turn to almost all
the rulers who in those days of continually changing dynasties
presided over the fate of Persia, are free from that cringing
servility so common in the effusions of Oriental encomiasts.
The first who collected and arranged his works was 'Ali b. Ahmad b.
Bisutun (1326-^1334; A.H. 726-734). The most exact information
about Sa'di's life and works is found in the introduction to Dr W.
Bacher's Sa'di's Aphorismen und Sinngedichte (Sahibiyyah) (Strass-
burg, 1879; a complete metrical translation of the epigrammatic
poems), and in the same author's " Sa'di Studien," in Zeitschrift der
morgenlandischen Gesellschaft, xxx. pp. 81-106; see also H. Eth6 in
W. Geiger's Grundriss der iranischen Philologie, ii. pp. 292-296, with
full bibliography; and E. G. Browne, Literary History of Persia,
Ep. 525-539. Sa'di's Kulliyyat or complete works have been edited
y Harrington (Calcutta, 1791-1795) (with an English translation
of some of the prose treatises and of Daulat Shah's notice on the poet,
of which a German version is found in Graf's Rosengarten (Leipzig,
1846, p. 229 sq.); for the numerous lithographed editions, see Rieu s
Pers. Cat. of the Brit. Mus. ii. p. 596. The Bustan has been printed
in Calcutta (1810 and 1828), as well as in Lahore, Cawnpore, Tabriz,
&c. ; a critical edition with Persian commentary was published by
K. H. Graf at Vienna in 1850 (German metrical translations by the
same, Jena, 1850, and by Schlechta-Wssehrd.Vienna, 1852); English
prose translations by H. W. Clarke (London, 1879); and Ziauddin
Gulam Moheiddin (Bombay, 1889); verse by G. S. Davie (1882);
French translation by Barbier de Meynard (Paris, 1880). The
best editions of the Gulistan are by A. Sprenger (Calcutta, 1851)
and by Platts (London, 1874); the best translations into English
by Eastwick (1852) and by Platts (1873), the first four babs in prose
and verse by Sir Edwin Arnold (1899); into French by Defre'mery
(1858); into German by Graf (1846); see also S. Robinson's Persian
Poetry for English Readers (1883), pp. 245-366. The Pandnamah, or
book of wisdom (of doubtful genuineness) has been translated by
A. N. Wollaston (1908), with Persian text. Select qasidas, ghazals,
elegies, quatrains and distichs have been edited, with a German
metrical translation, by Graf, in the Z.D.M.G. ix. p. 92 sq., xii.
p. 82 sq.,_ xiii. p. 445 sq., xv. p. 541 sq. and xviii. p. 570 sq.
On the Sufic character of Sa'di in contrast to Hafiz and Rumi,
comp. Eth6, " Der Sufismus und seine drei Hauptvertreter," in
Morgenlandische Studien (Leipzig, 1870), pp. 95-124. (H.E.)
SADIYA, the extreme north-east frontier station of British
India, in the Lakhimpur district of Eastern Bengal and Assam.
It stands high on a grassy plain, nearly surrounded by forest-
clad mountains, on the right bank of what is locally (but errone-
ously) considered the main stream of the Brahmaputra. On
the opposite bank a railway has recently been opened which
connects with the Assam-Bengal line. Sadiya is garrisoned by
detachments of native infantry and military police, and is the
base of a chain of outposts. There is a bazaar, to which the hill-
men beyond the frontier Mishmis, Abors and Khamtis bring
down rubber, wax, ivory and musk, to barter for cotton-cloth,
salt, metal goods, &c.
SADLER, MICHAEL THOMAS (1780-1835), English social
reformer and economist, was born at Snelston, Derbyshire, on
the 3rd of January 1780. Settling down in business in Leeds
in 1800, he early took an active part in political life, devoting
himself particularly to the administration of the poor law.
In 1828 he wrote Ireland: its Evils and their Remedies, in which
he advocated a poor-law, and a tax on absenteeism. He also
took a share in the Malthusian controversy, writing The Law
of Population: a Treatise in Disproof of the Super-fecundity of
Human Beings and developing the Real Principle of their
Increase (1830). He entered parliament in 1829 as member for
Newark, and devoted his efforts to questions of social reform.
He took a leading part in the agitation for the prevention of
child labour in factories he was chairman of the committee
appointed .to inquire into the subject. He contested Leeds
after the Reform Bill of 1832 (Aldborough, for which he
had sat after Newark, being deprived of its member), but
was defeated by Macaulay. In 1834 he was unsuccessful at
Huddersfield, and failing health prevented any further attempts
to re-enter parliament. He settled down in Belfast, where his
firm had business interests, and died at New Lodge on the zgth
of July 1835.
See R. B. Seeley, Memoirs of M. T. Sadler (1842).
SADLER (or SADLEIR), SIR RALPH (1507-1587), English
statesman, the son of Henry Sadler, steward of the manor of
Cilney, near Great Hadham, Hertfordshire, was born at Hackney,
Middlesex, in 1507. While a child he was placed in the family
of Thomas Cromwell, afterwards earl of Essex, whose secretary
he eventually became. Between 1525 and 1529 his patron's
letters are full of Sadler's name in connexion with Cardinal
Wolsey's suppression of the monasteries; this probably brought
him under the king's notice, for in 1536 he was made gentleman
of the privy chamber, and from that time was continually
employed by Henry VIII. In 1537 Sadler went first to Scotland
to try to reconcile Margaret to her son King James V., and then
to France on the same mission to James himself. He seems to
have been successful, and was again in Scotland in. 1540 trying
to induce the king to follow his uncle's ecclesiastical policy.
In or about January 1 540, he was made secretary of state along
with Sir Thomas Wriothesly, and was knighted, probably about
the same time. On James V.'s death Sadler again went to
Scotland (March 1543) to negotiate a marriage between prince
Edward and his cousin Mary; he was unsuccessful, but still
retained Henry's confidence. On Henry's death in 1547,
Sadler was by his will made one of the councillors to the sixteen
noblemen entrusted with the young king's guardianship. In
the same year he was appointed treasurer to the army sent
to Scotland, and for his services in rallying the repulsed cavalry
at the battle of Musselburgh or Pinkie, he was created a knight-
banneret. He also received many grants of land, including the
manor of Standon in Hertfordshire, where he built a magnificent
house in 1546. When Mary ascended the throne he retired,
living quietly till Elizabeth's accession. He issued the writs for
the privy council meeting at Hatfield on the 2oth of November
1558, and during the first year of the queen's reign he once
more became a privy councillor. He sat in the parliament of
January 1558-1559 as member for Hertford, which he had
already represented in 1541, 1542 and 1553. Not long after-
wards his strong Protestant sympathies and his acquaintance
with Scotch affairs induced Elizabeth to send him (1559) to
Scotland, ostensibly to settle the border disputes, but in reality
to secure a union with the Protestant party there, and he was
largely instrumental in bringing about the treaty of Leith,
July 6th, 1560. In 1568 Sadler was appointed chancellor of
the duchy of Lancaster, and in the same year was one of the
English Commissioners employed in treating on the matters
arising from the flight of the Queen of Scots. From this time
he seems to have been continually engaged as a discreet and
trusty servant in connexion with Mary's captivity, and was
frequently sent with messages to her. On the 25th of August
1584, when, owing to the imputations made by his countess,
George 6th earl of Shrewsbury was allowed to resign his
guardianship of the Queen, Sadler was appointed to succeed
him. In September Mary was removed from Sheffield to Wing-
field and thence early in 1585 to Tutbury. In April, Sadler,
after numerous petitions on his part, was permitted to resign
his distasteful charge. He is said by some to have been sent
to Scotland to announce to James VI. his mother's death,
but this is not corroborated by the state papers. On the 3oth
of March 1587 Sadler died at Standon, and was buried in the
church there. He had married about 1534 Elizabeth Mitchell,
xxni. 32
994
SADO SAFED KOH
whose first husband Matthew Barre had deserted her and was
believed to be dead. Barre, however, re-appeared a few years
later, and Sadler then obtained an act of parliament legiti-
matizing his children. Sadler was not a brilliant statesman, but
a most faithful and intelligent servant. His letters, particularly
those on Scottish affairs, are most interesting.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Letters and Negotiations of Sir Ralph Sadler
(Edinburgh, 1720) ; The State Papers and Letters of Sir R. Sadler,
ed. Arthur Clifford, with a memoir by Sir Walter Scott (Edinburgh,
1809, 3 vols.) ; article by N. H.N. in Gentleman's Magazine for March
1835; I. M. Cussans, Hist, of Hertfordshire (1870-1873, 3 vols.);
Memoir of the Life and Times of Sir R. Sadleir, by F. Sadleir Stoney
(1877); Life and Letters of Thomas Cromwell, by R. B. Mernman
(Oxford, 1902, 2 vols.).
SADO, an island belonging to Japan, lying 32 m. W. of Niigata,
on 38 N., 138 30' E. It has a circumference of 130 m., an area
of 336 sq. m. and a population of 113,000. The port is Ebisa,
on the east coast; and at a distance of i6| m., near the west
coast, is the town of Aikawa, having in its vicinity gold and
silver mines, for which Sado is famous. They have been worked
from very early times. Sado consists of two parallel hill ranges
separated by a lower isthmus; the loftiest peak is that of
Kimpokuzan (3815 ft.), to the north of Aikawa.
SADOLETO, JACOPO (1477-1547), Italian humanist and
churchman, was born at Modena in 1477, and, being the son
of a noted jurist, was designed for the same profession. He gave
himself, therefore, to humanistic studies and acquired reputation
as a Latin poet, his best-known piece being one on the group of
Laocoon. Passing to Rome, he obtained the patronage of
Cardinal Carafa and adopted the ecclesiastical career. Leo X.
chose him as his secretary along with Pietro Bembo, and in 1517
made him bishop of Carpentras. Sadoleto had a remarkable
talent for affairs and approved himself a faithful servant of the
papacy in many difficult negotiations under successive popes,
especially as a peacemaker; but he was no bigoted advocate of
papal authority, and the great aim of his life was to win back
the Protestants by peaceful persuasion he would never coun-
tenance persecution and by putting Catholic doctrine in a con-
ciliatory form. Indeed his chief work, a Commentary on Romans,
though meant as a prophylactic against the new doctrines,
gave great offence at Rome and Paris. Sadoleto was a diligent
and devoted bishop and left his diocese with reluctance even
after he was made cardinal (1536). His piety and tolerant spirit,
combined with his reputation for scholarship and eloquence
and his diplomatic abilities, give him a unique place among
the churchmen of his time. He died in 1547.
His collected works appeared at Mainz in 1607, and include,
besides his theologico-irenical pieces, a collection of Epistles, a treatise
on education (first published in 1533), and the Phaedrus, a defence
of philosophy, written in 1538. The best collection is that published
at Verona (1737-1738); it includes the life by Fiordibello. See
also P6ricaud, Fragments biographiques sur Jacob Sadolet (Lyons,
1849); Joty, tude sur Sadolet (Caen, 1857); Balan, Monumenta,
vol. i. (Innsbruck, 1885); Rochini's edition of the letters (Modena,
1872).
SADOLIN, JORGEN (c. 1499-1559) Danish reformer, the son
of Jens Christensen, a curate and subsequently a canon of
Viborg cathedral, and consequently, in all probability, born
(c. 1499) out of wedlock, as his Catholic opponents frequently
took, care to remind him. He himself never used the name
Sadolinus, which seems to have been invented subsequently
by his son Hans, and points to the fact that the family were
originally saddle-makers. We first hear of him on the ist of
December 1525, when Frederick I. permitted him to settle at
Viborg to teach young persons of the poorer classes " whatever
might be profitable." On this occasion he is described as
" magister " and no doubt got his degree abroad, where he seems
to have been won for the Reformation. He sided with Hans
Tausen when the latter first began to preach the gospel at Viborg,
and Tausen, though himself only in priest's orders, shortly
before he left the place, ordained Sadolin (1529). Amongst
" the free priests " who attended the herredag of Copenhagen
in 1530 Sadolin occupied a prominent place. Frederick subse-
quently transferred him to Funen, where he acted, according
to his own expression, as " adjutor in verbo " to Knud
Gyldenstjerne, bishop of Odense. At the diocesan council
held on the 27th of May 1532, during the absence of the bishop,
he presented to the assembled priests a translation of Luther's
catechism, with Luther's name omitted, preceded by an earnest
plea in favour of a better system of education and a more practical
application of the Christian life, which occupies a conspicuous
place in the literature of the Danish Reformation. In the
following year Sadolin published the first Danish translation
of the Confession of Augsburg. He disappears during the
troublous times of " C'-revens Fejde " (1533-1536), though we
get a glimpse of him at the end of 1536 as one of the preachers
at Vor Frue Kirke, the principal church of Copenhagen. On
the 2nd of September 1537 he was consecrated by the German
reformer, Johann Bugenhagen, who himself only had priest's
orders, superintendent, or first evangelical bishop, of Funen.
As bishop he was remarkable for the success with which he
provided the necessary means for the support of churches,
schools and hospitals in his widespread diocese, which had been
deprived of its usual sources of income by the wholesale con-
fiscation of church property. Towards the Catholics he adopted
a firm, but moderate and reasonable, tone, and his indulgence
towards the monks in St Knud's cloister drew down upon him a
fierce attack from the Puritan clergyman of Odense, who absurdly
accused him of being a cryp to-Catholic. He gave the funeral
oration over Christian III. in St John's Church at Odense in
February 1559, though now very infirm and blind, and died at
the end of the same year.
See Bricka, Dansk Biografish Lx. Art. Sadolin (Copenhagen,
1887). (R. N. B.)
SADOWA (Czech, Sddovd), a village of Bohemia, Austria,
4 m. N.W. of Kbniggratz. Pop. (1900) 183, exclusively Czech.
Sadowa, with the small adjoining wood, was one of the principal
and most hotly contested Prussian positions in the decisive
battle now usually called by the name of Koniggratz (see SEVEN
WEEKS' WAR).
SAEPINUM (mod. Altilia, near Sepino), a Samnite town
9 m. S. of the modern Campobasso, on the ancient road from
Beneventum to Corfinium. It was captured by the Romans
in 293 B.C. The position of the original town is on the mountain
far above the Roman town, and remains of its walls in Cyclopean
masonry still exist. The city walls (in opus reticulatum) of the
Roman town were erected by Tiberius before he became emperor,
the date (between 2 B.C. and A.D. 4) being given by an inscription.
Within them are remains of a theatre and other buildings,
including temples of Jupiter and Apollo, and there still exists,
by the gate leading to Bovianum, an important inscription of
about A.D. 168, relating to the tratture (see APULIA) in Roman
days, forbidding the natives to harm the shepherds who passed
along them (Corp. inscr. Lai,, ix. 2438).
See L. Fulvio in Not. degli scav. (1878), 374.
SAETERSDAL, a district in the south of Norway, comprising
the valleys of the Otter river and its tributaries. The river
rises in the fjelds above the Bukken Fjord, and flows south to
Christiansund. The natives preserve old customs and an
individual costume. A railway follows the valley to Byglands
Fjord (48 m.), on the lake of that name, fostering the local
agricultural and timber trade, and a driving road continues to
Viken i Valle from which bridle-paths lead to Dalen in Tele-
marken, and over the Enden and Malen fjelds to Lake Suldal
on the Bratlandsdal route.
SAFED KOH (" white mountain "), in many respects the most
remarkable range of mountains on the north-west frontier of
India, extending like a 14,000 ft. wall, straight and _ rigid,
towering above all surrounding hills, from the mass of moun-
tains which overlook Kabul on the south-east to the frontiers
of India, and "preserving a strike which being more or less
perpendicular to the border line is in strange contrast to the
usual conformation of frontier ridge and valley. The highest
peak, Sikaram, is 15,620 ft. above sea-level, and yet it is not a
conspicuous point on this unusually straight-backed range.
Geographically the Safed Koh is not an isolated range, for there
is no break in the continuity of water divide which connects it
SAFES, STRONG-ROOMS AND VAULTS
with the great Shandur offshoot of the Hindu Kush except
the narrow trough of the Kabul river, which cuts a deep waterway
across where it makes its way from Dakka into the Peshawar
plains. Strategically it is an important topographical feature,
for it divides the basin of the Kabul river and the Khyber route
from the valley of Kurram, leaving no practicable pass across
its rugged crest to connect the two. Its western slopes, where
it abuts on the mountain masses which dominate the Kabul
plain, are forest-covered and picturesque, with deep glens inter-
secting them, and bold craggy ridges; the same may be said
of the northern spurs which reach downward through the
Shinwari country towards Gandamak and Jalalabad. Here
the snow lies late and moisture is abundant but on the southern
sun-scorched cliffs but little vegetation is to be seen. Approaching
the Peshawar plains the Safed Koh throws off long spurs east-
ward, and amongst the foothills of these eastern spurs the
Afridi Tirah long remained hidden from European eyes.
SAFES, STRONG-ROOMS AND VAULTS. The term " safe,"
whilst really including any receptacle for the secure custody of
valuables provided with a lock or other device intended to
prevent any person except the owner or some person authorized
by him gaining access thereto, has gradually come to be confined
to such receptacles when fitted with a vertical door, as distin-
guished from a lid, and of such a size that they can be moved
into position, by the use of proper appliances, in one piece. Such
receptacles, when so large as to require that their parts should be
assembled in situ, fall under the term " strong-rooms," or in
the case of safe-deposits " vaults," and when constructed with
hinged lids, as distinct from doors, under the terms " cash-box,"
" deed-box " and "coffer." The term " coffer " is probably the
most ancient, and in earlier days included, as it still does in
France, what are now known as safes.
Although it is practically certain that boxes provided with locks
or coffers must have followed closely on the development of locks
(q.v.) and been in use in ancient Egypt, yet no examples remain
to us of earlier date than the middle ages. The earliest examples
extant were constructed of hard wood banded with hammered
iron, and subsequent development took place rather on artistic
than on practical lines up to the time of the introduction of
boxes entirely of iron. On the continent of Europe the iron box
was developed to a very high standard of artistic beauty and
craftsmanship, but with no real increase of security. Several
specimens of these coffers supposed to be of 17th-century work-
manship are preserved in the museum at Marlborough House.
Cast-iron chests saem to have been made in various parts of
Great Britain in the early part of the igth century, but the use
of wrought iron was probably confined to London until 1820,
or thereabouts, when the trade spread to Wolverhampton.
Up to this time no attempt had been made to make coffers
fireproof, for though a patent for fireproofing had been taken out
in 1801 by Richard Scott, it does not appear to have been used.
In 1834, however, a patent was obtained by William Marr for
the application of non-conducting linings, followed about four
years later by a similar patent in the name of Charles Chubb.
The foundation, however, of the modern safe industry was laid
by Thomas Milner, originally a tinsmith of Sheffield, who after
a few years' business in Manchester established, in 1830, work's
at Liverpool for the manufacture of tinplate and sheet iron boxes
and who later made plate iron chests or coffers and, probably
the earliest, safes about the year 1846. To him is due the modern
system of fireproofing, which owes its merit to the use not of
non-conductors but of an absorbent material which in the case
of fire will be permeated with moisture present in it, either in the
form of liquid contained in tubes which burst or otherwise
discharge their contents when subjected to heat, or mixed with it
as water of crystallization in combination with an inorganic salt.
The patent he obtained in 1840 contains the following claim:
" Constructing, forming, or manufacturing boxes, safes, or other
depositories of an outer case of iron or other metal or material,
enclosing one, two, or more inner cases, with spaces or chambers
between them, containing an absorbent material or composition,
such as porous wood, dust of wood, dust of bones, or similar
995
substances, in which are distributed vessels, pipes or tubes
filled with an alkaline solution or any other liquid or matter
evolving steam or moisture, the tubes or vessels bursting or
otherwise discharging themselves on the exposure of the box or
other depository to heat or fire, into the surrounding absorbent
matter, which thus pervaded with moisture and rendered difficult
of destruction, protects the inner cases or boxes and their
contents." In 1843, Edward Tann, Edward Tann, Junr., and
John Tann took out a patent for securing the presence of moisture
by means of a chemical salt. In their patent they give preference
to alum in combination with Austin's cement or gypsum, but
they also claim " any non-conductors of heat may be used, and
for alum may be substituted sulphate of potash, muriate of
ammonia, borax, impure potash, nitrate of soda, soda in cake,
pearlash, or any of the known alkalis." Milner considered this
an infringement of his patent of 1840, and in an action before
Lord Campbell and a special jury in the Queen's Bench, on the
3rd of June 1851, a verdict was given upholding his contention.
For some years no marked improvements in safes were made,
although the manufacture had been taken up in various places
by different firms. Safes had, however, been constructed of
thicker materials, and some attention had been paid to the more
secure attachment of the various parts; also, with the advent
FIG. i.
of the wrought-iron safe, as distinct from the coffer, the practice
had developed of securing the door by a number of bolts operated
by a handle and fastening them in the locked position by thi-
lock proper, in order that a small key might be used (Charles
Chubb's patent, 1845).
Concurrently with the increase of strength in safes and prob-
ably with the increased value of articles preserved in safes, the
skill of the professional thief had also increased, and this went on
for some years until the Cornhill burglary of 1865 called general
attention to the question. In 1860 a patent was taken out by
Samuel Chatwood for a safe constructed of an outer and inner
body with the intervening space filled with ferro-manganese or
speigeleisen in a molten state, the total thickness being 2 in.
(fig. i). The drilling of conical holes in the inner surface of the
outer plate as shown in the figure renders the use of drills of any
materials at present known quite inoperative; as the drill, even
if it could be made sufficiently hard to pierce the speigeleisen.
would on meeting it be bedded in the soft steel and unable to
free itself. The construction of such a safe was an expensive
matter, and it was not till after the robbery above referred to
that he was enabled to sell a single example; it is, however, si ill
in demand for the preservation of diamonds, as probably the only
996
SAFES, STRONG-ROOMS AND VAULTS
absolutely drill-proof receptacle. This patent is noteworthy as
being the only one connected with the lock and safe industry
which has been extended by the privy council.
It is about this period (1860-1870), perhaps the most important
in the history of safes, that the opening of safes by wedges seems
to have become prominent. The effect of wedges was to bend
out the side of the safe sufficiently to allow of the insertion of a
crowbar between the body and the edge of the door, and various
devices were adopted by different makers with the object of
resisting this mode of attack. These devices may be placed in
three classes: (i) the fixing to the door of studs or projections
which, when the door closed, passed into holes or recesses in the
frame of the body; (2) the use of bolts hooking into the side
framing or entering the bolt holes at an angle; (3) the strengthen-
ing of the side framing and of the attachment of the bolts to the
outer door-plate. The third of these methods (fig. 2) was
patented by Samuel Chatwood in 1862, and is still very commonly
employed. The second method was used by Chubb and Chat-
wood, but is not to-day in general use. The first method was
used by all makers of repute, but has now been abandoned, as the
increased structural strength of the better class of safes renders
such devices unnecessary.
To prevent safes from being opened by the drilling of one or
two small holes in such positions as to destroy the security of the
lock itself, advantage was taken of the improvements in the
FIG. 2.
manufacture of high carbon steel, and even in what is to-day
called the " fire-proof " safe a plate of steel which offers con-
siderable resistance to drilling is placed between the outer door
plate and the lock.
For many years little advance was made except such as
consisted in substituting steel for iron and in general gaining
increased strength by the utilization of better materials, although
many safes are made and sold to-day which offer little if any
more resistance to fire and thieves than those of 1860-1870.
About 1888 the " solid " safe was introduced. In this the top,
bottom and two sides of the safe, together with the flanges
at the back only or at both back and front, are bent from a single
steel plate (fig. 3). .This construction, with solid corners, also
illustrated in figs, i and 2, only became practicable in conse-
quence of the great improvements which had been made
in the quality of steel plates; the credit of its invention
formed the subject of litigation, which, however, was not carried
to an issue. The abolition of corner joints, .which up to 1888
had been made by dovetailing and by the use of angle irons,
had been previously attempted by welding, but the process was
abandoned as commercially impracticable.
In the early days of the safe industry in America the conditions
as far as protection from fire was concerned were entirely different
from those obtaining in Great Britain. The timber construction
employed in American buildings rendered fires much more fierce,
but at the same time of very short duration, not more than an
FIG. 3.
hour or two. To meet this condition of affairs thick sides of non-
conducting materials were more efficacious than the chambers
of steam-generating materials employed in British construction,
but the gradual abandonment of timber and the increasing size
of buildings have called for changes in the methods of fire-
proofing.
The American " burglar proof " safe (fig. 4) seems to have
developed from the fire-proof (fig. 5) simply by the addition of
extra thicknesses of metal, usually alternately hard and soft,
without any serious increase of structural strength; this con-
struction, known as the " laminated " or " built up," offers little
resistance to burglars, as the various layers can be separated
from one another by the use either of explosives, especially nitro-
glycerine, or of wedges. In 1890 a commission was appointed
by the U.S.A. government to report upon the strong-rooms or
vaults of the treasury at Washington; and their report 1 was
presented in September 1803. This commission based their
conclusions on experiments conducted in their presence, as well
as on well-authenticated experiments performed by safe-makers
on their own and other makers' productions, and they found
FIG. 4. American Burglar-
proof Construction.
FIG. 5. American Fire-
proof Safe.
that, with the single exception of the Corliss safe, all the safes
which came under their notice and these comprised all the
best-known American makes could be opened by burglars by
1 Report of Special Commission of Experts as to Means of improving
Vault Facilities of the Treasury Department (Washington, 1894).
SAFES, STRONG-ROOMS AND VAULTS
drilling, by the use of explosives, and by the use of wedges and
similar well-known tools. This Corliss safe consists of a spherical
shell of cast iron several inches thick and with its exterior
hardened by " chilling." It is fitted with a ground-in door rotat-
ing concentrically with the shell and internally. The spherical
form and great thickness render the useful space in the interior
very small and of inconvenient shape.
The requirements of a modern safe
may be briefly summarized.
In fire- and thief-proof safes, the
body and door must be constructed
of sufficient thickness, and the joints
as well as the attachment of the door
to the body frame of sufficient
strength, to remain uninjured by a
fall from the highest position in
which the safe may be placed to the
basement, or by the impact of any
debris, coping stones, girders, &c.,
falling from the highest part of the
building to the basement. The
space between the outer body and the
inner casing must be properly charged
with a steam-generating mixture in
sufficient quantity to keep the interior
of the safe moist for the whole time
during which it may be subjected to
heat in the case of a fire. The same
requirements must be satisfied in
burglar-proof safes. In addition, the
body and door must be of such
material and of such thickness that
it is impossible to cut a sufficiently
large hole to extract the contents,
and so constructed that they can-
not be dismembered; the framing
and attachment of the bolts to
the door must be able to resist the
action of wedges or forcing screws;
the vital parts of the lock and bolt-
work must be further protected so
that it is impossible to attack them
by drilling, and this protection must
not be liable to be destroyed by the
action of heat; the lock itself must
not be capable of having its security
destroyed by the explosion of the
largest quantity of explosive which
can be inserted. If these conditions
are satisfied there is little fear that
the oxy-acetylene blowpipe, the elec-
tric arc or the use of the higher ex-
plosives can be made effective. The
amount of protection required to meet
the above conditions must, in each
case, depend on what tools it is
reasonable to anticipate may be employed by the burglar and
the maximum time which he may have at his disposal. The
use of high explosives has become a more frequent method of
attack by burglars in Great Britain, but where the safes have
been of the best quality, of solid construction and good work-
manship, this means of attack has been rendered ineffective.
Strong-rooms and Vaults. It is not hard to imagine that the
use of strong-rooms was much earlier than that of safes; in fact,
there can be no doubt that masonry rooms provided with heavy
wooden doors secured by locks were in use in ancient Egypt, and
that the development of strong-room doors attached to masonry
rooms followed that of the old coffers very closely. No exact
date can be obtained as to the introduction of what we may call
modern strong-rooms, but it is only reasonable to suppose that,
where larger quantities of valuables had to be preserved than a
safe would conveniently hold, a safe-door of larger dimensions
997
would be made and attached to a masonry or brick room. The
next step would be the discovery that the walls of such a room
offered little protection against even unskilled violence, and the
lining of the room with metal would immediately follow; the
door frame, as a matter of course, being attached to the plating.
Strong-rooms of this construction are in common use to-day by
r
Fir,. 6.
banks and other institutions; and, as with safes, so with strong-
rooms, development has taken place in the direction of increasing
the thickness and the structural strength as well as in the applica-
tion of superior locking devices (see LOCKS).
This increase of structural strength has been carried along
somewhat different lines by different makers in Great Britain
and along still more diverse lines in America. Masonry or brick-
work alone is now rarely relied on for the protection of goods of
any great value; concrete, however, reinforced by old railway
metals imbedded therein and sometimes connected together to
form, as it were, a cage, is in use. Railway metals attached to
steel plates and also bedded in concrete are very largely employed.
Thick plates of steel and latterly of manganese and other special
steels are also in common use. Various forms of strong-room
walls are illustrated in fig. 6.
Usually a strong-room is provided with an open-work gate or
99 8
SAFETY-LAMP SAFFI
" grille " as well as a door, so that the contents may be protected
by the gate during business hours without preventing the free
access of air; they are usually also fitted for convenient sub-
division. Safe deposit vaults do not differ in any way from
strong-rooms, except that they are fitted up with small safes or
integers provided with special locks, so that the renter can gain
access to his own integer only, and this only with the assistance
of a custodian.
Many electrical devices have been introduced, having for their
object the giving of an alarm when strong-rooms or safes are im-
properly approached or tampered with. Most of these devices were
quite useless, as they could at once be rendered inoperative; but
though others displayed greater ingenuity, it is very questionable
whether they are of any real utility, and they have not remained in
common use. Where the value known to be contained in a strong-
room is sufficiently great, an attack by tunnelling must be specially
guarded against, and as in this form of attack the time which may be
devoted to preparing for the actual breaking through is practically
unlimited, the use of some device which will give warning of any
such attack before the floor of the strong-room itself is reached is of
very great importance. Probably the best of such devices, and one
which is in practical use, consists of a network of small pipes, laid
in concrete below the floor, and filled with glycerin or other liquid.
To this network a mercury manometer is connected. If any breach
is made in the pipe system, a leakage takes place, causing an
alteration in the level of the mercury in the manometer, which
may, if desired, be arranged to ring a bell. The manometer should
in any case be observed regularly on the opening of the strong-
room. (A. B. CH.)
SAFETY-LAMP, a form of lamp, used especially in mines,
which is so constructed that it will burn without igniting a gaseous
explosive mixture by which it is surrounded. To effect this end,
the flame is encircled with a protecting metal case which is
perforated with numerous small holes. Through these air for
feeding the flame can enter freely and the products of combustion
escape; but the flame or gases cannot pass out at a sufficiently
high temperature to cause the ignition of the explosive mixture
outside, because on arriving at the perforations they give up
much of their heat to the large metallic surface they encounter,
by which it is conducted away. In 1816 Sir Humphry Davy
discovered the suitability of wire gauze as the material of the
metal case, when the substance of the wire was rightly pro-
portioned to the size of the aperture. The standard adopted as
the limit for safety at that time was a gauze of 28 iron wires to
the linear inch, having 784 apertures per square inch, but in
some lamps the apertures are occasionally made still smaller.
The common safety or Davy lamp consists of a small cylindrical
oil lamp, covered with a cylinder of wire gauze about 6 in. long
and I in. in diameter, with a flat gauze top. The upper part of the
gauze is doubled to prevent it from being worn into holes by the
products of combustion, and the air for feeding the flame enters
round the wick. The gauze is mounted in a cage, consisting of three
upright wires, screwed into a flat brass ring at each end. A handle
is attached to the upper ring, while the lower one screws on to a
collar on the oil-vessel of the lamp. When the two parts are screwed
together the lamp is locked by a bolt passing through both parts,
which is screwed down flush with or below the surface of the outer
ring, so that the gauze cannot be removed without the use of a key.
In Stephenson's safety-lamp, generally known as the " Geordie "
from its inventor George Stephenson, the light is covered by a glass
chimney, surrounded by an outer casing and top of wire gauze.
The feed air is admitted through numerous small holes in a copper
ring a little below the level of the wick. This is one of the safest
forms of lamp, but requires considerable care in use, especially in
keeping the small feed holes clear from dust and oil; the glass
protects the gauze from becoming overheated, and when the air is
dangerously charged with gas the light is extinguished.
In the lamp invented by Dr W. Reid Clanny (1776-1850) about
the same time as those of Davy and Stephenson, a glass cylinder
is substituted for the lower portion of the wire gauze. The air for
supplying the flame, entering at the bottom of the gauze and passing
down the inner side of the glass, protects the latter to some extent
from becoming overheated, but a large amount of light is lost by
absorption in the glass, so that there is no great advantage over the
ordinary Davy lamp to compensate for the extra weight and cost,
especially as the safety property of the lamp depends upon the glass
cylinder, which may be readily broken when subjected to the
ordinary accidents of working. A more perfect form of lamp of
the same character is that of Mueseler, which is extensively used in
Belgium. It differs from Clanny's lamp by the addition of a conical
chimney above the flame, which produces a rapid draught, and
consequently a more perfect cooling of the glass cylinder by the
downflow of feed air for the flame.
The safety of the Davy lamp is endangered by exposure to a
current of gas moving at more than 6 ft. a second, as the flame is
then liable to be forced through the gauze, and the Clanrty and
Stephenson lamps are not safe in currents exceeding 8 and 10 ft.
respectively. These early forms have therefore been improved
and modified to meet the requirements of safety in air-currents
travelling at a high velocity. In the Hepplewhite-Gray lamp there
is a conical glass surrounding the light, with a gauze chimney, pro-
tected by an outer metal cylinder; the air supply to the flame is
carried downwards through three tubes forming the standards of
the cage. This lamp, in addition to giving a good light overhead
owing to the shape of the glass, is peculiarly sensitive to gas, and
therefore valuable in testing for fire-damp. Other approved lamps
are the Deflector and those of Marsaut and Mueseler when specially
bonneted to resist extra high-speed currents. The illuminant now
generally used in Great Britain is a mixture of rape oil with half its
volume or more of petroleum, which is more suitable than vegetable
or animal oil alone. In Germany, and also in America, Wolf's lamp,
burning benzoline or petroleum spirit upon an asbestos wick, is
very popular as giving a much better light than oil. Special care is,
however, required in filling, so that no free liquid may be left in the
holder; the spirit must be entirely absorbed by a filling of sponge,
and any superfluous quantity poured off. Portable electric lamps,
supplied by accumulators or dry batteries, have been introduced
into coal-mines; but owing to the weight and cost their use is as yet
very restricted.
The ordinary safety-lamp affords indications of the presence of
fire-damp (marsh gas) in the air of a mine. When the amount
exceeds 2 or 2j%, it may be detected by reducing the flame till it is
practically non-luminous, when a pale blue flame or luminous cap
will be seen above the ordinary flame. This varies in size with the
percentage of fire-damp, until when there is about 10% the blue
flame fills the whole interior of the gauze cylinder. If the lamp is
allowed to remain too long in such a fiery atmosphere, it becomes
dangerous, because the gauze, becoming heated to redness, may
fire the external gas. For detecting the presence of fire-damp in
amounts less than 2j %, special lamps with non-luminous flames
are adopted. In Pieler's lamp, which is of the ordinary Davy form,
alcohol is burned on a silk wick, and a screen is provided so that the
flame can be hidden. When exposed in air containing j % a cap
of I J in. is formed, which increases to 2 in. with J%, and with lj%
the lamp is filled with a deep blue glow. Another and more useful
method is that of Dr F. Clowes, who uses a hydrogen flame 0-4 in.
long, obtained by attaching a cylinder containing compressed
hydrogen to an ordinary safety-lamp. When used for gas testing
the hydrogen is turned into the oil flame, which is for the time ex-
tinguished, and relighted when the observation is finished. So
small a proportion as 0-2 % of gas can be detected by this method.
The locking of safety-lamps, so as to render them incapable of
being opened by the miners when at work, is a point that has given
play to a large amount of ingenuity. One of the most favourite
devices is a combination of the wick-holder with the locking bolt,
so that the latter cannot be withdrawn without lowering the wick
and extinguishing the flame. Another method consists in the use
of a lead rivet, uniting the two parts of the lamp, impressed with a
seal, which cannot be removed without defacing the device. All
this class of contrivances have the defect of only being efficacious
when the miners are not provided with matches or other means of
obtaining a light. A more physically perfect method is that adopted
by Bidder, where the locking bolt is magnetized and held in place
by a force which can only be overcome by the application of a battery
of heavy and powerful steel magnets. These are kept in the lamp
cabin at the pit bottom, where the lamps are cleaned and served out
lighted to the miners at the commencement of the shift, and are
collected before they return to the surface. (H. B.)
SAFFARIDS, a Persian dynasty of the gth century, founded
by Yakub (Yaqub) b. Laith b. Saffar (" coppersmith ") about
866, who, originally a leader of bandits and outlaws, became
governor of Sejistan. He soon added to his province Herat,
Fars, Balkh and Tokharistan, overthrew the Tahirids in Khorasan,
and, nominally still dependent on the caliphs of Bagdad, estab-
lished a dynasty in Sejistan (see CALIPHATE, section C, Abbasids,
10, and PERSIA: History, section B). Soon after 900 the
dynasty became subordinate to the Samanids (q.v.) and few of
its rulers had any real authority. Under the last of the dynasty,
Taj ud-din Binaltagin (1225-1229), a usurper of the royal family
of the Khwarizm shahs, the country was captured by the Mongols.
See S. Lane Poole, Mahommedan Dynasties (1894), p. 129 ; Stockvis,
Manuel d'histoire (Leiden, 1888), vol. i. p. 137; on the later Saffarids,
H. Sauvaire, in the Numismatic Chronicle (1881).
SAFFI, or ASFI, a seaport on the west coast of Morocco, in
32 20' N. 9 1 2' W., 106 m. W.N.W. of Marrakesh. (Pop. about
i S,ooo.) Although the principal wool and grain port of central
Morocco, the anchorage is an open roadstead and communica-
tion with the shore is at times difficult. The old palace with
SAFFLOWER SAFFRON WALDEN
999
beautifully decorated courts in fair repair, built by Mohammed
XVII., is a prominent object above the town, and there are
many interesting buildings and ruins.
SAFFLOWER (ultimately from the Arabic safra, yellow) or
BASTARD SAFFRON (Carthamus linctorius), a plant of the natural
order compositae; its flowers form the basis of the safflower
dye of commerce. The plant is a native of the East Indies, but
is cultivated in Egypt and to some extent in southern Europe.
To obtain the dyeing principle carthamin, CuHuOj the
flowers are first washed to free them from a soluble yellow
colouring matter they contain; they are then dried and powdered,
and digested in an alkaline solution in which pieces of clean white
cotton are immersed. The alkaline solution having been_neutral-
ized with weak acetic acid, the cotton is removed and washed in
another alkaline solution. When this second solution is neutral-
ized with acid, carthamin in a pure condition is precipitated
as a dark red powder. It forms a brilliant but fugitive scarlet
dye for silk, but is principally used for preparing toilet rouge.
SAFFRON (Arab. za'fardn),si product manufactured from the
dried stigmas and part of the style of the saffron crocus, a
cultivated form of Crocus sativus; some of the wild forms (var.
Thomasii, Cartwrightianus) are also employed for the manu-
facture. The purple flower, which blooms late in autumn,
is very similar to that of the common spring crocus, and
the stigmas, which are protruded from the perianth, are
of a characteristic orange-red colour. The fruit is rarely
formed. The Egyptians, though acquainted with the bastard
safHower, do not seem to have possessed saffron; but it is
named in Canticles iv. 14 among other sweet-smelling herbs.
It is also repeatedly mentioned (p6/coj) by Homer, Hippocrates
and other Greek writers; and the word " crocodile " was long
supposed to have been derived from Kpo/cos and 5X6s, whence
we have such stories as that " the crocodile's tears are
never true save when he is forced where saffron groweth "
(Fuller's Worthies). It has long been cultivated in Persia and
Kashmir, and is supposed to have been introduced into China
by the Mongol invasion. It is mentioned in the Chinese materia
medica (Pun tsaou, 1552-1578). The chief seat of cultivation
in early times, however, was the town of Corycus (modern
Korghoz) in Cilicia, and from this central point of distribution
it may not improbably have spread east and west. According to
Hehn, the town derived its name from the crocus; Reymond, on
the other hand, with more probability, holds that the name of the
drug arose from that of the town. It was cultivated by the
Arabs in Spain about 961, and is mentioned in an English leech-
book of the loth century, but seems to have disappeared from
western Europe till reintroduced by the crusaders. According
to Hakluyt, it was brought into England from Tripoli by a
pilgrim, who hid a stolen corm in the hollow of his staff. It was
especially cultivated near Hinton in Cambridgeshire and in
Essex at Saffron Walden, its cultivators being called " crokers."
Saffron was used as an ingredient in many of the complicated
medicines of early times. That it was very largely used in
cookery is evidenced by many writers; thus Laurenbergius
(Apparatus planlarum, 1632) makes the large assertion " In
re familiari vix ullus est telluris habitatus angulus ubi non sit
croci quotidiana usurpatio aspersi vel incocti cibis." The
Chinese used also to employ it largely, and the Persians and
Spaniards still mix it with their rice. As a perfume it was
strewn in Greek halls, courts and theatres, and in the Roman
baths. The 'streets of Rome were sprinkled with saffron when
Nero made his entry into the city.
It was, however, mainly used as a dye. It was a royal colour
in early Greek times, though afterwards, perhaps from its abundant
use in the baths and as a scented salve, it was especially
appropriated by the hetairae. In ancient Ireland a king's
mantle was dyed with saffron, and even down to the 1 7 th century
the " lein-croich," or saffron-dyed shirt, was worn by persons
of rank in the Hebrides. In medieval illumination it furnished,
as a glaze upon burnished tinfoil, a cheap and effective sub-
stitute for gold. The sacred spot on the forehead of a Hindu
pundit is also partly composed of it. Its main use in England
was to colour pastry and confectionery, and it is still used for
this purpose in some parts of the country (notably Cornwall).
One grain of saffron rubbed to powder with sugar and a little water
imparts a distinctly yellow tint to ten gallons of water. This
colouring power is due to the presence of polychlorite, a substance
whose chemical formula appears to be CHOu, and which may be
obtained by treating saffron with ether, and afterwards exhausting
with water. Under acids it yields the following reaction
CHO,,+H/)=.2C 1 ,H 1 ,O,-(-C 11 ,H 1 40+C,H 1 A.
Polychlorite. Crocin. EiKnlialoiL Sufar.
Crocin, according to Watts, Diet, of Chem., has a composition of
Ci>HoOu or CuHoOjo. This crocin is a red colouring matter, and
it is surmised that the red colour of the stigmas is due to this reaction
taking place in nature.
Saffron is chiefly cultivated in Spain, France, Sicily, on the
lower spurs of the Apennines and in Persia and Kashmir. The
ground has to be thoroughly cleared of stones, manured and trenched,
and the corms are planted in ridges. The flowers are gathered at
the end of October, in the early morning, just when they are beginning
to open after the night. The stigmas and a part of the style are
carefully picked out, and the wet saffron is then scattered on sheets
of paper to a depth of 2 or 3 in. ; over this a cloth is laid, and next a
board with a heavy weight. A strong heat is applied for about two
hours so as to make the saffron " sweat," and a gentler temperature
for a further period of twenty-four hours, the cake being turned
every hour so that every part is thoroughly dried. This is known
as cake saffron to distinguish it from hay saffron, which con>i-i~
merely of the dried stigmas.
The drug has naturally always been liable to great adulteration
in spite of penalties, the seventy of which suggests the surviving
tradition of its sacred character. Thus in Nuremberg a regular
saffron inspection was held, and in the I5th century we read of
men being burned in the market-place along with their adulterated
saffron, while on another occasion three persons convicted of the
same crime were buried alive. Grease and butter are still very
frequently mixed with the cake, and shreds of beef dipped in saffron
water are also used. Good saffron has a deep orange-red colour ;
if it is light yellow or blackish, it is bad or too old.
SAFFRON WALDEN, a market-town and municipal borough
in the Saffron Walden parliamentary division of Essex, England,
beautifully situated near the Cam in a valley surrounded by
hills, on a branch of the Great Eastern railway, 43^ m. N.N.E.
from London. Pop. (1001) 5896. It has a somewhat ancient
appearance and possesses a spacious market-place. Of the old
castle, dating probably from the i2th century, but in part
protected by much earlier earthworks, the keep and a few other
portions still remain. Near it are a series of curious circular
excavations in the chalk, called the Maze, of unknown date or
purpose. The earthworks west and south of the town are of
great extent; there was a large Saxon burial-ground here.
The church of St Mary the Virgin, a beautiful specimen of the
Perpendicular style, dating from the reign of Henry VII., but
frequently repaired and restored, contains the tomb of Lord
Audley, chancellor to Henry VIII. There is an Edward VI.
grammar school, occupying modern buildings. The town pos-
sesses a museum with good archaeological and natural history
collections, a literary institute and a horticultural society. The
benevolent institutions include the hospital and the Edward
VI. almshouses. There is a British and Foreign School Society's
training college for mistresses. In the neighbourhood is the fine
mansion of Audley End, built by Thomas, ist earl of Suffolk,
in 1603 on the ruins of the abbey, converted in 1190 from a
Benedictine priory founded by Geoffrey de Mandeville in 1136.
Brewing, malting and iron-founding are carried on. The
borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors.
Area, 7502 acres.
Saffron Walden (Waledana) was almost certainly fortified by
the Britons, and probably by some earlier race. The town
corporation grew out of the Gild of the Holy Trinity, which was
incorporated under Henry VIII.. the lord of the town, in 1514.
It was dissolved under Edward VI., and a charter was obtained
for Walden, appointing a treasurer and chamberlain and twenty-
four assistants, all elective, who, with the commonalty, formed
the corporation. In 1694 William and Mary made Walden a
free borough, with a mayor, 4 aldermen and 1 2 town councillors.
The corporation became a local board of health under the act
of 1858, and a municipal borough in 1875. Tfc e culture of
saffron was the most characteristic industry at Walden from the
reign of Edward III. until its gradual extinction about 1768.
IOOO
SAFRANINE SAGA
SAFRANINE, in chemistry, the azonium compounds of
symmetrical diamino-phenazine and containing the ring system
annexed:
They are obtained by the joint oxidation of one molecule of
a paradiamine with two molecules of a primary amine; by
the condensation of para-aminoazo compounds with primary
amines (O. Witt, Ber., 1877, 10, p. 874), and by the action
of para-nitrosodialkylanilines with secondary bases such as
diphenylmetaphenylenediamine. They are crystalline solids
showing a characteristic green metallic lustre; they are readily
soluble in water and dye red or violet. They are strong bases
and form stable monacid salts. Their alcoholic solution shows
a yellow-red fluorescence.
Phenosafranine is not very stable in the free state; its chloride
forms green plates. It can be readily diazotized, and the diazonium
salt when boiled with alcohol yields aposafranine or benzene induline,
CijHuNj. F. Kehrmann showed that aposafranine could be dia-
zotized in the presence of cold concentrated sulphuric acid, and the
diazonium salt on boiling with alcohol yielded phenylphenazonium
salts. Aposafranone, CisH^NaO, is formed by heating aposafranine
with concentrated hydrochloric acid. These three compounds are
perhaps to be represented as ortho- or as paraquinones (see papers
by F. Kehrmann, O. Fischer and E. Hepp; R. Nietzki and others,
Ber., 1895 et seq.). The " safranine " of commerce is a tolusafranine.
The first aniline dye-stuff to be prepared on a manufacturing scale
was mauveine, CirHuIvUCl, which was obtained by Sir W. H. Perkin
by heating crude aniline with potassium bichromate and sulphuric
acid. It is a N-phenylsafranine (see INDULINES).
SAGA (literally a story committed to writing) , a word derived
from Icel. segja, to say. The term is common to most of the
Teutonic languages, where we find Eng. say, Ger. sagen, the
O. Eng. secgan, Dan. sige and Swed. segja, al] identical in meaning.
A saga, therefore, was originally something reported, segin
saga, a tale told, in English a saw. But the earliest literature of
Scandinavia goes back to an age before writing was invented,
and when the legends were first put down they were called
sagas because they were things which had been told or repeated
from mouth to mouth. The early books speak of sagas which,
apparently, had never been written down and were in conse-
quence lost ; but, as soon as .the art of writing was understood,
the word saga began for the future to be used exclusively for
written historical books. A volume made up of such histories
was known as a sogubdk or book of sagas. They were not rigidly
historical; any story which was written down, and repeated
according to the literary formula, was called a saga. The telling
of tales was a recognized form of entertainment at Icelandic
banquets, and in Haraldssaga HaftSrdfia there are very interesting
details regarding these public saga-tellings; the person who
repeated or read the tale being known as the soguma'Sr or saga-
man, and being held in high honour at the feast.
The saga was properly a creation of the peculiar conditions
under which Icelandic society was constituted in the earliest
medieval times. The aristocratic Icelander had no diversions,
except games of strength and skill out of doors and the listening
to professional story-tellers indoors. As has been often pointed
out, the saga is a prose epic, and in its various kinds it follows
strict laws of composition. The lesser epic, in its original form,
was the biography of some heroic Icelander who had lived in
the loth or nth century. It was composed with great
regularity, so as to proceed uniformly from the birth of the
hero to his death, and indeed from before the one date until
after the other. The style is brief, clear and conversational;
the hero was often a distinguished poet, and in that case some
of the best of his verses are interwoven into the narrative,
being put in his mouth on striking occasions. Alliteration takes
a great part in the ornament of the style. The skill with which
the story is told, the high romantic sense of honour and courage
which is displayed, the quick turns of the dialogue, the brilliant
evolution of the plot, all these give enduring charm to the more
successful and ample of the sagas, and in the earlier examples
these qualities are very rarely missing. It is to be remembered,
however, that the saga was intended to be listened to, not read,
by an audience which was mainly interested in three subjects,
namely fighting, litigation and pedigree. It was illegitimate
for the saga-man, in the preparation of his epic, to allow himself
to stray for any length of time from one of those three themes;
since even love must be considered in the light of an episode.
The period of the saga-age, as it was called, the sogu-old or
epoch celebrated in the sagas, is now confined between the years
890 and 1030, and opens with the original colonization of Iceland.
The deaths in 1030 of two great statesmen, Snorri and Skapti
the Lawman, mark its close; almost immediately afterwards,
before the end of the nth century, the actual age of saga-
composition is in full action; and lastly comes the rit-old, or
age of writing when the sagas were preserved in their present
literary form, the blossoming time of which was the I3th century.
According to the definite statement of the great historian,
Sturla, the first man who wrote down in the Norse tongue, in
Iceland, " histories relating to times ancient and modern," was
Ari Fr65i (1067-1148), who was therefore the earliest of the
saga-writers. He, as we know, was the author of three works
of vast importance in the history of Icelandic literature.
These were Konunga-b6k or the Book of King, Landnama-bdk
or the Book of Settlements and Islendinga-bdk or the Book of
Icelanders. The second of these, in which Ari was assisted by
Kolsegg Asbjornsson, survives and is of priceless value. Of the
first and third, we possess abbreviations and summaries. It is
believed that the admirable style in which the sagas are composed
was the invention of Ari, to whose individual genius the form
of classic prose tradition is attributed. He has no rival in this
respect, and is the true father of the Icelandic saga. The works
of Saemund Vigfusson (1056-1133), who succeeded Ari as a
writer of the lives of kings, are unfortunately lost.
We now pass to what are called the Greater or Islendinga
sagas, which are of a more intense and romantic character
than the historical biographies. Among these the greatest is
Njalssaga (or Njala}, which few critics will question to be the
most eminent masterpiece of Icelandic literature. There is
no clue to the name of the author, who was evidently a lawyer;
extensive as is the work, it is evidently written by one hand,
for peculiarities and felicitous originalities of style recur through-
out the whole saga. It must have been composed between
1230 and 1280. Vigfusson has described Njala as being, par
excellence, the saga of law, and adds, " the very spirit indeed of
Early Law seems to breathe through its pages." The scene
in which Njal, the Lawman of judgment and peace, is burned
in his homestead by his enemies is perhaps the most magnificent
passage which has been preserved in the whole ancient literature
of the North. The story of Njala is placed at the close of the
loth and the first years of the nth century. Eyrbyggiasaga
deals with politics as Njalssaga deals with law; it is a precious
compendium of history and tradition handed down from heathen
times. It has been suggested that it may be, at all events in
sart, the work of Sturla the Lawman, who died in 1284.
Extremely beautiful in its relation to external nature, a matter
often ignored in the sagas, is Laxdaelasaga, which is also the most
romantic in sentiment. It was probably written about 1235,
sut by whom is unknown. The aristocratic spirit of the great
[celandic families finds its most characteristic exposition in
Egilssaga, a very vigorous tale of adventure, the central figure
of which, Egil, is depicted with more psychological subtlety
;han is usual in the sagas; it probably belongs to about 1230.
Into Grellissaga there enter biographical and mythical elements,
curiously mingled; it is also confused in form, and is probably
a recension, made about 1310, of two or more earlier sagas now
t, the finest parts of which it is thought that Sturla may have
written. These are the five famous groups of anonymous
narrative which are known as the Greater Sagas.
The Minor Sagas must be treated more briefly. Hensa-
lorissaga, belonging to the south-west of Iceland, deserves
attention because of its extreme antiquity; it has been dated
993. Gunnlaugssaga Ormstungu (The story of Gunnlaug Worm-
SAGAING SAGAN
Tongue) is a love-story of great sentimental charm. In Gislasaga
the gloom of the Icelandic outlaw-life is strikingly depicted in
the adventures of Gisli, who is under a ban and is hunted from
place to place. A very unusual specimen of the minor saga is
Bandamannasaga, a comic story of manners in the north of
Iceland in the nth century, in which an intrigue of the old
families banded against the pretensions of a wealthy parvenu,
is told in a spirit of broad humour. The most archaic of the
minor sagas is Kormakssaga, the story of the loves of the dark-
eyed Kormak and Steingerda; this is, according to Vigfusson,
the most primitive piece of Icelandic prose writing that has
come down to us. Another very ancient and very simple
saga is Vatzdaelasaga. Among sagas which deal with the
earliest history of America in the chronicles of Greenland and
Vinland, a foremost place is taken by Floamannasaga, which
possesses peculiar interest from its description of the shipwreck
of colonists on the coast of Greenland; this belongs to the close
of the loth century. We possess a late (i3th century) recension
of what must have been equally important as a record of the
Greenland colony in the nth century, Fostbraedrasaga. Vigfusson
formed a class of still shorter sagas than these, thaettir or
" morsels " of narrative. At the close of the great period of the
composition of all these anonymous sagas, of which few can
have been written later than 1260, a work of enormous length
and value was composed or compiled by a poet and historian
of great eminence, Sturla Thordsson (1215-1284). About the
year 1270 he began to compile the mass of sagas which is now
known by his name as Sturhmgasaga. The theory that Sturla
was the author of the whole of this bulky literature is now
abandoned; it is certain that Hrafn Sveinbiornssaga, for instance,
belongs to an earlier generation, and the same is true of
GuZmundar Saga Gdda. Vigfusson distinguished these and other
sagas, which Sturla evidently only edited,, from those which
it is certain that he composed, and gathered the latter together
under the title of 1 ' slendingasaga. It is certain that it is to Sturla
that we owe almost all our knowledge of Icelandic history from
1200 to 1260. Islendinga is divided into two main sections,
the former closing in a general massacre of the characters of
the story in about 1240, the latter dealing much more minutely
with new persons and subsequent events. To Sturla also are
attributed two saga-biographies, the Hakonssaga and the
Magnussaga. It is a remarkable fact that while Icelandic saga-
literature begins and ends with a definite figure of a writer, all
that lies between is wholly anonymous. An was the earliest and
Sturla the latest of the saga-writers of the classical period, but
in the authors of Njala and Laxdaela we have nameless writers
whose genius was still greater than that of the pioneer and of the
rear-guard of Icelandic literature. These unknown men deserve
a place of honour among the best narrative-writers who have
ever lived. The elder brother of Sturla was called Olaf Hvitaskald,
or the White Poet (i209?-i259); he was a learned man, who
worked at the arrangement and compilation of the sagas which
form the mass of Sturlunga. In another class are the stories of
bishops, Biskupasogur, which are not sagas in the true sense,
but have considerable value as biographical material for recon-
structing Icelandic social life in the 1 2th century. The admirable
saga of Bishop Laurence (1266-1331) was composed by his
private secretary, Einar Haflidason (1304-1393), who also
wrote 'Annals, and is the latest Icelandic biographer. After
his time a long silence fell on the literature of the country,
a silence not broken until the revival of Icelandic learning in
the 1 7th century.
It is evident that a vast number of sagas must be lost; when we
consider how many are preserved, we can only express amazement
at the fecundity of the art of saga-telling in the classic age. The
MSS., on which what we have were preserved, were all on vellum,
and there were no sagas written on paper until the time of Bishop
Odd, who died in 1630; there was an enormous destruction of
vellums during the dark age. After 1640 it became the practice to
make transcripts on paper from the perishing vellum MSS. The best
authority on the history of the sagas is the copious prolegomena to
Dr Gudbrandr Vigfussbn's edition of the text of Sturlungasaea,
published in 2 vols., by the Clarendon Press at Oxford in 1878. See
also the edition of Biskupasdgur, issued by the same author, at
1001
Copenhagen, in 1858. M&bius and Vigfusson published the Porn-
sogur or archaic sagas in 1860, and all the work of Vigfusson calls
for the closest attention from those interested in this subject. In
connexion with the descents of Northmen on the shores of Britain
particular interest attaches to the four volumes of sagas edited for
the " Rolls " series (1887-1894). William Morris, who had done
much to interpret the spirit of the sagas to English readers, and who
published a translation of Grcttissaga in 1869, started in 1891 the
Saga Library," in conjunction with Mr E. Magnusson; of this a
sixth volume appeared in 1906. Mr Sephton has published versions
of several of the purely historical sagas. No account has been given
above of the famous Heimskringla or " Round of the World," of
Snorri Sturlason, because this great work, although it contains
stones of the kings of Norway, hardly belongs to the same class as
the biographical sagas of Iceland. The Heimskringla is purely a
storehouse of primitive Norwegian history.
See also J6nnson, Der oldnordiske og oldislandske Lileraturshistorie
(Copenhagen, 1893-1902); F. W. Horn, Gcschichte der LiUratur
des skandtnavischen Nordens (Leipzig, 1879). (E. G.)
SAGAING, a district and division of Upper Burma, lying to
the south and west of Mandalay. The district has an area of
1862 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 282,658, showing an increase of 15% in
the decade. It occupies both banks of the Irrawaddy, at its
confluence with the river Chindwin. The chief crops are sesa-
mum, millet, rice, peas, wheat and cotton. The total rainfall in
1905 was 34-76 in., taken at Sagaing. In the hot season the
maximum shade temperature rises to a little over 100 F. The
lowest readings in the cold season average about 56 F.
Sagaing, the headquarters town, is opposite Ava, a few miles
below Mandalay; pop. (1001) 9643. It was formerly a capital
of Burma. It is the terminus of the railway to-Myitkyina. A
steam ferry connects with the Rangoon-Mandalay line, and the
steamers of the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company call daily.
The Sagaing division includes the four districts of Upper and
Lower Chindwin, Shwebo and Sagaing; area, 29,566 sq. m.;
pop. (1901) 1,000,483.
SAGALLO, a small settlement on the north shore of the
Gulf of Tajura, French Somaliland. A dismantled fort built by
the Egyptians (who occupied the place between 1875 and 1884)
is the most prominent object. In January 1889 Sagallo was
occupied by a Cossack chief named Achinov, who was accom-
panied by the archimandrite Paisi and some 200 people, including
priests, women and children. Paisi had been entrusted by the
metropolitan of Novgorod with an evangelistic mission to the
Abyssinian Church; while Achinov stated that he had a com-
mission from the Negus for the purchase of arms and ammunition.
The presence of Achinov at Sagallo (where he occupied the
fort, which he found deserted) was regarded by the French
government as an invasion of French territorial rights. The
Russian foreign office having disavowed (;th of February) any
connexion with Achinov, instructions were sent from Paris to
secure the removal of the Cossacks. On the iyth of February
French warships appeared off the port, and an ultimatum was
sent to Achinov calling on him to surrender, but without effect.
The fort was bombarded, and seven persons killed, two
being women and four children. The Cossacks then surren-
dered, not having fired a shot. They were subsequently
deported to Suez, whence they returned to Russia. Achinov
was interned by the Russian government for some months (until
October 1889). In 1891 he returned to Abyssinia. Paisi was
promoted by his ecclesiastical superiors. In Paris the incident
caused great excitement amongst the Russophils, and the con-
sequent demonstrations led to the suppression of the League
of Patriots and the prosecution of M. Paul Deroulede.
See L' Archimandrite Paisi el I' Ataman Achinoff, by vicomte de
Constantin (Paris, 1891).
SAGAN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Silesia, situated on the Bober, a tributary of the Oder, 60 m.
S.S.E. of Frankfort-on-Oder and 102 m. S.E. of Berlin by the
direct main line of railway to Breslau. Pop. (1905) 14,208.
It is still partly surrounded by its old fortifications and has
numerous medieval houses. It contains the handsome palace
of the dukes of Sagan. Among other buildings are an Evan-
gelical church with a conspicuous steeple and containing the
burial vaults of the ducal family, and Augustine and a Jesuit'
xxin. 32 a
1002
SAGAR SAGINAW
monasterial church, a medieval town-hall with old cloisters
attached, a Roman Catholic gymnasium and a large hospital,
named after its founder, the duchess Dorothea (1793-1862), wife
of Edmund, duke of Talleyrand-Perigord-Dino. The leading
industry of the town is cloth-weaving, with wool and flax
spinning; there is also some trade in wool and grain.
The mediate principality of Sagan, now forming a portion of
the Prussian governmental district of Liegnitz, and formed in
1397 out of a portion of the duchy of Glogau, has several times
changed hands by purchase as well as by inheritance. One of its
most famous possessors was Wallenstein, who held it for seven
years before his death in 1634. Bought by Prince Lobkowitz
in 1646, the principality remained in his family until 1787, when
it was sold to Peter, duke of Courland, whose descendant, Prince
Bozon (b. 1832), son of Napoleon Louis (1811-1898), duke of
Talleyrand-Perigord, owned it in 1910. The principality has an
area of nearly 500 sq. m. and a population of 65,000.
SAGAR or SAUGOR ISLAND, an island at the mouth of the
Hugli river, in the Twenty-four Parganas district of Bengal.
The word means " sea "; and, as being the place where the sacred
stream of the Ganges is believed to mingle with the ocean, the
island is one of the most frequented places of Hindu pilgrimage
in all India, the time for the greatest annual gathering being
in January. On the seaward face is a lighthouse, ,and farther
out are the Sandheads, the cruising-ground of the Calcutta
pilots.
SAGASTA, PRAXEDES MATED (1827-1903), Spanish states-
man, was born on the 2ist of July 1827 at Torrecilla de Cameros,
in the province of Logrono. He began life as an engineer, and
from his college days he displayed very advanced Liberal inclina-
tions. He entered the Cortes in 1854 as a Progressist deputy for
Zamora. After the coup d'etat of Don Leopold O'Donnell in
1856, Sagasta had to go into exile in France, but promptly
returned, to become the manager of the Progressist paper La
Iberia, and to sit in the Cortes from 1859 to 1863. He seconded
the Progressist and revolutionary campaign of Prim and the
Progressists against the throne of Queen Isabella, conspiring
and going into exile with them. He returned, via Gibraltar,
with Prim, Serrano and others, to take part in the rising at
Cadiz, which culminated in the revolution of September 1868,
and Sagasta was in succession a minister several times under
Serrano and then under King Amadeo of Savoy, 1868-1872.
Sagasta ultimately headed the most Conservative groups of the
revolutionary politicians against Ruiz Zorrilla and the Radicals,
and against the Federal Republic in 1873. He took office under
Marshal Serrano during 1874, after the pronunciamiento of
General Pavia had done away with the Cortes and the Federal
Republic. He vainly attempted to crush the Carlists in 1874,
and to check the Alphonsist military conspiracy that overthrew
the government of Marshal Serrano at the end of December
1874. Barely eight months after the restoration of the Bourbons
in the autumn of 1875, Sagasta accepted the new state of things,
and organized the Liberal dynastic party that confronted
Canovas and the Conservatives for five years in the Cortes,
until the Liberal leader used the influence of his military allies',
Jovellar, Campos and others, to induce the king to ask him to
form a Cabinet in 1881. The Liberals only retained the con-
fidence of the king by postponing the realization of almost all
their democratic and reforming programme, and limiting their
efforts to financial reorganization and treaties of commerce. A
military and republican rising hastened Sagasta's fall, and
he was not readmitted into the councils of Alphonso XII. On
the death of that king in 1885, Sagasta became premier with
the assent of Canovas, who suspended party hostility in the
early days of the regency of Queen Christina. Sagasta remained
in office until 1890, long enough to carry out all his reform
programme, including universal suffrage and the establishment
of trial by jury. A coalition of generals and Conservatives turned
Sagasta out in July 1800, and he only returned to the councils
of the regency in December 1892, when the Conservative party
split into two groups under Canovas and Silvela. He was still
in office when the final rising of the Cubans began in February
1895, and he had to resign in March because he could
not find superior officers in the army willing to help him to
put down the turbulent and disgraceful demonstrations of the
subalterns of Madrid garrison against newspapers which had
given offence to the military. Sagasta kept quiet until nearly
the end of the struggle with the colonies, when the queen-regent
had to dismiss the Conservative party, much shorn of its prestige
by the failure of its efforts to pacify the colonies, and by the
assassination of its chief, Canovas delCastillo. Sagasta's attempt
to conciliate both the Cubans and the United States by a tardy
offer of colonial home rule, the recall of General Weyler, and other
concessions, did not avert the disastrous war with the United
States and its catastrophe. The Liberal party and Sagasta
paid the penalty of their lack of success, and directly the Cortes
met in March 1899, after the peace treatyof the loth of December
1898 with the United States, they were defeated in the senate.
He pursued his policy of playing into the hands of the
sovereign whilst keeping up the appearances of a Liberal, almost
democratic, leader, skilful in debate, a trimmer par excellence,
and abler in opposition than in office. He returned with the
Liberals to power in March 1 90 1 . His task, however, was beyond
his years. The economic situation was of the gravest. Strikes
and discontent were rife. Still, Sagasta held on long enough
to witness the surrender of the regency by Queen Christina into
the hands of her son, Alfonso XIII., in May 1902. In the fol-
lowing December _Sagasta !was defeated on a vote of censure
and resigned office. Shortly afterwards he fell into ill- health,
and died at Madrid on the isth of January 1903.
SAGE, RUSSELL (1816-1906), American financier, was born
in Verona township, Oneida county, New York, on the 4th of
August 1816. He worked as a farm-hand until he was 15,
when he became an errand boy in a grocery conducted by his
brother, Henry R. Sage, in Troy, New York. He had a part
interest in 1837-1839 in a retail grocery in Troy, and in a whole-
sale store there in 1839-1857. He served as an alderman of
Troy in 1841-1848, and as treasurer of Rensselaer county in
1845-1849. In 1853-1857 he was a Whig representative in
Congress. He became an associate of Jay Gould in the develop-
ment and sale of railways; and in 1863 removed to New York
City, where, besides speculating in railway stocks, he became
a money-lender and a dealer in " puts " and " calls " and
" privileges," and in 1874 bought a seat in the New York Stock
Exchange. He gradually accumulated a fortune, which at
his death was variously estimated as from $60,000,000 to
$80,000,000. On the 4th of December 1891 an attempt was
made to assassinate him in his office by one Henry Norcross,
who demanded a large sum of money, and upon being refused
exploded a dynamite bomb, and was himself killed. 1 Sage died
in New York on the 22nd of July 1906. In 1869 he had married
Miss Margaret Olivia Slocum (b. 1828), a graduate (1847) of
the Troy Female Seminary (now the Emma Willard School).
She inherited nearly all of his great fortune, and out of it
she gave away a long series of liberal benefactions to various
institutions
SAGINAW, a city and the county-seat of Saginaw county,
Michigan, U.S.A., situated on both banks of the Saginaw river,
about 1 6 m. from its entrance into Saginaw Bay and about
96 m. N.W. of Detroit. Pop. (1890) 46,322, (1900) 42,345,
of whom 11,435 were -foreign-born, (1910) 50,510. Saginaw
is served by the Grand Trunk, seven divisions of the Pere
Marquette (which has repair shops here) and four divisions of
the Michigan Central railways, by interurban electric railways to
Detroit and Bay City, and by steamboat lines to several of the
lake ports. The city is built on level ground covering an area
of about 13 sq. m. and somewhat more elevated than the sur-
rounding country. In the city are St Vincent's Orphan Home
(1875) and St Mary's Hospital (1874) under the Sisters of Charity,
a Woman's Hospital (1888) and the Saginaw General Hospital
1 Mr Sage's secretary was also killed, and one of his clerks, W. R.
Laidlaw, jr., was badly injured. Laidlaw afterward repeatedly
sued Sage for damages, claiming that Sage had used him as a shield
at the moment of the explosion, but his suits were unsuccessful.
SAGITTA SAGUENAY
1003
(1887); the Hoyt Library and the Public Library; a large
auditorium, belonging to the city; an armoury; the Germania
Institute, with a kindergarten, a gymnastic school and a German
library; and a free bathhouse and manual training school
(1903), a part of the public school system. There is an annual
music festival in May. The city has parks, including Hoyt
Park (27 acres), used for athletic sports, Rust Park (150 acres),
occupying an island in the river, and Riverside Park, a pleasure
resort. Saginaw is situated in a good farming region with
a fertile soil, especially adapted to the culture of sugar beets;
other important crops are beans, cabbages, tomatoes, cucumbers,
hay, apples and grains. In the vicinity of the city there are
salt wells, and Saginaw county is the most productive coalfield
in the state in 1907 its output was 1,047,927 tons, more than
half the total for the state. The city is an important distributing
centre, has a large wholesale trade (especially in groceries,
hardware, boots and shoes, and dry goods), and in 1904 in the
value of its factory products ($10,403,508, 20-2% more than
in 1900) it ranked fifth among the cities of the state. The muni-
cipality owns and operates the water- works. The first settlement
was made on the west bank of the river in 1815 and was called
Saginaw City; the settlement on the east side of the river
made in 1849 was called East Saginaw and was financed by
Eastern capitalists. East Saginaw in 1855 was incorporated as
a village. East Saginaw and Saginaw City each received a city
charter in 1859, but in 1890 the two were consolidated as the
city of Saginaw, and in 1897 the charter was revised.
SAGITTA ("the arrow" or "dart"), in astronomy, a con-
stellation of the northern hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus
(4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd century B.C.), and catalogued
by Ptolemy, Tycho Brahe and Hevelius, who each described
5 stars. The fable was that this constellation was one of the
arrows with which Hercules killed the vulture which gnawed
the liver of Prometheus. 5. Sagittae is a short period variable,
period 8-38 days, range in magnitude 5-6 to 6-4.
SAGITTARIUS (" the archer "), in astronomy, the gth sign
of the zodiac (<?..) denoted by the symbol/*, an arrow or dart.
It is also a constellation, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century
B.C.) and Aratus (3rd century B.C.), and catalogued by Ptolemy,
31 stars, Tycho Brahe 14 and Hevelius 22. The Greeks repre-
sented this constellation as a centaur in the act of shooting an
arrow, and professed it to be Crotus, son of Eupheme, the nurse
of the Muses. Several short period variables occur in the
constellation, e.g. X3 Sagittarii, Wy! SagUtarii and Y Sagillarii,
having periods of 7-01, 7-59, 5-77 days respectively. Nova
Sagittarii is a " new " star, which was discovered by Mrs Flem-
ing in 1899; the nebula M. 17 Sagittarii is an omega or horse-
shoe nebula, while the nebula and cluster M. 8 Sagittarii is a
splendid irregular nebula associated with a great number of
faint stars.
SAGO, a food-starch prepared from a deposit in the trunk of
several palms, the principal source being the sago palm (Mctro-
xylon Sagu) (see fig.), a native of the East Indian Archipelago,
the sago forests being especially extensive in the island of Ceram.
The trees flourish only in low marshy situations, seldom attaining
a height of 30 ft., with a thick-set trunk. They attain maturity
as starch-yielding plants at the age of about fifteen years, when
the stem is gorged with an enormous mass of spongy medullary
matter, around which is an outer rind consisting of a hard dense
woody wall about 2 in. thick. When the fruit is allowed to form
and ripen, the whole of this starchy core disappears, leaving the
stem a mere hollow shell; and the tree immediately after ripening
its fruit dies. When ripe the palms are cut down, the stems
divided into sections and split up, and the starchy pith extracted
and grated to a powder. The powder is then kneaded wit h water
over a strainer, through which the starch passes, leaving the
woody fibre behind. The starch settles in the bottom of a trough,
in which it is floated, and after one or two washings is fit for use
by the natives for their cakes and soups. That intended for
exportation is mixed into a paste with water and rubbed through
sieves into small grains, from the size of a coriander seed and
larger, whence it is known according to size as pearl sago, bullet
sago, &c. A large proportion of the sago imported into Europe
comes from Borneo, and the increasing demand has led to a large
extension of sago-palm planting along the marshy river-banks
of Sarawak.
Sago is also obtained from Mciroxyloti Rumphii as well as
from various other East Indian palms such as the Gomuti palm
(Arenga sacchari/era), the Kittul palm (Caryota urens), the
Sago Palm (Metroxylon Sagu), much reduced.
1, Portion of leaf, J nat. size. 4, Spike of male flowers, J nat.
2, Portion of female inflo- size.
rescence in fruiting stage, 5, Same cut lengthwise,
nat. size. 6, Fruit, J nat. size.
3, Branch of male inflorescence, 7, Section of fruit and seed, s;
J nat. size. e, embryo.
cabbage palm (Corypha umbraculifera), besldesCoryphaGebogan,
Raphia flabelliformis and Phoenix farinif era, also from Mauritia
flexuosa and Guilielma speciosa, two South American species.
It is also obtained from the pith of species of Cycas.
SAGUENAY, a river of Quebec province. Canada, flowing
into the St Lawrence 120 m. N.E. of Quebec. It drains Lake
St John, from which it issues by two impassable rapids, La
Grande and La Petite D6charge. Thence for 40 m. it flows
E.S.E. in a series of rapids, navigable only by skilled boatmen
in canoes, to Chicoutimi, the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop,
a prosperous little town exporting great quantities of lumber.
Six miles farther down is Ha Ha Bay, a favourite summer resort.
From Chicoutimi the river is navigable by small steamers,
and from Ha Ha Bay to the mouth by vessels of the largest
size. It is indeed rather a loch or bay than a river, containing
neither rock nor shoal, and having at its mouth a depth of some
600 ft. greater than that of the St Lawrence. Its width varies
from three-quarters of a mile to two miles, and the waters are
blackened by the shadow of treeless cliffs, over 1000 ft. in height,
separated here and there by narrow wooded valleys, and culminat-
ing in Capes Trinity and Eternity, 1600 and 1800 ft. in height.
Above Chicoutimi it runs through hills of about 400 ft. in height .
densely wooded with spruce, maple and birch. Tadoussac, at
its mouth, is the oldest European trading post in Canada.
Lake St John is a shallow basin, 26 m. by 20, with an area
of 365 sq. m. It receives the waters of the Ashuapmuchuan,
often spoken of as the upper course of the Saguenay, the
Mistassini, the Peribonka and various other important streams.
A numerous farming population live near its snores. It is well
known to anglers as containing the celebrated ouinaniehe, or
land-locked salmon, which attains a weight of about 6 Ib.
SAGUNTUM SAHARA
SAGUNTUM, now Sagunto or Murviedro, an ancient town
in a fertile district of eastern Spain (Castellon de la Plana)
20 m. N. of Valencia, close to the coast. Its history comprises
one brief flash of tragic glory and a long obscure happiness.
At the outbreak of the Second Punic War (219 B.C.) it was a
large and commercially prosperous town of native not Greek
origin. It sided with Rome against Carthage, and drew Hannibal's
first assault. Its long and noble resistance, told by the Roman
historian Livy in no less noble language, ranks with the Spanish
defence of Saragossa in the Peninsular War. Finally in 218
Hannibal took it and passed on into Italy. Then we hear little
more of it till at the opening of the Christian era it appears
as a flourishing Romano-Spanish town with a Latin-speaking
population and the rank of municipium. This later prosperity
lasted most of the empire through, and is attested by inscriptions
and ruins (notably a theatre, demolished by Suchet).
SAHARA, the great desert of northern Africa. The Sahara
has an area, according to Dr A. Bludau's calculation of the areas
of African river basins, of 3,459,500 sq. m., made up as follows:
Sq. m.
Drainage or slope to Atlantic .... 131,000
Drainage or slope to Mediterranean . . . 502,000
Drainage inland 2,602,500
Slope to Niger basin 224,000
Total . . 3-459,500
This includes Tripoli and Fezzan, which practically belong to
the desert zone, but does not include arid portions of the basins
of the Nile and Niger, in which the drainage is at most inter-
mittent, and which might with reason be included in the Sahara.
The area would thus be brought up to at least 35 million sq. m.,
about the area of Europe minus the Scandinavian peninsula.
The physical limits of this region are in some directions marked
with great precision, as in parts of Morocco and Algeria, where
the southern edge of the Atlas range looks out on what
has almost the appearance of a boundless sea, and
forms, as it were, a bold cpast-line, whose sheltered bays
and commanding promontories are occupied by a series
of towns and villages Tizgi, Figuig, El Aghuat, &c. In other
directions the boundaries are vague, conventional and disputed.
This is especially the case towards the south, where the desert
sometimes comes to a close as suddenly as if it had been cut off
with a knife, but at other times merges gradually and irregularly
into the well-watered and fertile lands of the Sudan. While
towards the east the valley of the Nile at first sight seems to
afford a natural frontier, the characteristics of what is usually
called the Nubian desert are so identical in most respects with
those of the Sahara proper that some authorities extend this
designation to the shores of the Red Sea. The desert, indeed,'
does not end with Africa, but is prolonged eastwards through
Arabia towards the desert of Sind. As the Nubian region is
described under SUDAN: Anglo-Egyptian, the present article is
confined to the country west of the Nile Valley, the Libyan
desert inclusive. Its greatest length, along the 2oth parallel of
north latitude, is some 3200 m.; its breadth north to south varies
from 800 to 1400 m.
The sea-like aspect of certain portions of the Sahara has given
rise to much popular misconception, and has even affected the
General ideas an( l phraseology of scientific writers. Instead of
aspect. being a boundless plain broken only by wave-like
mounds of sand hardly more stable than the waves
of ocean, the Sahara is a region of the most varied surface
and irregular relief, ranging from 100 ft. below to 5000 and
6000 and even in isolated instances to 8000 ft. above the sea-
level, and, besides sand-dunes and oases, containing rocky
plateaus, vast tracts of loose stones and pebbles, ranges of the
most dissimilar types, and valleys through which abundant
watercourses must once have flowed.
In the centre of the Sahara is a vast mountain region known as
"~ A1 ^ (Hpggar) Tasili or plateau. The culminating peaks
the Aha
of this
a strai
due
roughly, a central position between the 'Atlantic and ' the Nile!
The Ahaggar plateau is not inferior to the Alps in area, but its
highest peaks do not greatly exceed 8000 ft. They are believed
to be volcanic like those of Auvergne. Upon their summits snow
is reputed to lie from December to March/ South-east of the
main plateau, and partly filling the valley between the Ahaggar
plateau and the Tasili of the Asjer (see infra), are the Anahef
mountains. To the north the valley is again contracted by the Irawen
mountains.
Besides this central group of mountains, sometimes spoken of as
the Atakor-'n- Ahaggar (Summits of the Ahaggar), there are various
other massifs in the Sahara. On the north-west of the ..
Ahaggar, and separated from it by a wide plain, is the '
Muidir plateau, which extends nearly east and west 200 m. '
North-east of the Ahaggar (in the direction of Tripoli) is the Tasili
of the Asjer (4000-5000 ft.), which runs for 300 m. in a N.E. to S.E.
direction. South-east of the Tasili of the Asjer is a range of hills
known as the Tummo (or War) mountains. Still farther south is the
mountainous region of Tibesti (or Tu), with an average height of
some 7000 ft., the volcanic cone of Tussid rising to an estimated
height of 8800 ft. Towards the south and east the Tibesti highlands
are connected with the lower ranges of Borku and Ennedi, which
merge into the plains of Wadai and Darfur. The slopes are bare and
rocky. By some authorities the Tasili of the Asjer, the Tummo,
Tibesti and Borku ranges are considered " the orographic backbone "
of the Sahara.
In addition to the plateaus and ranges named, there are several
disconnected mountain masses. Midway between the Atakor-'n-
Ahaggar and Nigeria are the Air or Asben hills in which Dr Erwin
von Bary discovered (1877) the distinct volcanic crater of Teginjir
with a vast lava-bed down its eastern side. By some writers Air
(q.v.) is not included in the Sahara, as it lies within the limit of the
tropical rains; but the districts farther south have all the character-
istics of the desert. West of Air, and north-east of the bend of the
Niger, lies the hilly region sometimes known as Adrar of the Iforas
or of the Awellimiden (the southern confederacy of the Tuareg).
To the N.E., in FEZZAN (q.v.), are the dark mountains of Jebel-es-
Soda, which are continued S.E. towards Kufra by the similar range
of the Haruj ; and in the extreme S.W., at no great distance from the
Atlantic, is the hilly country of the western Adrar (q.v.).
Nearly all the rest of the Sahara consists in the main of undulating
surfaces of rock (distinguished as hammada), vast tracts of water-
worn pebbles (serir) and regions of sandy dunes (variously called
maghter, erg or areg, igidi, and in the east rhart), which occupy about
one-ninth or one-tenth of the total area. The following is the
general distribution of the dunes:
From a point on the Atlantic coast south of Cape Blanco a broad
belt extends N.E. for about 1300 m., with a breadth varying from
50 to 300 m. This is usually called the Igidi or Gidi,
from the Berber word for dunes. In part it runs parallel
with the Atlas mountains. Eastward it is continued,
south of Algeria and Tunisia, by the Western Erg and Eastern Erg,
separated by a narrow valley at Golea. South of the Eastern Erg
(which extends as far north as the neighbourhood of the Gulf of
Gabes) the continuity of the sandy tract is completely broken by
the Hammada al-Homra (or Red Rock Plateau), but to the south of
this region lie the dunes of Edeyen, which, with slight interruptions,
extend to Murzuk in Fezzan. South of the hammada of Murzuk
the dunes of Murzuk stretch south-east. This series of tracts may
be called the northern zone of the Sahara; it forms a kind of bow,
with its extremities respectively at the Atlantic and the Libyan
desert and its apex in the south of Tunisia. In the south are the
Juf (depressions), covering a vast area to the south-east of the
middle portion of the Igidi, another area between the Adghagh
plateau and the Ahaggar, and a third between Air and Tibesti.
The Juf or depressions are not, except in rare instances, below sea-
level. In the Libyan desert is a vast region of dunes of unascertained
limits ; the characteristics of the Libyan desert being thought typical
of the whole of the Sahara originated the idea of " a sea of shifting
sand " as descriptive of the entire desert. Here a region of over
500,000 sq. m. extending east from the Tibesti mountains to the
valley of the Nile, bounded south by Wadai and Darfur and north
by Fezzan and the Cyrenaica, appears to be almost entirely sterile
and increasingly covered by dunes. There is only one known route
through this dreadful wilderness-^-one running north and south
to the oases of Kufra, which lie in its centre. The dunes in the
Libyan desert, so far as is known, run N.N.W. and S.S.E. In the
Eastern Erg the dunes also lie in long lines in a N.N.W. and S.S.E.
direction, presenting a gradual slope to windward and an abrupt
descent to leeward. There they are generally about 60 or 70 ft.
high, but in other parts of the Sahara they are said to attain a height
of upwards of 300 ft.
Under the influence of the wind the surface of the dunes is subject
to continual change, but in the mass they have attained such a state
of comparative equilibrium that their topographic distribution may
be considered as permanent, and some of them, such as Gern (Peak)
al-Shuf and Gern Abd-al-Kader, to the south of Golea, have names
of their own. The popular stories about caravans and armies being
engulfed in the moving sands are regarded as apocryphal (save
perhaps in some instances in the Libyan desert), but there is abundant
Sand-
dunes.
SAHARA
1005
evidence against the theory of M. Vatonne as to the dunes having
been formed in situ.
Although now mainly waterless, the Sahara possesses the skeleton
of a regular river-system. From the north side of the Atakor-'n-
Sk-ieton Ahaggar, through which runs the " water-parting "
between the basins of the Mediterranean and Atlantic,
system begins Wadi Igharghar, which, running northwards
between the Tasili plateau and the Ira wen mountains,
appears to lose itself in the sands of the Eastern Erg, but can be
traced northwards for hundreds of miles. Its bed contains rolled
ancient current by deep erosion of the Cretaceous rocks, in which a
large number of left-hand tributaries have also left their mark.
The streams flowing south from the Atlas, which seem to be absorbed
in the sands of the desert, evidently find a series of underground
reservoirs or basins capable of being tapped by artesian wells over
very extensive areas. As Olympiodorus (quoted by Photius)
mentions that the inhabitants of the Sahara used to make excava-
tions from loo to 120 ft. deep, out of which jets of pure water rose
in columns, it is clear that this state of matters is (historically) of
ancient date. Since 1856 French engineers have carried on a series
of borings which have resulted in the fertilizing of extensive tracts.
In Wadi Rieh (otherwise Rhir), which runs for 80 m. towards the
south-west of the Shat Melrir (department of Constantine, Algeria),
the water-bearing stratum is among permeable sands, which are
covered to a depth of 200 ft. by impermeable marls, by which the
water is kept under pressure. In this valley many artesian wells
have been sunk by the French. Connexions probably exist with
subterranean water-supplies in the mountains to the north. That
the water in the artesian reservoirs is kept aerated is shown by the
existence below ground of fishes, crabs and freshwater molluscs,
all of which were ejected by the well cajled Mezer in Wadi Righ.
Further west the Wadis Zusfana and Ghir unite to form the Saura,
known in Tuat as the Messaud. These rivers still carry water as
far as the northern part of Tuat ; thence the course of the Messaud
was, apparently, S.W. to the eastern Juf. There are also welj-
marked river-beds in the central [Sahara. The Wadi Telemsi,
rising in Adrar, of the Iforas, apparently joined the Niger near Gao,
while the Wadi Taffassassent, which rose in the Ahaggar mountains,
is believed to have been the ancient upper course of the lower Niger.
The oases are also proofs of the presence of a steady supply of
underground moisture, for vegetation under the Saharan climate
(beyond the few plants specially adapted to desert conditions) is
exceptionally thirsty.
The existence of these wadis or river-beds is a factor in the con-
sideration of the cause of the desert nature of the country. Inall
parts of the Sahara there is evidence of denudation carried
Dcnuda- out on a sca i e o { unusual magnitude. The present surface
of the desert has been exposed to the protracted wear and
tear of the elements. But to determine the exact method by which
the elements have done their work has hitherto proved beyond the
power of science. The theory of submarine denudation was accepted
by many scientists of the mid-Victorian era. The sand-dunes, the
salt efflorescence and deposits, and the local occurrence of certain
modern marine molluscs all go to help the hypothesis of a diluvial
sea. Nor is evidence lacking that in cretaceous times portions of
the Sahara were covered by the sea. Colonel P. L. Monteil brought
home (1892) a fossil sea-urchin from Bilma. In 1902 at Tamaslce,
some 250 m. W. of Zinder, and a little north of Sokoto, a nautilus
and four sea-urchins (fossils) were found by Captain Gaden in a
limestone bed. Similar fossils occur in the region between Zinder
and Air, and others of the same age have been found near Dakar.
Basing his conclusions on these and other facts, de Lapparent held
that an arm of the sea extended inland from the Atlantic to the
eastern Sahara. This sea was bounded on the north and east by
the mountains of Air, Ahaggar, the Asjer Tasili, &c. An extensive
acquaintance with Saharan characteristics shows, however, that a
sea for the Sahara as a whole is impossible. Henri Schirmer, who
in 1893 published an admirable summary of Saharan geography up
to that date, argued that the desert nature of the Sahara is due to
forces which have been at work for ages, although, as in all deserts,
the dryness is probably progressively increasing. The primary
cause is to be sought in the existing distribution of land and sea,
the great land mass of North Africa causing an outflow of air in all
directions (and consequent absence of rain) in winter, and an in-
draught in summer,' when the surface is intensely heated and the
relative humidity of the atmosphere becomes so small that _con-
densation is all but impossible. The vicinity of tjie comparatively
cool Mediterranean in the north accentuates the force of the winds
from that direction, which, blowing towards a lower latitude, are m
their very nature dry winds. The influence of mountain ranges,
such as the Atlas, round the border of the desert, is thus but a sub-
ordinate cause of the latter's dryness, which would probably be little
diminished did the Atlas not exist. This dryness reacts again on the
temperature conditions of the Sahara, accentuating _both the daily
and annual variation. The intense heat of the day is compensated
by the cold of the nights, so that the mean annual temperature is
not excessive. The difference between the mean temperature of
the hottest and coldest month has been found to be as high as
45 F.,and the extreme range at least 90 F., maxima of 112 and
over having been frequently observed. As a result of the extreme
dryncss of the air, evaporation is excessive, and, being greater
than the precipitation, involves a progressive desiccation of the
Sahara. The surface of the rocks, heated by the sun and suddenly
chilled by rapid radiation at night, gets fractured and crumbled;
elsewhere the cliffs have been scored and the sand thus formed is at
once turned by the wind into an active instrument of abrasion.
In many places it has planed the flat rocks of the hammada as smooth
as ice. Elsewhere it has scored the vertical faces of the cliffs with
curious imitations of glacial striation, and helped to undercut the
pillar or table-like eminences remains of former more extensive
plateaus which, under the name gur, are among the most familiar
products of Saharan erosion. The softer quartz rocks of the Quater-
nary and Cretaceous series have been made to yield the sand which,
drifted and sifted by the winds, has taken on the form of dunes.
The slighest breeze is enough to make the surface " smoke " with
dust; and at times the weird singing of the sands, waxing louder
and louder, tells the scientific traveller that the motion is not con-
fined to the superficial particles. The dry wind of the Sahara is
known in southern Europe as the Sirocco. It brings with it clouds
of fine red dust, as noted long since by Idrisi, the Arabian geographer.
Dr Theobald Fischer and Dr Oscar Fraas agree in believing that the
desiccation has markedly increased in historic times. Evidence
derived from ancient monuments combined with the statements of
Herodotus and Pliny are held to prove that the elephant, the rhino-
ceros, and the crocodile existed in North African regions where the
environment is now utterly alien, and on the other hand that the
camel is a late introduction.
Any attempt to improve the climatic conditions of the Sahara
as a whole can hardly meet with success when the causes of its
desiccation are considered. Much may, however, be done to modify
local conditions, and fairly satisfactory results have been obtained
in the direction of fixing the dunes and covering them with a growth
of vegetation. Experiments carried out by the French at Ain
Sefra, on the northern border of the desert, have shown that by
protecting the sand from the action of the wind by a litter of alfa
grass, time is given for the establishment of suitable trees, which
include the tamarisk, acacia, eucalyptus, prickly pear, peach and
aspen poplar, the last-named having proved the most capable of all
of resisting the desert conditions. Such planting operations can
only be carried out in favourable localities, such as valleys in which
a certain amount of water is available. Wide areas like the arid
stony plateaus (hammada) must be abandoned as hopeless.
As already stated, the popular conception of the Sahara as a sand
desert is erroneous. It is really a stony, wind-swept waste with
much bare rock visible, the actual area of pure sand ^^
forming a relatively small portion. A broad belt of '
Archaean rocks extends throughout the desert, appearing '
at intervals in the form of hills and plateaus from beneath the
superficial sands and Quaternary deposits. Examples are the
granite of Air and the gneiss and mica-schists of this massif and
of the Ahaggar plateau. Flanking this zone are immense tracts
occupied by rocks of Devonian and Carboniferous ages, from which
characteristic marine fossils have been obtained at the springs of
El Hassi and between Wad Draa and the dunes ol Igidi. Productus
africanus is a common fossil of the Carboniferous rocks. At the close
of the Carboniferous period it has been generally considered that the
southern and central Sahara became dry land and has remained
so up to the present day. Marine fossils of Cretaceous age have,
however, been found within recent years in the central regions;
while Eocene echinoids have been obtained near Sokoto (Geol, Mag.,
1904). During Lower Cretaceous times the Mediterranean covered
the Algerian and Tripolitan Sahara and the northern portion pf the
eastern desert; the extensive development of the Cretaceous system
being one of the most striking features of Saharan geology. At the
close of the Cretaceous period the Tripolitan Sahara completely
emerged, but parts of the Tunisian ana Algerian Sahara seem to
have remained below sea-level until the end of the Lower Eocene.
Only on the extreme borders of the desert, however, do tertiary for-
mations play any prominent part. During the Quaternary jperiod
the Sahara possessed a moister climate than the present. This is
shown by the numerous water-cut valleys, now dry, and by the
remains of hippopotamus in the Quaternary deposits.
The idea so long held that the Sahara represented the recently
dried-up bed of an extension of the Mediterranean has been dis-
proved by the investigations of French geologists. The sand is
mainly derived from the wide expanse of Cretaceous sandstones,
which become rapidly disintegrated by the contraction caused by
the wide range of temperature between day and night. The loose
sands of the Quaternary deposits also furnish abundant material.
The true dune sand is remarkable for the uniformity of its com-
position and the geometrical regularity of its grains, which measure
less than -03937 in. While individually these appear transparent or
reddish yellow (from the presence pf iron), they have in the mam a
rich golden hue. According to Tissandier animal organisms, such
as the microscopic shells of Rhizopoda, abundant in sea-sand, are
strikingly absent.
Botamcally the Sahara is the meeting-ground of representatives
ioo6
SAHARA
of the " Mediterranean " and the " Tropical " floras which have
accommodated themselves to the peculiar climatic conditions.
The line of demarcation between the two floral areas, almost
coinciding in the west with the Tropic of Cancer and in the east
Botany aarf^'PP'"^ soutn towards the meridian of Lake Chad, assigns
Zoolory ty ar tne greater portion of the area to " Mediterranean "
influences. Uniformity, in spite of differences of altitude
and soil, is a general characteristic of the vegetation, which outside
of the oases consists mainly of plants with a tufty, dry, stiff habit of
growth. The oases are the special home of the date-palm, of which
there are about 4,000,000 in the Algerian oases alone. In company
with this tree, without which life in the Sahara would be practically
impossible, are grown apples, peaches, oranges, citrons, figs, grapes,
pomegranates, &c. From December to March wheat, barley and
other northern grain crops are successfully cultivated, and in the
hotter season rice, dukhn, durra and other tropical products. Alto-
gether the oasal flora has considerable variety; thirty-nine species
are known from the Kufra group, forty-eight from the Aujila group.
Zoologically the Sahara is also partly Mediterranean, partly
TropicaL Apart from the domestic animals (camels, asses, &c.,
and very noticeably a black breed of cattle in Adrar), the list of
fifteen mammals comprises the jerboa, the fennek or fox, the jackal,
the sand rat (Psammomys obesus), the hare, the wild ass and three
species of antelope. In Borku, Air, &c., baboons, hyaenas and
mountain sheep are not uncommon. Without counting migratory
visitants, about eighty species of birds have been registered the
ostrich, the Certhilauda deserti or desert-lark (which often surprises
the traveller with its song), Emberiza Saharae, three species of
Dromolea, &c. Tortoises, fizards, chameleons, geckos, skmks, &c.
of fifteen different species were collected by the single Rohlfs ex-
pedition of 1873-1874; the serpents comprise the horned viper,
Psammophis silnlans, Coelopeltis lacertina, the python and several
other species. The edible frog also occurs. Cyprinodon dispar, a
fish not unlike Cyprinodon calaritanus, is found in all the brackish
waters of north Sahara and swarms in the lake of the Slwa oasis.
The chief centres of population in the Sahara are, firstly, the
oases, which occupy positions where the underground water
makes its way to the surface or is readily reached by
of'popuia- b rm 8; an< i, secondly, certain mountainous districts
tioa. where the atmospheric moisture is condensed, and a
moderate rainfall is the result. Except in the south
of Algeria, where cultivation has been extended by means of
artesian wells, the condition of the Sahara oases is far from
prosperous. Prior to the French occupation, a feeling of in-
security had been engendered by the marauding habits of the
nomad tribes; cultivation had become more restricted; and the
decline of the caravan trade had brought ruin to certain centres,
such as Murzuk. The most important are the oases of the
Tuat region, especially Insalah; those of Ghat and Ghadames
on the route from Tripoli to Zinder; and of Kufra, in eastern
Sahara (see TUAT and TRIPOLI). The various confederations of
the Tuareg, in the central Sahara, are grouped round hilly
districts. The most important are the'Awellimiden, on the left
bank of the Middle Niger; and the Kel-Ui, grouped around the
mountainous districts of Air or Asben; the two northern con-
federations, those of the Ahaggar and Asjer, being less powerful.
Much information respecting the Awellimiden confederation
was obtained during the voyage down the Niger, in 1896, of
Lieutenant Hourst of the French Navy, who was much struck
with its powerful organization under the chief Madidu. North-
west of Timbuktu in the district or " Kingdom " of Biru is the
oasis and town of Walata, a Tuareg settlement. Other moun-
tainous districts in which a certain amount of rain falls regul rly,
and which contain a population above the average for the
Sahara, are Tibesti and Borku, in the east centre, and Adrar in
the west. Tibesti and Borku are peopled by Tibbus; the
western Adrar by Moors (Berbers). The northern portions of
the Sahara are inhabited by nomad Arabs.
Attempts have been made by many explorers and writers to
trace in certain of the existing inhabitants the remnants of
an aboriginal race of negro affinities, which inhabited the
ethnology. Sahara before the arrival of the Berbers and Arabs.
' E. F. Gautier, writing in 1908, maintained that the
evidence available (for the central Sahara) rendered probable the
hypothesis that at a period perhaps as recent as the Roman
conquest of North Africa the Sahara was still neolithic and
peopled by a race of agricultural negroes, who extended to the
confines of Algeria. Negro influence is undoubtedly seen in
various parts of the Sahara, but it may date from a much more
recent period than has been supposed. For example, the con-
nexion between many of the place-names in Fezzan and the
language of Bornu is attributable to the northward extension of
the influence of the Bornu-Kanem empire between the nth and
1 4th centuries A.D. The allusions by classical writers to Ethiopians
as inhabitants of the Sahara prove little, in view of the very
vague and general meaning attached to the word. The physical
characteristics, and especially the dark colour, of many of the
Saharan populations is apparently a stronger argument, but
even this is capable of another explanation. Caravans of negro
slaves from time immemorial passed northwards along the main
desert routes, and it is just in the oases on these routes that the
dark element in the population is chiefly found. It may there-
fore be attributed to the intermarriage of the original lighter
inhabitants of the oases with such slaves. The Tibbu (q.v.)
or Tebu, once thought to be almost pure negroes, proved, when
examined by Gustav Nachtigal in Tibesti, where they are found
in greatest purity, to be a superior race with well-formed features
and figures, of a light or dark bronze rather than black. Their
language is related to that of the Kanuri in Bornu, but it appears,
that the Kanuri have derived theirs from the Tibbu, not the
Tibbu from the Kanuri. Physically, the Tibbu appear to
resemble somewhat the Tuareg, and there is little doubt that
they are a Hamitic, not a negro, people.
The commerce of the Sahara is not inconsiderable. Among
the more important trade routes are (i) from Morocco to Cairo
by Insalah and Ghadames, which is followed by the _
pilgrims of western Africa bound for Mecca; this route
has been largely superseded by the sea route from Tangier to-
Alexandria; (2) from Kuka (Lake Chad) to Murzuk and Tripoli;
(3) from Kano and Zinder to Tripoli by Air and Ghat; (4) from
Timbuktu to Insalah, Ghadames and Tripoli;(5) from Timbuktu
to Insalah and thence to Algeria and Tunisia; (6) from Timbuktu
to Morocco. The Senussi movement brought into prominence the
desert routes between Wadai in the south and Jalo and Benghazi
in the north, which partially superseded some of the older routes.
Other' causes tended to reduce the importance of the old routes.
The long-established route from Darfur to the Kharga and
Dakhila oases fell into disuse on the closing of the eastern Sudan
by the Mahdist troubles. The great route leading from Tripoli
via Ghadames and Ghat, to Zinder, Kano, and other great
centres of the Hausa States maintains its importance, but the
opening of trade from the side of the Niger by the British in the
early years of the aoth century affected its value. The route
across the western Sahara to Timbuktu is less used than formerly
owing to the establishment by the French of a route from Senegal
via Nioro to the Upper Nigei. The old route, however, retains
some importance on account of the salt trade from the Sahara,
which centres at Timbuktu. Salt and date palms are the chief
products of the Sahara. The principal sources of the salt supply
are the rock-salt deposits of the Juf (especially Taudeni), the
lakes of Kufra and the rock salt and brine of Bilma (q.v.).
The hope of an eventual commercial exploitation of the Sahara
rests mainly on the possible existence of mineral wealth. To supply
easy communication between Algeria and Nigeria the
construction of a railway across the desert has found
many advocates. Two principal routes have been
suggested, the one taking an easterly line from Biskra fh
through Wargla to Air (Agades) and Zinder generally, '
the route followed by Foureau (see below) ; the other starting from
the terminus of the most westerly railway already existing, and
reaching Timbuktu via Igli and the Tuat oases. A third suggested
route is one from Igli to the Senegal, still farther west.
Reference may also be made to the proposal, strenuously advo-
cated between 1870 and 1885, to open up the region to the south of
Algeria and Tunisia by the construction of an inland sea.
According to Colonel Francois Roudaire (1836-1885), the Jf e
author of this scheme, deceptively styled the " flooding /ft
of the Sahara," it was possible to create an inland sea Sahara.
with an average depth of 78 ft. and an area of 3100 sq. m.,
or about fourteen times the size of the Lake of Geneva. A French
government commission decided that the excavation of the necessary
canal would not be difficult, and that in spite of silting-up processes
the canal when cut would at least last 1000 to 1500 years. Ferdinand
de Lesseps, Roudaire's principal supporter, visited the district in
1883 and reported that the canal would cost five years' labour and
150,000,000 francs. The scheme (which fell into abeyance on the
SAHARA
1007
death of Roudaire) was based on the following facts. The Gulf of
Gabes is separated by a ridge 13 m. across and 150 ft. high from
Shat-al Fejej, a depression which extends S.W. into the Shat Jerid,
which in its turn is separated from the Shat Rharsa only by a still
narrower ridge. Shat Garsa is succeeded westwards by a series of
smaller depressions, and beyond them lies the Shat .Melrir, whose
N.W. end is not far from the town of Biskra.
Politically the Sahara belongs partly to Morocco (Tafilet, &c.),
partly to the Turkish empire (Tripoli, Egypt, &c.), but principally
n.ii,. to France. The French first acquired an interest in the
Sahara by their conquest of Algiers (1830-45). They
' gradually extended their influence southward with the
purpose of forming a junction with their possessions on the Senegal.
The acquisition ol Tunisia (1881) largely increased the hold of the
French on the Sahara, and the work of French pioneers to the south
of Algeria was recognized by the Anglo-French agreement of 1890,
which assigned to France the whole central Sahara from Algeria to
a line from Say on the Niger to Lake Chad. The southern limit
of the territory was, however, not strictly denned until 1898, when
a new agreement gave to France a rectangular block south of the
line mentioned, including the important frontier town of Zinder.
A further agreement in 1904 again modified the frontier in favour
of France. To the north-east and east the boundary of the French
sphere was extended, by an Anglo-French Declaration of March
1899, and defined as running south-east, from the intersection of the
Tropic of Cancer with 16 E., until it meets the meridian of 24 E.,
following this south to the frontier of Darfur. French Sahara is
thus connected with the French possessions in West Africa and
with the Congo-Shari territories of France on the south-east. On
the west, where Spain claimed the Sahara coast between Capes Blanco
and Bojador, the inland frontier was defined by the Franco-Spanish
agreement of 1900, whereby Spain was apportioned a Hinterland
with an average depth of 240 m. from the sea-shore.
It is impossible to ascertain the extent of the knowledge of the
Sahara possessed by the ancients. The Egyptians penetrated the
Libyan and Nubian deserts at points, and Carthaginians
aoa' r "' anc ^ Ph en icians were acquainted with the northern
fringe of the desert in the west. European exploration
dates from the beginning of the igth century. In 1819 Captain
G. F. Lyon and Joseph Ritchie penetrated from Tripoli to
Murzuk, where Ritchie died. In 1822 came the great journey of
WalterOudney.HughClappertonandDixonDenham, from Tripoli
to Lake Chad, and a year or two later Major A. G. Laing succeeded
in reaching Timbuktu, also from Tripoli. In 1828 Rene Caillie
crossed from Timbuktu to Morocco. Heinrich Earth in the course
of his great journey (1849- 1856), commenced from Tripoli under
the leadership of James Richardson, traversed a considerable
portion of the Sahara. Between 1859 and 1861 Henri Duveyrier
explored parts of the Tuareg domain. Knowledge of the northern
Sahara, from Morocco to Tripoli, was largely increased by the
journeys of Gerhard Rohlfs, begun in 1861; Rohlfs subsequently
crossing (1865) from Tripoli to Lake Chad by nearly the same
route as that previously taken by Barth. In 1873-1874 Rohlfs
visited the oases in the north of the Libyan desert and in 1878-
1879 reached the oasis of Kufra. In 1876-1877 another German
traveller, Erwin von Bary, made his way to Ghat and Air, but
was assassinated. A French expedition under Colonel Paul
Flatters after penetrating far south of Algeria was massacred
( 1 88 1 ) by Tuareg. Farther west success was attained in 1880 by
a German explorer, Dr Oskar Lenz, who, starting from Morocco
made his way, partly by a new route, to Timbuktu. In 1892 the
Sahara was crossed from Lake Chad to Tripoli by the French
Colonel Monteil.
It was not until 1899 that the central Sahara, from Algeria to
Air, was traversed for the first time by Europeans. This was
accomplished under the leadership of Fernand Foureau. This
journey was undertaken in pursuance of the efforts of the French
to obtain effective control of the Sahara. South of Algeria
military posts had been gradually pushed into the desert, Golea
being until 1900 the farthest point which acknowledged French
rule. The great desideratum was the opening up of a route to the
Niger countries which might in time divert the trade from Tripoli
to Algeria, but all attempts long proved fruitless, owing to the
opposition of the tribes inhabiting central Sahara. In 1886
Lieutenant Palat was murdered a little south of Gurara, and in
1880 the same fate befell Camille Douls in Tidikelt (Tuat) in
his attempt to reach Timbuktu from the north. In 1890 Foureau
who in 1883 had undertaken a first journey of exploration
south of Wargla reached the Tademayt plateau in 28 N., fixing
he position of 35 places, and in 1892-1893 came the first of his
ong series of expeditions undertaken with a view of penetrating
he country of the Azjer Tuareg, the powerful confederacy
which lay on the route to Air and Lake Chad, never
.raversed in its entirety by a European. All efforts to obtain
a passage were unavailing until in 1898-1899 Foureau, accom-
>anied by an escort of troops under Major. Lamy , at last attained
lis object, finally reaching Zinder, the important trade centre
on the borders of Nigeria, and midway between the river Niger and
Lake Chad, on the 2nd of November 1899.
The important section of Foureau's route began at Ain El-Hajaj,
n about 26J N., immediately beyond which the frowning massif
of Tindesset had to be crossed by a most difficult route among a
chaos of rocks and ravines, the geological formation being principally
sandstone. After descending the southern escarpment of the
' Tasili," the expedition crossed the mountainous region named
Anahef, composed of quartz and granite, through which the line
of partition between the basins of the Mediterranean and Atlantic
was found to run. Thence the route lay across the wide plain of
quartz gravel, strewn with blocks of granite, known to the Tuareg
as Tinin, to the well of In-Azaua, beyond which a march of e|even
days, with a water-supply at one point only, led to the first village
of Air, where the Tuareg proved hostile. Agades, the capital of
Air, was reached by a march through difficult mountains, with
valleys which gradually opened into a wide plain. From Agades
to Zinder the route lay, first, through the bare and arid district of
Azauak; next, through the bush-covered Tagama, a district abound-
ing in game ; and, lastly, through the cultivated country of Damer-
zhu. Zinder had only once before been reached by way of Air by
Earth's expedition in 1850. It was now occupied by a French force
which had advanced from the Niger (see SENEGAL : Colony).
Foureau's achievement was quickly followed by increased
political activity of the French in the Sahara south of Algeria,
where, in addition to the work of other explorers, surveys had
been carried by French officers (especially Captains Germain and
Laperrine in 1898) as far as the important centre of Insalah,
the position of which had, as a result, been shifted some 25 m. E.
of its former position on the maps, being found to lie in 2 16' E.,
20 17' 3o"N. Early in 1000 G. B. M. Flamand, who had been
entrusted with a scientific mission to the Tuat oases, came
into collision with the natives, and Insalah was occupied by the
military escort which accompanied him. This was quickly
followed by the occupation of Tuat, and Igli (see TUAT).
Simultaneously with these events, an attempt was made to
pave the way for the establishment of French influence in western
Sahara by the expedition of Paul Blanchet to Adrar, which had
not been visited since the middle of the I9th century. It returned
in September 1900, only partially successful, Blanchet and his
companions having been detained for some time as virtual
prisoners on the borders of Adrar. The leader almost immediately
succumbed to fever. In 1003-1909 the country N. of the lower
Senegal, including Adrar, was brought under French control
and organized as the territory of Mauretania.
The most marked progress was, however, effected in the
central Sahara, where the French posts were gradually pushed
farther south under a military organization, which resulted
in the complete pacification of the Tuareg countries. Travel
was thus made possible from one border of the desert to the
other, and a number of successful expeditions gathered a rich
harvest of results respecting the mapping, geology, and other
features of this part of the Sahara. Some of the best work was
done by Laperrine, Arnaud, Cortier and Nieger on the military
side, and, on the civilian, by Villatte, Gautier and Chudeau.
Apart from these French enterprises, Hanns Vischer, a Swiss in
the service of British Nigeria, in 1006 travelled from Tripoli
to Bornu through Murzuk and Bilma. In 1910 Capt. A. II.
Haywood traversed the Sahara, being the first Englishman to
cross the desert from Gao to Insalah.
AUTHORITIES. Vatonne, Mission de Ghadames (1863); H.
Duveyrier, Les Touaregs du Nord (1864); Ville, Expkr.jtologiaue
du Mzab, &c. (1867); A. Pomel, Le Sahara (1872); F. G. Rohlfs,
Quer durch Afrika (1874), Drei Monate im libyschen Wiiste (1875)
and Kufra (1881); V. Largeau, Le Pays de Rirha-OnarKla(i7g);
G. Nachtigal, SdhArd und Sudan (3 vols., 1879-1889); G. Rolland.
" Le Cr6tac6 du Sahara septentrional " (with geological map of the
Central Sahara), in BuU. de la Soc. CM. de France (1881); Roudaire.
ioo8
SAHARANPUR SAIGA
Rapport sur la demise exped. des Cholts (1881) (and other reports
by the same author); Tchihatchef, "The Deserts of Africa and
Asia," in British Association Reports (Southampton, 1882); Derre-
caeaix, " Explor. du Sahara: les deux missions du Lieut. : Colonel
Flatters," in Bull, de la Soc. de Geogr. (1882); O. Lenz, Timbuktu.
Reise durch Marokko, Sfc. (1884) ; and E. L. Reclus, Now. Geographic
univ. xi. (1886); H. Schirmer, Le Sahara (Pans, 1893); P. Vuillot,
L' Exploration du Sahara (Paris, 1895); P. L. Monteil, De Saint-
Louis a Tripoli (Paris, 1895); Fr. Foureau, D'Alger au Congo par
le Tchad (Paris, 1902) and Documents scientifiques de la mission
saharienne, fasc. i.-iii: (Paris, 1903-1905); Privat-Deschane ,
"Peut-on reboiser le Sahara?" Rev. scientif. (1896); K. A. Zittel,
Pal&ontologie der libyschen Wiiste (Cassel, 1893); G. Holland,
Chemin de fer transsaharien, geologie du Sahara algenen, et aperc.u
geologique sur le Sahara de I'ocean atlantique a la mer rouge (Pans,
Imp Nat., 1891) ; J. Walther, Die Denudation in der Wiiste (Leipzig,
1900); M. Honore, Le Transsaharien et la, penetration francaise en
Afrique (Paris, 1901); E. Diirkop, Die wrtschafts- und handels-
geographischen Provinzen der Sahara (Wolfenbiittel, 1902); W. I.
Harding King, A Search for the Masked Tawareks (London, 1903) ;
A. Bernard and N. Lacroix, La Penetration saharienne (Algiers,
1906) ; C. Velan, " Etat actuel de nos connaissances sur la geo-
graphie et la geologie du Sahara d'apres les explorations les plus
recentes," Revue de geogr. t. i. (1906-1907), pp. 447-5,17: J- Lahac he,
" Le Dessechement de 1'Afrique francaise est-il demontref Bui.
Soc. Geogr. Marseille, 31 (1907), PP- I49-I&5; E. Arnaud and
M. Cortier, Mission A rnaud- Cortier : nos confins sahariens (Pans,
1908); E. F. Gautier and R. Chudeau, Missions au Sahara, t. i.
"Sahara algerien," par E. F. Gautier (Paris, 1908), t. ii. "Sahara
sudanais," par R. Chudeau (Paris, 1909); H. Vischer, Across the
Sahara from Tripoli to Bornu (London, 1910) ; H. J. LI. Beadnell,
" Sand Dunes of the Libyan Desert," Geog. Jour. (April 1910); E.
Fallot, " Le Commerce du Sahara," Ques. dip. et col. t. 15 (1903),
pp. 209-225. (E. HE.;F. R. C.)
SAHARANPUR, a city and district of British India, in the
Meerut division of the United Provinces. The city is situated
on a stream called the Damaula Nadi, 907 ft. above sea-level,
998 m. by rail from Calcutta. Pop. (1901) 66,254, of whom
more than half are Mahommedans. It is an important junction
of the North-Western railway with the Oudh and Rohilkhand
line. The government botanical gardens were established in
1817. There are railway workshops, and a large industry is
pursued in wood-carving.
The DISTRICT or SAHARANPUR has an area of 2228 sq. m.
It forms the most northerly portion of the Doab, or alluvial
tableland between the Ganges and Jumna. The Siwalik hills
rise precipitously on its northern frontier; at their base stretches
a wild submontane tract, with much forest and jungle. Cultiva-
tion generally in this part is backward, the surface of the country
being broken by ravines. South of this tract lies the broad
alluvial plain of the Doab, with fertile soil and good natural
water-supply. This portion of the country is divided into
parallel tracts by numerous streams from the Siwaliks, while
the Eastern Jumna and Ganges canals cover the district with
a network of irrigation channels. The annual rainfall averages
about 37 in. The population in 1901 was 1,045,230, showing an
increase of 4-4% in the decade. The principal crops are wheat,
rice, pulse, millet, and maize, with some sugar-cane and cotton.
The district contains the towns of Roorkee and Hardwar.
During the later years of the Mogul empire, Saharanpur
suffered much from the perpetual raids of the Sikhs, but in
1785 the district under Ghulam Kadir enjoyed comparative
tranquillity. On his death the country fell into the hands of
the Mahrattas. It was afterwards again overrun by the Sikhs,
remaining practically in their hands until their defeat at Charaon
November 1804, when it passed under British rule. Several
disturbances subsequently took place among the native chiefs;
but from 1824 to 1857 nothing occurred to disturb the peace of
the district. The Mutiny in this part was soon quelled.
SAHEL (Arabic for "shore"); a common place-name in
countries where Arabic is the dominant language. By sahel
any coast belt may be indicated, but the name has become
the definite designation of certain districts, e.g. the Tunisian
coast between the gulfs of Hammamet and Gabes. Another
region so called is that part of the Sahara washed by the Atlantic.
The name is also used to designate the territory under French
jurisdiction west of Timbuktu and north of the Senegal.
Sahel thus understood comprises regions which form the inter-
mediate zone between the fertile lands of the Sudan and the
desert. In its plural form, Swahili, the word has become the
tribal name of the natives inhabiting the coast strip opposite
Zanzibar.
SAHIB, a title of respect in India, specially used to designate
Europeans. The word is Arabic, and originally means a com-
panion. It is generically fixed to the titles of men of rank,
as Khan Sahib, Nawab Sahib, Raja Sahib, and is equivalent
to master. The proper feminine form is sahiba; but the hybrid
term memsahib (from madam and sahib) is universally used
in India for European ladies.
SAHOS, or SHOHOS, Africans of Hamitic stock living to the
W. of Massawa. Some authorities regard them as true Abys-
sinians, but more probably they are akin to the Gallas and Afars.
They are for the most part Mahommedans, but some few are
Christians.
SAHYADRI, a mountain range of India. The term, which
is Sanskrit rather than vernacular, is applied to the entire system
of the Western GHATS (q.v.) from the Tapti river to Cape Comorin,
but more especially to that part of the system in the Bombay
Presidency. In this restricted sense the Sahyadri hills begin
in Khandesh district, and run S. as far as Gao.
In the territory of the Nizam of Hyderabad, the cross range
forming the watershed between the river systems of the Tapti
and the Godavari, is locally known as Sahyadri Parbat.
SAIDAPET, a town of British India, administrative head-
quarters of Chingleput district, Madras, on the South Indian
railway, 5 m. S.W. of Madras city, from which it is separated
by a line of tanks. Pop. (1901) 14,254. The government
teachers' college has a hostel or boarding-house for Brahmans,
opened in 1897. The agricultural college, originally (1865) a
model farm, has been transferred to Coimbatore.
SAID PASHA (c. 1830- ), surnamed KUCHUK, Turkish
statesman, was at one time editor of the Turkish newspaper
Jeride-i-Havadis. He became first secretary to Sultan Abd-ul-
Hamid II. shortly after his accession, and is said to have
contributed to the realizations of his majesty's design of con-
centrating power in his own hands; later he became successively
minister of the interior and Vali of Brussa, reaching the high
post of grand vizier in 1879. A Turkish statesman of the old
school, he was regarded as somewhat bigoted and opposed to the
extension of foreign influence in Turkey. He was grand vizier
four more times under Abd-ul-Hamid. In 1896 he took refuge
at the British embassy at Constantinople, and, though then
assured of his personal liberty and safety, remained practically
a prisoner in his own house. He came into temporary prominence
again during the revolution of 1908. On the 22nd of July he
succeeded Ferid Pasha as grand vizier, but on the 6th of August
was replaced by Kiamil Pasha, a man of more liberal views,
at the instance of the young Turkish committee.
SAID PASHA KURD (1834-1907), Turkish statesman, son of
Hussein Pasha, was born at Suleimanie. After holding various
administrative posts he became governor-general of the
Archipelago (1881), minister for foreign affairs (1882),
ambassador at Berlin (1883) and again foreign minister in
1885. He was afterwards president of the Council of State,
an office which he held till his death on the 29th of October
1907.
SAIGA (Saiga tatarica), the native designation of a desert-
dwelling antelope, easily recognized by its extraordinary swollen
and puffy nose, in which the apertures of the tubular nostrils
are directed downwards. The ringed lyrate horns of the males
are amber-coloured, and wide apart on the head. There is a
small gland on each side of the face below the eye; and the ears
are remarkable for their short and rounded form. The colour
is whitish in winter and sandy in summer. It is the sole repre-
sentative of its genus. At the present day the headquarters of
this antelope are the Kirghiz Steppes, but a century ago its range
extended as far west as Poland. During the latter part of the
Tertiary period the saiga was much more widely distributed,
fossilized remains having been obtained from many parts of
Western Europe, including Britain.
SAIGO SAILCLOTH
1009
SAIGO, TAKAMORI (1832-1877), Japanese patriot, was born
in Satsuma in 1832. From early youth he took a prominent
part in the politics of his clan, and owing to his extreme opinions
with regard to the expediency of abolishing the Tokugawa
administration, he was banished (1858) to the island of Oshima
(Satsuma), where he attempted unsuccessfully to commit
suicide. Ultimately he rose to high rank in the newly organized
imperial government, but in 1873 he retired from the cabinet
by way of protest against its decision not to take armed action
against Korea. Thenceforth he became the rallying point of a
large number of men dissatisfied with the new administration,
and in 1877 he headed a rebellion which taxed all the resources
of the central government. After several months of desperate
fighting, Saigo and a small remnant of his followers made a swift
retreat to Kagoshima, and fell fighting (September 14) within
sight of their homes. Saigo's patriotism and his great services in
the cause of the restoration of the administrative power to the
throne were so fully recognized that his son was raised to the
peerage with the title of marquess, and his own memory was
honoured by the erection of a bronze statue in Tokyo.
SAIGON, a town of French Indo-China, capital of the colony
of Cochin-China, on the right bank of the river Saigon, 34 m.
from the sea. Pop. (1905) 54,745, of whom 8749 were French
(exclusive of troops), 152 Europeans of other nationalities, about
30,000 Annamese, 14,000 Chinese. The town is enclosed by
the river Saigon on the east, the Chinese Arroyo on the south
and the Arroyo of the Avalanche on the north, while on the west
it extends towards the neighbouring town of Cholon. Double
rows of trees give shade in all the streets, the width and uni-
formity of which, together with the beautiful gardens (including
the zoological gardens), make Saigon one of the finest towns of
the Far East. It is lighted chiefly by electricity and its water-
supply is secured by a filtering reservoir. The chief public
buildings are the government house, the palace of the lieutenant-
governor of Cochin-China, the law courts, the theatre, the post-
office and the cathedral. The commercial port, at the mouth
of the Chinese Arroyo, carries on a large rice trade. The naval
harbour comprises an arsenal and has a repairing dock.
Saigon is the seat of two chambers of the court of appeal of
French Indo-China, of tribunals of first instance and of com-
merce, and of the vicar apostolic of Cochin-China. Its muni-
cipal council consists of eight French and four native members
elected by universal suffrage. This body elects a mayor and
two assistants.
Before the French [conquest, Saigon, then known as Gia-dinh-
thanh, was the capital' of Lower Cochin-China, which consisted of
the " six southern provinces " of the Annamese empire, and con-
stituted a vice-royalty under the government of a kinhluoc. In
1836 it was fortified for the emperor Gia Long by Colonel Ollivier.
The French captured it in 1859, and it was part of the territory
ceded in 1862.
SAIL, the English equivalent of the common Teutonic word
for one of the two universal means of propulsion of a vessel
through the water, the other being the oar (q.v.). For the
various types of sail see RIGGING, and for the textile material used
see SAILCLOTH below. The origin of the O. Eng. segl or segel
and its cognates, e.g. Dutch zeil, Dan. sett, Ger. Segel, &c., is not
known; it is certainly not con-
nected with the Lat. sagulunt, cloak,
mantle. It may be derived from
the Indo-European root sagh-, seen
in Sanskrit sah, endure, the idea
being of that which bears up against
or -resists the wind.
SAILCLOTH, now more commonly
called canvas (q.v.), usually a double
warp, single weft fabric of the same
structure as bagging (?..), although
it is sometimes made with single
threads of warp. Hemp and ramie are occasionally used in
the manufacture of this cloth, but flax and cotton are the
chief fibres employed. Many of the sails of fishing smacks and
similar vessels are made entirely of cotton the fabric sometimes
retaining its natural colour, but more often dyed or stained
tan. Since most of the larger vessels arc now driven by steam,
the quantity of cloth used for sails is comparatively small.
A large quantity of cloth, however, is used on steamships for
covers, and for coal bags, sailcloth buckets, &c.
The very best kind of sailcloth is made from long flax, as this
fibre possesses flexibility, lightness and strength combined.
The number of threads per inch of warp varies from 14 double
threads to 48 double threads, and from 12 to 36 shots per inch
of weft, while the usual widths are 18, 24, 30 and 36 in. Cotton
canvas has for its limits about 26 to 54 threads of warp per inch,
and 15 to 46 shots per inch; the warp yarn for cottons may
be 2, 3 or several ply.
Great care has to be exercised in the manufacture of canvas
for the British Admiralty. The yarns must be made wholly
from long flax, well and evenly spun, and properly twisted.
They must also be free from blacks, and beiwice boiled in order
to remove all injurious matter. From the grey state to the
cleaned state the yarns must lose 10% of weight, and no delete-
rious substance whatever must be used in any stage. The mill
washing and first boiling reduce the weight about 8%, while
about 2% is removed during the second boiling. Finally, the
yarn is thoroughly washed to remove all traces of alkali. The
successive processes which the yarn is subjected to remove all
impurities, and leave the yarn in the best condition for weaving.
Canvas is made in sixteen different qualities: the heaviest is
No. oooo, then follow Nos. ooo, oo, o, i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,
ii and 12. Of these sixteen varieties Nos. i to' 8 are mostly
in use. Nos. i, 2, 4, 6 and 7 are used for royal navy canvas,
and Nos. 4 and 6 for the merchant navy. The canvas for the
Admiralty is 24 in. wide, and the pieces, termed bolts, should be
as nearly as practicable 40 yds. of legal measure in length, and
to be completely manufactured particular attention being
given to the weaving; the selvages to be evenly and well
manufactured, the thrum to be left on each end of the bolt,
and to be made as nearly as possible in the proportion of weights
given below.
The breaking tests for red and grey canvas are 5% below those
for white canvas.
Sailmaking is a very ancient industry, but it is, naturally, much
less important than it was before the introduction of steamships.
The operations of the sailmaker may be stated as follows. The
dimensions of mast and yards and sail plan being supplied, the
master sailmaker is enabled to determine the dimensions of each
sail after due allowance for stretching in terms of cloths and
depth in yards if a square sail, the number of cloths in the head,
number in the foot and the depth in yards; if a fore-and-aft sail
(triangular), the number of cloths in the foot and the depth in
yards of the luff or stay and of leech or after-leech; if a fore-and-
aft sail (trapezium form), the number of cloths in the head, number
in foot, and the depth of mast or luff and of after-leech. These
particulars obtained, there is got out what is technically termed a
casting," which simply means the shape, length, &c., of each
individual cloth in the sail. These figures are given to the cutter,
who proceeds to cut out the sail cloth by cloth in consecutive order,
numbering them i, 2, 3, 4, &c. ; the series of cloths thus cut out
are handed over to the workman, who joins them together by rare-
fully made double flat seams, sewn with twine specially prepared
for the purpose, with about 120 stitches in a yard. In the heavy
Canvas
Number.
Weight
of Warp.
Weight
of Bolt.
Length
of Bolt.
Reed.
No. of
Threads.
Breaking
Test for
Warp.
Breaking
Test for
Weft.
Dimensions
of Testing
Strip.
Ib.
Ib.
yds.
Score.
Double.
Ib.
Ib.
in.
i
26
46
39
1 6)
660
340
480
24X1
2
24
43
39
i64
660
320
460
24X1
3
22
4
39
16]
,,(>
30"
440
24X1
4
21
36
39
17
680
280
400
24X1
5
19
33
39
17
680
260
370
24X1
6
18
30
39
17
680
250
350
24X1
7
15
27
40
20
800 single
330
390
24X1*
8
'4
23
40
20
800
3io
3o
24X1*
sails the seam is about i| in. in width, and in the British navy stuck
or stitched_ in the middle of the seam to give additional strength ;
the seams in the lighter sails are about i in. wide. The whole of the
cloths a.rc then brought together, and spread out, and the tabling (or
hemming, so to speak) is turned in and finished off with about 72
1010
SAINFOIN SAINT
stitches to a yard. Strengthening pieces or " linings " are affixec
where considered necessary, in courses and top-sails such pieces as
reef-bands, middle-bands, foot-bands, leech-linings, bunt-linecloths
in top-sails (only) a top-lining or brim; in other and lighter sails
such pieces as mast-lining clew and head, tack and corner pieces
holes, such as head, reef, stay (luff), mast, cringle, bunt-line, &c., are
also made where required, a grommet of line of suitable size being
worked in them to prevent their being cut through. The next thing
to be done is to secure the edges of the sail. Bolt-rope, a compara-
tively soft laid rope made from the finer hemp yarn (Italian) is used
for this purpose; in the British navy it ranges from i in. (increasing
in size by quarter inches) up to 8 in. inclusive ; it is then neatly sewn
on with roping twine specially prepared, the needle and twine passing
between and clear of every two strands of the rope in roping. Where
slack sail has to be taken in, it is the practice to leave it to the judg-
ment of the sail-maker; but where possible it is better to set up the
rope by means of a tackle to a strain approximate to what it will have
to bear when in use, and whilst on the stretch mark it off in yards, as
also the edge of the sail in yards, so that by bringing the marks
together in roping the sail will stand flat. In the British navy the
largest size of rope sewn on to a sail is 6 in ; sizes above this are
used for foot and clew ropes of top-sails and courses, being first
wormed, parcelled (that is, wound round with strips of worn canvas),
tarred and served over with spun yarn; the foot of the sail is then
secured to it by being marled in. Where two sizes of bolt-rope used
in roping a sail have to be connected, it is effected by a tapered
splice. Cringles (similar to the handle of a maund) formed by a
strand of bolt-rope, mostly having a galvanized iron thimble in them
as a protection, are then stuck where necessary, as at the corners,
sides or leeches, mast or luff; they are required either for making
stationary or hauling " taut " by tackle or otherwise certain parts
of the sail when in use. Fore-and-aft sails, such as spankers, gaff-
sails and storm try-sails, are reduced in size by reef-points made
of stout line (4 to 20 lb), crow-footed in the middle, a hole being
pierced through every seam ; one-half of the point is passed through
and the crowfoot sewn firmly to the sail; the number of reefs
depends upon the size of the sail, and the reefs are placed parallel
to the foot. The sails now finished in respect of making have
to be fitted, that is, such ropes have to be attached to each of them
as are necessary for proper use; such ropes may be summarily
stated as follows: head-earings, robands, reef-earings, reef-lines,
spilling and slab lines, reef-tackle pendant, reef-points, bow-line
bridles, bunt-line toggles, bunt-becket, leech-line strops and toggles,
toggles in clews, sheet ropes, down-haul, lacings, head and stay,
tack-rope (gaff top-sail), tack lashing, bending strops, matting and
gaskets.
The tools and appliances of a sailmaker are not very numerous:
a bench about 7 ft. long and 15 in. high, upon which he sits; palms
for seaming and roping
to fit the hand, made
of hide lined with leather,
a plate properly tem-
pered being fixed in it
having chambers to catch
the head of the needle,
thus acting as a thimble ;
needles of various sizes,
that for seaming being
the smallest; and fids,
splicing, serving and
stretching knife, rubber,
sail - hook, bobbin for
twine, and sundry small
articles. (T. Wo.)
SAINFOIN (Onobry-
chis saliva) in botany
is a low-growing per-
ennial plant with a
woody rootstock,
whence proceed the
stems, which are
covered with fine hairs
and bear numerous
long pinnate leaves, the
segments of which are
elliptic. The flowers
are borne in close pyra-
midal or cylindrical
clusters on the end
, " . of long stalks. Each
Sainfoin (Onobrychis sattva), J nat. size. flower is about half an
inch in length with
i, Fruit, nat. size.
lanceolate calyx-teeth shorter than the corolla, which latter is
papilionaceous, pink, with darker stripes of the same colour.
The indehiscent pods or legumes are flattened from side to
side, wrinkled, somewhat sickle-shaped and crested, and con-
tain a single olive-brown seed shaped like a small bean. In
Great Britain the plant is a native of the calcareous districts
of the southern counties, but elsewhere it is considered as an
escape from cultivation. It is native throughout the whole of
Central Europe and Siberia; but it does not seem to have been
cultivated in Great Britain till 1651, when it was introduced
from France or French Flanders, its French name being retained.
Alphonse de Candolle (Origin of Cultivated Plants, p. 104)
considers that the cultivation of sainfoin originated in the
south of France as late perhaps as the i5th century. It is grown
as a forage plant, being especially well adapted for dry limestone
soils. It has about the same nutritive value as lucerne, and
is esteemed for milch cattle and for sheep in winter. Besides
the common form, a second known as giant sainfoin is met with
in cultivation, being more rapid in its growth.
SAINT (lat. sanctus, "holy"), the term originally applied,
e.g. in the New Testament and in the most ancient monuments
of Christian thought, to all believers. In this sense it is still
used by those modern Christian sects which profess to base their
polity on the Bible only (e.g. the Mormons or " Latter Day
Saints "). In ancient inscriptions it often means those souls
who are enjoying eternal happiness, or the martyrs. Thus we
find inscriptions in the Catacombs such as vivas inter sanctos,
refrigera cum spiritu sancto, and people were buried ad sanctos.
For a long time, too, sanctus was an official title, particularly
reserved for bishops (v. Analecta Bollandiana, xviii. 410-411).
It was not till almost the 6th century that the word be-
came a title of honour specially given to the dead whose cult
was publicly celebrated in the churches. It was to the martyrs
that the Church first began to pay special honour. We find
traces of this in the 2nd half of the 2nd century, in the
Martyrium Polycarpi (xviii. 3) in connexion with a meeting to
celebrate the anniversary of the martyr's death. Another
passage in the same document (xvii. 3) shows clearly that this
was not an innovation, but a custom already established among
the Christians. It does not follow that it was henceforth universal.
The Church of Rome does not seem to have inscribed in its
calendar its martyrs of an earlier date than the 3rd century. The
essential form of the cult of the martyrs was that of the honours
paid to the illustrious dead; and these honours were officially paid
by the community. They consisted in a gathering at the martyr's
tomb on the anniversary of his death. St Cyprian, speaking
of the confessors who died in prison, wrote to his priests, " Denique
et dies eorum, quibus excedunt, adnotate, ut commemora-
tiones eorum inter memorias martyrum celebrare possimus "
(Epist. xii. 2). The list of anniversaries of a church formed its
Martyrology (q.v.) . In the early days each church confined itself to
celebrating its own martyrs; but it .was not long before it be-
came customary to celebrate the anniversaries of martyrs of other
churches. In the oldest Roman ferial we already find festivals
of Carthaginian martyrs, and similarly, in the Carthaginian
calendar, Roman festivals, while Wright's Syriac Martyrology
contains numerous traces of this exchange of festivals. From
the 5th century onwards certain celebrated saints were honoured
almost universally; St Augustine (Sermo, 276, 4) says that the
"estival of St Vincent was celebrated throughout the whole of
the Christian world. The same was the case of the festivals
of St Stephen, St James and St John, and St Peter and St Paul,
as is shown by the liturgical documents, but these festivals
were held in connexion with that of Christmas (26th, 27th
and 28th December), and were not strictly speaking anniversaries.
The calendars at first included only martyrs, but their scope was
gradually widened. The first to find a place in them were the bishops.
Apparently they were at first arranged in a series of anniversaries
separate from that of the martyrs, as seems to be shown by the
existence at Rome of the Depositio episcoporum side by side with the
Jepositio martyrum ; the two lists seem to have been combined, as
n the calendar of Carthage, which includes the dies nataliciorum
nartyrum et depositiones episcoporum. Some of the most famous
jishops also ended by passing from one calendar into the other.
' inally, the ascetics came to share in the honours paid to the martyrs,
and we see in the Historia religiosa of Theodoret how quickly this
ST AFFRIQUE ST ALBANS, EARL OF
101 1
assimilation took place. In times of persecution the martyrs were
buried among the rest of the faithful, but one can understand that
their tombs, a.t which gatherings took place at least on the day of
their anniversary, were distinguished from the ordinary tombs by
some sign. When the peace of the Church permitted it, they were
enshrined in chapels and often in sumptuous basilicas. In the West
these buildings were raised over the tomb, which was left intact ;
but in the East there was no hesitation in disturbing the graves of
the saints and removing the bodies to a basilica built to receive them.
It is in this way that the relics of St Babylas were placed in the
sanctuary built by Gallus at Daphne (Socrates, Hist. eccl. iii. 18;
Sozomen, Hist. eccl. v. 19). As a matter of fact, the discipline of the
Eastern churches with regard to the relics was, from the very
beginning, much less severe than that of Rome and a great number
of the Western churches. From the 4th century on are recorded
cases of translation of the bodies of saints, and they did not even
shrink from dividing the sacred relics. In the West the principle
already laid down by St Gregory the Great in his letter to Constantia,
namely that of not disturbing the bodies of the saints, was for a long
time the rule in all cases, and the portions distributed to the churches
were simply branded, that is to say, linen which had lain upon the
tomb of the saint, or, in other words, representative relics. But
as early as the 7th century there is proof of a relaxation of this
rule which had so well safeguarded the authenticity of the relics. It
was finally disregarded altogether; in the 9th century translations
of relics were extremely frequent, and led to inextricable confusion
in the future.
As to the belief in the efficacy of the prayers of the saints for
those still living on earth, and similarly in the efficacy of the
prayers addressed to the saints, St Cyril of Jerusalem indicates
in the following words the advantages of the commemoration
of the saints: " Then we make mention also of those who have
fallen asleep before us, first of patriarchs, prophets, apostles,
martyrs, that God would at theirl prayers and intercessions
receive our supplication " (Cat. Myst. v. 9). It is difficult to
understand a much-discussed passage of Origen (De oratione,
14), except as applying to prayer addressed to the saints. The
Fathers of the 4th century, and notably the Cappadocian
Fathers, provide us with a quantity of evidence on this subject,
which leaves no doubt as to the practice of the invocation of
saints, nor of the complete approval with which it was viewed.
St Basil, for example, says: " I accept also the holy apostles,
prophets and martyrs, and I call upon them for their intercession
to God, that by them, that is by their mediation, the good God
may be propitious to me, and that I may be granted redemption
for my offences " (Epist. 360).
The cult of the saints early met with opposition, in answer to
which the Church Fathers had to defend its lawfulness and explain
its nature. The Church of Smyrna had early to explain its position
in this matter with regard to St Polycarp: " We worship Christ,
as the Son of God ; as to the martyrs, we love them as the disciples
and imitators of the Lord " (Martyrium Polycarpi, xvii. 3). St
Cyril of Alexandria defends the worship of the martyrs against
Julian; St Asterius and Theodoret against the pagans in general,
and they all lay emphasis on the fact that the saints are not looked
upon as gods by the Christians, and that the honours paid to them
are of quite a different kind from the adoration reserved to God
alone. St Jerome argued against Vigilantius with his accustomed
vehemence, and especially meets the objection based on the resem-
blance between these rites and those of the pagans. But it is above
all St Augustine who in his refutation of Faustus, as well as in his
sermons and elsewhere, clearly denned the true character of the
honours paid to the saints: " Non eis templa, non eis altaria, non
sacrificia exhibemus. Non eis sacerdotes offerunt, absit, Deo
offero tibi Petre, aut: offero tibi Paule ?" (Sermo, 273. 7; cf. Contra
Faustum, xx. 21). The undoubted abuses which grew up, especially
during the middle ages, raised up, at the time of the Reformation,
fresh adversaries of the cult of the saints. The council of Trent,
while reproving all superstitious practices in the invocation of the
saints, the veneration of relics and the use of images, expresses as
follows the doctrine of the Roman Church: " That the saints who
reign with Christ offer to God their prayers for men ; that it is good
and useful to invoke them by supplication and to have recourse to
their aid and assistance in order to obtain from God His benefits
through His Son our Saviour Jesus Christ, who alone is our Saviour
and Redeemer " (Sess. xxv.). At the present day the canonization
(q.v.) of saints is reserved in the Roman Church to the sovereign
pontiff. The Anglican Church, while still commemorating many of
the Catholic saints, has not, since the Reformation, admitted any
new names to the authoritative list, with the single exception of
that of King Charles I., whose " martyrdom " was celebrated by
authority from the Restoration until the year 1859.
See D. Petavius, De thtologicis dogmatibus, De incarnationr. 1., xiv. ;
F. Suarez, Defensio fidei catholicae (against King James I.); L.
Duchesne, Les Origines du culte Chretien, ch. viii.: E. Lucius, Die
Anfdnge des Heiligenkulls (Tubingen 1904); H. R. Percival, The
Invocation of Saints (London, 1896); A. P. Forbes, An Explanation
of the Thirty-nine Articles (Oxford, 1878). (H. DE.)
ST APFRIQUE, a town of Southern France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Aveyron, on the Sorgues,
68 m. N.N.W. of Beziers on a branch line of the railway to
Clermont Ferrand. Pop. (1006) town, 4473; commune 6571.
An old bridge over the Sorgues and some megaliths in the
neighbourhood, especially the dolmen at Tiergues, are of anti-
quarian interest. There is considerable trade in wool and
Roquefort cheese.
St Affrique grew up in the 6th century around the tomb of St
Atricain, bishop of Comminges. In the 12th century a fortress was
built on the neighbouring rock of Caylus. The possession of St
Affrique was vigorously contested during the wars of religion. It
was eventually occupied by the Huguenots till 1629, when it was
seized and dismantled by a royal army.
ST ALBANS, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The English title of
earl of St Albans was first borne by Richard Bourke, or de Burgh,
4th earl of Clanricarde (d. 1635), who was lord president of
Connaught from 1604 to 1616 and governor of Galway in 1616.
In 1624 he was made Baron Somerhill and Viscount Tunbridge
in the English peerage, and in 1628 earl of St Albans, Baron
Imanney and Viscount Galway. He became the third husband
of Frances, dowager countess of Essex, whose first husband had
been Sir Philip Sidney, and his English titles became extinct on
the death of his only son, Ulick, 2nd earl of St Albans and
marquess of Clanricarde, in 1657.
The second creation of an earl of St Albans was_in 1660, when
Henry, Baron Jermyn, was made an earl under this title; but again
it became extinct on his death in 1684.
The dukedom of St Albans was created in 1684 in favour of
CHARLES BEAUCLERK (1670-1726), a natural son of Charles II. by
Nell Gwynne. Born in London on the 8th of May 1670, Charles was
made Baron Hedington and earl of Burford in December 1676. He
became colonel in the 8th regiment of horse in 1687, and took service
with the emperor Leopold I., being present at the siege of Belgrade
in 1688 After the battle of Landen in 1693, William III. made
him captain of the gentlemen pensioners, and four years later
gentleman of the bedchamber His father had given him the re-
version of the office of hereditary master falconer and that of heredi-
tary registrar of the Court of Chancery, which fell vacant in 1698.
His Whig sentiments prevented his advancement under Anne, but
he was restored to favour at the accession of George I. He died
at Bath on the loth of May 1726. His wife Diana, daughter and
heiress of Aubrey de Vere, last earl of Oxford, was a well-known
beauty, who became lady of the bedchamber to Caroline, princess of
Wales, and survived until the 1 5th of January 1742. Charles was
succeeded by his eldest son, CHARLES BEAUCLERK, 2nd duke of St
Albans (1696-1751), while his youngest son, Lord Aubrey Beauclerk
(c. 1710-1741), became a captain in the royal navy, and perished in
a fight in the West Indies on the 22nd of March 1741. The second
duke's son and heir, GEORGE BEAUCLERK, 3rd duke (1730-1786),
was followed by his second cousin, George Beauclerk (1758-1787),
4th duke, who died unmarried, and was succeeded as 5th duke by
his cousin, Aubrey Beauclerk (1740-1802). He was succeeded by
his son Aubrey, the 6th duke (1765-1815), whose infant son Aubrey,
7th duke (b. 1815), died within a year of his father. The 8th duke,
William (1766-1825), was the second son of the 5th duke. His son
William (1801-1849), the 9th duke, married the actress Harriot
Mellon, widow of the banker Thomas Coutts. She was celebrated
for her beauty, and was painted by Romney. Her fortune derived
from her first husband passed to her granddaughter Angela, Baroness
Burdett-Coutts in her own right. The 9th duke was succeeded by
his son by a second marriage, William Amelius Aubrey de Vere
(1840-1898), whose son, Charles Victor Albert Aubrey de Vere,
became the nth holder of the title.
ST ALBANS, HENRY JERMYN, EAKL OF (c. 1604-1684), was
the third son of Sir Thomas Jermyn of Rushbroke, Suffolk. At
an early age he won the favour of Queen Henrietta Maria, whose
vice-chamberlain he became in 1628, and master of the horse
in 1639. He was a consummate courtier, a man of dissolute
morals, and much addicted to gambling. He was member for
Bury St Edmunds in the Long Parliament and an active and
reckless royalist. He took a prominent part in the army plot of
1641, and on its discovery fled to France. Returning to England
in 1643, ne resumed his personal attendance on the queen, and
after being raised to the peerage as Baron Jermyn of St Edmunds-
bury in that year, he accompanied Henrietta Maria in 1644 to
1012
ST ALBANS SAINT ALBANS
France, where he continued to act as her secretary. In the same
year he was made governor of Jersey, whence he conducted the
prince of Wales to Paris. He conceived the idea of ceding the
Channel Islands to France as the price of French aid to Charles
against the parliament; and in other respects also he meddled
with foreign politics, his great influence with the queen being a
continual embarrassment to royalist statesmen, especially after
the execution of Charles I. When Charles II. went to Breda,
Jcrmyn remained in Paris with Henrietta Maria, who persuaded
her son to create him earl of St Albans in 1660. Gossip which
the historian Hallam accepted as authentic, but which is sup-
ported by no real evidence, asserted that Jermyn was secretly
married to the widow of Charles I. At the Restoration St Albans
became lord chamberlain, and received other appointments.
He supported the policy of friendship with France, and he
contributed largely to the close secret understanding between
Charles II. and Louis XIV., being instrumental in arranging the
preliminaries of the treaty of Dover in 1669. In 1664 he obtained
a grant of land in London near St James's Palace, where Jermyn
Street preserves the memory of his name, and where he built
the St Albans' market on a site afterwards cleared for the con-
struction of Regent Street and Waterloo Place. The earl, who
was a friend and patron of Abraham Cowley, died in St James's
Square, for the building of which he had provided the plan in
January 1684. St Albans being unmarried, the earldom became
extinct at his death, while the barony of Jermyn of St Edmunds-
bury passed by special remainder, together with his property, to
his nephew Thomas Jermyn, and after the latter's death to
Thomas's brother Henry Baron Dover (q.v.).
ST ALBANS, a city, municipal borough, and market town in
the St Albans parliamentary division of Hertfordshire, England,
on the main line of the Midland railway and on branches of
the London & North-Western and the Great Northern lines,
20 m. N.W. of London. Pop. (1891) 12,898; (1901) 16,019. St
Albans became the seat of a bishop in 1877; the diocese covering
the greater part of Essex and Hertfordshire, with small portions
of Cambridgeshire, Bedfordshire and Buckinghamshire. The
great cathedral, or abbey church, is finely situated on the steep
hill, above the small river Ver, on which the central part of the
city is placed.
Shortly after the martyrdom of St Alban, probably in 303, a
church was built on the spot where he was slain, and in 793 Offa,
king of Mercia, who professed to have discovered the relics of the
martyr, founded in his honour a monastery for Benedictines, which
became one of the richest and most important houses of that order
in the kingdom. The abbots, Ealdred and Ealmer, at the close of
the loth centuiy began to break up the ruins of the old Roman
city of Verulamium for materials to construct a new abbey church ;
but its erection was delayed till the time of William the Conqueror,
when Paul of Caen, a relative of Archbishop Lanfranc, was in 1077
appointed abbot. The cathedral at Canterbury as built by Lanfranc
was almost a reproduction of St Stephen's, Caen; but Paul, while
adopting the same model for St Albans, built it on a much larger
scale. The church was consecrated in 1115, but had been finished
some years before. Of the original Norman church the principal
potions now remaining are the eastern bays of the nave, the tower
and the transepts, but the main outlines of the building are still
those planned by Paul. It is thus one of the most important speci-
mens of Norman architecture in England, with the special character-
istic that, owing to the use of the flat broad Roman tile, the Norman
portions are peculiarly bare and stern. The western towers were
pulled down in the 13th century. About 1155 Robert de Gorham
repaired and beautified the early shrine and .rebuilt the chapter-
house and part of the cloister; but nothing of his work now remains
except part of a very beautiful doorway discovered in recent times.
About 1 200 Abbot John de Cella pulled down the west front and
portions of the north and south aisles. He began the erection of
the west front in a new and enriched form, and his work was con-
tinued by his successor William de Trumpyngtone in a plainer
manner. In 1257 the eastern portion was pulled down, and between
the middle of the I3th and the beginning of the I4th century a
sanctuary, ante-chapel and lady chapel were added, all remarkably
fine specimens of the architecture of the period. In 1323 two great
columns on the south side suddenly fell, and this necessitated the
rebuilding of five bays of the south aisle and the Norman cloisters.
Various incongruous additions were made during the Perpendicular
period, and much damage was also done during the dissolution of
the abbeys to the finer work in the interior. Structural dangers gave
rise to an extensive restoration and partial rebuilding, begun under
the direction of Sir Gilbert Scott, and completed in 1894 by Lord
Grimthorpe, some of whose work was, and remains, the subject of
much adverse criticism. The abbey's extreme length outside is
550 ft., which is exceeded byJWinchester by 6 ft. The nave (292 ft.)
is the longest Gothic nave in the world and exceeds that of Winchester
by about 20 ft. The length of the transepts is 175 ft. inside. The
monastic buildings have all disappeared except the great gateway.
St Michael's church, within the site of Verulamium, was originally
constructed in the loth century. Considerable portions of the
Norman building remain. The church contains the tomb of Lord
Chancellor Bacon. St Stephen's church, dating from the same
period, contains some good examples of Norman architecture. St
Peter's church has been in great part rebuilt, but the Early Perpen-
dicular nave remains. The restored clock-house in the market-place
was built by one of the abbots in the reign of Henry VIII. There
is an Edward VI. grammar school. The principal modern buildings
are the corn exchange, the court-house, the prison, the public baths,
a technical school and the public library. There are two hospitals
(one for infectious diseases), a dispensary and almshpuses founded
in 1734 by Sarah, duchess of Marlborpugh. The principal industries
are the manufacture of silk, straw-plaiting, brush-making, letterpress
and chromo-lithographic printing. There are also breweries and
iron-foundries. A public park of 24. acres was opened in 1894, and
a recreation ground in 1898. The increase in population is largely
due to the growth of a residential district on the outskirts, owing
mainly to the convenient proximity to London. The city is governed
by a mayor, 4 aldermen, and 12 councillors. Area, 997 acres.
To the south-west of the present city of St Albans stood the
ancient Verulamium (q.v.), one of the oldest towns in Britain, on
Watling Street. The ruins served as a quarry not only to the
builders of the Abbey, but also for the other churches and the
monastic buildings of St Albans, and Roman bricks are found
even in the fabric of the churches of neighbouring villages, as at
Sandridge, 2\ m. N.E. After being burnt by Boadicea, Veru-
lamium revived, and its church was famous early in the 8th
century. The origin of the royal castle of Kingsbury is variously
assigned to the 6th and 8th centuries. In the 9th and loth
centuries the abbots enlarged the town, which was confirmed to
them as a borough by Henry II. In 1253 a charter gave borough
jurisdiction to the good men of St Albans; but the borough
court was, apparently, discontinued for about 200 years after
the rebellion of 1381. A charter of 1533, confirmed in 1553 and
I 5S9~ I 56o, incorporated the mayor and burgesses. Charters of
1663, 1664 and 1685, and the Municipal Corporations Act of
1835, altered the form of the corporation; and in 1877 St Albans
became a city. Two burgesses were returned to the parliament
of 1306-1307, and to others, until, after 1336, such right fell into
abeyance until its resumption in 1553. Its abolition, as a result
of corrupt electioneering practices, took place in 1852.
During Wat Tyler's insurrection the monastery was besieged
by the townspeople, many of whom were executed in conse-
quence. At St Albans the Lancastrians were defeated on the
2ist of May 1455, their leader, the duke of Somerset, being
killed, and Henry VI. taken prisoner; here, too, Queen Margaret
defeated the earl of Warwick on the I7th of February 1461.
During the civil wars the town was garrisoned for the parliament.
On a printing press, one of the earliest in the kingdom, set up in
the abbey the first English translation of the Bible was printed.
See Victoria, County History, Herts, vol. ii.; Peter Newcome,
The History of the Abbey of St Albans (London, 1793) ; and Chronica
monasterii S. Albani, edited by H. T. Riley for the " Rolls " series
(1863-1876).
SAINT ALBANS, a city and the county-seat of Franklin
county, Vermont, U.S.A., 57 m. (by rail) N.N.W. of Montpelier.
Pop. (1900) 6239, including 1201 foreign-born; (1910) 6381. St
Albans is served by the Central Vermont railway, which has
general offices and shops here, and by an electric line connecting
with Lake Champlain at St Albans Bay and with S wanton, 9 m. N.
The city is built on a plain less than 3 m. from Lake Champlain
and about 300 ft. above it; surrounding hills (Aldis and Bellevue)
rise still higher and command charming views of the Green
Mountains, Lake Champlain and the Adirondacks. Among
the prominent buildings are a U.S. customs-house, the city hall,
the court house, a public library, a hospital (1882), the Warner
Home for Little Wanderers (1882), two Roman Catholic parochial
schools and two convents. There are marble quarries in the
vicinity, but the surrounding country is devoted largely to
dairying. St Albans has a large creamery, manufactures con-
densed milk and ships large quantities of butter.
SAINT ALBIN ST AMAND-LES-EAUX
1013
The first permanent settlement here was established in 1786;
the township of St Albans (pop. in 1900, 1715) was incorporated in
1859, and the larger part of it was chartered as the city of St Albans
in 1897. On the 19th of October 1864 Lieut. Bennett H. Young
led from Canada about twenty-five un-uniformed Confederate
soldiers in a raid on St Albans. They looted three banks, wounded
several citizens, one mortally, and escaped to Canada, where Young
and twelve others were arrested and brought to trial. But they were
never punished, and even the $75,000 which had been taken from
them on their arrest was returned to them. Later, however, the
Canadian government refunded this amount to the banks. In 1866
and again in 1870 the Fenians made St Albans a base for attacks
on Canada, and United States troops were sent here to preserve
neutrality.
SAINT ALBIN, ALEXANDER CHARLES OMER ROUSSELIN
DE CORBEAU, COMTE DE (1773-1847), French politician, was
born in Paris, of a noble Dauphinois family, and was educated at
the College d'Harcourt. He embraced the revolutionary ideas
with enthusiasm. As civil commissioner at Troyes he was
accused of terrorism by some, and by the revolutionary tribunal
of moderation. He was imprisoned for a short time in 1794.
On his release the Citoyen Rousselin entered the ministry of the
interior, and under the Directory he became secretary- general,
and then civil commissioner of the Seine. Attached to the party
of Bernadotte, he was looked on with suspicion by the imperial
police, and during the later years of the empire spent his time
in retirement at Provence. During the Hundred Days, however,
he served under Carnot at the ministry of the interior. Under
the Restoration he defended Liberal principles in the Conslitu-
tionnel, of which he was the founder. Although Louis Philippe
had been his friend since the days of the Revolution, he accepted
no office from the monarchy of July. He retired from the
Constitutionnel in' 1838, and died on the i$th of June 1847. His
chief works deal with the soldiers of the Revolution. They are:
Vie de Lazare Hoche (2 vols., 1798); Notice historique sur le
general Marbot (1800); M. de Championnel(i&6o); and notices
of others posthumously published by his son, Hortensius de
Saint Albin, as Documents relatifs d la Revolution Franfaise . . .
(1873).
ST ALDEGONDE, PHILIPS VAN MARNIX, HEER VAN
(1538-1598), Dutch writer and statesman, was born at Brussels,
the son of Jacob van Marnix, baron of Pottes. He studied
theology under Calvin and Beza at Geneva and, returning to the
Netherlands in 1560, threw himself energetically into the cause
of the Reformation, taking an active part in the compromise of
the nobles in 1565 and the assembly of St Trend. He made
himself conspicuous by issuing a pamphlet in justification of the
iconoclasts who devastated Flanders in 1566, and on Alva's
arrival next year had to fly the country. After spending some
time in Friesland and in the Palatinate he was in 1570 taken into
the service of William, prince of Orange, and in 1572 was sent
as his representative to the first meeting of the States-general
assembled at Dordrecht. In 1573 he was taken prisoner by the
Spaniards at Maaslandsluys, but was exchanged in the following
year. He was sent as the representative of the insurgent provinces
to Paris and London, where he in vain attempted to secure
the effective assistance of Queen Elizabeth. In 1578 he was
at the diet of Worms, where he made an eloquent but fruitless
appeal for aid to the German princes. Equally vain were his
efforts in the same year to persuade the magistrates of Ghent
to cease persecuting the Catholics in the city. He took a con-
spicuous part in arranging the Union of Utrecht, and in 1583
was chosen burgomaster of Antwerp. In 1585 he surrendered
the city, after a 13 months' siege, to the Spaniards. Violently
attacked by the English and by his own countrymen for this act,
he retired from public affairs and, save for a mission to Paris
in 1590, lived henceforth in Leiden or on his estate in Zeeland,
where he worked at a translation of the Bible. He died at
Leiden on the isth of December 1598.
St Aldegonde, or Marnix (by which name he is very commonly
known), is celebrated for his share in the great development of Dutch
literature which followed the classical period represented by such
writers as the poet and historian Pieter Hooft. Of his works the
best known is the Roman Bee-hive (De roomsche byen-korf), publishes
in 1569 during his exile in Friesland, a bitter satire on the faith and
practices of the Roman Catholic Church. This was translated or
tdapted in French, German and English. As a poet, St Aldegonde
s mainly known through his admirable metrical translation of the
'salius (1580), and the celebrated WUhelmus van Nassawwe, one of
he two officially recognized national anthems of Holland, is also
ascribed to him. His complete works, edited by Lacroix and Quinet,
were published at Brussels in 7 vols. (1855-1859), and his religious
and theological writings, edited by Van Turenenbergen, at Paris,
',n 3 vols. (1871-1891).
See E. Quinet, Marnix de St Aldegonde (Paris, 1854); Juste, Vie
de Marnix (The Hague, 1858); Fred6ricq, Marnix en zijne neder-
andsche geschriften (Ghent, 1882); Tjalma, Philips van Marnix, heer
van Sint-Aldegonde (Amsterdam, 1896).
ST ALDWYN, MICHAEL EDWARD HICKS BEACH, 1ST
VISCOUNT (1837- ), English statesman, son of Sir Michael
Hicks Beach, 8th Bart., whom he succeeded in 1854, was
sorn in London in 1837, and was educated at Eton and Christ
!hurch, Oxford, where he graduated with a first class in the
school of law and modern history. In 1864 he was returned
to parliament as a Conservative for East Gloucestershire, the
county in which his estates of Williamstrip Park were situated;
and during 1868 he acted both as parliamentary secretary to the
Poor Law Board and as under-secretary for the Home Depart-
ment. In 1874 he was made chief secretary for Ireland, and
was included in the Cabinet in 1877. From 1878 to 1880 he
was secretary of state for the colonies. In 1885 he was elected
for West Bristol, and the Conservative party having returned to
power, became chancellor of the exchequer and leader of the
House of Commons. After Mr Gladstone's brief Home Rule
Ministry in 1886 he entered Lord Salisbury's next Cabinet again
as Irish secretary, making way for Lord Randolph Churchill
as leader of the House; but troubles with his eyesight compelled
him to resign in 1887, and meanwhile Mr Goschen replaced Lord
Randolph as chancellor of the exchequer. From 1888 to 1892
Sir Michael Hicks Beach returned to active work as president
of the Board of Trade, and in 1895 Mr Goschen being transferred
to the Admiralty he again became chancellor of the exchequer.
In 1899 he lowered the fixed charge for the National Debt from
twenty-five to twenty-three millions a reduction imperatively
required, apart from other reasons, by the difficulties found
in redeeming Consols at their then inflated price. When com-
pelled to find means for financing the war in South Africa, he
insisted on combining the raising of loans with the imposition
of fresh taxation; and besides raising the income-tax each year,
up to is. 3d. in 1902, he introduced taxes on sugar and exported
coal (1901), and in 1902 proposed the reimposition of the registra-
tion duty on corn and flour which had been abolished in 1869
by Mr Lowe. The sale of his Netheravon estates in Wiltshire
to the War Office in 1898 occasioned some acrid criticism concern-
ing the valuation, for which, however, Sir Michael himself was
not responsible. On Lord Salisbury's retirement in 1902 Sir
Michael Hicks Beach also left the government. He accepted
the chairmanship of the Royal Commission on Ritualistic
Practices in the Church, and he did valuable work as an arbi-
trator; and though when the fiscal controversy arose he became
a member of the Free-food League, his parliamentary loyalty
to Mr Balfour did much to prevent the Unionist free-traders from
precipitating a rupture. When Mr Balfour resigned in 1905
he was raised to the peerage as Viscount St Aldwyn.
ST AMAND-LES-EAUX, a town of northern France, in the
department of Nord, at the junction of the Elnon with the Scarpe,
22 m. S.E. of Lille by rail. Pop. (1906), town, 10,195; commune,
14,454. The town has a communal college and a school of
drawing, and carries on iron-founding and the manufacture of
porcelain, hosiery, chains and nails, but is better known for its
mineral waters and mud baths. There are five springs; the
water (67 to 77 F.) contains sulphate of lime and sulphur,
and deposits white gelatinous threads without smell or taste.
The mud baths are of benefit to patients suffering from rheuma-
tism, gout and certain affections of liver and skin. Though from
the discovery of statues and coins in the mud it is evident that
these must have been frequented during the Roman period,
it was only at the close of the I7th century that they again
became of more than local celebrity. Of the abbey there remain
ST-AMAND-MONT-ROND ST ANDREWS
an entrance pavilion serving as town hall and the richly decorated
facade of the church, both dating from the 1 7th century.
St Amand owes its name to St Amand, bishop of Tongres, who
founded a monastery here in the 7th century. The abbey was laid
waste by the Normans in 882 and by the count of Hainaut in 1340.
The town was captured by Mary of Burgundy in 1477, by the count
of Ligne, Charles V.'s lieutenant, in 1521, and finally in 1667 by the
French. In 1793 St Amand was the headquarters of General
Dumouriez in revolt against the Republican government.
ST-AMAND-MONT-ROND, a town of central France, capital
of an arrondissement in the department of Cher, 39 m. S. by E.
of Bourges on the railway to Montlucon. Pop. (1906), 7711.
The town stands at the foot of the hill of Mont-Rond on the
right bank of the Cher, at its confluence with the Marmande
and on the canal of Berry. A church of the period of transition
from the Romanesque to Gothic style and several old houses
are the more interesting buildings. The beautiful chateau of
Meillant, built from 1500 to 1510 by the admiral Charles of
Amboise, is si m. from St Amand; and the abbey of Noirlac,
a fine type of Cistercian abbey with a 12th-century church, is
2 1 m. from the town.
The town grew up round a monastery founded by St Amand, a
follower of St Columban, in the 7th century. Its ruined stronghold,
on the hill of Mont-Rond, was of importance in the middle ages,
and during the Fronde, when it belonged to the great Conde, was a
centre of resistance to the royal troops, by whom it was taken after
a siege of eleven months in 1652. It was for a time the property of
Sully, who retired to it under the regency of Marie de' Medici.
SAINT-AMANT, MARC ANTOINE DE GERARD, SIEUR DE
(1594-1661), French poet, was born .near Rouen in the year
1594. His father was a merchant who had, according to his
son's account, been a sailor and had commanded for 22 years
une escadre de la reine Elizabeth a vague statement that lacks
confirmation. The son obtained a patent of nobility, and
attached himself to different great noblemen the due de Retz
and the comte d'Harcourt among others. He saw military
service and sojourned at different times in Italy, in England
a sojourn which provoked from him a violent poetical attack
on the country, Albion (1643) in Poland, where he held a court
appointment for two years, and elsewhere. Saint-Amant's
later years were spent in France; and he died at Paris on the
29th of December 1661.
Saint-Amant has left a not inconsiderable body of poetry. His
Albion and Rome ridicule set the fashion of the burlesque poem,
a form in which he was excelled by his follower Paul Scarron. In
his later years he devoted himself to serious subjects and produced
an epic, Mo'ise sauve (1653). His best work consists of Bacchan-
alian songs, his Debauche being one of the most remarkable convivial
poems of its kind.
The standard edition is that in the Bibliotheque Elzevirienne, by
M. C. L._Livet (2 vols. Paris, 1855).
SAINT ANDRE, ANDRE JEANBON (1740-1813), French
revolutionist, was born at Montauban (Tarn-et-Garonne) on
the 2 5th of February 1749, the son of a fuller. Although his
father was a Protestant, St Andre was brought up by the Jesuits
at Marseilles and took orders. He turned Protestant, however,
and became pastor at Castras and afterwards at Montauban.
The proclamation of liberty of worship made him a supporter
of the Revolution, and he was sent as deputy to the Convention
by the department of Lot. He sat on the Mountain, voted for
the death of Louis XVI. and opposed the punishment of the
authors of the September massacres. In July 1793 he was
president of the Convention, entered the Committee of Public
Safety the same month and was sent on mission to the Armies
of the East. On the 2oth of September 1793 he obtained a
vote of one hundred million francs for constructing vessels, and
from September 1793 to January 1794 reorganized the military
harbours of Brest and Cherbourg. In May 1794 he took part
with Admiral Villaret de Joyeuse in a fight with the English.
Finally, after a mission in the south, which lasted from July
1794 to March 1795 and in which he showed great moderation,
he was arrested on the 28th of May 1795, but was released by
the amnesty of the year IV. He was then appointed consul at
Algiers and Smyrna (1798), was kept prisoner by the Turks for
three years, and subsequently became prefect of the department
of Mont-Tonnerre (1801) and commissary -general of the three
departments on the left bank of the Rhine. He died at Mainz
on the loth of December 1813.
See Levy-Schneider, Le Conventionnel Jeanbon St Andre (Paris,
1901).
SAINT ANDRE, JACQUES D'ALBON, SEIGNEUR DE (c. 1505-
1562), French soldier and favourite of Henry II. of France.
He was made marshal of France, governor of Lyonnais and
ambassador in England. He served with great bravery against
the emperor Charles V. in 1552. In 1557 he was taken prisoner
at the battle of Saint Quentin, but was released the following
year, and took part in negotiating the peace of Cateau-Cam-
bresis. After the death of Francis II. he formed in 1561 with
the constable de Montmorency and Francis, duke of Guise, an
alliance known as " the triumvirate " against the Protestants
and the queen-mother. He perished at the battle of Dreux by
the hand of a private enemy.
ST ANDREWS, a city, royal burgh, university town and
seaport of Fifeshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 7621. It is situated
on a bay of the North Sea, 12! m. S.E. of Dundee by the North
British railway, via Leuchars junction. It occupies a plateau
of sandstone rock about 50 ft. high, on the north breaking off
in precipitous cliffs in which the sea has worn numerous caves.
The Eden enters St Andrews Bay to the north-west of the Links;
and Kinness Burn, skirting the south side of the town, flows into
the harbour. Almost the whole activity of St Andrews is.
centred in education and golf. There are a few small businesses,
however, such as brewing, tanning, shipping and fishing. The
harbour, which is somewhat difficult of access, is protected
by a pier 630 ft. long. The city has been called the " Mecca of
Golf," partly because the Royal and Ancient Golf Club, founded
in 1754, is the legislative authority of the game, and partly
because its beautiful links acquired by the town in 1894 and
containing three courses rank amongst the finest in the world.
For the sake of the game, the bracing air and the bathing which
the sandy beach of its bay affords, visitors are attracted to St
Andrews in great numbers. The chief modern buildings include
the town hall, the Templars' Hall, the Volunteer Hall, the
Gibson Hospital, the Memorial Cottage Hospital, the Marine
Biological Station (erected by Dr C. H. Gatty and opened in
1896), the Library and the Golf Club House, erected in 1853.
The city was never surrounded by walls, and of its ancient
gates the West Port only remains. The Martyrs' Memorial,
erected to the honour of Patrick Hamilton, George Wishart.
and other martyrs of the Reformation epoch, stands at the west
end of the Scores on a cliff overlooking the sea.
The cathedral originated partly in the priory of Canons Regular
founded by Bishop Robert (1122-1159). At the end of the I7th
century some of the priory buildings were still entire and considerable
remains of others existed, but nearly all traces have now disappeared,
except portions of the priory wall and the archways, known as the
Pends. The wall is about three-quarters of a mile long, and bears
turrets at intervals. The 3rd marquis of Bute undertook the restora-
tion of the priory, but the work was interrupted by his death in 1900.
The cathedral was founded by Bishop Arnold (l 159-1 162), to supply
more ample accommodation than was afforded by the church of
St Regulus. Of this church in the Romanesque style, probably
dating from the loth century, there remain the square tower, 108 ft.
in height, and the choir, of very diminutive proportions. On a plan
of the town, about 1530, a chancel appears, and on seals affixed to
the city and college charters there are representations of other build-
ings attached. The cathedral was constructed in the form of a Latin
cross, the total length inside the walls being 355 ft., the length of the
nave 200 ft., of the choir and lateral aisles 62 ft. and of the lady
chapel at the eastern extremity 50 ft. The width at the transepts
was 166 ft. and of the nave and choir 62 ft. The building was
finished in the time of Bishop Lamberton (1297-1328), and was
dedicated on the 5th of July 1318, the ceremony being witnessed
by Robert Bruce. When entire it had, besides a central tower, six
turrets, of which two at the east and one of the two at the west
extremity, rising to a height of 100 ft., remain. The building was
partly destroyed by v fire in 1378, and the restoration and further
embellishment were completed in 1440. It was stripped of its altars
and images in 1559. It is believed that about the end of the l6th
century the central tower gave way, carrying with it the north wall.
Afterwards large portions of the ruins were taken away for building
purposes, and nothing was done to preserve them until 1826. Since
then it has been tended with scrupulous care, an interesting feature
being the cutting out of the ground-plan in the turf. The principal
portions extant, partly Norman and partly Early English, are the
ST ANDREWS
1015
east and west gables, the greater part of the south wall of the nave
and the west wall of the south transept.
The picturesque ruins of the castle are situated on a rocky pro-
montory much worn away by the sea. It is supposed to have been
erected by Bishop Roger about the beginning of the I3th century
as an episcopal residence, and was strongly fortified. It was fre-
quently taken by the English, and after it had been captured by the
Scottish regent, Andrew Murray, in 1336-1337, was destroyed lest
it should fall into their hands. Towards the close of the century it
was rebuilt by Bishop Trail in the form of a massive fortification
with a moat on the south and west sides. James I. spent some of
his early years within it under the care of Bishop Wardlaw, and it was
the birthplace of James III. (1445). From a window in the castle
Cardinal Beaton witnessed the burning of George Wishart in front
of the gate (1546), and in the same year he was murdered within
it by a party of Reformers. The castle was taken from the con-
spirators by the French, among the prisoners captured being John
Knox. Some years afterwards it was repaired by Archbishop
Hamilton, but in less massive and less substantial form. By 1656,
however, it had fallen into such disrepair that the town council
ordered the materials to be used for repairing the pier. The principal
remains are a portion of the south wall enclosing a square tower, the
" bottle dungeon " so named from its shape: it was a cell hewn
out of the solid rock below the north-west tower, the kitchen tower
and a curious subterranean passage. The grounds have been laid
out as a public garden.
The town church, formerly the church of the Holy Trinity, was
originally founded in 1 1 12 by Bishop Turgot. The early building
was a beautiful Norman structure, but at the close of the l8th century
the whole, with the exception of little else than the square tower and
spire, was re-erected in a plain and ungainly style. In this church
John Knox first preached in public (May or June 1547), and in it,
on June 4th 1559, he delivered the famous sermon from St Matthew
xxi. 12, 13, which led to the stripping of the cathedral and the
destruction of the monastic buildings. The church contains an
elaborate monument in white marble to James Sharp', archbishop of
St Andrews (assassinated 1679). In South Street stands the lovely
ruin of the north transept of the chapel of the Blackfriars' monastery
founded by Bishop Wishart in 1274; but all traces of the Observan-
tine monastery founded about 1450 by Bishop Kennedy have dis-
appeared, except the well.
The great university of St Andrews owed its origin to
a society formed in 1410 by Lawrence of Lindores, abbot of
Scone, Richard Cornwall, archdeacon of Lothian, William
Stephen, afterwards archbishop of Dunblane, and a few others.
A charter was issued in 1411 by Bishop Henry Wardlaw
(d. 1440), who attracted the most learned men in Scotland as
professors, and six bulls were obtained from Benedict XIII.
in 1413 confirming the charter and constituting the society a
university. The lectures were delivered in various parts of
the town until 1430, when Wardlaw allowed the lecturers the
use of a building called the Paedagogium, or St John's. St
Salvator's College was founded and richly endowed by Bishop
Kennedy in 1456; seven years later it was granted the power
to confer degrees in theology and philosophy, and by the end of
the century was regarded as a constituent part of the university.
In 1512 St Leonard's College was founded by Prior John Hepburn
and Archbishop Alexander Stewart on the site of the buildings
which at one time were used as a hospital for pilgrims. In the
same year Archbishop Stewart nominally changed the original
Paedagogium into a college and annexed to it the parish church
of St Michael of Tarvet; but its actual erection into a college
did not take place until 1537, when it was dedicated to the
Blessed Virgin Mary of the Assumption. The outline of the
ancient structure is preserved, but its general character has
been much altered by various restorations. It forms two sides
of a quadrangle, the library and principal's residence being on
the north and the lecture rooms and the old dining-hall on the
west. The University library, which now includes the older
college libraries, was founded about the middle of the iyth
century, rebuilt in 1764, and improved in 1829 and 1880-1890.
The lower hall in the older part of the building was used at times
as a provincial meeting-place for the Scottish parliament. When
the constitution of the colleges was remodelled in 1579 St Mary's
was set apart for theology; and in 1747 the colleges of St
Salvator and St Leonard were formed into the United College.
The buildings of St Leonard's are now occupied as a school for
girls. The college chapel is in ruins. The United College
occupies the site of St Salvator's College, but the old buildings
have been removed, with the exception of the college chapel,
now used as the university chapel and the parish church of
St Leonard's, a line Gothic structure, containing an elaborate
tomb of Bishop Kennedy and Knox's pulpit; the entrance
gateway, with a square clock tower (152 ft.); and the janitor's
house with some class-rooms above. The modern building,
in the Elizabethan style, was erected between 1827 and 1847.
University College, Dundee, was in 1890 affiliated to the univer-
sity of St Andrews. This arrangement was set aside by the
House of Lords in 1895, but a reaffiliation took place in 1897.
In 1887-1888 a common dining-hall for the students was estab-
lished; in 1892 provision was made^within the university for
the instruction of women; and for the board and residence
of women students a permanent building was opened in 1896.
To the south of the library medical buildings, erected by the
munificence of the 3rd marquess of Bute, were opened in 1809.
It was during the principalship of Dr James Donaldson, who
succeeded John Tulloch (1823-1886), that most of the modern
improvements were introduced.
Madras College, founded and endowed by Dr Andrew Bell
(1755-1832), a native of the city, is a famous higher-class school.
The town, which is governed by a council, provost and bailies,
gives its name to the district group of burghs for returning one
member to parliament, the other constituents being the two
Anstruthers, Crail, Cupar, Kilrenny and Pittenweem.
Four miles N.W. is Leuchars (pop. 711), the church of which,
dating from noo, contains some l>eautiful Norman work in the
chancel and apse, the nave being modern. It was in this church
that Alexander Henderson (1583-1646) heard the sermon that led
him to give up Episcopacy. At Guard Bridge (pop. 715), so named
from the six-arched bridge erected by Bishop Wardlaw at the mouth
of the Eden, are a large paper-mill and bnckworks. Mt Melville,
to the S.W. of the city, was the residence of the novi-lUt (',. J . Whyte-
Melville (1821-1878), and Kinaldie, to the S., was the birthplace of
Sir Robert Ayton the poet (i57O-;i638). On the shore, to the S.E.,
stands the huge detached rock which, from its shape, bears the name
of the Spindle rock.
History. St Andrews was probably the site of a Pictish
stronghold, and tradition declares that Kenneth, the patron
saint of Kennoway, established a Culdee monastery here in the
6th century. The foundations of the little church dedicated
to the Virgin were discovered on the Kirkheugh in 1 860. Another
Culdee church of St Mary on the Rock is supposed to have
stood on the Lady's Craig, now covered by the sea. At that
period the name of the place was Kilrymont (Gaelic, " The
church of the King's Mount ") or Muckross. Another legend
tells how St Regulus or Rule, the bishop of Patras in Achaea,
was guided hither bearing the relics of Saint Andrew. The
Pictish king Angus gave him a tract of land called the Boar
Chase, no doubt the Boar hills of the present day, and the name
of the spot was changed to St Andrews, the saint soon afterwards
(747) becoming the patron-saint of Scotland (but see ANDREW,
ST). St Andrews is said to have been made a bishopric in the
9th century, and when the Pictish and Scottish churches were
united in 908, the primacy was transferred to it from Dunkeld,
its bishops being thereafter known as bishops of Alban. It
became an archbishopric during the primacy of Patrick Graham
(1466-1478). The town was created a royal burgh in 1124.
In the i6th century St Andrews was one of the most important
ports north of the Forth and is said to have numbered 14,000
inhabitants, but it fell into decay after the Civil War. Defoe
says that when he saw it one-sixth of its houses were ruinous
and the sea had so encroached on the harbour that it was never
likely to be restored; but the slight improvement in trade and
public spirit which Bishop Pococke seemed to detect in 1760
continued throughout the iqth century.
AUTHORITIES. S. W. Marline, History and Antiquities of St Rule s
Chapel, St Andrews (1787); Grierson, Delineations of St Andrews
(1807; 3rd ed., 1898); Reliquiae Divi Andreae (1797); Liber Cartarum
Sanc<t^ln4r<a(BannatyneClub, 1841); W.F.Skene," Ecclesiastical
Settlements in Scotland," in Proc. Soc. Antig. Scot. (1862-1863);
C. J. Lyon, History of St Andrews (1843); A. Mt-achUn, 5/ Andrews:
its Historical Associations and Public Buildings (Edinburgh, 1885);
D. Hay Fleming, The Martyrs and Confessors of Si Andrews (Cupar,
1887); Register of the Christian Congregation of St Andrews. 1559-
1600 (Edinburgh, Scottish History Society, 1889-1800); Guide to
St Andrews; Andrew Lane, St Andrews (London, 1893); L Heir,
St Andrews in 1645-1646 (London, 1895) ; James Maitland Anderson.
ioi6
SAINT ARNAUD ST AUGUSTINE
The University of St Andrews: an Historical Sketch (1878); Annual
Register of St Andrews University.
SAINT ARNAUD, JACQUES LEROY DE (1801-1854), marshal
of France, was born at Paris on the 2oth of August 1801. He
entered the army in 1817, and after ten years of garrison service,
which he varied by gambling and wild courses, he still held only
the lowest commissioned grade. He then resigned, led a life
of adventure in several lands and returned to the army at thirty
as a sub-lieutenant. He took part in the suppression of the
Vend6e emeute.and was for a time on General(Marshal)Bugeaud's
staff. But his debts and the scandals of his private life compelled
him to go to Algeria as a captain in the Foreign Legion. There
he distinguished himself on numerous occasions, and after twelve
years had risen to the rank of martcfial de camp. In 1848 he
was placed at the head of a brigade during the revolution in
Paris. On his return to Africa, it is said because Louis Napoleon
considered him suitable to be the military head of a coup d'etat,
an expedition was made into Little Kabylia, in which St Arnaud
showed his prowess as a commander-in-chief and provided his
superiors with the pretext for bringing him home as a general
of division (July 1851). He succeeded Marshal Magnan as
minister of war and superintended the military operations of
the coup d'etat of the 2nd of December (1851) which placed
Napoleon III. on the throne. A year later he was made marshal
of France and a senator, remaining at the head of the war
office till 1854, when he set out to command the French in the
Crimea, his British colleague being Lord Raglan. He died
on board ship on the zgth of September 1854 shortly after
commanding at the battle of the Alma. His body was con-
veyed to France and buried in the Invalides.
See Lettres du Marshal de Saint Arnaud (Paris, 1855; 2nd edition
with memoir by Sainte-Beuve, 1858).
ST ARNAUD, a town of Kara-Kara county, Victoria, Australia,
158 m. by rail N.W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901), 3656. It is
a flourishing town with a fine town hall, a school of mines and
the court house, in which sittings of the supreme court are
held. There are tanneries, chaff and wood yards, and flour-
and bone-mills in the town, which lies in a gold-mining,
pastoral and agricultural district, the mining being chiefly
quartz. To the N.W. is some of the finest agricultural land in
the colony.
ST ASAPH, a cathedral city and a contributory parliamentary
borough of Flintshire, N. Wales, on the Rhyl-Denbigh branch
of the London & North-Western railway, about 6 m. from
each of these towns. Pop. (1901), 1788. Its Welsh name,
Llanelwy, is derived from the Elwy, between which stream
and the Clwyd it stands. Asaph, to whom the cathedral (one
of the smallest in Great Britain) is dedicated, was bishop here
after Kentigern's return hence to Glasgow, and died in 596.
The small, irregularly built town has also a parish church
(Anglican), remains of a Perpendicular chapel near Ffynnon
Fair (St Mary's Well), a bishop's house, a grammar school
(1882) and ajmshouses for eight poor widows, founded in 1678
by Bishop Barrow. The hill on which St Asaph stands is Bryn
Paulin, supposed to have been the camping-ground of Suetonius
Paulinus, on his way to Anglesey. -The early cathedral, of wood,
was burned by the English in 1247 and 1282, and that built
by Bishop Anian in the I3th century (Decorated) was mostly
destroyed during the war of Owen Glendower in 1402; Bishop
Redman's building (c. 1480) was completed by the erection of
the choir about 1 7 70. During the Civil War the Parliamentarians
did not spare the building. The choir and chancel were restored,
from designs by Sir Gilbert Scott, in 1867-1868, the nave in
1875. The church is plain, cruciform, and in style chiefly
Decorated but partly Early English, with a square tower; it
has a library of nearly 2000 volumes (some rare) ; memorials to
Bishop DafyddabOwain(d. 1502), to Bishop Luxmore(d. 1830),
to the poetess Felicia Hemans, a resident near St Asaph (d.
1835); and Perpendicular oak choir stalls. In the neighbour-
hood is the rnodern mansion of Bodelwyddan, of which the
estate was bought by Sir W. Williams, speaker of the House of
Commons in Charles II. 's time.
ST AUGUSTINE, a city and the county-seat of St John's
county, Florida, U.S.A., in the N.E. part of the state, about
36 m. S.E. of Jacksonville. Pop. (1900) 4272, including 1735
negroes; (1910) 5494; many of the native whites are descendants
of those Minorcans who were settled at New Smyrna, Florida,*
by Andrew Turnbull in 1769, and subsequently removed to
St Augustine. St Augustine is served by the Florida East Coast
railway and by the Florida East Coast Canal, an inland waterway
from the St John's river to the Florida Keys.
The city stands on a narrow, sandy peninsula, about 12 ft. above
the sea, formed by the Matanzas and San Sebastian rivers, and is
separated from the ocean by the northern end of Anastasia Island.
St George, the chief street in St Augustine, is only 17 ft. wide, and
Treasury Street is, at its east end, an alley across which two
people may clasp hands. There are many old houses, some of which
have balconies projecting above the streets. At its northern end
is the old fort of San Marco (now renamed Fort Marion in honour of
General Francis Marion), a well-preserved specimen of Spanish
military architecture, begun, it is supposed, about 1656 and finished
in 1756. The St Francis barracks (now the state arsenal) occupy
the site of the old Franciscan convent, whose walls still remain as
the first storey. In the military cemetery are buried a number of
soldiers who were massacred by the Seminoles near the Great Wahoo
Swamp on the 28th of August 1835. At the end of St George Street
and near Fort Marion is the City Gate (two pillars, each 20 ft. high) ;
from this gate a line of earthworks formerly stretched across the
northern end of the peninsula. In the centre of the city is the Plaza
de la Constitucion, in which are an obelisk erected in 1813 to com-
memorate the Spanish Liberal Constitution of 1812, and a monument
(1872) to citizens who died in the Confederate Army. On this
square are the market (built in l84O,partially burned in 1887, and after-
wards rebuilt), often erroneously spoken of as " the slave market " ; a
Roman Catholic cathedral (built in 1791, burned in 1887, and rebuilt
and enlarged in 1887-1888); Trinity church (Protestant Episcopal);
and the post office (once the Spanish government building). In
the western part of the city is the beautiful Memorial Presbyterian
Church, built in 1889 as a memorial to his daughter, by Henry M.
Flagler. Facing King Street (the Alameda) is the magnificent Hotel
Ponce de Leon (Spanish Renaissance), of shell-concrete, also by
Flagler. The Alcazar (with a large swimming pool fed by a sulphur-
ous artesian well), in the Moorish style, and the Alcazar Annex
(with a large sun parlour), formerly the Cordova Hotel, designed and
built by Franklin W. Smith, in the Hispano-Moorish style, are also
famous hostelries. In an old building (restored) is housed the
Wilson Free Public Library. Another old building houses the
collections of the St Augustine Institute of Science and Historical
Society, organized in 1884. St Augustine is the seat of the state
school for the deaf and blind (1885).
At St Augustine are car and machine shops of the Florida East
Coast railway. Oyster canning and fishing are engaged in to some
extent, and cigars are manufactured, but the city is important chiefly
as a winter resort, the number of its visitors approximating 25,000 a
year. The climate is delightful, the mean temperature for the
winter months being about 58 F. and for the entire year about 70 F.
St Augustine is the oldest permanent settlement of Europeans
in the United States. It was founded by Spanish colonists
under the leadership of Pedro Menendez de Aviles, who sighted
land here in 1565, on the 28th of August, St Augustine's day,
whence the name. On the 6th of September he landed and began
his fortifications. St Augustine's colonial history is almost
identical with the history of Florida (q.v.) under Spanish
dominion. In 1586 it was burned by Sir Francis Drake, who
captured the fort, and in 1665 it was pillaged by Captain John
Davis, an English freebooter. There were frequent conflicts
with the English settlements in South Carolina and Georgia,
beginning in 1681 with an attack by the Spanish on Port Royal,
South Carolina. In 1702 Governor James Moore of South
Carolina captured St Augustine, but not the fort; and there were
subsequent expeditions under General James Edward Ogle-
thorpe (see GEORGIA). When Florida was ceded to England
in 1763, nearly all the Spanish inhabitants of St Augustine went
to Cuba. Under English control the city prospered, but when
in 1783 Florida was re-ceded to Spain, nearly all the English
inhabitants left for x the Carolinas, Georgia or the West Indies,
and it became merely a military post. In 1821 St Augustine,
with the rest of Florida, passed under American control. The
Spanish inhabitants remained. On the 7th of January 1861,
three days before Florida passed her Ordinance of Secession,
the small United States garrison was compelled by a state force
to evacuate; but on the nth of March 1862 the fort was
ST AUSTELL ST BERNARD PASSES
1017
recaptured without bloodshed by a Federal force, and was held
by the Federals until the close of the Civil War.
See George R. Fairbanks, The History and Antiquities of the City
of St Augustine (New York, 1858); Charles B. Reynolds, Old SI
Augustine (St Augustine, 1885); and D. Y. Thomas, " Report upon
the Historic Buildings, Monuments and Local Archives of St Augus-
tine," in vol. i. pp. 333-352 of the Annual Report (1905) of the
American Historical Association.
ST AUSTELL, a market town in the St Austell parliamentary
division of Cornwall, England, 14 m. N.E. of Truro, on the Great
Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3340. It is
pleasantly situated on a steep slope 2 m. inland from St Austell
bay on the south coast. To the north the high ground culminates
at 1034 ft. above the sea in Hensbarrow Downs, so-called from
a barrow standing at the loftiest point. The church of the Holy
Trinity is Perpendicular, with Decorated chancel, richly orna-
mented in a manner unusual in the county. The town is the
centre of a district productive of china clay (kaolin), about
400,000 tons being annually exported by sea to the potteries of
Staffordshire and to Lancashire, when it is used in the calico-
works for sizing. The deposits of clay became important about
1763, and Josiah Wedgwood acquired mines in the neighbour-
hood. Mines were previously worked for tin and copper, and in
some cases after being exhausted of ore continued to be worked
for clay. The Carclaze mine to the north-east is notably rich;
it is a shallow excavation of great superficial extent, which
appears to have been worked from very early times. Close to St
Austell is a good example of an ancient baptistery, called Mena-
cuddle Well, the little chapel being Early English.
ST BARTHOLOMEW, or ST BARTHELEMY, an island in the
French West Indies. It lies in 17 55' N. and 63 60' W., about
130 m. N.W. of Guadeloupe, of which it is a dependency. It is
shaped like an irregular crescent, the horns, enclosing the bay
of St Jean, pointing to the N. ; its surface is hilly, culminating
near the centre in a limestone hill 1003 ft. high. It is 8 sq. m.
in area, and devoid of forests, and water has often to be imported
from the neighbouring island of St Kitts. The surrounding
rocks and shallows make the island difficult of access. Despite
the lack of water, sugar, cotton, cocoa, manioc and tobacco are
grown. The capital, Gustavia, on the S.W. coast, possesses a
small but safe harbour. Lorient is the only other town. The
inhabitants, mainly of French and negro descent, are English-
speaking, and number about 3000. St Bartholomew was
occupied by France in 1648 and ceded to Sweden in 1784. In
1877 it was again acquired by France at the cost of 11,000.
ST BARTHOLOMEW, MASSACRE OF, the name given to the
massacre of the Huguenots, which began in Paris on St Bartholo-
mew's day, the 24th of August 1572. The initiative for the crime
rests with Catherine de' Medici. Irritated and disquieted by the
growing influence of Admiral Coligny, who against her wishes
was endeavouring to draw Charles IX. into a war with Spain,
she resolved at first to have him assassinated. The blow failed,
and the admiral was only wounded. The attempt, however,
infuriated the Huguenots, who had flocked to Paris for the
wedding of Henry of Navarre and Marguerite de Valois. Charles
IX. declared that the assassin should receive condign punishment.
Catherine then conceived the idea of killing at a blow all the
Huguenot leaders, and of definitely ruining the Protestant party.
After holding a council with the Catholic leaders, including
the duke of Anjou, Henry of Guise, the marshal de Tavannes, the
duke of Nevers, and Rene de Birague, the keeper of the seals, she
persuaded the king that the massacre was a measure of public
safety, and on the evening of the 23rd of August succeeded
in wringing his authorization from him. The king himself
arranged the manner of its execution, but it is scarcely probable
that he fired upon the Huguenots from a window of the Louvre.
The massacre began on Sunday at daybreak, and continued in Paris
till the 1 7th of September. Once let loose, it was impossible to
restrain the Catholic populace. From Paris the massacre spread
to the provinces till the 3rd of October. The due de Longue-
ville in Picardy, Chabot-Charny (son of Admiral Chabot) at
Dijon, the comte de Matignon (1525-1597) in Normandy, and
other provincial governors, refused to authorize the massacres.
Francois Hotman estimates the number killed in the whole of
France at 50,000. There were many illustrious victims, among
them being Admiral Coligny, his son-in-law Charles de Teligny
and the logician Peter Ramus. Catherine de' Medici received
the congratulations of all the Catholic powers, and Pope Gregory
XIII. commanded bonfires to be lighted and a medal to be
struck.
See H. Bordier, La St Barthelemy el la critique moderne (Paris,
1879); H. Baumgarten, Vor der Bartkolomausnackt (Strassburg,
1882); and H. Maridjol, " La R6iorme et la Liguc " (Paris, 1904),
in vol. vi. of the Htsloire de France, by E. Lavisee, which contains a
more complete bibliography of the subject.
ST BENOIT-SUR-LOIRE, a village of north-central France,
in the department of Loirct, on the right bank of the Loire,
22 m. E.S.E. of Orleans by road. St Benolt (Lat. Floriacum)
possesses a huge basilica, the only survival of a famous monastery
founded in the 7th century to which the relics of St Benedict were
brought from Monte Cassino. Of great importance during the
middle ages, owing partly to its school, the establishment began
to decline in the i6th century. In 1562 it was pillaged by the
Protestants and, though the buildings were restored by Richelieu,
the abbey did not recover its former position. The basilica was
built between c. 1025 and 1218. Its narthex has a second storey
supported on columns with remarkable carved capitals; there
are two sets of transepts, above which rises a square central
tower. In the interior are the tomb of Philip I., stalls of
the isth century, and, in the crypt, a modern shrine con-
taining the remains of St Benedict, which still attract many
pilgrims.
ST BERNARD PASSES, two of the best-known passes across
the main chain of the Alps, both traversed by carriage roads.
The Great St Bernard (8m ft.) leads (53 m.) from Martigny
(anc. Octodurus) in the Rhone valley (Switzerland) to Aosta
(anc. Augusta Praetoria) in Italy. It was known in Roman
times. The hospice on the pass was founded (or perhaps re-
founded) by St Bernard of Menthon (d. about 1081), and since
the 1 2th or early i3th century has been in charge of a community
of Austin canons, the mother-house being at Martigny. Annually
the servants of the canons, and the famous dogs, save many lives,
especially of Italian workmen crossing the pass. In May 1800
Napoleon led his army over the pass, which was then traversed by
a bridle road only. The Little St Bernard (7179 ft.) also was
known in Roman times, and the hospice refounded by St Bernard
of Menthon, though it is 'now in charge of the military and re-
ligious order of SS. Maurice and Lazarus. The pass leads (39 m.)
from Bourg St Maurice in the Isere valley (French department
of Savoie) to Aosta, but is much less frequented by travellers
than its neighbour opposite. (W. A. B. C.)
There is no certain mention of the road over the pass of the
Great St Bernard (Alpis Poenina, Poeninus Mons) before
57 B.C. when Julius Caesar sent Servius Galba over it, " because
he wished that the pass, by which traders had been accustomed
to go at great risk and with very high transport charges, should
be opened." But even in Strabo's time it was impassable for
wheeled traffic; and we find that Augusta Praetoria originally
had but two gates, one opening on the road towards the Little
St Bernard (Alpis Graia), the other towards Eporedia (Ivrea),
but none towards the Alpis Poenina. But the military arrangement
of the German provinces rendered the construction of the road
necessary, and it is mentioned as existing in A.D. 69. Remains
of it cut in the rock, some 1 2 J ft. in width, still exist near the
lake at the top of the pass. On the plain at the top of the pass
is the temple of Jupiter Poeninus (Penninus), remains of which
were excavated in 1890-1893, though objects connected with it
had long ago been found. The oldest of the votive-tablets which
can be dated belongs to the time of Tiberius, and the temple may
be attributed to the beginning of the empire; objects, however,
of the first Iron age (4th or sth century B.C.) were also found 1
and many Gaulish coins. Other buildings, probably belonging to
the post station at the top of the pass, were also discovered.
Many of the objects found then and in previous years, including
'So Not. degli scam (1891), 81; but the statement is contra-
dicted, ibid. (1894), 44-
io 1 8 ST BERTRAND-DE-COMMINGES ST CHARLES
many votive-tablets, are in the museum at the hospice of the
Great St Bernard.
See Noiizie degli scavi, passim, especially E. Ferrero (1890), 294;
C. Promis, Antichita di Aosta (Turin, 1862).
The Little St Bernard was known to the Romans as Alpis
Graia. It derived its name from the legend that Hercules,
returning from Spain with the oxen of Geryon, crossed the Alps
by this route, though the legend rather suits the route througlUhe
Maritime Alps. According to many modern scholars, Hannibal
passed this way over the Alps, though the question has been
much discussed (see art. HANNIBAL, and Partsch in Pauly-
Wissowa, RealencyklopUdie i., 1604). In any case it was the
principal pass over the Alps into Gallia Comata until the pass
of the Alpis Cottia (Mont Genevre) was opened by Cn. Pompeius
in 75 B.C., and became the principal route, though the road was
only completed under Augustus by Cottius in 3 B.C. Various
remains of the road are visible, and those of a building (possibly a
temple of Jupiter) have been found on the summit of the pass.
See Noiizie degli scavi (1883), 7 (1894), 46; and C. Promis,
Antichita di Aosta (Turin, 1862), 115 sqq. (T. As.)
ST BERTRAND-DE-COMMINGES, a village of south-western
France at the foot of the Pyrenees in the department of Haute-
Garonne, about 70 m. S.W. of Toulouse by rail and road. St
Bertrand stands about i m. from the left bank of the Garonne
on the slopes of an isolated hill crowned by its celebrated cathedral
of Notre Dame. The facade of the church with its square tower
and the first bay with its aisles are Romanesque, and belong to
a church begun about the end of the nth century by Bishop
Bertrand (1075-1123), afterwards canonized. The nave with its
side chapels and the choir, in the Gothic style, date from the first
half of the I4th century and were chiefly the work of Bertrand
de Goth, bishop from 1295 to 1299 and afterwards Pope Clement
V. The choir screen, rood-loft and altar, which form an enclosure
within the church, are masterpieces of Renaissance wood-carving,
as are also the choir stalls. The church contains several tombs,
the most interesting of which are the fine white marble tomb of
Bishop Hugh of Chatillon (d. 1352), and the mausoleum of St
Bertrand (both of the isth century), whose relics are preserved in
the treasury. On the south side of the church there is a ruined
cloister of Romanesque architecture.
St Bertrand-de-Comminges (Lugdunum Convenarum) was founded
in 72 B.C., and before the end of the 5th century became the seat of a
bishopric suppressed at the Revolution. The town was destroyed
towards the end of the 6th century by Guntrum,king of Burgundy,
after it had served as a refuge toGondowald, pretender to the crown
of Aquitaine.
SAINT-BON, SIMONE ARTURO (1823-1892), Italian admiral,
was born at Chambery on the 2othof March 1823. Leaving the
Naval Academy in 1847, he attained the rank of commander in
1860, and that of vice-admiral in 1867. He took part in the
Crimean war, distinguished himself in 1860 at the siege of Ancona,
and was decorated for valour at the siege of Gaeta. At the battle
of Lissa, in 1866, his vessel, the " Formidabile," forced the
entrance of the port of San Giorgio and silenced the Austrian
batteries, for which exploit he received a gold medal. In 1873 he
was elected deputy, and appointed by Minghetti to be minister
of marine, in which position he revolutionized the Italian navy.
Insisting upon the need for large battleships with high powers
of attack and defence, and capable of fighting as single units,
he introduced the colossal types of which the " Duilio " and the
" Dandolo " were the earliest examples. Falling from power
with the Right in 1876, he resumed active service, but in 1891
was again appointed minister of marine. He died on the 26th
of November 1892, while still in office. He is remembered in
Italy as the originator of the modern Italian fleet.
ST BRIEUC, a town of western France, capital of the depart-
ment of C6tes-du-Nord, 63 m. N.W. of Rennes by the railway
to Brest. Pop. (1906) town 15,270; commune 23,041. It
stands 290 ft. above the sea, between i and 2 m. from the English
Channel and less than a mile from the right bank of the Gouet,
at the mouth of which is its seaport, Le Legue. St Brieuc is the
seat of a bishopric in the province of Rennes, and has a cathedral
dating from the I3th century, but partially rebuilt in the i8th,
and afterwards extensively restored. In the interior the tombs
of the bishops and a Renaissance organ-loft deserve mention.
The oldest part of the episcopal palace date back to the :6th
century. The h6tel-de-ville contains a museum and picture
gallery. An Ursuline convent serves as barracks. There are
numerous houses of the isth and i6th centuries, in one of which
James II., king of England, is said to have lodged in 1689.
A colossal image of the Virgin looks down upon the town from
an eminence on the north, and there is a statue of Du Guesclin.
The industries include wool-spinning, timber-sawing, iron and
steel-working, and the manufacture of brushes and agricultural
implements. .
St Brieuc owes its origin and its name to the missionary St Briocus,
who came from Wales in the 5th century, and whose tomb after-
wards attracted crowds of pilgrims. The place was defended in
1375 by Olivier de Clisson against the duke of Brittany, and again
attacked by the same Clisson in 1394, the cathedral suffering greatly
in both sieges. In 1592 the town was pillaged by the Spaniards,
in 1601 ravaged by the plague, and in 1628 surrounded by walls
of which no traces remain. Between 1602 and 1768 the states of
Brittany several times met at St Brieuc. During the Reign of Terror
Chouans and Republicans carried on a ruthless conflict with each
other in the vicinity. The ancient fort of Pe'ran, built of vitrified
granite, is about 5 m. S. of St Brieuc.
ST CATHARINES, a city of Ontario, Canada, and the capital
of Lincoln county, on the Welland Canal and the Grand Trunk,
and St Catharines and Niagara Central railways, 35 m. S. of
Toronto, with which it has steamer connexion. Pop. (1901)
9946. It is connected by electric tramways with the neighbouring
towns and villages, and is in the midst of a fine fruit-growing
district. Its excellent water-power provides motive force for
numerous industries, among which are flour-mills and factories
for the manufacture of edge tools and agricultural implements.
Bishop Ridley College, under Anglican control, is an important
residential school. There are mineral springs which are much
visited by invalids.
ST CHAMOND, a manufacturing town of east-central France,
in the department of Loire, 75 m. E.N.E. of St Etienne, on the
railway from St Etienne to Lyons. Pop. (1906) 14,147. The
town lies in a small basin surrounded by mountains at the
confluence of the Janon with the Gier, an affluent of the Rhone.
It has coal-mines forming part of the Rive-de-Gier basin. The
milling of raw silk, the manufacture of ribbons and laces of every
kind, dyeing and the construction of naval and railway material
are the foremost industries. There are also metal-foundries,
manufactories of nails, heavy iron goods, looms and other
industrial establishments.
St Chamond,' founded in the 7th century by St Ennemond or
diamond, archbishop of Lyons, became the chief town of the Jarret,
a little principality formed by the valley of the Gier. Silk-milling
was introduced in the town in the middle of the l6th century by
Gayotti, a native of Bologna. Remains are found at St Chamond
of a Roman aqueduct, which conveyed the waters of the Janon along
the valley of the Gier to Lyons.
ST CHARLES, a city and the county-seat of St Charles county,
Missouri, U.S.A., situated on the N. bank of the Missouri river,
about 20 m. above its mouth, and about 23 m. N.W. of St Louis.
Pop. (1910) 9437. It is served by the Wabash and the Missouri,
Kansas & Texas railway systems, and by an electric railway to
St Louis. A great steel bridge, 6535 ft. long (built 1868-1871),
crosses the river and gives entry to the Wabash railroad from
St Louis. It has three spans of 305 to 321 ft., which at the time
of their construction were the longest of their kind in the world.
A highway bridge also crosses the river, and is the only waggon
bridge between Jefferson City and the mouth of the river. At
St Charles are a Presbyterian school for women (Lindenwood
College); St Charles Military College (Methodist Episcopal, 1837),
the Academy of the Sacred Heart (1818); St Joseph's Hospital,
and the Emmaus Asylum for Epileptics. St Charles has import-
ant car works (among the largest in the United States), a large
shoe factory, flour mills, brick and tile yards and breweries.
St Charles county is very fertile, and its yield of wheat is especi-
ally large. At the sand works at Klondike, in the southern part
of the county, large quantities of silica are blasted, crushed,
bolted and shipped.
A French settlement was begun at St Charles in 1 769, and soon
SAINT CLAIR ST CROIX
1019
thereafter a Spanish official was placed in residence. St Charles
was organized as a village under territorial law in 1809, and in
1849 was chartered as a city. It was the first capital of the
state (1820-1826).
SAINT CLAIR, a borough of Schuylkill county, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., on Mill Creek, 3 m. N. of Pottsville, and about 40 m.
by rail N.N.W. of Reading. Pop. (1910) 6455. Saint Clair is
served by the Pennsylvania and the Philadelphia & Reading
railways. It is engaged chiefly in the mining (very largely
surface-stripping) and shipping of anthracite coal, and in the
manufacture of miners' supplies. Saint Clair was settled in
1825 and was incorporated as a borough in 1850.
ST CLAIR, a lake and river of North America, forming part
of the boundary between the state of Michigan, U.S.A., and
the province of Ontario, Canada. The lake is 29 m. long and
20 broad. It contains numerous islands, receives from the
Canadian side several rivers, the largest of which is the Thames,
and is drained into Lake Erie by the Detroit river. At its foot
are the cities of Detroit (Michigan) and Windsor (Ontario). On
the north it receives the St Clair river, the outlet of Lake Huron-.
The shores of both lake and river are flat, and their waters
shallow, but, owing to the enormous traffic which passes through,
they have been in great part canalized, and can accommodate
the largest steamers.
ST CLAUDE, a town of eastern France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Jura, 42 m. S.S.E. of Lons-le-Saunier
by rail. Pop. (1906) 9558. The town is beautifully situated
1300 ft. above sea-level at the western base of Mont Bayard,
among the heights of the eastern Jura at the confluence of the
Bienne and the Tacon. The latter river is crossed by a fine
suspension bridge. The cathedral of St Pierre, once the abbey-
church, a building of the i4th to the i8th centuries, contains
fine 15th-century stalls and a reredos of the Renaissance period.
The town is the seat of a. bishop, suffragan of Lyons, and of a
sub-prefect. St Claude has been noted since the close of the
middle ages for its fancy articles in horn, tortoise-shell, hardwood,
ivory, &c., and there are manufactures of briar-root pipes.
Diamond-cutting and lapidary work and the manufacture of
measures are also prosperous industries.
The town derives its name from that of an archbishop of
Besancon who died in the 7th century in the monastery founded
here in the 5th century. This monastery subsequently acquired
almost independent sovereignty in the locality, and held its
retainers in a state of serfdom till the Revolution. Voltaire
pleaded the cause of the serfs, though unsuccessfully, before
the parlement of Besancon, and in memory of his services a
statue was erected to him in 1887. St Claude was constituted
a bishopric in 1762. The abbey-buildings and most of the town
were destroyed by fire in 1799.
ST CLOUD, a town of northern France, in the department
of Seine-et-Oise, on the left bank of the Seine, 2 m. W. of the
fortifications of Paris by road. Pop. (1906) 7316. Picturesquely
built on a hill-slope, St Cloud overlooks the river, the Bois de
Boulogne and Paris; and, lying amid the foliage of its magnifi-
cent park and numerous villa gardens, it is one of the favourite
resorts of the Parisians. The palace of St Cloud, which had
been a summer residence for Napoleon I., Louis XVIII., Charles
X., Louis Philippe and Napoleon III., was burned by the
Prussians in 1870 along with part of the village. In spite of
the damage inflicted on the park at the same period its magnifi-
cent avenues and ornamental water still make it one of the
pleasantest spots in the neighbourhood of Paris. Every year
in September, at the time of the pilgrimage of St Cloud, a fair
lasting four weeks is held in the park. Within its precincts
are situated the national Sevres porcelain manufactory and the
Breteuil pavilion, the seat of the international commission on
the metre. St Cloud possesses a modern church in the style of
the 1 2th century with an elegant stone spire; and here, too, is
established the higher training college for male teachers for the
provincial training colleges of primary instruction.
Clodoald or Cloud, grandson of Clovis, adopted the monastic
life and left his name to the spot where his tomb was discovered
after the lapse of 1200 years, in a crypt near the present church.
He had granted the domain to the bishops of Paris, who pos-
sessed it as a fief tiil the i8th century. At St Cloud Henry HI.
and the king of Navarre (Henry IV.) established their camp
during the League for the siege of Paris; and there the former
was assassinated by Jacques C16mcnt. The castle was at that
time a plain country house belonging to Pierre de Condi, arch-
bishop of Paris; in 1658 it was acquired by the duke of Orleans,
who was the originator of the palace which perished in 1870.
Peter the Great of Russia was received there in 1717 by the
regent, whose grandson sold the palace to Marie Antoinette. It
was at St Cloud that Bonaparte executed the coup d'etat of
1 8th Brumaire (1799); after he became emperor the palace was
his favourite residence, and there he celebrated his marriage
with Marie Louise. In 1815 it was the scene of the signing of
the capitulation of Paris; and in 1830 from St Cloud Charles X.
issued the orders which brought about his fall. Napoleon III.
was there when he received the senatusconsult which restored
the empire in his favour (ist December 1852). Seized by the
Prussians at the beginning of the investment of Paris in 1870,
St Cloud was sacked during the siege.
ST CLOUD, a city in Stearns, Benton and Sherburne counties
Minnesota, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Stearns county,
about 65 m. N.W. of Minneapolis, on both banks of the Missis-
sippi river, and about 970 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1900)
8663, of whom 1907 were foreign-born; (1910 U.S. census) 10,600.
It is served by the Great Northern and the Northern Pacific
railways. It is the seat of one of the State Normal Schools
(1869), and of the Minnesota State Reformatory (1887). In
the city are a Carnegie library, a Federal building, a Roman
Catholic cathedral, St Raphael's Hospital (Roman Catholic),
St Clotilda's Academy of Music and two business colleges.
The Mississippi has a considerable fall here, and provides valuable
water-power. Among the manufactures are flour, barrels,
bricks, and foundry and machine-shop products the Great
Northern maintains extensive car and repair shops here. In
1905 the value of the city's factory product was $1,094,476, an
increase of 27-8% since 1000. There are large lumberyards,
and excellent grey and red granites (St Cloud is called " the
Granite City ") from neighbouring quarries are exported. The
city lies in a large grain-growing and stock-raising district.
St Cloud was settled in 1852, platted in 1854, incorporated as
a village in 1868, and chartered as a city in 1889. Until
reached by the Great Northern railway, St Cloud was the
Hudson's Bay Company's terminus for the unloading of furs
from the wooden ox-carts (" Red river " carts).
ST CROIX or SANTA CRUZ, the largest island in the Danish
West Indies. It lies 65 m. S.E. of Puerto Rico, in 17 40' N. and
64 14' W., is 22 m. long, varies in breadth from i m. to 6 m.,
and has an area of 84 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 18,590. Parallel with
the western coast is a range of hills, culminating in Mount Eagle
(1164 ft.). The narrower western part is also hilly, but on the
S. shore there are marshy tracts with lagoons of brackish water.
Sugar is the staple product, and near Christianstad there is a
central factory conducted by the government. The planters are
mostly English, and their language predominates. The capital,
Christianstad (locally known as " Bassin "), is situated at the
head of an inlet on the N. coast, but its harbour is to a large
extent choked with mud. It is a picturesque town, and the seat
of the Danish governor during half the year. The only other
town, Frederickstad, stands on an open roadstead on the \\
coast. It is locally known as " West End," and part of the town,
wrecked by the blacks in 1878, lies in ruins. The climate is
healthy, the mean annual temperature being 74 F. and the
average rainfall 45-7 in. per annum.
St Croix was discovered in 1493 by Columbus, and was owned
in turn by the Dutch, British and Spanish. In 1651 it was taken
by France, and two years later was given to the Knights of Malta
by Louis XIV. In 1733 it was purchased by Denmark. Slavery
was abolished in 1848 after a violent insurrection which had
broken out among the slaves.
See Sir H. H. Johnston, The Negro in the New World (1910).
1020
SAINT-CYRAN ST DAVIDS
SAINT-CYRAN, a French Benedictine abbey in the province
of Berry, now comprised in the department of the Loiret. From
1620 to 1643 it was held by the famous Jansenist reformer,
Du Vergier (q.v.), who is consequently often spoken of by French
writers as the Abbe de Saint-Cyran.
ST CYR-L'6COLE, a town of northern France in the depart-
ment of Seine-et-Oise, 3 m. W. of Versailles at the end of the old
park of Louis XIV. Pop. (1906) 2696. Its importance is due
to the famous military school (icole spiciale militaire) in which
officers for the cavalry and infantry are trained. It was estab-
lished in 1808 in the convent which Madame de Maintenon
founded for the education of noble young ladies in poor circum-
stances. Racine's Esther and Athalie were first acted here,
having been written expressly for the pupils. Madame de Main-
tenon's tomb is still, preserved in the chapel. The convent was
suppressed at the Revolution, and the gardens are now partly
transformed into parade-grounds.
ST DAVIDS (Tyddewi), a cathedral town of Pembrokeshire,
Wales, situated near the sea to the S.E. of St David's Head,
the most westerly promontory of South Wales. Pop. (1901)
1710. St Davids is 10 m. distant from the station of Letterston
on the Great Western railway, and about 16 m. from Fishguard
to the N.E., and 16 m. from Haverfordwest to the E. The
little town, locally known as " the city," stands in a lofty position
east of the Cathedral Close, and consists of five streets, which
converge on an open space called the Cross Keys, formerly used as
a market-place and distinguished by its High Cross, a single shaft
erect on a square base of six steps, restored in 1873. From the
cross a lane leads westward to the Tower Gate, flanked by two
ancient towers in a ruinous condition. From this point is
obtained a superb view of the close with the cathedral and ruined
palace in the valley of the Alun below, to which the rocky
outline of Cam Llidi forms an imposing background.
The cathedral church of SS. Andrew and David, in spite of
centuries of neglect and ill-advised alterations, remains the largest
and most interesting pile of ecclesiastical buildings in the Princi-
pality. It is largely built of a beautiful purple-hued sandstone,
which is quarried locally. Its proportions are: length (exclusive
of the Trinity and Lady chapels), 254.5 ft.; .breadth of nave and
aisles, 51 J ft.; breadth of transepts including tower, 116 ft.; and
height of central tower, 116 ft. In spite of the antiquity of its
foundation, the earliest and main portion of the existing fabric was
erected under Bishop Peter de Leia (1176-1198) in the transitional
Norman-English style. Bishop David Martyn (1290-1328) built
the Lady Chapel; Bishop Henry de Gower (1328-1347), one of the
greatest of ecclesiastical builders in Wales, made many additions
in the Decorated style, including the stone rood-screen and southern
porch; and Bishop Edward Vaughan (1509-1522) erected the
Trinity Chapel between the choir and Lady Chapel. Under the
last-named prelate the magnificence of St Davids reached its height,
but owing to the changes during the Reformation and the un-
scrupulous rapacity of Bishop William Barlow (1536-1548) the fabric
suffered severely; nor was it spared later during the Civil Wars,
when the Lady Chapel, the aisles of the presbytery, and even the
transepts were unroofed and partially dismantled. In 1793 the
cathedral was repaired by Thomas Nash, who rebuilt the western
front in a debased Perpendicular style. The work of much-needed
restoration was carried out throughout the latter half of the igth
century, especially between 1862 and 1869, when Sir Gilbert Scott
strengthened the building at a cost of over 43,000. In 1873 Nash's
incongruous work was replaced by a new fagade intended to har-
monize with the original design of Bishop de Leia, and at the be-
ginning of the 20th century the Lady Chapel and Bishop Vaughan's
chapel were restored in memory of Bishop Basil Jones (d. 1897)
and of Deans Allen and Phillips. The interior of the nave, separated
by six wide bays from the aisles, is singularly imposing with its
triforium and clerestory windows. It possesses an elaborate roof of
Irish oak, the gift of Treasurer Owen Pole (c. 1500). The nave is
divided from the choir by Bishop Gower's fine stone screen, whilst
the choir itself contains the richly carved stalls erected by Bishpp
Tully (1460-1481), the episcopal throne, and an elegant oaken
screen that serves to separate choir and presbytery. The painted
roof (freely restored) exhibits the coats-of-arms of Bishops Tully and
Richard Martin, Treasurer Owen Pole and other benefactors. The
eastern wall of the choir has been greatly altered by the addition of
modern Venetian mosaic designs in the original lower triplet of
lights, and by the insertion of lancet windows in place of a large
Perpendicular window of the 15th century. Bishop Vaughan's
chapel contains fine Tudor fan vaulting, and the Lady Chapel good
decorated sedilia. The cathedral, before the Reformation, was
remarkably rich in sculptured tombs and monuments, but many
of these have perished and all the brasses have disappeared. In the
presbytery stands prominent the altar tomb with modern brasses
inserted of Edmund Tudor, earl of Richmond (d. 1456), father of
King Henry VII. Among the other surviving monuments, all
more or less injured and defaced, are the tombs of Bishop Gower and
of several bishops of St Davids ; the canopied effigies popularly but
erroneously attributed to Prince Rhys (d. 1196) and his son Rhys;
the stone base of the destroyed shrine of St David ; a priest's effigy
formerly believed to be that of the celebrated Giraldus Cambrensis;
and the large Jacobean monument of Treasurer Thomas Lloyd
(d. 1612). To the north of the cathedral is to be seen the ruined
shell of the beautiful chapel with an adjoining tower, forming part
of the college of St Mary, founded by John of Gaunt and Bishop
Adam Houghton in 1377.
On the west bank of the Alun stands the splendid and indeed
unique ruin of the episcopal palace erected by Bishop Gower (c.
1342). Built for the purpose of culture and entertainment rather
than for defence, Bishop Gower's ecclesiastical mansion is " essenti-
ally a palace and not a castle; and it is hardly too much to affirm
that it is altogether unsurpassed by any existing English edifice of
its kind." Built upon vaulted cellars, the palace occupies three sides
of a quadrangle 120 ft. square, and though roofless and deserted for
nearly three hundred years it retains most of its principal features.
The great hall, 96 ft. by 33 ft., possesses a traceried wheel-window;
the chief portal is still imposing; and the chapel retains its curious
bell-turret; while the peculiar but singularly graceful arcaded
parapet of the roof extends intact throughout the whole length of
the building. Partially dismantled by Bishop Barlow (c. 1540) the
half-ruined palace was occasionally occupied by succeeding bishops
prior to the Civil Wars, and in 1633 a chapter was held within its
walls under Bishop Field.
The Close, 18 acres in extent and extra-parochial, contains the
deanery and other residences of the cathedral clergy, mostly occupy-
ing the sites of ancient buildings. It formerly owned four gateways,
of which the South or Tower Gate alone remains. The whole of the
wild and bleak but picturesque neighbourhood of St Davids teems
with legendary and historical associations, and cromlechs and
ruined chapels are numerous, amongst the latter the chapels of
St Justinian (Capel Stinan) and St Non being the most remarkable.
History. At some unknown period in the 6th century the
celebrated patron saint of Wales, Dewi or David, removed the
chief seat of South Welsh ecclesiastical life to Menevia or
Menapia (Mynyw), which is traditionally reported to have been
the saint's birthplace. The site chosen for this new foundation
was the marshy valley of the Alun the Vallis Rosina of medieval
historians and this spot became known henceforth as Tyddewi
or St Davids. The dread of an imminent Anglo-Saxon invasion
of Gwent, the determination to remove his monastic clergy from
court influence, and the desire of opening closer communication
with the sister Churches of Ireland, are among the various
reasons suggested for David's remarkable policy, which made
St Davids the leading religious centre in South Wales for nearly
a thousand years. From the 7th to the nth centuries the
successors of St David occasionally ventured to exercise metro-
politan rights over South Wales, and even over all land west of the
Severn, and the character and extent of these ancient claims have
frequently been made the subject of speculation or controversy
among historians, some of whom have not hesitated to designate
the early Celtic holders of the see by the title of " archbishop."
These ill-defined claims were destroyed by St Anselme's forcible
appointment of the Norman monk Bernard to the bishopric in
1115, from which date to the present time St Davids has ranked
as a suffragan see of Canterbury; nor has its ancient independ-
ence ever been seriously asserted, save by the intrepid Gerald de
Barri (Giraldus Cambrensis), who vainly strove from 1199 to
1203 to induce Pope Innocent III. to acknowledge the power of
the cathedral chapter to elect its own bishops without reference
to English king or primate. St Davids early became popular
as a place of pilgrimage, and amongst the many suppliants who
visited St David's shrine were William the Conqueror, Henry II.-
and Edward I. with Queen Eleanor. Probably with a view to
conciliate the native clergy for Anselme's unpopular policy in
Wales, Henry I. obtained from Pope Calixtus II. the canoniza-
tion of St David about 1120, and in local esteem two pilgrimages
to St Davids were vulgarly supposed to be equivalent to one
journey to Rome itself: a sentiment preserved in the curious
monkish hexameter:
" Roma semel quantum bis dat Menevia tantum."
From 1115 to the Reformation the see was held by prelates
ST DENIS ST DIZIER
1021
(many of them natives of Wales) who did much to enrich and
beautify the vast group of ecclesiastical buildings in the Close.
But with the partial destruction of the palace and the removal
of tne episcopal residence to Abergwili, it was not long before
St Davids sank into a mere monument of its former splendour
and importance. In 1539 Bishop Barlow even petitioned Thomas
Cromwell for permission to remove the see itself to Carmarthen,
a request which tradition declares Henry VIII. refused to grant
solely out of respect for the memory of his grandfather Edmund
Tudor, whose tomb had recently been taken from the suppressed
priory of Grey Friars at Carmarthen and set up before the high
altar of the cathedral. During the lyth and i8th centuries all
the ancient buildings of the Close, except the cathedral (which
served also as a parish church for the village of St Davids), were
allowed to fall into hopeless ruin. Amongst the 119 bishops
who have held the see since its foundation by St David may
be mentioned Asser, the friend of King Alfred (d. 906) ; Samson
(roth century), honoured by the Welsh chroniclers with the
proud title of " Archbishop of the Isle of Britain "; Rhyddmarch
(d. 1096), the first biographer of St David; Henry de Gower
(d. 1347), the munificent patron of art; Robert Ferrar, burned
at Carmarthen in 1555 under Queen Mary; Richard Davies
(d. 1581), patriot and translator of the Welsh Book of Common
Prayer; Archbishop William Laud, bishop of the see between
1621 and 1627; George Bull, divine (d. 1710); and Connop
Thirlwall, scholar and historian (d. 1875). The official title of
the bishops of St Davids is Episcopus Menevensis. (H.M.V.) .
ST DENIS, an industrial town of northern France, capital
of an arrondissement in the department of Seine, 5 m. N. of
Paris. Pop. (1906) 62,323. St Denis, an important junction on
the northern railway, stands in a plain on the right bank of the
Seine, which is here joined by the canal of St Denis. It has
numerous metallurgical works, where railway material, naval
engines and the like are constructed, distilleries of spirits, glass-
works, potteries and manufactories of drugs, chemical products,
oils, nickel plate and pianos. The name and fame of the town are
derived from the abbey founded by Dagobert I. on the spot where
St Denis, the apostle of Paris, was interred. The abbey buildings,
occupied by a school for daughters of members of the Legion of
Honour, founded by Napoleon I., date from the i8th century.
The church exhibits the transition from the Romanesque to the
Gothic style. The west front was built between 1137 and 1140.
The right-hand tower is almost pure Romanesque; that on the left
was Gothic, and its spire was carried to a height of 280 ft., but it
was struck by lightning in 1837 and reconstructed in so clumsy a
manner that it had to be reduced to the level of the roof of the
nave. The rose window, now occupied by a clock face, dates from
the I3th century. Under one of the three rows of arches above
the main entrance runs an inscription recording the erection of the
church by Abbot Suger (q.v.), minister of Louis VI., with abbatial
funds and its consecration in 1140. The porch formed by the first
three bays of the church contains some remains of the basilica of
Pippin the Short and Charlemagne, by whom the church was rebuilt.
The nave proper (235 ft. long and 57 wide) has seven bays, and
dates, as well as most of the choir and transepts, from the reign of
St Louis. The secondary apse (rondpoint) and its semicircular
chapels (consecrated in 1144) are considered as the first perfected
attempt at Gothic. The transepts have fine facades, the north of
the I2th, the south of the I3th century, each with two unfinished
towers ; if the plan had been fully carried out there would have
been six towers besides a central spire in lead. The church contains
a series of tombs of the kings and princes of the royal houses of
France. The most remarkable are those of Louis XII. and Anne
Celestines at Paris (1502-1515); of Francis I. and Claude of France,
one of the most splendid tombs of the Renaissance, executed under
the direction of Philibert Delorme (1550-1560); and that of Dago-
bert, which, though considerably dilapidated, ranks as one of the
most curious of medieval (13th-century) works of art. In the apse
some stained glass of the time of Suger remains. The crypt dates
partly from the loth or nth century. In the centre is the vault
where the coffin of the king used to lie until, to make room for that
of his successor, it was removed to its final resting-place. It is at
present occupied by the coffin of Louis XVIII., the last sovereign
whose body was borne to St Denis. Besides fine statues, the crypt
contains the Bourbon vault, in which among other coffins are de-
posited the remains of Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette.
St Denis, the ancient Calnlliacum, was a town of no pretensions
till the foundation of its abbey, which became one of the most
powerful in France. The rebuilding of the church, begun in
the 1 2th century by Suger, was completed in the 131!) century.
Among the many domains of the abbey was the French Vexin.
It was held during the later middle ages by the French kings
and vassals of the abbey, and to this fact is due their adoption
of the oriflamme or red banner of St Denis as the royal standard.
St Louis caused mausoleums to be erected with figures of the
princes already buried in the abbey; and from his time to that
of Henry II. every monarch in succession had his monument.
Louis XIV. reduced the abbey to the rank of a priory; and at
the Revolution it was suppressed, the tombs being violated
and the church sacked (1793). Two years later all the remains
that could be recovered were placed in the museum of the
Petits August ins at Paris; but the bronze tombs had been
melted down, the stained-glass windows shattered, and large
numbers of interesting objects stolen or lost. Louis XVIII.
caused all the articles belonging to St Denis to be brought back
to their original site, and added numerous other monuments
from the suppressed abbeys. But it was not till after 1848
that, under the direction of Viollet le Due, the basilica
recovered its original appearance. St Denis, which was the
key of Paris on the north, was more than once pillaged in the
Hundred Years' War, suffering especially in 1358 and 1406.
A sanguinary battle, in which the Catholic leader Constable
Anne de Montmorency found victory and death, was fought
between Huguenots and Catholics in the [neighbourhood on the
loth of November 1567.
See F. de Guilhermy, Monographie de I'iglise royale de St Denis
(Paris, 1848).
ST Dl6, a town of eastern France, capital of an arrondissement
in the department of Vosges, 38 m. N.E. of Epinal by rail.
Pop. (1906) town, 16,783; commune, 22,136. St Die is situated
on the Meurthe in a basin surrounded by well-wooded hills.
The town, part of which was laid out in a uniform style after
the fire of 1757, is built largely of red sandstone. Its cathedral
has a Romanesque nave (i2th century) and a Gothic choir;
the portal of red stone dates from the i8th century. A fine
cloister (i3th century), containing a stone pulpit, communicates
with the Petite- Eglise or Notre-Dame, a well-preserved specimen
of Romanesque architecture (i2th century). The h6tel-de-ville
contains a theatre, a library with some valuable manuscripts,
and a museum of antiquities. There is a monument by Merci6
to Jules Ferry, born in the town in 1832. St Di6 is the seat of
a bishop and of a sub-prefect. The town benefited from the
immigration of Alsatians after the Franco-German War of
1870-71, and its industries include the spinning and weaving
of cotton, bleaching, wire-drawing, metal-founding, and the
manufacture of hosiery, woodwork of various kinds, machinery,
iron goods and wire-gauze.
St Die (Deodatum, Theodata, S. Deodati Fanum) grew up round
a monastery founded in the 7th century by St Deodatus of Never;-,
who gave up his episcopal functions to retire to this place. In the
loth century the community became a chapter of canons; among
those who subsequently held the rank of provost or dean were
Giovanni de' Medici, afterwards Pope Leo X., and several princes
of the house of Lorraine. Among the extensive privileges enjoyed
by them was that of coining money. Though they co-operau-<i in
building the town walls, the canons and the dukes of Lorraiin
became rivals for the authority over St Die. Towards the end of
the I5th century one of the earliest printing-presses of Lorraine was
founded at St Die. The institution of a town council in 1628, and
the establishment in 1777 of a bishopric which appropriated part
of their spiritual jurisdiction, contributed greatly to diminish the
influence of the canons; and with the Revolution they were com-
pletely swept away. During the wars of the I5th, l6th and I7th
centuries the town was repeatedly sacked. It was also partially
destroyed by fire in 1065, 1155, 1554 and 1757. Funds for the
rebuilding of the portion of the town destroyed by the last fire
were supplied by Stanislas, last duke of Lorraine.
ST DIZIER, a town of north-eastern France, in the depart-
ment of Haute-Marne, 45 m. N.N.W. of Chaumont by rail,
on the Marne and the Haute-Mame canal. Pop. (1906) town,
10,316; commune, 14,661. The town is a very important
centre of the iron trade, with foundries, forges and engineering
1022
STE ANNE DE BEAUPRE SAINTE-BEUVE
works, and has trade in grain and timber. It dates from the
jrd century, when the relics of Bishop St Didier (whence the
name of the town) were brought thither after the destruction
of Langres by the Germans. It sustained a memorable siege
against Charles V. in 1544.
STE ANNE DE BEAUPRE, a post-village of Montmorency
county, Quebec, Canada, at the junction of the Ste Anne river
with the St Lawrence, and on the Quebec, Montmorency &
Charlevoix railway, 22 m. below the city of Quebec. It stands
in a rolling agricultural country, with hills in the background;
and near by, on the Ste Anne river, are beautiful falls and
excellent fishing. For over two centuries Ste Anne has been
known as a Roman Catholic place of pilgrimage, and many
miracles are still said to be performed through the intercession
of the saint, the mother of the Virgin. In the basilica, an over-
ornate building, are ever-increasing piles of crutches and other
aids, cast aside by the cured. The resident population is about
1 500, chiefly composed of hotel-keepers and members of religious
orders, but throughout the year many pilgrimages are made,
and on such days as the feast day of Ste Anne (26th of July)
30,000 people are often present. The total number of pilgrims
in 1905 was 170,000. In addition to the basilica the village
contains numerous religious edifices, the chief being the Scala
Santa, built in imitation of the Holy Stairs at Rome.
SAINTE-BEUVE, CHARLES AUGUSTIN (1804-1869), French
critic, was born at Boulogne-sur-Mer (No. 16 Rue du Pot d'Etain)
on the 23rd of December 1804. He was a posthumous child,
his father, a native of Picardy, and controller of town-dues at
Boulogne, having married in this same year, at the age of fifty-
two. The father was a man of literary tastes, and used to read,
like his son, pencil in hand; his copy of the Elzevir edition
of Virgil, covered with his notes, was in his son's possession,
and is mentioned by him in one of his poems. Sainte-Beuve's
mother was half English, her father, a mariner of Boulogne,
having married an Englishwoman. The little Charles Augustin
was brought up by his mother, who never remarried, and an
aunt, his father's sister, who lived with her. They were poor,
but the boy, having learnt all he could at his first school at
Boulogne, persuaded his mother to send him, when he was
near the age of fourteen, to finish his education at Paris. He
boarded with a M. Landry, and had for a fellow-boarder and
intimate friend Charles Neate, afterwards fellow of Oriel College
and member of parliament for the city of Oxford. From Landry's
boarding-house he attended the classes, first of the College
Charlemagne, and then of the College Bourbon, winning the head
prize for history at the first, and for Latin verse at the second.
In 1823 he began to study medicine, attending lectures on
anatomy and physiology and walking the hospitals. But mean-
while a Liberal newspaper, the Globe, was founded in 1827 by
Paul Francois Dubois, one of Sainte-Beuve's old teachers at
the College Charlemagne. Dubois called to his aid his former
pupil, who, now quitting the study of medicine, contributed
historical and literary articles to the Globe, among them two,
which attracted the notice of Goethe, on Victor Hugo's Odes
et ballades. These articles led to a friendship with Victor Hugo
and to Sainte-Beuve's connexion with the romantic school of
poets, a school never entirely suited to his nature. In the Globe
appeared also his interesting articles on the French poetry of
the i6th century, which in 1828 were collected and published, 1
and followed by a second volume containing selections from
Ronsard. In 1829 he made his first venture as a poet with the
Vie, patsies, et pensees de Joseph Delorme. His own name did
not appear; but Joseph Delorme, that " Werther in the shape
of Jacobin and medical student," as Guizot called him, was
the Sainte-Beuve of those days himself. About the same time
was founded the Revue de Paris, and Sainte-Beuve contributed
the opening article, with Boileau for its subject. In 1830 came
his second volume of poems, the Consolations, a work on which
Sainte-Beuve looked back in later life with a special affection.
To himself it marked and expressed, he said, that epoch of his
1 Tableau historique el critique de la poesie franfaise au X VI' siede
(2nd ed., 1842).
life to which he could with most pleasure return, and at which
he could like best that others should see him. But the critic
in him grew to prevail more and more and pushed out the poet. 2
In 1831 the Revue des deux mondes was founded in rivalry with
the Revue de Paris, and from the first Sainte-Beuve was one of
the most active and important contributors. He brought out
his novel of Volupte in 1834, his third and last volume of poetry,
the Pensees d'aout, in 1837. He himself thought that the
activity which he had in the meanwhile exercised as a critic,
and the offence which in some quarters his criticism had given,
were the cause of the less favourable reception which this volume
received. He had long meditated a book on Port-Royal. At
the end of 1837 he quitted France, accepting an invitation from
the academy of Lausanne, where in a series of lectures his work
on Port-Royal came into its first form of being. In the summer
of the next year he returned to Paris to revise and give the final
shape to his work, which, however, was not completed for twenty
years. 3 In 1840 Victor Cousin, then minister of public instruc-
tion, appointed him one of the keepers of the Mazarin Library,
an appointment which gave him rooms at the library, and, with
the money earned by his pen, made him for the first time in his
life easy in his circumstances, so that, as he afterwards used
to say, he had to buy rare books in order to spend his income.
A more important consequence of his easier circumstances was
that he could study freely and largely. He returned to Greek,
of which a French schoolboy brings from his lycee no great
store. With a Greek teacher, M. Pantasides, he read and re-read
the poets in the original, and thus acquired, not, perhaps, a
philological scholar's knowledge of them, but a genuine and
invaluable acquaintance with them as literature. His activity
in the Revue des deux mondes continued, and articles on Homer,
Theocritus, Apollonius of Rhodes, and Meleager were fruits of
his new Greek studies. He wrote also a very good article in
1844 on the Italian poet Leopardi; but in general his subjects
were taken from the great literature which he knew best, that
of his own country its literature both in the past and in the
contemporary present. Seven volumes of Portraits, contributed
to the Revue de Paris and the Revue des deux mondes, exhibit
his work in the years from 1832 to 1848, a work constantly
I increasing in range and value. 4 In 1844 he was elected to the
French Academy as successor to Casimir Delavigne, and was
received there at the beginning of 1845 by Victor Hugo.
From this settled and prosperous condition the revolution
of February 1848 dislodged him. In March of that year was
published an account of secret-service money distributed in
the late reign, and Sainte-Beuve was put down as having received
the sum of one hundred francs. The smallness of the sum would
hardly seem to suggest corruption; it appears probable that
the money was given to cure a smoky chimney in his room at
the Mazarin Library, and was wrongly entered as secret-service
money. But Sainte-Beuve, who piqued himself on his in-
dependence and on a punctilious delicacy in money matters,
was indignant at the entry, and thought the proceedings of the
minister of public instruction and his officials, when he demanded
to have the matter sifted, tardy and equivocal. He resigned
his post at the Mazarin and accepted an offer from the Belgian
government of a chair of French literature in the university of
Liege. There he gave the series of lectures on Chateaubriand
and his contemporaries which was afterwards (in 1860) pub-
lished in two volumes. 5 He liked Liege, and the Belgians would
have been glad to keep him; but the attraction of Paris carried
2 Sainte-Beuve was at this time a devoted Catholic and a little
later for a very short period a disciple of Lamennais. But he
gradually separated from his Catholic friends, and at the same time
a coldness grew up between him and Victor Hugo. He became the
lover of Madame Hugo, and a definite separation between the former
friends ensued in 1834. [Eo.]
3 Port-Royal (1840-1848, 5 vols. ; 3rd and revised ed., 1866; 5th
ed. with index, 1888-1891).
4 He was a friend of Madame Recamier, at whose house he met
Chateaubriand. He became an especially close friend of Louis
Mathieu, Comte Mole, for whose niece, Mme d'Arbouville, he
conceived a lasting attachment. [Eo.]
5 Chateaubriand et son groupe litteraire sous ('Empire.
SAINTE-BEUVE
1023
him back there in the autumn of 1849. Louis Napoleon was then
president. Disturbance was ceasing; a time of settled govern-
ment, which lasted twenty years and corresponds with the
second stage of Sainte-Beuve's literary activity, was beginning.
Dr Veron, the editor of the Constitutionnel, proposed to him that
he should supply that newspaper with a literary article for
every Monday; and thus the Causeries du lundi were started.
They at once succeeded, and " gave the signal," as Sainte-
Beuve himself says with truth, " for the return of letters."
Sainte-Beuve now lived in the small house in the Rue Mont-
parnasse (No. n), which he occupied for the remainder of his
life, and where in 1850 his mother, from whom he seems to have
inherited his good sense, tact and finesse, died at the age of
eighty-six. For three years he continued writing every Monday
for the Constitutionnel; then he passed, with a similar engage-
ment, to the Moniteur. In 1857 his Monday articles began to
be published in volumes, and by 1862 formed a collection in
fifteen volumes; they afterwards were resumed under the
title of Nouveaux lundis, which now make a collection of thirteen
volumes more. In 1854 he was nominated to the chair of Latin
poetry at the college of France. His first lecture there (in 1855)
was received with interruptions and marks of disapprobation
by many of the students, displeased at his adherence to the
empire; at a second lecture the interruption was renewed.
Sainte-Beuve had no taste for public speaking and lecturing;
his frontis mollities, he said, unfitted him for it. He was not
going to carry on a war with a party of turbulent students;
he proposed to resign, and when the minister would not accept
his resignation of his professorship he resigned its emoluments.
The Etude sur Virgtte, a volume published in 1857, contains
what he had meant to be his first course of lectures. He was
still a titular official of public instruction; and in 1858 his
services were called for by Gustave Rouland, then minister of
public instruction, as a lecturer (maitre de conferences) on French
literature at the Ecole Normale Superieure. This work he
discharged with assiduity and success for four years. In 1859
he was made commander of the Legion of Honour, having
twice previously to 1848 refused the cross. During the years
of his official engagement his Monday contributions to the
Moniteur had no longer been continuous; but in 1862 an
arrangement was proposed by which he was to return to the
Constitutionnel and again supply an article there every Monday.
He consented, at the age of fifty-seven, to try this last pull,
as he called it, this " dernier coup de collier "; he resigned
his office at the Ecole Normale and began the series of his
Nouveaux lundis. They show no falling off in vigour and
resource from the Causeries. But the strain upon him of his
weekly labour was great. " I am not a monsieur nor a gentle-
man," he writes in 1864, " but a workman by the piece and by
the hour." " I look upon myself as a player forced to go on
acting at an age when he ought to retire, and who can see no
term to his engagement." He had reason to hope for relief.
Except himself, the foremost literary men in France had stood
aloof from the empire and treated it with a hostility more or
less bitter. He had not been hostile to it: he had accepted
it with satisfaction, and had bestowed on its official journal,
the Moniteur, the lustre of his literature. The prince Napoleon
and the princess Mathilde were his warm friends. A senatorship
was mentioned; its income of 1600 a year would give him
opulence and freedom. But its coming was delayed, and when
at last in April 1865 he was made senator, his health was seriously
compromised. The disease of which he died, but of which the
doctors did not ascertain the presence until his body was opened
after his death the stone began to distress and disable him.
He could seldom attend the meetings of the senate; the part
he took there, however, on two famous occasions when the
nomination of Ernest Renan to the college of France came
under discussion in 1867, and the law on the press in the year
following provoked the indignation of the great majority in
that conservative assembly. It delighted, however, all who
" belonged," to use his own phrase, " to the diocese of free
thought "; and he gave further pleasure in this diocese by
leaving the Moniteur at the beginning of 1869, and contributing
to a Liberal journal, the Temps. 1 His literary activity suffered
little abatement, but pain made him at last unable to sit to
write; he could only stand or lie. He died in his house in the
Rue Montparnassc on the ijth of October 1869.
The work of Sainte-Beuve divides itself into three portions his
poetry, his criticism before 1848 and his criticism after that year.
His novel of Voluptt may properjy go with his poetry.
We have seen his tender feeling for his poetry, and he alv,
maintained that, when the " integrating molecule," the foundation
of him as a man of letters, was reached, it would be found to have
a poetic character. And yet he declares, too, that it is never without
a sort of surprise and confusion that he sees his verses detached
;rom their context and quoted in public and in open day. They
do not seem made for it. he says. This admirable critic knew,
indeed, the radical inadequacy of French poetry. It is to English
poetry that he resorts in order to find his term of comparison,
i ml to award the praise which to French poetry he refuses.
'' Since you are fond of the poets," he writes to a friend, " I should
ike to see you read and look for poets in another language, in
English for instance. There you will find the most rich, the most
dulcet and the most new poetical literature. Our French poets are
too soon read; they are too slight, too mixed, too corrupted for tin
most part, too poor in ideas even when they have the talent for
strophe and line, to hold and occupy for long a serious mind
But, even as French poetry, Sainte-Beuve's poetry had faults of
is own. Critics who found much in it to praise yet pronounced it a
poetry " narrow, puny and stifled," and its style " slowly dragging
and laborious " Here we touch on a want which must no doubt be
recognized in him, which he recognized in himself, and whereby he
is separated from the spirits who succeed in uttering their most
highly inspired note and in giving their full measure some want of
Same, of breath, of pinion. Perhaps we may look for the cause in a
confession of his own: " I have my weaknesses; they are those
which gave to King Solomon his disgust with everything and his
satiety with life. I may have regretted sometimes that I was thus
extinguishing my fire, but I did not ever pervert my heart." It
is enough for us to take his confession that he extinguished or im-
paired his fire.
Yet his poetry is characterized by merits which make it readable
still and readable by foreigners. So far as it exhibits the endeavour
of the romantic school in France to enlarge the vocabulary of poetry
and to give greater freedom and variety to the alexandrine, it has
interest chiefly for readers of his own nation. But it exhibits more
than this. It exhibits already the genuine Sainte-Beuve, the author
who, as M. Duvergier de Hauranne said in the Globe at the time,
" sent & sa manierc, ecrit comme il sent," the man who, even in the
forms of an artificial poetry, remains always " un penscur et un
homme d'esprit." That his Joseph Delorme was not the Werther
of romance, but a Werther in the shape of Jacobin and medical
student, the only Werther whom Sainte-Beuve by his own practical
experience really knew, was a novelty in French poetical literature,
but was entirely characteristic of Sainte-Beuve. All his poetry has
this stamp of direct dealing with common things, of plain unpre-
tending reality and sincerity; and this stamp at that time made^it,
as Beranger said, " a kind of poetry absolutely new in France."
It has been the fashion to disparage the criticism of the Critiques
et portraits litteraires, the criticism anterior to 1848, and to sacrifice
it, in fact, to the criticism posterior to that date. Sainte-Beuve
has himself indicated what considerations ought to be present with
us in reading the Critiques et portraits, with what reserves r
should read them. They are to be considered, he says, " rather
as a dependency of the elegiac and romanesque part of my work
than as express criticisms." They have the copiousness and
enthusiasm of youth; they have also its exuberance. He judged
in later life Chateaubriand, Lamartine, Victor Hugo more coolly,
judged them differently. But the Critiques et portraits contain
a number of articles on personages, other than contemporary
French poets and romance-writers, which have much of the
soundness of his later work, and, in addition, an abundance and
fervour of their own which are not without their attraction. Mam
of these are delightful reading. The articles on the Greek poets
and on Leopardi have been already mentioned. Those on Boileau.
Moli6re, Pierre Daunou and Charles Claude Fauriel, on Madame
de la Fayette and Mademoiselle Aiss6 may be taken as sample*
of a whole group which will be found to support perfectly the test
of reading, even after we have accustomed ourselves to the l.it< r
work of the master. Nay, his soberness and tact show thems<-Kt -
even in this earlier stage of his criticism, and even in treating the
objects of his too fervid youthful enthusiasm. A special object
this was Victor Hugo, and in the first article on him in the Portrait
contemporains we have certainly plenty of enthusiasm, plentv
of exuberance. We have the epithets " adorable. ' sublime.
" supreme," given to Victor Hugo's poetry: we are told of
majesty of its high and sombre philosophy."
' This course of action definitelv separated him from the Bona-
partists and led to a quarrel with Princess Mathilde. [ED- 1
1024
SAINTE-BEUVE
following this, and written only four years later, in 1835, is the
article of a critic, and takes the points of objection, seizes the weak
side of Victor Hugo's poetry, how much it has of what is " creux,"
" sonore," " artinciel, " voulu," " the'atral," " violent," as dis-
tinctly as the author of the Causeries could seize it. " The Frank,
energetic and subtle, who has mastered to perfection the technical
and rhetorical resources of the Latin literature of the decadence,"
is a description never to be forgotten of Victor Hugo as a poet, and
Sainte-Beuve launches it in this article, written when he was but
thirty years old, and still a painter of " portraits de jeunesse " only.
He had thus been steadily working and growing; nevertheless,
1848 is an epoch which divides two critics in him of very unequal
value. When, after that year of revolution and his stage of seclusion
and labour at Liege, he came back to Paris in the autumn of 1849
and commenced in the Constitutional the Causeries du lundi, he
was astonishingly matured. Something of fervour, enthusiasm,
poetry, he may have lost, but he had become a perfect critic a
critic of measure, not exuberant; of the centre, not provincial; of
keen industry and curiosity, with " Truth " (the word engraved in
English on his seal) for his motto; moreover, with gay ana amiable
temper, his manner as good as his matter the " critique souriant,"
as, in Charles Monselet's dedication to him, he is called.
The root of everything in his criticism is his single-hearted
devotion to truth. What he called " fictions " in literature, in politics,
in religion, were not allowed to influence him. Some one had talked
on his being tenacious of a certain set of literary opinions. " I
hold very little," he answers, " to literary opinions; literary
opinions occupy very little place in my life and in my thoughts.
What does occupy me seriously is life itself and the object of it."
" I am accustomed incessantly to call my judgments in question
anew, and to re-cast my opinions the moment I suspect them to be
without validity." " What I have wished " (in Port-Royal) " is to
say not a word more than I thought, to stop even a little short of
what I believed in certain cases, in order that my words might
acquire more weight as historical testimony." To all exaggeration
and untruth, from whatever side it proceeded, he had an antipathy.
" I turn my back upon the Michelets and Quinets, but I cannot hold
out my hand to the Veuillots."
But Sainte-Beuve could not have been the great critic he was
had he not had, at the service of this his love of truth and measure,
the conscientious industry of a Benedictine. " I never have a
holiday. On Monday towards noon I lift up my head, and breathe
for about an hour; after that the wicket shuts again and I am in
my prison cell for seven days." The Causeries were at this price.
They came once a week, and to write one of them as he wrote it
was indeed a week's work. The " irresponsible indolent reviewer "
should read his notes to his friend and provider with books, M . Paul
CheYon of the National Library. Here is a note dated the 2nd of
January 1853: " Good-day and a happy New Year. To-day I set
to work on Grimm. A little dry; but after St Francois de Sales "
(his Monday article just finished) " one requires a little relief from
roses. I have of Grimm the edition of his Correspondance by M.
Taschereau. I have also the Memoirs of Madame d'Epinay, where
there are many letters of his. But it is possible that there may be
notices of him mentioned in the bibliographical book of that German
whose name I have forgotten. I should like, too, to have the first
editions of his Correspondance; they came out in successive parts."
Thus he prepared himself, not for a grand review article once a
quarter, but for a newspaper review once a week.
His adhesion to the empire caused him to be represented by the
Orleanists and Republicans as without character and patriotism,
and to be charged with baseness and corruption. The Orleanists
had, in a great degree, possession of the higher press in France_ and
of English opinion-^-of Liberal English opinion more especially.
And with English Liberals his indifference to parliamentary govern-
ment was indeed a grievous fault in him; "you Whigs," as Croker
happily says, " are like quack doctors, who have but one specific
for all constitutions." To him either the doctrine of English Liberals,
or the doctrine of Republicanism, applied absolutely, was what
he called a " fiction," one of those fictions which " always end by
obscuring the truth." Not even on M. de Tocqueville's authority
would he consent to receive " les hypotheses dites les plus honor-
ables "- -" the suppositions which pass for the most respectable."
All suppositions he demanded to sift, to see them at work, to know
the place and time and men to which they were to be applied. For
the France before his eyes in 1849 he thought that something
" solid and stable " un mur, " a wall," as he said was requisite,
and that the government of Louis Napoleon supplied this wall.
But no one judged the empire more independently than he did,
no one saw and enounced its faults more clearly ; he described
himself as being, in his own single person, " the gauche of the empire,"
and the description was just.
To these merits of mental independence, industry, measure,
lucidity, his criticism adds the merit of happy temper and disposition.
Goethe long ago noticed that, whereas Germans reviewed one another
as enemies whom they hated, the critics of the Globe reviewed one
another as gentlemen. This arose from the higher social develop-
ment of France and from the closer relations of literature with life
there. But Sainte-Beuve has more, as a critic, than the external
politeness which once at any rate distinguished his countrymen:
he has a personal charm of manner due to a sweet and humane
temper. He complained of un peu de durete, " a certain dose of
hardness," in the new generation of writers. The personality of an
author had a peculiar importance for him; the poetical side of his
subjects, however latent it might be, always attracted him, and he
always sought to extricate it. This was because he had the moderate,
gracious, amiably human instincts of the true poetic nature. " Let
me beg of you,' he says in thanking a reviewer who praised him,
" to alter one or two expressions at any rate. I cannot bear to have
it said that I am the first in anything whatever, as a writer least of
all; it is not a thing which can be admitted, and these ways of
classing people give offence." Literary man and loyal to the French
Academy as he was, he can yet write to an old friend after his
election: " All these academies, between you and me, are pieces of
childishness; at any rate the French Academy is. Our least quarter
of an hour of solitary reverie or of serious talk, yours and mine, in
our youth, was better employed; but, as one gets old, one falls
back into the power of these nothings; only it is well to know that
nothings they are."
Perhaps the best way to get a sense of the value and extent of
the work done in the last twenty years of his life by the critic thus
excellently endowed is to take a single volume of the Causeries du
lundi, to look through its list of subjects, and to remember that
with the qualities above mentioned all these subjects are treated.
Any volume will serve; let us take the fourth. This volume con-
sists of articles on twenty-four subjects. Twenty of these are the
following: Mirabeau and Sophie, Montaigne, Mirabeau and
Comte de la Marck, Mademoiselle de Scudery, Andr6 Che'nieras
politician, Saint-Evremond and Ninon, Joseph de Maistre, Madame
de Lambert, Madame Necker, the Abb6 Maury, the Due de Lauzun
of Louis XVI. 's reign, Marie Antoinette, Buffon, Madame de Main-
tenon, De Bonald Amyot, Mallet du Pan, Marmontel, Chamfort,
RulhieYe. Almost every personage is French, it is true; Sainte-
Beuve had a maxim that the critic should prefer subjects which he
possesses familiarly ._ The great place of France in the world is very
much due to her eminent gift for social life and development ; and
this gift French literature has accompanied, fashioned, perfected,
and continues to reflecti And nowhere shall we find such interest
more completely and charmingly brought out than inSainte-Beuve's
Causeries du lundi and the Nouveauxlundis. As a guide to bring us
to a knowledge of the French genius and literature he is unrivalled.
(M. A.)
AUTHORITIES. See his " Ma Biographic " in Nouveauxlundis, xiii.,
Lettresala princesse (1873) ; Correspondance (1877-1878) and Nouvelle
Correspondance (1880); the Vicomte d'Haussonville's Sainte-Beuve
(1875); Scherer, tudes sur la literature contemporaine, iv. ; G.
Michaut, Sainte-Beuve avant les Lundis (1903). Sainte-Beuve's
centenary was celebrated in various ways; for centenary criticism
see the Edinburgh Review (April 1905) (" Sainte-Beuve and the
Romantics"); Monthly Review (April 1905) (by F. Brunetifere);
Revue des Deux Mondes (March 1905) (by Victor Giraud). In the
(Euvres choisies de Juste Olivier (1879) are some "Souvenirs"; and
in 1903 the Revue des Deux Mondes published several interesting
articles on a correspondence of Sainte-Beuve with Olivier.
END OF TWENTY-THIRD VOLUME
Printed by R. R. DONNELLEY & SONS COMPANY, Chicago
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